THE CENTURY BIBLE HANDBOOKS 
 
 Man, Sin and Salvation 
 
 REV. R. S. FRANKS, M. A. 
 
/^. '2 . /O 
 
 i^ 
 
 PRINCETON, N. J. ^ 
 
 BS 417 .C46 V.8 
 Franks, Robert S. 
 The New Testament 
 of man, sin, and 
 
 b. 1871 
 
 doctrines 
 
 salvation 
 
CENTURY BIBLE HANDBOOKS 
 
 General Ep-iTOR 
 Principal WALTER F.^DENEY, M.A., D.D. 
 
 THE NEW TESTAMENT DOCTRINES OF 
 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
THE NEW TESTAMENT DOCTRINES OF 
 
 MAN, SIN, AND 
 SALVATION 
 
 R. S. FRANKS, M.A., B.Litt. 
 
 SOiMETIME SCHOLAR OF ST. JOHN's COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE ; THEOLOGICAl- 
 
 LECTURER AT THE FRIENDS* SETTLEMENT FOR RELIGIOUS 
 
 AND SOCIAL STUDY, WOODBROOKE, BIRMINGHAM 
 
 c^v.^'- ^ ^"''5?/^ 
 
 HODDER AND STOUGHTON 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 1909 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The special lines, upon which this short treatise is 
 written, are as follows : — 
 
 1. The delineation of the New Testament doctrines 
 of Man, Sin, and Salvation is based upon a statement 
 of the corresponding doctrines in the Old Testament 
 and later Jewish writings. The New Testament con- 
 ceptions are so rooted in this previous thought, that 
 they are not clearly intelligible without a knowledge 
 of it. 
 
 2. The guiding thread, which is followed in the 
 whole presentation, is the history of the doctrine of 
 salvation. Without a doctrine of salvation religion 
 cannot exist. It is, however, possible to have a doctrine 
 of salvation apart from the idea of sin, as is the case in 
 the earliest Hebrew religion. And a doctrine of salva- 
 tion from sin may exist with little or no explicit doctrine 
 of sin, as is the case with many New Testament writers. 
 A doctrine of man is still less always to be found 
 explicitly developed. 
 
viii PREFACE 
 
 3. Special attention is devoted to the question of 
 the future or eschatological salvation. This corresponds 
 to the importance which the idea of the future salva- 
 tion possesses in the actual history of the doctrine. It 
 is by passing through the eschatological stage that the 
 idea of salvation becomes spiritualised. 
 
 4. The arrangement followed in the presentation of 
 the Old Testament doctrine is based upon the generally 
 accepted principles of Old Testament criticism. For 
 the order of the later Jewish literature I have followed 
 the article " Eschatology " by Charles in the " Encyclo- 
 psedia Biblica," to which I would here express my deep 
 obligation. As regards the New Testament, the arrange- 
 ment is based upon the following principles : — 
 
 (a) The teaching of Jesus is first dealt with upon the 
 basis of the Synoptic Gospels. 
 
 (d) This is followed by a view of the doctrine of 
 primitive Jewish Christianity, founded upon the speeches 
 of Peter in Acts. 
 
 (c) After this follows the doctrine of Paul, based 
 upon those epistles now very widely agreed upon as 
 his. The Pastoral Epistles, as being too uncertainly 
 Pauline, are left over. 
 
 (d) The doctrine of the remaining New Testament 
 
PREFACE ix 
 
 writings, excepting the Gospel and Epistles of John, 
 but including the Pastoral Epistles, is next introduced, 
 these writings being regarded as representing the 
 common Christianity of the early Church contemporary 
 \\ith and subsequent to Paul, and as partly preserving 
 the lines of the primitive Jewish Christianity, partly 
 showing the influence of Paulinism, and partly develop- 
 ing along fresh lines of their own. 
 
 (e) Last of all, the doctrine of the Gospel and Epistles 
 of John is treated, representing the re-statement of the 
 teaching of Jesus in the light of the whole later develop- 
 ment of doctrine, and thus completing the history. 
 
 R. S. Franks. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAP. PAGE 
 
 I. THE OLD TESTAMENT I 
 
 II. THE LATER JUDAISM 28 
 
 III. THE TEACHING OF JESUS ACCORDING TO 
 
 THE SYNOPTIC GOSPELS . . . 42 
 
 IV. THE SPEECHES OF PETER IN THE ACTS . 78 
 
 V. THE THEOLOGY OF PAUL . . . . 80 
 VI. THE PASTORAL EPISTLES . . . .137 
 
 VII. I. PETER ....... 141 
 
 VIII. HEBREWS . 146 
 
 IX. THE APOCALYPSE 154 
 
 X. THE EPISTLE OF JAMES . . . -157 
 
 XI. JUDE AND II. PETER 160 
 
 XII. THE GOSPEL AND EPISTLES OF JOHN . . 162 
 
 INDEX . 180 
 
MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 THE OLD TESTAMENT 
 
 § I. THE IDEAS OF SALVATION AND SIN IN 
 EARLY HEBREW RELIGION 
 
 The primary idea of salvation in the Old Testament 
 is that of present deliverance from all the ills and 
 troubles of the world. We find the idea in the earliest 
 stage of Old Testament history, and it continues 
 throughout its progress, though other conceptions are 
 superimposed and become more prominent. Yahweh, 
 the national God of Israel, saves His people out of all 
 their calamities and distresses (I. Sam. x. 19). In the 
 notion of Yahweh as the Saviour of Israel are implied 
 (a) the idea of His power to help or save, and (^) His 
 interest in and goodwill towards His people. 
 
 Since the chief danger imperilling the national 
 
2 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 existence was that of enemies, Yahweh appears espe- 
 cially as the deliverer of Israel from national foes. If 
 He saves His people through a human representative 
 (I. Sam. ix. i6; Judges iii. 9, 15), He is still Himself 
 the true Saviour of His people (II. Sam. iii. 18). 
 
 The idea of salvation we are considering is, how- 
 ever, not merely a negative one, not merely that of 
 deliverance from ills and troubles. It implies also the 
 idea of the safety, security, and welfare into which 
 Yahweh by His deliverance brings His people. From 
 this point of view salvation or deliverance is practically 
 synonymous with prosperity (Ps. cxviii. 25). 
 
 In the salvation of the nation is included that of 
 the individual. He in the earliest idea is chiefly re- 
 garded as a part of the nation, who shares in its good 
 or ill fortune, to whom, therefore, the deliverance and 
 prosperity of the nation means his own deliverance and 
 prosperity. This, however, does not preclude the par- 
 ticular help of Yahweh towards an individual in special 
 circumstances (I. Sam. xxiv. 15). But Yahweh's first 
 concern is with His people: only secondarily does He 
 concern Himself with its individual members. 
 
 In general, salvation is confidently expected from the 
 national God. Yahweh's normal goodwill towards 
 
IDEAS OF SALVATION AND SIN 3 
 
 Israel is, however, liable to vicissitudes. For a season 
 He may be wroth, and His power, instead of being 
 manifested in the deliverance of His people, may be 
 shown in their discomfiture. This wrath of Yahweh is 
 dread and terrible, and it is sometimes manifested for 
 no apparent cause (II. Sam. xxiv. i). Most frequently, 
 however, the wrath of Yahweh is due to sin, either the 
 sin of the whole nation, or of some individual member 
 or members of it. Sin is the transgression of the will 
 of Yahweh, which will in general is made known in 
 the religious and social order of His people. 
 
 Yahweh manifests His displeasure against sin by 
 the sending of calamities (II. Sam. xxi. i ; Judges iii. 8). 
 In view of the solidarity of the nation, the sin of an 
 individual may be visited upon the nation (Josh. vii. i) : 
 a special visitation, however, may overtake the individual 
 and his family (I. Kings xvi. 34). Future generations, 
 whether of the nation or of a particular house, may 
 also suffer for the sin of their ancestors (Exod. xx. 5). 
 
 In these' cases, where Yahweh's anger is due to sin, 
 the calamities that follow from it are the punishment 
 of the sin. Yahweh does not, however, always punish 
 sin. He may withhold His anger, either for a time or 
 altogether. He may overlook or forgive the sin. To 
 
4 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 this end intercession is made to Him (Gen. xx. 7), or 
 propitiatory sacrifices are offered (II. Sam. xxiv. 25), 
 or, again, the national guilt is purged by the cutting off 
 of the guilty member from the people (Josh. vii. 25). 
 In such cases Yahweh may relent from His wrath, and 
 again become the Saviour of His people, things being 
 thus restored to their normal condition. 
 
 §2. THE DAY OF YAHWEH 
 
 In the period of the divided kingdom there seems 
 further to have been added to the primary conception 
 of present salvation, the idea of a future salvation. 
 During the struggles of Israel with the foreign powers 
 round about, it appeared sometimes as if Yahweh had 
 ceased to be the Saviour of His people; nor did the 
 national conscience accuse itself of sin against Him 
 as the cause of His displeasure. On the contrary, all 
 the rites of religion were punctiliously observed, sacri- 
 fices were abundantly offered (Amos iv. 4, 5, v. 21-23), 
 and the people found no reason for the loss of Divine 
 favour. In spite of all appearances to the contrary, 
 they felt sure that Yahweh, the God of Hosts, was 
 with them (Amos v. 14). Their confidence in Yahweh's 
 
THE PRE -EXILIC PROPHETS 5 
 
 help expressed itself, therefore, in the idea that He 
 would soon signally intervene on their behalf, rout all 
 their enemies, and establish the nation in complete 
 security and prosperity. This future day of salvation 
 was pregnantly called the day of Yahweh (Amos v. 18). 
 
 § 3. THE RELIGION OF THE PRE-EXILIC 
 PROPHETS 
 
 We have first of all to notice here an enlargement 
 and deepening of the idea of God. In the teaching 
 of the great pre-exilic prophets from Amos onward, 
 Yahweh ceases to be simply the national God of Israel, 
 and becomes a God of absolute righteousness, who, 
 while He is the God of Israel, judges His own people 
 upon the same terms as other nations (Amos iii. 2, 
 ix. 7, 8). By this change in the idea of God all other 
 points in religion are affected. The conception of sin in 
 particular is deepened. Sin continues to be, as before, 
 a transgression of the will of God ; but as the con- 
 ception of God is now that of a God of absolute 
 righteousness, who demands nothing short of right- 
 eousness (Amos v. 24), a severer standard is applied 
 to the judgment of human actions. The moral 
 law in the fullest sense is now applied steadily in the 
 
6 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 estimation of sin : cp. Is. v. 7, as interpreted in detail 
 by the remainder of the chapter. It would be a mistake, 
 however, to identify the prophetic idea of sin simply 
 with that of the transgression of the moral law. The 
 religious offences of rebellion against God (Isa. i. 2), 
 distrust of Him (Isa. vii. 11-13), ingratitude towards 
 Him (Hos. ii. 5-13), are also equally emphasised by 
 the prophets, and in Jeremiah especially (followed here 
 by Ezekiel) the sin of idolatry, the turning from Yahweh 
 to false gods, appears as the sin of sins (Jer. xi. 10; 
 Ezek. xvi.). Offences against the laws of ritual, how- 
 ever, which in the older Hebrew religion were especially 
 thought of as bringing down the wrath of Yahweh 
 (II. Sam. vi. 7), with the prophets from Amos to 
 Jeremiah sink into the background. Their attitude 
 towards ritual is summed up in Hosea's great word, 
 "I desire mercy and not sacrifice" (Hos. vi. 6). 
 
 The idea of the righteousness of Yahweh profoundly 
 affects also that of the punishment of sin. The con- 
 nection between the punishment and His righteous- 
 ness is clearly brought out. The idea, moreover, of a 
 wrath which is incalculable and inexplicable disappears 
 in favour of the regular connection of sin and calamity. 
 Calamities are regarded by the prophets invariably as 
 
THE PRE-EXILIC PROPHETS 7 
 
 the punishment of sin, and the only way which they 
 recognise for their removal is that of repentance (Amos 
 V. 14 ; Hos. xiv. i ; Isa. i. 18-20). 
 
 In the teaching of the pre-exilic prophets, the popular 
 doctrine of the day of Yahweh undergoes a remarkable 
 change. It appears no longer as a day when Yahweh 
 will manifest Himself in the destruction of Israel's 
 enemies, but rather as a day when He will judge and 
 punish His own people for their sins (Amos v. 18; 
 Isa. ii. 12-17). 
 
 Beyond, however, this day of judgment the prophets 
 set the hope of a future salvation, in which Yahweh will 
 show Himself all that His people had hoped for, and 
 yet more still. The fundamental outlines of this hope 
 are those of a restored kingdom, in which the security 
 and prosperity hoped for by Israel shall be realised, but 
 with the important addition, in harmony with the funda- 
 mental doctrine of the prophets, that the restored 
 kingdom shall be one of righteousness under the sove- 
 reignty of the righteous God. From the first, however, 
 there was a variety of representation as to how the 
 sovereignty of God was to be exercised in it. Some- 
 times we have the idea of a human representative or 
 representatives of God, through whom His salvation is 
 
 B 
 
8 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 mediated (Isa. i. 28, ix. 1-7, xi. 1-9, xxxv. 1-5); 
 sometimes we have the conception of the immediate 
 sovereignty of God in His kingdom (Isa. iv. 2-6). 
 The idea, therefore, of a single representative of God, 
 or Messiah, as ruler of the kingdom, is not absolutely 
 essential to the notion of the kingdom. It is better, 
 then, to speak of the hope of the kingdom of God than 
 of the Messianic hope, though the latter phraseology 
 has become usual. 
 
 § 4. JEREMIAH 
 
 So far we have spoken of the pre-exilic prophets as 
 a whole. It is now necessary, however, to turn to 
 Jeremiah in particular, and to consider certain ideas of 
 his, which profoundly modified the conceptions both of 
 sin and salvation. In the first place Jeremiah goes 
 back from the idea of sins as single acts of transgression 
 against the will of Yahweh to the conception of "sin in 
 the heart " as the root and ground of individual trans- 
 gressions. He establishes the notion of sinful habit or 
 disposition. The sinful disposition characterises Israel 
 as a nation (Jer. vii. 24, xi. 8, xvi. 12, xviii. 12). But 
 in accordance with this deeper idea of sin in the heart, 
 it follows that Jeremiah regards not merely the nation 
 
JEREMIAH 
 
 but the individual in his teaching. He finds the same 
 sinful disposition in the individual Israelite, and calls 
 not only the nation but individuals to repentance (Jer. 
 xviii. II, XXV. 5; xxxv. 15). Then, in the next place, 
 Jeremiah shows the necessary consequences of this idea 
 of sin in his conception of salvation. He first clearly 
 defines salvation as salvation from sin itself, from the sinful 
 habit and disposition, and thus grounds the righteous- 
 ness of the promised kingdom in a change of heart in its 
 individual members. This idea recurs in Ezekiel (see 
 Jer. xxxi. 33 ; Ezek. xxxvi. 28). It is noteworthy that 
 the forgiveness of sins is now specially mentioned as a 
 blessing of the future salvation (see Jer. xxxi. 34). 
 
 This attention to the individual, however, raises a 
 problem. How far is the individual involved in the 
 lot of the nation? Can the nation be lost, and the 
 individual delivered ? It was felt by the men of Jere- 
 miah's time to reflect upon the righteousness of God, 
 of which the prophets spoke so much, that they should 
 be involved in the fate of the nation, suffering, as they 
 felt, not for their own sins but for those of their fathers 
 (Jer. xxxi. 9). In answer to this doubt, Jeremiah sets 
 forth the idea of an immediate individual retribution 
 apart from the future salvation of the nation (Jer. xxxi. 30). 
 
lo MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 This notion of individual retribution is further developed 
 by Ezekiel. The individual prospers or suffers purely 
 according to his own righteousness or unrighteousness. 
 This is simply the ordinary prophetic idea of God's 
 righteous judgment applied to the individual (see 
 Ezek. iii. 16-21, xviii. 1-32). 
 
 § 5. THE LAW : DEUTERONOMY AND THE 
 PRIESTLY CODE 
 
 In the legal development, which beginning in the 
 time of the prophets runs parallel with that of prophecy, 
 we have a similar application of the prophetic idea 
 of God's righteousness in regard to the national sal- 
 vation. Deuteronomy differs from the prophecy, to 
 which in part it owes its origin, in taking an optimistic 
 view of the possibility of reform in the nation. It 
 does not expect national prosperity after a judgment as 
 the result of the free grace of Yahweh ; but it is rather 
 founded on the idea that Israel, by properly performing 
 the demands of Yahweh, may obtain prosperity at His 
 hand, though of course failure to perform His demands 
 must bring punishment and national ruin. Compare 
 the illustration of this principle in the great blessing 
 
DEUTERONOMY AND CODE ii 
 
 and curse of Deut. xxvii., xxviii. It is to be observed 
 further that Deuteronomy includes in the demands of 
 Yahweh the ritual precepts handed down by tradition, 
 which the prophets, at any rate as far as Jeremiah, set 
 light by. An important conception, which is developed 
 in Deuteronomy, is that of "righteousness before God," 
 which consists in the performance of His precepts, 
 and which entitles Israel to His salvation. This idea 
 is applied both to the nation and the individual (Deut. 
 vi. 25, xxiv. 13). 
 
 In the priestly code the idea of a legal saving insti- 
 tution is continued ; but the end of the law as salvation 
 is not so much emphasised as in Deuteronomy. The 
 chief new points, however, to be observed are the co- 
 ordination of the law under the point of view of holi- 
 ness, and the place here given to expiatory sacrifice. 
 The fundamental notion of holiness is that of separation, 
 the separation of all that belongs to religion from all 
 that is secular ; and the priestly code is governed by 
 the idea that Israel is to be a holy people to Yahweh, 
 separated from the heathen by the observance of His 
 precepts (Lev. xx. 26). Special importance thus attaches 
 to the ceremonial precepts, which far more than in 
 Deuteronomy come into the foreground in this later 
 
12 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 law-book (Lev. xx. 24, 25). The priestly code is there- 
 fore full of the idea of sin as transgression of the 
 ceremonial law. It, however, contains an elaborate 
 saving institution of expiatory sacrifice, in which the old 
 conception of expiatory sacrifice is applied in detail to 
 various offences (see Lev. i.-vii.). (It is to be observed 
 that in one instance expiatory sacrifice is mentioned 
 in Deuteronomy: see Deut. xxi. 1-9.) According to 
 the priestly code, however, only sins of ignorance can 
 be expiated by sacrifice. Sins committed with a high 
 hand can only be purged by cutting off the offender 
 from the people (Num. xv. 28, 30). 
 
 It is useless to look for a consistent symbolical 
 explanation of all the details of sacrifice in the priestly 
 code. Its sanctity and atoning power rather here 
 consist in its time-honoured and traditional character ; 
 and it is probable that we have in these final laws of 
 Hebrew sacrifice the result of a long development, to 
 which many different ideas have contributed. The 
 following conceptions may here be mentioned as they 
 find expression in different parts of the Old Testament, 
 and have influenced New Testament thought. 
 
 I. Sacrifice is conceived as a gift to God (Exod. xxiii. 
 15. If, then, the gift is intended for the expiation of 
 
DEUTERONOMY AND CODE 13 
 
 sin, it will be a propitiatory gift. " In ancient times 
 the idea prevails, that offences against the holiness of 
 Yahweh can be made good by a gift in recognition 
 of the guilt incurred" (Stade, Biblische Theologie des 
 alien Testame?its, p. 167). 
 
 2. Sacrifice is conceived as a means of communion 
 between God and man, in that the victim furnishes a 
 communion feast, participation in which unites the 
 worshipper to God. In the application of this concep- 
 tion to expiation, we have to say, participation reunites 
 the worshipper to God. A special form of the idea of 
 communion with God by participation in the victim is 
 the notion of communion by participation in the blood 
 of the victim. In Hebrew religion this does not, as in 
 other ancient religions, appear in the form of the drink- 
 ing of the blood (see Ps. xvi. 4), but only in the form 
 of the external application of the blood. A particularly 
 clear case is Exod. xxiv. 5-8, where the blood is applied 
 to the altar (as the representative of God) and to the wor- 
 shippers, thus uniting both in communion. At bottom 
 of this special connection of the idea of communion with 
 the blood is the mystical conception that the blood is 
 the life (Lev. xvii. 11). Hence participation in the blood 
 of the victim means participation in a common life. 
 
14 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 3. Idea of expiation by a substitutionary victim. 
 The notion is that by transgression the sinner has come 
 under the Divine displeasure, and is therefore allowed 
 to offer as a ransom for his life, which is thus en- 
 dangered, the life of an animal. This conception is well 
 known in religion outside the Old Testament. In the 
 Old Testament itself we find it in Micah vi. 7 : " Shall 
 I give my firstborn for my transgression, the fruit of 
 my body for the sin of my soul?" It is not certain, 
 however, whether the idea is anywhere implied in the 
 Old Testament ritual of sacrifice. The elements in 
 the ritual, which seem to point to it, are capable of 
 a different explanation. 
 
 The ideas of other nations, however, and the passage 
 quoted from Micah, show that the notion of substitution 
 lay close at hand, and might easily connect itself with 
 the legal institutions. It is to be observed that 
 in the regulated private sacrifices of the priestly law 
 (Lev. i.-vii.), including the sin-offering and the guilt- 
 offering, may be traced the care for the present salva- 
 tion of the individual member of the nation, which we 
 have observed in Jeremiah and Ezekiel. The priestly 
 code, then, aims at securing the welfare not only of 
 the nation but of the individual Israelite. 
 
LATER PROPHECY 
 
 15 
 
 §6. EXILIC AND POST-EXILIC PROPHECY 
 
 We return to take up the line of development of 
 prophecy, as it continues after Jeremiah. Here the im- 
 portant element is the richly-varied conception of future 
 national deliverance, or the hope of the kingdom of 
 God, which in one form or other dominates the whole 
 later prophecy. The Messiah, as before, is not an in- 
 variable feature of the expectation. Here there is no 
 change. Very noteworthy, however, is the alteration in 
 the idea of the judgment, which is to introduce the great 
 salvation. It falls no longer, since the exile, on the 
 nation as a whole, which is conceived by this great 
 calamity fully to have purged its guilt (Isa. xl. i, 2). 
 The judgment falls rather upon the enemies of Israel 
 (Isa. xliii. 14, xlvii. 1-14, Ixiii. 1-6; Zech. i. 18-21), 
 or upon the ungodly element only in the nation (Isa. 
 Ixv. 11-15, Ixvi. 14-18; Mai. ii. 5, iv. i). The former 
 conception is to a great extent a reproduction of the 
 popular expectation of the day of Yahweh. But it is a new 
 and important idea of the second Isaiah that this judg- 
 ment of the enemies of Israel is to be deduced, along with 
 the salvation of Israel, from Yahweh's righteousness. 
 Israel, as the people of the true religion, is righteous, 
 
i6 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 where the heathen are unrighteous, and thus receives 
 vindication at the hands of the righteous God ; or as 
 the prophet says, introducing a noteworthy termino- 
 logy, is y/^^/z)?^^ (Isa. xlv. 25, 1. 8; compare xli. 10, 11, 
 liv. 17). It is further observable that thus in Isa. xl.-lv. 
 Yahweh's righteousness and His salvation come to be 
 almost synonymous (compare Isa. xlv. 21, li. 5 f.). 
 
 With regard to the nature of the future salvation, as 
 described by the later prophets, some further points 
 require notice. The first is with regard to the position 
 of the heathen after the introductory judgment. While 
 sometimes all the heathen are destroyed completely (Ezek. 
 xxxviii., xxxix.), in other cases the conception is that 
 they remain as servants and tributaries of Israel (Isa. Ix. 
 12, Ixi. 5). Yet again we find the idea of the conversion 
 of the heathen to the knowledge of the true God ; so 
 that they may share in the blessings of the great salva- 
 tion (isa. xlv. 23). Finally in some cases we find a yet 
 wider universalism, where the primacy of Israel dis- 
 appears in a world-wide kingdom of God (Isa. xix. 24, 
 25 — a late passage). These latter conceptions are, 
 however, rather the exception than the rule. 
 
 Before, however, we pass on from the question of 
 Israel and the heathen, we must notice the remarkable 
 
LATER PROPHECY 17 
 
 conception of Isa. Hi. i3-liii. 12, according to which 
 the salvation of the heathen is viewed not only as flowing 
 from the grace of God, but as mediated by the vicarious 
 sufferings of Israel. Israel, as the servant of Yahweh, 
 bears the sins of the nations, and out of his suffering 
 comes their good. So in the language of the sacrificial 
 ritual it is said of him that his soul is made an offering 
 for sin. It is not, however, exactly the notion of an ex- 
 piatory victim that we have here : at any rate there is 
 no idea of propitiation. There is rather the suggestion 
 of an ethical interpretation of the sacrificial language. 
 The good of those for whom the servant suffers does not 
 flow simply from the mere fact of his sacrifice, but rather 
 from the moral effect of this on their minds. They 
 are thereby moved to repentance, acknowledging that the 
 sufferings of the servant are due to their sins (Isa. Hii. 
 4-6). (For the general basis of the interpretation of this 
 passage see Peake, "The Problem of Suffering in the 
 Old Testament," chap, iii.) 
 
 We notice further in the prophecy of the exile and 
 of the period after the exile a tendency to conceive the 
 future national salvation not merely as an elevation of 
 the national life to its highest national capacity but as 
 a state altogether transcending the conditions of ordinary 
 
i8 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 earthly life, and absolutely miraculous (Isa. Ixv. 4-25). 
 This is in connection with a more transcendent idea of 
 God than is in general found in the earlier prophets. 
 The way here is led by the second Isaiah, to whom 
 Yahweh is above all the omnipotent Creator, who sits 
 upon the circle of the heavens, and to whom men are as 
 grasshoppers (Isa. xl. 22). The conception is again 
 powerfully expressed in the later passage (Isa. Ixvi. i f.) : 
 the heaven is Yahweh's throne, the earth, the footstool 
 of His feet ; no house built with hands can be worthy 
 of Him. 
 
 The further description of the future salvation in the 
 later prophets repeats the ideas of their predecessors. 
 There is to be the complete forgiveness of sin (Isa. xliii. 
 25 ; Zech. xiii. i), and the outpouring of the Spirit upon 
 the people (Isa. xliv. 3 ; Joel ii. 28, 29) ; all the people 
 shall be taught of God (Isa. liv. 13) and shall be right- 
 eous (Isa. Ix. 21). As regards the last point, however, 
 we have the difference from the early ideal that there 
 is a tendency to substitute for righteousness holiness, 
 which is clearly traceable to the influence of the develop- 
 ing or developed law (see Ezek. xl.-xlviii. ; Zech. xiv. 
 20-21 — a late passage). 
 
FINAL VIEW OF SALVATION 19 
 
 § 7. FINAL VIEW OF SALVATION IN THE OLD 
 TESTAMENT 
 
 At this point we may now look back and sum up the 
 final conceptions of the Jewish Church as to salvation as a 
 whole — only a very few parts of the Old Testament, yet to 
 be treated of, being excepted as looking beyond its general 
 horizon. The main ideas are two. The first is that of 
 a future salvation for the nation proceeding from the 
 righteousness of God, the reverse side of which is a judg- 
 ment upon the enemies of His true people, both within 
 or without the community. We may note that the 
 notion is expressed that the condition of the speedy 
 appearance of the national salvation is obedience to 
 Yahweh (Mai. iii. 10-12). The second idea is that of 
 the present salvation of the individual, manifested in 
 Yahweh's just retribution of the righteous with pros- 
 perity, the reverse side of which is the present punish- 
 ment of the wicked. 
 
 In the Books of Psalms and Proverbs we see how 
 these conceptions affected and coloured the religious life 
 of the nation and the individual. We see how ardently 
 the national salvation was expected and longed for 
 (Ps. ix. 19, xiv. 7, Ixxxv.); how sometimes it was 
 
20 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 joyously anticipated (Ps. ii., xcvi.-xcviii. ) ; and how, too, 
 in hours of national distress it seemed long delayed 
 (Ps. xliv., Ixxxix.). We see further how the dogma of 
 individual retribution became fully established among 
 the pious (Ps. i., xxxiv., and Proverbs passim)-, though 
 at the same time certain Psalms show how the conflict 
 of it with the facts of experience was by some keenly 
 felt (Ps. xxxvii., xlix., Ixxiii.). 
 
 It is to be added that we see in the Psalms also how 
 the deeper and more inward view of sin realised by the 
 prophets, and above all by Jeremiah, has become the 
 property of the nation, or at least, of the pious in it. 
 We do not find a new doctrine of sin in the Psalms ; 
 but a fuller experimental realisation of its meaning 
 speaks from their pages (Ps. xxxii., li.). Equally also 
 do the Psalms bring to view the deepest and most 
 spiritual aspects of the Old Testament idea of salvation, 
 especially in regard to the individual. If salvation was 
 thought of as prosperity (Ps. cxviii. 25), this prosperity 
 was not valued, at any rate since the time of the 
 prophets, purely for its own sake, but above all as the 
 mark of Divine favour. This notion the Psalms bring 
 clearly to view. Not in God's gifts only, but supremely 
 in Himself, is the satisfaction of the desire of man. The 
 
ANTHROPOLOGY 
 
 soul of the idea of salvation is the communion with God 
 therein enjoyed (Ps. xxiii. i-6, xxvii. 4, xliii. 3, 4, 
 Ixv. 4). 
 
 § 8. THE ANTHROPOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTA- 
 MENT IN ITS BEARING UPON THE CON- 
 CEPTIONS OF SIN AND SALVATION 
 
 The original anthropology of the Hebrews had no 
 special connection with the religion of Yahweh, but 
 was, on the contrary, not different from that of primitive 
 tribes in general. To the early Hebrews the constitu- 
 tion of man appeared as a duality. On the one hand 
 was the body, or as the ancient Israelite called it from 
 the animated matter of which it was made, and which 
 was common to man and the animals, the flesh. On 
 the other hand was the " soul " or " spirit," the life- 
 principle inhabiting the flesh. There is considerable 
 difference, indeed, in the connotation of the terms 
 " soul " and " spirit " in early Hebrew psychology. 
 Amongst other things, the terms are associated with 
 different psychical functions, and soul is used, as spirit 
 is not used, to express the personality (see Charles, 
 " Eschatology," " Encyclopaedia Biblica," col. 1340). 
 But a real trichotomy there is not : '' soul " and 
 
22 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 "spirit" alike mean the life-principle, the departure of 
 which from the body involves death. 
 
 Psychical functions (in particular, intelligence), were 
 connected with the heart as well as with the soul or spirit ; 
 but " heart " never stands, like the other terms, for the 
 life-principle. As regards the connection between the 
 flesh and the soul or spirit, there was not at first the 
 sharp demarcation of ideas which afterwards grew up. 
 Flesh was regarded not as dead, but as animated matter, 
 and " my flesh " may equally with " my soul " represent 
 the whole man. 
 
 In the writings of the prophets, however, we begin to 
 find the distinction emphasised between man as flesh, 
 and Yahweh as spirit. This opposition first appears in 
 Isa. xxxi. 3 : " The Egyptians are men and not God ; 
 and their horses are flesh and not spirit." Here we have 
 the notion, afterwards so fundamental to Jewish religion, 
 of the frailty of man (and beast) as flesh, when compared 
 with Yahweh, who as spirit is exalted above the world. 
 This prophetic point of view is further illustrated by the 
 prophetic narrative of Gen. ii., where we have an account 
 of the creation of man, which brings to view the com- 
 plete dependence of the life-principle in him from 
 Yahweh. The account is that Yahweh formed man of 
 
ANTHROPOLOGY 23 
 
 dust of the ground, and blew into his nostrils the breath 
 of life ; so that man became a living soul. There are, 
 therefore in man three elements, soul, body (flesh), and 
 spirit ; which last, according to this theory, is the Divine 
 principle which gives life to the soul. This narrative is 
 the first instance of a real trichotomy in the Old Testa- 
 ment. In the later account of the creation of man, 
 given by the priestly writer in Gen. i., the anthropo- 
 morphism of the prophetic narrative is abandoned, and 
 the creation of man is traced simply to the fiat of God. 
 Important elements, however, in the priestly representa- 
 tion are, that man is made in the image of God (Gen. i. 
 21), and that he is appointed to have dominion over 
 the creation (Gen. i. 28). 
 
 The influence of these new points of view is seen in 
 all the later Old Testament literature (see especially 
 Ps. viii.). What is above all important to us, however, 
 is the influence of the idea that man is flesh (in opposi- 
 tion to the purely spiritual nature of God), or that he is 
 made of the dust of the earth, upon the conceptions of sin 
 and salvation. Not only is there deduced from the there- 
 with connected idea of his frailty, his need of Divine help, 
 so that a potent appeal to God rises out of man's very 
 weakness (Ps. ciii. 13, 14), but also man's sinfulness is 
 
24 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 connected with his being flesh, the idea of physical frailty 
 easily passing over into that of moral weakness (Job. iv. 
 i7» 19)- 
 
 §9. DEATH 
 
 The original Hebrew anthropology attributed death 
 to the departure of the soul (Gen. xxxv. 18 ; I. Kings 
 xvii. 21). Death is not, according to the oldest Hebrew 
 view, nor indeed according to the general view of the 
 Old Testament, the punishment of sin, but is rather 
 the natural lot of man (Job v. 26). Premature death, 
 however, is the punishment of sin (II. Sam. vi. 7 ; 
 Ps. Iv. 23), just as long life is a sign of the favour of 
 Yahweh. So little is death in itself the punishment of 
 sin that even in the future age of salvation men still 
 die. The sign of Yahweh's favour is that they live 
 patriarchal lives. Compare Isa. Ixvi. 20-22 : a hundred 
 years shall be reckoned the life of a child, or of a sinner 
 prematurely cut off. 
 
 The prophetic narrative of the Fall (Gen. iii.), on the 
 other hand, does make death in general, along with the 
 necessity of labour, the punishment of Adam's trans- 
 gression. This narrative, however, stands quite by 
 itself, and has exercised no influence on the Old Testa- 
 
THE STATE AFTER DEATH 25 
 
 ment in general. It is only after the completion of the 
 Old Testament that the narrative begins to exercise the 
 very potent influence, which it has ever since maintained, 
 over the doctrine of sin. 
 
 § 10. THE STATE AFTER DEATH 
 
 Death, according to the oldest view, is not extinction ; 
 but the personality continues to exist in Sheol, or the 
 under-world, in a shadowy state, as the mere phantasm 
 and ghost of the earthly self. This idea has no con- 
 nection with the religion of Yahweh, but is a survival 
 from an early stage of religion through which the 
 ancestors of the Hebrews must have passed. Accord- 
 ingly we have the notion that Sheol is beyond the sphere 
 of Yahweh's influence. There are no moral distinctions 
 in Sheol : the good and the bad are alike shades in the 
 under- world (Job iii. 13-19). Nor is communion with 
 Yahweh possible to the shades. His salvation is not for 
 them, but only for the living (Ps. xxx. 9, Ixxxviii. 5, 
 10-12; Isa. xxxviii. 18, 19). 
 
 It was not till almost the very close of the history 
 of Old Testament religion that these conceptions were 
 broken through. The causes were three in number. First 
 
26 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 must be ranked the breaking down of the dogma of 
 individual retribution in the present life, which was 
 seen to conflict with actual experience. The righteous 
 man unvindicated in this life postulates a vindi- 
 cation in the Hfe to come (Job xix. 25, 26). The 
 second cause of the change was the desire of indi- 
 vidual piety for communion with God after death, 
 and the growing sense that the communion enjoyed in 
 this life cannot end with death (Ps. Ixxiii. 23-26). 
 Finally we have to allow for the desire of the individual 
 for a share in the national salvation. It is to be 
 observed that in the Old Testament no complete syn- 
 thesis of the national and individual salvation is arrived 
 at, but each stands separately by itself. We have, 
 indeed, the relative synthesis involved in the notion that 
 the judgment which introduces the national salvation 
 will fall not only upon the external enemies of Israel, 
 but upon the wicked in Israel, thus separating the wheat 
 from the chaff (Ps. i. 4-6). But it is evident that this 
 synthesis takes no account of those who die before the 
 national salvation is realised, and is therefore incom- 
 plete. The result is that towards the close of the Old 
 Testament literature, there appears the idea of a resur- 
 rection of the pious in order to share in the national 
 
THE STATE AFTER DEATH 27 
 
 salvation. This is found in Isa. xxvi. 1-19, dated by 
 Cheyne in 334 B.C. (see Charles, " Eschatology," in 
 "Encyclopaedia Biblica," col. 1384). 
 
 The only other passage in the Old Testament which 
 speaks of a resurrection is Dan. xii. 2 (168 B.C.). The 
 resurrection here, however, is not a resurrection of the 
 righteous, but also of the wicked, who are to rise to 
 receive their reward (viz. shame and everlasting con- 
 tempt). It is not, however, all the righteous or all the 
 wicked that are to rise again, but many — apparently 
 the pre-eminently good, and the pre-eminently bad, in 
 Israel. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 THE LATER JUDAISM 
 
 § I. IDEAS OF SALVATION, INDIVIDUAL 
 AND NATIONAL 
 
 The synthesis just begun in the Old Testament is 
 completed in the literature between the Old and New 
 Testaments, in that important part of it known as the 
 "apocalyptic" literature, to which, indeed, such parts 
 of the Old Testament as Isa. xxiv.-xxvii. and Daniel 
 logically belong, though from their position in the Old 
 Testament they have already been mentioned. The 
 peculiar feature of apocalypse is that the advent of 
 the kingdom of God is regarded not merely as the 
 opening of a new period in the history of the world but 
 as the introduction of a new world altogether, a point 
 of view which indeed already appears in Isa. Ixv. 17 
 (date uncertain). 
 
 The resurrection further becomes a regular feature 
 
 in the expectation of the kingdom of God, and 
 
 28 
 
IDEAS OF SALVATION 29 
 
 tends more and more to become a general resurrec- 
 tion, while the judgment associated with the coming of 
 the kingdom of God becomes a general judgment. 
 There is, however, much variation in the individual 
 representations as to who rise and who are judged. 
 The completest synthesis of the national and indi- 
 vidual salvation is found in the WTitings of the second 
 century B.C. The righteous, both living and dead, 
 find complete satisfaction in the eternal kingdom 
 of God, established on the earth with its centre at 
 Jerusalem. Its members eat of the tree of life and enjoy 
 patriarchal lives (Enoch i.-xxxvi., before 170 ; see especi- 
 ally XXV. 3 f .). A somewhat different picture of the future 
 kingdom is given in Enoch Ixxxiii.-xc. (i 66-1 01 B.C.). 
 Here there is a new heavenly Jerusalem, where God's true 
 sheep, the righteous, dwell (see especially xc. 29, 34). 
 
 In the first century B.C., however, the synthesis thus 
 attained begins to break up. The hope of an abiding 
 kingdom upon the earth is all but abandoned. Hence 
 we have either the idea, as already in Isa. Ixv. 17, of a 
 new heaven and a new earth as the scene of the 
 future salvation, to share in which the righteous rise 
 (Enoch xxxvii.-lxx.), or else the idea that the kingdom 
 on earth is but transitory, and that the final destina- 
 
30 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 tion of the righteous is not this kingdom, but heaven 
 itself. "Here," says Charles, "the belief in a personal 
 immortality has dissociated itself from the doctrine of 
 the Messianic kingdom, and the synthesis of the 
 eschatologies achieved in the preceding century is anew 
 resolved into its elements" (" Eschatology," col. 1361). 
 This idea of a temporary Messianic kingdom is interest- 
 ing as the precursor of the Millennium in the Apoca- 
 lypse of John. 
 
 Finally, in the first century a.d., the breach between 
 the eschatologies of the nation and the individual 
 becomes yet wider. The nation has in some cases 
 no blessed future at all, but only the individual, as 
 in the Apocalypse of Baruch (xiii. i f.). There is no 
 hope expressed anywhere, in the Apocalypse to which 
 this passage belongs, of a restored Jerusalem. 
 
 Where in this period a better future is expected 
 for the nation, it is only one of temporary duration, 
 as in IV. Ezra (II. Esdras) vii. 28. With this temporary 
 kingdom the individual has no real concern. "His 
 interest centres round his own soul, and his world 
 is the after life-. The great thought of the Divine 
 kingdom has been surrendered in despair " (Charles, 
 " Eschatology," col. 1366). 
 
IDEAS OF SALVATION 31 
 
 We return to consider the nature of the national 
 salvation. It continues to be represented along the 
 lines laid down by the prophets, but with an increased 
 transcendence of experience. This is connected, as 
 before, with a more highly developed transcendence in 
 the conception of God, which marks all the writings of 
 this age (viz. 200 B.C.- 100 B.C.). The transcendence 
 of the kingdom appears most plainly in the last century 
 B.C., where the dualism between God and the world 
 causes the general break up of the idea of an earthly 
 kingdom of God, the earth as it is being regarded as 
 unfit for the manifestation of the kingdom (so in 
 Enoch xxxvii.-lxx.). The apocalyptic writers, like the 
 prophets, view the kingdom in general as complete 
 prosperity under the rule of God. Whether a Messiah 
 is or is not included, still continues to be accidental. 
 Thus there is no mention of a Messiah in the second 
 century B.C., except in Enoch Ixxxiii.-xc. (compare xc. 
 37). In the first century B.C. the idea of the Messiah is 
 prominent. "Henceforth the Messiah becomes gener- 
 ally, but not universally, the chief figure in the Messianic 
 kingdom" (Charles, " Eschatology," col. 1366). As to 
 further details, some writers describe the future happi- 
 ness in physical and even sensuous language (compare 
 
32 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 the passage above quoted, Enoch xxv. 3). They 
 develop here, indeed, from certain descriptions of later 
 prophecy (as Isa. Ixv. 18-25), which similarly describe 
 the kingdom in physical terms. Other writers, how- 
 ever, following rather the pre-exilic prophets, lay chief 
 stress on the righteousness of the kingdom and its 
 members (Psalms of Solomon, 70-40 b.c). 
 
 The position of the heathen in the Messianic age 
 varies with the apocalyptic writers as with the prophets. 
 In the second century b.c. we find the view that all the 
 heathen are to become righteous and worship God, 
 or that only the hostile heathen are to be destroyed, 
 the rest remaining to serve Israel. In the first century 
 B.C., however, this favourable view of the heathen all 
 but disappears. (For further details see Charles, " Escha- 
 tology," as before.) 
 
 In the prophets the coming of the kingdom is always 
 expected from the power and grace of God, though 
 the obedience of the people may be a condition of 
 its speedy realisation (Mai. iii. 10). The same view 
 still holds good in the apocalyptic writers. But just 
 as in the second Isaiah this idea is coupled with that 
 of the bringing about of the kingdom by the political 
 triumph of Cyrus, as God's Messiah over Babylon 
 
ANTHROPOLOGICAL IDEAS 33 
 
 (Is. xlv. 1-6); so about the Christian era we have a 
 political view of the establishment of the kingdom 
 (that of the Zealots), in which the actual realisation 
 of the kingdom depends on the Messiah's victory over 
 Rome. This view is illustrated by the Psalms of 
 Solomon, already mentioned in another connection. 
 Against the view of the Zealots, however, " an emphatic 
 protest was raised by a strong body of Pharisees, who 
 felt it to be their sole duty to observe the law, leaving 
 it to God to intervene to defend them (Charles, " Escha- 
 tology," col. 1372). Instances of this protest are found 
 in the Assumption of Moses and in IV. Ezra. Both points 
 of view, therefore, have to be reckoned with in the time 
 of Jesus. 
 
 § 2. ANTHROPOLOGICAL IDEAS CONNECTED 
 WITH THE FUTURE SALVATION 
 
 According to Charles the trichotomy of Gen. ii. seems 
 to have left little mark either on the Old Testament 
 or on the later Jewish literature. Compare, however, 
 Ps. xc. 3, civ. 30, cxlvi. 4, which passages contain the 
 idea that the death of man (and the animals) is due 
 to Yahweh's recalling the spirit which He has given 
 to Himself. In Ecclesiastes, just before the close of 
 
34 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 the Old Testament, the further conclusion is drawn 
 that, since death is the return of the spirit to God (xii. 7), 
 there is no life after death (iii. 19, 21, ix. 3, 5, 10). 
 The final form of this scepticism is seen in Sadduceeism. 
 
 The most general view in the period we are con- 
 sidering is, however, in no way based on Gen. ii., but 
 is simply the old Hebrew trichotomy, in which body 
 is opposed to soul or spirit. The soul or spirit sur- 
 vives death, and the usual idea is that it passes to 
 Sheol until the resurrection. Moral retribution, how- 
 ever, takes place immediately after death. "Sheol 
 undergoes complete transformation in the second cen- 
 tury B.C., and becomes an intermediate place of retri- 
 bution for the righteous and the wicked. All the dead 
 who died before the final judgment have to go to 
 Sheol" (Charles, " Eschatology," col. 1360), 
 
 We have also, besides Sheol, Gehenna or hell, as 
 the final, not the immediate, abode of the wicked. The 
 lines that divide this from the penal division of Sheol 
 are, however, not firmly drawn ; and, as time goes on, 
 Sheol is more and more identified with hell. 
 
 There is considerable variety of opinion as to the 
 nature of the resurrection. In some cases it is simply 
 the spirits of the righteous dead that are raised 
 
ALEXANDRIAN JUDAISM 35 
 
 (Enoch ciii. 4). In other cases, however, the resurrec- 
 tion of the body is affirmed (II. Mace. vii. 11, xiv. 46). 
 The difference between the two views is, however, 
 modified by such statements as that the new body is a 
 garment of light, and that those who possess it are 
 angelic, or again, that the righteous are to rise vestured 
 with the glory of God (compare Enoch li. 4, Ixii. i f.), 
 equal to the stars, and changed from beauty into 
 loveliness, and from light into the splendour of glory 
 (li. 10) j they shall even surpass the angels (li. 12). 
 
 § 3. ALEXANDRIAN JUDAISM 
 
 So far we have been tracing the views of Palestinian 
 Judaism. In the Judaism of Alexandria, however, 
 under Greek influence, further developments take place. 
 The idea of the resurrection is exchanged for the Greek 
 conception of the immortality of the spirit; and this 
 exchange is accompanied by the adoption of the Greek 
 dualism between matter and spirit, according to which 
 matter is wholly evil, and therefore the body is to the 
 soul a prison (Wisd. ix. 15). 
 
 The righteous spirit, then, enters on a blessed immor- 
 tality immediately upon death (Wisd. iii. 1-4, iv. 7, 10). 
 
36 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 There can be no resurrection of the body, since matter 
 is incurably evil. Judgment, therefore, takes place at 
 death, and all enter at death into their final abode. 
 These points are developed by Philo, the Jewish Alex- 
 andrian philosopher (see Charles, col. 1367). 
 
 § 4. CONDITIONS OF INDIVIDUAL SALVATION 
 
 Salvation is only for the righteous. Righteousness, 
 however, is by all sections of Judaism identified with 
 the observance of the law, the point of view of Deuter- 
 onomy being still further developed and enforced. By 
 the Pharisees, the most typical Jews of the period, the 
 idea of righteousness before God is carried out with 
 a thorough-going legalism, which altogether transcends 
 the legahsm of the Old Testament; though in the 
 later books traces of a tendency in the direction of 
 Pharisaism may be found, as will presently be noted. 
 In the Pharisaic view the law is divided up into single 
 precepts ; and God is represented as the great Heavenly 
 Account-keeper, who writes down in His tablets the 
 observances or non-observances of the precepts. (For 
 an Old Testament anticipation of this point of view, 
 compare Neh. xiii. 14.) The Pharisees further teach 
 
THE PHARISAIC IDEA 37 
 
 that judgment follows according to the sum of the 
 account. It was, in general, considered sufficient if 
 the observances outweighed the non-observances. For 
 the decision by which God admits the individual to 
 salvation the term justification is used. We see that 
 the idea is transferred from a connection with the 
 nation, as in the Second Isaiah, to a connection with 
 the individual^ quite in accordance with the stress on 
 the lot of the individual which characterises the later 
 Judaism, as we have already seen. Judgment takes 
 place, according to the Pharisees, at death ; this judg- 
 ment is, however, an anticipation of the final judgment. 
 
 § 5. THE PHARISAIC IDEA OF MERIT 
 AND ATONEMENT 
 
 The individual Israelite, however, according to the 
 Pharisees, has sundry helps to justification in case his 
 observances fall short. He himself may make atone- 
 ment for his shortcomings by repentance, especially by 
 the repentance of the great Day of Atonement, and also 
 by good works such as almsgiving. (We have again 
 here the development of ideas already found in the 
 latter books of the Old Testament ; compare Prov. x. 2, 
 
38 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 xvi. 6; Dan. xiv. 27). The Pharisees teach that the 
 sacrifices of the law also atone. 
 
 More prominent, however, than these methods of 
 atonement, is the notion of the supererogatory merit of 
 the saints of the Jewish Church, which can be supplied 
 to make up the deficiencies of their compatriots (com- 
 pare Paul's allusion in Rom. ix. 5: "whose are the 
 fathers"). We even meet with the conception that all 
 Jews must be saved in virtue of their descent from 
 Abraham (compare Matt. iii. 9 ; John viii. ^^ ff.). 
 
 Finally we find in the literature of the period the 
 idea of the Goel, or redeemer, the martyr who by his 
 sufferings makes propitiation for the sins of his nation 
 (II. Mace. vii. 37, 38; IV. Mace. vi. 28, xvii. 20-28). 
 In these passages the conception is not, as in Isa. liii., 
 that vicarious suffering which benefits others along lines 
 of ethical influence, but of a substitutionary atonement 
 in the strict sense. 
 
 § 6. THE IDEA OF SIN 
 
 We turn to notice the views of the apocalyptic and 
 apocryphal writers and of the Rabbis on the subject of 
 sin, especially as regards the consequences of Adam's 
 
THEIDEAOFSIN 39 
 
 fall. In this period we for the first time clearly trace 
 the influence of Gen. iii. on Jewish thought. Thus in 
 Ecclus. XXV. 24 we have precisely the Biblical account 
 of the Fall. In Wisd. ii. 23, 24, again, the influence of 
 Gen. iii. is clearly seen. Its doctrine that (physical) 
 death is the result of Adam's sin is also found in IV. 
 Ezra iii. 7, and the Apocalypse of Baruch xvii. 3. In 
 these passages, however, we have as yet no doctrine of 
 original or hereditary sin. This, however, is found 
 (perhaps under Christian influence) in IV. Ezra iii. 21 f., 
 iv. 20, vii. 48. It is to be observed, however, that in 
 these passages man appears not to be created perfect 
 (nor, indeed, is he distinctly said to be in Gen. ii.), but 
 has already in him a tendency to evil, which his fall 
 makes the permanent principle of his action. 
 
 In spite of the Fall the responsibility of the individual 
 is strongly asserted both in IV. Ezra viii. 59, ix. 4, 
 and Baruch liv. 15-19, especially in the latter. The 
 teaching of the Rabbis in the Talmud on sin is thus 
 summarised by Weber (Jiidische Theologie^ p. 216): 
 " By the Fall man came under a curse, is guilty of 
 death, and his right relation to God is rendered 
 difficult. More than this cannot be said. Sin, to 
 which the bent and leaning had been already planted 
 
40 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 in man by creation, had become a fact; the evil im- 
 pulse gained the mastery over mankind, who can only 
 resist it with the greatest effort; before the Fall it 
 had power over him, but no such ascendency." This 
 doctrine of the evil impulse, it will be observed, agrees 
 with that of IV. Ezra. The Rabbis also, like the 
 Apocalypse of Baruch, strongly insist upon the reality 
 of free will and on the direct responsibility of each 
 individual. 
 
 We may complete this account of the doctrine of 
 sin in the later Judaism by a reference to the teaching 
 of Philo. He distinguishes in Gen. i. and Gen, ii. two 
 originals of the human race, the first heavenly, the 
 ideal man, made in the image of God ; the second 
 earthly, sensuous, and mortal. The distinction is, 
 however, not strictly carried out ; for to the lower 
 man, who consists properly only of body and soul, 
 and is thus mortal, the Spirit of God is given. This 
 gift of the Spirit is sometimes equated, moreover, to 
 the bestowal of the Divine image on the earthly man ; 
 so that the two conceptions are thus united. On his 
 bodily side, however, the earthly man is material, and 
 the Divine Spirit is enclosed in the body as in a prison. 
 Adam's fall was his giving way to the power of the 
 
THE NEW TESTAMENT 41 
 
 senses. His posterity inherit both his fleshly nature 
 and sinfulness, but also, at the same time, the traces of 
 relationship to God (see Holtzmann, Neutestamentliche 
 Theologie^ i. pp. 97-99). 
 
 § 7. TRANSITION TO THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 In concluding this account of the long development 
 of our doctrines up to the time of the New Testament, 
 it is to be observed that the New Testament doctrines 
 presuppose the general results of it. Jesus and the 
 Apostles do not undertake to construct a complete 
 system of doctrine altogether de novo ; but build upon 
 and assume, while amplifying and correcting, what has 
 been already achieved. But they also have an eye, 
 Jesus Himself in particular, to forgotten Old Testament 
 points of view; while writers like Paul, the author of 
 Hebrews, and John, have connections also with the 
 Gr^eco- Jewish thought. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 THE TEACHING OF JESUS ACCORDING 
 TO THE SYNOPTIC GOSPELS 
 
 § I. THE FATHERHOOD OF GOD 
 
 In the teaching of Jesus the social and personal aspects 
 of salvation are united in a deeper synthesis ; while at 
 the same time the future salvation of the prophets and 
 of the later Judaism are combined with the present 
 salvation of the early Hebrew religion by a spiritual 
 view of things, which brings the present and the future 
 together. 
 
 The development of the idea of salvation rests, just 
 as the previous developments, upon a change in the 
 conception of God. Just as, in the pre-exilic prophets 
 on the one hand, the idea of salvation was the exact 
 correlate of their conception of Yahweh, the absolutely 
 righteous God of Israel ; just as, in the later prophets 
 and the apocalyptic writers, it was again the correlate of 
 their conception of Yahweh as absolutely transcendent 
 over the world ; so in the teaching of Jesus the new idea 
 
THE FATHERHOOD OF GOD 43 
 
 of salvation is the exact correlate of His new conception 
 of God, viz. that of God as the Father. 
 
 This conception is not, indeed, an entirely new one. 
 We find it in the Old Testament (Deut. xxxii. 6 ; Jer. 
 iii. 4-19, xxxi. 8; Isa. Ixiii. 16, Ixiv. 7; Mai. i. 6; 
 I. Chron. xxix. 10). Here, indeed, the reference is 
 to the Israelites as a whole. But in the apocryphal 
 and apocalyptic literature the notion is applied not only 
 to the nation but to the individual (compare Ecclus. 
 xxiii. 14; Wisd. ii. 16; Tobit xiii. 14; Jubilees i. 24). 
 In the Rabbis from the end of the first century a.d. 
 onwards we have also numerous instances of the idea. 
 
 With Jesus, however, the notion of Fatherhood 
 dominates the whole conception of God. God is 
 absolutely the Father — "the best father in the world," 
 says Holtzmann (compare Matt. vii. 11). 
 
 The previous ideas of the prophets and of the later 
 writers are not, indeed, lost. The righteousness of God 
 is taken up into the notion of His Fatherhood ; while His 
 transcendence comes to view in the name of King, 
 which Jesus, following Jewish usage, applies to God 
 (Matt. V. 35). The absolute omnipotence of God is, 
 indeed, fundamental to the conception of Jesus, just 
 as to the previous Judaism (Matt. xi. 27). 
 
44 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 But the fatherly character is central — God's omni- 
 potence is at the disposal of His fatherly nature, and 
 carries out its ends. The difference between Jesus and 
 the Rabbis appears in that, even when they made use 
 of the name of Father, they subordinated the idea of 
 fatherhood to that of the transcendence of God. " In 
 Jewish parlance it is unusual to refer to God in common 
 discourse as Father without adding the epithet ' heavenly.' 
 It is only in prayers that a different course is followed " 
 (Dalman, " Words of Jesus," Eng. trans., p. 190). Jesus, 
 on the contrary, uses the name of Father with an inti- 
 macy unknowii to the Rabbis, and bids His disciples 
 do the same. Compare especially the simple address 
 "Father" in the original form of the Lord's prayer 
 (Luke xl. 2); also "your Father" in Matt. vi. 8, x. 
 20, 29; "thy Father" in Matt. vi. 4, 6, 18. "The 
 usage of family life is transferred to God" (Dalman, 
 p. 192). 
 
 § 2. THE KINGDOM OF GOD 
 
 Jesus uses, to describe the salvation which He offers, 
 the traditional name of the " kingdom of God," thereby 
 connecting His teaching with the long line of develop- 
 ment of Jewish thought. The alternative expression, 
 
THE KINGDOM OF GOD 45 
 
 "the kingdom of heaven," also found in the Synoptic 
 Gospels, means just the same as the kingdom of God. 
 Just as Heaven is a Jewish paraphrase for God, so the 
 kingdom of Heaven is a Jewish paraphrase for the 
 kingdom of God. The more indirect nomenclature is 
 used for the sake of reverence. 
 
 By describing salvation as the kingdom of God, 
 Jesus implies that the sovereignty of God is the chief 
 good, and to be under His rule includes all blessings. 
 But He further connects the promise of the kingdom 
 with the Fatherhood of God (Luke xii. 32). Here is 
 the point, whence a rich new development of the idea of 
 salvation issues. 
 
 Jesus, indeed, makes use of the best in the existing 
 views of salvation. Only the political and crassly 
 material ideas are got rid of, along with the narrow 
 particularism which characterised many Jewish presenta- 
 tions of salvation (Matt. viii. 11). 
 
 Salvation is in the first instance presented, in com- 
 plete harmony with Jewish thought, as future. It is 
 eternal life in the kingdom of God (Mark x. 30; Matt. 
 XXV. 46) ; and the ordinary accompaniments of the 
 Jewish idea of the kingdom are presupposed. Thus 
 the judgment is mentioned (Matt. xi. 21, 24, xxv. 
 
46 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 31-46) ; also the resurrection (Matt, xxii, 30-32). 
 After the resurrection, further, the saved lead angelic 
 lives (Matt. xxii. 30), a doctrine which we have already 
 found in the apocalyptic literature. There are even 
 passages where the ordinary language of the Jewish 
 expectation is still more closely followed. Thus if, as 
 is doubtless the case, the Beatitudes are primarily future, 
 and refer to the kingdom that is to come when the 
 world ends, this kingdom is spoken of as on the earth 
 (Matt. V. 5). It is, again, spoken of as a feast, where 
 the saved sit down (literally, recline as at a banquet) 
 with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (Matt. xi. 8 ; com- 
 pare also Mark xiv. 25 ; Luke xxii. 30). No doubt these 
 various expressions are figurative in the mouth of Jesus ; 
 but they show how closely His teaching connects itself 
 with the previous Jewish hope of the future kingdom. 
 
 So far, then, the teaching of Jesus moves along tradi- 
 tional lines. The new idea of salvation, flowing from 
 God's Fatherhood, comes to view, however, in a deeply 
 spiritual conception of its nature, nowhere more clearly 
 seen than in the Beatitudes (Matt. v. 3-1 2). As has been 
 said, the salvation referred to in these is still in the 
 first instance future. These wonderful sayings, however, 
 prepare the way for the idea of present salvation, which 
 
THE KINGDOM OF GOD 47 
 
 is the peculiar jewel of the teaching of Jesus. In so 
 far as salvation is in essence spiritual, is comfort for 
 mourners, righteousness for those who hunger and thirst 
 after it, mercy for the merciful, the vision of God for 
 the pure in heart, Divine sonship for the peacemakers ; 
 in so far salvation can be enjoyed in the present life, 
 present evils being overcome not, as in the ancient idea, 
 by God's turning of adversity into prosperity, but by 
 those inner gifts which enable the soul to rise above 
 adversity. The mourners can be comforted now ; and 
 so with all the rest of the spiritual blessings mentioned. 
 Just because they are spiritual they transcend the division 
 between here and there, now and then. 
 
 Thus we find Jesus distinctly speaking of the kingdom 
 not only as future, but as present. It is already the 
 Messianic age. The disciples have the bridegroom 
 with them (Mark ii. 19). The miracles foretold in 
 prophecy (Isa. xxxv. 5, 6) even now manifest the 
 Messiah's presence (Matt. xi. 4, 5). What prophets and 
 kings of old desired, the disciples enjoy (Matt. xiii. 17). 
 Some are by anticipation already in the kingdom (Matt. 
 xi. 11). Its coming is further seen in the defeat of 
 Satan (Matt. xii. 28). 
 
 Again, in the parables of Mark iv. the mystery of the 
 
48 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 kingdom (Mark iv. ii) would seem to be that the kmg- 
 dom is already to be seen in germ in the small beginnings 
 which Jesus has made (compare the parable of the 
 mustard-seed, Mark iv. 30-32). In spite of all failures 
 the word of the Gospel is bringing fruit to harvest 
 (compare the parable of the sower, Mark iv. 1-9). 
 Mysterious in its working is the Gospel word, which pro- 
 duces such results (compare the parable of the seed 
 growing secretly, Mark iv. 26-29). These parables, then, 
 as well as the passages previously quoted, furnish evidence 
 that Jesus thought of the kingdom not only as future 
 but as present. And finally, Luke xvii. 20, 21, whether 
 the correct rendering of the Greek be "the kingdom 
 is within you" or "the kingdom is among you," seems 
 equally to bear witness to the idea of a kingdom of God 
 realised in the present, 
 
 § 3. SONSHIP 
 
 The most characteristic name, however, which Jesus 
 uses to describe the present salvation is one which, in 
 contradistinction to the name " kingdom," brings out the 
 individual character of this salvation, though not to the 
 neglect of its social aspect. This name is " sonship." 
 Sonship is a blessing of the future kingdom (Matt. v. 9), 
 
CONDITIONS OF SALVATION 
 
 49 
 
 but can be enjoyed here (Matt. v. 44, 45). It is realised 
 in the knowledge of and trust in God's Fatherhood, by 
 means of which the cares and anxieties of earthly life 
 are removed and the soul finds perfect peace (Matt. vi. 
 25-34). 
 
 It should be noticed that, while the idea of sonship 
 has immediate reference to individual salvation, yet 
 indirectly it suggests the social aspect of salvation, 
 which is more directly denoted by the name " kingdom 
 of God." Sonship is the correlate of the Fatherhood of 
 God, which equally embraces all His sons. All sens of 
 God, however, are brothers one of another (Matt, xxiii. 
 9). The idea of sonship, therefore, can never exist with- 
 out the thought of the great family of God, in which the 
 sons share the blessing of the Divine Fatherhood in 
 community. God is not only '^ thy Father " (Matt. vi. 4), 
 He is also " your Father " (Matt. v. 45). 
 
 § 4. CONDITIONS OF SALVATION : FAITH 
 AND REPENTANCE 
 
 The conditions of salvation, according to the teach- 
 ing of Jesus, are often said to be faith and repentance 
 (compare Mark i. li, "Repent and believe the good 
 
50 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 news "). The statement is, however, not strictly accurate. 
 Faith is not with Jesus a condition of salvation, but rather 
 the subjective realisation of salvation, whether of future 
 salvation as hope, or of present salvation as experience. 
 Trust in God's Fatherhood is, in fact, simply the subjec- 
 tive realisation of sonship. To believe the good news 
 of the kingdom is essentially the same thing as to trust 
 in the goodwill of the Father, who will in His own 
 good time give the kingdom (as future) to those who wait 
 for it (Luke xii. 32). And, as has already been seen, 
 present salvation and trust in the goodness of the Father 
 are one and the same thing. We cannot, therefore, 
 properly speak of faith as a condition of salvation ; it is 
 better to say that in faith salvation is subjectively 
 appropriated and realised. 
 
 Repentance is more strictly a condition of salvation. 
 It is necessary, however, at the outset to observe that 
 " repentance " in the mouth of Jesus must not be taken 
 in the narrow sense in which the word is commonly 
 used in English. The word which in our English ver- 
 sion is translated repentance means properly "change 
 of mind " ; and if we retain the word repentance in our 
 account of the teaching of Jesus, it must be understood 
 to be used in this larger sense. The change of mind 
 
RIGHTEOUSNESS 
 
 51 
 
 implied is in its negative aspect a turning away from sin : 
 it has a positive aspect, however, also, which is a turning 
 to God. The completest illustration of the whole idea 
 is in the parable of the prodigal son (Luke xv. 11-32). 
 
 § 5. RIGHTEOUSNESS 
 
 We begin first with the positive aspect, leaving over 
 the negative aspect, till we consider the relation of salva- 
 tion and sin in the teaching of Jesus. The positive 
 aspect of repentance is the moral condition which Jesus 
 attaches to entrance into salvation. To understand its 
 meaning properly, we must now turn to bring out speci- 
 ally the moral element involved in the conception of 
 salvation formed by Jesus. Here the ideas of the 
 pre-exilic prophets come to their full value. Just as 
 to them the kingdom was essentially the sphere of 
 righteousness under the rule of the righteous God, so 
 also with Jesus. Righteousness is a chief blessing of 
 the kingdom (Matt. v. 6). Those who are in the 
 kingdom are those whom God approves as righteous. 
 Compare Matt. iii. 20, where, however, Jesus gives the 
 idea of righteousness itself a new development, by 
 means of a contrast between the true righteousness of 
 
52 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 the members of the kingdom and the Pharisaic idea 
 of righteousness. The contrast is carried out in detail 
 in Matt. v. 21-vi. 18. Righteousness, according to 
 Jesus, is not the mere external keeping of the com- 
 mandments of the law, but is a matter of the heart and 
 the motive. Not the letter only of the law of Moses 
 must be carried out, but also its inner spirit; and, if 
 need be, the letter must give way, that the spirit may be 
 more fully realised. Above all, the measure of the true 
 righteousness of the members of the kingdom is to be 
 found in the character of God Himself (Matt. v. 48). 
 In this way the new conception of God as Father comes 
 in to complete the idea of righteousness with the 
 factor of disinterested love, and Jesus finally brings 
 the moral character of salvation to view by means of 
 the description of salvation alternative with the kingdom, 
 which is the correlative of God's Fatherhood, viz. son- 
 ship (Matt. V. 44, 45). Sonship includes the imitation 
 of God, our Father. It is not only a privilege, but a 
 responsibility. And since God is love, love is the law 
 of sonship (Luke vi. 36). The climax of the better 
 righteousness of the members of the kingdom is found, 
 therefore, in the law of universal love, which we call the 
 golden rule (Matt. vii. 12). 
 
RIGHTEOUSNESS 53 
 
 The active exercise of righteousness is, then, with Jesus 
 the condition of entrance into the kingdom ; and, since 
 all moral action is a progress towards an ideal (Matt. v. 
 48), or a seeking (Matt. vi. 32), or even a strife (Luke xiii. 
 24), it involves sacrifice and self-denial, upon the neces- 
 sity of which, accordingly, great stress is laid by Jesus. 
 Compare especially Mark ix. 43-47 for the sacrifices 
 Jesus requires, and Mark viii. 34 for the central place 
 given to self-denial. Along with the glad evangel of God's 
 Fatherhood which Jesus preaches, there is to be found in 
 His moral teaching a stern asceticism, in the true and high- 
 est sense of the word, which is the necessary complement 
 of the joyous message, and of which even such a require- 
 ment as that made of the young ruler (Mark x. 21) is 
 only a specialisation. Whatever hinders the true right- 
 eousness of the kingdom must be cut off at any price. 
 
 We turn to another aspect of the subject. Righteous- 
 ness was just now spoken of as the condition of entrance 
 into the kingdom of God. From what has been said 
 earlier, however, it will be evident in what sense 
 righteousness is a condition of entrance into the king- 
 dom. It is a condition because the kingdom itself is 
 one of righteousness ; because righteousness is a chief 
 blessing of the kingdom (see Matt. v. 6, vi. $$). But 
 
54 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 it is not the condition in the sense that the kingdom is 
 earned by righteousness, as was taught by the legalism 
 of the Jewish theology. On the contrary, the kingdom 
 itself remains always the gift of God (Luke vi. 32). 
 This is one of the paradoxes of Jesus, which, however, 
 is perfectly intelligible to Christian experience. Jesus, 
 indeed, frequently in the language of Jewish theology 
 speaks of the reward which God gives for our conduct 
 (Matt. V. 12, vi. I, 4, 6, 18); at the same time He 
 makes it quite clear that the idea of reward is not to 
 be taken strictly by the remarkable parable of the 
 labourers in the vineyard, a parable which is absolutely 
 opposed to the legal idea of reward according to the 
 amount of work. The master gives to the servants 
 not according to their legal claims, but according to 
 his own good pleasure. None, indeed, receive less 
 than they deserve ; but the labourers hired later in the 
 day receive much more than they are legally entitled 
 to receive (Matt. xx. 1-15). 
 
 § 6. SIN 
 
 We turn now to the negative side of the idea of 
 repentance. The change of mind it implies is to 
 righteousness, but from sin. By the general call to 
 
SIN 55 
 
 repentance (Mark i. 15) Jesus presupposes that all who 
 hear Him are sinners. So, also, He speaks of men in 
 general as sinners (Luke xiii. 2, xv. 7, 10, xviii. 13). 
 He comes to sinners, as the physician comes to the 
 sick (compare Mark ii. 17). The existence of any 
 who are actually righteous is not implied by the above 
 text; it remains hypothetical. Even the disciples are 
 "evil" (Matt. vii. 11 ; Luke xi. 13). 
 
 At the same time Jesus recognises relative differences 
 in men. There are good and bad men just as there 
 are good and bad trees (Matt. vii. 43-45). Jesus, 
 again, speaks of some as possessing an honest and 
 good heart (Luke viii. 15). 
 
 The attitude of Jesus toward sin is, in fact, practical 
 rather than theoretical. There is little doctrine of 
 sin in His teaching. The following points, however, 
 come to view. Sin is an offence against God (com- 
 pare Luke XV. 21, where Heaven is, according to 
 Jewish usage, a paraphrase for God). Jesus speaks of 
 sins as debts, and sinners as debtors towards God 
 (Matt. vi. 12). Or, again, He calls sins "trespasses" 
 (Matt. vi. 14). These figures give us a general con- 
 ception of what Jesus understood by sin : it is a trans- 
 gression of God's will, which entails guilt before God. 
 
56 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 There is, however, in the teaching of Jesus no 
 doctrine of original sin. In Mark vii. 23, indeed, we 
 read that " evil things proceed from within, and defile 
 the man." The point here, however, is simply (in 
 opposition to the idea of defilement from without) 
 that the things which defile proceed from within. But 
 there is nothing to imply whether they proceed from 
 the free resolve of the will, or only from this as deter- 
 mined by a sinful nature. In general Jesus thinks 
 only of actual sins or of sinful habits. He does not 
 go behind these to a philosophy of their cause. If 
 He gives such explanation at all, it is implied in what 
 He says of the weakness of the flesh (Mark xiv. 38). 
 
 Jesus expresses His sense of the terrible state of 
 the sinner by describing him as "lost" (Matt, xviii. 
 11-14, Luke XV. 3-32); that is, according to these 
 parables, separated from God, as the strayed sheep 
 from the shepherd, the coin from its owner, the prodi- 
 gal son from his father. But this state of separation 
 from God involves terrible penalties both in this world 
 and the next. As regards the punishment of sin, 
 Jesus in the main simply accepts the doctrines of the 
 prophets and of the later Judaism. Like the prophets, 
 He sees the hand of God punishing sin in the cala- 
 
SIN 57 
 
 mities of history. He views the destruction of Jeru<. 
 salem and the end of the Jewish state as the direct 
 punishment of the sins of the Jews (Matt. xxi. 40-44, 
 xxii. 7, xxiii. 32-36, Luke xix. 41-44). He repudiates, 
 however, the inference that special calamities always 
 mean special sin (Luke xiii. 1-5). As regards the 
 penalties of sin after death, Jesus follows the Jewish 
 theology in describing the state of sinners, whether 
 before or after the judgment, as one of fiery torment 
 (Matt. V. 22, Mark ix. 43-48, Luke xvi. 23-31, 
 Matt. xxv. 46). That the fiery torment, however, is 
 figurative appears from the use of a different figure 
 (Matt. viii. 11, 12, xxii. 13), in which the punishment 
 of sin after death is imaged as darkness and cold out- 
 side the banqueting hall, which represents the kingdom 
 of God. The idea that runs through all the teaching 
 of Jesus as to the state of the lost after death is that 
 it is exclusion from the kingdom of God, and there- 
 with the utmost misery (Matt. vii. 23, viii. 12, xxvi. 41). 
 The worst earthly punishments are as nothing to the 
 punishment of sin after death (Mark ix. 42-48). Jesus 
 however, recognises degrees of punishment, varying 
 with the degrees of guilt (compare Luke xii. 47, 
 48). This text, however, shows that some guilt 
 
58 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 attaches even to those who knew not the Lord's will : 
 their ignorance was culpable ignorance. So when 
 (Matt. xi. 20-24) Jesus says that it shall be more 
 tolerable in the day of judgment for Tyre and Sidon 
 and Sodom than for the cities that had not repented 
 at the sight of His mighty works, it is not implied that 
 Tyre and Sidon and Sodom go unpunished : on the 
 contrary, these cities, which were notable examples of 
 God's judgments {cf. Jude 7), are simply used to 
 measure the extreme gravity of the punishment of the 
 cities, which were even greater sinners than they. 
 
 § 7. SALVATION AND SIN 
 
 After this discussion of the teaching of Jesus with 
 respect to sin, we have now to return to repentance in 
 its negative aspect, as a turning from sin. On this side 
 the idea of Jesus is really represented by our English 
 word repentance. The abandonment of sin and the con- 
 fession of sin are both implied (Luke xv. 18). There is 
 also implied the prayer for God's mercy (Luke xviii. 13). 
 
 God answers this prayer by a full and free forgiveness, 
 and thus opens the way to the kingdom. Forgiveness 
 is, however, not only bestowed when the sinner first 
 
SALVATION AND SIN 59 
 
 turns to God in repentance ; but, since even those sin, 
 who are in the kingdom, and enjoy present salvation, 
 forgiveness is one of the continual blessings of the 
 kingdom in the present life, a thing for which the 
 disciples are to pray, as they pray for their daily bread 
 (Matt. vi. II, 12). Thus Jesus finds a place in His 
 conception of salvation for the Divine forgiveness asso- 
 ciated with the kingdom by the prophets. But whereas 
 they connect forgiveness with the future salvation (Jer. 
 xxxi. 4 ; Zech. xiii. i ; even Isa. xl. 2, xliii. 25 are 
 anticipatory of the future salvation), Jesus connects 
 forgiveness with the present salvation, and so gives to 
 their great idea of forgiveness as a chief blessing of 
 salvation, a new scope and value. He also reveals its 
 eternal ground in the Fatherhood of God. The Father, 
 who in His love gives to His children the kingdom 
 (Luke xii. 32), gives to them as lost children, as sinners, 
 as a chief blessing of the kingdom, the free forgiveness 
 of their sins. See Matt. vi. 9-15, where forgiveness is 
 grounded in the Fatherhood of God. Above all com- 
 pare the parable of the prodigal son (Luke xv. 11-24). 
 
 We must note, however, that while Jesus depicts the 
 forgiveness of sins as one of the chief blessings of the 
 kingdom, He knows of a sin which cannot be forgiven, 
 
6o MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 either in this world or the next (Mark iii. 28, eg). This 
 is the blasphemy against the Holy Ghost, which from 
 the context seems to mean the woeful sin of putting evil 
 for good and good for evil, as the Pharisees did, when 
 they ascribed the miracles of Jesus to Beelzebub (Mark 
 iii. 22-30). Whereas words directed personally against 
 Jesus as a man could be forgiven, such blasphemy of 
 the Divine power, that was manifested in the works of 
 Jesus, could not be forgiven (Matt. xii. 32). 
 
 It is finally to be observed that though, when it is 
 said that forgiveness follows upon repentance, it is the 
 negative aspect of repentance which is immediately con- 
 templated; at the same time the positive aspect of 
 repentance is implied as well. There is no real repent- 
 ance without this, no turning from sin without turning 
 to righteousness. In this way repentance in its positive 
 aspect, or active righteousness, appears as a condition of 
 the forgiveness of sins, a truth which Jesus teaches in 
 one way when He says that without true righteousness 
 it is not possible to enter the kingdom, which, as the 
 sum of all blessings, includes for sinners the forgiveness 
 of their sins. He teaches it also in another way by 
 emphasising as a condition of the Divine forgiveness that 
 particular form of righteousness, which consists in the 
 
UNIVERSALISM OF JESUS 6i 
 
 imitation of God's forgiveness in our relations one to 
 another. This necessary connection between forgiving 
 and being forgiven Jesus expresses both in pregnant 
 aphorisms and in vivid parables (compare Matt. vi. 
 14, 15, xviii. 23, 35). 
 
 § 8. THE UNIVERSALISM OF JESUS 
 
 In all the teaching of Jesus as to salvation and sin 
 there is an implicit universalism. Jesus, indeed, preached 
 actually only to Jews, and in one place at least con- 
 sciously limits His earthly mission to his own people 
 (Matt. XV. 24). At the same time Jesus addressed His 
 fellow-countrymen rather as men than as the children 
 of Abraham. There is very little of His teaching, for 
 instance, in the Sermon on the Mount, which is not 
 immediately applicable to men universally. In process 
 of time, in fact, Jesus actually asserted that salvation 
 was equally for the Gentiles and for the Jews (see Luke 
 xiii. 29). In regard to this saying, Luke's chronology 
 seems preferable to that of the Gospel of Matthew, 
 where it appears much earlier in the ministry of Jesus 
 (Matt. viii. 11). Luke enables us to regard it as be- 
 longing to a later period of the ministry of Jesus than 
 
62 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 Matt. XV. 24, just now quoted ; and hence helps us to 
 arrive at a more intelligible conception of the develop- 
 ment of an explicit universalism in the teaching of Jesus. 
 The historical cause of this development would seem 
 to be the growing alienation of the Jews from Jesus 
 on the one hand, and on the other the repeated experi- 
 ences of Gentile faith contrasting so markedly with 
 Jewish unbelief. See Matt, viii, 5-13, the account of 
 the healing of the centurion's servant, omitting only 
 viii. II, 12, as above explained: Luke's version does, in 
 fact, omit these words from this context (Luke vii. 2-10). 
 See, again. Matt. xv. 21-28, the account of the healing of 
 the Syrophenician's daughter. In such cases as these 
 Jesus had remarkable instances of Gentile faith, the 
 contrast of which with Jewish unbelief provoked His 
 wonder (Matt. viii. 20, xv. 28). It is, therefore, intelli- 
 gible enough how, when the Jewish leaders manifested 
 a final rejection of the message of Jesus, He proclaimed 
 the passing over of the kingdom of God from the Jews 
 to the Gentiles (Matt. xxi. 43). Thus was made explicit 
 the universalism implicitly contained in the Sermon on 
 the Mount. It was made clear that salvation was for 
 all who would receive it, whether Jews or Gentiles, the 
 conditions being not racial, but simply moral. 
 
ANTHROPOLOGY OF JESUS 63 
 
 § 9. ANTHROPOLOGY OF JESUS 
 
 In view of this universalism of Jesus, we may stop 
 for a moment to consider what He teaches of man. 
 His doctrine is all practically implied in His teaching 
 upon sin and salvation. Man appears as a possible 
 son of God. In a sense, indeed, he is a son already, 
 though a lost one; but to become a son in the full 
 sense (Matt. v. 45 ; the literal translation of the Greek 
 is "that ye may become sons of your Father which is 
 in heaven "), he must enter on and realise his sonship, 
 i.e. be saved (compare Luke xv. 4-24). 
 
 As regards the constitution of human nature, Jesus 
 simply adopts the common Jewish dualism of body or 
 flesh, and soul or spirit, which He makes use of in ways 
 that are no different from those already noted, either in 
 the Old Testament or in later Jewish writers. Thus 
 in Mark xiv. 38, Jesus suggests, quite in Old Testament 
 fashion, the weakness of the flesh as the ground of 
 sin. Again in Matt. x. 28, the soul appears as the 
 immortal part, which survives after death (compare 
 also Luke xii. 20). This opposition of soul and body, 
 taken along with the doctrine that the souls of the 
 wicked go to hell, is what we have found in the later 
 
64 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 Judaism. The idea of the destruction of the body as 
 well as the soul in hell, seems to presuppose a resurrec- 
 tion not only of the just, but of the wicked for judg- 
 ment, before the wicked find their ultimate location. 
 
 On the other hand, the words of Jesus in Mark xii. 
 25 seem to connect themselves more naturally with 
 the other view, found also in the later Judaism, viz. that 
 only the just rise again. 
 
 § 10. THE MESSIAH 
 
 No account of the teaching of Jesus on sin and 
 salvation can be complete without a reference to His 
 teaching concerning Himself in relation to these points. 
 In His doctrine of the kingdom of God, the Messiah 
 is essential ; though this fundamental necessity of the 
 Messiah to the kingdom is often rather implied than 
 explicitly affirmed. Jesus claims Himself to be the 
 Messiah, and His fundamental position as guaranteeing 
 the kingdom often is implied simply in the authoritative 
 way in which He speaks, resting the message of the 
 kingdom on His own sole word. Compare the reiter- 
 ated " Ye have heard that it was said by them of old 
 time, but I say unto you," of the Sermon on the Mount. 
 
THE MESSIAH 65 
 
 Besides such indirect assertions of His essentiality to 
 the kingdom, there are not wanting, however, the most 
 direct assertions of the same. We shall have to keep 
 both forms of assertion in view in our discussion. 
 
 First of all, then, with regard to present salvation, if, 
 as w^e have seen, this consists in the knowledge of 
 God's Fatherhood, Jesus claims alone to be able to 
 reveal God to men, and thus to bring men into the 
 state of salvation (Matt. xi. 27). The claim thus made 
 is involved in the whole work and teaching of Jesus, 
 and is at the same time in another way unfolded by 
 this. The character of the work and teaching of Jesus 
 gives substance to His claim. It is on His authority, 
 the authority of His word and works, and the impres- 
 sion of His person, that man can beHeve in God's 
 Fatherhood. In His attitude to men, the attitude of 
 the Father is made plain, and claims men's trust and 
 obedience. Thus Jesus says on the one hand (Matt, 
 xix. 14), " It is not the will of your Father, which is in 
 heaven, that one of these little ones should perish " ; 
 on the other hand He says (Luke xix. 10), "The Son 
 of man is come to seek and save that which was lost," 
 and in His whole bearing towards sinful men manifests 
 the love, which He declares to be characteristic of God. 
 
66 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 Compare Luke xv. i, and observe that, by the parables 
 which follow, Jesus justifies His attitude to the Pharisees 
 by identifying it with the attitude of God towards 
 sinners (Luke xv. 3-24). 
 
 In view of this moral oneness of Jesus with the 
 Father, it is intelligible enough that the reception of 
 the kingdom, which is fundamentally a reception of 
 the Fatherhood of God, is also a reception of Jesus 
 Himself. Entrance into salvation takes place through 
 a coming to Jesus Himself (Matt. xi. 2S), and an accept- 
 ance of Him as Teacher and Lord (Matt. x. 24, 
 xxiii. 8). If Jesus describes the salvation of the 
 kingdom as the chief good beyond all others, the 
 hid treasure (Matt. xiii. 44), the pearl of great price 
 (Matt. xiii. 45, 46) ; if, again. He points to trust in the 
 Fatherhood of God as the source of perfect peace, 
 and of freedom from all anxiety (Matt. vi. 25-34), 
 He equally associates the finding of rest with His 
 own person, with coming to Him, learning from Him, 
 and taking His yoke (Matt. xi. 28-30). Finally, Jesus 
 not only calls men into the kingdom, but also 
 personally exercises that chief blessing of the kingdom, 
 which the Father bestows on sinners, viz. the Divine 
 forgiveness (Mark ii. 5). Jesus, the Father, and the 
 
THE MESSIAH 67 
 
 kingdom are then indissolubly connected. He is the 
 plenipotentiary of God on earth, who is entrusted with 
 all its affairs (Matt. xi. 27). Or in the language of 
 Jewish prophecy, He is the Messiah, the human king 
 of the Divine kingdom (Mark xvi. 13-17). Jesus 
 accepts the term from the history of His people ; and 
 uses it, as He does the idea of the kingdom, stripping 
 off the political associations of its historical origin, and 
 giving a new and deeper meaning of His own to the 
 time-honoured name. See Mark x. 42-45, a passage 
 to be discussed more fully later on. 
 
 The connection between Jesus, the Father, and the 
 kingdom comes out further in regard to future salva- 
 tion. In His later teaching, Jesus presents this as 
 bound up with His own Parusia or manifestation 
 in Divine glory (Matt. xvi. 27, 28). This form of 
 teaching accompanies the prophecy of His death which 
 is also characteristic of the later teaching of Jesus. 
 Jesus is to die at the hands of men; but He will 
 come again in glory, " the glory of His Father with 
 His angels" (Matt. xvi. 27), and His coming will be- 
 the coming of the kingdom (Matt. xvi. 28). Jesus will 
 then come to gather together His elect (Matt. xxiv. 31), 
 and at the same time to inaugurate the last Judgment 
 
68 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 (Matt. xvi. 27). Jesus sometimes represents Himself 
 as Judge in the last Judgment, as in the text last referred 
 to, and also in the great parable of the last Judgment 
 (Matt. XXV. 31-46). In other cases, however, Jesus 
 represents God as the Judge and Himself as the 
 assessor of His Father's judgment (Matt. x. 32, 33). 
 The moral unity of Jesus and the Father, before re- 
 ferred to, makes it plain that these two representations 
 are interchangeable. Moreover, in both forms of repre- 
 sentation it is made clear that the final destiny of 
 men is fixed by their relation to Jesus. In the 
 parable of the last Judgment^ where Jesus Himself is 
 the Judge, it is those who have honoured Jesus in 
 the hungry, the thirsty, the stranger, the naked, the 
 sick, or the prisoner, who find entrance to the kingdom : 
 those who have not thus honoured Him, on the other 
 hand, go away into eternal punishment. In the state- 
 ment of Matt. X. 32, 33, where Jesus appears as 
 assessor, the final destiny of men turns on their con- 
 fession of Jesus; He confesses before God those who 
 have confessed Him and denies those who have denied 
 Him. In either case, then, the same lesson is taught. 
 As in relation to present salvation, so again in regard 
 of future salvation, it is made plain that Jesus and the 
 
THE DEATH OF JESUS 69 
 
 kingdom are indissolubly connected. There is no 
 entrance to the kingdom apart from Jesus. 
 
 § II. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DEATH 
 OF JESUS 
 
 Yet another connection between Jesus and salvation 
 appears in His teaching concerning His death. When 
 towards the close of His ministry Jesus was faced by 
 His impending death, He taught that this, too, would 
 serve the Divine purpose of salvation (Mark x. 45). 
 He Himself, as the head of the kingdom, falls under the 
 law of the kingdom, which, unlike the kingdoms of the 
 world (Mark x. 42), is that the higher the rank in the 
 kingdom, the greater is the service required (Mark x. 43, 
 44) — such is the new form in which Jesus now expresses 
 the previously mentioned law of love. Jesus accord- 
 ingly views His whole life as one of service, the climax 
 of which is His death. " The Son of man came not to 
 be ministered unto, but to minister, and to give His 
 life a ransom for many." In this context, then, the death 
 of Jesus appears as His supreme act of service. At 
 the same time a specific benefit is attached to it, viz. 
 the redemption of many. This is the particular service 
 which it renders. 
 
70 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 A number of questions arise in connection with the 
 pregnant phrase in which Jesus describes the fruit of 
 His death : " A ransom for many." Who are the 
 many ? From what are they redeemed ? In what does 
 their redemption consist ? How is the death of Jesus 
 a ransom ? 
 
 The second question is perhaps the easiest to answer. 
 The state of mankind, subject to sin, and expectant of 
 the Divine judgment after death, is naturally likened to 
 bondage. Sin and hell hold men captive. They are 
 subject to the one, and doomed to the other. 
 
 Next the answer to the third question is clear. The 
 redemption of the captives consists in their deliverance 
 from sin and hell, that they may become participators 
 in the kingdom of God. 
 
 The question, Who are the many ? is not so easy to 
 answer. It may be all those who from first to last 
 enter the kingdom of God, or it may be those who after 
 the death of Jesus shall be brought into the kingdom, 
 His death achieving for them what His life has done 
 for the disciples. The latter explanation is that of 
 Wendt ("Teaching of Jesus," Eng. trans., ii. pp. 226-234). 
 It seems to rise naturally out of the historical situation, 
 and seems also to agree with John xii. 24-32, if we 
 
THE DEATH OF JESUS 71 
 
 may at this point bring in the Gospel of John to 
 interpret the pregnant brevity of the Synoptic record. 
 These Johannine passages, in the context in which they 
 are set, viz. in connection with the desire of the Greeks 
 to see Jesus, seem to teach that Jesus will win by His 
 death the fruit denied to Him in His life, viz. the con- 
 version of the Gentiles. 
 
 We return, however, to the other explanation, viz. 
 that the many are all those who from first to last enter 
 the kingdom of God. This is the interpretation of 
 Ritschl {Rechtfertigung und Versohnung^ ^ ii. pp. 80-83). 
 In favour of this is to be alleged the general doctrine 
 of the New Testament, if we prefer to explain the 
 isolated saying of Jesus (Mark x. 45) by the general 
 tenor of the views of the early Christian Church. There 
 is no doubt, that even if historically the first reference 
 of Mark x. 45 and John xii. 24-32 may be to those 
 brought into the kingdom after the death of Jesus, in 
 the early Christian Church such sayings would have 
 been interpreted with the wider reference at least to all 
 who enter the kingdom ; and it is a question whether, 
 even if Wendt is right as to the historical applica- 
 tion of the sayings, beneath this first reference the 
 principle asserted by Ritschl is not contained. There 
 
72 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 cannot well be two ways of redemption into the king- 
 dom of God, one for the first disciples and another for 
 those converted after the death of Jesus. Nor is it 
 thinkable that Jesus Himself could have entertained such 
 a distinction, even though historically the first reference 
 of His words may have been as Wendt says. 
 
 The final question, then, is, How is the death of Jesus 
 a ransom? The literal translation of the Greek of 
 Mark x. 45 is " to give His life a ransom instead of 
 many." Are we to take the phrase, " a ransom instead 
 of" as simply occasioned by the figure of deliverance 
 from captivity? And is the meaning, then, that the 
 death of Jesus delivers men from sin as a ransom 
 delivers men from bondage, the parallel, however, being 
 only in the idea of deliverance, and the way in which 
 the death of Jesus delivers men having to be inferred 
 not from the figure of ransom, but from general 
 considerations ? 
 
 Or are we to look for light on the way in which the 
 death of Jesus delivers men, from the actual turn of 
 the phrase, '' a ransom instead of many " ? Then there is 
 no doubt that the explanation lying nearest to hand is 
 that suggested by the passages previously referred to in 
 the books of Maccabees (see above, p. 38). As the 
 
THE DEATH OF JESUS 73 
 
 Jewish martyr prayed that his death might atone for the 
 sins of his compatriots, so Jesus regards His death, ac- 
 cording to this explanation, as an atonement for the sin 
 of all the members of the kingdom of God ; for this 
 is the interpretation which in this case we shall have to 
 put upon the "many." The Jewish martyr offers his 
 death that all Israel may be saved^ and Jesus that the 
 spiritual Israel may be saved. 
 
 This last interpretation, which seems to the writer 
 most probable, may perhaps seem to the reader unduly 
 to limit the range of Christ's atonement, and to conflict 
 with other passages in the New Testament, such as 
 I. John i. 2, where Jesus is said to be the propitiation 
 for the sins, not of believers only, but of the whole 
 world. Of course the first answer to this objection is 
 that we are here concerned with historical theology, 
 and our prime business is not to reconcile one passage 
 in the New Testament with another, but simply to state 
 what we find in each case ; nor, again, to make our result 
 square with our convictions of what ought to be, but 
 rather to record exactly what we find. But there is a 
 further answer. In reality this view of the atonement, 
 so far from limiting the application of the benefit of the 
 death of Christ, points to a deeper conception of the 
 
74 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 idea of atonement. Since Jesus offers His death, not 
 for a definite number like Eleazar, but for the indefinite 
 *'many," who become members of the kingdom of 
 God, it is clear that the merely external idea of 
 substitutionary sacrifice, such as we find in Maccabees, 
 is transcended. If Christ's atonement avails only for 
 those who are brought into the kingdom (and, as we 
 have seen, the entrance into the kingdom can take 
 place only through their subjugation to His person), 
 then it is evident that there must be some deep-lying 
 connection between the atonement and the personal 
 influence of the Saviour. We have, in fact, to postulate 
 in Mark x. 45 such an ethical interpretation of the idea 
 of substitutionary sacrifice as is given in Isa. Hi. 13- 
 liii. 12 — a passage which, it is important to observe, 
 actually influenced the mind of Jesus, when contem- 
 plating His death (Luke xxii. 37 ; compare Isa. liii. 12). 
 The result to which we have been led simply by 
 consideration of Mark x. 45 is confirmed by the other 
 passage in which Jesus speaks of the benefit of His 
 death (Mark xiv. 22-25). Here He views His death 
 as a covenant sacrifice, establishing a new covenant 
 between God and man. In a symbolical action this 
 sacrifice is set forth under the figures of broken bread 
 
THE DEATH OF JESUS 75 
 
 and outpoured wine, which represent the body and 
 blood of the slain Victim. Jesus then calls His dis- 
 ciples to participate of the bread and the wine, that is 
 to say, of the sacrifice. The idea ©f sacrificial com- 
 munion, previously explained, is thus used to illustrate 
 the way in which the disciples share the benefits of the 
 death of Jesus. As before Jesus spoke of His life as 
 given for many, so now He speaks of His blood as 
 shed for many (Matt. xxvi. 28 adds, " for the remission 
 of sins "). We note in passing that as here there is 
 no question but that the disciples who are in symbol 
 invited to participate of the sacrifice are included in 
 the " many," a light is reflected back upon the " many " 
 of Mark x. 45, who, from the parallelism of the passages, 
 are presumably the same " many ; " and thus from a 
 new point of view we get fresh confirmation of the 
 correctness of Ritschl's interpretation of Mark x. 45, 
 as over against Wendt's. 
 
 To return to Mark xiv. 22-25. Many ideas combine 
 in this perhaps richest of all presentations of the efficacy 
 of the death of Jesus. There is an allusion to the 
 founding of the old covenant, as recorded in Exod. 
 xxiv. i-ii, which covenant was also established by a 
 sacrifice, by which Israel was brought into communion 
 
76 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 with God. Still more is there a reference to Jeremiah's 
 prophecy of the kingdom of God under the figure of 
 a new covenant, the special features of which are the 
 law implanted in the heart, and the forgiveness of sins 
 (Jer. xxxi. 31-34). The thought, then, is that the 
 salvation which Jeremiah prophesied as future is now 
 realised as present, being mediated by the sacrifice of 
 Christ, which establishes the kingdom of God, as the 
 sacrifice of Moses established God's first covenant 
 with Israel. 
 
 If we may regard as a piece of the original tradition 
 of the words of Jesus, the addition in Matt. xxvi. 28 
 of the words "for the remission of sins," the sacrifice 
 of Jesus is further thought of as expiatory, just as in 
 Mark x. 45. This is not contrary to the fact that it is 
 a covenant sacrifice, or that its virtue in bringing men 
 into connection with God is connected with participation. 
 In ancient ideas of sacrifice, one interpretation was not 
 necessarily exclusive of another. It is true that in the 
 priestly code the sacrifices of atonement were distin- 
 guished from those of communion in that the former 
 were not participated of by the worshippers, while the 
 latter were so. But this differentiation is of late origin, 
 and does not represent the only way of regarding 
 
THE DEATH OF JESUS 77 
 
 sacrifice. With the rule of the priestly code may be 
 compared what Robertson Smith says of sacrifice in 
 early Israel (" Religion of the Semites," 2 p. 237) : " The 
 old history knows nothing of the levitical sin-offering ; 
 the atoning function of sacrifice is not confined to a 
 particular class of oblation, but belongs to all sacrifices." 
 That is, in ancient Israel, not sacrifices wholly made 
 over to God only, but sacrifices of communion, were 
 regarded as atoning. There is no contradiction, there- 
 fore, in the combination of the ideas of atonement and 
 communion in Mark xiv. 22-25. 
 
 The new idea, however, of communion or participa- 
 tion, which this passage contains over above the idea of 
 atonement, vrhich it has in common with Mark x. 45, 
 is of the utmost importance in determining how we are 
 to interpret the idea of atonement in the teaching of 
 Jesus. It points again to the fact that the external 
 idea of substitution requires to be transcended, before 
 we arrive at Christ's own view of His death as an 
 atonement. It brings out even more clearly than before 
 the point that subjective conditions required to be ful- 
 filled before the death of Jesus is efficacious as an 
 atonement. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 THE SPEECHES OF PETER IN THE ACTS 
 
 It is the future salvation which fills the mind of the 
 early Church, as represented to us by the speeches of 
 Peter in Acts. The message of the Apostles to their 
 countrymen is first that Jesus is the Messiah (ii. 36) ; 
 as has been conclusively declared by His resurrection, 
 of which they are witnesses (ii. 32). His death, sinful 
 as had been the action of the Jewish rulers in bringing 
 it about, was in accordance with the Divine purposes 
 (ii. 23), and had been foretold in Old Testament 
 scripture (iii. 14). That it had taken place was there- 
 fore only an additional proof that Jesus was the Messiah. 
 The apostolic message is next that, though Jesus has 
 been thus shown by His resurrection to be the Messiah, 
 the Messianic salvation still remains to be realised 
 (iii. 19-22). Jesus was not at once restored to His 
 nation by the resurrection : he only showed Himself to 
 His chosen witnesses among the Apostles, that they might 
 proclaim His Messiahship, In the words of Beyschlag 
 
 (•'New Testament Theology," Eng. trans., i. p. 315): 
 
 78 
 
THE SPEECHES OF PETER 79 
 
 "God had taken Him back into His heaven, as if to 
 wait to see whether the people would repent of their 
 outrage, and make themselves again worthy of their 
 Messiah. This view, which though strange to us was 
 quite familiar in the thoughts of the original Apostles, 
 is especially prominent in the passage. Acts iii. 19-21." 
 
 The present, therefore, is a time of repentance, during 
 which God gives to Israel opportunity to return to Him, 
 and the Apostles consequently renew the call to repent- 
 ance of Jesus Himself, promising to those who repent and 
 are baptized the advent of the great Messianic salvation. 
 But the repentance required is no longer the general 
 repentance taught by Jesus. It is the specific wicked- 
 ness of the Jewish nation, misguided by their rulers, in 
 crucifying Jesus, that requires to be repented of ; and 
 the positive side of this repentance is faith in Jesus as 
 the Messiah. He is proclaimed as the only Saviour 
 (iv. 12) in the approaching day when those who reject 
 Him will be cut off. 
 
 All this has reference to the future salvation. In the 
 present, however, the forgiveness of sins may be enjoyed 
 (iii. 19); and in the present, too, as harbinger of the 
 great coming salvation, the Spirit has been poured out 
 upon the company of believers (ii. 15-18); so that this 
 gift, too, may be received by the repentant (ii. 38). 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 THE THEOLOGY OF PAUL 
 
 § I. THE DOCTRINE OF GOD 
 
 We begin, as in our study of the teaching of Jesus, with 
 the doctrine of God ; since this is what determines the 
 idea of salvation. Paul's doctrine of God is not com- 
 pletely unified. As a general background we have the 
 idea of the one God (L Cor. viii. 4-6), who is the source 
 and goal of the universe (Rom. xi. 36 ; I. Cor. xv. 28). 
 Next we have conceptions which come straight from the 
 Old Testament, without Christian transformation or even 
 modification, e.g. the notion of the wrath of God, as in 
 Rom. i. 18, iii. 5, v. 9. Paul never inquires how this Old 
 Testament conception is to be harmonised in one per- 
 sonal unity of character with the Fatherhood which 
 Jesus teaches. A mediation, however, is seen in the idea 
 of God's righteousness, which with Paul by no means 
 always means simply justice, as in Rom. iii. 5, but in its 
 most characteristic Pauline use includes saving grace 
 
 (Rom. iii. 21, 22, 27). Here Paul follows the Old Testa- 
 
 80 
 
THE DOCTRINE OF GOD 8i 
 
 ment conception of God's righteousness, especially as 
 found in the second Isaiah and the Psalms (see the discus- 
 sion of the idea above, in connection with Isa. xl.-lv.). 
 
 Finally we have the specifically Christian conception of 
 God, the idea of His free grace and love. Just as with 
 Jesus, so with Paul, God is Father (Rom. i. 8, viii. 15 ; 
 Gal. i. 3, iv. 6 ; I. Cor. i. 3 ; Phil. i. 2 ; Col. i. 12 ; Eph. i. 
 2), and that of every family, both in heaven and earth 
 (Eph. iii. 14, 15). The "abba" of Jesus, says Holtzmann 
 {Neutestameiitliche Theologie^ ii. p. 96), is verbally 
 retained, as though the natural speech of the Christian 
 soul. 
 
 Above all, God is the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ 
 (Rom. XV. 16; II. Cor. i. 6; Col. i. 3), whom He loves 
 as His other self (Rom. viii. 32 : " His ozvn Son "). In 
 Him God's love is completely revealed. This is the 
 central point, not only of Paul's theology, but also of 
 his religion. The grace of the one is the grace of the 
 other (Rom. v. 15). The love of God is in Christ 
 Jesus our Lord (Rom. viii. 35, 39). The love of Christ, 
 who gave Himself for us (Gal. ii. 20, Eph. v. 2, 25), is 
 the revelation of the love of God, who gave Him to die 
 for us (Rom. v. 8). 
 
 Hence, in Paul's doctrine of salvation, it is made plain 
 throughout that salvation is at once the work of God 
 
82 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 and the work of Christ. This idea, essential to the 
 teaching of Jesus, is by Paul placed in the centre of his 
 whole view. At the same time the name of Jesus for 
 salvation, viz. the kingdom of God, in the theology of 
 Paul retires into the background, and is, at least in 
 connection with present salvation, replaced by others, 
 the most characteristic of which is the phrase " in Christ.'' 
 Salvation is in general to be " in Christ." All this will 
 become clear, as we study Paul's conception of salvation 
 both as present and future. It is especially clear in the 
 idea of present salvation, in which Paul's originality 
 specially appears. 
 
 §2. FUTURE SALVATION 
 
 We begin, however, with the Pauline conception of 
 future salvation ; for, just as in the case of Jesus, present 
 salvation is regarded by Paul as an anticipation of future 
 salvation, and the peculiar character of the Pauline 
 descriptions only becomes clear when the subject is 
 discussed in this order. 
 
 The name, kingdom of God, which, as was observed 
 just now, has almost disappeared from Paul's vocabulary 
 as a description of present salvation, is still used by him 
 to describe future salvation. This he connects, like the 
 
FUTURE SALVATION 83 
 
 early Church in general, in the closest way with the 
 Panisia of Christ. His thought on the whole subject, 
 however, undergoes considerable changes in the different 
 stages of his teaching. Charles (" Eschatology " in " En- 
 cyclopaedia Biblica," col. 1381) distinguishes four stages, 
 attested by (i) I. and II. Thessalonians, (2)1. Corinthians, 
 (3) II. Corinthians and Romans, (4) Philippians, Colos- 
 sians, and Ephesians. 
 
 In I. and II. Thessalonians the Parusia appears not 
 only as the day of salvation for the people of Christ, 
 but also as the day of judgment and punishment of the 
 wicked. " This judgment deals with Antichrist and all 
 the wicked, whether Jews or Gentiles, whether simply 
 careless or actively hostile. The doom of the wicked is 
 * eternal destruction ' (II. Thess. i. 9 ; compare I. Thess. 
 V. 3; II. Thess. ii. 10)" ("Eschatology," col. 1382). 
 The resurrection is of those who have died before the 
 advent of Christ ; while those who survive to see Christ 
 are caught up with them " to meet the Lord in the air " 
 (I. Thess. iv. 17). " There is no reference to a resurrec- 
 tion of the wicked in the two epistles " (Charles, col. 
 T382). The world appears to be given up to destruction, 
 while Christ's people are raised even as He (I Thess. 
 iv. 14) ; that is, not to an earthly life, but to the obtaining 
 of the glory of our Lord Jesus Christ in the kingdom of 
 
84 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 God(II.Thess. ii. 14; cp. I. Thess. ii. 12 : II. Thess. i. 5). 
 There they are ever with the Lord (I. Thess. iv. 17). 
 
 The description of future salvation in I. Corinthians 
 is not very different. The Parusia again appears as 
 the day of judgment (I. Cor. i. 6, v. 5, viii. 13). The 
 resurrection is again for those who belong to Christ. 
 As God has raised up Christ, so will He also raise us 
 (1. Cor. vi. 14). It is then in Christ that men are 
 made alive (I. Cor. xv. 22). The resurrection body is 
 spiritual (I. Cor. xv. 44). "Flesh and blood cannot 
 inherit the kingdom of God" (I. Cor. xv. 50). The 
 righteous dead are raised, and the righteous living are 
 transfigured, in order to share in the kingdom (I. Cor. 
 XV. 51, 52). With this, death is finally overcome 
 (I. Cor. XV. 26). A remarkable feature in the eschato- 
 logy of I. Corinthians is this : Paul regards the king- 
 dom of Christ as finally lost in the kingdom of God. 
 The Messiah re-delivers His authority to God, its 
 source (I. Cor. xv. 24). We may compare with this 
 doctrine the idea of a temporary kingdom of the 
 Messiah, which we previously found in some of the 
 Jewish Apocalypses : the great New Testament parallel 
 is, of course, the idea of the Millennium in the Apoca- 
 lypse of John, which was previously mentioned as being 
 in the line of the aforesaid Jewish Apocalypses. To 
 
FUTURE SALVATION 85 
 
 return to Paul, he depicts as the final bliss of the 
 kingdom, that the righteous, in immediate communion, 
 see God face to face (I. Cor. xiii. 12). 
 
 In II. Corinthians and Romans great changes are 
 observable in the view of future salvation. The crisis 
 of Paul's thought on the subject, in fact, lies between 
 I. Corinthians and II. Corinthians, and it is natural 
 to connect the change in his view with the experience 
 mentioned in II. Cor. i. 8, 9, in which Paul had been 
 brought face to face with death, and thus driven to 
 consider more closely than ever before the power of 
 God in the resurrection. Paul, in his desire to be 
 immediately with God after death, seems to have put 
 to himself the question : Why should the righteous 
 "sleep" until the Parusia, and only then be raised? 
 (Compare I. Cor. xv. 51, 52.) Why should not the 
 resurrection power of God manifest itself immediately 
 at death, so that communion with God may begin at 
 once? Paul, we observe, unlike the Alexandrian 
 Judaism, has no idea of the communion of the un- 
 bodied spirit with God. 
 
 Not everything is changed in the new view. W^e 
 have the Parusia as before, and with it the Day of 
 Judgment (II. Cor. i. 14). Christ Himself is the Judge 
 (II. Cor. V. 10), or otherwise God (Rom. xiv. 10). [We 
 
S6 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 observe the same variation here as in the representations 
 of Jesus.] All men must appear before the judgment- 
 seat (Rom. xiv. lo), and judgment is according to 
 works (Rom. ii. 6; II. Cor. v. lo, xi. 15). 
 
 But Paul no longer defers the possession of the 
 resurrection body for the righteous until the Parusia. 
 "The main evidence for this," says Dr. Charles (col. 
 1385)5 "is found in II. Cor. v. 1-8 (where a specially 
 careful translation is required ; see, e.g.j Weizsacker's)." 
 It seems best, therefore, to give Weizsacker's translation 
 of II. Cor. V. 1-8 in full. Rendered into English from 
 the stereotype edition of his Z>as Neue Testament iiber- 
 seizt, it is as follows : — 
 
 " But we know that when our earthly tent-dwelling is 
 dissolved, we have a building from God, a house not 
 made with hands, eternal in heaven. Therefore we 
 sigh, desiring to be over-clothed with our habitation 
 from heaven; we shall not, however, be found naked, 
 when we put it on. We sigh, namely, while we are in 
 the tent ; it presses upon us, so that we shall not be 
 first unclothed, but rather over-clothed, in order that 
 the mortal may be swallowed up of life. For thereto 
 hath God prepared us. He indeed, who has given us 
 the earnest of the Spirit. We are of good cheer, there- 
 fore, in the consciousness of the home with the Lord, 
 
FUTURE SALVATION -87 
 
 which we lack, so long as we have our home in the 
 body — for we walk by faith, and not by sight — we are 
 yet of good cheer, and our thought is bent to this, to 
 change the home in the body for the home in the 
 Lord ; therefore we set everything on this, to please 
 Him, away from home as at home : we must, however, 
 all be manifest before the judgment-seat of Christ, 
 that each one may obtain his portion from the life 
 in the body, to which his deeds tended, be it good or 
 bad." 
 
 Upon this passage, Dr. Charles further observes as 
 follows (loc. at.) : " In ver. 4, Paul declares his wish to 
 live till the Parusia, in order that he may escape the 
 destruction of the earthly body, and be transformed 
 alive. In other verses he faces the possibility of death, 
 and comforts himself and his readers with the prospect 
 before them. When we die, we have — we come into 
 possession of — an immortal body in heaven." 
 
 Hence the Parusia is no longer the time of the resur- 
 rection of the righteous dead to glory, but of the 
 manifestation of the glory they already possess (Rom. 
 viii. 19 : so, later. Col. iii. 4). 
 
 In Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, the fresh 
 development is that the idea of the final resignation 
 of the kingdom of Christ to the Father is abandoned 
 
88 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 in favour of the view that the kingdom of Christ is 
 everlasting. The final kingdom is the kingdom of God 
 and Christ (Eph. v. 5). This view is accompanied by 
 the further doctrine that the mediation of salvation 
 through Christ extends not only to men, but to 
 angels. All things in heaven and earth, visible and 
 invisible (whether thrones or dominions or princi- 
 palities or powers), are intended to find their con- 
 summation in Christ as their head (Col. i. 16; Eph. 
 i. 10). Those spiritual beings, therefore, which have 
 sinned or apostatised must ultimately be reconciled to 
 God through Him (Col. i. 20), and join in His worship 
 (Phil. ii. 10). 
 
 Here we reach the final phase of Paul's thought 
 on future salvation. It may be added that Paul has 
 not in any stage completely systematised his views 
 on this subject. Dr. Charles, however, summarises 
 the ultimate tendency of Paul's thought as follows : 
 " Since all things must be reconciled and summed 
 up in Christ, there can be no room finally in the 
 universe for a wicked being, whether human or angelic. 
 Thus the Pauline eschatology points obviously in its 
 ultimate issues either to the final redemption of all 
 created beings or the destruction of the finally im- 
 penitent" (" Eschatology," col. 1386). It is noteworthy 
 
PRESENT SALVATION 89 
 
 that throughout Paul's epistles there is no mention 
 of a general resurrection of the righteous and the wicked 
 alike. It will appear, when we have discussed Paul's 
 ideas of present salvation, that according to his views 
 there could not be a resurrection of the wicked. It 
 is necessary, therefore, to point out that in Acts xxiv. 
 15, where a belief in a general resurrection is attri- 
 buted to Paul, we cannot have an accurate report 
 of his doctrine (see further Charles, col. 1382, note 3). 
 
 § 3. PRESENT SALVATION 
 
 The teaching of Paul on present salvation falls into 
 three stages, the first and last of which correspond to 
 the first and last stages of his teaching on future salva- 
 tion ; while the single middle stage here corresponds 
 to the two middle stages of teaching there. The only 
 difference is that in the new grouping Philippians falls, 
 by its theological affinities, together with the middle 
 group of epistles rather than with the epistles con- 
 temporary with it. We thus obtain the groups : 
 (i) I. and II. Thessalonians ; (2) Galatians, I. and II. 
 Corinthians, Romans, Philippians; (3) Ephesians and 
 Colossians. 
 
90 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 I. AND II. ThESSALONIANS 
 
 The teaching of these "primer epistles," as Bruce 
 calls them, need not long detain us. There is in them 
 little doctrine of present salvation. The state of 
 Christians is rather that of those who wait for Christ's 
 second coming (I. Thess. i. lo); so that their faith, 
 or belief in Christ's Messiahship, appears as the basis 
 of their hope (I. Thess. i. 3, v. 8, 9). Meanwhile, 
 however, they enjoy the gift of the Spirit (I. Thess. 
 iv. 8), and their faith finds practical expression in 
 patience under persecution (I. Thess. iii. 2, 3, 7, 8, v. 8). 
 So far is Paul from his later antithesis of faith and 
 works, that in I. Thess. i. 3 he speaks of the work 
 of faith. 
 
 GaLATIANS, I. AND II. CoRINTHIANS, ROMANS, 
 
 Philippians 
 
 In these epistles we find the most characteristic form 
 of Pauline doctrine, which must now be considered at 
 some length. Peculiar to it above all is the fact that 
 what Jesus includes under the single head of the 
 kingdom of God, is here by Paul split up into two 
 hemispheres, which in general he keeps apart, though 
 
JUSTIFICATION 91 
 
 attempts to establish a connection between them are 
 not altogether wanting. 
 
 For these two halves of salvation Paul uses a very 
 varied vocabulary. The first is described as justifica- 
 tion, or adoption, or sometimes reconciliation; the 
 second appears either as mystical union with Christ, 
 or as the gift of the Spirit. The word redemption is 
 used for both alternately. 
 
 Common to both hemispheres is an ultimate reference 
 to the idea of future salvation. It is in each case the 
 anticipation of the final salvation in one of its aspects, 
 that Paul has in view. This comes out especially 
 clearly, when the two aspects of present salvation are 
 defined as justification and the gift of the Spirit, 
 
 § 4. JUSTIFICATION 
 
 To begin with justification : we saw that in the 
 Pharisaic theology justification signifies the verdict of 
 God's final judgment upon a man, accepting him as 
 righteous in His sight, and which gives him a claim 
 to enter into the future kingdom of God. Justification 
 is thus with the Pharisees an immediately eschato- 
 logical conception ; though the final decision of God may 
 indeed be conceived as anticipated at the man's death. 
 
92 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 Paul takes the conception from the Pharisaic theology, 
 in which he had been educated ; but makes the great 
 change that he relates the idea of justification to present 
 salvation. With Paul justification means the right to 
 the enjoyment of salvation here and now (Rom. v. i, 2). 
 To be justified by faith (ver. i) is equivalent to having 
 had access into God's grace, so as now to have a 
 standing in it (ver. 2). Compare also ver. 8, " being 
 now justified by His blood." Also see I. Cor. vi. 11 : 
 "ye were justified." These references clearly exhibit 
 the significance of justification as an aspect of present 
 salvation. The eschatological reference of the conception 
 is, however, never wholly lost. It is always implied that 
 the right to salvation here and now, and the right to 
 final salvation, are one. It is, however, the notion of 
 present justification which is characteristic of Paul. 
 In opposition to the Pharisaic idea of justification by 
 works, previously explained — i.e. the conception that a 
 man's right to salvation depends on his observance of the 
 law, and cannot, therefore, be setded till his life account 
 is closed — Paul uses the idea of justification to express 
 the present right of the Christian to salvation, which God 
 Himself bestows. The particular aspect of salvation, 
 which Paul has here in mind, is the right to communion 
 with God, the right to call Him Father, and find rest 
 
JUSTIFICATION 93 
 
 in the thought of His providential care. Adoption, 
 therefore (Gal. iv. 5; Rom. viii. 15), is another name 
 for this aspect of salvation, which brings out clearly 
 the fact that the position of sonship is the free gift 
 of God. 
 
 Again, in connection with this new idea the eschato- 
 logical reference is as clear as in the case of justification. 
 The right to present and future salvation are thought 
 under it as one. The right of sonship includes within 
 itself all rights, whether to present or future salvation. 
 Hence Paul says (Rom. viii. 17): "If children, then 
 heirs ; heirs of God, and joint-heirs with Christ." And 
 in Rom. viii. 23, Paul actually uses the name adoption 
 to signify not the present but the future salvation, 
 a fact which strikingly illustrates the eschatological 
 connection of the conception. To sum up, justification 
 or adoption is, in this characteristic view of Paul, God's 
 final decision as to the position of the believer, already 
 anticipated in the present life; though as yet full 
 entrance into all that the believer thus has a right 
 to has not yet been given. 
 
 Meanwhile, however, he enjoys the sure hope of 
 glory, a hope which even tribulations only serve to 
 confirm, since the love of God is shed abroad in our 
 hearts by the Holy Spirit (Rom. v. 1-6). Observe 
 
94 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 here the opposition not only to the Pharisaic point 
 of view, but to that of the Old Testament, according 
 to which calamities led men to doubt God's favour, 
 and salvation was seen just in the removal of cala- 
 mities. Nowhere is this more apparent than in the 
 way in which Paul in Rom. viii. 36 quotes from Ps. 
 xliv. 22 the words: "For Thy sake we are killed all 
 the day long, we are accounted as sheep for the 
 slaughter." In the mouth of the Old Testament writer 
 these calamities appear as a proof that God has for- 
 saken His people (Ps. xliv. 9). What Paul has 10 say 
 of them is : " Nay, in all these things we are more 
 than conquerors through Him that loved us" (Rom. 
 viii. 37). We have here an exact repetition of the 
 ideas developed by Jesus under the wider point of 
 view of sonship (Matt. v. 4, vi. 25-34 ; Luke xii. 32). 
 
 Paul grounds the comfortable assurance of present 
 salvation on the grace of God or His free love (Rom. iii. 
 24), which, indeed, is the source of all salvation, whether 
 present or future. The whole process of salvation, 
 in fact, appears to Paul as one (Rom. viii. 30) ; so that 
 he says, " whom He justified He also glorified." Paul 
 in all this simply reproduces, in his own way, Luke 
 xii. 32. 
 
THE GIFT OF THE SPIRIT 95 
 
 § S THE GIFT OF THE SPIRIT 
 
 The other half of present salvation in the view we are 
 now considering is the gift of the Spirit. Perhaps the 
 connection of this with future salvation is most clearly 
 expressed in a phrase not in our group of epistles, but 
 in Eph. i. 14, where Paul speaks of the Spirit as the 
 "earnest of our inheritance." The phrase, however, 
 exactly sums up the view of the gift of the Spirit, 
 which is found in the epistles we are dealing with. Its 
 signification is that the future salvation is of the same 
 nature as the salvation contained in the gift of the 
 Spirit. The difference between them is not qualitative, 
 but quantitative only. The gift of the Spirit here is 
 thus the partial anticipation of future salvation ; as 
 Paul says in Rom. viii. 23, "we have the first-fruits 
 of the Spirit." This becomes clearer still when we 
 see that Paul regards the Spirit as the principle and 
 power of immortal life, bestowed on men even while 
 in the body. Here a light is cast back upon certain 
 facts in the middle stages of the Pauline eschatology, 
 which we are now in a position to appreciate. We see 
 how it was that Paul moved from his early idea that 
 the resurrection body is bestowed on the righteous at 
 the Parusia, and came instead to the view that it be- 
 
96 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 comes their possession at death. They have, in fact, 
 by the gift of the Spirit the principle of eternal life within 
 them already in the present life ; and this principle 
 only awaits the death of the mortal body to embody 
 itself in a new and spiritual habitation. This notion is 
 already in principle contained in Paul's teaching about 
 the nature of the resurrection body, when he compares 
 the resurrection with the germination of a seed (I. Cor. 
 XV. 36-38). Still more clearly does the same conception 
 appear in the great passage, 11. Cor. v. 1-8, already 
 quoted at length in Weizsacker's very accurate transla- 
 tion, to which reference is here again made (compare 
 also Rom. viii. 11). 
 
 Paul's conception of the gift of the Spirit as the 
 principle of eternal life already immanent in the Christian 
 explains, then, the reason why he came to view the 
 Christian's entrance into future glory as taking place 
 at death : it explains also the Pauline doctrine that the 
 resurrection is only for those who die in Christ. Since 
 the resurrection body follows from the immortal new life 
 possessed by the Christian, as the corn results from the 
 seed, it is clear that there can be no resurrection for 
 the wicked, seeing that they do not possess this im- 
 manent life. 
 
 We obtain still further light on the nature of the gift 
 
FUTURE SALVATION 97 
 
 of the Spirit, and as to how it is connected with future 
 salvation, when we turn to Paul's alternative statement 
 for the same thing. The Spirit which God bestows in 
 salvation is none other than the Spirit of the Risen 
 Christ (Rom. viii. 2, 9); the immortal life which He 
 gives is the immortal life of the Risen Saviour. Here 
 the way is opened for Paul's great thought that salvation 
 is union with Christ in His resurrection life. (Compare 
 n. Cor. iii. 18, where the life of the Christian is 
 represented even here and now as involving a progres- 
 sive communication of the immortal life of the Risen 
 Lord.) 
 
 Hence is explained the way in which, in the final stage 
 of his eschatology, Paul comes to speak of the future 
 salvation. He speaks of it as simply the outward 
 revelation of the inner life, which the people of Christ 
 possess in union with Him. Their life is now hid 
 with Christ in God, but will then be manifested for all 
 to see (Col. iii. 3, 4). 
 
 § 6. THE CHANGED RELATIONS OF FUTURE 
 AND PRESENT SALVATION 
 
 In the foregoing account of the Pauline ideas of 
 present salvation we started out to show the connection 
 
98 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 of these ideas with future salvation, i.e. that in each 
 case Paul had in view the anticipation of future salva- 
 tion in some aspect. But now that this has been shown, 
 something else has been shown also. We see a reaction 
 taking place, in which, instead of present salvation 
 being regarded as an anticipation of future, future 
 salvation tends to be regarded as the completion of 
 present salvation. In the later forms of Pauline 
 doctrine, this point of view becomes more and more 
 dominant. We owe to Paul, in fact, the formal inception 
 of the mode of thought which is more familiar to us, 
 in which the centre of gravity is shifted from the idea 
 of future to that of present salvation. In the teaching 
 of Jesus this readjustment is materially, but not formally, 
 present. The great new and original elements in His 
 teaching lie in the description of present salvation ; but 
 the conclusion is never formally drawn that future 
 salvation is simply the completion of present salvation. 
 In the early Church of Acts we observe a reaction 
 towards the Judaistic mode of thought, in which future 
 salvation is altogether dominant. Paul, starting indeed, 
 in Thessalonians, on the ground of the early Church, in 
 his developed teaching not only returns to the material 
 position of Jesus, but finally draws the formal con- 
 clusions involved in it. 
 
SALVATION AND SIN 99 
 
 § 7. SALVATION AND SIN 
 
 Paul's further descriptions of his two hemispheres of 
 present salvation, e.g. reconciliation, baptism into Christ's 
 death, bring out the particular reference of salvation to 
 sin. In the Pauline theology this reference is much 
 more worked out than in the teaching of Jesus, and 
 indeed even the positive or prospective aspects of 
 salvation, such as justification or the right to life, and 
 the gift of the Spirit, or the earnest of immortality, are 
 also defined by Paul retrospectively, and brought into 
 close relation with the doctrine of sin. It is, in fact, the 
 antithesis of sin and salvation which, in its various 
 forms, gives its peculiar stamp to Paul's thought. 
 When Jesus in His most characteristic teaching, as, e.g.^ 
 in the Sermon on. the Mount, develops the positive side 
 of salvation for the most part absolutely, and, as it were, 
 entirely from within, Paul in his specially characteristic 
 teaching, as, e.g.^ in the Epistle to the Romans, balances 
 all that he says of salvation with antithetic teaching on 
 sin, and, what is more, does this in such a way that the 
 doctrine of sin comes first and the doctrine of salvation 
 follows. Once more we recognise in Paul the precursor 
 of the usual method of Christian theology, whether 
 Catholic or Protestant. 
 
loo Man, sin, and salvation 
 
 We turn, then, before pursuing the PauHne idea of 
 salvation any further, to the doctrine of sin, which is its 
 great complement, in which also Paul's doctrine of man 
 is involved. We enter upon a highly characteristic 
 and important phase of Pauline thought. Paul is 
 the great hamartiologist of the New Testament, and 
 has developed the doctrine of sin to a degree else- 
 where unknown in it. 
 
 § 8. MAN AND SIN 
 
 By sin Paul understands, like all other Biblical writers, 
 that which is contrary to the will of God. He sets himself 
 to prove that sin is universal. This he does in various 
 ways. The first proof is from the facts of experience, 
 by means of an actual survey of mankind in his own age 
 (Rom. i. i8-ii. 28). Jews and Gentiles alike are thus 
 shown to be in a state of sin (Rom. iii. 9). The second 
 proof is from the universality of death. Since Adam 
 death is everywhere in the world (Rom. v. 14) ; but 
 death, as Paul affirms, is the wages of sin (Rom. vi. 23). 
 Hence the universality of death proves the universality 
 of sin. Compare Rom. v. 12: " death passed unto all 
 men, for that all sinned." 
 
 Paul, however, goes further than the empirical univer- 
 sality of sin. Man being what he is, sin is inevitable. 
 
MANANDSIN loi 
 
 Paul gives different reasons for this. The first reason 
 he gives is that the fall of Adam brought sin into the 
 world. The passage in which this is explained (Rom. 
 V. 1 2-21), is very difficult in its exegesis. What is central, 
 however, for Paul in the fall of Adam, and claims our 
 attention at the present moment, is that Adam's fall 
 opened the way for the dominion of sin over mankind 
 (compare Rom. v. 12: " through one man sin entered 
 into the world "). Paul conceives sin as a power, almost 
 personal. Sin reigns (Rom. v. 21); compare the phrases 
 " sin revived " (Rom. vii. 9), " sin slew me " (Rom. vh. 
 11). We may compare the tremendous personification 
 of sin by Milton in " Paradise Lost." 
 
 The second reason which Paul gives for the inevitable- 
 ness of sin is quite different from the first. It is not 
 historical, but philosophical. Paul regards sin as 
 inherent in the flesh. Man is carnal, sold under sin 
 (Rom. vii. 14). In' him, that is in his flesh, dwells no 
 good thing (Rom. vii. 18). "This theory," say Wemle, 
 " is neither Jewish nor Greek, but an original creation 
 of Paul" {^Die Anfdnge utiserer Religions^ p. 139). 
 There is a starting-point for it in the Old Testament 
 view, which we have seen to be adopted by Jesus, that 
 the flesh of man is weak, frail, and perishable, and that 
 man, therefore, in so far as he is flesh, is liable to sin. 
 
102 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 Nearer still to the Pauline doctrine comes the later 
 Jewish doctrine of the evil impulse, as found in IV. 
 Ezra and the Talmud. But Paul goes beyond the Old 
 Testament view in that he thinks of the flesh as not 
 merely weak but positively evil (compare Gal. v. 17 ; 
 Rom. viii. 7). Paul similarly goes beyond the later 
 Jewish view, in that he carries his assertion of the inherent 
 sinfulness of the flesh so far as to deny the free will of 
 man, who is in complete bondage to sin in the flesh 
 (Rom. vii. 14; see further Rom. vi. 15-23). In these 
 points Paul seems to approach nearer to the Greek view, 
 as illustrated in the Book of Wisdom and in Philo, 
 according to which the flesh as matter is absolutely evil. 
 And in fact we find Paul speaking of the body as a 
 burden (II. Cor. v. 4); just as Wisdom ix. 15 says 
 " a corruptible body weigheth down the soul," and as 
 Philo regards the body as the prison of the soul. " But 
 Paul, in spite of all this, is not a Greek" (Wernle, op. cit.^ 
 p. 140). He never says that the flesh as matter is 
 intrinsically evil; on the contrary, the body can be 
 sanctified and made the temple of the Holy Ghost 
 (I. Cor. vi. 19), and its members instruments of righteous- 
 ness (Rom. vi. 13; compare further Rom. xii. i). In 
 these passages, indeed, Paul uses the word " body," not 
 the word * ' flesh " ; but they conclusively prove that he 
 
MAN AND SIN 103 
 
 did not regard the flesh as matter as intrinsically evil ; 
 for if he had done so, the body made of it must have 
 been incapable of sanctification. In one passage, if it 
 is genuine, viz., II. Cor. vi. 14-vii. i, Paul even speaks 
 of the sanctification oifiesh and spirit (see vii. i). This 
 passage is, however, considered by some scholars not to 
 be Pauline. In any case, however, from the evidence 
 previously cited it is clear that Paul does not agree with 
 the Greeks, any more than he does with the Jews. We 
 have the important result that Paul does not teach the 
 sinfulness of the flesh as matter^ and so leaves the way 
 open for some other reason of its sinfulness. 
 
 Yet Paul does come very near to the Greek view after 
 all. While he thus speaks of the sanctification of the 
 body, and possibly, in II. Cor. vii. i, of the sanctifica- 
 tion of the flesh, his general position is rather that the 
 flesh is to be mortified or crucified as the enemy of 
 the soul. 
 
 We have further to recognise that while the flesh as 
 matter, or the body, can be sanctified, the flesh as the 
 seat of sin apparently remains irredeemable (compare 
 Gal. V. 17, Rom. vii. 18, viii. 7). The flesh, 
 therefore, with Paul, comes ultimately to mean simply 
 the sum of the evil tendencies in human nature. In 
 Paul's doctrine of the flesh there comes to view the 
 
 H 
 
I04 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 great experimental fact of the dominance of a tendency 
 to evil, explain it how we will, in human nature — a fact 
 which the great philosopher Kant recognised as funda- 
 mental, and made the basis of his whole philosophy 
 of religion. No doubt the way in which the bodily 
 impulses are the occasion of sin may have led Paul 
 to give to this sinful principle in human nature the 
 name of the "flesh," a word which, as we have seen, 
 at any rate in a sense approximating to the Pauline, 
 lay ready to his hand in the Old Testament. Paul's 
 whole meaning, however, cannot be obtained simply 
 from considerations as to the genesis of his terminology. 
 In the end it is Paul's own experience that speaks in 
 his doctrine, as Wernle well points out, and a new 
 idea comes to view that carries us beyond the natural 
 meaning of the word used. 
 
 We have, then, in Paul two theories of the origin of 
 sin : the historical theory, which derives it from the fall 
 of Adam, and the philosophical, or perhaps we may 
 now call it the experimental theory, which derives it 
 from the inherent sinfulness of the flesh. Is there 
 any connection between the two theories? As is well 
 known, they have been combined in the common 
 ecclesiastical doctrine, that with the fall of Adam the 
 nature of man was corrupted, and thus the " flesh " in 
 
MAN AND SIN 105 
 
 the Pauline sense originated : this sinful nature passing 
 from Adam to his descendants by natural descent. 
 Paul, however, does not affirm so much. He merely 
 says that through the fall of Adam sin entered into 
 the world as a power (Rom. v. 12). The ordinary 
 doctrine, of course, gives a satisfactory explanation 
 of this statement. There is, however, the alternative 
 explanation possible, which is suggested by a com- 
 parison of the doctrine of IV. Ezra, according to which 
 the evil impulse existed already in Adam before the 
 Fall, but obtained supremacy by means of it. In this 
 case the " flesh " would not originate through the 
 Fall; though actual sin would do so. It has been 
 argued by some scholars {e.g. Sabatier) that this is 
 shown to be Paul's real view by the fact that in 
 Rom. vii. 11 he distinctly suggests a parallel between 
 the origin of sin in the descendants of Adam, and 
 in Adam himself. The parallel appears in that the 
 original process by which sin took advantage of a 
 positive command of God to deceive man, and thus 
 bring death upon him, is repeated in each individual 
 case. As the Apocalypse of Baruch liv. 19 says: 
 " Each one of us has been the Adam of his own 
 soul." 
 
 Holtzmann in his Neutestamentliche Theologie (ii. 
 
io6 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 pp. 41-46) leaves the question, as to which of the 
 two rival interpretations of Paul is right, an open one, 
 and it is perhaps best here to follow a scholar of such 
 great experience, particularly as either explanation 
 raises as many difficulties as it solves. 
 
 § 9. THE LAW 
 
 The Pauline doctrine of sin is bound up with a 
 doctrine of the law, which is specially characteristic 
 of the teaching of the Apostle, and owes its origin to 
 the particular circumstances of his conversion and his 
 mission. As a Pharisee, Paul had himself sought 
 salvation by the law, before he found it in Christ; 
 hence his own experience naturally leads to the com- 
 parison of the two methods of salvation, the Pharisaic 
 and the Christian. Since what, as a Pharisee, he had 
 especially been led to seek by the lav/ was justification, 
 or the right to salvation, it is in regard to this aspect 
 of the subject that Paul compares the two methods. 
 This he does in the sharp antithesis: ""By the works 
 of the law shall no man be justified ; in Christ alone 
 man is justified" (compare Rom. iii. 20-24 ; Gal. ii. 16). 
 This antithesis in some of Paul's greatest epistles like 
 Galatians and Romans dominates the whole argument 
 
THE LAW 107 
 
 In framing it he was not merely expressing his own 
 experience, but was also meeting an urgent necessity 
 of his apostolic mission. As the Apostle of the Gentiles 
 Paul had to deal with the opposition of Jews and 
 Jewish Christians, who still in one way or another 
 looked for salvation by the law, and who denied the 
 standpoint which was essential to Christianity as he 
 understood it, viz. that salvation depended on Christ 
 and on nothing else whatever. 
 
 Paul means by the law in the first place the law of 
 Moses. This, as a Pharisee, he had taken to be the 
 perfect expression of God's will ; and still, as a Christian, 
 he speaks of it to the same effect. " It is holy, just and 
 good" (Rom. vii. 12). There is, moreover, in man an 
 element which corresponds to the law, acknowledges its 
 authority, and desires to obey it. This element Paul 
 calls the " mind," as in Rom. vii. 25 ; or else he names 
 it the "inner man," as in Rom. vii. 22. In I. Cor. 
 ii. II the name "spirit" also seems to be used as an 
 alternative for the mind ; but this is unusual in Paul. 
 Recognition of the law of Moses can of course take 
 place only where it is known. Paul, however, finds an 
 analogue of it in " the law written in the heart," which 
 is observable even in Gentiles, who have no knowledge 
 of the law of Moses (Rom. ii. 153 heart in this passage 
 
io8 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 seems to be another synonym for mind or inward man). 
 In connection with this doctrine of the law of nature 
 Paul develops a doctrine of conscience, which is 
 interesting as completing his idea of the inner man 
 or mind. Upon the observance or non-observance of 
 the " law in the heart " follows the verdict of conscience, 
 either approving or disapproving (Rom. ii. 15). Paul's 
 " conscience " is not a legislative, but simply a judicial 
 faculty. He seems to have learned the name, and 
 probably the doctrine also, from the Stoics, perhaps at 
 Tarsus, which was the seat of a university. 
 
 This higher nature, or "mind," then exists in man 
 along with the lower nature, or flesh. When the law 
 appeals to it, the mind recognises its authority, and 
 desires to follow its direction. But it is thwarted by 
 the flesh, and in the conflict which ensues the flesh 
 proves itself the stronger. The " law in the members " 
 overrides the law of the mind (Rom. vii. 23). The 
 law, holy, just, and good as it is, is therefore unable 
 to save man, in that he is weak through the flesh, 
 or, as Paul puts it with pregnant brevity, in that the 
 law itself is weak through the flesh (Rom. viii. 3). So 
 far from saving, the law brings nothing but condemna- 
 tion, and anticipates in man's conscience the final 
 judgment of God (compare Rom. iii. 19; see also 
 
THE LAW 109 
 
 Rom. ii. 15). By the law, in fact, all men are shut up 
 under sin, and so under wrath ; " the law worketh 
 wrath" (Rom. iv. 15). Paul indeed admits the law, 
 if observed would save (Gal. iii. 12). But the ad- 
 mission is really only dialectical. It is understood 
 throughout that no one can observe the law (compare 
 Gal. iii. 4). 
 
 Paul makes a distinction in some places between 
 sin and transgression. If sin is opposition to the will 
 of God, transgression is conscious opposition to it. 
 Where there is no law, there can be no transgression. 
 Thus between Adam and Moses sin was in the world ; 
 but it did not amount to transgression. Hence it 
 was not imputed, or reckoned in the heavenly books 
 (compare Rom. v. 13, 14). During this period, indeed, 
 the presence of sin in the world was proved by the 
 presence of death, its necessary accompaniment ; at the 
 same time, as there was no law in the world, this 
 sin was not of the nature of transgression like the sin 
 of Adam, which was a direct act of disobedience to a 
 positive commandment. And so finally in this period 
 there was no imputation of sin, or in modern phrase- 
 ology, no guilt. 
 
 Paul does not reconcile this point of view with what 
 he elsewhere says about the law written in the heart. 
 
no MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 which exists even where there is no positive command- 
 ment. We should conclude, on the basis of Rom. ii. 
 14, 15, that those between Adam and Moses were at 
 least under this form of law. Further, where Paul says 
 " the wages of sin is death" (vi. 23), the idea of sin here 
 includes ill desert or guilt. Death is here viewed not 
 as the natural consequence of sin merely, but as its just 
 reward ; so that the idea of guilt must be implied. 
 Paul is therefore not completely consistent with himself 
 on the subject now before us. The important distinc- 
 tion, however, which he draws in Rom. v. 14, 15 suggests 
 the principle that guilt varies with the amount of know- 
 ledge, a principle which we have already found enforced 
 in the teaching of Jesus in Luke xii. 47, 48. 
 
 § 10. THE PUNISHMENT OF SIN 
 
 We return to the passage, " The wages of sin is 
 death." Death is then the punishment of sin ; but what 
 exactly does Paul mean by death ? In the first place 
 he means physical death, as is shown by Rom. v. 12-14, 
 especially in the words, " through one man sin entered 
 into the world, and death through sin." Death, like sin, 
 is here a power in the present world : thus it is physical 
 death which first and foremost appears as the punish- 
 
THE PUNISHMENT OF SIN iii 
 
 ment of sin. But Christians also are subject to physical 
 death. Are they, then, subject to the punishment of 
 sin ? Paul obviates this conclusion by regarding physical 
 death for the Christian as simply the prelude to his 
 resurrection. It is, according to Paul's earlier view, a 
 sleep till the day of resurrection (I. Thess. iv. 15), 
 or, according to his later view, the immediate gate of 
 access into the presence of Christ (Phil. i. 2). Thus it 
 becomes clear that by death as the punishment of sin, 
 Paul means not only physical death, but the destruction 
 which follows it (II. Thess. i. 9). It is not clear whether 
 Paul thought of this destruction always as instantaneous, 
 as II. Thess. i. 9, or as lengthened out while the wicked 
 endure the penalties of their particular sins, as other 
 passages would seem to suggest (Rom. ii. 8, 9 ; II. Cor. 
 V. 10). Perhaps Paul did not think out his views on 
 this subject to completion. But that final annihilation 
 is the doom of the wicked, unless somehow they are 
 redeemed even after the death of the body, we saw 
 previously to be involved in the Pauline view of the 
 resurrection as resulting from the immanent Divine life 
 of the Christian. 
 
 In any case Paul connects the punishment of sin with 
 the already mentioned character of wrath in God. God's 
 wrath even now impends over sinful men (Rom. i. 18); 
 
112 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 but crushes them finally at the last Judgment, which 
 is therefore spoken of as " the wrath " (Rom. v. 9, 
 xii. 19). 
 
 § II. SOTERIOLOGICAL PURPOSE OF THE LAW 
 
 The question of the law is not wholly exhausted, how- 
 ever, in this terrible concatenation with sin, death, and 
 wrath. The law has, in fact, in the providence of God 
 an indirect relation to salvation. This appears in dif- 
 ferent ways. 
 
 1. Condemnation is the necessary precursor of justi- 
 fication through Christ. Here Paul has in view the 
 self-rehance of the Pharisee, who counts himself able to 
 earn salvation for himself by merit. This self-reliance 
 must be broken down before a man will seek justifica- 
 tion through Christ (compare Rom. x. 3). The law, 
 however, itself is adapted to break down the self-reliance 
 of the man who seeks salvation by means of it, if only 
 he takes the matter seriously enough. It effects the 
 destruction of self-reliance in such a case through its 
 claim to absolute fulfilment, which is seen to be impos- 
 sible, as soon as conscience is sufficiently awake in a 
 man for him to realise the full amount of his short- 
 coming (compare Gal. ii. 16, iii. 20; Rom. vii. 24). 
 
 2. Paul, moreover, assigned to the law a soteriological 
 
PURPOSE OF THE LAW 113 
 
 purpose in that in the actual state of man it serves to 
 increase sin (Rom. v. 20). He made the subtle psycho- 
 logical observation that the knowledge of the command- 
 ment serves only to provoke the flesh to enmity against 
 it. As soon as the commandment is known, the flesh 
 immediately desires what is prohibited (Rom. vii. 7, 8). 
 This stirring up and increasing of sin, however, has for 
 its end the bringing of the spiritual disease of man to a 
 head, in order that he may more fully realise his need 
 of healing (Rom. v. 20, 21, vii. 24, 25). 
 
 3. Paul therefore opens out finally a view in which 
 the stage of law appears merely as a transitory stage in 
 the whole Divine purpose of salvation. Here he has 
 mainly in view the historical sequence of God's purpose 
 with Israel. Salvation was promised to Israel in Abra- 
 ham long before the law was given by Moses (Gal. iii. 
 15 ff.). "The law came in beside," says Paul, " that the 
 trespass might abound" (Rom. v. 20), i.e. that sin 
 might be brought to a head in the way just now explained. 
 From this view of the transitory significance of the law 
 follows the further view of it, in which Paul attributes 
 to it a less than Divine origin. The law, he says, "was 
 ordained through angels by the hand of a mediator " 
 (Gal. iii. 19). Paul does not reconcile this view, how- 
 ever, with the other we have previously discussed, in 
 
114 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 which the law appears as the direct expression of the 
 Divine will and nature, holy, just and good. But it is 
 evident that we have in Gal. iii. 19 an important sug- 
 gestion as to how the Jewish element in Paulinism must 
 be ultimately related to the Christian, and as to how the 
 legal may be distinguished from the moral view of the 
 law. And although Paul, in his actual writings, deals in 
 the first place only with the relation of the Jewish law 
 to Christianity, it is evident that what he says applies 
 to all legalism as contrasted with the Christian view 
 of things. 
 
 § 12. THE DOCTRINE OF PRESENT SALVATION 
 VIEWED IN REFERENCE TO SIN: THE 
 JUSTIFICATION OF THE SINNER 
 
 We now return, after our discussion of the doctrines 
 of sin and the law, to take up once more the Pauline 
 doctrines of salvation, and to develop them more fully. 
 In their complete form they have continual reference to 
 the doctrines of sin and the law. In fact it is the nature 
 of the peculiar Pauline view that it is very difficult to 
 separate accurately between the prospective and retro- 
 spective aspects of salvation. What could be done, 
 therefore, before the doctrines of sin and the law had 
 been discussed, was hardly more than to mark out the 
 two hemispheres of the Pauline doctrine of present salva- 
 
PRESENT SALVATION 115 
 
 tion, and show their eschatological connections. The 
 fundamental doctrine of the mediation of salvation 
 through Christ has, however, been left to be discussed 
 in the present connection. 
 
 We saw that the Pauline view of justification was 
 fundamentally opposed to that of the Pharisees. Where 
 they sought to establish a salvation by merit (Rom. 
 X. 3), Paul teaches that the right to salvation is the 
 free gift of God, or is accorded by His grace. Grace 
 and vv-orks are mutually exclusive (Rom. iii. 27, iv. 4). 
 
 Grace, however, in Paul's thought is not merely op- 
 posed to works and merit : it is also opposed to sin. 
 The transition follows immediately from the idea of the 
 search for salvation by the performance of the law to 
 the idea of man's inability to perform the law because 
 of his sinfulness, and his corresponding condemnation 
 by the law. In opposition to this condemnation by the 
 law stands justification by grace. Here the Pauline 
 idea of justification reaches its most remarkable phase, 
 finding expression in the paradox of Rom. iv. 5, which 
 speaks of God as " Him that justifieth the ungodly." 
 The paradox is designed, as a reference to the Old 
 Testament shows, where the justification of the wicked 
 is strongly reprobated (compare Exod. xxiii. 7 ; Deut. 
 XXV. I ; Prov. xvii. 15 ; Isa. v. 23). Paul's paradox points 
 
ii6 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 to the fact that in grace the law is transcended and 
 done away. The state of justification is, in fact, one of 
 freedom from the law (Rom. vi. 14). 
 
 This Pauline paradox has always been an offence to 
 some ever since his own time (Rom. iii. 8, vi. i). 
 It seems as though it made God act unethically in 
 passing a sentence, which is not according to the 
 facts. This sentence, however, is only unethical if 
 forgiveness is unethical; for justification, in its retro- 
 spective aspect, is only the Pauline way of expressing 
 the forgiveness of sins (compare Rom. iv. 7, where 
 Paul quotes from Ps. xxxii. i the verse, " Blessed are 
 they whose iniquities are forgiven, and whose sin is 
 covered. Blessed is the man to whom God will not 
 reckon sin "). The whole point of the quotation lies 
 in the identification of the forgiveness of sins spoken 
 of by the psalmist with justification (compare Rom. 
 iv. 5, 6). 
 
 Still fuller light upon the Pauline idea of justifi- 
 cation, however, is given by the consideration of a fresh 
 alternative idea, viz. that of reconciliation (in II. Cor. 
 V. 19 reconciliation = the non-imputation of sins, i.e. 
 justification). This new idea subsumes under another 
 figure both the positive and negative aspects of justi- 
 fication. The Pauline conception of reconciliation, 
 
PRESENT SALVATION 117 
 
 while negatively equivalent to the forgiveness of sins, 
 or the laying aside of God's wrath against the sinner, 
 is also positively the bringing of the sinner into com- 
 munion with God by removal of the sinner's enmity 
 towards Him (compare II. Cor. v. 19 : " God was in 
 Christ, reconciling the world unto Himself"). 
 
 We thus see that the Pauline justification is no mere 
 formal sentence of acquittal, pronounced upon a 
 person who is left unchanged in spirit. Rather does 
 God, in justifying the sinner, also reconcile him to Him- 
 self; or, to make use of the alternative phraseology 
 of adoption, God, in according to the sinner the right 
 of sonship (Gal. iv. 2; Rom. viii. 17), also imparts the 
 spirit of sonship (Gal. iv. 6 ; Rom. viii. 14, 15). 
 
 All these things Paul sums up by saying that justifi- 
 cation is not only of grace, but also by faith, in which 
 statement his doctrine of justification finally receives 
 its characteristic expression and completion. Faith in 
 Paul's sense is, above all, trust — trust in God's grace ; 
 and in this trust the blessedness of present salvation 
 in communion with God is progressively realised (com- 
 pare Rom, V. i-ii, viii. 31-39). Here it is to be 
 observed that faith is not a work of man, which can 
 be set in opposition to the works of the law. It is not 
 so much, as it is after called, the condition of salvation, 
 
ii8 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 as the subjective realisation of salvation. The proper 
 alternative to justification by works is justification by 
 grace (Rom. iii. 24). Justification by faith (Rom. v. i) 
 is simply a pregnant expression describing the mode 
 of justification by grace. 
 
 § 13. JESUS CHRIST : HIS DEATH AND 
 RESURRECTION 
 
 How does the Divine grace justify man by faith? 
 The Pauline answer is, By the redemption that is in 
 Christ Jesus (Rom. iii. 24). There Paul repeats a 
 fundamental principle of the teaching of Jesus, namely, 
 that salvation is mediated personally through Him; 
 but he makes the principle more explicit, and moves it 
 right into the centre of the whole view. That the 
 love of God is revealed in Jesus Christ, is the absolute 
 foundation principle of Pauline theology. As we have 
 seen, the grace of the one is the grace of the other 
 (Rom. V. 15). The love of God is in Christ Jesus 
 our Lord (Rom. viii. 35-39). So faith in God and 
 faith in Christ are one and the same (Rom. iii. 22, 
 iv. 24). Justification and reconciliation, therefore, take 
 place through Christ. 
 
 In particular, Paul connects justification and recon- 
 
JESUS CHRIST 119 
 
 ciliation with the death and resurrection of Christ, 
 especially with the former. We are justified by Christ's 
 blood (Rom. v. 8), reconciled through His death (Rom. 
 V. 10). Paul, in fact, represents the death of Christ 
 as an expiatory sacrifice (Rom. iii. 25), ordained by 
 God to show at once His judgment upon sin, and His 
 grace towards sinners (H. Cor. v. 21 ; Rom. iii. 25). 
 On the one hand the righteousness which would other- 
 wise have been shown in the punishment of sin is 
 demonstrated in the Cross (Rom. iii. 25). This takes 
 place in that Christ bears the curse of the law for us, 
 viz. death (Gal. iii. 13); or, as Paul says in II. Cor. 
 V. 21, God makes Him to be sin for us. On the other 
 hand, God's grace towards sinners is shown in that, 
 contrary to the ordinary forms of religion, in which 
 men by sacrifice seek to propitiate their gods, in the 
 case of Christ's sacrifice, God Himself sets forth the 
 propitiation, and gives Christ to die for us (Rom. iii. 
 25, V. 8). 
 
 As effective in the justification and reconciliation of 
 sinners, Paul calls the death of Christ their redemption 
 (Rom. iii. 24). It delivers from the curse or condem- 
 nation of the law (Gal. iii. 13), which is the anticipation 
 of the Divine judgment; and this deliverance takes 
 place by the payment of a price (I. Cor. vi. 20). It is 
 
I20 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 evident, therefore, that Paul has in view the idea of 
 expiatory sacrifice, which we have already observed in 
 the books of Maccabees. Yet that he has not a purely 
 objective and external transaction in view, is clear from 
 many suggestive touches in his treatment of the subject. 
 Above all, Paul never treats of the expiatory sacrifice 
 of Christ without either the implication or the direct 
 mention of the subjective realisation of salvation as 
 faith, in close connection with it. This connection with 
 faith is implied in such phrases as " for me " (Gal. ii. 
 20), "for us" (Rom. v. 8; II. Cor. v. 21). They recog- 
 nise that the purpose of Christ dying, or of God in 
 giving Him to die, was not merely to make satisfaction 
 to a broken law, but to win grateful hearts to trust and 
 love. The objective connections of Christ's death, that 
 is, are never separated in Pauline thought from its sub- 
 jective connections in Christian experience. In other 
 passages we have direct mention of faith in the 
 enunciation of the doctrine of the sacrifice of Christ, 
 e.g. in Rom. iii. 24, where, even in expressly stating 
 the connection between the sacrifice of Christ and the 
 condemnation of sin, Paul emphasises at the outset 
 the connection of Christ's sacrifice with faith. Observe 
 the close connection of the words, " whom God set 
 forth to be a propitiation through faith by His blood," 
 
JESUS CHRIST 
 
 and notice how the idea of faith is introduced into 
 the very middle of the enunciation of the idea of ex- 
 piatory sacrifice, actually separating the words " propitia- 
 tion " and " by His blood " from one another. 
 
 The explanation of all this is found, when we observe 
 that Paul regards the death of Christ not as exclusive 
 but as inclusive of the death of the Christian (compare 
 II. Cor. iii. 14 : " we thus judge, that one died for all, 
 therefore all died "). 
 
 Nor is it only Christ's death that is inclusive of the 
 death of His people, but also His resurrection includes 
 their resurrection. Thus Paul says (Rom. iv. 24) that 
 Christ was " raised for our justification." In other words, 
 as Christ's death was the expiation for our sin in that 
 it carried our deaths along with it, so also Christ's 
 resurrection, or entrance on the state of heavenly blessed- 
 ness, in that it includes the same entrance on heavenly 
 blessedness for His people, is their justification or ad- 
 mission to full communion with God, who recognises 
 their right to communion with Him by admitting them 
 into His glorious kingdom. 
 
 The connection of justification in this way with the 
 resurrection of Christ, it may be observed, finally makes 
 impossible the identification of Paul's view of the atone- 
 ment with the transactional view, according to which 
 
122 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 the atonement consists simply in the payment of the 
 debt of sin by Christ's death. Compare Rom. x. 9, 
 where salvation is said to turn on a belief in Christ's 
 resurrection. Above all, however, see I. Cor. xv. 14, 
 where it is asserted that if Christ be not raised from 
 the dead we are yet in our sins. This last passage 
 makes it quite clear that the Pauline view of the atone- 
 ment is not simply that of the payment of the debt 
 of sin by the death of Christ ; for this might take place 
 without the resurrection, while Paul here says that apart 
 from the resurrection there is no salvation. However 
 difficult, therefore, it may be to reconcile in one view 
 all that Paul says of the atonement, our work here is, 
 as historical theologians, simply to observe the richness 
 and manifoldness of his teaching, and to resist all 
 premature attempts at its simplification. It is clear, 
 on the one hand, that Paul held that Christ's death was 
 an expiation for sin; but, on the other, that in His 
 death and resurrection He was inclusive of His people, 
 and that His resurrection was equally necessary with 
 His death to our justification. 
 
 The reason, of course, for the inclusiveness of Christ 
 in His death and resurrection is that His people are 
 united to Him by faith (compare Gal. ii. 20, where 
 crucifixion with Christ and new life in Him are equated 
 
UNION WITH CHRIST 123 
 
 to a life of faith in Him). This thought, however, 
 carries us over to the second hemisphere of the 
 Pauline conception of present salvation, to which the 
 ideas, which we have just been considering, form a 
 bridge, showing that the two hemispheres are not 
 really separate from one another. 
 
 § 14. UNION WITH CHRIST VIEWED IN 
 REFERENCE TO SIN 
 
 The subject of union with Christ has already been 
 treated of in its prospective aspect, and the identity 
 of the various forms in which Paul speaks of it has 
 been demonstraced. It remains now to consider the 
 way in which those ideas, viz. those of the gift of the 
 Spirit and of the union of the believer with Christ, 
 are developed in their retrospective aspect, i.e. with 
 relation to the idea of sin. By means of them Paul 
 finds place for an idea of salvation, not only from the 
 guilt but from the power of sin. 
 
 It was seen that his doctrine of man left us with 
 a fatal subjugation of his higher nature to his lower 
 nature, his mind or inner man approving and desiring 
 to obey the law of God, but his flesh rebelling and 
 proving itself the victor. Paul now regards the Spirit, 
 
124 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 bestowed on the Christian as the earnest of his inherit- 
 ance, as an ethical power, which controverts the flesh, 
 and is able to defeat it. That Paul was able thus to 
 conceive the Spirit as an ethical power was due to 
 the way in which he identified the Spirit of God and 
 the Spirit of Christ. In opposition to the non-ethical 
 view of the Spirit, according to which the Spirit is 
 simply supernatural power, which, found in the Old 
 Testament, was prevalent in the early Church, and 
 which evaluated especially the abnormal as the spiritual, 
 and also regarded the visitations of the Spirit as 
 temporary and occasional, Paul set the view according 
 to which the Spirit was the abiding power of Christian 
 character, whose fruits were the virtues, the chief of 
 which was love. This is one of Paul's greatest achieve- 
 ments, and can only be rightly estimated by a per- 
 ception of the contrast between his view and the one 
 he aimed to supersede. For an illustration of the 
 older view, therefore, compare Judges xv. 14. For its 
 prevalence in the early Church see I. Cor. xii. 1-3, 
 xiv. 1-40, whence it is evident that the Corinthians 
 viewed as spiritual rather abnormal manifestations like 
 the gift of tongues, or speech unintelligible to the 
 hearers, than prophecy or intelligible speech directed 
 to the edification of the Church, and that they even 
 
UNION WITH CHRIST 125 
 
 seem to have gone so far ? 3 to think that the man 
 under the influence of the Spirit might invert all the 
 ordinary moral and spiritual distinctions, so that, for 
 instance, one in the Spirit might say, "Jesus is ana- 
 thema " (I. Cor. xii. 3). For Paul's view see I. Cor. xii.- 
 xiv., especially I. Cor. xiii. 13; compare Gal. v. 22. 
 
 Equally clearly is the idea of salvation as an ethical 
 power brought to view under the notion of union with 
 Christ in Rom. vi. i-vii. 6. Here the death and 
 resurrection of Christ are given a completely ethical 
 meaning, which is brought out under many varied 
 and changing figures. His death was a death to sin — 
 terminating, in fact, the relations between Him and 
 sin altogether. See Rom. vi. 7 : "he that is dead is 
 justified from sin," i.e. sin has no longer any claims 
 upon him : the principle is applied to Christ. Again, 
 Christ's death being a resurrection to the heavenly 
 life with God (which is one of righteousne. ^ ; compare 
 Matt. V. 6), is a resurrection to God and rig .teousness 
 (see Rom. vi. 10). But in the death and resurrection 
 of Christ we have seen that all Christians share. In 
 Rom. vi. 3-6, Paul shows this by means of the signifi- 
 cance of baptism, and goes on to argue in the following 
 verses that Christ's people are, or should be, in conse- 
 quence of their union with Him, dead to sin and alive 
 
126 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 to righteousness, thus exhibiting salvation as a moral 
 power. "Reckon yourselves," he says, "to be dead 
 unto sin, but alive unto God in Christ Jesus" 
 (Rom. vi. 4). 
 
 The "are or should be" mentioned just now prepares 
 the way for us to speak of the subjective realisation of 
 this aspect of salvation. Just as justification is realised 
 in faith or trust, so also is the new life of the Spirit 
 received by faith (Gal. ii. 20, iii. 2) or baptism (Rom. vi. 
 3, 4; I. Cor. xii. 13). To baptism, in fact, Paul seems 
 in this connection to attach independent value ; and it 
 is probable that to him it was more than a mere symbol 
 of faith — that, in fact, he thought of it as actually convey- 
 ing the gift of the Spirit and as actually uniting with 
 Christ. This may to us perhaps seem inconsistent with 
 his view that the Spirit is received by faith, and with the 
 all-important position which he gives to faith in con- 
 nection with justification. But it would seem probable 
 that Paul never put to himself the question, so natural 
 to us. What is the saving worth of faith apart from 
 baptism ? To him the one was the outer and the other 
 the inner side of the same transaction, and hence he 
 speaks of either as conveying the Spirit. 
 
 The new life, then, is appropriated by faith or in 
 baptism. Whether, however, it is represented as the gift 
 
UNION WITH CHRIST 127 
 
 of the Spirit or as union with Christ, Paul thinks of it as 
 reahsed in the moral life of obedience. " If we live by 
 the spirit," he says, *'by the Spirit let us also walk" 
 (Gal. V. 25). Or again to those united with Christ he 
 says, "Present yourselves unto God, as alive from the 
 dead, and your members as instruments of righteous- 
 ness" (Rom. vi. 13). In these passages the description 
 of what Christians " are " passes over immediately into 
 the thought of what they *' should be," to go back to the 
 phraseology precisely made use of. Or, in philosophical 
 language, the categorical affirmation immediately resolves 
 itself into the categorical imperative. This is simply 
 the result of the fact that Paul conceives the new life as 
 altogether ethical, and an ethical life can never be 
 realised apart from the obedience of the will. 
 
 This obedience of the will is, be it now observed, 
 essentially the same attitude of soul as that spoken of 
 in a different connection as faith. Faith and obedience 
 are simply this one attitude of soul carried out in the 
 different spheres of religion and ethics. The root of 
 both is the surrender of the will to God, and both are 
 expressed in the idea of sonship given by Jesus. The 
 difference, in fact, between Jesus and Paul is that Paul 
 much more than Jesus distinguishes the domains of 
 religion and ethics, thus objectively dividing his idea 
 
128 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 of salvation into the two hemispheres already considered, 
 and subjectively dividing his method of the realisation 
 of salvation into faith and obedience. Such a phrase, 
 however, as that of the obedience of faith (Rom. i. 5) 
 serves to illustrate the unity of the principle, whose 
 operation is thus analytically explained. 
 
 § 15. REACTION OF THE ETHICAL INTEREST 
 UPON THE IDEA OF JUSTIFICATION 
 
 Paul's ordinary vie\v of justification is, as we have seen, 
 that in the present justification is the ground of a sure 
 hope of final salvation. At the same time, in the moral 
 interest, he holds strongly to the idea of a judgment 
 according to works at the last day, as in the study 
 of his eschatology we have already observed (see again 
 Rom. ii. 6 ; Gal. vi. 7 ; II. Cor. v. 16, xi. 15). He con- 
 stantly, in fact, urges upon Christians the necessity of 
 being able to meet this judgment. 
 
 The two notions of present justification and a final 
 judgment according to works may be reconciled by 
 means of the conception of good works as the fruit of 
 the Spirit (Gal. v. 23). Where justification is, there is 
 also the gift of the Spirit, and therefore also good works. 
 Thus the verdict of present justification and of the 
 
THE PAULINE SOTERIOLOGY 129 
 
 future judgment must coincide. This view is virtually 
 implied in Rom. v. 9, 10. Having been justified in 
 Christ's bloodj we shall be saved fi*om the wrath, i.e. the 
 wrath of God at the last Judgment, by His life, or by 
 union with Him. This can only be because union with 
 Christ results in the fruit of good works required for 
 salvation at the last Judgment. 
 
 Sometimes, however, the ethical interest so pre- 
 dominates that Paul even comes to represent future 
 salvation as conditional on perseverance in faith and 
 obedience. Compare Rom. viii. 17, still more I. Cor. 
 ix. 24-27, where Paul speaks even of his own final 
 salvation as depending on his perseverance. Above 
 all, see Phil. iii. 8-14, where Paul speaks of the 
 righteousness of justification through faith in Christ 
 as requiring to be realised through union with Christ 
 in His death and resurrection, and makes the attain- 
 ment of the resurrection from the dead, i.e. final salva- 
 tion, dependent upon this realisation. 
 
 § 16. INDIVIDUALISM OF THE PAULINE 
 SOTERIOLOGY 
 
 With the general abandonment of the idea of the 
 kingdom of God in reference to present salvation in 
 favour of the conceptions of justification, reconciliation. 
 
I30 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 adoption, the gift of the Spirit, the individual character 
 of salvation comes strongly to the front in the teach- 
 ing of Paul. The social element in salvation is, how- 
 ever, constantly implied in the " we," " us," and " our," 
 which Paul continually uses in speaking of these sub- 
 jects (Rom. iv. 25, V. I, 8, viii. 15, 16, 31-39); while 
 in I. Cor. xii. 13 Paul emphasises the oneness of the 
 Spirit which all Christians have received, by means of 
 which they are all united into one body. It is by 
 means of this figure of the one body that Paul especially 
 teaches the same truth of the social character of sal- 
 vation which Jesus teaches through the idea of the 
 kingdom of God. It is led up to not only, as in I. Cor. 
 xii. 13, by the conception of salvation as the reception of 
 the Spirit, but still more by the notion of it as union with 
 Christ. Those who are one with Christ are essentially 
 one with one another ; they are a body of which He is 
 the head and they are the members. The complete 
 synthesis of the salvation of the community and of 
 the individual, which we found in the teaching of 
 Jesus, is then not lost by Paul, though brought to 
 view in a somewhat different way. 
 
PRESENT SALVATION 131 
 
 § 17. THE DOCTRINE OF PRESENT SALVATION 
 IN COLOSSIANS AND EPHESIANS 
 
 In these epistles the ideas of present salvation, which 
 we have just been studying in connection with the 
 great central group of Paul's epistles, receive consider- 
 able modification, though certainly along lines not 
 altogether unprepared for. We note, first of all, that 
 the great controversial name "justification," by which 
 Paul defines his view of salvation regarded as the 
 right to communion with God in opposition to the 
 Pharisaic doctrine, disappears from Colossians and 
 Ephesians ; and along with it also almost entirely dis- 
 appears the doctrine of the law and its inability to 
 save. We still find, however, the descriptions of sal- 
 vation as reconciliation (Col. i. 21) and as adoption 
 (Eph. i. 5). Paul also speaks in the language of direct 
 experience of access to God, just as in Rom. v. 2 (see 
 Eph. ii. 18). Twice this aspect of salvation is described 
 as the forgiveness of sins (Eph. i. 7 ; Col. i. 14); which 
 however, it will be remembered, we saw from Rom. iv. 
 5-7 was the equivalent of justification in Paul's mind 
 in the central stage of his thought. In another place 
 (Col. i. 13) the same aspect of salvation is spoken 
 of as a translation out of the kingdom of darkness into 
 
132 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 the kingdom of the Son of God's love ; and here is 
 the nearest equivalent to the description of salvation 
 in the central epistles as freedom from the law. For 
 Colossians completes that separation between the law 
 and God, which in spite of the doctrine of Rom. vii. 
 that the law is holy, just and good, we found begun 
 in Gal. iii. 14, where it is said that the law was given 
 by angels ; so that it appears as representing God not 
 directly, but through the medium of inferior powers. 
 In Col. ii. 14, 15, we find the power behind the law 
 viewed not merely as that of angels, but of hostile 
 angels, who hold in the law a bond against sinful 
 humanity, which Christ by His death, which satisfies 
 the claim of the law, cancels, and thus redeems man- 
 kind from the power of these hostile angels, over 
 whom He thereby triumphs. Here, then, we find the 
 meaning of the translation out of the power of dark- 
 ness into the kingdom of Christ spoken of in Col. i. 13. 
 It means the deliverance of believers from the power 
 of the hostile angels of the law into a state of salvation, 
 here described, with a natural modification of the 
 original name of the kingdom of God, as the kingdom 
 of Christ. 
 
 As regards the second Pauline aspect of salvation, 
 we find in Colossians and Ephesians the frequent recog- 
 
PRESENT SALVATION 133 
 
 nition of the gift of the Spirit. The earnest of the 
 Spirit (Eph. i. 14) — we saw that this phrase exactly 
 sums up Paul's characteristic view of the gift of the 
 Spirit — is the common possession of Christians. We 
 have also descriptions of salvation as a quickening 
 together with Christ (Eph. ii. 5), as a burial with Christ 
 and resurrection with Him (Col. ii. 12, iii. i), and again 
 as Christ in us (Col. i. 27; Eph. iii. 17), which remind 
 us of the central epistles. We have also fresh descrip- 
 tion of salvation as perfection (Col. ii. 10) or as puri- 
 fication (Eph. V. 20), which connect our epistles with 
 Hebrews and the Johannine writings rather than with 
 the Pauline central epistles. Pfleiderer has endeavoured 
 to show in his " Paulinism," Eng. trans., vol. ii. pp. 95 ff., 
 162 ff., that all these descriptions, however, apparently 
 corresponding to the second aspect of salvation in 
 Paul's central doctrine, excepting only the idea of the 
 gift of the Spirit, are in reality used in a religious 
 rather than in a moral sense, i.e., to describe the 
 necessary preparation for admission to communion 
 with God. In this he tries to show an agreement 
 of Colossians and Ephesians with Hebrews and John 
 as against Galatians, Romans, Corinthians, and 
 Philippians. His exegesis must be studied in detail 
 to be appreciated. What is probably true, however, 
 
134 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 is that in Ephesians and Colossians the sharp distinc- 
 tion between the two Pauline hemispheres of salva- 
 tion has disappeared, and thus descriptions properly 
 belonging to the one aspect are immediately connected 
 with those belonging to the other in a way not so often 
 found in the earlier epistles. This is due to the fact 
 that the doctrinal treatment of salvation in Colossians 
 and Ephesians is dominated no longer by the neces- 
 sities of the anti-Judaistic controversy, but by the 
 interests of practical morality, just as we shall also find 
 is the case in I. Peter. 
 
 § 18. SALVATION AS MEDIATED THROUGH 
 CHRIST IN COLOSSIANS AND EPHESIANS 
 
 It is, as in the second group of epistles, central that 
 salvation is mediated through Christ. Both access to God 
 and the gift of the Spirit are through Him (Eph. i. 13, 14 ; 
 Col. i. 14). Even greater emphasis than before falls 
 upon His Person. Whereas in Romans and Corinthians 
 God reconciles us to Himself by the sacrifice of Christ 
 (Rom. iii. 25, 26; II. Cor. v. 21), here Christ Himself 
 personally reconciles us to God (Col. i. 22 ; Eph. ii. 16). 
 
 The sacrifice of Christ appears under two new points 
 of view. One has already been touched upon. The 
 
REALISATION OF SALVATION 135 
 
 power behind the law is conceived as that of hostile 
 angels, whose bond against men is cancelled by the 
 satisfaction made to the law in Christ's death (Col. ii. 
 14, 15). What is new in this view is that the satis- 
 faction no longer appears to be made to God, but 
 rather to a power more or less independent of Him. 
 The element previously represented as the " wrath " 
 of God being thus objectified into independence, we 
 are led naturally to a second view of the death of 
 Christ. When it is spoken of in Eph. v. 2 as a sacrifice 
 to God it is no longer thought of as a propitiatory sacrifice, 
 but as a free-will offering whose acceptability consists 
 in its moral nature, viz. in the love which prompted it. 
 
 It is further to be observed that, in Ephesians, great 
 emphasis falls on the social aspect of salvation. It 
 is the Church as a whole for which Christ sacrifices Him- 
 self (Eph. V. 25); it is the Church as a whole to which 
 the Spirit is given (Eph. iv. 4). In a word, it is the Church 
 as a whole that is the sphere of salvation, and individuals 
 are saved by membership of it. 
 
 § 19. THE SUBJECTIVE REALISATION OF SAL- 
 VATION IN COLOSSIANS AND EPHESIANS 
 
 We find in our epistles the idea of faith made use of 
 just in the same way as in the central group. Faith 
 
136 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 mediates on the one hand peace with God and access 
 to Him (Eph. iii. 12), and on the other hand the in- 
 dwelling of Christ in the heart (Eph. iii. 17). At the 
 same time, we recognise a tendency, which goes along 
 with the greater emphasis on the Church, to objectify 
 faith into "the faith "of the Church (Col. i. 23; Eph. 
 iv. 13). Along with this objectification of faith goes 
 emphasis on a different subjective element. When faith 
 is objectified as "the faith," the subjective faculty by 
 which this objectified faith is received, viz. the intellect, 
 rises into prominence ; and thus we find in our epistles a 
 markedly increased stress on knowledge (Eph. i. 17 f., 
 iv. 13 f.). As, however, knowledge corresponds to 
 only the intellectual aspect of the old subjective concep- 
 tion of faith, the idea, formerly expressed by the moral 
 side of (subjective) faith, requires a new embodiment. 
 Hence, while it is asserted just as strongly as before that 
 salvation is not by works or merit (Eph. ii. 9), we find 
 developed in our epistles the conception of " good works," 
 as the divinely appointed way of salvation (Eph. ii. 10). 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 THE PASTORAL EPISTLES 
 
 We may begin our account of the doctrine of salvation 
 in the Pastoral Epistles with a reference to the doctrine 
 of God, so far as it bears on the subject. These epistles 
 emphasise God's grace, His love to men, His goodness 
 and mercy (Titus ii. 4, iii. 4 f.). God is also frequently 
 described as " Saviour" (I. Tim. i. i, ii. 3 ; II. Tim. i. 9 ; 
 Titus ii. 10, iii. 4). Finally, His willingness to save all 
 men is expressly asserted (I. Tim. ii. 4). 
 
 Salvation, both present and future, is mediated through 
 Jesus Christ. In I. Tim. vi. 14; II. Tim. iv. i, 8; 
 Titus ii. 13, we have references to Christ's expected 
 *' manifestation," i.e. His second coming. Then will 
 Christ's kingdom come (II. Tim. iv. i). The elect will 
 obtain salvation with Him in eternal glory (II. Tim. i. 10), 
 will live and reign with Christ (II. Tim. ii. 11, 12). 
 
 It is, however, characteristic of the Pastoral Epistles, 
 that the term " manifestation " is used not only of the 
 second coming of Christ, but of His historical appearance 
 
138 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 in the world, as the ground of the present salvation, 
 which Christians already enjoy (see Titus ii. ii, iii. 4). 
 This salvation is referred to, in thoroughly Pauline 
 language, as justification by God's grace (Titus iii. 7), 
 not by our works of righteousness (Titus iii. 5); while, 
 on the other hand, in close agreement with Pauline 
 ideas, though not in Pauline language, it is spoken of 
 as regeneration and renewing of the Holy Ghost, which 
 has been poured out by God upon Christians through 
 Jesus Christ (Titus iii. 5, 6). But it is characteristic 
 of the Pastoral Epistles that the tendency observable in 
 Phil. iii. 8-1 1, to make justification dependent upon 
 internal righteousness, is still more developed in them. 
 In Titus iii. 4-7 it will be observed that, not only does 
 the mention of regeneration precede that of justifica- 
 tion, but that justification appears to take place through 
 regeneration. 
 
 In accordance with this stress on inherent righteous- 
 ness, we find further, that the terms "redemption" and 
 " purification " are both used to describe salvation in the 
 sense, not of justification or admission to communion with 
 God, but in the sense of moral renewal ; and this moral 
 renewal is represented as the purpose of Christ's death 
 (Titus ii. 14). 
 
THE PASTORAL EPISTLES 139 
 
 As regards the subjective appropriation of salvation, 
 faith ceases to occupy in the Pastoral Epistles that 
 place which it has in the typical Paulinism. It has be- 
 come either " the faith " of the Church, or one Christian 
 virtue among many, no longer the subjective root of 
 the whole Christian life. See for the first case I. Tim. 
 i. 19, vi. 10, 12; for the second I. Tim. i. 5, 14, ii. 7, 
 iv. 12. The place of the Pauline idea of faith is largely 
 taken by the idea of godliness, which means on the 
 one hand the piety, on the other hand the good moral 
 life, which characterise the Christian Church, in contrast 
 with the vain speculations and loose life of heretics 
 (see I. Tim. vi. 3-5 ; II. Tim. iii. 1-5). We have in all 
 these changes a further development along the lines 
 already observed in Colossians, and more particularly 
 Ephesians, only to be explained by the ever-increasing 
 stress on the Church as the sphere of salvation, and the 
 authority alike for faith and morals (I. Tim. iii. 5). 
 The development of the idea of the Church, however, 
 is again to be explained by the special dangers which 
 Christianity had to face when the Pastoral Epistles 
 were written. The opponents to be met were no longer, 
 as in the case of Paul's central epistles, Judaisers teach- 
 ing justification by works, but Gnostic heretics, teaching 
 
I40 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 a libertinism, based on Paul's own principles that the 
 law is transcended for Christians ( I. Tim. i. 7-10). 
 Against this false doctrine and unsound morals a 
 bulwark was found in the common faith and practice 
 of the Christian Church, which was " sound " and good 
 (I. Tim vi. 3 ; II. Tim. i. 13, iv. 3). It is especially on 
 the moral life that the emphasis falls ; and thus we find 
 the demand of Colossians and Ephesians for good 
 works taken up and made even stronger (Titus iii. 8, 14). 
 There is no salvation apart from good works (Titus ii. 
 14); though Titus iii. 4-7, like Eph. ii. 10, repeats, as we 
 have seen, the Pauline doctrine that salvation is not by 
 merit. But the ethical interest reacts so strongly upon 
 the doctrine of salvation, that it is emphasised in the 
 strongest language that final salvation is conditional 
 (II. Tim. ii. 11 -12). It is evident that we have moved 
 a good way here from the Pauline central epistles; 
 though the passages already referred to in them, like 
 Phil. iii. 8-1 1, and after these Colossians and Ephesians, 
 form a continuous bridge to the doctrine of the Pastoral 
 Epistles. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 I. PETER 
 
 EscHATOLOGY is very prominent in I. Peter. Writing at 
 a time of persecution, Peter encourages his readers to 
 look forward to the " salvation ready to be revealed in 
 the last time " (i. 5), which is to be inaugurated by the 
 revelation of Jesus Christ (i. 7, v. 4), and the judgment 
 of the world. Though, in general, God appears as the 
 judge of men (i. 17, ii. 23), the final judgment is 
 expressly assigned to Christ (iv. 5), who will judge 
 both the living and the dead, (iv. 5), the righteous and 
 the wicked (iv. 17). Those who are approved will 
 inherit eternal glory (v. 10), receive the crown of glory 
 (v. 4), and live a Hfe of immortality (i. 4). 
 
 A peculiar element in the Petrine doctrine of redemp- 
 tion is the hope held out that some may be saved, who 
 are beyond the sphere of this life. In iii. 19-21 we 
 hear of a preaching by Christ to the spirits in prison, 
 which were formerly disobedient in the days of Noah. 
 
142 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 " This phrase," says Charles ( " Eschatology," col. 1380), 
 "can be interpreted only in two ways. The spirits in 
 question are either those of men in Sheol, or the fallen 
 angels mentioned in II. Pet. ii. 4 ; Jude 6. In the next 
 place the words ' in prison ' denote the local condition 
 of the spirits at the time of preaching. Hence accord- 
 ing to the text, Christ ' in the spirit ' {i.e. between 
 His death and His resurrection) preached the Gospel of 
 redemption to human or angelic spirits in the under- 
 world." Again in iv. 5 we read, "who will have to 
 give account to Him that is ready to judge the living 
 and the dead. For with this purpose was the Gospel 
 preached even to the dead, that they might be judged 
 according to men in the flesh, but live according to God 
 in the spirit." Of this difficult passage Charles gives 
 the following interpretation : "The doctrine we found 
 stated above in iii. 19-21 is here substantiated, as 
 being part of the larger truth now enumerated. Christ 
 is ready to judge the living and the dead — the latter no 
 less than the former ; for even to the dead was the 
 Gospel preached, in order that though they were judged 
 in the body, they might live the life of God in the spirit. 
 Thus it is taught that, when the last Judgment takes 
 place, the Gospel will have been preached to all. As to 
 
I. PETER 143 
 
 how far this preaching of redemption succeeds there is 
 no hint in the Petrine teaching." Charles points out the 
 extreme importance of these isolated passages. " They 
 attest the achievement of the final stage in the moralisa- 
 tion of Sheol." The first stage in this moralisation took 
 place when, in the second century B.C., Sheol became 
 a place no longer merely of social or external distinc- 
 tions, but of moral distinctions. But this moralisation 
 of Sheol remained inadequate. The very idea of moral 
 life is that of - progress. This idea, however, was 
 not attained as far as Sheol was concerned. According 
 to Jewish theology, followed in general by the New 
 Testament, souls in Sheol were regarded as incapable of 
 moral change. What they were, when they entered 
 Sheol, that they remained till the final Judgment. The 
 Petrine passages give an outlook into possibihties beyond 
 the limits of this general conception, which are of the 
 greatest importance for a true idea of the relation 
 between God and man. 
 
 We turn to the conception of present salvation in 
 I. Peter. What we find is in practical agreement with 
 the ideas of Paul, without, however, the dialectical 
 sharpness of his theological distinctions. We enjoy in 
 the present communion with God through the work of 
 
144 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 Christ, "who suffered for sins once, the righteous for 
 the unrighteous" (iii. i8). So also the elect are 
 sprinkled with the blood of Christ (i. 2) i.e. brought into 
 communion with God by His sacrifice. Much more 
 closely, however, than in Paul there is connected with 
 the sacrifice of Christ the idea of salvation as moral 
 regeneration. The blood of Christ redeems from the vain 
 manner of life handed down from the past (i. 18). 
 Christ bore our sins in His own body on the tree, that 
 we, having died unto sins, might live unto righteousness 
 (ii. 24). In these passages the effect of the sacrifice of 
 Christ is described in a way unlike the characteristic 
 thought of Paul, in which it appears as resulting directly 
 in moral renewal. In the latter passage, particularly, we 
 seemx to have the two Pauline lines of thought united in 
 one. We are not told, however, in I. Peter how the 
 blood of Christ redeems from vain manner of life, or 
 how His sacrifice results in a death unto sin and a life 
 unto righteousness. The Pauline doctrine would seem 
 to be presupposed ; Peter simply makes edificatory use 
 of its phrases, without, however, observing the niceties 
 of Pauline theology, with its sharp distinction of the two 
 sides of salvation. Compare further the general agree- 
 ment with Paul, when it is said that we are regenerated 
 
I. PETER 145 
 
 through Christ's resurrection (i. 3), just as Paul describes 
 salvation as resurrection with Christ and new life in 
 union with Him ; also when it is said that the Spirit of 
 God rests upon Christians (iv. 14), and that they are elect 
 unto sanctification of the Spirit (i. i, 2), just as Paul 
 makes salvation consist in the gift of the Spirit and 
 moral renewal by Him. 
 
 The difference from Paul appears most strongly when 
 we come to the subjective conception corresponding to the 
 objective idea just mentioned. The notion of faith is 
 totally different from that of Paul. The idea of faith as 
 personal trust in Christ, especially as mystical union with 
 Christ, is not to be found. Faith appears rather as belief 
 in the promises of God sustained by the resurrection 
 of Christ, and practically is little different from hope 
 (i. 21), except only that it rests upon the resurrection as 
 a firm ground, so that its hope is a living hope (i. 3). 
 
 The other element in the subjective appropriation 
 of salvation is baptism. With this, viewed not as a 
 mere external ceremony, but on its spiritual side, salva- 
 tion is closely connected (iii. 21). Thus much is clear; 
 though the exact meaning of the difficult phrase, trans- 
 lated in the R.V. ^'the interrogation of a good con- 
 science towards God," is hard to determine. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 HEBREWS 
 
 § I. THE IDEAS OF SALVATION 
 
 The doctrine of the Epistle to the Hebrews is in many 
 ways parallel with that of I. Peter. Eschatology is 
 again much in the foreground, and the deviations from 
 Paul in the idea of present salvation closely resemble 
 those of I. Peter. But the whole doctrine of the epistle 
 is systematised, in a way altogether lacking in I. Peter, 
 by the influence of a fresh conception, derived from the 
 Alexandrian philosophy. 
 
 We begin with the idea of future salvation. The 
 reward of the righteous is to be in heaven (vi. 19 f.), 
 where they have an eternal inheritance (ix. 15), a 
 better country (xi. 16), a city which is to come (xiii. 14), 
 whose builder and maker is God (xi. 9 f.). The 
 blessedness of the righteous is described as a participa- 
 tion in the glory of God (ii. 10), and in the Divine 
 
 vision (xii. 14). 
 
 146 
 
THE IDEAS OF SALVATION 147 
 
 This salvation is to be brought about at the appear- 
 ance of Christ unto salvation (ix. 28). The resurrection 
 appears to be reserved for the righteous only. "This 
 follows from xi. 35, *that they might obtain a better 
 resurrection.' These words, which refer to the Macca- 
 bsean martyrs (II. Mace, vii.), set the resurrection in 
 contrast with a merely temporal deliverance from death, 
 and represent it as a prize to be striven for, not as the 
 common lot of all " (Charles, " Eschatology," col. 1378). 
 The judgment is simultaneous with the second coming 
 of Christ; but He does not judge (ix. 27 f., x. .37). 
 God is the judge (x. 30), the judge of all (xii. 23). 
 The wicked are doomed to destruction (x. 39), some- 
 thing far worse than bodily death (ix. 27), and repre- 
 sented as a consuming fire (x. 27, xii. 29; cf. vi. 8). 
 The Day of Judgment is near at hand (x. 25). It will 
 be introduced by a final shaking of the heaven and the 
 earth (xii. 26 ; cf. xii. 25, 29). 
 
 Thus far we have no specially peculiar features in 
 the doctrine of Hebrews. The Alexandrian element, 
 however, which was previously mentioned, appears in 
 the conception that this heavenly salvation is not 
 only future, but already exists in the present in the 
 unseen world ; so that the passing away of the present 
 
148 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 world will only be the unveiling of what now truly is, 
 "the removing of those things that are shaken, that 
 those things that are not shaken may remain." The 
 author of the Epistle to the Hebrews identifies the 
 sphere of the Christian salvation with the Alexandrian 
 idea of the intelligible world, which lies beyond the 
 senses, and is in the first place the opposite of this 
 present world. "That is to say, it is related to the 
 latter (this creation, ix. ii), as the original sanctuary, 
 which Moses saw in heaven, is related to the earthly 
 one which he prepared according to that pattern, 
 or as the original, which in its essence is Divine, 
 heavenly, supersensuous, perfect, and eternal, is related 
 to the finite and the sensuous, which is merely an 
 imperfect copy and likeness, traced from the shadow 
 of the Divine pattern (viii. 1-5, ix. 23), and is distin- 
 guished as the visible (ix. 3), tangible (xii. 18), change- 
 able, that can be shaken, from the original pattern, 
 which is the invisible (ix. i), that cannot be shaken 
 (xi. 27), and eternal. As the dwelling-place of God this 
 higher world is called the house of God (ix. 21), the 
 true tabernacle (viii. 2), the city which has firm foun- 
 dations (ix. 10), the fatherland, the heavenly city 
 (ix. 14, 16), Zion the mountain and city of the living 
 
THE IDEAS OF SALVATION 149 
 
 God, the heavenly Jerusalem (xii. 22), and finally 
 the kingdom which cannot be shaken " (Pfleiderer, 
 " Paulinism," ii. p. 56 : the Greek quotations are rendered 
 into English). From this identification of the Messianic 
 kingdom of primitive Christian hope with the higher 
 world of Greek speculation, follow^s a noteworthy result. 
 Since, in a true sense, the Messianic kingdom already 
 exists in heaven, Christians are even in this world 
 partakers of the Messianic salvation. We are already 
 come to Mount Zion, the heavenly Jerusalem, already 
 in this world are enrolled among its citizens (xii. 22, 
 23), and already receive and enjoy its gifts and powers 
 (vi. 4, 5, xii. 28). It only requires faith in the unseen 
 world to realise this (xi. i) ; as the writer of Hebrews 
 urges by the example of the long line of the heroes 
 of faith in the magnificent eleventh chapter of the 
 epistle. The Christian salvation, then, is not only a 
 future hope, but a present possession. The Christian 
 is already " perfected " (x. 14), even in this life : thus 
 the writer expresses in his own way the doctrine of 
 present salvation in practical agreement with Jesus 
 and with Paul. 
 
I50 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 § 2. THE MEDIATION OF SALVATION 
 THROUGH CHRIST 
 
 In its form, however, the doctrine of present salvation 
 in Hebrews is very different from that of either Jesus or 
 Paul, resembling most closely the doctrine of I. Peter. 
 This arises from the peculiar controversial character 
 of the epistle, the point of which is to prove that 
 Christianity, in opposition to Judaism, is the true form 
 of Divine worship, the proof being accomplished by the 
 opposition of Christianity, as belonging to the real and 
 unseen world, and thus eternal in its nature, to Judaism, 
 as belonging merely to the present world of sense, and 
 thus only transitory in character. As a result of this 
 purpose of the epistle, however, the form in which 
 the value of Christianity is expressed is conditioned by 
 that of the religion opposed to it, i.e. the benefits c, 
 Christianity are expressed in terms of the ceremonial 
 law. Thus the author of Hebrews expresses the 
 doctrine that in Christianity we have communion with 
 God by saying, not that we are justified, but that we 
 are perfected, sanctified, or cleansed. The means of 
 this cleansing is the sacrifice of Christ, on which the 
 writer lays great stress, in opposition to the Jewish 
 
MEDIATION OF SALVATION 151 
 
 sacrifices. They could only procure a ceremonial and 
 external cleansing; it procures the true cleansing of 
 the heart. They had to be repeated; it has been 
 offered once and for all. See on the whole subject 
 (ix. i-x. 25). The writer does not explain how the 
 sacrifice of Christ cleanses. The cleansing power of 
 sacrifice was no doubt axiomatic for him, as for the 
 ancient world in general, and the effect of the work of 
 Christ in this respect seemed sufficiently explained by 
 the simple analogy of His death with the Jewish sacri- 
 fices, the differences between them being taken into 
 account. If, however, the writer of Hebrews has given 
 us little help in this direction towards an understanding 
 of the effect of the work of Christ, in another respect 
 ne has made a great contribution to the New Testament 
 ioctrines on the subject. This is by his conception that 
 'le worth to God of Christ's sacrifice consisted in His 
 obedience (x. 5-9; compare Eph. v. 2). Another note- 
 vorthy saying on the subject in Hebrews is that it was 
 Dy the Eternal Spirit that Christ offered Himself to 
 God (ix. 14). In general it is not so much the passive 
 side of Christ's sacrifice, that in which He appears as 
 a victim, but rather the active side, that in which He 
 appears as the sacrificing priest, on which our author 
 
152 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 dwells. Christ having made purification of sins (i. 3), 
 has entered into the eternal world, there for ever pre- 
 senting Himself before God as high priest on -behalf 
 of those who come to God through Him (iv. 14-v. 10, 
 vii. 25-viii. 6). The author of Hebrews has further 
 connected this high-priestly work of Christ not only 
 with His obedient offering of His death, but also with 
 His obedient offering of His whole life (v. 7-9); so 
 that in these respects the evangelical picture of Jesus 
 receives fuller interpretation than it does from Paul. 
 
 The barrier to communion with God, which is 
 removed by the cleansing or sanctification of the 
 Christian, is that of sin. The author of Hebrews 
 does not, however, like Paul, dwell on the objective 
 side of the barrier, the curse of the law, the wrath of 
 God, and so on, but thinks rather of the subjective 
 side of it, the conscience of sins (x. 2, 22). He does, 
 indeed, in his own way, recognise the objective side 
 also by the view that the death of Christ delivers 
 men from the power of death and the devil. Here 
 we have a parallel to that development of Pauline 
 thought in Gal. iii. 19; Col. ii. 14, 15, in which the 
 barrier imposed by the curse of the law is separated 
 from the Divine will, and regarded as located in the 
 
MEDIATION OF SALVATION 153 
 
 angelic powers who gave the law and enforce its 
 claims. In Hebrews for the hostile angels and their 
 claims is substituted the devil and his power of death. 
 Yet even in this view the author of Hebrews shows 
 his subjectivity by emphasising especially as that from 
 which men are delivered, not death itself, but the 
 fear of it (see on the whole ii. 14, 15). 
 
 There is no mystical doctrine of salvation by union 
 with Christ in Hebrews. On the contrary, Christ 
 rather appears as the moral example of Christians, 
 the "leader" of their faith (xii. 1-3). In agreement 
 with this, the presentation of the subjective side of 
 salvation is very different from that of Paul. Faith 
 in Hebrews means, not as in Paul's epistles, personal 
 trust in Christ and mystical union with Him, but 
 rather, as in I. Peter, a firm conviction of unseen 
 realities, differing only from hope in that it rests on 
 an assured basis of Divine promise (xi. i). 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 THE APOCALYPSE 
 
 In this book it is the future aspect of salvation which 
 
 is almost exclusively dominant. The book is written to 
 
 encourage Christians, in face of fierce persecution, to hold 
 
 fast their religion in view of their coming deliverance 
 
 and of the coming judgment of the hostile powers, who 
 
 persecute them. Charles distinguishes four principal 
 
 heads of doctrine as to future salvation in the Apocalypse. 
 
 These are : (a) the Parusia and the Messianic judgment ; 
 
 (d) the first resurrection, the Millennium, the uprising 
 
 and destruction of Gog and Magog; (c) the generai 
 
 resurrection and judgment ; (d) the final consummation 
 
 of the righteous. 
 
 With regard to («), it is to be observed that every 
 
 visitation of the churches is regarded as a spiritual 
 
 coming of the Messiah (ii. 5, 16, iii. 3, 20); but beyond 
 
 this the apocalyptic writer proclaims the speedy final 
 
 advent of Christ, visible to all (i. 7, iii. 11). This ends 
 
 154 
 
THE APOCALYPSE 155 
 
 in the judgment of the hostile powers, which are de- 
 stroyed (xvi. 16, xix. 20, 21). After this follow {b) the 
 first resurrection and the Millennium. Satan is chained : 
 the martyrs, and the martyrs only, rise and reign with 
 Christ on the earth a thousand years (xx. 4-6), Jeru- 
 salem being the centre of the kingdom. Then Satan is 
 loosed : Gog and Magog, the terrible enemies of the 
 kingdom of God, foretold by Ezekiel (Ezek. xxxviii. 2, 
 xxxix. 16), make an attack upon the millennial kingdom. 
 They are, however, destroyed by God Himself with fire 
 from heaven (xx. 9) ; and the devil is finally cast into 
 the lake of fire (xx. 10). (c) The present heaven and earth 
 pass away (xx. 11) ', and all are raised to judgment before 
 God, being judged according to their works, as recorded 
 in the heavenly books (xx. 12). The wicked, with Death 
 and Hades, are cast into the lake of fire, which is the 
 second death (xx. 14, xxi. 8). {d) There is then a new 
 heaven and a new earth (xxi. 1,5); and the heavenly 
 city, Jerusalem, descends upon the earth (xxi. 10-21). 
 " The ideal kingdom of God becomes actual. The city 
 needs no temple : God and Christ (the Lamb) dwell in 
 it (xxi. 22). The citizens dwell in perfect fellowship with 
 God, and are as kings unto God (xxii. 5). The Messiah 
 does not resign His mediatorial functions, as in the 
 
156 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 Pauline eschatology (xxi. 2 1 f.)." (Charles, " Eschatology," 
 col. 1377.) 
 
 As regards present salvation, naturally in a book, 
 where the whole gaze is so strained towards the future, 
 not very much is said. But deliverance from sins by 
 the blood of Christ, who is the Lamb slain from the 
 foundation of the world (xiii. 8 ; compare v. 6) is men- 
 tioned as a privilege, not only of the future (v. 9, vii. 14), 
 but also of the present (i. 5) ; and Christians are already 
 kings and priests unto God (i. 6). Subjectively the 
 condition of salvation is faith, which, however, in the 
 Apocalypse means, much as in Hebrews, the firm con- 
 viction of the truth of the Christian religion, issuing in 
 patience under affliction and persecution (xiii. 10). 
 Repentance also is required, where there has been back- 
 sliding, as in the case of the church at Ephesus (ii. 5). 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 THE EPISTLE OF JAMES 
 
 " The entire content of the Epistle of James," says Titius, 
 " is monotheism, eschatology, and ethics " (^Die neutesta- 
 me7itliche Lthre von der Seligkeit, iv. 117). The advent of 
 the Messiah, who will judge the world, is close at hand 
 (v. 8). He alone can save or destroy (iv. 12). The faithful 
 will enter into the promised kingdom (ii. 5). A fire will 
 consume the wicked (v. 3). They will be delivered to 
 the death, not only of the body but of the soul (v. 20). 
 
 Upon what grounds, then, is the decision made 
 between the saved and the unsaved ? Not, says James, 
 here in sharp contrast with Paul, on the ground of faith 
 apart from works. On the contrary, faith apart from 
 works is dead (ii. 20). By faith, however, James under- 
 stands simply an intellectual conviction of unseen reality, 
 especially of the unity of God (ii. 19). This he says, 
 apart from works, cannot save (ii. 14). James thinks of 
 Christianity as a new law, different, indeed, from the old 
 
158 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 law, in that it is a law of liberty {i.e. is freely obeyed), 
 but still a law, according to which men are judged (ii. 12). 
 James does not, indeed, deny that God's mercy is a factor 
 in the judgment. On the contrary, none can fulfil the 
 law perfectly (iii. 2), and so claim the "crown of life" 
 as a reward. But God's very justice means that He will 
 show mercy as a just recompense to the merciful. 
 "Judgment is without mercy to him that hath showed 
 no mercy: mercy glorieth against judgment" (ii. 13). 
 
 As regards present salvation, justification is conceived 
 as anticipated in the present (ii. 21, 25), just as by Paul. 
 This must mean for James, with his presuppositions, 
 however, that there is a present justification to him who 
 proves his faith by his works, so long as he continues to 
 do so. The forgiveness of sins also is spoken of as to 
 be enjoyed in the present (v. 15). 
 
 It is noteworthy that there is in James no reference 
 at all to the work of Christ. Practically the only 
 recognition of the mediation of salvation through 
 Him is the recognition of Him as the coming 
 Messiah (ii. i), who can save or destroy in the Day of 
 Judgment (iv. 12). It may be added that James pre- 
 sents in brief outline a doctrine of sin in close agree- 
 ment with the Pauline doctrine (see especially i. 14, 15). 
 
THE EPISTLE OF JAMES 159 
 
 It is further, according to James, the work of the 
 law to convict men of sin. James agrees entirely with 
 Paul as to the absolute demand of the law (ii. 10). 
 Here the law referred to is the Old Testament law, as 
 the special precepts referred to show. The law against 
 respect of persons (ii. 9) is to be found in Deut. i. 17, 
 xvi. 19; while ii. 11 quotes the sixth and seventh 
 commandments of the Decalogue (Exod. xx. 13, 14). 
 James, however, seems to draw no very sharp distinc- 
 tion between the new law and the old law. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 JUDE AND II. PETER 
 
 These two epistles are closely connected together. 
 Both are full of the expectation of the Parusia, which 
 is to be a day of mercy unto eternal life for Christian 
 believers (Jude 21), but a day of judgment upon all 
 the ungodly (Jude 14, 15), including the rebel angels, 
 who since their fall have been kept in everlasting bonds 
 under darkness till the great day (Jude t; cf. II. Pet. 
 ii. 4). At the Parusia, moreover, the present earth 
 will be destroyed by fire (II. Pet. iii. 10), giving place 
 to a new heaven and earth, the habitation of righteous- 
 ness (II. Pet. iii. 13). Future salvation is spoken of 
 as a participation in the Divine nature (II. Pet. i. 4). 
 A peculiar feature of II. Peter is its teaching on the 
 delay of the Parusia. It appears that this delay had 
 caused some to mock and others to doubt (II. Pet. iii. 
 1-9). The difficulty is met by the principle that one 
 day is with the Lord as a thousand years, and a 
 
 x6o 
 
JUDE AND II. PETER i6i 
 
 thousand years as one day (II. Pet. iii. 8) ; also by 
 the statement that the delay is a delay in mercy, 
 intended to allow men more time for repentance 
 (II. Pet. iii. 9). 
 
 As regards present salvation, this consists in hope, 
 and the possession of the Spirit (Jude 20). II. Pet. 
 i. I speaks of Christians, in semi-Pauline phraseology, 
 as having obtained a precious faith in the righteousness 
 of our God and Saviour Jesus Christ. Further on, 
 however, faith appears as one among the many graces 
 of the Christian life (II. Pet. i. 5); while in Jude 3, 20 
 " the faith " of the Church is spoken of. Both epistles 
 urge strongly the necessity of the moral life. Forgive- 
 ness is thought of in II. Pet. i. 9 as taking place at 
 baptism : after this it is incumbent on the Christian 
 to make his final salvation certain by adding to his 
 faith the practical virtues (II. Pet. i. 5-7). At the 
 same time Jude 24 recognises that it is God alone 
 who can keep His people from stumbling, and bring 
 them to His eternal joy ; while II. Peter equally affirms 
 the necessity of the Divine grace, though this tends 
 to be resolved into the communication of the know- 
 ledge of Christ (11. Pet. i. 2, 3, iii. 8). 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 THE GOSPEL AND EPISTLES OF JOHN 
 
 § I. THE FUTURE SALVATION 
 
 The writings of John above named bring to completion 
 
 the tendency observable in the development of Christian 
 
 thought by Paul, and also in Hebrews, to remove the 
 
 emphasis from the idea of future to that of present 
 
 salvation. We may regard this movement of thought 
 
 on the one hand as an unfolding of what was latent 
 
 in Christianity from the first, or as the liberation of 
 
 the specifically Christian ideas from the Jewish forms 
 
 in which they at first took shape in the teaching of 
 
 Jesus. On the other hand, there is no doubt that 
 
 the change was occasioned partly by the external 
 
 course of events in the Christian Church. The delay 
 
 of the Parusia made most necessary a presentation of 
 
 Christianity, which should enable the Church to bear 
 
 this delay with equanimity ; and nothing can be more 
 
 fitted for this purpose than the Johannine doctrine, 
 
 162 
 
THE FUTURE SALVATION 163 
 
 that the Christian salvation can be enjoyed in all 
 essential points in the present. Nevertheless John 
 retains the primitive Christian eschatology side by 
 side with his own specific doctrine of salvation. The 
 eschatological element is, however, very small in the 
 Gospel : it is in I. John that it is principally to be 
 found. 
 
 John repeats first of all the message that the Parusia 
 is close at hand. It is foretold in John xiv. 3, where 
 Jesus promised to return from heaven, and to take 
 the disciples to be with Him where He is, i.e. in heaven. 
 Some of the disciples are expected to survive till this 
 consummation (xxi. 18). John himself in his extreme 
 old age hopes to witness it, together with his disciples 
 (I. John ii. 28). The present is the last hour (I. John ii, 
 18); as is evidenced by the appearance of Antichrist in 
 the false teachers, who deny the fundamental truths cf 
 the Gospel. Such a manifestation must precede the 
 Parusia (I. John ii. 18, 22, iv. 13). On the last day 
 Jesus raises His own to the resurrection life (John vi. 39, 
 44, 54, xi. 25). In v. 28 it is taught that all the dead 
 rise. Jesus Himself executes the final Judgment (v. 27). 
 The resurrection is a resurrection of life to those who 
 have done good, a resurrection of judgment to those 
 
i64 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 who have done ill (v. 29). After the resurrection and 
 the final Judgment the present world passes away 
 {I. John ii. 17), and Jesus takes His own to be with Him 
 in heaven (John xii. 26, xiv. 25, xvii. 24). Thus behold- 
 ing the face of God, they shall be transformed into 
 the Divine likeness (I. John iii. 2). 
 
 § 2. THE PRESENT SALVATION 
 
 In all this salvation appears as future, and therefore 
 still as matter of hope (I. John iii. 3). We now, how- 
 ever, turn to what is really the dominant and character- 
 istic teaching of the Johannine writings, viz. that in the 
 present all the elements of the future consummation 
 are in essence realised. "In a certain sense in the 
 Johannine teaching the kingdom has already come, 
 the Christ is already present, the faithful already risen, 
 and the judgment already in fulfilment" (Charles, 
 *' Eschatology," col. 1378). John, indeed, hardly makes 
 use of the primitive Christian name of the kingdom (see, 
 however, John iii. 5, xviii. 36). Instead of this he uses 
 what with Jesus Himself is an alternative name for the 
 •content of salvation, viz., eternal life. A central 
 ■doctrine of John is that the Christian has eternal life 
 
THE PRESENT SALVATION 165 
 
 here and now. This is his most general account of 
 the present salvation of the Christian. Further, he who 
 has this eternal life cannot die. Not only shall he rise 
 again in the resurrection at the last day (John xi. 24), 
 but more than this, death cannot destroy his life 
 (John xi. 25, 26). He has passed from death into 
 life (JohiL V. 24). Again, the judgment is anticipated 
 here and now. One side of this idea is the Johannine 
 equivalent of the Pauline doctrine of present justifica- 
 tion. John expresses the Pauline idea that the believer 
 is already justified in the still stronger form that he 
 does not come into judgment at all (John v. 24 ; cf. iii. 
 17, 18). The reverse side of the Johannine doctrine 
 of judgment, which corresponds to the Pauline teaching 
 that the whole world is shut up under condemnation, 
 is that the unsaved are judged already (John iii. 18). 
 We shall return to this point later on. 
 
 In the Pauline system we found as an alternative 
 expression for justification the idea of reconciliation. 
 The justified are restored to communion with God, 
 and have peace with Him. In John the matter is not 
 presented exactly at this angle; but communion with 
 God (and with Christ) is dwelt on, as an important 
 element in salvation (I. John i. 3). John also differs 
 
i66 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 from Paul somewhat in representing salvation, not as 
 a complete justification, but as a state of communion 
 in which the believer still requires the renewal of the 
 Divine forgiveness (1. John i. 9 ; ^ John xiii. 10). 
 
 We also found in the Pauline theology as another 
 alternative for justification the idea of adoption. John 
 also presents salvation as a state of sonship (I. John iii. 
 12); but, with a characteristic difference from Paul, 
 does not make use of the name adoption. His idea is 
 rather that of a new nature, than that of a new right. 
 The Christian is born of God (i. 13), begotten of God 
 (I. John iii. 9), born of the Spirit (John iii. 3-8). 
 Hence John uses rather the phrase " children of God," 
 which according to Greek usage suggests the community 
 of nature between father and son, than "sons of God," 
 which suggests similarly the right and privileges of 
 sonship. An approach to the Pauline idea appears, 
 according to the R.V. translation, in John i. 12 : "to as 
 many as received Him to them gave He the right to 
 become children of God." Probably, however, we should 
 rather translate here, more in harmony with the general 
 Johannine point of view : " to them gave He the power 
 to become children of God " (so Weizsacker's translation). 
 
 The idea of sonship in John, then, approaches more 
 
THE PRESENT SALVATION 167 
 
 nearly to the Pauline mystical than to the Pauline 
 judicial idea of salvation. Even in Paul the idea of 
 sonship formed a bridge from the judicial to the 
 mystical idea of salvation through the conception of the 
 spirit of adoption received by the Christian. In John 
 the idea of sonship has still further passed over to the 
 mystical side. 
 
 We also find in John the immediate expression of the 
 same mystical idea of salvation as in Paul. Salvation 
 is union ^Yith Christ : He is in us, and we in Him 
 (John XV. 4). But John goes even further than Paul, 
 and thinks of it as union with God (John xvii. 20-23). 
 In John, however, there is no such sharp distinction 
 of the different aspects of salvation as in Paul. Rather 
 do the latter shade off into one another; while they 
 are all united together by the common idea of salvation 
 as eternal life. " In general," says Titius, " the different 
 views are not to be added up in order to obtain the 
 correct picture of salvation as a whole ; but each of 
 these groups of ideas represents the whole salvation 
 over again, certainly under a special point of view" 
 {Die neutestameniliche Lehre von der Saligkeit^ iii. 
 
 P- 30)- 
 
 Finally, however, we get no correct idea of the 
 
 M 
 
i68 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 Johannine conception of salvation, unless we observe 
 the great stress laid on its ethical character. Eternal 
 life proves its reality by its ethical working (I. John iii. 
 14). To be born of God is to do no sin (I. John iii. 
 9 : cf. also V. 10). In symbolic language, to have 
 fellowship with God is described as walking in the light 
 (compare I. John i. 6, 7). Or again, in another figure, 
 the end of union with Christ is fruit-bearing (John xr. 
 1-16). To sum up, in whatever form John represents 
 salvation, its ethical character and working are clearly 
 expressed and forcibly emphasised. We have, then, a 
 more unified conception of salvation than the Pauline, 
 whose great fundamental antitheses are resolved into 
 mere aspects of a single idea. John has, in fact, while 
 adopting many of the more developed ideas of Paul, 
 in his general scheme preserved the lines of the simpler 
 presentation of Jesus, from whom comes his funda- 
 mental conception of eternal life. In this way the 
 Gospel of John proclaims its real agreement with the 
 Synoptic tradition, while at the same time manifesting 
 its own specific difference, and showing evidence of 
 the progress of Christian thought since the first pro- 
 clamation of the Evangel by Jesus. 
 
THE JOHANNINE DOCTRINE 169 
 
 § 3. THE JOHANNINE DOCTRINE OF MAN 
 AND SIN 
 
 It will have been observed that John's conception 
 of salvation is mainly positive, and prospective, like 
 that of Jesus, which is, again, another point closely con- 
 necting the teaching of John with that of Jesus. The 
 negative and retrospective side is, however, not wanting. 
 Salvation means the forgiveness of sins, means cleans- 
 ing from sin (I. John i. 7-9). 
 
 Though we have in the Johannine view a very 
 practical recognition of sin in its manifold aspects, 
 we have no such elaborated doctrine of sin as in 
 Paul. Some of the statements on the subject sound 
 like reminiscences of Paulinismj but appear isolated, 
 and apart from their general setting in the Pauline 
 view. Thus John says, " sin is lawlessness " (I. John 
 iii. 4), though he has no doctrine of the law in the 
 Pauline sense as the expression of the eternal will of 
 God. The law in John is simply the Jewish law — 
 "your law" (John viii. 17), which, indeed, bears wit- 
 ness to Jesus (John v. 39 f.), but is not viewed in its 
 universal character as by Paul in Rom. vii. Conviction 
 of sin is wrought, according to John, not by the law, 
 but by the Spirit (John xvi. 8). 
 
lyo MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 Another idea used by John more or less in agreement 
 with Paul is that of "the flesh." Apart from the 
 passages where the term is used simply in a non- 
 theological sense of the material of the body, we have 
 (John iii. 5, 6) : " That which is born of the flesh is 
 flesh, and that which is born of the Spirit is spirit." 
 Here we might perhaps find no more than the idea of 
 flesh as creaturely and weak in opposition to the Spirit, 
 which is Divine ; but the context, with its emphasis on 
 the necessity of the new birth, demands rather the idea 
 of the flesh as positively sinful. This becomes quite 
 clear, when we see that the birth by water and the Spirit 
 in John takes the place of baptism and repentance in 
 the Synoptic Gospels; so that on an equation of the 
 two equivalents, and a removal of the common term, 
 the Johannine new birth by the Spirit appears as the 
 equivalent of the Synoptic repentance, and is therefore a 
 regeneration not merely from creaturely weakness, but from 
 creaturely sinfulness. Still more clearly does the Pauline 
 idea of the flesh appear in John i. 13, where we have the 
 phrase, " the will of the flesh," used in opposition to the 
 will of God ; and finally in I. John ii. 16, where the actual 
 Pauline expression, "the lust of the flesh" (Gal. v. 16), 
 is used again in a similar opposition (compare v. 17). 
 
THE JOHANNINE DOCTRINE 171 
 
 The most characteristic idea in the Johannine doctrine 
 of man and sin, however, is that of the " world." This, 
 in the full sense in which John uses it, is peculiar to his 
 writings. It has various shades of meaning. It begins 
 with the notion, found in other Scriptures, of the world as 
 a transitory and temporal creation, in opposition to what 
 is Divine and eternal (I. John ii. 17). Then it is used 
 of the world of humanity, which is the object of Divine 
 love and pity (John iii. 16 ; I. John ii. 2). But since 
 with the idea of what is transitory is connected that 
 of what is sensuous and betrays man to sin; and 
 since, with the idea of humanity is connected that of 
 human sinfulness, these conceptions of the world just 
 described easily pass over into what is the specially 
 characteristic Johannine notion, viz. that of the world 
 as the sum of all that is evil, and in opposition to God 
 (I. John ii. 15). Thus we obtain the idea of a lust of 
 the world (I. John ii. 17), which is parallel to that 
 of the "lust of the flesh," previously mentioned; and 
 we have such statements as that the whole world 
 lieth in the evil one (I. John v. 19); while finally, the 
 world appears as the whole of humanity outside the 
 Church, as actuated by sin, and hostile to Christ and 
 His people (I. John iii. 13). It is a power to be over- 
 
172 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 come (I. John v. 4, 5), and which can only be overcome 
 by faith in Christ. It is this doctrine of the world, which 
 is the real equivalent in John of the Pauline doctrine of 
 sin. Two further points, however, must be added, to 
 complete the Johannine doctrine of the present subject. 
 First, the devil, as embodying in one all the evil ten- 
 dencies of the world, occupies a great place in the 
 Johannine system (John viii. 44, xiv. 30 ; I. John iii. 
 8, 10). In the second place, those who are of the 
 world are sometimes spoken of as " not of God," some- 
 times actually as " the children of the devil " (John viii. 
 44; I. John iii. 10). Here we have an even stronger 
 parallel to the Pauline doctrine of the universal sinful- 
 ness of mankind apart from Christ. But just as Paul 
 recognises, in spite of his general doctrine, the existence 
 of some who do by nature the things of the law (Rom. ii.), 
 so John finds in the sinful world some who are Christ's 
 sheep, though not of the Jewish fold (John x. 16). 
 
 § 4. THE REALISATION OF SALVATION 
 BY GOD IN CHRIST 
 
 With John, as with Jesus, and as with Paul, the 
 ground of salvation is the love of God. " God is love " 
 (I. John iv. 8); the manifestation of this love is the 
 
REALISATION OF SALVATION 173 
 
 gift of Jesus Christ to save the world (John iii. 16). 
 The dominant idea in the whole of the teaching of John 
 is that of the revelation of God in Christ through the 
 incarnation (John i. 1-18; I. John i. 1-4). The 
 revelation is not limited, as by Paul, to the great crown- 
 ing acts of the death and resurrection of Christ. On 
 the contrary, John finds the revelation of God in the 
 whole earthly life of Jesus, in which these acts take 
 their places as elements in a larger whole. It is not 
 so much with the risen Christ as with the earthly 
 Christ that John is concerned; only his object is to 
 interpret the earthly existence so as to show the Divine 
 glory shining at every point through the veil of flesh 
 (John i. 14). This is the central purpose of his Gospel. 
 In Jesus of Nazareth the eternal Logos or essential 
 Reason of God became incarnate. In His miracles the 
 disciples saw the Divine glory (John ii. 11). His acts 
 on earth are the acts of God ; for He does nothing of 
 Himself (John v. 19). Whoever has seen Him has seen 
 the Father (John xiv. 9). " I and the Father," He says, 
 " are one " (John x. 30). 
 
 It is, to use the language of systematic theology, on 
 the Person rather than on the work of Christ that John 
 concentrates attention. Salvation is in His Person, 
 
174 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 through the influence of which men are brought into full 
 communion with God. John expresses this in two chief 
 ways. Jesus is the light of men. He is their life. The 
 two ideas are closely connected. "The Hfe was the 
 light of men " (John i. 6). The ideas are rather aspects 
 of a common idea, than separate in John's mind. It 
 will, however, be convenient to distinguish them. As 
 the light of men, Jesus communicates the true know- 
 ledge of God (John i. i8) : as the life of men, He com- 
 municates to them the life of God (John x. lo). On 
 the latter aspect John lays special emphasis. It is 
 expressed again and again in different metaphors. Jesus 
 is the bread of life (John vi. 35, 48). He is the true 
 vine.(Johnxv. i). He gives the living water (John iv. 10). 
 In the consideration of Jesus, both as the light and as 
 the life, John emphasises His humanity (John i. 14). 
 Apart from this there is no vision of God (John i. 18). 
 Similarly, it is through the humanity of Jesus that the 
 life of God is communicated to men. The bread of 
 life is His flesh which He gives for the life of the world 
 (John vi. 51), or with even stronger emphasis on the 
 humanity : " He that eateth my flesh and drinketh my 
 blood, hath eternal life'' (John vi. 54). 
 
 While thus the chief emphasis is laid by John on the 
 
REALISATION OF SALVATION 175 
 
 Person of Jesus as mediating the Divine light and Hfe, 
 in subordination to this His work, including the acts of 
 His ministry as well as His death, occupies an im- 
 portant place. Jesus reveals His glory by His miracles 
 (John ii. 11). The words He speaks are spirit and life 
 (John vi. 63). Finally, the death of Jesus is the mani- 
 festation of His love to His own (John x. 1 1-18, xv. 13). 
 This is the characteristic Johannine interpretation of the 
 death of Jesus. We have also the idea of Christ's death 
 as a means whereby He attains to greater influence in 
 the world, drawing men to Himself by the power of the 
 cross (John xii. 23, 24, 32). Another conception strongly 
 emphasised in John is that the death of Christ is a victory 
 over the devil, and thus the destruction of the power of 
 evil. Christ by His faithfulness unto death shows that 
 Satan has nothing in Him, judges the world, and so 
 enables His people likewise to overcome both the world 
 and the devil (see John xii. 31, xiv. 30; and compare 
 I John iii. 8, v. 4). Finally, there appears or is suggested 
 in John several times the idea of Christ's death as a 
 sacrifice for sin, never, however, with any great distinct- 
 ness ; nor does the conception connect itself very closely 
 with the specifically Johannine cycle of ideas, as it does 
 with the Pauline cycle. The most important passages 
 
176 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 are I John i. 7, ii. 2. It is noticeable that the special 
 forms of expression made use of connect themselves 
 rather with Hebrews than with Paul. 
 
 § 5. THE SUBJECTIVE APPROPRIATION OF 
 SALVATION 
 
 As regards the subjective appropriation of salvation, 
 in John as in Paul the value of faith is emphasised. 
 The noun " faith " is, indeed, only found in the Johan- 
 nine writings in a single passage (I. John v. 4) ; but 
 the verb from the same Greek root, rendered in English 
 " believe," is ubiquitous. The difference here between 
 John and Paul is, however, more than one of language. 
 **The Johannine 'faith' has its deepest roots, in 
 common with the Pauline 'faith,' in the general 
 Synoptic idea of faith in the sense of trust, and in 
 its close relation to the idea of 'deliverance,' or of 
 'salvation.' Apart from this, however, the idea, so 
 characteristically brought to a point in the Pauline 
 epistles, tends in John again to its original, and signifies 
 in the first place simply the trust with which one 
 receives the word of any one — whether of God (John 
 V. 24 ; I John v. to\ or of Jesus (John viii. 45), or 
 
SUBJECTIVE APPROPRIATION 177 
 
 of the Scripture (John ii. 22), or of a prophet (John 
 xii. 38; I. John iv. i). The difference between the 
 Synoptic and the Johannine conceptions of faith lies, 
 however, in the difference of the world of ideas with 
 which, in the Synoptics and John, faith is brought into 
 connection. What is here most peculiar to John is the 
 tendency almost to identify the object of faith with 
 certain doctrines or cycles of ideas (compare John 
 xi. 21: * Believest thou this ? '). Since, however, these 
 cycles of ideas all revolve about the Person of Christ, 
 in contrast to the Synoptics faith in John also enters 
 into a special relation to Christ, the bearer of revela- 
 tion. Jesus speaks from time to time of faith in His 
 person (compare 'believe on the Son,' John iii. 16, 18, 
 36, xvi. 40 ; I. John v. 10), by which is intended the 
 confident assertion that Jesus is the Son of God (John 
 vi. 29), is sent of God (John xi. 42, xvii. 8, 21), or 
 come from God (John xvi. 27, 30) that He derives from 
 above (John viii. 23), is one with the Father (John 
 xiv. 10, 11), that He is the all-decisive person in general 
 (John viii. 24, xiii. 9). ('Believest thou that I am?') 
 Faith is put simply * in Him ' (John vii. 5, xii. 42), in 
 the sense of a recognition of what He claims to be. 
 If with such formulae is interchanged 'faith in the 
 
178 MAN, SIN, AND SALVATION 
 
 Son of God' (John i. 12, ii. 23, iii. 18; I John v. 13), 
 this happens because the entire content of faith lies 
 in the name of Him on whom one believes. Accord- 
 ing to this, faith is not reposed in a person without 
 any underlying basis, but on that which the name 
 peculiarly belonging to the person says of Him, what 
 it makes of Him. The faith so formulated signifies, 
 accordingly, the conviction that Jesus is, according to 
 His witness of Himself, the Son of God " (Holtzmann, 
 Neutestamentliche Theologie^ ii. 484). 
 
 After this it is not surprising to find that in John, 
 just as in the later Pauline epistles, the idea of know- 
 ledge receives great emphasis, and becomes almost as 
 important in the appropriation of salvation as faith itself 
 (compare especially John xvii. 3 : " This is life eternal, 
 to know Thee, the only true God, and Jesus Christ 
 whom Thou hast sent "). This knowledge is indeed, as 
 Titius says, always knowledge based on faith ( Glaubens- 
 erkennt?iiss)\ all the same, the greater stress on knowledge 
 that we find in the typical form of Paulinism cannot be 
 mistaken. If now we have " we have believed and 
 known" (John vi. 69 ; (/! x. 38), faith preceding know- 
 ledge ; we have again "known and believed" (John 
 xvii. 8; I. John iv. 16), knowledge preceding faith. 
 
SUBJECTIVE APPROPRIATION 179 
 
 Finally, the mystical element which forms so great 
 a part of the idea of faith in Paulinism does not 
 appear in John under this rubric. John coins instead 
 a terminology of his own, the key-note of which is the 
 word "abide" (John xv. i f.). Union with Christ is 
 expressed by the thought that Christ abides in us, and 
 we in Him, and the ethical bearing of this union is 
 strongly brought out, as we have already seen. Here, 
 however, from the subjective side, what we have to 
 observe is that this abiding in Christ is enjoined on 
 the Christian, as the condition of Christ's abiding in 
 Him, and of consequent fruit-bearing. We have, then, 
 the complete equivalent of the Pauline idea that by faith 
 we are united to Christ, and thus dead with Him to sin 
 and alive to righteousness. Another way in which John 
 expresses the same idea is that of eating and drinking 
 the flesh and blood of Christ (John vi. 53-56), a form 
 of speech which goes along with the figurative descrip- 
 tion of Christ as the bread of life. In this form of 
 mysticism, however, it is not the ethical bearing, but rather 
 the direct religious significance of union with Christ, that 
 is brought out (John vi. 54, 58). In John vi. 56 it is 
 noteworthy that this form of expression passes over into, 
 and is identified with, the other of abiding in Christ. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Anthropology, 21, 33, 63, 100 f 
 Atonement, 37, 73, 119. See also 
 Sacrifice 
 
 Baptism, 29, 126, 145 
 
 Day of Yahweh, 4, 7, 15 
 Death, 24, 100, no, 152 
 
 Expiation, 12, 14, 119. See 
 Sacrifice 
 
 Faith, 49, 117, 127, 136, 139, 
 
 145, 153, 157, 161, 176 
 Fall (of Adam), 24, 39, 100 
 Flesh, 21 f, loi f, 170 
 Forgiveness, i3, 58 f, 116 
 
 God, (idea of), i, 5, 18, 42 f, 
 
 80 f 
 Good works, 140, 157 
 Grace, 115 
 
 Judgment, 7, 15, 29, 34, 36, 83 f, 
 
 129, 142, 147, 158, 163 f 
 Justification, 16, 91 f, 115 f, 158 
 
 Kingdom of God, 7, 15, 28 f, 44 f 
 Knowledge, 136, 178 
 
 Law, 10, 106 f, 112 f, 132, 157, 169 
 
 Man. See Anthropology 
 Merit, 38, 115 
 
 Messiah, 8, 31 f, 64 f, 78, 154 
 Millennium, 30, 155 
 
 Parusia, 78, 83 f, 140, 147, 160, 
 
 163 f 
 Punishment (of sins), 3, 6, 24, 56 f, 
 
 no f 
 
 Reconciliation, 99, 116 
 Repentance, 50, 58 f, 79 
 Resurrection, 27, 29, 34, 84 f, 96, 
 
 154 
 Righteousness, 5, 51 f 
 
 Sacrifice, 12 f, 17, 75, 119, 135, 
 
 144, 150. 175 
 Salvation, i f, 7, 8, 16, 18, 19, ao, 
 
 26, 36, 45 f, 78f, 82 f, 131 f, 137 f, 
 
 141, 146 f, 154, 158, 160 
 Sheol, 25, 34, 142 
 Sin, 3 f, 5 f, 20, 38, 54 f, 99 f, 152, 
 
 158, 162 f, 169 f 
 Sonship, 48 f, 93, 167 
 Spirit, 18, 79, 91 f, 95 f, 133, i69f 
 
 Union with Christ, gx, 123 f, 167 f, 
 
 179 
 
 World, 171 
 
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