PRINCETON, N. J. Shelf.. BR 145 .B7813 1889 v. 2 Brueck, Heinrich, 1831-1903 History of the Catholic Church HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. FOR USE IN SEMINARIES AND COLLEGES. By DR. HEINRICH BRUECK, PROFESSOR OF THEOLOGY IN THE ECCLESIASTICAL SEMINARY OF SIENTZ. TOtt!) atJtiitiong from tfje ^SSrittngs OF HIS EMINENCE CARDINAL HERGENROTHER. TRANSLATED By REV. E. PRUENTE. JKEitb an Jlntrotiuction By right rev. MGR. JAMES A. CORCORAN, S.T.D., PROFESSOR OF SACRED SCRIPTURE, MORAL THEOLOGY, ETC., ETC. Vol. II. SECOND, REVISED, EDITION. BEI^ZIGEE BEOTHERS, PrINTEKS TO THE HOLY APOSTOLlC SeE. 1889. Imvrimatur, ^ PETRUS KICARDUS KENRICK, Archiep. S. Ltul S. LuDOVici, die 5 Julii, A. D. 1884. Copyright, 1SS5, By Bexzigeb Brothers. SJnfbersftii iSress: John Wilson and Son, Cambridge. CONTENTS OF VOL. 11. ^eCOntJ CpOCij. — continued. PERIOD II. FROM GREGORY VII. TO THE SO-CALLED REFORMATION. A. HISTORY OF THE EXTERIOR CONDITION OF THE CHURCH. II. CHURCH AND STATE. 2. Prom the Death of Boniface VIII. to the Beginning of the Sixteenth Century. PAGE § 124. The Exile of the Popes at Avignon. — Popes Benedict XI. to Gregory XI., and the Relations they bore to the several States of Europe 12 125. The Western Schism 24 126. The Council ot Pisa 28 127. The Council of Constance 29 128. Tlie Popes Martin V. and Eugene IV., and the Councils of Siena and Basle 33 129. The last Popes of this Epoch. — Nicholas V. to Leo X 40 B . HISTORY OF THE INTERIOR AFFAIRS OF THE CHURCH. I. CONSTITUTION OF THE CHURCH. 1. Ecclesiastical Hierarchy. 130. The Primacy 47 131. The other Members of the Hierarcliy 54 iv CONTENTS OF VOL. II. 2. Religious Orders. PAGE § 132. Religious Orders of Kuights (Military Orders) 56 133. The New Monastic Orders founded on the Rule of St. Benedict and St. Augustine 60 ISi. The Orders devoted to the Special Veneration of Mary .... 62 135. Orders founded expressly for taking Care of the Sick, and for other Objects of Charity 63 136. The two great Mendicant Orders 65 137. Efficiency of these Orders. — Tlie Enmity they excited. — Disputes and Party-Divisions among themselves 67 II. DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINE. 1. The Achievements of Learning during this Epoch. 138. The Universities. — Scholasticism and Mysticism 73 139. The first Times of Scholasticism 76 140. Flourishing Period of Scholasticism 79 141. The Mystics 84 142. The Scholastics and Mystics towards the End of the Middle Ages. — The several Branches of Learning 85 143. Studies of the Humanists ... 89 2. Heresies and Schisms. 144. Attempts to unite the Schismatic Greeks. — The Smaller Sects of the East . o . 93 145. The Smaller Sects of the West 98 146. The Cathari (Albigenses and Waldenses) 99 147. Ecclesiastical and Spanish Inquisition 103 148. John Wycliffe and his Heresy 107 149. The Heresy of John Huss . " Ill III. WORSHIP AND DISCIPLINE. 150. The Holy Eucharist. — Penance 119 151. Churches and tlieir Ornamentation. — Religious Art 121 152. Church Hymns and Canticles. — Veneration of Saints .... 124 153. Various Forms of Superstition 126 154. Christian Instruction 127 155. Moral and Religious Life 129 156. Retrospect concerning the Influence exercised by the Church in the Middle Ages . . . . 133 CONTENTS OF VOL. II. V Cbird epoci). PERIOD I. FROM THE SO-CALLED REFORMATION TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. A. EXTERIOR HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. I. SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY. PAGE § 157. Missions in India, Cochin China, Tonquin, Siam, Thibet, etc. . . 135 158. Christianity in China and Japan, and in Africa 137 159. Christian Missions in America 141 II. CHURCH AND STATE. 160. Outbreak of the Schism in Germany. — Stand taken by Luther ao-ainst Indulgences. — Measures taken by the Apostolic See . . 153 161. Disputation at Leipsic and its Results 157 ; 62. The Diet of Worms. — Luther's Sojourn on the Wartburg. — The Prophets of Zwickau. — Luther's Contest with them .... 159 163. Popes Adrian VI. and Clement VII. — The two Diets at Nuremberg 161 164. Tlie Peasants' War 162 165. Introduction of the Lutheran Heresy by several Princes of the Empire. — Luther's Organization of Divine Service. — His Con- test with Erasmus 163 166. The Treaty of Torgau. — The two Diets at Spire, in 1526 and 1529 165 167. The Diet at Augsburg, 1530. — " Confessio Augustana." — Col- loquies 166 168. The League of Schmalkald 168 169. Further Progress of Protestantism. — Attempts at Reunion. — Bigamy of Philip of Hesse. — Acts of Violence. — Diets at Spire, 1542, 1544, and at Ratisbon, 1546. — Luther's Death. — His Character 169 170. The Schmalkaldic War. — Treaty of Passau. — Peace of Augsburg 174 171. The Reformation (so-called) in Switzerland. — Ulrich Zwingli . . 176 172. The so-called Reformation in French Switzerland. — John Calvin . 178 173. Protestantism in France < • 182 174. Protestantism in France (continued) .— The Night of St. Bar- tholomew. — The League. — The Edict of Nantes.— Its Repeal under Louis XIV 1^' 175. Protestantism in the Netherlands 1^2 176. Apostasy of England from the Church 194 177. The so-called Rpformation in Scotland 201 vi CONTENTS OF VOL. II. PAGE § 178. The Catholic Church iu Great Britain under the Stuarts .... 203 179. The Sufleriugs of the Catholics iu Irelaud 207 ISO. Apostasy iu Scandinavia 213 181. Protestantism iu Livonia, Courland, Poland, and Silesia .... 215 182. Protestantism iu Hungary and Transylvania 217 183. Relation between the Catholics aud Protestants iu Germany. — The Thirty Years' War. — The Peace of Westphalia 219 184. General Remarks on the Propagation, Nature, aud Effects of the Reformatriou 223 B. HISTORY OF THE INTERIOR CONDITION OF THE CHURCH. r. CONSTITUTION OF THE CHURCH. 185. The Council of Trent - .... 226 186. Carrying into Effect the Reforma-tory Decrees of the Council of Trent 231 187. The Jesuits and the Order of Capuchins 234 188. Other Orders and Congregations of this Era 237 189. Exertions of, aud Enmity towards, the Holy See 240 190. The so-called Gallican Liberties 245 191. The Popes of the Eighteenth Century. — Febronius 247 192. Josephism 251 193. Contest concerning the Nunciature. —The Congress of Ems . . 253 194. Italy. — The Syuod of Pistoja 254 II. DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINE. 1. Ecclesiastical Leakning. 195. The Theological Studies of this Period . 256 2. Heresies and Schisms. 196. The Errors of the so-called Reformers 260 197. Contentious among the Protestants 264 198. The Smaller Protestant Sects 269 199. Controversies on the Relation which Grace bears to Free- Will . . 276 200. Jansenism 278 201. Jansenism (continued). — Quesnel 281 202. The Schism of Utrecht 283 203. Quietism 284 204. The Religious Condition of Germany after the P-eace of Westphalia. — Several Attempts at Union 285 205. The Grpeco-Russiau Church. — Attempts at Union. — The Older Sects of the East 289 CONTENTS OF VOL. II. Vli PAGE 206. Attacks upon Christianity. — English Deists. — Freemasons. — Pliilosophers in France 291 207. Protestant Rationalism 297 208. Rationalism in Catholic Circles 300 209. Hostility to the Jesuits and Suppression of their Order .... 303 III. WORSHIP AND DISCIPLINE. 210. The Celebration of Divine Worship. — Christian Art. — Religious Life 307 PERIOD II. FROM THE FRENCH REVOLUTION DOWN TO OUR OWN DAY. A. EXTERIOR HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. I. SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY. PAGE § 211. Missions in the East Indies, China, Japan, etc 310 212. Th« Catholic Church in the United States 312 213. Missions in Central America, the West Indies, and South America, in Africa and Oceanica 328 214. Missions in Turkey and Persia 331 II. CHURCH AND STATE. 215. Influence of the French Revolution on Ecclesiastical Affairs . . . 334 216. Restoration of Ecclesiastical Order in France. — Concordat of 1801. — Napoleon and Pope Pius VII 338 217. The Catholic Church in Germany. — Secularization 342 218. The Catholic Church in Bavaria under Maximilian Joseph I. and Louis 1 345 219. Ecclesiastical Affairs in Prussia. — Troubles in Cologne .... 347 220. The Ecclesiastical Provinces of the Upper Rhine 350 221. The Condition of Ecclesiastical Affairs in Austria under Francis II. and Ferdinand 1 353 222. The Catholic Church in the States of the German Alliance since the Year 1818 .356 223. The Restoration. — France under the Bourbons. — Louis Philippe. — Emperor Napoleon III. — Tlie Republic 365 224. The Catholic Church in Spain and Portugal 370 225. The Catholic Church in the Italian States 374 vm CONTENTS OF VOL. 11. PAGE § 226. Ecclesiastical Affairs iu Switzerland 376 227. The Condition of the Catholic Church in the Netherlands ... 380 228. Persecutions of the Catholic Cliurch in Poland and Russia . . . 384 229. Catholicity hi Ireland 388 230. Revival of Catholicity iu England and Scotland. — Restoration of the Hierarchy iu both Countries 393 B. HISTORY OF THE INTERIOR CONDITION OF THE CHURCH. I. CONSTITUTION OF THE CHURCH. PAGE 231. The Popes of the Nineteenth Century 400 232. The (Ecumenical Council of the Vatican 405 II. DEVELOPMENT OP DOCTRINE. 1. Scientific Studies. 233. Theological Science in the Nineteenth Century 407 2. Heresies and Schisms. 234. Theological Tendencies among Protestants 412 235. The Protestant Union and its Results. — Several Shades in Protes- tantism 415 236. Interior State of Protestantism — Sects 418 237. The Sect of tlie Rongeans and of the so-called Old Catholics . . 423 238. The Schismatic Churches of the East 425 III. WORSHIP AND DISCIPLINE. 239. Divine Service. — Christian Life 426 240. Coucludiusr Remarks 430 Chronological List of Popes from Benedict XL to Leo XIII 432 Clironological List of (Ecumenical Councils from the Council of Vieuue to tliat of the Vatican 433 Chronological Table of Popes, Emperors, Kings, and Important Events, from Benedict XL to the dissolution of the German Empire in 1806. . 434 Index 455 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. econli €poc|). PERIOD II. FR03I GREGORY VII. TO THE SO-CALLED REFORMATION. A. HISTORY OF THE EXTERIOR CONDITION OF THE CHURCH. II, CHURCH AND STATE. 2. From the Death of Boniface VIII. to the Beginning of the Sixteenth Century. Introductory Remarks. THE era from the pontificate of Boniface VIII. forms the tran- sition period to that of modern times. It shows us, first, the decrease of papal power. Imperialism had been weakened in its authority and influence by the contests in which it had been involved through the fault of those who wore the imperial crown, and those contests had also so injured the papacy as to compel it to have recourse to France. France, in virtue of its ancient and intimate relations to the Holy See, arrogated to itself claims far too high. It was the dependence of the Popes on French policy that had induced them to transfer their residence to Avignon ; and the endeavor, on the one hand, of the Popes to free themselves from this yoke by returning to Rome, and on the other the efforts made by France to secure the advantages it had gained, led to the forty years' schism. Naturally, these circumstances weakened the influence and authority of the Holy See ; they engendered in the very bosom of the Church itself a many-sided opposition, which called into exist- ence new doctrines respecting the nature of the ecclesiastical con- stitution, and new reformatory experiments, which, not being guided 10 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. by clear views as to their tendency, not being founded on any solid basis, but being simply the result of the excitement under which the spirits of the age acted, were far more successful in tearing down than in building up. Nor at that period did so many able and noble minds succeed each other in St. Peter's seat, as had in the past ages ruled the storm. Not every one yf the Popes was able to take a right view of his position under the ever-varying relationships by which he was surrounded. Not all of them were able to cope with the exigencies of the age; some few of them were not worthy of the hio-h dignity to which they were called. The ecclesiastical opposition took advantage of their short-comings, even as the politico-demo- cratic party ever availed themselves of the weak side of monarchy. Reverence for authority, and with it that willing obedience which springs from such reverence, was vanishing more and more ; as the bishops wished to coerce the Pope, the priests also wished to coerce the bishops, and the laity to coerce the clergy. The weakening of the Church in its centre led to the weakening of every part of her periphery. Secondly, this period shows the rise of a self-conscious temporal State liollc/ij hostile to the Church; entailing an excessive increase of State encroachments on the domain of the Church. Kings with- drew themselves more and more from the guidance of the ecclesias- tical law. The State, instead of recognizing the supreme authority of the Church, strove more and more to subordinate spiritual authority to the temporal, to sever political relationships from the domain of religion and morality. As a consequence, the sentiment of unity and of family alliance among Christian nations gave way more and more to national jealousy and egotism. The Pope being no longer arbiter between princes, the sword alone could decide their disputes. Such a change of spirit could not fail to bring with it new and grave dangers even to the temporal power. Therefore this age shows, thirdly, the presumptuous iyisolence which, as the bonds of authority became loosened, seized on the unfettered spirit. It shows, also, the strong tendency to revolution which everywhere appears when the higher sustaining powers are arrested in the performance of their duty, and not able to correspond to the most urgent demands of the soul ; then the spirit of unity gives way to the egoistic selfishness of individuals, and, in the place of the high ideal, the rude craving after material gain, the selfish desire of individual advantage, predominates. Therefore it was that a gross materialism, promoted by new inventions and new dis- INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 11 coveries, set in ; this was fostered, also, by the more commou exten- sion of classical studies, combined with a reawakening of a pagan spirit, which aspired only at realizing earthly treasures and tempo- ral enjoyments, forgetting heaven in its attachment to the world. To this was united, fourthly, on the one hand, a degeneracy of science, as of theology and jurisprudence ; and on the other, a tvider expansion of some scientific branches, as in historical criticism, in linguistic studies, and in empiricism. The representatives of the newly cultivated fields of material science lost sight of tradition and authority, and attached themselves in great measure to the new heretics, many of whom used religion only as a joretext for political innovations. Fifthly, heresy at this period bears a much more general character than it formerly did, — embraces a much wider scope. Up to that time the Church had found no adequate opponent in the sects that had arisen ; now new ones came forth, who assailed her not merely in her separate dogmas but in her very roots, availing themselves of real or pretended abuses in clerical life to justify their negation, and using the cry that had become the watchword, " Reformation of the Church in her Head and members," to foster discontent and to deceive the masses. Thus by degrees everything became un- certain, — everything became a doubt, a question. Individualism pressed itself forward : revolt and warfare followed. The false systems organized with the view of limiting the power alike of the spiritual and of the temporal order, with the view of contenting the spiritual and bodily requirements of the age, sought to find reali- zation in actual life. Some sparks were emitted, from which was soon to arise a brightly glowing flame. Yet amid storms such as these, amid the veriest perversities of schism, the apostolic seat of St. Peter still maintained its ground. Fiercely shaken it was, biit never destroyed, being upheld by the divine protection. Even the temporary predominance of a false ecclesiastical constitutionalism, even the councils that were held in opposition to it, could not undermine its authority, although such means partially succeeded in obscuring it in the eyes of many con- temporaries and of some of those who came after. Even those who were unworthy to wear the tiara have in several instances done much for the promotion of knowledge, for the furtherance of mis- sions, and for the maintenance of ecclesiastical order and discipline. Also, throughout this period there never failed a time in which great saints, doctors, and princes did not appear, nor any in which religious 12 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. enthusiasm did not give birth to noble deeds. This enthusiasm dis- played itself in the most brilliant manner in Spain, when it came out victorious from its contests with the Moors, and was united into a mighty kingdom which formed the first great power. Islam, succumbing in the west, yet making mighty strides in the southeast of Europe, owing to the disunion among Christian princes, called forth the energy of some distinguished men, and to some extent obviated the torpidity, the intellectual and moral laxity, to which otherwise Hungary, Poland, and Germany would have been entirely sacrificed. The mighty tide-wave which had seized upon the nations, while it promoted much that was bad, also brought to light much that was good. It served to the further spreading of the kingdom of Christ, which in the remotest east, south, and west was to find compensa- tion for the losses it had sustained in the north. Good elements existed yet, struggling with the bad, — elements fraught with desire for the welfare of the Church and endowed with zeal and strength. But it was through these mighty storms that the air of the Church was to be purified ; it was through these hard contests that a new victory was to be gained. The renovation of the Church was to take place from zvithin, after the whole edifice had been shaken from without to its very centre, to its very base. § 124. The Exile of the Popes at Avignon. — Popes Benedict XL to Gregory XI.^ and the Relations they bore to the several States of Europe. Ten days after the death of Boniface VIII., Benedict XI. ^ was unanimously elected at Rome (Oct. 22, 1303). He sought to restore peace with the French court without violating justice. By the advice of Nogaret, Philip IV. had sent an embassy to Rome. The Pope received the members of it kindly, and without being again requested, removed the censures which had been passed upon the king. Subsequently he issued several decrees by which the punishments which had been inflicted by Boniface on France were revoked, and several far from insignificant favors were granted 1 Nicholas Boccasini, General of the Dominicans, Cardinal Bishop of Ostia. He was properly the tenth of the name, since Benedict X. was an anti-Pope (see § 90). Concerning Benedict XI. and the following Popes, see Christophe, Hist, of the Papacy in the Fourteenth Century. Hefcle, Hist of the Councils, vi. 344 sqq. Baluze, Vitae pap. Aveuion., torn, ii., Paris. POPES BENEDICT XI. TO GREGORY XI. 13 to the kiiig.i Benedict also partly withdrew the penalties imposed on the Colonnas,- and he absolved from excommunication all the Frenchmen who were implicated in the outrage at Anagni, with the exception of Nogaret; but Philip IV. was by no means satis- fied with these concessions. He demanded of Benedict the con- vocation of a general council to pass judgment on Pope Boniface VIII., whom he accused of heresy ; his object being to gratify his hate and to justify his own conduct before Christendom. Benedict evaded a definite answer, and put off his decision to a later day. But he died at Perugia, after a brief pontificate of eight months, and after having expressed in no measured terms his ab- horrence of the outrage committed at Anagni.^ His death was not without suspicion of poison. A division in the college of cardinals as to the position which the future Pope should hold relatively to France delayed the papal election, so that it was the 5th of June, 1305, in the eleventh month of the conclave, before Bertrand de Got (Clement V., 1305- 1314) was proclaimed supreme head of the Church. The rumor that this Pope had made six concessions to the King of France before his election is false, though it is patent that his connivance with the French court after he became Pope gave coun- tenance to the report. This Pope withdrew the bull " Clericis laicos," and made the dec- laration that the operation of the bull " Uuam sanctam " should not prejudice France.* He restored the Colonnas to their honors and dignities, gave an unheard-of preference to the French in his pro- motions to the cardinalate, as well as in the decree which granted to the avarice of the king the tithes of the Church for five years. He raised the candidates nominated by the king to the most influ- ential episcopal sees of France, suppressing or ignoring by that act the right of election inherent in the cathedral chapter ; and even then Philip was not satisfied. He had not lost sight of Nogaret's design, and demanded of Clement, immediately after his coronation, that he should commence a process against Boniface, whom he charged with heresy. Philip had yet another object in view ; namely, the suppression 1 Hcfele, Hist, of the Councils, vi. 345 sqq. 2 Hcfele, Hist of the Councils, vi. 345, n. 2. 3 Bull "Flagitiosum scelus." Tosti, ii. 313, 14. * C. 2 Meruit V. 7 Extravag. comm. de privileg. Cf. Bianchi della Podest^, etc., I, § 10, p. 98 sqq. Phillips, Ec. Rec. iii. 266. 14 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. of the Order of Knights Templars, to effect which he desired the co-operation of the Pope. Clement hesitated to comply with the demands of the king, who in May, 1307, and subsequently, reiterated his propositions respect- ing the heresy of Boniface, and was most urgent in his endeavors to induce the Pope to comply with his wishes respecting the Order of the Templars. The Pope yielded at length to the second point, and even expressed his willingness to hear the accusers of liis illus- trious predecessor, of whose innocence he declared his personal conviction. The judicial examination took place on the 16th of March, 1310, in a consistory at Avignon, at which place Clement had resided since 1309. The envoys of the King of France were Nogaret, who was still under excommunication,^ William du Plessis, and others, who brought forward against Boniface VIII. the most improbable calumnies, invented by hatred, and which had been circulated for years by the accomplices of Philip. Finally, the king, whose prin- cipal aim at that time was directed towards the Knights Templars, was fain to content himself with the understanding that the process against Boniface should be decided at Vienne, at The Fifteenth OEcumenical Council (Oct. 16, 1311, to May 6, 1312), which had already been convoked by the Pope. At this synod the charges against Boniface were declared to be unfounded, and thus the design of the King of France was frustrated. But with regard to the Order of the Templars,^ the suppression of which was determined upon at Vienne, the king did attain his object, which was to fill his own coffers with the confiscated treasures belonging to the Templars, at the same time that he won for himself the reputation of being a defender of orthodoxy. Although Clement V. had acceded to the greater number of wishes expressed by the King of France, he did not countenance his plan of obtaining the royal crown of Germany and that of the empire for his brother Charles of Valois. Pope Clement favored the election 1 He was absolved on April 27, 1311. The bull "Licet" in Raynald, Ad ann. 1311, n. 50, contains the conditions. 2 See § 132. At the Council of Vienne the proposition (which Giinther has in modern times renewed) that the "anima rationalis sive intellectiva " is not "vera forma corporis " is rejected as erroneous. POPES BENEDICT XL TO GREGORY XI. 15 of Henry, Count of Luxemburg, who, in 1310, set out on his journey to Rome. Filled with the idea of imperial omnipotence, Henry Yll. made his appearance in Italy, which had been fearfully devastated by the continual conflicts between the Ghibellines and the Guelphs, and was crowned emperor in the Lateran by the cardinals commissioned to perform that office. Unable to keep aloof from the strife of party, he found himself drawn in to take sides where he could not establish a peace. He joined the Ghibellines, who had welcomed him by acclamation, and he then became their leader. The Guelphs, on the other hand, found an ally in Robert, King of Naples ; and it was against this latter that Henry's anger was directed. It was in vain that the Pope endeavored to induce the princes to agree to an armistice. Henry went on with his warlike prepara- tions, and threatened Naples, declared Robert an enemy of the empire, and, April 26, 1313, placed him under the ban of the em- pire, and pronounced sentence of death upon him for high-treason. Being called upon by France and England to annul this sentence, Clement required the emperor to revoke his hasty judgment. Henry did not comply ; and everything was already prepared to attack Naples, which was a fief of the Roman Church, when Henry died, at Pisa, on the 24th of August, 1313, after a short sickness. In England, during the reign of Edw.ard I. (1272-1307), the king, who was continually at war with France and Scotland, encroached in many ways upon the ancient rights of the Church. But this was far less the case under Edward II. (1307-1327). When the king, in 1312, was threatened by a turbulent nobility, Clement V. sent two legates to mediate between him and his barons ; and after a protracted stubbornness of purpose on the part of the latter, they finally effected a peace between them. The bishops remained personally attached to the king, but they resisted the efforts made by temporal judges to cite cases appertaining to ecclesiastical dis- cipline before their forum. ^ There had been many claimants to the throne of Scotland ; and Edward I. of England had at first declared in favor of John Baliol, who paid him feudal homage ; but afterwards Edward made war against him and took him prisoner on the plea that he was an 1 This attempt was also made under Edward III. ; but he finally acknowledged the authority of the ecclesiastical courts over clerics. The bishops were also fre- quently compelled to defend the rights of the Church to her own possessions and to the making of ecclesiastical appointments. 16 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. unfaithful vassal. The Scots elected young Eobert Bruce as king ; and he drove the troops of the English king, Edward II., out of the kingdom of Scotland, and maintained his own independence in it until his death, in 1328. He refused to receive the legates of John XXII., because the papal letter which they brought in reference to his disputed right to the throne and to the claims of England denied him the title of king. When afterwards, for the sake of peace, the Pope gave him that title, his Holiness declared that he did so without prejudice to any advantage or disadvantage that might accrue to either side.^ In the year 1314 Pope Clement V. departed this life, on the 20th of April. But it was not before the 7th of August, 1316, that he found a successor ^ in James of Ossa, from Cahors, Cardinal Bishop of Porto, who took the name of John XXII. The first care of this Pope was directed to Germany. Here, on the 25th of November, 1314, during the vacancy of the apostolic chair, a double election had taken place. Frederic of Austria and Louis of Bavaria were contending for the royal crown. Both appealed to the Pope for recognition and for coronation as emperor. John XXII. called upon them (Sept. 5, 1316) to come to a peaceable un- derstanding, and at first recognized neither of the elected princes as king, but confirmed King Robert of Naples in the position he had received from his predecessor as Imperial Yicar of Italy for such time as the imperial throne should remain vacant.^ The victory of Miihldorf (Sept. 28, 1322) gave Louis the upper hand in Germany ; and he immediately assumed the state due to a king, nay, even that belonging to an emperor,* while he now ^ This declaration was in conformity with one of Clement V., and similar to those made by other Popes on like occasions. The Popes did not interfere in the contest for the throne by both countries; they only sought to uphold the rights of the Church in like manner as Eugene IV., for instance, upheld them against James, King of Scotland. '^ One part of the cardinals wished for a Pope who would again take up his resi- dence in Eonie ; but those who were attached to France resisted this. Hcfclc, Hist, of the Councils, vi. 505 sqq. 3 " Imperium vacans" as distinguished from "regnum vacans." * Thereby coming into contradiction with himself and with the convictions of his contemporaries. Cf. Mutii, Chron. Germ. xxiv. 866: "Tanta Eomanae sedis auctoritas et religio erat apud plerosque, ut non judicarent nee appellandum censerent impera- torem, nisi prius unctus, coronatus, confirmatusque esset." (Piatoi: Germ. Script, ii. 866.) Gerh. de Moo, Hist. Austriac. ii. 88 : " Ea Pontificis auctoritas, ea apud plerosque reverentia erat, uti ab ejus confirmatione imperatoria dignitas penderet multique per POPES BENEDICT XI. TO GREGORY XL 17 demanded recognition from the Pope without further examination into his claims. At the same time he gave offence by the support he rendered to Galeazzo Visconti in Milan, and to other enemies of tlie Church, besides attacking the imperial vicar. In this man- ner he came into collision with the Holy See ; and in October, 1323, John XXII. required him within three months to resign the ad- ministration of the empire and withdraw his operations from Italy until such time as the papal decision was given, and this under pain of excommunication. The king, whose behavior during this conflict had been a mixture of undignified weakness and of ill-tempered spite, asked for a pro- traction of the limited time assigned, while at the same time lie protested, at the Diet of Nuremberg, against the papal demand, which he characterized as unjustifiable, and demanded an oecumeni- cal council against John XXII., who, he said, favored the heretics. The sentence of excommunication which was pronounced on him in ]\Iarch, 1324, was answered by Louis in a manifesto on the 22d of May, wherein John was charged with heresy and with encroaching on the rights of the electoral princes. The Pope denied both these charges, denouncing them as calumnies, and then pronounced (July, 1324) still severer censures on Louis, who had oftentimes violated the rights of the Church.^ The position taken by Leopold of Austria, Frederic's brother, who in agreement with the Pope wished to help King Charles IV. of France to the imperial crown, compelled Louis to conclude the Treaty of Ulm with Frederic (Jan. 7, 1326). According to this, Frederic was to rule over Germany, while Louis was to govern Italy and to wear the imperial crown ; but the stipulations of this treaty were never carried out. Leopold died on the 28th of February, and Louis became sole ruler. The excommunicated king, under the influence of false advisers, — especially of the schismatic Minorites, the so-called Fratricelli,^ — was induced by them still further to increase his opposition to the Germaniam neutrum ex regibus agnoscere vellent, quoad de Pontificis voluntate constaret." 1 Martcnc, 1. c. p. 652 sqq. To the reproach that the Pope was encroaching on the rights of the electors, John replied : "Nequaqnam nostrae intentionis extitit, nee existit, juri principum ecclesiasticorum vel saecularium, ad quos electio Piomani regis in futurum imperatorem promovendi spectare noscitur, per processus nostros, seu aliqua contenta in eis, in aliquo derogare inimo illud oiunino eis illibatum volumus reservari" (p. 671). 2 See § 137. VOL. II. 2 18 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. Church, against which he waged war, partly by sheer violence, partly by the pen. Among the anti-papal writings thus elicited, opposition is carried to its height in the " Defensor pacis " of Marsilius of Padua, aided by his colleague in the Parisian High School, John of Jandun, and the spiritualist Ubertino of Casale, both doctors at Paris. These authors not only subordinate the spiritual power to that of the tem- poral, but they overturn the whole constitution of the Church, and promulgate principles concerning ecclesiastical authority which at a later date were enunciated by Calvin ; they also bring forward the basest and coarsest defamations of the papacy.^ The schismatic Minorites Michael of Cesena, Bonagratia, and particularly William of Occam,^ took part in these polemics of the pen. The last-named reiterated in his various writings chiefly the erroneous views developed by Dante in his "Monarchia," but went even further, and wandered so wide from the truth that he came to deny the infallibility of the Pope and of the general coun- cils, and ascribed the final right of decision to the whole association of Christians. As opponents to these false and pernicious principles, the Do- minican Petrus de Palude, the Minorite Alvarus Pelagius (+ 1352), and the Augustinian hermit Augustinus Triumphus {+ 1328) came forward. Their writings, however, are not free from untenable doctrines in many points, especially in reference to the papal power and to its relation to the temporal. Misled by his schismatic surroundings, the blinded king pro- ceeded, in 1327, on his expedition to Italy. In Milan he received the iron crown, and then with solemn ceremony made his entrance into Eome. On Jan. 17, 1328, he was crowned emperor by Sciarra 1 In the bull " Licet jiixta doctrinani " (Martcnr., ii. 704 s(|q.), John condemned the defender, and censured the following propositions: " Quod res ecclesiae temporales sunt imperatori subjectae et eas possit recipere velut suas. Quod b. Petrus apost. non jtlus auctoritatis habuit, quam alii apostoli habuerint, nee aliorum apostolorum sit caput. Item quod Christus nullum caput dimisit ecclesiae, nee aliquem vicarium suuni fecit. Quod ad imperatorem spectat, papam instituere et destituere ac punire. Quod omnes sacerdotes sive sit papa, sive archiepiscopus, sive sacerdos simplex, sunt ex institutione Christi auctoritatis et jurisdictionis aeqnales : quod autem unus plus alio habeat, hoc est secundum quod iniperator concedit uni vel alii plus et minus, et sicut concessit alicui sic potest etiam illud revocare. Quod tota ecclesia simul juncta nullum hominem punire potest punitione coactiva, nisi concedat hoc imperator." Cf. Bianchi, Delia potesta e della politia della cliiesa, ii. 565. - See § 142. POPES BENEDICT XL TO GREGORY XI. 19 Colonna, in the name of the Roman people. On the 18th of April Louis declared the Pope guilty of heresy and of other crimes, de- posed him from his dignity, and had him burnt in effigy. Some weeks after this, he nominated the ill-famed Minorite Peter Rai- nalducci from Corvara, under the name of Nicholas V., as supreme head of the Church. This anti-Pope repeated the coronation of Louis as emperor. On receiving intelligence of what had transpired in Rome, John XXII. had a crusade preached against the excommunicated king, and summoned the German princes to a new election. Tlie triumph of the last imperial anti-Pope was of short duration. The king, on the 4th of August, 1328, was obliged to leave Rome, covered with shame and hooted out by the scorn of the people. He returned to Germany, while the anti-Pope, after some wanderings, submitted to the rightful Pope. To elevate and strengthen his authority, which had fallen to a somewhat low level, Louis, in May, 1330, entered into negotiations with the Holy See without giving any secure sign of having changed his sentiments, on which account John XXII. could not accede to his proposals. At length, in 1333, the king declared himself ready to resign in favor of his cousin, Henry of Lower Bavaria; but at this juncture the intrigues of the kings of Hungary and Naples frustrated the restoration of peace. During the time that this obnoxious conflict had been carried on, the Pope had strictly adhered to the rule of -right principles, while Louis had vacillated from one side to the other, and the princes of the empire, regardless of all principle, had sold their fidelity and their votes for money. To ruin the authority of the Pope, Louis, whose peaceful incli- nations were again changed into a vehement opposition, made the attempt, by the advice of his counsellors, to have John XXII. ar- raigned as a heretic before a general council, on account of his " Visio beata," ^ and deposed. The death of the Pope hindered the carrying out of this strangely conceived plan. ^ In a sermon John thus expressed himself concerning the view of the blest : "Merces sanctorum ante Christi adventum erat sinus Abrahae. Post adventum vero Christi et ejus passionem et ascensionem in coelo merces sanctorum est et erit usque ad diem judicii, esse sub altari Dei, quia animae justorum usque ad diem judicii erunt sub altari, i.e. sub protedionc et consolatione huvuinitatis Christi. Sed postquam Christus venerit ad judicium erunt super altare, i.e. super Christi humanitate, quia post diem judicii videbunt . . . non solum humanitatem Christi sed etiam divinita- tern, ut in se est. Videbunt etiam patrem et filium per spiritum sanctum." (Baluze, 20 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH John XXII. died Dec. 4, 1334. He was a learned, ascetic, edu- cated man, and an indefatigably active Pope, who made great sacri- fices for the promotion of learning, regulated the course of business in the curia for the papal chancery and the Eota Eomana, and fre- quently preached the truths of Christianity to the people. One of the principal objects of his solicitude was the liberation of the Holy Land, for which purpose he, by great economy and by a mani- fold taxation of the Church,^ had collected large sums. John XXII. was succeeded by the mild and placable Benedict XII. (1334-1342), who immediately took the necessary steps for the reformation of the curia, and bethought him, in all earnestness, of carrying the resolves of his predecessor into execution by returning to Rome.^ But this was to be his lot as little as the carrying out of that other project of reconciling Louis with the Church. The Pope himself took the initiative in the matter, but was not able to withstand the French oppression ; therefore the envoys of the king, equally with the emissaries of the bishops, who were assembled at Spire in 1338, had to leave Avignon without coming to any conclusion. Under such circumstances, any settlement of the conflict was out of the question, and the exasperatiqn against France increased daily. In July of the same year, the electors came together in the Diet of Rhense, and declared that the one who should be elected by the majority was the lawful king. This view was also maintained in many writings, the authors of which identified the empire with the heathenish Roman Imperium, or made it dependent on the German kingdom, leaving to the Pope only the right of corona- tion. They contested the oath taken by the emperor to the Pope, Vitae pap. Aven. i. 788. ) On the controversies arising from these expressions, see Hcfde, Hist, of the Councils, vi. 522 sqq. ; Christophc, ii. 19 sqq. On his death-bed John declared : " Fatemur et credimus, quod animae purgatae et separatae a corpori- bus sunt in coelo, coelorum regno et paradiso et cum Christo in consortio angelorum congregatae et vident Deum ac divinam essentiam facie ad faciem clare, in quantum status et conditio compatitur animae separatae ; si vero alia vel aliter circa materiam hujusmodi per nos dicta, praedicata, sen scripta fuerunt quoquo modo, ilia diximus, praedicavimus seu scripsimus reeitando dicta sacrae scripturae et sanctorum et con- ferendo et non determinando nee etiam tencndo et sic et non aliter ilia volumus esse dicta, praedicata seu scripta." Benedict XII. gave a dogmatic decision in the bull " Benedictus Deus." Cf. Raynald, Ad ann. 1335, n. 8, sqq. 1 Annates (first fruits), etc. See § 130. '^ In a poetical epistle the celebrated poet Petrarch petitioned the Pope to take up his residence in Rome (Carm. lib. i. ep. 2). POPES BENEDICT XI. TO ORE fl DRY XI. 21 as also the right of said Pope to appoint au imperial vicar when the throne was vacant. Such were the views, even if more moderately expressed, of Lupoid of Bebenburg, Bishop of Bamberg (+ 1363), and of the Abbot Engelbert of Admont. They stood, however, in too striking a con- tradiction to historical development to effect any sudden change in existing relationships, although they were not without influence on the views of a later period. Meantime the excommunicated king protested, at the Diet of Frankfort, on August 6, against the sentence passed on him by John XXII., and issued a constitution in which he declared that the imperial dignity is derived immediately from God, and that the person elected by the electoral princes is to be considered king or emperor without requiring any confirmation from the Pope. An- other edict forbade the reception of any papal bull or the like, with- out the consent of the archbishop ; it also forbade that obedience should be paid to it. The few clergymen who observed the interdict were threatened with severe punishment. The Church in Germany was in a most deplorable condition, espe- cially from the fact that reverence for the Holy See was decreasing more and more.-' The papal court at Avignon seems not to have rightly known or comprehended the misery of the Church in Ger- many ; for the successor of Benedict XII., Clement VI. (1342-1352), — the great lover of pomp, who, by the purchase of Avignon and the nomination of French cardinals, had bound the papacy by still closer ties to France, — renewed, April 12, 1313, the censures against Louis, who, in November, 1342, had made overtures of peace to him. The Pope continued, however, to negotiate with the envoys of the king. Louis, who, by his oppressions of the Church, by his greed of increasing his dominions, and especially by his usurpation of clerical authority in the affair of divorce granted by him to Margaret (Maultasch), heiress of Tyrol and Carinthia, and in the dispensations from im- pediments to marriage by blood relationship which he took upon himself to legalize, had evoked a great opposition to his house in Germany, showed an inclination to accede to the papal conditions ; but now the Pope, suspecting fraud, made greater demands on him than before. These demands were rejected at the Diet of Frankfort 1 Mutii, Chron. Germ. xiv. p. 881. Of the sermons preached at this era it is said : "Aliquamdiu nihil aliud ad popuhnn praedicahant [scl. the adherents of Louis], quam de iniperatore et pontifice, prohabant omnes declaniantes ad populuni, im- periuni esse immediate a Deo, nee habere papam quidquam juris in imperium," etc. 22 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. (Sept. 8, 1344), and at the second meeting of the electoral princes at Rhense (Sept. 16). At the last place the necessity of electing a new king was discussed. On July 11, 1346, Prince Charles IV., son of John, King of Bohemia, was elected by live electoral princes at the recommendation of the Pope. The adherents of Louis, against whom Clement had published a very severe bull of excommunication on Holy Thursday, 1346, pro- tested against this, and on the death of Louis (1347) set up as anti- king Giinther of Schwarzburg, who, however, died soon after, on June 14, 1349. After this Charles was universally acknowledged ; and at Easter, 1355, the king received in Rome the imperial crown, and in the same year regulated the election of the German king by the Golden bull, which makes the right to the German crown depen- dent on the majority of votes cast by the electoral princes. By this act, as also by his declaration that he would reform the German clergy by his own authority, the emperor fell into a transient discord with Pope Innocent VI. (1352-1362), who had succeeded Clement. Being urgently invited thereto by the inhabitants of Rome, Innocent VI. adopted the project that had been entertained by his predecessors, of returning to Rome, the Eternal City, which during the absence of the Popes had been the prey of the wildest party-feuds. After the overthrow of the dominion of the nobles, the celebrated demagogue Cola di Rienzi, with the consent of the Pope, assumed the reins of government ; but, having by his luxurious habits and ostentatious behavior incurred the hatred of the people, he was excommunicated by Cardinal Bertrand de Deux, Legate of Clement VL, and forced to flee the city. Driven from Rome (1347), Rienzi wandered from place to place, and was at last delivered into the power of the Pope by the Emperor Charles IV. Meantime other tyrants had seized hold of the government. To put an end to their rule. Pope Innocent sent, in 1353, the valiant Cardinal -^Egidius Albornoz with an army to Italy. To him Rienzi was sent by the Pope, and named Senator of Rome ; but when reintrusted with power, he became again intoxicated with vanity, acted like a tyrant, and was slain in a tumult of the people. In the year 1361 the papal dominion over Rome Avas again established; but his project of re- turning thither himself Innocent had to transfer to his successor Urban V. (1362-1370), a truly apostolic man. Pope Urban V., weary at length of imprisonment at Avignon,^ 1 In 1366 Petrarch asked the Pope whether he wished one day to rise again with the sinners of Avignon or with tlie martyrs of Rome. J'OPES BENEDICT XL TO (IREdUltV XI. 23 returned to Rome on the 19th of May, 1367, by way of Marseilles, in spite of the remonstrances of the French king, Charles V. In September, 1370, he left the unquiet city, ostensibly to endeavor to end the war that had again broken out between France and England ; but, as St. Bridget of Sweden had foretold, he died soon after his arrival in France (Dec. 19, 1370). After the death of Urban, Gregory XI. (1370-1378), a nephew of Clement VI., and the last French Pope, ascended the papal throne. He yielded to the request of Catherine of Siena, a nun of the Dominican order,^ and in spite of the opposition of the cardinals, and the remonstrances of Charles V. of France, returned to Kome. He had hardly arrived there (Jan. 17, 1377), when he bethought him of again quitting Italy, which was then a prey to faction and torn to pieces by the spirit of 'ga.vtj ; but before he could carry out his purpose he died, on the 27th of March, 1378. Shortly before his death, Gregory by a bull empowered the sixteen cardinals who had accompanied him to Rome to elect a new pon- tiff without waiting the arrival of the six cardinals who had remained in Avignon. He also decided that the election might take place anywhere, at any suitable place and without conclave, by a simple majority of votes. , The unanimous choice of the cardinals on the 8th of April fell on the Archbishop of Bari, Bartholomew Prignano (Urban VI.), a very able Pope ; but he conducted himself so harshly towards the refractory cardinals that they soon broke with him entirely. The discontented ones, eleven of whom were Frenchmen, and Peter de Luna, a Spaniard, left Rome, and at Anagni declared the election of Urban invalid, and renounced obedience to him. With them three Italian cardinals, won over by promises, united. Only Cardinal Tebaldeschi remained faithful to the Pope. The rebellious cardi- nals, at Fondi, whither also their colleague, the Cardinal of Amiens, had repaired, elected Cardinal Robert of Geneva, Pope. He took the name of Clement VII., and took up his residence at Avignon. The three Italian cardinals took no part in the election, but neither did they protest against it. In order to justify their desertion of Urban, the cardinals alleged that the whole transaction concerning the election of Urban had been uncanonical and 1 Raynald, Ad ann. 1376, n. 1. She had written to the Pope on this suhject, and during her presence at Avignon, as advocate for the Florentines, she exhorted him in person to return to Rome. 24 HISTOUY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. invalid on account of the pressure exercised by the electtirs. It is true, indeed, that the Romans had urgently requested the cardinals to choose a Roman or at least an Italian Pope, and had given a tumultuous expression to their desire for the election of a Roman Pope, before the Vatican, during the conclave. Other disturbances had followed after the election had taken place, because false ideas had been entertained respecting the person elected, as the cardinals for certain reasons did not immediately make known the result of the election. " But," says Cardinal Hergenrother, in his " Church History," " all these tumults were not of the kind to interfere with the freedom of election ; in fact, iii the afternoon twelve cardinals held a second election altogether free, when the choice again fell on the Archbishop of Bari. Order was soon restored ; the election was solemnly proclaimed on April 9, and on the 10th the enthronization took place in the church of St. Peter, while on Easter Sunday (the 18th of April) the coronation was solemnized. " The new Pope, Urban VI., received general recognition. All the cardinals there assembled attended at his coronation, assisted him at the ecclesiastical feasts, requested spiritual favors at his hands, and wrote an account of what had passed to their ccdleagues in Avignon with the assurance that perfect free- dom and unanimity liad prevailed. The six cardinals who had been left in Avignon also acknowledged him as Pope, and ordered the connnandant of the castle of St. Angelo to deliver up the keys to him, as the former Pope had made this surrendering of the keys of that foilress dependent on their consent. Moreover, Urban's escutcheon was exposed at Avignon, and homage done to it." (Church History, vol. ii. p. 35.) § 125. The Western Schism. The next consequence of the election of Robert of Geneva was a most lamentable schism ^ in Christendom. Most of the Catholic countries remained faithful to Urban YI., for whom Catherine of Siena was especially zealous ; but his opponents found allies in Johanna, Queen of Naples, and Charles V., King of France, by whose efforts Lorraine and Scotland, and subsequently also Castile and Aragon, were drawn into the schism. To facilitate the return of the schismatics to the Church, Urban, who previously to the election of the anti-Pope had nominated twenty-nine new cardinals, hesitated to publish the bull of excom- munication; and it was not till the last hoj^e of pacification had vanished that he excommunicated Robert and his abettors. To this the anti-Pope replied by anatheniatizing Urban. The faithlessness of Queen Johanna of Naples induced Urban 1 Theod. a Nicm, De Schismate, lib. 4. Theodoric of Niem founded the German hospice " Anima " at Rome. THE WESTERN SCHISM. 25 to take the kingdom from her, and invest Charles of Durazzo with it, as with a lief of the Holy See. Johanna sought help from the French court, and adopted Louis, Duke of Anjou, to whom the anti-Pope presented a portion of the States of the Church as the Kingdom of Adria. Urban had a crusade preached against Louis. Before this prince could arrive in Italy, Charles III., supported by the Pope, had already conquered Naples ; and all the attempts of Louis (+1384) to regain the rule over the kingdom were frustrated less by the arms of his antagonist than through the famine and sickness which wasted his army. Unfortunately, dissensions broke out between Urban, who had come to Naples, and his perfidious vassal, with whom some cardi- nals, exasperated by the harshness of the Pope, made common cause. They even resolved to place Urban VI. under restraint. But Urban was beforehand with them ; he had the renegades imprisoned and tortured in Nocera, and, being besieged in this city by Charles, he spoke the ban and interdict over him. At length he escaped from the power of Charles, and fled to Genoa, where he is said to have punished five cardinals with death. His svibsequent expedition against Naples was unsuccessful. Urban died on the loth of October, 1389, at Rome, and was succeeded by Peter Tomacelli (Boniface IX.), a Neapolitan, — a gentle and pious man, against whom the anti-Pope, whose rule was very bitterly oppressive to the French Church, pronounced anathema. Boniface restored the papal supremacy in the States of the Church, reinstated the cardinals deposed by Urban, and invested Ladislaus, the son of Charles III., with Naples, as with a fief of the Holy See. In order to bring about a happy termination of this miserable schism, Boni- face had recourse to Charles VI. of France. The king consulted the University of Paris, which during the time of Urban, and again in 1390, had already offered its services as mediator. The university, in 1394, proposed three modes of restoring peace, — cession, compromise, and an oecumenical council. The anti-Pope and his abettors — the Cardinal Peter de Luna and the Duke of Berry, brother to the king — tried every means in their power to frustrate their efforts ; but they did not attain their object. The university was not intimidated by the threats of Charles VI., and the sick king was finally compelled to require the Pope of Avignon and his cardinals to work for the union. The cardinals were already inclined to accept the proposals made to them, when Eobert of Geneva died, on the 16th of September, 1394, from vexation at the 26 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. " poisonous letter " of the university, and the conduct of his cardinals. Notwithstanding the admonitions of the king to the contrar}^, the schismatic Pope had a successor on the 28th of September, in the person of the crafty and ambitious Peter de Luna (Benedict XIII.), who knew how to entice to his court several distinguished men, as Peter d'Ailly, Nicholas of Clemange, and even St. Vincent Ferrer.^ The last, however, soon withdrew from his party. On the 2d of February, 1395, Charles VI. called an assembly of prelates and learned men to Paris, who, in union with the univer- sity, proposed the cession ^ of both Popes, as a means of settling the schism. The French court adopted the proposal, and sought by special embassies to induce the curia of Avignon and the Christian courts to accede to it. The envoys of the king and of the university obtained from Peter de Luna only empty promises ; and when the cardinals, in accordance with the oath they had taken at the conclave, wished to decide in favor of the resignation, the anti-Pope rejected this in a special bull. Meantime, by making large promises and by offering him the tithes of the Church, Peter de Luna sought to change the mind of the King of France and his court. The embassy had a better result with King Eichard II. of England and Henry of Castile, who, in union with France in 1397, required both the anti- Pope and Boniface to resign. Boniface could not entertain such a proposition, and Peter de Luna remained obstinate. The French court, which in 1398 had gained over the German king Wenceslaus to approve of the cession, on July 28, 1398, renounced obedience to the Pope of Avignon, whereupon eighteen cardinals of said Pope left him. Peter de Luna, besieged in his own palace, was now willing to resign, provided his opponent would either resign, or die, or be deposed. But before the two kings, Richard and Wenceslaus, could perform their promise of obliging the lawful Pope to resign, they themselves were hurled from their thrones, which fact improved the condition of Boniface. The circumstances surrounding the anti-Pope also took a more favorable turn. He escaped from imprisonment in 1402 ; the cardinals who had deserted him fell prostrate at his feet to ask his pardon, and in 1403 France returned to obedience under him. 1 St. Vincent Ferrer. Translated from tlie French by Rev. Fr. Dixon. 2 Five propositions were made ; namely, the three above-named, proposed by the university in 1394, and two new ones, — to conijuer Boniface IX. by the sword, or by persuasion to induce him and his adherents to acknowledge the anti-Pope. THE WESTERN SCHISM. 27 . Under these circumstances the termination of the schism by- means of cession could no longer be thought of. Yet the cardinals did not lose sight of it. The successors of Boniface (who had died Oct. 10, 1404), — with whom, to save appearances, the anti-Pope en- tered into negotiations, — Innocent VII. (+ Nov. 6, 1406) ^ and Gregory XII., ^ had to promise, before their election, to resign their dignity should the maintenance of peace require it. A national synod at Paris at first proposed an oecumenical council, but after- wards decided to call on the anti-Pope to resign his pretensions of his own accord, and threatened to withdraw from their obedience to him if he resisted. The anti-Pope then entered into negotiations with Gregory XII. But the conference between the two Popes, projected in Marseilles, 1407, to be held at Savona, did not come off. Gregory feared to repair to this city, which was under the dominion of France, and the anti-Pope refused to accept any other city proposed to him. Pope Gregory, who was very much influenced by his relatives, had meantime, in violation of the word he had plighted in conclave, created several new cardinals, and thereby so greatly exasperated the other cardinals who had been his friends, that in May, 1408, they fled to Pisa, renounced obedience to their master, and appealed to a general council. Those cardinals who belonged to the other party, at a conference held at Leghorn, joined them ; and both obediences now resolved in common to hold an oecumenical council for the re-establishment of the peace of the Church. Peter de Luna tried to frustrate this intention by holding a synod at Perpignan, and Gregory convoked a council to assemble at Pentecost, 1409, in the patriarchate Aquileja or in the province of Ravenna. The united cardinals, however, persevered in their opposition, and from Leghorn summoned an oecumenical council to be held at Pisa. Altliough the reasons alleged by the rebellious cardinals in justi- fication of their conduct were invalid, many prelates and learned men took their part, as also most of the European courts ; therefore no further notice was taken of the objections urged against the validity or legitimacy of the synod. ^ ^ Cardinal Cosimo Migliorati, a learned and virtuous man, who announced that he would summon an cecumenical council to put an end to the schisms, but could not bring this to pass on account of the insecurity of the times. "^ Cardinal Angelo Corrario, from Venice. ^ Gregory in his protestation asserts that the cardinals had pronounced judgment without the mediation of the judges, and that they had convoked a synod to obtain a 28 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. In 1408 France had yielded obedience to the anti-Pope. In the following year the German princes of the empire expressed them- selves in favor of neutrality and of recognition of the synod. King Wenceslaus of Bohemia, in the hope of recovering the Ger- man throne, was misled into deserting Gregory, whose proposals of mediation were rejected by the cardinals. § 126. The Council of Pisa. The council summoned by the cardinals of both obediences met at Pisa, and was opened on the 25th of March, 1409. A great num- ber of spiritual and temporal dignitaries, the envoys of several courts, and the delegates of many universities arrived there on the appointed day. Only the German king Eupert, and Ladislaus of Naples, remained faithful to Gregory XII,, and by their ambassadors entered a protest against the legitimacy of the council ; Spain, Por- tugal, and Scotland, on the other hand, adhered to the anti-Pope. Under the presidency of Guido of Malesec, the senior cardinal, the Council of Pisa, supported by the arguments of Peter d' Ancho- rano, a jurisconsult of Bologna, declared itself in its eighth session oecumenical, and asserted that it truly represented the whole Church. It proceeded to devote its first labors to the adjustment of the schism. The two contending claimants, Gregory XII. and Peter de Luna, were cited in the customary form, and at the fifteenth ses- sion were declared deposed from their rights and dignities. The proposals made to the council by Gregory through Charles ]\Iala- testa. Prince of Rimini, were not accepted ; neither were those presented by the deputies of Peter de Luna. Having previously determined that the future Pope should not dissolve the council before the enactment of the necessary reforms, the cardinals of both obediences, being for this time authorized so to do by the synod, proceeded to the election of a new Pope. On the 26th of June their choice fell on the Archbishop of Milan, Car- dinal Peter Philargi of Candia, who took the name of Alexander V. Under his presidency the council continued its sessions for a sanction for that judgment ; that the Pope alone coukl .summon an (Ecumenical coun- cil ; that he was willing to put off the council summoned by himself, if he could come to an understanding with the cardinals, and to leave the fixing of the place where they should meet to two umpires ajipointed by himself and the cardinals. He could not attend the Council of Pisa without compromising the dignity of the Holy See. THE COUNCIL OF CONSTANCE. 29 short time, during which Philargi ratified the decrees of the synod passed previously to his election, and several wholesome decrees of reform were enacted ; after which the council was adjourned for three years, and appointed to meet again in 1412 to continue as the Council of Pisa. But what had been foretold by Rupert, King of Germany, was noAv verified : this result was but a triplication of the schism, for three persons now laid claim to the papal tiara. Gregory XII., who had held the council convoked by himself in Cividale, found a refuge in Gaeta ; Peter de Luna remained at Per- pignan ; and the Pope of Pisa took up his residence in Bologna. Here the latter died in 1410; his successor, Balthasar Cossa (John XXIIL), who alienated even Ladislaus of -Naples from the legitimate Pope, convened the council appointed by his predeces- sor, in Pome, 1412. But few prelates responded to tlie summons ; and the whole business that occupied them consisted in rejecting some propositions of Wycliffe. For the reformation of the Church nothing was done. Although Cossa struggled for a long time against convening a reformatory synod, he was at length obliged to yield to the gen- eral wish of Christendom. Pressed by Ladislaus of Naples, he complied with the demand of the German king, Sigismund, and convoked a council, which was opened with all due solemnity at Constance, 1414, §127. The Council of Constance. The numerous prelates, the deputies from the universities, the temporal princes and their plenipotentiaries, who now were assem- bled together at Constance, recognized as the chief objects of the synod, the condemnation of the heresy Of John Huss, the refor- mation of the Church in its Head and members, but principally the termination of the unhappy papal schism. To effect this union in the quickest manner, and chiefly to paralj'ze the influence of the many bishops nominated by Cossa, the assem- bled members of the council, on the motion of Cardinals Filastre, D'Ailly, and others, decided, contrary to what had hitherto been ecclesiastical practice, (1) That in affairs of the union not only the bishops, but every member of the council, should be entitled to vote ; and (2) That the votes should be taken, not by a majority of episcopal suffrages, but by that of the representatives of nations, of which at the beginning four, but afterwards five, were counted. 30 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. After this the three contending claimants — Gregory XII., Bal- thasar Cossa, and Peter de Luna — were required to resign their pretensions of their own free-will, as peace could in this way be best and most easily restored to the Church. After fruitless efforts to have the decrees already enacted with- drawn, Cossa, intimidated by a memorial presented by an unknown Italian, which contained a series of grave charges against his morals, declared himself willing to abdicate the papal dignity, and in the second session read the prescribed formula of cession ; but soon afterwards he escaped, with the assistance of Frederic, Duke of Austria, to Schaffhausen, and showed signs of his intention to dissolve the council. The council, however, had in the third session taken precautions against any attempt at such a dissolution. In the fourth and fifth session it affirmed, at the instance of D'Ailly and Gerson, the propositions that the council had its authority immediately from Christ, and that the Pope w\as bound to accept its decisions in matters of faith, in its edict regarding the present schism, as in- deed in all things appertaining to the reformation of the Head and members of the Church. Meantime negotiations with Cossa, who had taken up his abode in Freiburg, were continued, as he had recalled his previous con- cessions. As these negotiations, however, led to no result, the synod commenced a judicial process against him, and in the twelfth session, on the 29th of May, 1415, proceeded to depose him ; seventy- two grave but exaggerated accusations Avere brought against him. Cossa (John XXIIL), who was taken prisoner by the Margrave Frederic of Brandenburg, and brought to Kadolfzell, near Con- stance,- finally submitted to the sentence of the synod. The lawful Pope, Gregory XII., who as early as January, 1415, had sent an embassy, with Cardinal John Dominici at its head, to Constance, now, at its fourteenth session (July 4), having in the first place recognized and authorized the council presided over l)y the Emperor Sigisniund, thus rendering valid its succeeding acts, sent in his resignation by his ambassador, Charles of IVIalatesta, providing, in his manner of doing so, for the preservation of the papal dignity and for the maintenance of the legitimacy of the lawful Pope. The schismatic Peter de Luna was now solicited to do the same, but he obstinately refused to resign the tiara of his own free- will ; therefore the council, after several long and fruitless nego- THE COIWCIL OF CONSTANCE. 31 tiations, deposed him from his dignity in the thirty-seventli session, July 26, 1417. The question whether the election of a Pope or the necessary reforms should first come under discussion was the occasion of vehement debate ; the German and English declaring for the latter, the other nations for the former point. In the thirty-ninth and fortieth sessions they at length came to an agreement. The synod passed several decrees of reform, and determined that before the dissolution of the present council the future Pope should take into consideration the reformation of the Church in her Head and mem- bers. After this the twenty-three cardinals, with whom, for this special occasion, six deputies from each nation were associated, pro- ceeded to elect a new pontiff as Head of the Church. The choice fell on the noble cardinal Otho Colonna (Nov. 11, 1417), who then ascended the papal throne as Martin V. Martin V. established a special tribunal of reform, which tribunal consisted of six cardinals and of one deputy for each nation. In January, 1418, he proposed a plan of reform, which was founded on the memorial of the German nation. Nevertheless, as the wishes of each particular nation and their requirements differ, the Pope resolved in the forty-third session to confirm and issue only those decrees that were generally received, and to conclude a separate concordat with each nation individually. This concluded the acts of the Synod of Constance, and it was left to a new council to accomplish the work of reformation. In the forty-fourth session Martin V. promised that after the lapse of five years he would convoke a council to meet at Pavia; and at the forty-fifth (i. e., the last) session he closed the council. As to the question -whether the Council of Constance may be num- bered among the general councils, it is an assured fact that from the forty-second to the forty-fifth session it must be acknowledged as The Sixteenth (Ecumexical Council. And even the previous decrees have oecumenical authority in so far as they were confirmed by the Pope. This is especially the case in the rejection of the heresies of Wycliffe and of Huss, as also of the reformatory decrees. I. Ill regard to the approval of the earlier decrees of the council, Martin V. thus expresses himself: — 1. In the bull "Inter cunctas " of the 22d of February, 1418, against the WyclifRtes and Hussites, in which one suspected of heresy is asked, " Utrum 32 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. credat, quod ilhul, quod sacrum cone. Const, univ. ecel. repraes. approbavit et apjirobat in favorem ficlei et ad salutem animarum, quod hoc est ab universis Christi fidelibus approbaudum et tenendum? "^ 2. In his declaration made at the request of the Poles, that he should pub- licly condemn the libel of the Russian Dominican Falkenberg, against the king and Polish nobility, the Pope speaks thus : that he holds fast, observes, and approves "omnia et singula determinata, couclusa et decreta in materiis fidei per jn-aesens sacrum concilium generale Const, coucilialiter, et non aliter nee alio modo." It is true that this explanation refers proximately to the cause in dispute of Falkenberg, but it has a wider scope in reference to the decrees of the council in general. 3. The decrees of the Council of Constance are therefore not approved un- conditionally, but only under certain restrictions. a. The expressions " concilialiter," in contradistinction to that of " nationali- ter" (winch means only of individual nations), and " tumultualiter " (which implies the decisions passed in Constance contrary to the right order), partly express these restrictive limitations, which are further partly shown by the words "in materiis fidei" and "ad salutem animarum." b. Both these speeclies of Martin V. thus prove that he only confirmed those decrees of the council which were embraced in the right way (" concilialiter"), and which were passed "in favorem fidei" and "ad salutem animarum." c. A closer explanation of the restriction under which Martin V. confirmed the decrees of Constance is given by his successor, Eugene IV., in his letter to his legates in Germany July 22, 1446,^ in the words : " Sicut illi [sel. prae- decessores nostri] generalia concilia Constantiense et Basiliense ab ejus initio, usque ad translationcm per nos factam, absque tamen praejudicio juris dignitatis, et praeeininentiae s. sedis Apostolicac . . . cum omni reverentia et devotione suscipimus, complectimur et veneramur." According to this, all such decrees of Constance as are injurious to the rights, dignity, and supremacy of the Apostolic See are excluded from the papal confirmation. II. From the foregoing it is seen how the question may be answered, what authority resides in the proposition of Constance : " Concilium supra Papam." 1. Wholly distinct from the contradiction involved in the proposition itself (as a true oecumenical council without the Pope is not conceivable), the very circumstance under which it was uttered impeaches its authority ; since, 2. This said proposition was put forth by prelates belonging to Cossa's obedience, and without the assent of the cardinals, and therefore not " concili- aliter." To this may be added, — 3. That Martin V. refused to confirm this proposition with the papal appro- bation ; and that, Sept. 4, 1439, Eugene IV. condemned and reiiected as "im- pia, scandalosa," a proposition of the Council of Basle, thirty-third session, referring to it, which set up the proposition of Constance as a dogma (" Sacro approbaute coneilio, scl. Florent., damnamus et reprobamus").^ 1 Harduin, viii. 914. « Raynald, Ad ann. 1446, n. 3. ^ ggg § 128. POPES MARTIN V. AND EUGENE IV. 33 4. Finally, because Pope Martin V. at the Council of Constance, by his Con- stitution of March 10, 1418, affirms : " Nulli fas est, a supremo judice videlicet apostolica sede seu Romano poutifice Jesu Christi vicario appellare aut illius judicium in causis fidei, quae tanquam niajores ad ipsum et sedem Apostolicam defereudae sunt, decliuare," by wliich tlie appeal from the Pope to a general ciiuncil is forbidden, and which likewise rejects as erroneous the underlying principle of the superiority of an oscumeuical council to the Pope, as is even confessed by Gerson himself, the spiritual author of this theory, in the words : " Destruens [scl. the prohibition of the Pope] fuudamentale penitus robur nedum Pisani sed Coiistantiensis concilii, et eorum omnium, quae in eis, praesertim super electioue suinmi pontificis et iutrusorum ejectione atteutata factaque sunt."i § 128. The Popes Martin V. and Eugene IV., and the Councils of Siena and Basle. The synod Avhich had been convoked by Martin Y. (1417-1431) to assemble at Pavia (1423) was forthwith transferred to Siena on account of the breaking out of a contagious disease. It condemned the heresy of Huss, sketched a plan for reuniting the schismatic Greeks, and excommunicated Peter de Luna and his adherents; but after a few sessions its action was suspended, and the considera- tion of the so much needed reformation was adjourned to another council, which was convoked for the 20th of February, 1431, while Martin yet lived. The place chosen for the new synod was Basle. Martin's successor, Gabriel Condulmerio, Eugene TV. (1431-1447), Avas a nephew of Gregory XII. He confirmed the capitulation made by the cardinals before the election, then issued the bull of convocation, and appointed Cardinal Julian Cesarini to preside at the synod. The small number of prelates who were in attendance, together with the desire to promote negotiations which should re- unite the Greek and Latin churches, and other important causes, then induced the Pope, on the 12th of November, 1431, to transfer the council to Bologna, to be opened in that place after the lapse of eighteen months. But the twelve prelates then assembled at Basle were not satis- fied with this transfer ; and Julian, who had resigned the presi- dency, made earnest representations to the Pope in this regard. The twelve prelates held their first session on the 14th of Decem- ber, defining its aim and scope to be " the extirpation of heresy ^ Dial. apol. ap. v. d. Hardt. iv. 1532. Compare on this controversy Bal.lerini, De potestate ecelesiastica, etc., ]>. 98 sqq. See also § 130. VOL. II. 3 34 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. and of the Greek schism, the re-establishment of peace among Christian princes, the strengthening of faith, the revival of the ancient discipline, and the reformation of the Church in her Head and members." The prelates assembled at Basle, who had thus and in other ways already overstepped their rights, being encouraged by the protec- tion of several courts, went further yet. They demanded of Eu- gene the withdrawal of the bull of dissolution, and in their second session (Feb. 15, 1432) renewed that decree of Constance, which affirms that the authority of the council, coming immediately from Christ, was superior to that of the Pope. At the third session (April 29) they cited Eugene and the cardinals to appear before the council within three months, under penalty, if they refused, of incurring the legal punishment. In the fourth session (June 20) they forbade the Pope to create new cardinals, appointed a gov- ernor for the County of Avignon, and gave letters of safe conduct to the Bohemians. In the seventh session it was decreed that in case the Apostolic See became vacant, the future Pope could only be elected at the seat of the council (Basle). Such overstrained propositions as these, which Nicholas of Cusa, in his celebrated work " De concordantia catholica," lib. 3, seeks to defend, would not have been brought forward, had not the " Fathers of Basle " been supported by King Sigismund and other princes. Emboldened by this support, they rejected the conciliatory proposals of Eugene, and in their sixth session (September 6) declared him obstinate (" contumax ") ; yet, on December 18, in their eighth session, at which Julian presided, they inchdgently, as they boasted, granted him a respite of sixty days in which to revoke the bull of dissolution. For the sake of peace, Eugene, whose four legates had been able to effect nothing, sent four new nuncios to Basle, with peaceable ^ proposals, and on Feb. 14, 1433, issued the bull of revocation. The "Fathers of Basle," however, continued their opposition to him, and in the eleventh session (April 27, 1433) declared that a Pope who refused to assist at a general council rendered himself liable to suspension : nay, they wished to pronounce this sentence on Eugene in the thirteenth session ; they would not listen to his nuncios ; but finally the synod granted him, at the fourteenth ses- sion, a new term of grace for ninety days. 1 Raynald, Ad ann. 1432, n. 19, 1433, n. 3. Aug. Patritii, Summa conciliorum Basil. Florent., etc., n. 24, ap. Harduin, iv. 1104. Hartzheim, Cone. Germ. v. 793. POPES MARTIN V. AND EUdEXE IV. 35 !Meantime, ou the 14tli of February, the papal embassy arrived at Basle, bearing the bull of revocation. Sigismund also, after he had been crowned emperor, came to the city. But the synod took ex- ceptions to several expressions in the bull, and treated the legates in an unfriendly manner. In the bull it was affirmed : " Statuimus, volumus et mandamus, quod Basileae sacrum generale concilium per nostros legatos illuc quantoeyus transmitteudos, qui nomine nostro praesideant, celebretur.'''' The members of the synod were not satis- tied, because by that sentence it would seem that the council was but just then convoked, which would nullify its previous acts as not being recognized by the Pope. They likewise found fault because Eugene in a bull of May 1, in which he charged his legates to labor for the reformation of the Church in all her members, had omitted to include '• in her Head " also. The Pope therefore declared, on the 29th of July, that in sending legates to Basle he had in view, not the formation of a new council, but the continuation of one already existing; but that he rejected all decrees enacted, or yet to be enacted, against his person or against the dignity of the Apostolic See. To comply with the wishes of the emperor, and to restore peace to the Church, if it were possible to do this by any lawful means, Eugene resolved on a new sacrifice (August 1). He issued a bull by which he acknowledged the synod as a lawful one from its begin- ning, of which only the decrees against the Apostolic See were to be rejected. He declared his willingness to favor the synod if only the acts against his person and the dignity of the Apostolic See were recalled, and if his legates were admitted in very fact to the presi- dency. But this did not satisfy the members of the synod. In recog- nizing conditionally the authority of the synod, Eugene had used the words ''we will and are content" ("volumus et contentamur"), while they wanted him to say, " we decree and declare " ('' decerni- mus et declaremus "). This was also done in the bull of Dec. 15, 1433. It was, in fact, the utmost yielding of the sick Pope, who was at that time hard beset by his enemies, together Avith the discontent shown by the princes at the conduct of the members of the synod, that at the sixteenth session (Feb. 5, 1434) effected a reconciliation between the council and the Pope. After this restoration of peace with the Apostolic See, the council, at which now a greater number of prelates appeared, numbering, however, at most two hundred bishops and abbots, renewed some good enactments that had been framed at previous synods, and at 36 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. the same time resumed its opposition to the Apostolic See, and renewed the affirmation that the council was superior to the Pope (eighteenth session, June 26, 1434). Besides Cesarini, there was no papal legate present, as such. The council, which permitted the par- ticipation of the legates in the proceedings only conditionally, desired these legates, not as such, but as private individuals, to accept the decrees under oath, especially that of the superiority of the council to the Pope ; this they did reluctantly, but in their own name, not in that of the Pope.^ The members abolished all annates (twenty-first session, June 9, 1435), without giving any compensation for them to the Pope, and abolished the reservations, while at the same time they imposed taxes on the clergy for their own support. Further, on the 25th of March, 143G, during the twenty-third session, the synod passed new regulations on the mode of the future papal election ; on the oath which the newly elected pontiff should take ; and on the number, rights, and official duties of the cardinals. It also en- tered into negotiations with the Greeks, although the Pope had already negotiated with them ; granted them, of its own authority, a letter of safe conduct ; and had an indulgence published in order to procure the necessary money to defray the travelling expenses of the Greek envoys. Eugene IV. condemned these decrees, complained to the Christian princes of the arrogance of the prelates of P)asle, who in January, 1436, had addressed to hiin a sharp admonition (" monitorium '") ; and he also drew up a memorial to the crowned heads, in which he requested them to recall their ambassadors from Basle. The negotiations respecting the Greek union finally brought about the rupture. The better part of the synod joined the Pope, whose legates had proposed Florence or Udine as the place of the council ; the majority, however, guided by Cardinal d'Allemand, Archbishop of Aries, refused to meet in an Italian city. In the twenty-fifth session (May 7, 1437) vehement discussions took place. The majority decreed that the council should be held at Basle, Avignon, or in a city of Savoy. Eugene confirmed the decision of the minority, which proposed an Italian city : and the Greek ambassadors assented to this. The most eminent of the prel- ates left Basle. The majority, however, who sought to strengthen themselves by receiving country clergymen and subordinate officials of the bishops, in the twenty-sixth session (July 31, 1437) cited the 1 Cf. Turrecremnfa, Sunim. de eccl. ii. 100. Eai/nahf, M ami. 1434, ii. 14 POPES MARTIN V. AND EUGENE IV. 37 Pope to appear before their tribunal, and declared, at the twenty- ninth session, the transferring of the council to Ferrara null and void. Notwithstanding these decisions and denunciations of the "Fa- thers of Basle," who even threatened Eugene with suspension and deposition, the number of prelates who betook themselves to Ferrara became greater and greater, while the little handful at Basle grad- ually melted away by slow degrees. The council at Ferrara was opened on the 8th of January, 1438 ; and the dissatisfaction experi- enced at Basle at such a defeat deprived the members of the reform synod (who, however, had done ver}^ little for reformation) of their senses. At the thirty-first session (Jan. 24, 1438) they suspended the Fope, and at the thirty-second session (March 24) cited the members of the Council of Ferrara ^ to answer for their conduct at Basle. These responded by pronouncing anathema on the pseudo- synod. Notwithstanding the grave objections to the proposition made by Nicholas Tudeschi,- Archbishop of Palermo (Panormitanus), the majority of the council at Basle, guided by D'Allemand, concluded to depose Eugene ; while the minority joined the moderate party. For the purpose of the deposition eight new dogmas ^ w^ere framed ; of which, in the thirty-third session (May 16, 1439), contrary to the opinions of the majority of bishops present, three were accepted as truths of faith (" fidei cath. veritates "), namely, — 1. The council is above the Pope, 2.. Without consent of its members, it can neither be dissolved, prorogued, nor transferred. 3. Any one w^ho denies these truths is a heretic* Hereupon Pope Eugene IV., against whom not the smallest accu- sation could be substantiated, was, at the thirty-fourth session, on 1 In January, 1439, it was transferred to Florence on account of the breaking out of a pestilence. 2 Aug. Patr. 1. c. c. 90 : " Panormitanus praesul, cum aliter persuadere non posset, secessione facta, du.xerit [dixerit] se cum aliis praelatis oratorum, qui ma- jorem partem praelatorum coriiplectebantur, conclusere [concludere] non esse con- cludendum ; et asserentes omne jus concilii apud eos esse, quoniam infeiiores non haberent potestatem ineundi suffragia in conciliis generalibus, et maxime in rebus fidei, neque vocem habere nisi consultatiVam tantum ; atque in tantum excanduit, ut coUuviem illam copistarum concilium appellaverit ; affirmaverit(pie flagitium fieri ab Arelatensi [scl. D'Allemand], qui cum tribus cpiscopis titularibus (I) omnes con- silii praelatos vellet statuere." {Hard. ix. 11.54.) ^ Pntr, 1. c. c. 88. Koch, Sanctio pragmat. Germ. p. 13. * Arncnc. Sylr. Hist. Basil. Cone. lib. i. p. 79. 38 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. the 2oth of Juue, 1439, formally deposed as a heretic by an as- sembly composed of seven bishops and some other prelates. There were in all but twenty bishops and abbots present at this session ; but a much more numerous body of the inferior clergy were in attendance. Although the greater part of the princes remained faithful to the lawful Pope, and loudly blamed the conduct of the Basilians, as they were now called, these Basilians continued their sittings, notwith- standing the outbreak of a pestilence, and proceeded to a new papal election. The choice fell on Amadeus, Duke of Savoy, who styled himself Felix Y., and in the thirty-ninth and fortieth sessions was acknowledged as Pope by the council. The anti-Pope, thus elected after a very peculiar fashion by a few doctors, prelates, and bishops, received obedience from very few princes and universities. He himself was entirely dependent for his support on the pseudo-synod ; and they imposed heavy taxes on the churches subject to them, for his maintenance, till, tired of his irksome position, he withdrew to Lausanne. The synod con- tinued to hold sessions throughout the years 1441 and 1442, and finally dissolved itself after the forty-fifth session (iVIay 16, 1443), in which it was resolved that after the lapse of three years an oecu- menical council should be held at Lyons. The obstinate schismatics still remained at Basle, and later on, when expelled by Frederic III., emigrated to Lausanne, where they did not conclude their so-called council till the year 1449. The Emperor Sigismund, who had at first rejoiced at the convo- cation of the Synod of Basle, at length, when the expectations he had cherished were not met, Avithdrew his countenance from it. The electoral princes who were assembled at Frankfort in 1438 to choose a successor to Sigismund declared neither in favor of the Pope nor of the synod. This state of things lasted during the reign of Albert II. (-h 1439) and also under Frederic III. At a diet held at Mentz (1439), and attended by the ambassadors of the kings of France, Castile, and Portugal, the rights of the Apostolic See were ably defended by Cardinal Cervantes and iSTicholas de Cusa; but a new trouble came upon Eugene. The princes demanded the convocation of a general council, while the deposition by Eugene, in 1445, of the two electoral princes, arch- bishops of Cologne and Treves, both of whom favored the anti- Pope, threatened to cause a rupture ; for the other electoral princes concluded, at an assembly, IVtarch 21, 1446, to send an embassy to POPES MARTIN V. AND EUdENE IV. 39 Eugeue IV., who should demand from him, (1) His approval of cer- tain decrees of Basle, accepted by themselves ; (2) The convocation of a general synod ; (o) Acceptance of the article on the superiority of the council over the Pope ; and (4) The reinstating of the two deposed archbishops. Eugene did not negotiate with the ambassadors, at whose head was the boorish Gregory of Heimburg ; but by the advice of Fred- eric III., who had associated ^neas Sylvius of Piccolomini, his private secretary, with the embassy, he sent the Cardinals Thomas of Sarzana, Bishop of Bologna, and Carvajal, together with Nicho- las de Cusa, as legates to the diet opened at Frankfort, Sept. 14, 1446. With them J5neas Sylvius labored for the cause of the Apostolic See. He partly succeeded in winning over some of the electoral princes to the cause of the Pope. A new embassy to Eugene IV. was organized. After some negotiations an un- derstanding was come to, shortly before the death of Eugene, which took place on Feb. 23, 1447. Four papal documents were drawn up, which contained the so-called "Concordats of the Princes." ^ The question of the indemnity to be offered to the Pope for the abolition of the annates, etc., was, according to the decision of the princes assembled at Aschaffenburg (1447), to be settled at the Diet of Nuremberg in 1448. But as early as February 17 of that year. King Frederic III. concluded with Pope Nicholas V. the Concordat of Vienna, which is very similar to the Treaty of Constance, and was recognized as law for the ecclesiastical affairs of Germany. Twenty-three decrees of the Council of Basle were also received in France in an assembly at Bourges (1438) ; and on June 7, 1438, these, partly unchanged, partly modified, were signed by the King Charles VII. The document is known as the Pragmatic Sanction ; to give it an authorized basis, appeal was made to the dubious Prag- 1 Printed in (Horix) Concord, nation. Germ. i. 135 sqq. Koch, 1. c. p. 181 sqq. Raynald, Ad ann. 1447, n. 4 sqq. (incomplete). Eugene declared, on February 5, in a document ("salvatorium ") : " Quoniam propter imminentem nobis aegritudinem [he died of it shortly after], non valenius omnia per eos [that is, the German ambas- sadors], petita et per nos concessa, cum ea integritate judicii et consilii examinare et ponderare, (]uae rerum magnitudo et gravitas requirit, tenore pracsentium protesta- mur, cpiod per quaecunque a nobis dictis Regi . . . responsa et respondenda, concessa et concedenda, non intendimus in aliquo derogare doctrinae sanctorum patriim, aut praefatae sedis privilegiis et auctoritati, habentes pro non responsis et non concessis quaecunque talia a nobis contigerit emanare." On the transactions in Rome, cf. Aen. Syl. ap. Koch, p. 309 sqq. 40 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. matie Sanction of Louis IX. (1268).^ It contains very pernicious principles, especially concerning the relations between the Pope and the council, and in after times served as the basis of the so-called Galilean Liberties. The Council of Basle — but only in the degree in which its meas- ures were recognized by the Pope — and the Council of Ferrara- Florence, which Eugene summoned as the continuation of that of Basle, together form The Seventeenth CEcumenical Council. Respecting the Council of Basle, therefore, the first twenty-five sessions are to be distinguished from the rest. The latter ones are obviously schismatic ; and even of the former only those decrees are to be regarded as oecumenical which treat of the extirpation of heresy, of the maintenance of peace in Christendom, and of the reformation of the Church in its head and members, without dero- gating from the dignity of the Apostolic See.^ § 129. The last Popes of this Upoch, — Nicholas V. to Leo X. Eugene's successor,^ Thomas of Sarzana (Nicholas V., 1447-1455), a great friend and promoter of learning, and the founder of the Vatican Library, after adjusting the schism, held in 1450 a glorious jubilee at Eome, combated the heretics, and devoted his whole time and exertions to the reconquest of Constantinople, which in 1453 had fallen into the hands of the Turks. The same course was pur- sued by Calixtus III. (1455-1458), Alphonsus Borgia from Xativa. To him the credit of the victory near Belgrade in 1456 was due ; but on account of the indifference to the cause shown by Christian princes, he obtained no more enduring result than his predecessor had done. This able Pope was unfortunately not free from nepo- tism ; he appointed two of his nephews cardinals in one day, and made a third governor of the Castle of St. Angelo and Duke of Spoleto. It was probably on this account that the cardinals after his death framed a capitulation of election, by which restrictions were placed on the papal prerogatives. 1 C'f. Histoire conteiiaut rorigine de la pragmatique sanction et des concordats in Traitez des droits et libertes de I'eglise Gallicane, Paris, 1731, torn. i. p. 2, p. 29 sqq. 2 See Hcfclc, Hist, of the Councils, i. p. 54 (2d ed. p. 62) sqq. 3 On the succeeding Popes, see Christophe, Histoire de la papaute pendant le 15 siecle, avec les pieces justificatives. 2 vol. Lyons et Paris, 1863. (From the ponti- ficate of Martin V.) On Nicholas V., see Manctti, Vita Kicol. NICHOLAS V. TO LEO X. 41 His successor, the learned .Eneas Sylvius (Pius II., 14:58-1464), had in his youth led a somewhat profligate life, and had ranged himself on the side of the Council of Basle and of the anti-Pope. In the year 1442 the Emperor Frederic III. took him into his service, and sent him with the embassy of the electoral princes to Rome. Here he became fully reconciled to Pope Eugene, received priest's orders, and from that time forth was a sincere adherent of the Apostolic See. Soon after his election to the papal throne Pius summoned the Christian princes (1459) to meet him at Man- tua, for consultation on the Turkish question. Here, although the hopes of the Pope to excite the enthusiasm and obtain the aid of the Christian princes signally failed, his own zeal did not falter. Although sick, he first endeavored by an elaborate letter to convert the Sultan ; when that failed, he, on the 19th of June, 1464, hastened to Ancoua to place himself at the head of the Crusaders. Here he died on the 14th of August. At Mantua, in 1459, Pius II. had already forbidden any new appeals to a general- council, under pain of excommunication, which, in fact, he had pronounced on Diether v. Isenburg, Arch- bishop of Mentz. His endeavors to obtain from the French king, Louis XI., the abolition of the Pragmatic Sanction, were frustrated by the opposition of Parliament. A plan of reform, devised by Nicholas of Cusa, was unfortunately never carried into effect. In the bull " In minoribus agentes " Pius retracted his former erroneous views on the Pope and the council, to which he had given utterance chiefly at Basle, and which, before he became cardinal, he had already known to be untenable. He was succeeded by a nephew of Eugene, Cardinal Peter Barbo of Venice, the pomp-loving Paul II. (1464-1471), who rejected the capitulation edict of election, which had been made in the con- clave, and created three of his nephews cardinals. As respects his conduct in other matters, Platina (+ 1481) is not a trustworthy biographer. Hatred guides his pen against this Pope, because he abolished the court of the seventy-two Abbreviators, against which charges of simony and other notorious corruptions had been made, and had ordered a criminal investigation to be entered into re- specting the members of the Academy of Sciences. It is certain, however, that during the reign of Paul II. nothing was done for the restoration of the ancient Church discipline. Xor did the pontificate of the learned and art-loving Franciscan, Pope Sixtr.s I"'. (1471-1484), bring better times to the Church. Im- 42 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. mediately after his elevation he indeed began to interest himself in prosecuting the war against the threatening Turk; but he beheld himself forsaken by the Christian princes, and he then turned all his attention to Italian affairs. Misled by his relatives, to whom he was much attached, he gave his consent to the plan of the Pazzi family to overturn the dominion of the Medici in Florence, on condition, however, that no blood should be shed. But the plot failed; and the conspirators, among whom was Francesco dei Sal- viati, whom Lorenzo de' Medici had refused to acknowledge as Archbishop of Pisa, were immediately put to death. Excommuni- cation and other censures pronounced against Lorenzo, nay, the interdict itself laid on the whole territory of Florence, passed noiselessly over them, producing no result. Neither was anything to be effected by force of arms. King Louis XL of France sided with the Florentine Lorenzo, who even won over to his cause the King of Naples, the Pope's own ally. The capture of Otranto by the Turks at length made Sixtns more placable, and in 1480 brought about a reconciliation between him and the penitent Florentines. No less fatal for the Church was the position of the Pope towards Venice. Sixtus was at first the ally of the city against Duke Este of Ferrara ; but when he afterwards made peace with the duke, the Venetians continued the war by themselves, and took no heed of the warning of the Pope to desist. When Sixtus pronounced eccle- siastical censures on the Venetians in order to render the con- tinuation of the war impossible, they disregarded alike ban and interdict, and appealed to an oecumenical council. Even in Rome, the city beautified with magnificent buildings by the Pope, insecur- ity made itself felt more and more. In the States of the Church the Orsini sided with the Pope ; the Colonnas and Savelli against him. Had the cardinals, after the death of Sixtus, instead of framing a capitulation of election, ohosen a Pope who with a strong hand would have resisted the malpractices of selling offices, and have curbed the worldly spirit among the members of the curia, the mistrust then prevalent against Rome might possibly have decreased ; now, the choice that fell on Cardinal John Baptist Cibo of Genoa (Inno- cent VIII., 1484-1492) could serve but to its increase. Elevated by bribery to the papal chair, this Pope, who, after spending his youth in frivolity, had received holy orders, was a patron of art and science, and had the good fortune to put an end NICHOLAS V. TO LEO X. 43 to the anarchy that had prevailed in Rome.^ He tried to put an end to sorcery and witchcraft, and summoned all Christendom to take up arms against the Turks. For keeping in captivity Prince Dschem (Zizim) he received a yearly payment of forty thousand ducats from the Sultan Bajazet ; and by doing so, he preserved -peace for Christendom. But Innocent did not labor earnestly to eradicate abuses. Complaints of bribery and corruption among the members of the curia, whose number he considerably increased, became louder and louder, and crimes became more and more frequent in Rome.^ Innocent's alliance with Lorenzo de' Medici, whose thirteen-year- old son John afterwards became Pope Leo X., and who already pos- sessed ]nany benefices while he was at this time created cardinal, gave him support. His son Francis obtained the hand of Magdalene de' Medici. After the death of Innocent YIIL, in 1492, the twenty-three cardinals, of whom fifteen were bribed, proceeded to elect Rodrigo (Lenzuoli) Borgia to the papal chair, under the name of Alex- ander VL (1492-1503). It is beyond dispute that this Pope pos- sessed vigor of intellect, sagacity in business matters, with an affable and courteous demeanor^ especially to the poor and middle classes. At his enthronization, however, pagan frivolity vied with low flattery, in Rome, to greet his accession ; and to this succeeded the most shameless pasquinades and lampoons on the Pope himself. In fact, the bright side of Alexander's character was fearfully obscured by dark shadows ; but an accurate picture of his life can scarcely be drawn, because the notices we have of it differ so much one from the other, and ofttimes bear on their front the marks of exaggeration and untruth.^ Before his elevation, Alexander had ^ "Pater patriae." What Sfe2)h. Infcssura (-t-1494) says in the diary he wrote, " Diarium urbis Eomae ab ann. 1294-1494," concerning the condition of the Romans and the character of the last Popes, is to be taken with great caution, as the vehement and calumniating author permits himself great exaggerations and unjust representa- tions. Muratori, who edited the diary (Script, rer. ital. iii. 2), names him as " pro- clivis ad maledicentiam " (1. c. 1109). Cf. Raynald, Ad ann. 1490, n. 22. 2 So says Infcssura, Ad ann. 1489, ap. Muratori, 1. c. 1226. 3 Cf. Corio, Storia di Milano, vii. 888 sqq. One inscription runs thus : — " Caesare magna fuit, nunc Roma est maxima, Sextus Regnat Alexander, ille vir, iste Deus." See Roscoe, Life and Pontificate of Pope Leo X. * The heavy accusations of the scandalous Burchard, of Strasburg, Bishop of Citt^ di Castellana, and Master of the Ceremonies in Eome (-^ 1506), were weakened, (1) By the unreliable character of the man, of whom his successor, Paris de Grassis, says 44 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. had live children by the Lady Vauozza de Catanei. His son John was created Duke of Gandia, by Ferdinand the Catholic ; another son, Caesar Borgia, became Archbishop of Valencia, and obtained the cardinal's hat. The relations which Alexander bore to temporal sovereigns were on the whole friendly. By the celebrated meridian line he staved off the outbreak of contention between Spain and Portugal ; he also regulated the missionary work in the New World. Alexander lived in peace with the Emperor Frederic III., and with his successor Maximilian I. On the other hand, he fell into discord with Charles VIII. of France about Naples ; and on the olst of December, 1494, Charles entered Rome, but eventually was con- strained to withdraw from Italy. The attempt of the king to con- voke a general council against the Pope was frustrated by his death. With his successor, Louis XII., the Pope was on the best of terms. Caesar Borgia, who after the assassination of his brother laid aside the cardinalate with the full consent of the Pope, married a French princess, with whom he received the Dukedom of Valen- tinois as her dower, to which Alexander added a principality in Romagna. By degrees the papal dominion over the States of the Church was restored. The assassination of the Duke of Gandia, which was falsely as- cribed to his brother Caesar, deeply affected Alexander, and turned his attention more forcibly to the condition of ecclesiastical affairs. He commissioned six cardinals to draw up a scheme of reform ; he even showed symptoms of being willing to resign the tiara; but this frame of mind was not of long continuance. The reform scheme was not carried into execution ; and the warning voices of Christian princes, who, it is true, did not place themselves in a proper posi- tion towards the Church, remained unheeded. The daring, genial, and highly endowed Jerome Savonarola, the reformatory demagogue in the monk's habit, was, on the charge of having uttered false prophecies and of having by his sermons instigated the people to sedition, handed over to secular authority, and condemned by it to the death he underwent on the 23d of May, 1498. Something, however, was done for the welfare of the Church. The discovery of America by Christopher Columbus presented an opportunity to the -Apostolic See to propagate the Christian faith in the New World, and the destruction of the Moorish kingdom in (Diarium ad ann. 1506), that he was "non solum non humanus, sed supra omnes hestias bestialissinius, inhumanissimus, invidiosissimus ; and (2), Because he asserts many things from riunor alone. OlUvier, Le pape Alex., Paris, 1870 ; Hist, du Pajw Alex. VI., 1SS2. NICHOLAS Y. ro LEO X. 45 Spain (1492) restored the doininioii of Christianity to that realm. By increasing the severity of the penalties for reading heretical and dangerons books, the Pope hindered such works from spreading. The report of an incestuous intercourse between Alexander and his daughter Lucretia ^ is a vile calumny, as is also the accusation that he was the murderer of Prince Dschem. Yet he well deserves the reproach of having done nothing to stem the torrent of an ever- increasing corruption among the higher grades of the clergy and laity ; and of having, by tolerating the conduct that prevailed at his own court, contributed not a little to bring religion into contempt. But Alexander was essentially more of a worldly than a spiritual prince. Neither he himself nor the most of those who surrounded him were able to grasp the true idea of the Church, or to compre- hend what is involved in the exalted olfice of her supreme head. But also in this Pope the promise given to the Prince of the Apos- tles was verified. After his death, — which was occasioned by a malignant fever, and not by poison, as some have asserted, — the pious cardinal Pic- colomini, whose heart and soul were animated with zeal for the reformation of the Church in its head and in its members, was, in September, 1503, elevated to the papal chair, under the name of Pius III. He reigned but twenty-six days, and was succeeded by the Cardinal Archbishop of Ostia, Julian of Rovere, a nephew of Sixtus IV., who took the name of Julius II, The pontificate of this Pope is pre-eminently of a political charac- ter, Julius II. was of an open, honest disposition ; he was an able ruler and a brave general ; but to these qualities were not nnited the peculiar attributes of a truly Apostolic Head. Too much occu- pied with things exterior, Julius directed too little of his attention to things interior. He restored the papal rights in the States of the Church, and crushed the power of the mighty Caesar Borgia. To punish the Venetians, he joined the League of Cambray, and fought the haughty signora alike with spiritual as with temporal weapons ; on their humbling themselves before him, Julius, fearing the preponderance of French power in Italy, became reconciled with the republic. The discontent which this reconciliation called forth in the mind of Louis XII. was fostered by the action taken by Pope Julins against Alphonso Este, Duke of Ferrara, and finally occasioned a breach between him and the King of France. The ^ See Roscoe. 46 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. Synod of Tours, convoked by the king, entered into his plans, and threatened the Pope with a general council. Louis was strongly supported by some cardinals, Avho, angry at the refusal of the Pope to convoke a general council, deserted him, and under the protection of France (1511) convoked a general synod to be held at Pisa. Maximilian I., whose ambassadors had been able to effect nothing at Home, entered eagerly into the plan. Notwithstanding this, this undertaking of the cardinals met with no encouragement in the main body of Christianity, which, dreading a schism, disapproved of the action of the cardinals. Driven out of Pisa, they continued their sessions successively in jVlilan, Asti, and Lyons, but without result. Meantime, in July, 1511, the Pope convoked at Rome The Eighteenth (Ecumenical Council (Lat. Y.), the main objects of which were given out to be : (1) The restoration of peace among Christian princes : (2) The war against the Turks ; (3) The reformation of the Church in its head and members. The council was opened on the 19th of April, 1512. Its authority was recognized by the Emperor Maximilian I. At the beginning there were present fifteen cardinals and seventy-nine bishops ; this num- ber was afterwards increased to one hundred and twenty. The most of them were of Italy. In the fifth session a decree against simony at papal elections was passed, and confirmed by the Pope. Julius II., who had excluded the renegade cardinals from the council, died after that, and was succeeded by John de' Medici (Leo X.). Trained in the schools of the Humanists, a lover of splendor and a man of extravagant habits, this celebrated member of the house of Medici was conversant with the art of attracting to himself learned men and artists, but he was not by any means so conversant with the knowledge of how to renew the spirit of Jesus Christ in Christendom. The sittings of the council were continued : several reformatory decrees were framed; but only palliative measures were adopted, the axe was not laid at the root of the evil. Towards its conclusion Prance also acceded to the council, and the concordat^ between Leo X. and King Francis I. removed the offensive Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges. This was approved by the council ; further, a bull pro- claimed the superiority of the Pope to all councils, shortly after which the council was closed (March 16, 1517). 1 Nussi, Conveiitiones, p. 20 sqq. Cf. kSt. a. M. Laach, iii. 222 sqq. THE PRIMACY. 47 In vain the Dominican general Thomas de Vio (Gaetanus), who had an anxious presentiment of the coming storm, conjured them to continue their sessions, and with a strong hand to complete the work of reformation. The Fathers Avere dismissed at the close of the twelfth session. On this subject Cardinal Hergenrother says : '' This early closing of the council has frequently been considered as a measure some- what over-hasty and injurious to the interests of the Church, espe- cially as it was in the autumn of that self-same year that the mighty storm of the Reformation broke forth in Germany. Yet a longer continuation of this council would scarcely have prevented this storm from arising or have lessened its intensity when arisen. The council could only frame laws, and there was already no lack of wholesome laws; the failure was in the observance of these laws, and in the power to enforce such observance. . The numerous decrees of Basle had effected no renovation of ecclesiastical life ; they had worked no improvement in the weakness that pervaded the central power, rather had they increased the influence of the secular power over the formation of the arrangements of the Church. A danger- ous revolutionary movement was in process, — a movement tliat could not be suppressed ; it had to take its course, had to abide the time in which to manifest all its fruits. It was only through great and saintly men that help could come ; and these were raised up by God in large numbers when the necessities of the Church had reached their extremity, when human pride was at the end of its wisdom. It was only by the painful operation of throwing off from itself the matter engendered by revolutionary disease, that the health of the body of the Church could be restored." ^ B. HISTORY OF THE INTERIOR AFFAIRS OF THE CHURCH. I. CONSTITUTION OF THE CHURCH. 1. Ecclesiastical Hierarchy. § 130. The Primacy. In order to discuss more fully the labors and achievements of the Apostolic See at this epoch, and to place these in the various phases ^ Hergenrother, ii. p. 139. 48 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. in which tliey may be viewed, it is necessary to consider more closely the relations in which the Popes stood to the Christian sovereigns and those in which they stood to other members of the Church. The Pope, as the acknowledged head of the Church, was the com- mon father of all Christians, — of the "respublica Christiana" in its two forms, the Christian Church and the Christian State. To him, as Vicar of Christ, all had to be subordinated; while he himself was responsible to God alone, without his power from this cause being able to degenerate into caprice.^ As to the relationship which the spiritual bears to the temporal, especially that which the Pope bears to Christian rulers, both spirit- ual and temporal rulers acknowledge that their power proceeds from God ; and in doing so, they deduce the necessity of the existence of an interior harmony with each other, and proclaim the superiority of the spiritual over the temporal power. ^ In consequence of this superiority, the Church claimed for her Supreme Head the right to admonish and to punish temporal princes without thereby arrogating to herself the dominion of the world (" dominium mundi "), and without looking on princes as her 1 This has been declared by the Pope innumerable times. Paschal II. says : "Ad hoc in ecclesia Dei constitnti snnius, ut ecclesiae ordinem et patrum debeamus praecepta servare" (Ep. 225, ap. Mignc, Patr. lat. toni. clxiii. col. 214). Pius VII. sent word to the allied princes of the ecclesiastical provinces of the upper Rhine : "The Pope finds, in the very nature and in the constitution of the Church, of which he is the head, certain limits, which he may not overstep without violating his conscience and misusing the exalted power which Jesus Christ confided to his care for the edifi- cation, not for the destruction, of His Church " (Esposizione dei sentimenti di sua Santita, etc.). 2 See Hergenriithcr, Catholic Church and Christian State, pp. 351, 412. Gcrson, De niodis uniendi ac reformandi eccl. c. 2. : " Ecclesia Christi est inter omnes res- publicas aut societates recte ordinatas a Christo superior, nobilior ac diligibilior " (Op. ii. 163). Ivo Carnot, Ep. 238 ad Paschal, pap. : " Novit paternitas vestra, quia cum regnum et sacerdotium inter se conveniunt, bene regitur mundus, floret et fructi- ficat ecclesia. Cum vero inter se discordant, non tantum parvae res non crescunt, sed etiam magnae res miserabiliter dilabuntur." Innocent II. wrote to the Emperor Lothaire : "Si auctoritas sacra pontificum et potestas imperialis vere glutino charitatis ad invicem copulentur, Omnipotenti debitus famulatus libere poterit exhiberi et christianus populus grata pace et tranquillitate gaudebit " ( IVatterich, Rom. pont. vitae, ii. 209). The Emperor Frederic I. writes : " Regiae majestatis dignitas postu- lat, quae et pacis et concordiae bonum spectare noscuntur attenta sollicitudine stabi- lire, et ut inter regnum et sacerdotium indissolubili caritate bonum ipsum perpetuo perseveret, diligenti studio et e.\acta diligentia laborare." Pcrtz, Mon. Germ. Hist, iv. 93. THE PRIMACY. 49 vassals ; on the contrary, the Popes repeatedly declared that in jyurely temporal matters kings had no one over them, and that the power of the Church in their regard was a spiritual one, which touched temporal things only indirectly.^ Of this right the Pope was obliged to make use as mediator of peace between contending princes, as protector of the subjects against princely despots, and as defender of the right against tyranny and caprice. The mutual relations existing between the spiritual and temporal powers are appropriately symbolized under the figure of the sun and moon-^ or of that of the two swords.^ It has already been made clear, in the foregoing history of the relative position between Church and State, that in the course of time various changes oc- curred which led to repeated and often violent conflicts between Emperor and Pope, and to learned controversies, in which, not being always animated by a tranquil and edifying spirit, the authors sometimes lost sight of the object in view in the treatises and poems which they published. Even as the political position occupied by the Pope among Christian nations was not attained by cunning or by arrogance, so neither are the rights exercised by the Popes within the Church a product of the pseudo-Isidorean decretals, or of other causes ; they are simply an outcome of that supreme power conferred by Christ on St. Peter and his su.ccessors, the division of which into essential and non-essential rights was first invented by the Febronians. This supreme power was made use of by the Popes in various ways, according to the exigence of the movement which called it forth. The circumstances that arose in course of time determined the manner of its action; such were, chiefly, the encroachments of the temporal power upon the rights of the Church, the weak- ness or injustice of many metropolitans and the encroachments of 1 Cf. IiiiKc. III. Decretal. Per Vcnerabilem, c. 13, x., Qui filii sint legitimi (iv. 17) : '•('uin rex ipse siiperiorem in temporalibus minime recognoscat," etc. . . . Yeruiii etiain in aliis regionibus [i.e. outside the States of the Church], certis causis in- spectis tcm2)omlcnijurisdidioncm casualitcr cxcrccmus, non quod alieno juri praejudi- care velimus," etc. See Hergcnrothcr, p. 373 sqq. 2 Inuoc. III. Ep. lib. i. ep. 401, lib. ii. ep. 294. Cf. Gesta liinoc. c. 63 : "Ad firmanientura coeli, h. e. univeisalis ecclesiae fecit Deus duo magna luminaria, i.e. duas magnas instituit diguitates, quae sunt pontificalis auctoritas et regalis potestas, sed ilia qui praeest diebus, i. e. spiritualibus, major est ; quae vero carnalibus, minor est, ut, quanta est inter solem et luuam, tanta inter pontifices et reges differentia cognoscatur." 3 See § 123. VOL. II. 4 50 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. some bishops. This rendered it necessary that it shouki fall within the actual jurisdiction of the Popes, (1) To examine, confirm, trans- fer, or depose bishops ; (2) To cite the complaints against bishops before their own tribunal; (3) To lay the right of dispensation enjoyed by the bishops under greater restrictions, as also their privilege of excommunicating and of laying a country under an interdict. The relation of the bishop to the Pope is appropriately expressed in the declaration of Innocent III., that the bishops were "vocati in partem sollicitudinis ; " ^ and in the vow of canonical obedience,'^ which since the time of Gregory VII. has been enjoined on metro- politans and at a later period on all bishops. Besides this, the Popes at this epoch exercised, more than they formerly had done, their supreme right of conferring all ecclesi- astical benefices. (1) They recommended ("preces") certain candi- dates for vacant benefices, or ordered them to be installed (" literae monitoriae et praeceptoriae "), or themselves performed the instal- lation ("lit. executoriae ") ; they also granted expectances ("expec- tationes") of benefices about to be vacant. (2) They reserved for themselves the privilege of filling up certain prebends (" reserva- tiones "), and bestowed others as commendams, by Avliich means they not only rewarded many deserving men, and supported those among the clergy who had been robbed of their means or who had been driven away for their fidelity to the Apostolic See, but they also promoted learning, and rendered the foundation and existence of manj' universities possible ; while the monastic institutions placed formidable counteracting influences to the spirit of caste, pride, and ambition in the higher classes, and to the overreaching pretensions of the power of the \2aty. Finally, the Popes, in virtue of their supreme power of taxing the churches, either conjointly with other bishops or separately, laid extraordinary imposts on individual churches or clergymen for the support of the Crusades, for the foundation and maintenance of the higher establishments of learning, and for any other object of general utility, asking special taxes of them for the maintenance of the curia. The various kinds of tribute thus paid to the Holy See, which were not, however, a special introduction of this epoch, but had 1 C. 4, X., De caiictoritate et usu pallii (i. 8). 2 Respecting this oath, which is by no means an oath of vassalage, as has been falsely asserted, see Thomassin, Vetus et nova eccl. disciplin. ii. 2, c. 43 sqq. THE PRIMACY. 51 already, at least partially, been levied in preceding ages, were : (1) The fruits of the first year (''fructus niedii temporis, jus deportus "), which were taken from vacant prebends, and from moneys left at the death of clergymen ; (2) The annates, which had their origin in a practice usual in the early ages, both in the East and West, of presenting gifts at ordinations ('' emphanistiea," " inthronistica," " benedictio," "oblatio"), which were taken from the benefices con- ferred by the Popes either outside ("annata Bonifaciana") or in the consistory ("servitia communia et minuta") ; (3) The income from confirmation and the Pallium fees ; (4) The taxes for dispensations. Other taxes which the Pope received from different countries were : (1) Peter's pence, which were first paid in England ; (2) The tribute paid by such princes, cities, and cloisters as placed tliem- selves under the special protection of the Pope ; (3) The feudal tax, paid by the vassals of the Holy See to the Pope. As Supreme Head of the Church, the Bishop of Rome had even yet greater titles to special honor.^ It was on this account that the Middle Ages called him exclusively "Papa," " Vicarius Christi," " Vicarius Dei," at times also " Vicarius Petri." The wearing of a mitre which, since Nicholas II., was adorned with two,^ and, from the time of Clement V., with three crowns ("tiara," "triregnum," " mitra turbinata") ; the erect crosier (" pedum rectum ") ; the many testimonies of respect and veneration shown him, such as kissing the foot, the holding of the stirrup by the emperor ("officium stratoris") on whom the Pope conferred the crown, — all testify to the honor in which he was held, which the above-named and other practices only symbolized. Although the rights which the Popes exercised had their foun- dation in the very nature of the primacy itself, and are therefore anything but unwarrantable assumptions, yet in the course of time, and principally towards the end of this epoch, loud complaints Avere made of the oppressions and demands for money by the Pope. These complaints, if in part they were utterly unfounded, as was sometimes the case, yet were also in part owing to the too frequent use made by the Popes of their incontestable rights, as also to the conduct of their officers. It was especially at the time of the conflicts with the Hohenstau- fens that the Popes found themselves compelled, by stern necessity, to lay heavier taxes on certain churches, to depose disobedient 1 See §§ 52, 95. 2 Others ascribe the introduction of the twofold crown to Boniface VIII. (1297). 52 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. bishops, and to reward faithful clergymen for the loss of their in- comes by compensating them with the gift of benefices in other lands. The discontent arising from this cause not infrequently found vent in sundry places, in complaints of the extortions prac- tised by the papal legates and of the collation of benefices upon strangers ; and these complaints found frequent expression in sat- ires of the bitterest kind.^ The slanderous libels circulated against the Popes by the Emperor Frederic II. contributed still more to shake the veneration, confi- dence, and love of the people for the Holy See. These pamphlets contained, besides personal suspicions of certain Popes, the exposi- tion of certain very pernicious principles, which in after times, par- ticularly during the conflict between Louis the Bavarian and the Popes at Avignon, were presented - in harsher colors, and not only upset the proper relationships between Pope and Emperor, but also called in question the undoubted ecclesiastical rights of the primate.^ The residence of the Popes at Avignon was a misfortune for the Church, chiefly because the Christian world at large saw in the Pope of Avignon more a friend of France than the supreme head cherish- ing for the whole Church a solicitude equal and common to all, and because the exactions of the curia, whose resources from the States of the Church had dried up, continually augmented the ill-will of the people. But the "Western schism, that poisonous fruit of the exile of Avignon, was even yet more injurious to the status and dignity of the Apostolic See. The mere fact that the Popes in Kome and the schismatics in Avignon had to seek recognition from the tempoi-al princes, and that, in order not to lose their favor, they were compelled to ignore many things, threw too great an influence in ecclesiastical matters into the hands of the laity, which was very detrimental to church discipline. To this may be added that the churches were now still more heavily taxed for the support of the two curias ; and the mutual anathematizing of each other produced a contemj)t for the censures of the Church. Again, the bishoprics and prelatures were con- ferred neither according to merit nor to canonical rule, but often at the recommendation of some worldly prince, or with the view of 1 On the complaints of the English envoys at the First Council of Lyons, 1245. see Hefele, Hist, of the Councils, v. 902, 999. 2 See §§ 121, 124. THE PRIMACY. 53 gaining a powerful ally or of rewarding some one for service per- formed. In this way the service of the Church underwent consider- able detriment, and suffered many disadvantages in consequence. Worse than this, not only the avowed enemies of the Apostolic See, but even well-disposed men, such as Henry of Langenstein, Peter D'Ailly, Nicholas of Clemange, Gerson, Nicholas of Cusa, and others, in the expressed intention of restoring ecclesiastical unity, pro- pounded and defended views on the relation of the Pope to temporal princes and concerning his position in the Church which were erro- neous in themselves and pernicious in their effects. The so-called reformatory synods of Pisa, Constance, and Basle, in seeking to reduce these principles to practice, had the hardihood to depose Popes, to pass new decrees on their rights and duties, whereby they greatly impaired the reverence due to the chair of St. Peter, called forth an indescribable confusion in Christendom, aroused the spirit of revolt against authority, while at the same time the}' made manifest the utter absurdity and destructive nature of such theories. Notwithstanding all these foregoing difficulties, had the Popes acted with the energy and in the spirit of Gregory VII., they might have diverted great evils from the Church ; had they set themselves in opposition to the corruption that pervaded all classes, from the clergy to the laity, and from the lowest class of these latter to the ranks of princes, including some members of the sacred college it- self, much good might have been effected. But the watchmen on the walls of Sion were asleep, while the enemy was undermining the foundation. Some Popes indeed were aware of the mischief effected, but did not venture to enter on the gigantic struggle, and contented themselves with lopping off some obtrusive branches ; and when nepotism had introduced into the college of cardinals a larger number of useless and often unworthy members, who in con- clave were more intent on seeking their own advantage than on meeting and providing for the necessities of the Church, then the worldly spirit of the Renaissance and of the Humanists obtained the upper hand and prevailed in the Eternal City. Luxury, sense- less prodigality, thoughtless squandering of time, superseded apos- tolic simplicity, dignity, and watchfulness over self, and hastened the breaking out of that catastrophe which, under the pretext of reformation, tore away by fraud or force many thousands of souls from the Church. But God had already chosen the men who were to work for the spiritual regeneration of all classes, and by their 54 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. labors at the Council of Trent to effect a thorough reformation of the Church in its head and in its members. On the " Corpus juris ennuuici " aud the literature concerning it, see the manuals of canon law. The first part of it contains the collection of canons and decrees composed by the monk Gratian, a professor at Bologna, 1150 or 1151. They are interpreted and applied in certain cases (" distinctiones," "causae," " de consecratione "). The " Glossa ordinaria" was composed by John Semeca (Teutonicus, + before 1240), Provost at Halberstadt. The second part comprehends the collection of decretals, " Decretalium Greg. IX.," lib. 5 ("judex," "judicium," " clerus," " conuubia," " crimen "), composed in 1230 at the behest of Gregory IX. by St. Raymond of Pennaforte from the already ex- isting five compilations, and the collection " Liber sextus" (containing the decrees of Innocent IV. and Bonifoce VITI.), added by Boniface YIII. himself in 1297, and likewise divided into five books. The third part consists of the so-called Clementines (Const. Clementinae, lib. 5), which were collected by Clement V. after the Council of Vienne, but were not published until 1317 under John XXII. ; and of the so-called Extravagants (Extrav. communes and 20 Extr. Job. XXII.), which were not edited as an authentic collection, and were received for the first time by John Chappuis in his edition of the Corp. jur. can. (Paris, 1499). In 1598 Pope Clement ordered Cardinal Pinelli to compose a " Liber septimus " (ed. Sentis. Friburg. 1870), but he did not corifij"m the collection. § 131. The Other 3Iemhers of the Hierarchy. The cardinals, to Avhom, by the decrees of Nicholas II., of Alexan- der III., of Gregory X., and others, was conceded the exclusive right of electing a Pope, were the counsellors of the Popes, and assisted them in the government of the Church. According to the regulations of the Church, only learned and able men, selected from the Christian world at large, should be received into the college of cardinals ; unhappily, this rule was violated at the time of the exile at Avignon, and at a later period, by the nepotism of several Popes. The number of cardinals was not always equally large ; the Synod of Basle wished to reduce it to twenty-four. By the Fourth Council of the Lateran (c. 24), the cathedral chap- ters were granted the right of electing the bishop, which right, however, was limited, and sometimes even nullified, by papal reser- vations and by the temporal power. The chapters were to a con- siderable extent independent of the bishops, and had their own statutes. The number of their members was in most cases precisely determined. In several cathedral and collegiate chapters only the THE OTHER MEMBERS OF THE HIERARCHY. 55 sons of noble families could obtain canonicates or prebends ; as, for example, in the cathedral chapters of Liege, 1145, were numbered nine sons of kings, fourteen sons of dukes, thirty counts, seven barons and knights. This arrangement, though not unjustifiable in itself, was prejudicial to Church discipline, when the rich founda- tions began to be considered as institutions for providing support for the younger sons of the nobility. In this way many talented men were excluded from the most important positions, and seeds of great dissension were sown between the nobles and non-nobles of the land. Another evil was the accumulation of benefices ("cumulatio beneficiorum "), some canons possessing the benefices of several churches. The Popes frequently nominated as members of these chapters deserving ecclesiastics, who were not of noble birth ; but the noble-born were opposed to this. After the dissolu- tion of the "vita communis," which in many dioceses continued to exist up to the thirteenth century, the cathedral vicars were ap- pointed to celebrate the divine services. In the thirteenth century, besides archdeacons, episcopal vicars- general, oificials, and penitentiaries were appointed. The latter were the bishop's representatives •' in foro interno." Auxiliary or titiilar bishops performed the episcopal functions when the diocesan bishop was prevented from doing so. The tithes and the stole-fees (" jura stolae ") served for the main- tenance of the parish clergy. In many places the income of the clergy was very small. ]\Iany of the clergy lived on the stipends for masses (annuals), or pursued some trade ; others filled the office of notary or of physician, etc ; not a few lived on the alms of the faithful. To protect the revenues of the parish clergymen from the encroachments of the monks, it was found necessary for the Church to issue a series of laws. The practice that prevailed of conferring a prebend before the recipient had been ordained was very injurious to the Church ; still more so was the giving away of benefices and prebends to immature youths and boys, as also the heaping of several bishoprics and pre- bends (or canonries) on one individual, in violation of the ancient canonical laws. In this manner many dioceses obtained chief pas- tors who were ignorant of the language spoken by the natives, and who hardly visited their flocks even in a very hasty manner. Be- sides this, the rights of bishops in appointing clerics to parishes were often violated by patrons of the livings. ]\Ioreover, the real holders of the benefice often confided to poorly paid vicars the 56 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. performance of their functions. To do away with such abuses as these, the Church ordered that a perpetual vicar (" vicarius per- petuus ") shoukl be appointed, and that the real holder of the bene- fice, who was the proper pastor, should leave him a sufficiency for his maintenance from his revenues. 2. Religious Orders. § 132. Religious Orders of Knifihts {Military Orders^. The profound religious sentiment of the Middle Ages is evinced in a peculiarly illustrious manner by the numerous orders and congregations that took their rise about that time, each of which, while pursuing its own particular object, still kept in view the main object, the sanctification of their own members and of the world. Beyond all other associations, those orders which combined knight- hood with monasticism demand our special attention. Amongst these were the Knights of 8t. John, who owe their origin to a hospital in Jerusalem founded (1048) by some merchants of Amalfi. At first they occupied themselves with tending the sick; but, already under their second grand-master, Raymond du Puy, they took upon themselves the defence of the Holy Land and the pro- tection of Christian pilgrims. Pope Innocent II. approved this change in their rule, and permitted the Hospitaller Brothers of St. John the Baptist, as they were first called, to wear a white cross, of jNIaltese form, on their breast ; and the whole order now divided itself into knights, chaplains, and serving-brothers. The Knights, who were greatly in favor alike with the Popes as with temporal rulers, on the conquest of Jerusalem by Saladin, 1187, chose the fortress Margat in Phcenicia as the head-quarters of their order ; and after the fall of Acre, in 1285, they changed this to the island of Rhodes (1310). When this island in 1522 had fallen into the hands of the Turks under Soliman II., the Emperor Charles V. assigned, in 1530, the island of Malta to the Knights ; and here they remained, in faithful observance of their rule, until the year 1798, when this bulwark was surrendered to General Bonaparte, it is said by the treason of the Grand-master the Count of Hompesch and of the French Knights. The Peace of Amiens purposed to restore Malta to the order ; but the English, who had wrested the island from the French, RRLICIOUS ORDERS OF KNIGHTS. 57 refused to give it up ; and the Peace of Paris, 1814, left them in j)eaceable possession of it. At the head of the whole order, which was divided into nations or tongues, stood the grand-master; the chiefs of the respective nations were called " ballivi conventuales " or pillars (" piliers "). There were also female cloisters of this order. The order now chiefly attends to nursing the sick and wounded, as was especially seen in the time of the war of 1870-1871. A similar association was that of the Templars, which was founded by nine French knights, who, under the leadership of Hugh of Payens (de Paganis) and Geoffrey of St. Omer, banded together for the protection of Christian pilgrims. This little society, who lived in great poverty, remained for a considerable time un- noticed, until, at the instance of St. Bernard, in 1127, the Council of Troyes gave them a rule which Pope Honorius II. confirmed. From that time forward the order was richly endowed with privileges and donations. The number of its members increased, and they fought bravely against the infidels. They wore a white mantle, with a red cross of eight points, of the Maltese form, on the shoulder. When Acre had fallen into the hands of the enemy, they withdrew to Cyprus and at a later date to the West. Paris became the central point of the order (Le Temple). King Philip IV. of France was an inveterate enemy of the order ; he worked upon the " apostolic solicitude " of Pope Clement V. till he induced him to abolish it in 1312. Whether the crimes laid to the charge of the members of this order are wholly invented, or true at least in part, cannot be positively ascertained. Alike celebrated with the Knights of St. John and the Knights Templars were the Teutonic Knights of St. Mary of Jerusalem, who made their appearance for the first time as an association at the siege of Acre, 1190. Henry Walpot of Bassenheim was their first grand-master. The habit of the order was white with a black cross. Pope Clement III. and the Emperor Henry VI. recognized the new order ; and Pope Celestine III. approved their statutes, which were drawn from the rules of the St. John and Templar orders. This order, which enjoyed the same privileges as the other two had, gained great credit for itself in the Church by subjugating the heathenish Prussians. After subduing this country, the grand- master removed from Venice, where he had resided since the fall of Acre, to Marienburg, on the Vistula, 1309, and thence, on the 58 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. apostasy of Albert of Brandenburg, to Mergentheira, in Suabia, 1525. In the year 1809 the grand-master lost his rank as prince. The present grand-master is Archduke William of Austria. The other military orders — as that of the Brothers of the Sword, that of the Knights of Dobrin, those of St. Jago, Calatrava, and Alcantara of Spain, of Avis in Portugal, and of St. Maurice in Savoy — were of less significance than the preceding ones. Although no certain judgment can be passed on the guilt or innocence of the Templars, the following has at least its foundation in history : — I. The principal enemy of the order was Philip IV., who, on the denuncia- tion of a certain Squiyi v. Flexian, demanded its suppression of Clement V. As the Pope did not immediately acquiesce in this demand, the king, on the 13th of October, 1307, had all the Templars in his dominions arrested, and prosecuted by the Grand-inquisitor William of Paris, Nogaret, and others. Being put to the torture and examined by other means also, confessions were extorted from the prisoners, which most of them afterwards revoked, even though such revocations exposed them to certain death, while pardon awaited those who stood by tlieir confession. Testimony equally in favor of the Templars is afforded by the unworthy pro- ceedings of King Philip, who through his agent Dubois had pamphlets com- posed in which the Pope is accused of having been bribed by the Templars, and the king is called up to pnnish the impious, as Moses did of yore, without troubling himself about the Pope (Notices et extraits, xx. 2, p. 175 sqq.). This testimony is further advanced by the king's convoking a national assembly at Tours, May I, 1308 (1. c. p. 163 sqq.), in order to give force to his threats against Clement, although the latter had already, Nov. 22, 1307, issued the bull " Pastoralis praeemineutiae," in which he had ordered the arrest of all the Templars and an examination to be made respecting them. Besides this, it must create an unfavorable impression concerning Philip, that he, in violation of the agreement previously entered into with the Pope, and contrary to the ecclesiastical laws, cited the proceedings of examination before his own tribunal (Boutarie, La France sous Ph. le Bel, p. 132), and that afterwards, though he appeared to yield, he did not leave either the con- duct of the prosecution of the Templars or that of the administration of their sequestrated property in France to the Pope, but by his management they practically adverted to himself, which can only be explained by the suggestion that the king was actuated by other motives than those which arose from his conviction of the guilt of the order. Nay, the very crimes of which the order were accused, such as apostasy, idolatry and immorality, bear on their front the stamp of calumny, as such could scarcely have so long remained unknown had they been widely spread within the order. This argument is strengthened by the fact that in the examinations entered RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF KNIGHTS. 59 into in other countries by order of the Pope, the result for the most part testified to the innocence of the accused. Finally, the conduct of Philip himself after the sui)pression of the order, more especially his exactions of money from the property of the Templars, with his refusal to hand over their possessions to the Knights of St. John, as he had promised to do, plainly reveal the motives that prompted him to persecute the order whose richest possessions were in France. Moreover, outside of their great riches and power (there were fifteen thousand Knights), the king's senti- ments were influenced by the fact that in his contest with Boniface VIII. the Templars had sided with the Pope against himself. II. Nor can the guilt of the members be inferred from the suppression of the order by the Pope ; for as the bull of March 22, 1 31 2, bears witness, that sup- pression took place without the accused being allowed to defend themselves as Clement V. and the majority of the Fathers wished. It took place, not in virtue of a legal sentence, but out of ''apostolic solicitude." This important passage runs thus : " Xon sine cordis amaritudine et dolore, own 2)er modum definitivae senfentiae, sed per modum provisionis seu ordinationis apostolicae praefatum templi ordinem et ejus statum, habitum atque nomen irrefragabili et perpetuo valitura tollimus sanctione ac perpetuae prohibition! subjicimus, sacro concilio approbante, districtius inhibentes, ne quis dictum ordinem de cetero intrare, vel ejus habitum suscipere vel portare, aut pro templario gerere se praesumat." The same is expressed by the bull *' Ad certitudinem," May 6, 1312. In it Clement reserves to himself the sentence to be passed on several members of the order, particularly on the grand-master, James of Molay, and others, whilst the rest of them are referred for judgment to the provincial synods ; and on these synods the Pope enjoined care for the innocent, and clemency towards all. By the bull of May 2, "Ad providam," the Pope regulates the disposal of the prt)perty of the order. Furthermore, it is not to be overlooked that Philip IV. appeared in Vienne at the head of an armed force to carry out the suppression of the order, which to him was an object of hatred ; and that he, disregarding the commission appointed by Clement, ordered the grand-master and the grand-preceptor of Normandy to be burnt, after both the accused had decidedly refused to plead guilty to the crimes confessed by them when under torture, as the members of the comnussion wished them to do, — in the face of death they solemnly protested the innocence of the order. Although these facts are strong witnesses in disproof of the accusations brought against the Order of Templars, they do not altogether confute them. At a later period some men have undertaken to defend the order, whose reasonings have rather tended to establish than to remove an unfavorable judgment. On the whole question see Hefele, Hist, of the Councils, vol. vi. 60 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. § 133. Tlie New Monastic Orders founded on the Rule of St. Benedict and St. Augustine. These were : 1. The Order of Grammont (Grand mont). Its founder was Stephen of Tigerno, in Auvergne, who by his residence at the court of Archbishop Milo of Benevento, and by his intercourse with the austere hermits of Calabria, had come to the conclusion that he would found an order of the strictest poverty. Gregory VII. gave his special approbation to the plan (1073) ; and Stephen, who died in 1124, built his first cloister at JVIuret, near Limoges. The inmates of this cloister withdrew to Grandmont under Peter of Limoges, their second superior. It was under the fourth prior, Stephen of Lisiac, that the " Consuetudines " were selected for a rule. Grandmont continued to be the principal seat of the order; the presidents of other separate cloisters were called "correctores." Unhappily, the arrogance displayed by the lay -brothers ("conversi"), to whom had been intrusted the administration of the temporal affairs, gave rise to schisms within the order, which were injurious to its spirit ; on which account the Apostolic See was frequently obliged to interfere. John XXII. raised Grandmont to the rank of an abbey, to which the other thirty-nine priories were subordinated. This order ceased at the French Revolution, 2. The Order of the Carthusians. This order owes its origin to St. Bruno of Cologne,^ afterwards master of the cathedral school at Rheims, who in 1086 laid the foundation of the mother-cloister of this order in a frightfully desolate valley called La Chartreuse, in the diocese of Grenoble. Invited thither by his former pupil, Pope Urban II., Bruno went (1090) to Rome, thence to Calabria, where he founded a second monastery, in which he ended his days in 1101, The strict rules of the order were drawn up in writing by Guigo, the fifth prior. The monks led a contemplative life; but they also cultivated the soil, and distinguished themselves in learned pursuits. The Prior of Chartreuse stood at the head of all the monasteries of the order. The original simplicity in these monasteries vanished as riches increased; nevertheless, the old strictness of discipline was retained. The order of " vallis caulium " 1 Respecting the appalling legend of his deceased teacher at the Parisian High- School, the authenticity of which is defended by Don Ducreux, a Carthusian priest, see Tappert, St. Bruno, Luxembourg, 1872, p. 374 sqq. THE NEW MONASTIC (Jh'D/CRS. 61 is a special brancli of this order. There were but few female con- vents belonging to it. 3. The Order of Cistercians, or Bernardines. The Benedictine monk, Robert, Abbot of Molesme (+ 1108), is venerated by the mem- bers of this order as their spiritual father. He, discontented with his own monks, founded a monastery at Citeaux (Cistercium), in the bishopric of Chtilons-sur-Marne. In the first years of its existence it numbered but few members; but after St. Bernard with his thirty associates had entered (1113), its numbers increased so rap- idly that in a short time four new monasteries had to be founded. Of these, the most celebrated was Clairvaux (Clara vallis). The Abbot of Citeaux was the head of this order ; his council consisted of the abbots of the first four monasteries. The rule of the order {" Charta caritatis," 1119) is the reformed Benedictine Rule. The monks practised manual labor, without, however, neglecting study. During the Middle Ages the Cistercian abbots were held in high veneration, and were employed in important missions. This order also had female cloisters. 4. The Premonstratensians, or Xorbertines, were in the beginning regular canonists, who united the contemplative to the active life. Their founder is St. Norbert, a descendant of the noble house of Van Gennep in Xanten, who had not put to the best possible use the revenues which he derived from several ecclesiastical prebends, until, being one day struck by lightning and rescued from death, he (1114) suddenly changed his course of life, distributed his goods to feed the poor, labored with astonishing success as a preacher of penance in several countries, and founded at Premontre (Pratum monstratum) the first monastery of his order, which was confirmed by Honorius II. (1126). Yet in the same year Xorbert, being present at the Diet of Spire, was there elected Archbishop of Magde- burg, as if by inspiration. It was with reluctance that he accepted the proffered dignity ; he made his appearance in his episcopal city in the garb of poverty, and encountered many difficulties in the fulfilment of his office ; eventually he reaped splendid fi-uits from his labors. The rule of this order is similar to that called after St. Augustine ; there were cloisters of monks and nuns. The tertiaries of this order lived in the world. 5. The Celestinian and Augustinian Hermits. The founder of the first order is Peter of ]\[urone, who ascended the papal chair under the name of Celestine V. Urban IV., in 1264, gave the monks the Benedictine Rule. The director of the whole order since the year 62 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. 1284 has been the Abbot of Sulniona. The Augustinian Hermits took their rise from an amalgamation of various religious associations by Pope Alexander IV. (1256). They venerate St. Augustine as their spiritual father, having received his rule from the Apostolic See. The rule did not, however, originate with St. Augustine in its present form. § 134. The Orders devoted to the Sjiecial Veneration of Mary. 1. The Order of Fontevrault (Fons Ebraldi), founded by the great preacher of penance Robert of Arbrissel (1094), and confirmed by Paschal II. There were cloisters for men and women, both of which were subject to the Abbess of Fontevrault. They followed the Ben- edictine Rule. The members of the order had the difficult vocation of converting fallen women and girls. 2. The Order of the Guilbertines, which had a similar constitu- tion to that of Fontevrault. It was founded by St. Guilbert of Sempingham, and confirmed by Pope Eugene III. 3. The Order of the Carmelites. Its founder was Berthold, a monk and priest of Calabria, who in the year 1156, with a few companions, led a hermit life on Mount Carmel. Albert, Patriarch of Jerusalem, in 1219 gave the Anchorites of Mount Carmel a rule which Honorius confirmed in 1224. Driven from Mount Carmel by the Saracens, the hermits came to Europe, where their numbers rapidly increased as cenobites, and they were classed among the Mendicant Orders (1245). Under Pope Eugene IV. (1431) the members were divided into "calceati" (shod), or conventuals, and " discalceati " (unshod), or observants. They had cloisters for monks and nuns. Tertiaries have also joined the order since 1477. In 1697 Pope Innocent XII. put an end to a controversy respecting the age of the order. The sixth general, Simon Stock, an Englishman, introduced the scapular.^ 4. The Servites (Servi B. M. V.), an order founded by seven noble youths of Florence, with the consent of Archbishop Ardinghus, 1233, and approved by Alexander IV., 1255. St. Philip Benitius (+ 1285), the general and ornament of the order, also received tertiaries. The order also cultivated learning. 5. The Olivetans, or brethren of St. Mary of Mount Olivet. Their founder is John Tolomei, of Siena (1319). They had the 1 Cf. Laiinoi, Diss. 5 de Simon. Stokii viso, de Sahbatinae bullae privileg. et scapularis Caniielitar, sodalitate (Op. oin. ii. p. 2, p. 379). ORDERS FOR THE I' ARE OF THE SICK, ETC. 63 Benedictine Rule. John XXII. contirined the order. The Institute of Oblates at Konie, founded by St. Francisca Ilomana (+ 1440), is a branch of this order ; it was confirmed by Eugene IV. The ^N'olasci, information concerning which will be given in the following sections, belong to this division. § 135. Orders founded expressly for taking Care of the Sick and for other Objects of Charity. 1. The devastating epidemics by which the people in the Middle Ages were frequently visited called into life several religious orders, the members of which devoted themselves to the care of the sick. Of this description were : — a. The Anthonists, at first a society of laymen, on whom Hono- rius III. in 1218 conferred the rights and privileges of an order, and to whom Boniface YIII. in 1297 gave the Augustinian Rule. Its founder was the French nobleman Gaston, whose son had, at the intercession of St. Anthony of Egypt, recovered from a pestilential disease, the so-called Sacred Fire (1095). The chief monastery of this order was at St. Didier-la-Mothe, where St. Anthony was particularly venerated. b. The Hospitallers, founded by Guido of Montpellier and approved by Pope Innocent III., in 1198. The members of this order, who to the three vows added the fourth, "to serve their masters the poor." from the time of Eugene IV. observed the Augustinian Rule. Their principal monastery was the Hospital of the Holy Ghost at Rome. c. The Cellites, since 1348 also called Alexians, from the name of their patron saint, Alexius. Pope Pius II. gave them the Augustinian Rule in 1460. d. The Jesuates, originally an association of laymen founded by John Columbini of Siena, and recognized by Pope Urban V. in 1364 as an order of the Augustinian Rule. Clement IX. in 1668 abolished the monks' cloisters, which had become degenerated. The nuns' convents of this order, however, in Avhich the rule was strictly ob- served, are still in existence. 2. It was no small benefit that was rendered to suffering humanity by the orders whose object it was to free Christian slaves from the hands of the Saracens : these were, — a. The Nolasci, or the Order of Our Lady for the Liberation of Captives, founded in 1218 by St. Peter Xolascus, assisted by St. Raymond of Pennaforte, a Dominican, and James, King of Aragon. 64 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. They were originally divided into two classes, — knights and brothers (priests). Under Pope Clement V. the former joined the military orders ; the brothers, however, whose reorganization by John Baptist Gonzales was conhrmed by Clement VIII., remained faithful to their original vocation. b. The Trinitarians of St. John of Matlia and St. Felix of Valois. This order, which was confirmed by Innocent III., spread especially in Spain and France. In this latter kingdom they were also called Mathurins, from the church of St. Mathurin at Paris, where they had their first cloister. The principal monastery was that of Cerfroi, in the diocese of Meaux. At first the rule was strictly observed ; later, tepidity seized upon the members. Yet reformatory attempts were made. They wore a white habit, with a blue and red cross on the breast. The order had cloisters for women, and received tertiaries. 3. Other religious associations of this epoch were, — (/. The Humiliati (Humbled), a society of laymen which came into existence in the time of the Emperor Henry II,, and in 1134 was divided into male and female associations. St. John of Meda gave them the Benedictine Ride, and Pope Innocent III. granted them the rights of an order. In the year 1571, however. Pope Pius V. suppressed the monasteries of the monks on account of an attempt to murder St. Charles Borromeo, who had endeavored to introduce reforms. b. The Beghines, or Beguines, a society of pious women and virgins, who dwelt in small houses, had religious services in common, and employed themselves in manual labor. This association arose in the twelfth century. Pope Urban III. confirmed their rule. Pope Clem- ent V. intended to do away with it. but his successor John XXII. took them under his protection. There were also men's associations of this description, called Beghards ; ^ these, however, soon fell into decay, and dissolved the community of their own accord. c. The Hieronymites, who lived according to the Rule of St. Augus- tine, and venerated St. Jerome as their patron. This association was formed by several hermits combining to lead a community life. They spread in Spain ; the celebrated cloisters of Our Lady of Guadeloupe in Estramadura, Escurial, and St. Just belonged to them. In Portugal they had establishments at Belem and Mafra. In Italy the community was introduced by Peter Gambacorti (Peti'ua 1& Pisis). In 1374 Pope Gregory XI. gave them a rule. ^ See § 145. Mosheim, De Beghardis et Beguinabns ed. Martini. Leips. 1790. THE TWO GREAT MENDICANT ORDERS. 65 d. The Order of the ^Minims was founded by St. Francis of Pauhx (+ 1507), and confirmed by Sixtus IV. (1474). e. The Order of St. Bridget of Sweden (+1373), or of the Savior, is very similar to the Order of Fontevrault. 4. Towards the end of this epoch several religiovis societies arose in Germany and in the Netherlands, the members of which led a life in common. Gerard Groot of Deventer (+ 1384) founded an association of clerics under the name of Clergy and Brethren of the Common Life ('' Clerici et fratres vitae communis "). His pupil Florentius Radewin (+ 1400) continued the work. Laymen also joined the community. The monastery of the canons regular at Windesheim (1386) formed a central point for the various confraternities. Another cloister stood on Mount St. Agnes, near Zwoll. Being favored by the Popes Eugene IV. and Paul II., these confraternities encouraged study, successfully opposed the demoralization of the clergy and laity, and were in many other respects solicitous and energetic in promoting the welfare of the Church and of mankind. Thomas a Kempis and Gabriel Biel, the last of the Sententiaries, belonged to them. § 136. The two great Mendicant Orders. More important and more influential than any of the orders of this epoch which we have hitherto considered, were the orders of St. Dominic and of St. Francis of Assisi. which arose in the thir- teenth century. Without being able to decide on entering the profession of a mer- chant, St. Francis, who combined a deep sense of religion with an in- tense love for the poor, and who -was of a cheerful disposition, spent the days of his youth at his father's house, which, when he clearly saw his vocation, he abandoned, in order to devote himself entirely to the service of God. Having disarmed the opposition of his father by renouncing his inheritance, he commenced his career as a preacher of penance, and in a short time attracted to himself so many young men of every rank of life, who were willing to follow his austere manner of living, that he resolved to found a new^ order. Pope Innocent III. (1210) assented to the design, and gave his vei'bal approval to the association of the Friars Minor ("Fratres mi- nores "), or Minorites. The formal sanction of the rule,^ however, 1 Holstein-Brokie, torn. iii. p. 21 sqr|. VOL. II. 5 66 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. was not given until 1223 by Pope Honorius III. Its principal object is the realization of a poverty so perfect that it should be mani- fested in every way and in all things. About the same time (1212) St. Clara of Assisi associated herself with several pious virgins in order to lead a cloistered life. St. Francis gave them a rule. They are known now by the name of the Poor Clares. He also induced people living in the world to join the two orders as tertiaries. Not content with having done so much for the honor of God in the West, the saint undertook the wearisome and hazardous task of preaching the Christian faith to ^Mahometans. He even preached before the Sultan of Egypt, without however converting him to Christianity. In Palestine he left his pupil to guard the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. Even in this world God glorified his servant by imprinting on his person the marks of the five wounds ("Stigmata")^ in 1224; two years after which he became a participator in the glories of heaven. His utter surrender of his whole being to God, which is expressed so forcibly in his divinely inspired hymns, enabled him to enter into those relations with Nature which mankind held before the fall. As early as 1228 Gregory IX. canonized this wonderful man. Avho has been a source of blessing for the human race. Simultaneously with St. Francis, St. Dominic, born at Calahorra, in Old Castile, 1170, labored for the same intent. He Avas the founder of the Order of the Friars Preachers. He completed his theological studies at Valencia, became canon in 1199, and subsequently sub- prior, at Osma. The atrocities committed by the Albigenses in the south of France, whither Dominic had accompanied his bishop, Diego, made him embrace the resolution to devote his whole life to the conver- sion of those who had gone astray. His sermons were very effec- tive ; and as early as the year 1206 he was enabled to found the convent La Prouille, in the diocese of Toulouse, for the reception of converted women, and for the education of poor girls from the higher classes. But in order to combat heresy persistently, the zealous mission- ary founded, in 1215, the Order of Friars Preachers ("Fratres prae- dicatores "), to whom, at the desire of Pope Innocent III., he gave a somewhat modified Augustinian Rule.^ The first monastery of the 1 Cf. Bonaven. Legenda major, c. 13. 2 The Fourth Council of the Lateran had (c. 13) ordained: "Ne niniia religionum EFFICIENCY OF THESE ORDERS. 67 new order to which Honorius III. gave ecclesiastical sanction was built at Toulouse, and the first general chapter was held at Bologna, 1220. It w^as here determined that the habit should be white, and that the order should possess no property. A year later, Aug. 6, 1221, Dominic ended his earthly career in the above-named city. In 1234 Gregory IX. placed him among the saints. Like the Order of the Minorites, that of the Dominicans had cloisters for women, and Tertiaries, the so-called militia of Christ C Ordo militiae Christi "). The Pope conferred on Dominic the dig- nity of a Master of the Sacred Palace ("Magister sacri Palatii"), and made him chief of the staff of book-censors, — an office which continued in the order. St. Dominic also gave the present form to the Rosary. The interior constitutions of the Minorites and of the Domini- cans are ver}^ similar. At the head of each convent, the former place a guardian, the latter a prior. For each single province a " prior provincialis " is appointed. The supreme government of each order is vested in the general (" minister generalis "), who re- sides in Rome. Important matters are decided in provincial and general chapters. Four definers (" deiinitores "'l assist the provin- cial and general. § 137. Efficiency of these Orders. — The Enmity they excited. — Disputes and Party-Divisions among Themselves. In order to apprehend the significance of the two Mendicant Orders, the ecclesiastical and political condition of the thirteenth century must be taken into consideration. Instead of the early enthusiasm for the Church, many Christians had become envious of and averse to the rich (?) clergy, who, on their part being somewhat worldly-minded, no longer possessed the force to remove this mistrust on the side of the laity, nor efficiently to counteract the tepidity and corruption which were making daily inroads among them. It was to these discontented dispositions that the preachers or orators of the new sects arising on all sides addressed themselves ; when, under the hypocritical mask of zeal for the restoration of the diversitas gravein in ecclesia Dei confnsionem inducat, firmiter prohibeniiis, iiequis de caetero novam religionem inveiiiat ; sed ([uicunque voluerit ad religionem converti, unam de approbatis assumat." Dominic adopted several decisions of the Premonstra- tensians into his rule. 68 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. primitive purity and simplicity of the Church, they endeavored to mislead the unsuspecting minds of the people to the adoption of their shameless blasphemies. The dangers alike to spiritual and to temporal power which arose from this cause were ever on the increase. The demonstrations made by the opponents of religion and of the State became bolder and bolder ; it was an evil that Avould not yield either to the force of arms, to ecclesiastical censures, or to all the labors of such reli- gious orders, then existent, as could be brought to bear upon it.^ It was then that the Mendicant monks suddenly arose ; they travelled through cities and villages, they instructed the faithful, they victoriously rebutted heresy, and in this way they protected Europe from the anarchy which was advancing towards her with giant strides. Neither was it of less importance to the Church that these orders preached the Gospel to the heathen, and labored with unremitting zeal to effect the reunion of the schismatic Greeks with the Church ; that they converted many who had been led astray, and many heretics ; that they regenerated the clergy alike with the people ; that they reconciled enemies ; and that they were intrusted, not alone by the Popes, but also by temporal rulers, Avith missions of the most difficult description and of the highest importance. The achievements of the two orders in reference to learning and knowledge were scarcel}^ less considerable. The greatest doctors, the ornaments of the universities, — such men as Albertus ]\ragnus, Thomas Aquinas, Alexander of Hales, Bonaventure, Duns Seotus, and others, — belonged to these orders.'^ This unlooked-for and immeasurable influence of the Mendicant Orders on their contemporaries called forth the opposition of a portion of the secular clergy and of the professors of the university. This opposition was in part occasioned by the imprudent conduct and encroachments of some of the monks. The most violent of the assailants of the efficiency and of the religious institution of Mendicants was William de St. Amour (de Sancto Amore), Professor of Paris. St. Thomas Aquinas^ replied to his unfounded and exaggerated accusations. He and St. Bonaven- 1 See § 146. 2 See §§ 110, 121, 139, 141. JVadiUng, Annales Miiiorum, 8 vols. fol. Lugd. 1625 sq(i. ; Mamachi, Annales ordinis predicatorum, Monunienta Franciscana, ed. Brewer and Hewlett, Lond. 1858 and 1882, 2 vols., treat of the English province. ^ Contra retrahentes homines ab ingressu religionis, and Contra irapiiguantes Dei cultiun et religionem, printed in the Opuscula of St. Thomas. ENMITY EXCITED BY THE MENDICANT ORDERS. 69 ture ^ composed glorious apologies for their respective orders, to oppose to these caluiuuies. The controversies on doctrine and other matters which broke out between the Dominicans and the Minorites were even more detri- mental to the prosperity of the two orders than had been this enmity of oj)ponents ; and the divisions which took place among the latter were more injurious yet. In order to preserve unity and mutual love among the members of both orders, the two generals issued in the year 1255, a beautiful united rescript, in which they dwelt on the exalted significance of these two virtues as a means of insuring the duration and of calling down a blessing on the labors of the brethren. The danger incurred under Elias of Cortona, the second general of the Minorites, and under Crescentius of Essi, of yielding to too great laxity of discipline, was haj^pily warded off by the more fer- vent party under the guidance of St. Anthony of Padua (+ 1231).^ ]More to be lamented than even this contest, was the controversy on the rule of the order, especially as it regarded the vow of pov- erty.^ To put an end to it, Pope Nicholas III., in 1279, issued the bull "Exiit, qui seminat," * by which he declared the rule of the order to be in conformity with the Gospel, and reserved, as Inno- cent IV. had already done, all the property, whether houses, lands, gardens, or movables used by the order, as belonging to the Holy See. This decretal did not attain its end. Some zealots in the order now maintained that according to the decision of the Pope the rule of the order was truly and properly the Gospel itself, and as such unchangeable ; and that poverty consisted in the perfect renun- ciation of every possession and r'ir]ht of rise, even regarding the things to be consumed, as food and the like, so that only the most simple use (" simplicissimus usus ") remained to the friars. These zealots for absolute poverty (Spiritualists) were, some of them at least, eccentric enthusiasts, who finally placed themselves in formal 1 Expositio in regulam fratruni minorum. Lib. apolog. in eos, qui ordini Minor, adversantur. De paupertate Christi contra Guil. Op. scti Bonav., toni.vii. Lugd. 1668. 2 Notwithstanding such difficulties, the first century of the Franciscan order was one oC wonderful increase and prosperity, in wliich the severity of the ordei- and the observance of the Rule were maintained. 3 Regitia scti Franc, c. 6 : " Fratres nihil approprient nee donium nee locum nee aliquam rem, sed tanquam peregrini et advenae in hoc saeculo in paupertate et Immili- tate Deo famulantes vadant pro eleeinosyna confidenter." * Bull "Exiit, qui seminat," in c. 3, De verbi signific. in vi. (v. 12). On the con- troversies, see Wadding, Aunal. Minor., in which the papal bulls are also printed. 70 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. opposition to the Holy See, and established connections with the heretical Fratricelli, or Beghards. The opposition^ of the Spiritnalists to tlie Apostolic See was chiefly shown in a writing of the Minorite Gerhard (1254), composed as an introduction to the so-called Everlasting Gospel of the Cister- cian abbot, Joachim of Floris (+ 1202), containing the prophecies, and in the exposition of the Apocalypse by John of Oliva (+ 1297). Pope Celestine V. made the attempt to restore peace to the order by exempting the Spiritualists from paying obedience to the general of the order ; but Boniface VIII. soon saw himself obliged to withdraw the permission granted by hiS predecessor. The ma- jority of them resisted the papal commands. To win over the schismatics, Pope Celestine V. in the bull " Exivi de paradiso " had given an explanation of the rule. His successor, John XXII., in the bull '• Quorumdam exigit " also ordered the schismatics who had been guilty of great excesses to return to the obedience of their general. Instead of obeying, the schismatic Spiritualists threw off allegiance to the Pope himself, withdrew to Sicily, and elected Henry of Ceva as their general. This conflict took a new phase under John XXII., and entered a more extensive field. The main object of contention which the Spir- itualists shared with the Conventuals, their opponents, was whether it was heretical to say that Christ and his Apostles had possessed property, individually or in common. To render it possible to bring the question under fair discussion, the Pope retracted the cen- sures of the bull '• Exiit," and demanded opinions from the cardinals, from the Sorbonne, from the universities, and also from the Mi- norites, before proceeding to a decision. The general of the order, jMicbael of Cesena, Occam, and others declared, in the general chap- ter at Perugia, that it was not heretical to say that Christ and the Apostles had possessed no property. The Minorite Bonagratia brought this decision to Avignon. In answer to this conclusion, the Pope, on Dec. 8, 1322. pub- lished the bull " Ad conditorem canonum," in which the prop- erty reserved by Nicholas III. to the Holy See was surrendered. The formal dogmatic decision respecting the property of Christ ^ This oiipositioii is by no means to be ascribed to the order as such. The really heretical views of Gerhard were not shared by any of the other members ; he was. on account of his obstinacy, punished by his superiors. DISPUTES AND DIVISIONS AMONG THEMSELVES. 71 and the Apostles ensued, on Nov. 12, 1323, in tlie bull " Cum inter nonnullos," in which the inilexible assertion that Christ and his Apostles had jDOSsessed no property, and no right of disposal or of using any, was condemned as contradictory to Holy Writ, and as undermining its authority ; ^ on which accounts it was declared heretical. But the above-named disputants did not submit to this decision. They left the order, and joined Louis the Bavarian, whom they greatly assisted in the warfare he carried on against the Pope. In the beginning of the fifteenth century the first great reform of the order took place, und6r the lead of St. Bernardinus and John Capistranus. The Council of Constance at length recognized both the '' Fratres conventuales " and the " Fratres regularis (strictioris) observantiae." The former are sometimes called by the people " Black Franciscans " on account of their black habit ; the latter are also called the Reformed (Reformati), or Recollects. In conclusion, some general remarks on the religious orders of the ^Middle Ages may be useful. 1. All the ft)uuders of orders were saintly men who, being called by God in a miraculous manner, endowed by bini with many personal graces, and by him animated with the divine fire of charity, laid the foundation of their order, the recognition and supreme supervision of which they, in all humility, committed to the decision of tlie Apostolic See. 2. The multiplicity of these religious associations by no means arises from inconstancy and caprice, but has its origin, on the one hand, in the various exigencies of humanity which called these orders into life, and, on the other hand, in the capabilities, the character, and the bent of individual men, which the Church would not deform by reducing them all to a lifeless uniformity, but rather seeks to transfigure and elevate them to a higher unity, by devel- oping individual faculties. This it is wliich forms the peculiar efficiency of the orders, and preserves them from stagnation. 3. In order to sketch a picture of monastic life in few words, we hero present Dante's description of Paradise (Parad. XXVII. 7, XXX. 37). I gazed ! It seemed a universal smile Entranced the eye : e'en as that harmony Did heretofore th' enraptured ear beguile, Thrilling the soul with wondrous ecstasy ! Life was all rapt in peace ; and Love's warm glow Brought greater wealth than riches can bestow. Leader alike in gesture as in voice, Beatrice spoke : now are we come to Heaven, 1 C. 4, De verb, signif. Extrav. Job. XXII., tit. 14. 72 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. To Light embodied, pure, whence all rejoice ; Through whicli all sweetness of delight is given ; Love of eternal good : transcendent bliss ! — All other joys, all raptures, yield to this. 4. The means of enjoying this paradisiacal happiness on earth are the rules of the orders, which, with all their immaterial differences, are inspired by the spirit of a faithful imitation of the life of Jesus Christ, chiefly mani- fested in the observance of the evangelical counsels. 5. It is true, assuredly, that the life led in several monasteries did not always correspond to the ideal conception of the founder (cf. Dante, Parad. XXII. 76), and that complaints on the decline of monastic discipline come repeatedly from ecclesiastical superiors, and from other men and women en- lightened by God, who at the same time put in force the strongest measures to do away with the abuses which had crept into the religious houses. 6. But this decline, which cannot be laid to the charge of all, nor applied to the whole order, was in no way occasioned by the interior organization uf the order, but was brought about by the unlawful and too frequent intermed- dling in monastic affairs of outsiders, and especially by the injurious practice called " commendam." 7. As, however, all decline had been occasioned by deviating from the letter, or from the spirit of the rule, so all the attempts at reform made in the fourteenth or fifteenth centuries consisted in inculcating and restoring the original rule, by various decrees of the synods on the dress and employ- ment of monks and nuns, on the prayer in choir, on cloistral discipline, and particularly on the observance of the vow of poverty, and on participatins' in the care of souls, etc. (Cf. Hefele, Hist, of the Councils, vols. vi.. vii.) 8. The efforts to reform the Benedictine Order were very eftective. In the year 1336 Pope Benedict XII. caused a constitution ("Benedictina'') to be drawn up for the monks, according to which the order was divided into thirty-six provinces, and provincial chapters were to be held regularly every three years. The Council of Constance also occupied itself with the Bene- dictine Reform. The same object was pursued by the new congregations of St. Justina of Padua, afterwards, by order of Pope Julius II., called C'on- grogatio Cassinensis, which attained importance in Spain (congregatiini of A^alladolid) and in Germany {Bnrhi, Liber de initio et progressu congreg. Benedict. St. Justinae, etc., ap. Fez. Thesaur, anecdot. noviss. ii. 268 sqq. ; Tosti, Storia della badia di Monte Casino, iii. 235 sqq.) ; and the celebrated congregation of Bursfeld, founded by Abliot John Dederoth in 1433, which spread throughout Germany {Leuekfeld, Anti(iuitates Bursfeld. Leips. 1713). On monastic life and efficiency in the MidiUe Ages, see Kenelm Dighi/, Mores Catholici, vol. x. THE UNIVERSITIES. 73 II. DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRIXE. 1. The Achievkments of Learning during this Epoch. § 138. The Universities. — Scholasticism and Mysticism. The reawakening of the religious spirit by the reformatory meas- ures taken by Gregory VII. produced a very gratifying result in the impetus -which it gave to the elevation and progress of learning ; and not a few of the cathedral and cloistral schools attained a high reputation for scholarship during the second half of the Middle Ages.^ The higher institutions of learning already existing received another accession by the foundation of new schools, and by the universities, which originated in the twelfth century, partly grow- ing out of the cloistral schools, and partly taking their prominent position from the distinguished teachers who conducted their course. They did not at once embrace the full curriculum of scientific studies. The so-called faculties are of later date ; each university had its specialty, — at Paris, in 1206, it was theology; at Bologna, in 1200, it was jurisprudence ; and at Salerno, medicine. The name " university " did not at first indicate universal knowledge, but a corporation or national union ("univ. nationum"). The constitu- tion of the University of Paris was essentially aristocratic (" univ. magistrorum ") ; that of Bologna was democratic ("univ. schola- rium"). The teaching institute was termed "schola" or "studium generale." The numerous students, from every country, who frequented the high schools were divided according to their nationalities. At the head of the individual provinces stood the deans. The vari- ous nationalities had procurators, who elected the rector of the university. The Popes bestoAved a peculiar and special care on the higher institutions of learning, whicli in the Middle Ages were stamped with a specific ecclesiastical character. From the time of the thir- teenth century the approval of the Pope was solicited before the 1 Cf. §§ 98, 99. ^ " Facultas-Disciplin." The course of discipline in vogue usually comprised Theology, Jurisprudence, Medicine, and Philosophy. 74 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. foundation of a luiiversity ; but even previous to this, the older institutions of this description stood under tlie supervision of the Apostolic See, who exercised his right through tlie medium of his representative, the chancellor of the university. The Popes proved their high regard for learning and knowledge, (1) By incorporating ecclesiastical benefices with the universities, thus providing for the maintenance of the professors ; (2) By con- ferring great privileges on teachers and students ; and (3) By ren- dering to these institutions of learning other and material aid which was far from insignificant. This predilection of the Apostolic See for the higher institutes of learning by no means hindered the Popes from forcibly opposing any excesses among the students, or from vigorously repelling any encroachments ou the part of the professors. Temporal princes imitated the example of ecclesiastical superiors, and in like manner conferred on the universities various revenues, rights, and privileges ; still, their fundamental mainstay consisted in the property of the Church. The " Venia legendi," as well as the right of promotion, was also the gift of the Popes to the corporate body of professors. The conferring of degrees (Baccalaureus, Magis- ter, Doctor) took place with religious ceremonies, often in the Church and at the hands of the bishop. An academical degree obtained at a university found i.ecognition everywhere. It was thus, by taking the freedom of learning under its own pro- tection, and by hindering to the best of its power that the relations of teachers and students should be narrowed to the limitation of respective nationalities, that the splendor of the mediaeval univer- sities shone forth in such unexampled grandeur; before the year 1517 the number of these institutions in Europe was sixty-six, of which sixteen were in Germany. But, alas ! this splendor grew pale in proportion as the State monopolized instruction, and con- verted these free corporate bodies into high scliools of the State, making the frequenting of them a condition for holding office under that State. In order to render the pursuit of knowledge easier for students of small means, colleges and purses were established. The oldest foundation of this kind was that of Robert of Sorbonne, Court Chaplain of Louis IX. in 1250. As theological studies are more properly the subject of ecclesi- astical history, they will form more exclusively the theme of our present discussion. SCHOLASTICISM AND MYSTICISM. 75 Mediaeval theology is presented mainly under two different as- pects, — the one speculative, the other contemplative, — Sc]tolefore Luther's time Germany possessed fourteen editions of the Bible in the High German, and four in the Low German dialect. The study of Christian morals was usually combined with that of dogma. St. Thomas Aquinas, indeed, treated of the one separately from the other. The work of Abelard, " Scito te ipsum," or " Ethica," is full of inaccuracies, and presents anything but a Christian morality. William Peraldus ^ and Ray- mond of Pennaforte - composed larger works on Morals (Casuistry). The study of canon law was also ardently pursued. Among the most significant of the canonists of this era were : John Gratian, professor at Bologna, and Raymond of Pennaforte ; to whom may be added the Popes Alexander III., Innocent III., Innocent lY., Gregory IX., with Boniface VIIL, and Archbishop Tudeschi of Palermo, etc. The Middle Ages have but few works on universal history ; on the other hand, they abound in chronicles, annals, descriptions of individual countries, biographies, etc. The philosophical genius of Nicholas of Cusa (born 1401 at Cues, near the Moselle), Dean of St. Florin in Coblentz, and subsequently Cardinal and Bishop of Brixen, whose spirit embraced every depart- ment of human knowledge, was renowned as a reformer, statesman, and man of learning. At first he was a defender of the principles of the Council of Basle ; but afterwards he changed sides, and became an ardent upholder of the rights of the Apostolic See. This Prince of the Church, well versed as he was in philosophy and theology, as also in the physical sciences and in classical studies, devoted his chief attention to elevating the religious standing, together with that of learning, of both the clergy and the people of Germany. The writings he has left behind him ^ contain the most profound speculations, in which the results of scholasticism and mysticism are laid down with the utmost impartiality, and in a classical form. § 143. Studies of the Humanists.^ Classical studies, which are erroneously termed a revival of learn- ing, form a beautiful proof of the aspiration after knowledge which animated the Middle Ages. 1 Summa de virtutibus et vitiis. Ed. Paris, 1629. 2 See §§ 130, 135. He wrote "Summa de poenit. et matrimonio," also called "Summa Raymundiana." Ed. Kom. 1605. 3 Ed. Faber Stapulens. Paris, 1514 ; Basil. 1565, * See Jansacns rainous Hist, of the German Peoi)Ie. 90 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. Without being absolutely neglected, the stud}^ of the pagan classics had during the mediaeval times taken a position in the background; until in the fifteenth century the predilection for their works awakened a more general and zealous study of classical antiquity.^ The negotiations for the union of the Greeks from the thirteenth century, and the Greek refugees who fled to Italy after the con- quest of Constantinople in 1453, greatly contributed to stimulate the study of the literary treasures they had brought with them. These expatriated scholars were warmly welcomed, both in Rome and Florence, by Cosmo de' ]\Iedici, and soon gathered around them a circle of learned pupils from various countries, who under their direction commenced a course of classical studies. In the course of time these refugees, being particularly patronized by the higher orders of the clergy and by several Popes, spread themselves over Italy, Spain, France, and Germany, everywhere meeting with friends and admirers who showed them kindness and afforded them aid. As the study of the pagan authors was eulogized as the source of true human culture (humanities), its promoters were called Hu- manists. At first they were chiefly occupied with the profane sciences, but soon they turned their attention also to theological discipline. The study of the pagan classics and pagan philosophy was not without its use for science, nor even for theology ; yet at the same time it exercised an injurious effect on theological studies and on religious life. In fact, the chief use of humanistic studies was to restore to the 1 See §§ 98, 99. Daniel, Classic Studies in Christian Society. Dante (-4-1321), Petrarch (-t- 1374), Boccaccio (4- 1375), and others were well versed in the classical lore of antiquity. Nicholas of Cusa, who brought many Grecian manuscripts from Con- stantinople to the West, was well read in ancient literature. At the Union Synod, held at Florence, 1439, John Turrecremata, the Dominican John of Ragusa, and the Abbot of the Camaldolites, Ambrosius Traversari, afforded splendid proofs of their acquaint- ance with Grecian literature. At the suggestion of Boccaccio, Leontius Pilatus, a pupil of the Greek monk Barlaam, was in the year 1350 installed at Florence as teacher of the Greek language. In the year 1390 the Greek Manuel Chrysoloras set- tled in Italy, iind was received in many places, of which the last was Rome, as teacher of Grecian literature. Among other distinguished Greeks who emigrated to Italy were Theodore Gaza (4- 1478), George of Trebizond (-J- about 1484), John Argyropy- lus (-f-1486), Constantine, and J. And. Lascaris, Gemistius Pletho, Bessarion, and others, concerning whom see Tirahoschi, Storiii dclla letteratura, tom. vi. pp. 1, 2. STUDIES OF THE Hi' MAX I ST S. 91 learned a classical Latiuity, which supplanted the degenerate and awkward language of the later scholastics, and rendered it possible for theologians to clothe their ideas in a pleasing and graceful form. The Humanists also effected much good in the fields of history and of patristic literature; and this because they opened sources, and placed available means before the student, which had not been accessible before. But great as may be these merits, which are by no means due ex- clusively to the Humanists, they are counterbalanced by the evil which resulted from humanism. One fruit of humanistic studies was an almost frantic predilec- tion for genuine classical expressions, as is evidenced in a truly ludicrous manner ^ in the writings of the Humanists. Not less dis- advantageous was the overrating of the pagan philosophers, Plato - and Aristotle,^ whose writings were by some Humanists placed on the same level as the Holy Scriptures ; while some, like Marsilius Ficinus, even wished them to be read in the churches, together with the Scriptures. Yet Avorse even than this was the unworthy warfare waged by these worshippers of classic antiquity against scholasticism. They would willingly have substituted their own theological works — bril- liant in form, but for the most part worthless and insignificant — in the place of the profound speculations of St. Thomas and other scholastics of the Middle Ages, which they designated as barbarous and unfitted for the age.'' 1 Gaimie, Le ver rongeur. Many Humanists call Christ lleros ; the Blessed Virgin of Loretto, Dea Lauretana, Spes Deoruni. The Sacred College they name Patres conscripti, Latii senatus ; the priests, Flamines ; the bishops, Archi-flamines. For heaven they say Olympus ; for hell, Erebus ; for faith, persuasio. Bembo de- scribes Christ as Minerva e Jovis capite orta; the Holy Ghost is Aura Zej^hyri coelestis; and so on. 2 The Greek Gemistius Pletho in 1440 founded a Platonic Academy in Florence. The most prominent Platonists were Marsilius Ficinus (-1- 1499), who kept a lamp burning before the image of Plato ; John Pico of Mirandola ; and Angelus Politianus, a pupil of Ficinus. See, on this and other matters of science, the valuable work of Stock!, History of the Philosophy of the Middle Ages. 3 Peter Pomponatius, professor in Padua and Bologna (-f- 1526), is the representa- tive of the new disciples of Aristotle. In his work " De Immortalitate " he contests the immortality of the soul. He also attacks the doctrine of Providence, and denies the existence of miracles. To excuse this contradiction to dogma, he maintained that a proposition might be philosophically false and theologically true, and vice versa. The Lat. V. censured these views. (Harcluin, Acta Cone. ix. 1719.) * Laurentms Valla (+ 1456), teacher in Naples and Rome, wrote some short and 92 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. Humanism, lauded by its adherents as the "golden age," also ex- ercised a very pernicious influence on the religious life. It might be true that many Humanists were themselves personally religious men, who valued their linguistic attainments chiefly for their use in the service of the Church. The progress of the vast majorit}', how- ever, was to religious indift'erence and to frivolity. They ridiculed and derided with special scorn such of the priests and monks as withstood their heathenish innovations. Even Erasmus took part in these polemics by his " Encomium moriae ; " but the worst that was brought forward in this respect were the " Epistolae obscurorum viro- rum." Not a few of the Humanists undermined morality by their lascivious writings, and not infrequently placed themselves in a formal opposition to the Church. This is distinctly seen in the writings of the infidel and immoral Ulrich von Hutten. Nicholas Machiavelli of Florence (+1530), a Pagan in his teachings and morals, reproduces in his work " Del Principe " the faithless policy of ancient Rome. He views the temporal prince as the source of all power, and proclaims a base and crafty selfishness. Unhappily, many of the Coryphaei (leaders) of Humanism were destitute of every noble sentiment, and showed themselves as men of dubious character, who, according to circumstances, could play the part of servile flatterers or of shameless calumniators, but who, alike in the eulogies they bestow and in the invectives they pour forth, are equally impudent and perverse. In Germany humanistic studies were chiefly pursued at the University of Erfurt. Here it was that Maternus Pistorius taught, — "the teacher around whom ' the poets ' ckistered." Canou Mutiau, from Gotha, afterwards under- took the direction of tliese. In Coh)gne and Muuster classic literature also found friends. Rudolph Agricola (1482) taught at Heidelherg, as did also John Reuchlin (+ 1529), a great proficient in the Hebrew language (see § 142), who afterwards became professor at Ingolstadt ; both of these were faithful sons of the Church. John of Dalberg, Curator of the University of Heidelberg, and subse- quently Bishop of Worms, was also a patron of the humanities. The learned and able John Trithemius (+ 1516) prized classical studies, without losing sight of the high value of scholasticism. But the most celebrated Humanist of his time was Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam, — a man of great learning, but des- titute of nobility of character, and of uncertain disposition. He was first the friend, then the opponent, of Luther. He died at Basle in 1536 (see §§ 161, superficial remarks on the original text of the Holy Scriptures and a treatise on Mo- rality, which was more pagan than Christian. The dogmatic of Paul Cortesius is better. {Tiraboschi, vi. 1, p. 98.) ATTEMPTS TO UNITE THE SCHISMATIC CREEKS. 93 166). By his etUtiou of the " Fathers (if the Church," he (Hd great service to patristic literature. (Op. oinn. eA.Beat. Ehenan. Basil. 1540 s»[. ed. Le Clerc, Lugd. 1702 sqq. 10 vols, fol.) Loyal to Catholic principles were the Spauiard Louis Vives (+ 1540) aud the Frenchman William Budaeus (+ 1542). These two, with Erasmus, formed the literary triumvirate. To these must be added Fisher, Bishop of Rochester ; John Colet, Dean of St. Paul's, London ; Lilly, professor in the Cathedral School of St. Paul's ; and the statesman Thomas More. 2. Heresies axu Schisms. § 144. Attempts to unite the Schismatic Greeks. — The Smaller Sects of the East. The attempts at reuniting the schismatic Greeks,^ Avere not crowned with enduring success. The Council of Bari (1098) in Lower Italy brought back to the mother Church the Greeks living there. But neither the efforts of the Archbishop Chrysolanus of Milan, who was sent to Constantinople by Paschal II., nor the colloquies of Bishop Anselm of Havelberg, with the Archbishop Nicetas of Nicomedia, nor the synod held in Constantinople, in 1166, by the Patriarch Michael Anchialus, at the command of the Emperor Emmanuel Comnenus, were successful in influencing this haughty and schis- matic people to submit to the Apostolic See ; for, oppressed as they were by emperors who themselves desired to impose dogmas on their subjects, they had lost all sense of what constitutes the true religious life. Nor did the Crusades advance the work of union ; still less, the establishment of the Latin Empire in Constantinople. The colloquies which took place between the Patriarch Germanus and the legates of Pope Gregory IX.^ served only to bring to light the deep aversion entertained by the Greeks to any measure which would bring them nearer to Rome. The prospects for this union seemed to improve after the down- fall of the Latin Empire, when the Greek emperor, Palseologus, desired to be reconciled to Rome, — more, however, from political than from religious motives. Yet the negotiations with Popes Urban IV. and Clement IV. did not accomplish their purpose. On 1 See § 101. 2 Matthew. Paris, Hist. Angl. ann. 1237, gives the letters of the patriarch to the Pope and cardinals, together with their replies. Cf. Raynald, Ad ann. 1231, n. 57 sqq. Harduin, vii. 149 sqq. For the transactions which treated of the " filioque " and the " Azyme," see Raynald, Ad ann. 1233, n. 5 sqq. 94 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. the other hand, the desired union was effected at the Fourteenth (Ecumenical Council of Lyons (Lugd. II.), under Pope Gregory X., 1274, in forwarding which St. Thomas Aquinas and St. Bonaventure, equally with the learned Grecian Veccus, were particularly instru- mental. Yet the schismatic bishops and the people, who had been wrought up to fanaticism by the rough, uncouth monks, were so little satisfied that under the reign of the Emperor Andronicus II., the son and successor of Michael, the union which had been con- cluded, together, with those who adhered to it and those who had brought it about, were anathematized. The subsequent negotiations which were entered into from fear of the Turks led to no better result ; because the Grecian emperors were more intent on obtaining assistance from the West against their enemies than anxious to procure the termination of the schism. Eor this reason the treaties of the Emperor Andronicus III. with the Popes John XXII. and Benedict XII. ,^ who could not agree to the proposals of the Grecian monk Barlaam, and those of the Emperor John V. Palseologus, with Innocent VI. and his successors, had to be again given up. At length, however, the moment of union seemed to have arrived. After lengthy discussions, the Emperor John VII. Palseologus, the Patriarch Joseph of Constantinople, and many illustrious bishops of the East appeared personally at the Council of Ferrara (Florence), convoked by Pope Eugene IV. ; and after long and tedious debates, signed the document of the union on the 6th of July, 1439. Among those who took part in these momentous debates were Cardinal Julian Cesarini ; Andrew, Archbishop of Rhodes ; Louis, Bishop of Forli, John Turrecremata ; the Dominican John of Ragusa ; and Ambrose Traversari, Abbot of the Camaldolites. On the side of the Greeks were Bessarion,^ Archbishop of Xice ; and the irreconcilable foe of the union, Marcus Eugenicus, Archbishop of Ephesus. 1 .John XXII. in 1334 sent two bishops to Constantinople. Kicephorus Gregoras, the Grecian historian, a la3'nian, on whom devolved the duty of conferring with the papal legates, because the clergy were for the most part too ignorant, evaded every dis- putation with the remark that syllogisms, in which the Latins were so strong, found no place in the teaching regarding the Holy Ghost. Op. ap. Migne, Patr. graec. torn, cxlviii., cxlix. - Op. ap. MUjnc, Patr. graec. torn. clxi. Bessarion, from the year 1436 .Archbishop of Nice, was at first opposed to, but subsequently in favor of, the union. Isidore of Kiew, Metropolitan of Russia (Mignc, Patr. graec. toni. clix. ), also labored in this cause. Eugene IV. raised both prelates to the cardinalate. Bessarion died at Eome in 1472. SMALLER SECTS OF THE EAST. 95 The majority of the schismatics refused to ratify the union ; and even as early as the year 1443, the Patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem anathematized the same. In the capital city itself great difficulties were experienced in carrying out the union. The new patriarch Metrophanes of Cyzicus (+ 1443) met with the most violent opposition ; and his successor, Gregorius ^Mammas, who went to work with more energy, Avas de- posed in 1450. His immediate successors, Arsenius and Gennadius, were both foes to the union. The exertions of the Emperor Con- stantine IX. in favor of the union were useless. Pope Nicholas V. sent to Constantinople Isidore the Metropolitan of Kiew, avIio had been banished on account of his attachment to the union. The emi)eror and the majority of the clergy accepted the union ; yet the celebration of the union festival, in 1452, led to an uproar amoiig the populace. The following year the emperor succumbed to the Sultan ^Mahomet II., who conquered Constantinople, and changed the church of St. Sophia into a mosque. With this the last hope of union vanished ; and in the vSynod of Constantinople, 1472, under the Patriarch Symeon of Trebisond, the treaty of union was for- mally rejected. At the Council of Florence, however, a union with the schismatic Armenians who, under Pope Innocent III., had already for a short time returned to the obedience of the Apostolic See, was effected. Being invited by Eugene IV., their deputies appeared at the council, and in 1440 renounced their errors. They adopted the Nicano- Constantinopolitan Symbol with ''filioque," the Synod of Chalce- don, and the doctrine of the two natures, as also that of the two wills and two modes of operation in Christ, besides the seven sacra- ments, the Athanasian Symbol, the Florentine decree of union with the Greeks, with some Latin festival days. The union, however, was violently opposed by some, and only a part of the Armenians accepted it. This example was followed by the Jacobites in Egypt (ninth ses- sion, on Feb. 4, 1442). and by other smaller sects of the East. Of the other ancient Oriental sects, the jNIaronites of Mount Leba- non had returned to the Church as early as the year 1182. The schismatic Bulgarians entered into a temporary communion with the Apostolic See, under their prince Kalojohannes in 1202, at the time of Innocent III. Among the sects of the Greek Church, besides the Paulicians or Bogomiles, whom we have already mentioned (§ CO), the Hesychasts 96 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. {■i](Tvxa(jTa[), on Mount Atlios in Macedonia, must not l)e forgotten. Their founder was the Abbot Symeou, who guided the monks of that place to a false quietism. It was the learned abbot Barlaam who came forward as the chief opponent against these fanatics, whom he termed Massalians, Umbilicians, Navel-souls (dfxcfiaXoij/vxot). Gregory Palamas, afterwards Archbishop of Thessalonica, undertook to de- feud them. The Synod of Constantinople, in 1341, decided against Barlaam, who, on account of their doctrine concerning the "uncreated liglit," had accused the monks of believing in two Gods, — the one visible, the other invisible. Two other synods also decided in favor of the Hesychasts ; and they found a special protector in the Emperor Kantakuzenus, who from the year 1355 lived as a monk on Mount Athos. The points of difference which were discussed at Florence principally re- garded the "filioque" and the primacy, together with the doctrines of purga- tory, the use of unleavened bread in the Eucharist, and the special invocation (cVt/cXr/cris') of the Holy Ghost on the oblations after consecration. As respects the " Epiklesis," the Greeks declared tliat consecration takes place by the words used by Christ, and that the " Epiklesis, " lilve to the " Jube haec perferri " in the Latin canon, only petitioned '"that the Holy Ghost should descend upon us and in us, make the bread into the precious body of Christ . . . that it may be to the recipient for the purification of his soul and the remission of liis sins, and not to his judgment and condemnation." A similar official declaration was given by Bessari()n on the 5th of July, in the name of all the Greek bishops. (Hardmn, ix. 403; 3Iansi, xxxi. 1045.) The question of the " Azyme" was disposed of by the declaration of the Greeks, that either leavened or unleavened bread might be used at the altar. As respects purgatory, it appeared from the proceedings, that the dift'erence did not consist in believing in the existence of a place of purification, but only appertained to the kind of purification and the manner in which it is effected. (Harduin, ix. 403.) The discussions on the addition of " filioque " to the symbol were the most vehement of all. After the splendid defence of this addition made by John of Ragusa, who proved its correctness from the Greek Fathers, especially from St. Basil and St. John Damascene, and by Ambrose Traversari, the Greeks finally gave up, and declared that, "as the Latin Fathers taught that the Holy Ghost proceeded from the Father and the Son as from one sole principle and by one spiration, and that they themselves had no other meaning than that of those Fathers who taught that the Holy Ghost proceeds from the Father through the Son, therefore all obstacles to union are removed." The prerogatives of the Apostolic See were also acknowledged by the SMALLER SECTS OF THE EAST. 97 Grci'lvs ai'U'V a luug disciissiuu ; but this was done witlioiit iufringiug on the rights of the Eastern jiatriarchs. (Hardtiin, ix. 413.) The decree of union had been (hv.wn up by Traversari, and after some alterations it was signed by the Pope, the cardinals, and the Western bishops present ; also by the Greek emperor and his bishops, with the exception of Marcus Eugenicus. The decisions respecting the Primacy run thus: "Item doiinimus sanctam Apostolicam sedeui et Romanum Pontiticem in universum orliciii tenere primatum et ipsum Pontiticem Romanum successorem esse beati Pftri, principis Apostolorum et verum Christi vicarium totiusque ecclesiae ciiput et omnium Christianorum patrem ac doctorem existere, et ipsi in beato Petro pasceudi, regendi et gubernandi universalem ecclesiam a Domino nos- tro Jesu Christo plenam jxttestatem traditam esse : quemadmodum etiam in gestis o^cumenicorum conciliorum et in sacris canonibus continetur. Renovan- tes insuper ordinem tradituin in canonibus ceteroruin venerabilium patriar- charum ; ut patriarcha Constantiuopolitanus secundus sit post sanctissimum Romanum Pontificem. tertius vero Alexandrinus, quartus autem Autiochenus et quintus Hierosolymitanus, salvis videlicet privilegiis omnibus et juribus eorum."' The assertion made by the Galileans, especially by De Marca (Concord, sacerd. et imper. iii. c. 8. n. 5), and in more modern times repeated by Dbl- linger and others, ^ that, instead of " quemadmodum e 'PcofxaiKov ap^upea fls nncrav ttjv oiKovpfvrjv to TrpaTflov KUTtx^iv, which are wanting in some codices, are not a forgery, but are found in the first original (the Florentine Codex A) and in most manuscripts. Against the one-sided representations of the Florentine proceedings made by Syropulus, see Leon Allatii, in R. Creyghton. appar. version, et notas ad hist, cone. Florent. script, a Sylv. Syropul. exercitationum, P. I., Rom. 1660. 98 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. § 145. The Smaller Sects of the West. Among the less important leaders of the sects that arose at this epoch may be numbered Arnold of Brescia, the demagogue, whom we have already mentioned, — he fell into several errors of faith ; — the two fanatics, Tanchelm (1115-1124), who carried on his disorders first in Utrecht and subsequently in Antwerp, where he was success- fully opposed by St. ]S[orbert; and Eudo da Stella (Eon), who trav- elled through Brittany and Gascony, until he was at last imprisoned, in 1148, at the command of the Council of Rheims. Peter of Bruys (1104-1124), the impetuous zealot for the restora- tion of Church discipline, founder of the Petrobriisians, fell into the error of rejecting infant baptism and the holy sacrifice of the Mass ; he ordered churches and altars to be destroyed, crucifixes and the like to be burnt ; and at St. Gilles he publicly ridiculed the com- mandment of the Church to abstain and fast on Good Friday. The infuriated people threw him into the flames of the funeral pile he had himself erected. After this, Henry of Lausanne placed himself at the head of a party called Henricians. He came upon the scene as a preacher of penance, and was at first received in a friendly manner bj^ Bishop Hildebert of Le Mans, but in a short time was expelled because he enticed his hearers to the performance of senseless acts. On this he joined the Petrobrusians, to whose errors he added others. This induced the Bishop of Aries to bring the matter before the Council of Pisa, in 1135, as heresy. Henry promised to amend, but did not perform his promise, on Avhich account he was arrested by order of the Archbishop of Toulouse, and kept in prison until his death in 1149. His errors were controverted by St. Bernard and by the cardinal legate Alberich. The Apostolic Brethren, founded in 1260 by the enthusiast Ge- rard Segarelli of Parma, Avas professedly intended to restore apostolical simplicity to the Church. It was suppressed by Hono- rius IV. on account of the heretical doctrines put forth by the members of this association; and again by Nicholas IV., in 1290, it was denounced as heretical. Gerard refused submission to the papal decision, on which account he was punished as an obstinate heretic (1300). Then Era Dolcino of Milan took the lead among these fanatics, and excited them to so great a degree that they bar- ricaded themselves at Kovara and then at Vercelli in such a way THE CATHARI. 99 as to render it necessary to proceed against them by an armed force (1307;. Dolcino and his spiritual sister Margareta were put to deatli. The doctrine of the Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit (Suestriones), who committed acts of the coarsest licentiousness, was practically pantheistic ; under different names this sect sus- tained itself to the fourteenth century. Amaleric of Chartres (Bena), professor at Paris, also dissemi- nated pantheistic views ; his disciples, William of Paris (the gold- smith) and David of Dinanto, even maintained (1204) that God was the essential matter (" esse materiale ") of all things, and they denied that any difference existed between virtue and vice. The followers of Wilhelmina of Bohemia, who is said to have given herself out as an incarnation of the Holy Ghost, and who died in Milan in 1282, also committed great excesses, which called forth the energetic opposition of the superiors of the Church. The Stedingers of Friesland revolted against the Archbishop of Bremen (1187), refused to pay tithes, despised the doctrine of the Church, and murdered the priests. In the year 1234 a crusade was inaugurated against them. A number of them became reconciled to the Church. The Passagians (from " passagium," pilgrimage ?), who were inclined to Judaism, also belonged to the heretical anti- ecclesiastical party of this time. § 146. Tlie Catliari (^Albigenses and Waldenses). That family of the sects of the Middle Ages which bore the name of Cathari ^ (KaOapoC) was characterized by an opposition against the Church combined with gnostic errors. Under the specious pretext of wishing to restore Christianity to its original form, they made war against the Church, which, according to them, was disfigured by riches. The opinio:! that these destructive sects took their rise from an antipathy conceived by some Grseco-slavic monks against some Latin mqde of worship which had been imposed upon them, is not correct. The case is contrariwise ; these se'-ts originated from a union of the gnostic sects of the East, the so-called Paulicians or Bogomiles, with some unquiet spirits who had been scandalized at a rich and powerful Church. This assertion is not only supported by exterior reasons, but also by the peculiar doctrines and regulations of these 1 Schmidt, Hist, et doctrine des C'athares ou Albigeois. 2 vols. Paris, 1849. 100 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. sects, which so greatly contradict Christian teaching in every point as to make it scarcely possible to consider them Christian at all. The doctrine of the Cathari is Dualism. They rejected the princi- pal dogmas of Christianity, — the most holy Trinity, the creation, original sin, the incarnation and redemption. They looked on souls as fallen spirits ; and the resurrection was to them the reunion with its heavenly body, of the soul, now imprisoned in an earthly body. The Cathari rejected the holy sacraments, together with the dogmas of the Church. Only by name they retained the Last Supper (blessed bread) and confession (" Servitium, appareillamen- tum "). Instead of baptism by water, they had what they called the baptism of the Holy Ghost, or the Consolanientum (consolation), which, according to their doctrine, frees the receiver from all sin without any kind of contrition. Most of the Cathari put off receiv- ing the Consolanientum till their life drew to its close. In case the receiver fell back into sin, — as, for example, ate meat, — he must again have recourse to this (reconsolation). To avert this danger, the "consoled" (" consolati ") frequentl}- had recourse to the " Endura," — a process by which, through starvation, bleeding, poison, or other means, they put an end to their lives. Moreover, all the Cathari were opposed to the ecclesiastical hi- erarchy, to the veneration of pictures and of saints, to pilgrimages, etc. On the other hand, they had a hierarchy of their own, an eso- teric and exoteric doctrine ; and they were, divided into two classes, the perfect and the believing (" perfecti et credentes "), being in this like the old Manichaeans, to whose doctrine their system of morals had great resemblance. Like them, the}' forbade every touch of matter, rejected matri- mony, prohibited the use of flesh, the killing of animals, all inter- course with worldly-minded people, and all warfare, while they kept strict fasts. But all this was only for the perfect ; the imperfect had a» more extended license, — they might eat meat, perform mili- tary service, contract marriage, etc. According to the testimony of Rainer Sachoni, — who for sixteen years was bishop of this sect, but subsequently became a convert and an inquisitor, — many of the Cathari practised the most filthy impurities, and taught that sin was not thereby committed. In order to diffuse their errors, the leaders of this sect made use of every means at their disposal. They found friends and adherents alike among the laity and the clergy, especially in southern France, THE CAT HA HI. 101 where a variety of causes contributed to facilitate the propagation of this heresy. The Cathari, who received the name of Albigenses from the city Albi, or Albigua, found powerful protectors in many French counts, — chiefly, Raymond VI. of Toulouse, and the Viscount Roger II. of IJeziers, — and soon became so dangerous to Church and State that Pope Innocent III. was fully justified in saying, " The Albigenses are worse than the Saracens." To put a stop to their devastations, the Church made use of various means. Synods repeatedly opposed them by severe edicts ; and ecclesiastical superiors set missions on foot for the conversion of the seduced people. Nevertheless, the heresy continued to enlarge its boundaries. The legates Rainer and Guido were sent by Innocent III. to the south of France, where also St. Dominic began his missionary labors. They were succeeded by Raoul and Peter of Castelnau, two Cistercian monks. The latter pronounced excommunication on Raymond VI., who, contrary to his promise, favored the heretics. Soon afterwards the legate was assassinated (1208). Innocent III. then had recourse to the king and barons of France to put an end to such disorderly proceedings, and commissioned the Abbot Arnold of Citeaux to preach a crusade, the necessity of which Count Raymond V. of Toulouse had already pointed out. A con- siderable army of Crusaders was soon in array, under the conduct of the brave Simon, Count of Montfort, to wage war with the prin- cipal protectors of the heretics, Raymond VI. of Toulouse, and Roger II. of Beziers. The former sought to avert the impending danger by petitioning for absolution from the excommunication. This was granted to him after he had promised, on oath at St. Gilles, to comply with the demands of the papal legate IVIilo. Roger, on the contrary, who remained obstinate, was defeated by the Crusaders; and the conquered domain of the viscount was surrendered as a fief to their leader, Simon de Montfort. After this, Raymond VI., who to save appearances had also assumed the cross, received the command to expel the Cathari from his dominions ; but this he refused to do, on which account he was excommunicated by the papal legate. On this, the Count betook himself to Innocent III., who received him very kindly, and at his request released him from the ban. But on his return from Rome he resumed his ambiguous position, rejected the demands which were placed before him at Aries by the papal legate Magister 102 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. Theodosius, and secretly assisted the Cathari who were besieged in Lavaur. This resulted in a combat between him and the Crusaders. At first the latter were not successful. The siege of Toulouse had to be given up, and Simon was reduced to great distress because Peter of Aragon came to the assistance of Count Raymond. But at length the Crusaders were the conquerors. Peter fell in battle, near Muret, 1213, and Simon came into possession of the whole country. Innocent III. would willingly have preserved the paternal inheri- tance for the young count Raymond VII., but the King of France and the Fourth Council of the Lateran (convened in 1215) adjudged the territory to the victor, Simon de Montfort, as the lawful lord. His son Amaleric, however, ceded .it to King Louis VIII. ; and Louis IX., at the intercession of Pope Gregory IX., finally restored it to Count Raymond VII. as the patrimony of his father. The sect called the Poor of Lyons, or the Leonists, is of less impor- tance. It arose neither in the time of Pope Sylvester I., nor had it for its founder either Claudius of Turin or Agobard of Lyons ; it dates from the twelfth century. The spiritual father of this sect is Peter Waldus, a rich merchant of Lyons ; and from him its adhe- rents are called Waldenses. Terrified by the sudden death of a friend, Waldus renounced the pleasures of the world, and made the study of the Scriptures (which he caused to be translated by two clergymen) his principal occupation. Subsequently he with some companions started forth as preachers of penance. The Archbishop of Lyons forbade their preaching. The new preachers of penance appealed to Pope Alexander III., but were not listened to ; neither did they obtain a hearing from his successor Lucius III., who even excommunicated them as heretics in 1184. After their attempts with Innocent III. in 1212 had also failed, the Waldenses organized themselves into a sect, and to their former errors added others that were new ; ^ that is, they adopted many errors of the Cathari, with 1 Pseudo-Kein. contr. Waldenses, c. 5 (Grdscr, xii. pp. 2, 28). The Wal- denses principally attacked the Church as having from the time of Pope Sylvester I. departed from apostolic maxims, and declared the Pope to be the head of all errors. They also abused the clergy. Their sole source of faith was the Scriptures. The sec- tarians were divided in their views on baptism and the Eucharist. They rejected the sacrifice of the Mass, and made the validity of the sacraments depend on the worthiness of the dispenser. They rejected the sacraments of extreme unction and of matrimony, as also the ecclesiastical ceremonies, pilgrimages, purgatory, prayer for the dead, and only acknowledged three hierarchical degrees, — the episcopate, the presbytery, and the diaconate. Denzinger, Eiichir. p. l.'>9. ECCLESIASTICAL AND SPANISH I XllC ISITION. 103 \vhoni they now united. By their affectation of piety, their attacks on the clergy, and other means of a like description, these sectarians found followers, who Avere united not so much by their agreement in doctrine as by their hatred to the Church. The sect spread in southern France, particularly in Provence and in Dauphine ; it made its way also into Lombardy in the valley of the Cottian Alps ; it also sought to obtain followers in Germany. In order to escape persecution, they outwardly conformed to Catholic usages, frequented the churches, and even received the Holy Eucharist. In consequence of their uniting with the Hussites, they adopted many of the errors of these latter. In the sixteenth century they joined the Protestants, whose system of teaching they then made their own. As such, they still exist in Piedmont. In the seven- teenth century their writings were greatly interpolated, in order to give them the appearance of being forerunners of Luther. § 147. Ecclesiastical and Spanish Liquisition. The Christian State could not be indifferent to the admixture of error with the divine revelation. Necessarily it was compelled to consider every attempt of this nature as an attack on the highest good possessed by the human race, and one which called for repression.^ Starting from this principle, which in itself is correct, the Chris- tian Roman Emperor declared heresy to be also a crime against the State, and threatened obstinate defenders of the heresies condemned by the Church with such punishments as imprisonment, banishment, confiscation of property, and in some cases even with death. This view was predominant in the jVIiddle Ages, and found expression in the laws of the empire, which inflicted special punishments on obstinate heretics. The amount of punishment was determined, (1) By the heinousness of the doctrine and morality taught by the sectaries ; and (2) By the character of the legislation itself. From the time of the Emperor Frederic II. death by fire was the usual punishment of heresy. This punishment, which at that time was blamed by some and defended ^ by others, had its origin principally 1 See § 48, Cod. Theod. xvi. 5, 40 : "Voluinus esse publicum crimen [scl. haeresis Mauicb. et Priscill.], quia, quod in religione divina committitur, in omnium fertur injuriaiii." This was so ordained hy Theod. II. in the year 407. ^ Thorn. Aquin. II. ii. qu. 11, art. 3. " Haeretici possunt uon solum excommu- nicari, sed et juste occidi." 104 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. in the danger to Churcli and State, essentially inherent in the heret- ical maxims of the sects of the Middle Ages.^ The decision as to whether any particular person was to be con- sidered as an obstinate heretic was left to ecclesiastical superiors, and belonged, of its own nature, to the bishops whose special sphere of business it was to guard the purity of faith in their diocese. As, however, in the regions of the south of France, of Upper Italy, etc., in which such dangerous heresies had been so secretly spread that ordinary means and ordinary measures did not suffice to check their destructive progress, Pope Lucius III. (after the Third Lat- eran Council, c. 27), at the Council of Verona, 1184, issued strict ordinances against the heretics and those who favored them, and at the same time commanded the bishops to visit their dioceses either personally or by substitute for the purpose of judicial inspec- tion. These ordinances were repeated and rendered more severe by Pope Innocent III., especially at the Fourth Lateran Council, 1215. Yet even at this time it was not precisely a tribunal of the Inquisition that was established. It was not till the war with the Albigenses was at an end that the ecclesiastical Inquisition was established by the Council of Toulouse (1229), which in canons 1-3 decreed that the bishops should authorize a clergyman and some laymen in every parish to watch over the parishioners and to denounce those suspected of heresy. P>efore the time of Innocent IV. Dominican monks had been em- ployed as inquisitors in particular oases ; but it was this Pope who first specially intrusted them with this business, without, however, interfering with the rights of the bishops. The duties of the office of inquisitor, which were equally burden- some and dangerous, consisted, (1) In examining whether any per- 1 Of. Lat. iii. c. 26 : "Licet ecclesia.stica disciplina, sacerdotal! contenta judicio, cnientas non efficiat ultiones : catholicorum tamen princii^uni coiistitutionibus adju- vatur, ut saepe quaerant homines salutare I'emedium, dum corporale super se metimnt evenire suppliciuin. Ea propter quia in Gasconia, Albegisio, et partibus Tolosanis et aliis locis, ita haereticorum, quos alii Catharos, alii Patrinos, alii Publicanos, alii aliis nominibus vocant, invaluit damnata perversitas, ut jam non in occulto, sicut aliqui, ne(piitiam suam exej'ceant, sed suiim errorem publice inanifestent et ad suum consensum simplices attraliant et infirmos : eos et defensores eorum et receptores, anathemati deceniimus subjacere," etc. Of the devastations caused by other heretics, the same canon says : "Tantam immanitatem exercent, ut nee eccle- siis nee monasteriis deferant, non viduis et pupillis, non senibus et jiueris nee cuilibet parcant aetati aut sexui sed modo paganorum omnia perdant et vastent." ECCLESIASTICAL AND SPAXISII IX(2UISIT[0X. 105 son were a heretic or not; (2) In reconciling those convicted of heresy to the Church ; (3) In delivering up obstinate heretics to the secular power, which pronounced the sentence against the criminal and also executed it. As in the Middle Ages heresy was considered a more grievous crime than high-treason itself, the same sentence decreed for those convicted of high-treason fell upon those convicted of heresy. This explains many customs ^ of inquisitorial proceedings which were by no means conducted in a cruel or arbitrary manner. At the worst, the reproach of cruelty applies rather to some individual inquisitors than to the Inquisition itself, by the institution of which the number of victims was lessened, not enlarged. Besides which, the condemned had always the resource of appealing to the apostolic chair, which not only pow^erfully protected the innocent, but kept a watchful eye over the judicial proceedings of the inquisitors, and was ever anxious to temper their judgments by recommending milder measures. The Ecclesiastical Inquisition is to be distinguished from the Spanish Inquisition,- first appointed by Ferdinand the Catholic and Isabella for Castile and afterwards extended to Aragon. This, although it may not be considered as a mere State institution, was yet dependent on the temporal rulers ; its object was to break the might of the higher aristocracy and at the same time to detect and punish those who used the pretence of being converted as a mask, whether Jews (Maranos) or Mahometans (Moriscoes). The first tribunal was erected in 1481 at Seville. How little the apostolic chair approved of this institution of the State is seen by the letter of Sixtus IV. of Aug. 2, 1483. Ferdinand would not be dissuaded from his purpose. He ap- pointed the Dominican Torquemada as Grand Inquisitor of Castile, and afterwards of Aragon, to which finally the Pope consented ; 1 Cf. Xic. Eymerici, Directorium inquisitorum cum comment. F. Pegna, Rom. 1578. As in the case of high-treason, eveiy citizen, even one without honor, or who had been guilty of the same crime, was bound to denounce heresy. The names of the witnesses were kept secret. But the accused might name his enemies, who were then excluded from giving testimony. The rack and tortures were used not only in the case of high-treason and of heresy, hut for other crimes also. Confiscation of property was also the punishment of treason ; many laws were passed respecting the disposition of property that had been confiscated. See Hcrqcnrothcr, p. 587. ^ Lloraitc, Hist, critique de I'lnquisition d'Espagne. Paris, 1817. 4 vols. See p. 520, n. 1, De Maistre, Lettres a un gentilhomme Russe sur I'lnquisition Espagnole. 1839. 106 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. whereupon Torquemada erected four tribunals of inquisition — at Seville, Cordova, Jaen, and Villa Real (subsequently transferred to Toledo) — and sketched the statutes for the inquisitors, who were all appointed by the king. By a bull of February, 1485, Innocent VIII. confirmed the approbation already given by his predecessor. The banishment decreed by Ferdinand in 1492 of all the Jews and Moors who refused to receive baptism, brought a number of sham Christians into the Church, and extended the sphere of action for the Inquisition. During the reign of Philip II. this institution prevented Protestantism from being smuggled into the kingdom ; and during the reign of the Bou.rbons it was its mission to punish gross crimes against morality, to prevent the importation of infidel writings into Spain, and to confirm royal absolutism. Joseph Bona- parte abolished the Inquisition. Ferdinand VII. re-established it in 1814 ; but the revolutionary Cortes in 1820 renewed the sup- pression of its office and its power. The accusations which the notorious Lhrente brings against the Spanish Inquisition lose their force when the character and conduct of this man are brought under inspection. The assertions made by some learned men, that this institution was unpopular, and that it had caused the ruin of knowledge and science in Spain, are in plain contradiction to history. According to Balmez, in introducing the Inquisition, the Catholic rulers acted in accordance with the wishes of the people, but against those of the nobility and of the higher clergy. How little learning and knowledge were checked may be ascertained from the fact that the most flourishing era for Spanish literature falls precisely in the time of the Spanish Inquisition; while, on the other hand, the dominion of liberalism in Spain was very unfruitful in literary or scientific productions. Again, the reproaches made respecting the regulations and the judicial proceedings of the Inquisition are either unfounded or exag- gerated. The mode of carrying on the prosecution in the Inquisi-- tion was milder and more circumspect than that pursued in other courts of justice. The prisons were more cheerful than those in other countries ; the rack might be used only once, while in the usual courts of justice this torture was repeated. The number of those who suffered is, on examination, proved to be greatly reduced from the usual amount given. The " San benito " (" Saccus benedictus ") corresponds to the gar- ment of penance in use there and elsewhere. The Autos-da-fe (" Actus fidei '') were not awful scenes of horror. They often JOHN WYCLIFFE AND HIS HERESY. 107 resulted in the innocent being set free, and in a penance being laid on the repentant sinner ; they were rather acts of mercy than of cruelty. It is equally unlawful and uufair to judge either the Ecclesiastical or the Spanish Inquisition according to the standard of our own century. The duty of tlie secular power to punish hei-etics was still recognized in the sixteenth century, alike hy Catholics and Protestants. On the '27th of Octoher, 1553, Calvin liad the Spanish physician Michael Servetus burnt as a heretic; and to justify himself, wrote a treatise in which he pnjves "jure gladii coercendos esse haereticos." Melauchthon praises him for this execution, and writes to the Genevan reformer: "Tuo judicio prorsus assentior. Affirmo etiam, vestros magistratus juste fecisse, quod hominem hiasphemum, re ordine judicata, interfecerunt " (Inter Calv. ep. 187). Beza, Calvin's disciple, wrote "'De haereticis a civili magistratu puniendis." The so-called reformers would have suhjected Catholics to civil punishments, even that of death. See, for instance, Melanchthon (Corp. reform, ed. Bretschneider, ix. 77), and Calvin (Ep. Genev. 1579, p. 40). How Protestant princes treated their Catholic suhjects will be shown in § 165 sqq. The immoral principle " Cujus regio illius et religio " was set up hy the German States of the Empire, and followed out. § 148. John Wycliffe and his Heresy. About the middle of the fourteenth century the Church of Eng- land, which until then had kept itself free from heresy, was seri- ously threatened in that respect by John "Wycliffe, whose heresy seemed to embrace and conciliate every element of false philosophy and theology then current throughout the whole Clmrch of the West.^ He was born at the village of Wycliffe, in Yorkshire, in 1324, and studied philosophy, theology, and law at Oxford, where the celebrated though ofttimes erring Thomas Bradwardine was teach- ing ; here he acquired fame for extensive knowledge and acumen. Wycliffe had already showed signs of ill-will to Rome, when in the year 1360 he entered vehemently into the controversy which the University of Oxford was carrying on against the Mendicant Orders, and soon assumed a position hostile to the Apostolic See. When, in 1365, Urban V. sent to demand from King Edward III. the feudal tribute which had been paid to Rome from the time of John Lackland, Parliament decided against the payment, as unlawful in 1 Hcfelc, Hist, of the Councils, vi. 810 aqq. The work of the Superintendent and Professor LecMcr, " Wycliffe and History before the Reformation," Leipsic, 1873, is a one-sided glorification of Wycliffe, Huss, etc. Stevenson, The Truth about J. Wyclif. 108 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. itself, dangerous to the independence of England, and contrary to the coronation oath taken by the king. This parliamentary decision was eagerly taken up and defended by Wycliffe ; and thus he gained the favor of the crown. This, in 1372, obtained for him the degree of Doctor ; and he became professor of theology at Oxford, to which, in 1375, the rectory of Lutterworth was added. In the mean time a new accusation was brought forward against the Papal See, respecting the collation of benefices in England. Wycliffe was one of the royal commissioners sent to Bruges in 1374, to confer with the papal legates on the pending questions. \Yhile on this mission he was informed of the disorderly state of affairs at the Papal Court of Avignon : and when he returned to England he used every exertion in vehemently denouncing the Mendicant Orders, the clergy, the hierarchy, and more especially the Pope, against whom he declaimed in very abusive language. The English hierarchy could not remain silent. At the instance of William Courtnay, Bishop of London, Wycliffe was summoned to appear before a synod held in February, 1377. He appeared in the company of Duke John of Ghent, son of Edward, whose friend- ship he had acquired at Bruges, and in that of Lord Percy, Earl Marshall. Their rude and boisterous behavior interfered with the proceedings of the synod, which therefore contented itself with enjoining silence on Wycliffe, — an injunction with which he did not comply. The opponents of Wj^cliffe sent nineteen propositions, drawn from his letters, writings, and sermons, to Pope Gregory XL, who, on May 22, 1377, ordered a new examination into the matter. Soon after the bull of the Pope arrived in England, King Edward III. died (June 21). The Duke of Lancaster (John of Ghent) be- came regent, as guardian of Richard II., then a minor. Therefore the order of the Pope could not immediately be carried into effect. The heretic became bolder; and to the question asked by the Government, whether it was allowable to forbid the exportation of money from the kingdom even when threatened with ecclesiastical censures, he resolutely replied in the affirmative. At the beginning of the year 1378 the examination that had been commanded took place in the chapel of Lambeth Palace, at which Wycliffe appeared; but, owing to intimidation, the bishops con- tented themselves with enjoining silence on him, who meantime had given to his declarations a more reserved and somewhat sophistical interpretation. JOHN WYCLIFFE AXD IIIS HERESY. 109 But neither admonitiou nor reproach availed to change the dispo- sition of Wycliffe. The deplorable schism that broke out in 1378 offered him the opportunity he desired, and which he used under the mask of zeal for the Church, to calumniate the Holy See. His ill-feeling towards Rome soon developed into opposition to the Church generally. Witlunit knowledge of Greek and Hebrew, he began, in 1380, to translate the Bible into English, omitting the deu- tero-canonical books. He declared the Bible to be the only source of faith, denied the freedom of the will, and the dogma of tran- substantiation. Further, he defended the doctrine of unqualified predestination, and taught that the papacy and episcopacy are not of divine institution ; nay, he went so far as to say that all power, spiritual as well as temporal, is dependent on the state of grace, and that the Church is only the communion of the predestined. The teachings of the reformer, whose disciples, — among whom were the communistic preachers. Jack Straw and John Ball, — clad in coarse garments (" russetum "), went up and down the country preaching the new doctrines, soon bore their fruit. These revolu- tionary sermons of John Wycliffe's adherents excited the insurrec- tions of the peasants in 1381, which were suppressed by the energy of Richard II. When William Courtnay, Bishop of London, was raised to the archl)ishopric of Canterbury, he, in May, 1382, convoked a provincial synod at London, at which twenty-four articles, drawn from the writings of Wycliffe and the sermons of his followers, were con- demned, — ten as heretical and fourteen as erroneous. ^ The archbishop had the decision solemnly proclaimed, after which it 1 The propositions condemned as heretical were: "(1) Quod substantia panis materialis et vini maueat post consecrationem in sacramento altaris. (2) Item, quod accidentia non maneant sine subjecto post consecrationem in eodem sacra- mento. (3) Item, quod Christus non sit in sacramento altaris identice, vere et realiter in propria praesentia corporali. (4) Item, quod si episcopus vel sacerdos exsistat in peccato mortali, non ordinat, conficit, nee baptizat. (5) Item, quod si homo fuerit debite contritus omnis confessio exterior est sibi superflua vel inutilis. (6) Item pertinaciter asserere non esse fundatum in evangelic, quod Christus Missam ordinaverit. (7) Item, quod Dens debet obedire diabolo. (8) Item, quod si Pajia sit praestigiator et mains homo ac per consequens membrum diaboli, non habet potestatem supra fideles Christi ab aliquo sibi datam nisi forte a Cesare. (9) Item, quod post Urbanum VI. non est aliquis recipiendus in Papam, sed vivendum est more Graecorum sub legibus propriis. (10) Item asserere, quod est contra sacram scripturam, quod viri ecclesiastici habeant possessiones temporales." On this synod, cf. Harduin, torn, vii. p. 1899 sq. Mansi, torn. xxvi. p. 695. 110 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. received the sanction of the civil authority. Wycliffe tried to re- gain the favor of the court by his petition to Parliament, in which, among other things, he called upon the crown to confiscate the goods of the Church. But he did not attain his end. He was deprived of his professorship at a second synod (that of Oxford, Nov. 18, 1382), and withdrew to his parish, Lutterworth. Here he preached frequently, and composed his principal work, entitled " Trialogus," in four books; in which he introduces Truth, Falsehood, and Prudence (Aletheia, Pseudis, I'hronesis) in conversation one with the other,^ and develops his doctrinal system, which is a composite of gross pantheistic realism, fatalism, and predestinationism. On Dec. 28, 1384, he was present at the Mass said by his chaplain John Purney, when, at the time of consecration, he was struck by apoplexy, deprived of the use of his tongue and of his limbs, and three days afterwards (December 31), was a corpse. He had made no recantation, had not complied with a summons inviting him to Rome, but, on the contrary, occupied himself to the last in develop- ing his system and defending his errors. The sect did not die out with the death of the founder ; on the contrary, it was increased by the zeal with which itinerant preachers went about distributing their Bibles and their pamphlets, and in the very spirit of Wycliffe declaiming against the ruling Church and the clergy. They and their followers were called Lollards. Many of them were clownish, unmannerly advocates of revolution. At their head stood Nicholas Hereford, Doctor of Theology- at Oxford, with whom John of Aston, parish priest in the diocese of Worcester, coalesced. Then came John Purney, Wycliffe's most intimate friend and chaplain, John Parker, Robert Swinderly, William Smith, and others. The principal seats of the Wycliffites at first were the dioceses of London and Lincoln, then of Worcester and Salisbury. In 1388 a royal mandate commanded that the Wyclifhte writings should be delivered up, but this produced little effect. Henry IV., with the Parliament, took more energetic measures against the sectaries than Richard II. had done. Their errors were condemned, also, at a Roman Synod under John XXIII. and at the Council of Constance.^ The condemnation of forty-five articles of Wycliffe was confirmed by Martin V. 1 Ed. Frcfrt. et Leips. 1753. Concerning his other works, see Lcicis, who writes from a Protestant point of view. Of. Hefele, Hist, of the Councils, vi. ^ Cf. Denzinger, Enchiridion, p. 186 sqq. Thomas JFa/de7isis (+ 1431), Provincial of the Carmelites and private secretary of Henry V., in an excellent dogmatical work THE HERESY OF JOHN HUSS. Ill John Oldcastle, Lord Cobliam, was a strong upholder of the Wycliffites, and an obstinate defender of their errors. For a long time he snjoyed the favor of Henry IV. ; but, having organized a conspiracy, he was finally taken prisoner and condemned to death, iinder Henry V., in 1417. From that time forth the sect of the Lollards withdrew more and more from the public view ; many of them had been burnt as heretics, and gradually they were almost entirely suppressed. § 149. The Heresy of John Huss. John Huss, an ardent defender of the errors of Wycliffe, was born at Husinecz in 1369. He was a professor at the university, and a Bohemian preacher at the Church of Bethlehem, in Prague, who made use of his office in both these capacities to spread these errors in learned and unlearned circles.^ While proclaiming these errors he took occasion to make the most odious attacks on the clergy, whose shortcomings he assailed in the most unsparing and exagger- ated manner. The disorders in Prague and the dissensions between the Germans and the Slavonians (Czechs) in the university, which had been founded in 1348, favored the views of the Bohemian heretic, who also undertook to play the part of a reformer. Huss found many adherents among the Czechs, with whose nationality he identified the purpose he had in hand. The censure of the forty-five propositions of Wycliffe by the uni- versity in 1408, and the prohibition issued by the Archbishop Sbinko (Zbynek) against reading the writings of Wycliffe, inflamed still more the wrath of the Czechian reformer against the Germans, who had been instrumental in procuring the judicial reprobation of Wycliffe's propositions by the university ; and he now set every lever in motion to throw the preponderance of power on the side of the Czechs. In this he succeeded. By a decree of the 18th of January, 1409, King Wenceslaus, contrary to existing regulations, granted three votes to the Czechs, and to the other nations — namely, to the Saxon, Bavarian, and Polish — but one. In con- refuted the heresy of Wyclitfe. Cf. Thomas JValdensis, Doctrinale antiquitat. eccl. Cath. Ed. Venet. 1757 sqq. 3 vols. fol. To him are also ascribed the "Fasciculi Zizaniorum magistri J. Wyclif cum tritico (ed. Schirley in Rerum Britannicanim medii ae\'i scriptores)." Lond. 18.58. 1 Hist, et monumenta J. Hus ct Hicron. Prag. Norimb. 1558. Ed. ii. 1715. 2 vols. Documenta M. J. Hus, ed. Palacky. Prag. 1869. Hcfeh, Hist, of the Councils, vol. vii. Division 1. 112 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. sequence of this injustice thirty thousand students left Prague ; and the university, renowned hitherto as belonging to the world, sank into a Czechian institution, the university of a single country. In order to nullify beforehand the probable censures of the Pope, Huss and his followers induced the king to renounce obedience to Gregory XII., and to give in his adherence to the Council of Pisa. This took place shortly after the issue of the above-named decree. Encouraged by these results, Huss, who on every occasion showed himself a bitter enemy of the Germans, now proceeded in a still more reckless way against the clergy, while he publicly and unre- servedly preached the erroneous ideas of Wycliffe, whose " Tria- logus " he had already translated into the Bohemian language. The heretic endeavored to escape from the censures of the arch- bishop by an appeal to the Pope of Pisa, Alexander V. ; but this Pope confirmed the judgment of Sbinko, on which the archbishop commanded that the Wycliffian writings should be delivered up, and the preaching of Huss suppressed in the subordinate churches. Huss surrendered the writings, but protested against the suppression of his preaching, and brought a complaint against his ecclesiastical superior, before John XXIII., the successor of Alexander. The archbishop's command to burn the heretical writings had caused considerable excitement among the heretical Czechs, which assumed a more serious character under Archbishop Albik; but it was the publication of the crusade bull which John XXIII. had issued against Ladislaus of Naples, that called forth their indignation and aroused their fury. Huss also preached with great vehemence against the bull of Indulgence, which his followers, with Jerome of Prague, first held up to the mockery of the vulgar, and then publicly committed to the flames. The immoderate vehemence of Huss — who was now opposed even by his former Czechian friends, Stanislaus and Peter of Znaim, Stephen of Palecz, with Andrew of Broda, and others — brought upon him the excommunication of John XXIII., who at the same time laid Prague under an interdict for so long as the heretic should remain in the place. Huss left Prague in December, 1412, at the command of King Wenceslaus, appealing the while from the judgment of the Pope to that of Christ ; thenceforth he took up his abode at the castles of his friends among the nobility. Here he composed several works, particularly his principal theological treatise, " Tractatus de Ecclesia." THE HERESY OF JOHN HUSS. 113 According to the confused and self-contnulictory assertions of Huss, the Church is the congregation of the predestinated ; repro- bates belong to the Church only exteriorly. The only head is Christ ; therefore the Church does not need the papacy. St. Peter was not elected by Christ as the fundamental rock of his Church, and the Koman Bishop owes his dignity to the imperial favor which he has enjoyed since the time of Constantine the Great.^ The Pope and the bishops are therefore the true representatives of God, and the successors of Peter and of the Apostles, only when their conduct corresponds to the divine law ; and their ordinances have the force of law only when they are conformable to the ordinances of God.^ It would follow from this, that the subject, although inferior, has the right to examine the commands of the superior, as to whether such commands correspond to the commands of God or not ; in the first case obedience becomes a duty, but in the latter resistance is a holy obligation. This applies not only to ecclesiastical superiors, but to the secular authority in like manner, as every power is dependent on being in a state of grace. ^ It cannot therefore be affirmed that the Pope is the head of the Church, since, if he be a reprobate, he is not even a member of it. A pious priest who possesses the requisite knowledge for the office, and feels himself impelled to preach the Word of God, may do so in utter disregard of the censures of the Church ; for suspen- sion and interdict are null and void before God. Ecclesiastical obedience is altogether an invention of the priests, against the express decision of Holy Writ, which Huss declared to be the only source of faith. With respect to the Most Holy Eucharist, Huss does not seem 1 Among the assertions of HusS censured by the Council of Constance, are the fol- lowing : " Unica est sancta universalis ecclesia, quae est praedestinatorum universi- tas (1). Petrus non est, nee fuit caput Ecclesiae sanctae Catholicae (7). Papalis digiiitas a Caesare inolevit, et Papae perfectio et institutio a Caesaris potentia emana- vit (9). Xou est scintilla apparentiae, ijuod oporteat esse unum caput in spiritualibus regens Ecclesiani, quod semper cum Ecclesia ipsa militante conyersetur et conservetur (27)." - " Nemo gerit vieem Chiisti vel Petri, nisi sequatur eum in moribus : cum nulla alia sequela sit pertinenrior, nee aliter recipiat a Deo procuratoriam potestatem ; quia ad illud officium vicariatus requiritur et morum conformitas et instituentis auctoritas (12)." Cf. prop. 1.3, 14. 3 " NuUus est dominus civilis, nuUus est Praelatus, nullus est Episcopus, dum est in peccato mortali (30)." VOL. II. 8 114 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. to have adopted the doctrine of Wycliffe. On the other hand, he denies the priest the power to absolve from sin, conceding to him only the office of aanounciug that God has remitted the peni- tent's sins. After the resignation of Albik, Conrad of Vechta became Arch- bishop of Prague. He was not more successful than had been his predecessor in quieting the disturbances that had arisen. In order to restore peace, the German king Sigismund, with the consent of Wenceslaus, cited the obstinate heretic, who had continued to preach nothwithstanding the ecclesiastical inhibition, to appear before the Fathers assembled in council at Constance, in order to defend him- self. Huss, who had already appealed to an oecumenical council, agreed to this willingly, and set out for Constance, being provided with a letter of safe-conduct from King Sigismund ; and here too came his two adversaries, Professor Stephen of Palecz and the parish priest ]\[ichael Deutchbrod, commonly called De Causis. At first the council treated the heretic very mildly. John XXIII. even permitted him to attend divine service. He was, however, still under suspension, in spite of which he continued to celebrate Mass and to preach his errors. It was this disobedience that was the principal cause of his arrest. Huss was taken to the Dominican Monastery, which place of abode was afterwards exchanged for the Castle Gottlieben, and subsequently for the monastery of the Minorites. After a long preliminary examination the public trial of Huss took place on the 5th, 7th, and 8th of June. The greater part of the propositions taken from his writings he acknowledged as his ; others he repudiated as forgeries or as adulterated. Hereupon the council rejected the heretical opinions of Huss, who nevertheless refused to revoke them, on which account he was, on the 6th of July, degraded from his sacerdotal dignity, and handed over to the secular power for punishment. Once again did Sigismund attempt to pre- vail on him to recall his errors. Huss continued immovable ; he declared the council to be an assembly of Pharisees, and died at the stake, with a fortitude worthy of a better cause, on the 16th of July, 1415. His friend Jerome of Prague underwent the same fate on the 30th of May, 1416. After the death of Huss the formidable Hussite war broke out. A considerable number of Bohemian noblemen, who coveted the goods of the Church, united with the Hussite Czechs. They formed a powerful party, whose device was to demand the cup for the laity. THE HERESY OF JOHN HUSS. 115 iu other words, Holy Communion under both species, — which requirement, though Huss had not been the one to introduce it, he had approved. Nicholas of Husiuecz and John Ziska were at the head of the rebels. On the 30th of July, 1419, the insurrection broke out in Prague with the procession of the chalice. The Hussite-Bohemian party, who shortly before had held a very numerous assembly on Tabor, a city and fortress founded on the hill Hardisstin by Nic of Husinecz as a centre for the extreme Hussites, took possession of the capital, and committed the well-known atrocities in the court-house. This was followed by the plundering of the churches and by the persecution and expulsion of the Catholic clergy, whose places were filled by the Utraquists. After the death of Wenceslaus the condition of the Catholics iu Bohemia became even worse. The Hussites refused to acknowl- edge Sigismund as king, and under the lead of Ziska (+ 1424) in- vaded the adjoining countries. The efforts of Sigismund and of Pope Martin V. were in vain ; the crusaders were defeated, and the negotiations with the Hussites were again broken off because the Church could not consent to the demands of Ziska, — (1) Free preaching of the pure gospel ; (2) Communion under both species (" sub utraque " ) ; (3) Renunciation of all worldly possessions on the part of the clergy ; (4) Punishment of mortal sin, whether com- mitted by clergy or laity, by the secular power. The bloody strife began over again ; but after the death of Ziska the divisions of the rebels among themselves brought some of them after a while to desire reconciliation with the Church. They had separated into Taborites under Procope the Elder, and Orphans (those who had lost their father iu Ziska) under Procope the Younger ; into the Horebites and the Calixtines of Prague. To these were added divers Manichaean sects (Adamites), who had settled in Bohemia. Wrought upon by the disasters occasioned by these divisions, the more moderate Hussites, called Calixtines, or Utra- quists, were finally induced to seek reconciliation with the Church. For this purpose, after long consultations, they sent deputies to the Council of Basle, among whom were Procope the Elder and the Cal- ixtinian Rokyczana; but after long and protracted debates the Bo- hemian ambassadors left the council without having come to any definite result. The synod, however, sent legates to Bohemia ; and these, on the 30th of November, 1433, finally succeeded in bringing about the union with the Hussites, which is called the Compact of 116 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. Prague. The four articles above enumerated were accepted with some modifieatious. The Church permitted Holy Communion under both species to the Utraquists, who on their side promised to believe and to teach that the reception of the Holy Eucharist imder both species was not necessary to the full efficacy of the Sacrament. The third article was so far modified as to decree that the j)roperty of the Church should be used according to the precept of the Church. In regard to the first article the preaching was to be under the superintendence of the bishop ; and the fourth article was modified into the proposition that mortal sin should be punished by those who had legitimate authority so to do. The Taborites were not satisfied with this treaty ; but on the 30th of March, 1434, they suffered a complete defeat at Bcilimischbrod. Sigismund was now universally acknowledged as king ; and by the Treaty of Iglau, 1436, the Compact of Prague obtained the force of law. Yet, lierewith, peace was not altogether restored. The Bohemian Brethren sprang up from the Utraquists in Bohe- mia and IMoravia. Their first head was Michael Bradacz, Utraquist parish priest at Zamberg. The members of this sect, who wished to restore the Church to its ancient simi)licity, rejected transubstantia- tion and some other dogmas. The sect spread throughout Germany, principally, however, in Saxony. At a later period its adherents made common cause with the Protestants, I. The charge made against Sigisinuml of nposed an energetic resistance to the innovations of the sixteenth cen- tury. That the so-called Old Religious Orders were not in a state of general degenera- tion and moral depravity, as these are sometimes represented to have been at the time MORAL AXD RELIGIOUS LIFE. 131 greatly exaggerated, among the clergy was usually caused by dis- regarding the canonical laws concerning the education and appoint- naent of bishops, and by elevating unworthy sons of the nobility to the episcopal chair or to the cathedral chapter without reference to their knowledge or capability of fulfilling the duties of their office, as also by setting at nought the ecclesiastical precepts regard- ing the qualifications necessary for admission into the clerical state or the monastic life, and by the want of a proper supervision of the inferior clergy on the part of their superiors. To remedy these disorders, synods and statutes of particular bishoprics renewed their ancient ordinances concerning the deport- ment and conduct of the clergy, and strictly enjoined the observance of the ancient ecclesiastical laws, admonishing both the secular and regular clergy to give themselves to watchfulness, study, and prayer, while imposing severe chastisements as a penalty for not observing the laws relating to these. In the ascetic manuals particularly in- tended for the clergy, priests are urgently admonished to live up to their high dignity, and to perform worthily their exalted func- tions. Had the bishops always kept a watchful eye upon the strict observance of the ecclesiastical laws, many scandals would have been spared the Church. Unfortunately, the disordered state of affairs in the West, the prevalence of a worldly spirit among many bishops, nay, for a time in tlie Apostolic See itself, greatly contributed to undermine the spiritual life of the clergy. The exile of Avignon and the great schism with its sad results impeded the execution of ecclesiastical decrees in their entire severity. After the violent storm of the so-called Reformation, which shook off many withered leaves from the tree of life of the Church, the clergy as a body arose to a new, spiritual, and virtuous life. And even in those times when the decline had been most conspicuous, there were among the clergy, secular and regular, a considerable number of eminent men whose efforts were by no means fruitless, though powerless to avert the great catastrophe of the sixteenth century. When, in particular, the clergy of Germany are branded as models of ignorance and of moral corruption, it is placed beyond of the Reformation, is, besides the numerous learned works of their divines, disproved by the Large number of their members, in all countries, who, for their love of truth and opposition to heresy, have received the crown of martyrdom. See on this point P. Gaudcntius, Contributions to the Church History of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. 132 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. all doubt that her episcopal sees were occupied by men who by their lives aud teachings gave a brilliant example to the flocks under their charge ; nay, among the inferior clergy there were a considerable number of educated men of pure morals.-' While men and women/-^ gifted alike with intelligence aud divine inspiration, raised their voices in warning, in admonition, and in prayer for the regeneration of the clergy and the people, the heretics, especially the Fratricelli (§ 124), took advantage of the disorders of the time to attack the Church itself, and by their false prophecies still further to add to the disturbances. It may be proper in this place to mention some of those men who are frequently alluded to, and even designated, as forerunners of the so-called Reformation of the sixteenth century. It is with the greatest injustice, and in utter contradiction to historical fact, that the learned and pure-minded Dominican Savo- narola, in San Marco, at Florence, is so designated ; for this great enthusiast for religion and morality remained faithful alike to the Catholic Church and to his vows even to his last moment. He died in intimate communion with the Church, and in sincere obe- dience to her Supreme Head, expiating by a penitential death the faults which he had committed in the last years of his life under the excitement of a zeal arising from an over-ardent temperament. The teaching of John Wessel (born 1419, died in a convent 1489), who was styled "Lux mundi — Magistrum contradictionum,"" has no relation wliatever to the errors of Luther. John of Goch, prior of the Augustinian ]Monastery at Mechlin (+ 1475), aud John of AVesel taught manifest errors, similar to those of Luther. The latter (+ 1482) submitted to the decision of the ecclesiastical authority. The beneficial influence exercised by the Church on political life is seen from the fact that she united nations heretofore divided into many parties hostile to one another, and from chaotic disorder formed well-constituted States, which became a central point of union and stability in the restoration of the Western Empire. Although in the course of time conflicts arose between the tem- poral and spiritual powers, struggles between the imperial and 1 Even James Wimpheling, the severe censor of the clergy, confesses that he knows numerous ecclesiastics distinguished for learning and science, and enjoying a reputa- tion of irreproachable morals. The writers of the Middle Ages enumerated by Trithem. De script, eccl. testify that science was not neglected by the clergy. 2 See § 142, and above. RETROSPECT. 133 sacerdotal rights, the independence of each was maintained. It was reserved for the so-called Reformation of the sixteenth century to bestow on temporal princes the dignity of Pontifex Maximus. Even as the Church reorganized the State, so also did she infuse her regenerative spirit into legislation, and inspire those glorious laws of the Middle Ages which, equally averse to a false freedom as to a despotic absolutism, place obedience to God at the head of all laws, while they nrge that the commandment to obey those who are kings and princes by the grace of God, — that is, the duly appointed authorities, — is equally inherent in these same laws. § 156. Retrospect concerning the Influence exercised hy the Church in the Middle Ages. In order to recognize the influence of the Church during the Middle Ages, we need but compare, in an impartial spirit, the intel- lectual and moral condition of the nations at the opening and at the close of the period under discussion. When the Church directed her attention to the Germanic and Slavic tribes with the view of converting them, she had to encoun- ter on the one hand the darkness of paganism, on the other the deceptive heresies to which they had given themselves, both of which finally yielded to the light of faith. Together with the supernatural mysteries of faith, the Church brought to these same nations, which stood at a very low stage of civilization, the treasures of natural science. She founded those excellent institutions which afterwards became universities, — uni- versities which cherished a knowledge proceeding from the pro- foundest, most fervent depths of objective Christianity, and which are alike a marvellous product of Christian genius and a memorable monument of intellectual power : they may best be compared with the art and genius which at the same period called into being the grand minsters and cathedrals of the Christian world. But it was not theology and philosophy alone which engaged their attention ; other branches of human knowledge, such as historical Avriting, poetry, and the like, developed themselves, under the pro- tection of the Church, to an admirable degree of perfection. The studies of the Humanists were also promoted, — nay, in many respects may be said to have been rendered possible, — because in the same measure in which the Church hates a false and godless explanation 134 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. of phenomena, does she foster and encourage in her children the pursuit of true science. What the Church has done for art is best illustrated by pointing to the glorious monuments of mediaeval erection, in which the inventive genius of mankind, illumined by the interior light of faith, has achieved an everlasting triumph. The ennobling spirit of the Church in the Middle Ages was also effective in its operation on the hearts of men. It transformed them from savage hordes to civilized and virtuous men. The Church could not, it is true, eradicate every disorder from domestic and political life ; and many times evils proceeding from such dis- order spread and increased, as is clearly proved by the complaints and enactments of synods and enlightened bishops. But these disorders do not rob the Church of the merit of having raised the nations intrusted to her from a state of barbarism to one of a higher civilization and culture. In this way the Church had amply acquitted herself of her mis- sion in the Middle Ages, and needed not reformation by the hand of man in the sixteenth century ; rather Avas it man that was ever in need of spiritual and moral regeneration through the Church. " Homines per sacra immutari fas est, non sacra per homines " (" iNIen must be changed by that which is holy, not that which is holy be changed by men "), — words of ^Egidius of Viterbo, General of the Augustinians, spoken at the opening of the Fifth Lateran Council. Ct)trU epocf)- PERIOD I. Fli03I THE SO-CALLED REFORMATION TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. A. EXTERIOR HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. I. SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY. § 157. Missions in India., Cochin China, Tonquin, Siam, Thibet, etc. AT the very time that apostate priests and monks aud avaricious rulers were intent on robbing the Catholic nations of the West, by force or by cunning, of the faith of their fathers, numerous missionaries were traversing the immeasurable regions of Asia and Africa and the primeval forests of America to convert the idolatrous inhabitants to the faith of Christ.^ Besides the newly founded orders of the Jesuits and the Capuchins, the old orders took a noble part in the missionary work, which was under the supreme direction of the Congregation of the Propaganda, founded by Pope Gregory XV. in the year 1622.^ The apostle of Hindostan is St. Francis Xavier, S. J.,^ — one of the founders of the Society of Jesus. In the year 1542 he landed at Goa ; and after converting the Portuguese colonists, who were Chris- 1 Fahricii, Lux salutaris Evaiigelii, p. 662 sqq. Mamachi, Orig. et antiquit. Christ, lib. ii. p. 2. Henrion, Hist, des Missions. Marshall, The Christian Missions. - Congregatio de propaganda fide. Pope Urban VIII. established a seminary (Col- legium Urbanum) for the education of missionaries from all countries. The Propa- ganda possesses a large printing-office, which prints books in all languages for the missions. (Feast of Languages on the Sunday after the Epiphany. ) In Paris, in 1663, the seminary for foreign missions was founded. Besides these large institutions, there were eighty other smaller seminaries for missions. 3 Tursellini, Vita scri Franc. Xav. lib. vi. Rom. 1594. Epist. lat. Rom. 1596. On the missions in India, see Muffci, Hist. Ind. Flor. 1588. 136 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. tians in name only, he went among the Pai-arians on the fishing- coast, where he oj^ened his mission, which he subsequently extended to the shores of Travancor and the island of Ceylon. He also established churches in Malacca and on the Moluccas (isles), every- where converting numerous heathens and Mahometans. His success may be ascribed not only to the pecviliar qualifications and self- sacrificing zeal of the great missionary, but still more to the un- doubted gift of miracles with which God assisted him in his work. Leaving the further prosecution of his work in India to be continued by members of his order, St. Francis set out on the toilsome journey to Japan. The exertions of the missionaries among the Hindoos were too often frustrated by the sharp line drawn between the castes, as well as by other causes ; for instance, the communication which took place between the Jesuits and the Pariahs prevented intercourse between the former and the caste of Brahmins. In order to remove this impediment, the Jesuit Kobert Xobili, in 1G06, with the approbation of the Archbishop of Cranganore, in Mandura, took upon himself the character of a Sanias, or peniten- tial Brahmin, followed to the letter their severe mode of life, and avoided all intercourse with the Pariahs. In this way he soon won the confidence and good-will of the Brahmins, and led many into the Church. Other missionaries followed the example of Nobili ; and the missionary work was progressing successfully, when it came to a halt in the matter of "Malabar usages or customs." The missionaries of other orders did not approve of the accommo- dating methods in use practised by the Jesuits, and combated the peculiar usages of the Hindoos, which the Jesuit missionaries looked upon as unimportant, and tolerated for the sake of attaining a greater advantage. The conflict soon assumed an importance that rendered it necessary to have recourse to the Apostolic See for decision. To restore peace, Clement XL sent the titular patriarch of Antioch, afterwards Cardinal Tournon, to India. He arrived at Pondichery in 1703, heard the Jesuits and their opponents, and rejected the Malabar customs. The Pope confirmed this decision, adding, however, the proviso " until the Holy See shall decide otherwise." His successor, Clement XII. (1739), and Benedict XIV. (1744), renewed the prohibition, and laid on the missionaries the ob- ligation of obedience. Meantime the representations of the Jesuits effected some modification in the decree of Tournon as regards some particular points. CHRISTIANITY IN CHINA, JAPAN, AND AFRICA. Vol Besides these controversies, the decline of the Portuguese author- ity in the East Indies proved specially prejudicial to the Catholic missionaries, since the new rulers of the country, the English, hin- dered them altogether in the fulfilment of their vocation, or laid serious obstacles in the way, which made it difficult for them to proceed. In India, beyond the Ganges, Christianity made great conquests. St. Francis Xavier had already preached the gospel on the peninsula of Malay. The Jesuits had labored in Cochin China from the year 1618, and since 1627 in Tonquin also ; they founded Christian communities, which remained there in part, despite the violent persecutions which took place, particularly in the years 1694, 1721, and 1734. In Siam the Christian religion made fine progress ; it was still more successful in the Philippine Islands, which were under the dominion of Spain. As early as 1597 the episcopal see of Manilla, established in 1579, was formed into an archiepiscopal see, and three other bishoprics were subordinated to it. The efforts of the Jesuits (1624) to preach the gospel in Thibet were unsuccessful. The Capuchins, under their superior, Father Horace della Penna, were more fortunate ; for the Dalai Lama per- mitted them in 1707 to preach the gospel in his empire. In 1637 and 1742 persecutions broke out which retarded the progress of the missions. § 158. Christianity/ in China and Japan, and in Africa. Since the fifteenth century the Chinese Empire had been shut to the gospel messengers, and it was the efforts of the Jesuits that first succeeded in sowing the seed of Christianity in the Celestial Emj)ire. St. Francis Xavier had already conceived the plan of preaching the gospel in China, but was compelled to leave the exe- cution of this idea to other members of his order, who in 1582 began' their labors in this country. At the head of the three missionaries who came to China at this time was Matteo Ricci, from Macerata. At first he labored at Canton and Nanking, where he learned the language and the cus- toms of the natives ; and in the year 1600 he went to Pekin, where his extensive knowledge gained him the favor of the emperor, who permitted him to establish missionary stations in the capital and in the provinces (+ 1610). 138 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. Still more successful was Father John Adam Schall of Cologne (after 1622), whom the Emperor Xuutschiii first elevated to the rank of a Mandarin and President of the Mathematical Society of Pekin. After the death of Xuntschin a revolution broke out, which cost many Christians their lives. Among the victims was Father Schall (+ 1666). The insurgents were not, however, able to suppress Christianity ; and when peace was once more restored, the mis- sionaries resumed their laborious undertaking. The new emperor, Khanghi, was a great patron of the Christians. He appointed the Jesuit Ferdinand Verbiest of Bruges (+ 1688) President of the Mathematical Society, and in 1692 permitted the Chinese to adopt Christianity at their own free-will. The controversies respecting the so-called " Chinese usages " proved a great disadvantage to the missions. This dispute first arose from the veneration paid by the Chinese to their ancestors and to Con- fucius. The Jesuits considered these customs, which had existed from primeval times and were sanctioned by the civil law, as purel)^ civic transactions, and tolerated them under certain re- strictions among their new converts. The Dominicans, on the other hand, who had labored in China since the year 1633, de- clared these customs idolatrous, and forbade the Christians to observe them. To put an end to the conflict, the Congregation of the Propa- ganda, at the instigation of the Dominican Morales in 1645, with the consent of Pope Innocent X., prohibited the " Chinese usages " until the Apostolic See should decide otherwise. This decree was, however, modified, on the representations of the Jesuit Martini, and in its modified form was approved by Alexander VII, in 1656. Tranquillity was not, however, entirely restored, and after a while the miserable dissension was again renewed. The matter in dispute had reference chiefly to the use of the two words, Tien and Khangti (heaven), which are used by the Chinese to signify God. The condemnation of the " Chinese usages," which had been pro- nounced by the Apostolic Vicai*, Charles Maigrot (1693), was re- peated by the papal legate Tournon (1702) ; and Pope Clement XI. confirmed the prohibition in the bull " Ex ilia die " (1715), and Benedict XIV. reaffirmed it under severe penalties in 1742 by his bull "Ex quo singvilari" (1742). The Jesuits immediately submitted to the papal decision. CHRISTIANITY IN CHINA, JAPAN, AND AFRICA. 139 The death of the Emperor Khanghi (+ 1722) was a great loss to the Christians ; for under his son Yong-tsching (+ 1735) a great per- secution of the Church broke out, which continued under Emperor Kieu-long (+ 1799), and many fell victims to it. St. Francis Xavier had introduced the gospel into Japan as early as 1549. Members of his order continued the work begun by him, and the Christian religion triumphed gloriously over idolatry. Men and women of the highest classes, even some princes, entered the Church, and drew after them many of the lower classes. In the year 1585 a noble embassy of Christian Japanese went to Rome to Pope Gregory XIII. But as early as 1587 a cruel and protracted persecution broke out against the Church in Japan. The first enemy of the Christians was the Emperor Taikosama, who commanded the missionaries to leave the country, had many churches pulled down, and finally inflicted the penalty of death, under its most terrible forms of torture, on the Christians. Edicts of blood still more severe followed in the years 1G14 and 1615, in which, besides the Bonzes (Buddhist priests), the Dutch traders took no small part. Skinning the limbs, burying the victim in a ditch, the water-rack, burning alive, and crucifying were the most common punishments ; but all these kinds of martyrdom did not bring the Christians to apostasy. The missionaries and the faithful died in the spirit of heroism. More terrible yet was the persecution that took place under the Emperor Toxogun-sama in the year 1637. This was fomented by the calumnies of the Dutch, who accused the Japanese Christians of being in a conspiracy with the Portuguese against the life of the emperor. The emperor, deceived by fictitious letters that were laid before him, became furious with rage, and proceeded with fire and sword against the Christians. He also forbade to all foreigners except the Dutch entrance into the Japanese ports ; and in order to discover which of those who entered were Christians, the use of Jesumi was introduced, — that is, the Japanese and the foreigners who arrived in the seaports were ordered to trample the crucifix under foot. Then the Christian religion was almost thoroughly eradicated from Japan. It is only in our own times that Chris- tianity has been renewed in this land, which is saturated with the blood of so many martyrs. In the eighteenth century a terrible persecution broke out on the peninsula of Corea also, which threatened to extirpate the infant Church. But in spite of all persecution, the Christians, who were 140 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. deprived of their priests, remained faithful to the Catholic religion, for which even to the present time they sacrilice their property and their lives. ^ In Africa the spread of the Christian Church was chiefly limited to the Portuguese settlements in Mozambique, Monomotapa, Sofala, and Quiloa, with those of the French on the Isle de France and Isle de Bourbon on the eastern coast. On the western coast there are Christian communities in the kingdoms partially dependent on Por- tugal, — Congo, Angola, Benguela, Cacongo, and Loango ; on the Cape Verd Islands, the Canaries, Madeira, etc. The missionaries belonged almost exclusively to the Order of Capuchins. Their labo- rious work was rendered considerably more dii!icult by the unhealthy climate and the savage manners of the natives. The attempts to bring back the Monophysites of Abyssinia into the Church were as yet unsuccessful. The reports of the ex-Capuchin Norbert (Peter Parisot of Barleduc) con- cerning the labors of the Jesuits in Japan lose all their value when one consid- ers the life of this immoral man, who went so far as to renounce his ftiith and break his vows ; who conducted a saloon for a time, joined the French philoso- phers, and finally entered tlie service of Pombal, who was the despot of Portu- gal, and the bitter enemy of the Church and of the Jesuits. The Jesuits, whose views were grounded on an experience of many years, considered, as did also missionaries of other orders, that the controverted usages or customs were merely civic ceremonies, which they therefore tolerated in so far as they were not mixed up with superstitious practices, because they saw that it was expedient to their missionary work. Nevertheless, they never re- fused obedience to the Apostolic See, the decision of which took into consider- ation the underlying principle, and was given in regard to the general welfare of the whole Church rather than in reference to the success of a single mis- sion, — awaiting the conversion of the heathen chiefly from divine gi'ace. The enemies of the Jesuits, esitecially the Janseuists, availed themselves of every occasion that presented itself to attack the Order of the Jesuits. On the respective literature see Mamachi, Orig. et antiq. ii. 407. The most important writings are Daniel (S. J.), Hist, apologetique de la conduite des Jesuites de la Chine : Recueil dcs divers ouvrages, t. iii. Paris, 1724, and Pray. Hist, controversiarum de ritibus Sinicis. Pestini, 1789. 1 In the year 1800 there were ten thousand Christians in Corea ; and in 1857 this number had, in spite of persecution, increased to fifteen thousand. CHRISTIAN MISSIONS IN AMERICA. 141 § 159. Christian Missions in America. A. Discovery of America. Missions in the Isles and in Countries South of the present United States. The discovery of America ^ opeued a pevv'field of action to the apostolic missionaries of the religious orders. The Genoese Christopher Columbus (Ciil(in), born in 1436, discovered, (m Oct. 12, 1492, the small island of Gna- nahani (called by him San Salvador) ; then, after going to Cuba, he also discov- ered Hayti, where he built a fort; and on the 3d of May, 1493, went back to Spain. On the third voyage, undertaken on May 30, 1498, he discovered the American Continent. The great admiral considered it lawful to reduce to slavery the savage natives, at least some of them, because he believed it wcnild be impossible for them to be converted if they remahied free in their wild, rude state. Queen Isabella, however, forbade the further selling of ludians, and ordered those who had been already brought to Spain to be sent back. Colum- bus, who used the so-called rights of conquest on a very broad scale, was in- clined in other respects to acknowledge the natural rights of the natives, but could not hinder his own rebellious followers from inflicting hardships on the ludians in Xaragua, where they compelled tliem to work as slaves. He was obliged to compromise matters by permitting them to retain the Indians as servants for the cultivation of their lands, on condition of their ruling and protecting them, as also that their chiefs should select and send the Indians whom they were thus to hold. This was tlie beginning of the system called " Repartimiento ; " that is, of that distribution, or parcelling out, of the In- dians which proved so great an obstacle in converting them to Christianity. Cidumbus, who, in spite of his great achievements, met with ungrateful treat- ment, died at Valladolid, May 20, 1506, soon after returning from his fourth voyage. Even the land he discovered did not receive its name from him ; it was called America from the Florentine Amerigo Vesjjucci, who made his first voyage in 1499. The further discoveries of the Spaniards were made from Hispaniola (Little Spain) or St. Domingo, as a central point- The disputes between the Spaniards and the Portuguese respecting the claims to the newly discovered islands were settled successfully by Pope Alex- ander VI., who drew a line of demarcation from the North to the South Pole, and made other regulations (1493). The intention of the Pontiff, apart from . that of adjusting the contests between the two kingdoms, was to secure the in- ^ Coleccion de Bulas, breves y otros documentos relativa a la iglesia de America, etc. por el P. Fr. Javier Hcrnaez, S. J. 2 vols. Brussels, 1879. Interesting notices are contained in Noticias secretas de America, por Bon Jorge Juan y Don Ant. UUoa (composed in 1743 by order of Ferdinand VI.) sacadas a luz por Don David Barry. Lond. 1826. See, also, Eiizagitirr, Los intereses catolicos de America. 2 vols. Paris, 1859. Robertson, Hist, of America. London, 1772. 142 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. troduction of Christianity among the Indians. The first missionaries of An\er- ica were Benedictines, Hieronymites, Franciscans, and Dominicans. A great obstacle to the conversion of the natives, apart from their savage and untamed manners, was found in the avarice and cruelty of the Spaniards ; though we admit that the charges against the Spaniards liave been somewhat exagger- ated. The missionaries stoutly contended for the freedom of the Indians. The Benedictine Bull, the apostolic vicar sent there by the Pope, made a strong appeal in their favor. In the year 1502 twelve Franciscans arrived with the Knight Nicholas Ovando. As King Ferdinand was not satisfied with the papal bulls of Julius II. for the erection of new bishoprics, they were not carried into execution. It was between WiW and 1313 that in St. Domingo the sees of St. Domingo and of La Coucepcion de la Vega were first established, as also one in the island Puertorico, bearing the same name as that of the island. As early as 1508 the Spanish kings were invested with the right of patron- age over the sees then in contemplation. Since 1510 the Dominicans had been settled in Hispaniola. They denounced the distribution of Indians as slaves to the conqueror, as being equally a violation of their natural riglit, of Christian law, and of sound policy. At an early period negro slaves were brought from Africa to replace the Indian slaves ; they were considered stronger and more able to work, and were particularly employed in the mines and sugar plantations. The Govern- ment allowed the introduction of only such negroes as were born under Christian masters. Altlnjugh the importation of the black race was limited by law, those limits were not heeded ; the importation continued despite the law. The cele- brated Cardinal Ximenes, regent of Spain after the deatli of Fei'dinand, strictly forbade it in 1516. The young king Charles, to wliom application was made, granted, however, several concessions, notwithstanding the warning of Ximenes. Even the Hieronymites and Bartholomew de las Casas, who is so highly re- nowned for his vindication of the rights of the Indians, wished, under same restrictions, to have the negroes, who were slaves already, employed in tlie labors of the colonies, instead of the weaker Indians, who, against their natural rights, were thus deprived of their freedom. In this way, subject to many re- strictions, negro slavery was introduced. After this no Indians except those of the tribe of tlie Caribs, who were cannibals, were allowed to be enslaved according to the royal decree. Bartholomew delas Casas, born at Seville in 1474, came to Hispaniola with Columbus as early as 1502. He has been unjustly accused of inaugurating the slave-trade,^ whereas he was a true apostle of the Indians ; and in the cause of {(reserving their personal liberty he crossed the ocean sixteen times, and de- feuded their rights with the zeal of an ardent love, in word, in writing, and in deed. As the secular officers were not fi'ee from selfish interests, King Charles 1 Barth. dc las Casas, Brevissima relacion de la destruccion de las Indias. Fahie, Vida y escritos de D. Fr. Barth. de las Casas. 2 vols. Madrid, 1880. CHRISTIAN MISSIONS IN AMERICA. 143 thought it advisalile to t'ligage the services of tlie ineiiibers of religious orders. When the Council of the Indies was reorganized in 1524, four of the eiglit seats and votes were given to ecclesiastics ; and under this clerical intiueuce many beneficent regulations were passed in behalf of the Indians. Yet the contest continued; the friends of slavery maintaining that the In- dians were Init unreasoning beasts, and therefore born to slavery. On infor- mation received from Julian Garces, Bishop of Tlascala, of the Order of Friars PreaclK'rs, Pope Paid III. issued in 1537 bulls vindicating the liVierty of tlie Indians and their dignity as human beings. The decree of Paul III. was rati- fied by succeeding Popes, and frequently renewed. Their example was imitated by the Spanish kings. ^Meanwhile discoveries went on. Ferdinand Cortez came to Mexico ^ in 1519. Francis Pizarro discovered Peru in 1526-1527. Almagro reached Chili at about the same time. IMoreover, while tlie inhabitants of tlie north of America proved to be for the most part wild tribes addicted to fetichism, the inhabitants of Mexico, Peru, and Chili exhibited a far higher culture; they had fine build- ings, and a kind of picture-writing in which they kept their records, and were expert in several arts. Twelve "-^ Franciscans came to Mexico, who, undeterred by hardship and the fruitlessness of their first efforts, continued their laborious work, and under Father Martin of Valencia reaped ricli fruits. In 1526 Dominicans also came, and in 1533 Augustinians also. In 1531 there were one hundred Franciscans and Dominicans in Mexico. The Franciscan John de° Zumarraga (1528), Bishop -elect of Mexico, and Sebastian Bamirez de Fuenleal, Bishop of St. Domingo, forcibly advocated humane treatment of the natives and the total abolition of slavery. Las Casas, a Dominican after 1522, and Bishop of Cliiapa after 1544, re- mained unceasingly devoted to his noble cause until his death at Madrid in 1556. Mexico became a metropolitan city in 1546; St. Domingo, in 1547; Lhna, in 1546; Santa Fe de Bogota, in 1564; and La Plata in Bolivia, in 1605. In Central America the bishoprics Nicaragua (1531) and Guatemala (1534) were erected ; the first bishop of the latter diocese was the zealous Father Marroquin (+ 1563), who invited the Franciscans to come there. In Peru 3 distinguished heralds of the faith were the bishops Hernando de Lugne (1529), Reginald de Pedrazo, and Vincent Valverde of Cuzco, the missionary Thomas of St. Martin, the zealous archbishop Tubirius of Lima (-f 1606), who in 1582 held a provincial synod with six Inshops, Pedro de la Gasca, and St. Francis Solanus, the Apostle of Peru (+ 1610). The second archbishop of Mexico, Alonso de Montufar, held two provincial councils. The bishops and missionaries proved themselves zealous apostles of peace and true friends of the persecuted natives. 1 Prescott, History of the Conquest of Mexico. 3 vols. London and New York, 1843. ^ This was the usual number sent. * Apuntes para la hist. eel. del Peru. Lima, 1S73. 144 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. Althoiigli the salutary regulations they enacted could not be, or were not, enforced to their full extent or in every district, it remains a fact that it is chiefly /•wing to the influence exercised by the members of the religious orders, and by other of the clergy, that the Indians preserved their personal freedom, and that they were not altogether extirpated in the colonies. St. Hose of Lima is a beautiful evidence of Christian faith in Peru. In Venezuela the bishopric of Caraccas was established in 1530; in Chili, ^ the archbishopric of Santiago, in 1561. In the year 1549 the first six Jesuits came, under Father Emmanuel de No- briga, to St. Vincent in Brazil, where several Franciscans had previously labored and died as martyrs. Having rapidly acquired a knowledge of the lan- guage of the country, they, after inexpressible trouble, prevailed on a goodly number of the drunken, sensual cannibals who formed the population to aban- don their vicious habits and to embrace Christianity. In 1551 an episcopal see was erected at Bahia, or San Salvador. The Government at Lisbon repeatedly made decrees in favor of Indian freedom, for which object the Jesuits zealously labored. Among these were distinguished the Ven. Joseph Anchieta (-\- 1597), Lorenzana, Montoya, Diaz Tano. At the instance of the latter, Urban VIII.,- on April 22, 1(339, by his admonitit)ns enforced the observance of the bulls issued l>y Paul III. Father Azevedo (-|- 1570), and more prominently Anthony Vieyra (-f- 1G77), the Lusitanian Cicero, superior of the mission of Maranhao in 1652, labored successfully in belialf of the faith, the civilization, and the freedom of the natives. In the year 1755 the King Joseph I. declared Indian slavery unconditionally abolished. The bislmps, Jesuits, Capuchins, and other orders exerted themselves to carry out the decree ; but it was precisely at that time that the Portuguese minister Pombal^ dealt a mui-derous blow to the progress of Christianity and the freedom of the Indians. Since that time this once flourishing country commenced to decline, and has continued so to do uj) to the present day. In 1676 Brazil had had three dioceses, — Bahia, the metropolis, Pernambuco (Olinda), and Rio de Janeiro, — of which the last was in 1746 divided into five, to which in 1667 St. Louis was added. The fifth archbishop, Sebastian Monteiro da Vide (-f- 1722), governed the diocese in a very able manner. Together with other religious orders, the Jesuits labored in Peru, Chili, and Mexico. Fifty-six of them came to Peru in 1614. They established great in- stitutions of learning, — as that of the Seminary of St. Ildephcmsus, in Mexico ; and among the apostles to the negroes, two of them, Alonso Sandoval (after 1605) and Saint Peter Claver (after 1615), hold distinguished places. In 1 Eijzguirrc, Hist. eccl. politique et litteraire de Chili, traduite par Poillou. 3 vols. Lille, 1855. '^ Bulas, ii. 1013 sqq. Papal bulls, royal ordinances, etc., regarding Brazil, are contained in C. Mendcs de Almeida, Direito civil ecclesiastico Brazileiro. 3 vols. Rio de Janeiro, 1866. ' P. Weld, The Suppression of the Society of Jesus in the Portuguese Dominions. London, 1877. CHRIST IAN MISSIONS fX AMERICA. 145 New Gnuiiula, St. Louis Bertrand cDiiviTtcd inaiiy thouMaiid Indians, although serious obstacles were placed in his way by the cruelty of Europeans. Guatemala was made a metropolis in 1742. The College of Ocopa in Peru, founded by the Franciscan Father Francis de Jose in 1724, was extolled by Clement XIII., and with that of the Jesuits in Cordova, won special fame. Colleges de Propaganda Fide fur missionaries were established at Queretero and Zacatecas, which sent missionaries to the remotest frontiers of Mexico. The holding of provincial councils, as those convoked in Santa Fe de Bo- gota, Lima, and Mexico (1770-1774), were of great benefit to ecclesiastical organization. By far the most important mission of the Jesuits was that of Paraguay.^ This country, lying along the banks of the river La Plata, was discovered by the Spaniards in 1516, and formal possession was taken in 153G. The Francis- cans were the first to preach the Gospel here. The Jesuits, who veent there at the invitation of Bishop Francis Victoria of Tucuman, of the Order of Preacliers,- conceived the idea, like that of the ancient missionaries among the Germans, of combining the conversion of these rude tribes with a gradually progressing cultivation of the soil, and of organizing by degrees a regularly constituted State ft'om the various Christian communities. Fathers J. Cataldi)io and C. 3Iaceta set the work on foot. Philip III., King of Spain, approved of the plan of urban- izing a Christian republic in Paraguay in order to facilitate the work of C(jn- version. Under the supervision and guidance of the Jesuits several settlements arose, which were named Reductions; and no Spaniard was allowed to enter any one of these settlements without permission from the fathers of the order. The inhabitants, wlu) paid tribute to the Spanish crown, were gradually trained to habits of industry, to domestic life, to civilization, and to Christian virtue; they also became able to repel the attacks of hostile neighboring tribes. The number of the reductions was augmented to thirty. The population increased marvellously. The inhabitants of Paraguay became good men and good Chris- tians. A misunderstanding between the Jesuits and the bishops Cardenas (1040) and John Palafox of Angelopolis (1G47) was very injurious to the prosperity of the new State. The treaty between Sixain and Portugal M-hich was concluded in 1750 greatly injured Paraguay; but the severest misfortune that befell the reductions was the suppression of the Society of Jesus. The neighboring province of Chiquitos, as also Maranhao, on the Amazon, were equally flourishing when under the care of the Jesuits. Father Cijjman Baraza preached to the Moxos. Father Dea-e converted the Yameos and other tribes ; he translated the Christian doctrine into eighteen different Indian idioms, and made catechists of the most capable of his neophytes. In Quito (Ecuador) the Jesuits labored in the Maynas missions. In New Granada 1 Mumtori, II Christianesimo felice, nelle mission! del Paraguai. Venet. 1743. Charlevoix, Hist, de Paraguay. Paris, 1759. Cf. Mamachi, Orig. et autiquit. ii, 326 sq(i. VOL. II. 10 146 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. (Columliia), where in 1723 many tribes were yet uncouverted, German Jesuits founded the Llanos missions. The American soil has frequently been watered by the blood of martyrs. Father Samuel Fritz (1680-1728), Hennj Eichter (1684-1699), Mascardi, Giu Celmo, and many others, died the death of martyrs. In Guiana, where in 1560 two Dominicans, and in 1643 several French Capuchins, were martyred, the Jesuits labored successfully after 1664. B. Missions in the United States and Canada.^ Spanish Missions in Florida, Neio Mexico, Texas^ California. The first missionaries who came to the territory now known as the United States were brought over in the expedition of Ponce de Leon in 1521. Several Franciscans accompanied Pamphilus de Narvaez, and came to Florida in 1528 under the guidance of Father John Juarez. After months of fruitless toil and severe suffering, the missionaries pei'ished near the mouth of the Mississipjii. This expedition, however, though not crowned with success, paved the way to renewed efforts in the future. In 1547 the Dominican Father Louis Cancer de Barbastro, a native of Sara- gossa, who had already been successful among the Indian tribes of Vera Paz, applied personally to King Philip for approval of his scheme, and having obtained it, he set out on a mission to Florida with three companions. He and Father Diego fell victims to the cruelty ttf the savages. The Dominicans re- newed their efforts in 1553 and 1554. The expedition of Pedro Meneudoz (Melandez) de Aviles, an old Spanish admiral, resulted in the foundation of St. Augustine (1565), which is the oldest town in the United States. At the solicitation of Menendez, St. Francis Borgia, then general of the Jesuits, in 1566 sent some members of his order to tlie new field. Somewhat later, John B. Segura, who was appointed vice-provincial of the order in Florida, was sent there, with several others, to take part in the mis- sionary work. Pope Pius V. encouraged tlie undertaking by a letter to Menendez, who at that time had become the governor of Florida. The Jesuits were disheartened by the continued resistance made to their preaching by tlie Indians, among whom polygamy seems to have been universally practised. Father Segura and his brave companions then proposed to themselves to make a missionai-y journey to the banks of the Chesapeake or St. Mary's Bay (Vir- ginia and Maryland), but were basely murdered on the way, through the treach- ery of Don Luis, a converted brother of an Indian chieftain who had even 1 History of Catholic Missions among the Indian Tribes of the United 8tates, by J. Gilmary Shea, who also gives the literature. History of the Catholic Church in the United States, by /. O'Kane Murray ; also, by the same, Catholic Heroes and HL-roiues of America : Pioneers of America. Bancroft, History of the United States. CHRISTIAN MISSIONS IN AMERICA. 147 accdiiipanied the Doiniiiican Fatliors to Spain. Father Roju^el \A'ith(h-e\v, with the other missionaries of his onhM', to TIaviina ■aw\ then to Mexico. The missionary work in Florida was then confided to the Franciscans, who hihored there in peace for two years. Among them the eminent Peter de Corpa was martyred, at the phice which is now the cemetery of St. Augustine, by a convert whom he had reproved for his vicious excesses. This murder was the signal for a series of cruel attacks upon the missionaries, many of whom then received the crown of martyrdom. The missions were tlien for a time almost abandoned, until in 1602 they were renewed with fresh vigor. A Franciscan province under the name of St. Helena — so called from its prin- cipal convent, St. Helena, at St. Augustine — was established. Bauds of Franciscans came successively thither. Soon about twenty residences were established, and the missions steadily extended among the Apalaches and the- Creeks in West Florida and Georgia. In time a church and chapels were built at Pensacola. The subsequent encroachments of English colonists greatly injured the progress of the missions, many of which were entirely broken up. Mission- aries were slaughtered and Indian converts sold as slaves to the English West Indies. In 1763 Spain ceded Florida to England by the Treaty of Paris. "This," says Mr. Shea, "was the death-blow of the missions; by degrees all traces of former civilization disapjteared ; tlie c^debrated convent of St. Helena became a barrack." How diiferent had been the government of Catholic Spain from that of Protestant England ! After the Franciscan Father 3Iark of Nice liad penetrated to New Mexico in 1540, an exploring expedition was set on foot in 1.542, under the leadership of Coronado. When the leader, disappointed in not seeing his .anticipations real- ized, proposed to return, the two Franciscans, Father John de Padilla and the lay brother JoJm of the Cross, remained. Botli labored valiantly in the territory until they received the martyr's crown. Tlie unfavoral)le accounts given by Coronado prevented further missionary attemiDts until nearly forty years later, when in 1581 they were resumed by three brave Franciscans, — Fathers i^rrtnds Lopez and John de Santo Maria, with Brother Alphonsus Rodriguez, — who met a like heroic fate. In the following year Especjo, a Spanish noble- man, who f(.unded the city of Santa Fe, the second oldest city in the United States, ascertained their fate (ui an expedition which he made at his own ex- pense. After the conquest and settlement of New Mexico by John de Onate. the missions were renewed. Under Father Francis de Escobar, the successor to the commissary Escalona (1602), and under his successor Alonzo Panaido, a rapid change took place; whole tribes of the dusky savages were brought into the Church. " So rapid had been the progress of Christianity and civilization on the Rio Grande that the Indians (or Pueblos) could read and write before the Puritans were established on the shores of New England." i Several Span- ish settlements grew up; and these, like the missions, were attended by the Franciscans. 1 See Shea, p. 81. 148 HISTORY Ob' THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. Id 1544 a Spanish Franciscan Father, Andrew de Olmos, whf) was after- wards joined by John de Mesa, a secular priest, ^•isited the Texan tribes near the Rio Grande, many of whom he converted. In 1688 fourteen Franciscan priests and seven lay brothers came to Texas and laid the foundation of mis- sions which, with some sliglit intermissions, were conducted by members of the same order for over one hundi'ed years, when in 1812 they were suppressed by the Spanish Government. In California the first Mass was said by a 1 ranciscau in 1601 ; the reai apostle of this State was, however. Father Juniper Serra,^ a Franciscan, who had exercised his ministry in diSerent parts of Mexico. He, accompanying the expedition of Galvez in 1769, led several priests of his order to this new field of labor ; success crowned their efibrts. Tlie mission of San Diego was founded July 16, 1764; that of San Carlos, at Monterey, in 1770; that of St. Anthony of Padua, 1771 ; and others followed. The mission of San Fran- cisco was established June 27, 1776. Numerous conversions took place. Father Serra, Prefect Apostolic, was in 1774 authorized by the Holy See to administer the sacrament of confirmation. He ended his gloi-ious life still filled with holy desires. Father Paloii, his future biographer, and subsequently Father Lazven, succeeded him as prefect. Although the territory does not form a part of the United States, it may be fitting to mention in this place the pioneers of faitli antl civilization in Lower (Old) California.- There were Franciscans after 159(5; and the Jesuits Sal- vatierra and Francis Kuehn (Kino) came about 1679. The latter, who had been a professor of mathematics at Ingolstadt in Germany, was the first to preach to the tribes in Colorado. In 1697 Salvatierra founded the first per- manent college in California at Loretto. In 1768 the Jesuits were removed by force, pursuant to an order of the Government. The Franciscans and Domini- cans took up tlie work wliich the Jesuits were thus compelled to surrender, and continued it. The English Missions. We have already noted the ill fate of Fatlier Segui'a and his eight compan- ions in the territory which forms the present State of Virginia, in 1570. In 1024 Maryland was granted by King Charles I. of England to the Catholic con- vert Lord Baltimore (Sir George Calvert), who called it Maryland in honor f)f the queen-consort, the Catholic Princess Henrietta Maria. He drew up a charter for the colony, which granted freedom of worship to all Christians. His death occurred on the 12th of April, 1632, before the royal signature had been affixed to the charter. The territory was reached by the Catholic pilgrim fathers from England, under the Lord's second son, Leonard Calvert. They came to the mouth of the Chesapeake on March 3, 1634, and took formal 1 Francis Palou, Life of Ven. Padre Juniper Serra ; translated by V. Eev. J. Adams. See The Century, May, 1883. - Father Hyacinth Cortes, S. .J., came there as early as 1642. See Shen, p. 89. CHRISTIAN MISSIONS IN AMERICA. 149 possession of the laud, on the feast of the Annunciation of the same month, on St. Clement's (now called Blackstoue) Island. The pioneers of religious freedom were accompanied Ity the Jesuit Fathers Andrew White and John Altham. New j)riests arriving from England and from Douay College, the missi(m gradually extended its limits. In 1B39, after many conversions had taken place, there were five permanent stations here. On July 5, 1(J40, the most solemn baptism of Chilomacon, King of the Piscataways, who received the name of Charles, took place. Father Altham died soon after this. White, weakened by bodily exertion, devoted himself to compt)sing a grammar, a dictionary, and a catechism in the language of his flock. Several other chieftains and whole villages embraced the faith. Even many Prote^itanls returned to the faith of their fathers, as the Catholic priests were the only clergymen in the colony. While the Jesuits were thus reaping the fruits of their divinely inspired labors, Clayborne, a man who in 1635 had already excited the natives against the missionaries, now headed a band of Puritan fanatics, who, having been ex- pelled from Anglican Virginia in 1(542, had found a refuge in Maryland. In l(i44 they destroyed the mission ; in the following year they expelled the Catholic governor, and sent the Jesuits as prisoners to England. This was done in the land which first raised the standard of freedom of conscience. Governor Calvert returned in 1640, and by degrees the Jesuits resumed the mis- sions. Thus Maryland became a starting-point of Catholicity. In 1649 the General Assembly, composed of eleven Catholics and three Protestant voters, passed the fiimous Toleration Act. Only five years later, the ungrateful Puri- tans, after the execution of Charles I., denied that liberty to the Catholics which had been accorded to themselves. King Charles II. having restored Lord Baltimore's proprietary rights in 1660, harmony reigned until James II. was dethn>ned in 1688. The Catholic proprietor was then deprived of his rights. In 1692 a Protestant governor was appointed for Maryland, and the Anglican Church established by law. Enact- ments tending to root out Catholicity entirely followed one another ; most of these remained in force until the time of the Revolution. But although, in con- sequence of these, the Indian missions ceased to exist, the religion of the Catluilic pilgrim fathers still held its own, although many, like the Baltimore family, fell away from the faith. Pennsylvania was visited by priests soon after the settlement by Penn. In 17.30 Rev. Father Greaton., S. J., was sent from Maryland to Philadelphia. Later on. Father Greaton was replaced by Fathers Hardivg and Farmer. The churches of St. Joseph and St. Mary were soon places of Catholic worship in the city of " brotherly love." The courageous Jesuit Father Schneider (-1- 1764) labored devotedly among the Catholic Germans, and extended his labors to New Jersey, as Farmer did to New York. 150 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. The French Missions in Maine {Upiper Canada)^ Neio York, Vermont, Wisconsin, Michigan, Illinois, and Louisiana. These missions were prompted by truly religious motives, — that is, by the desire to extend the kingdom of Christ. The first French mission in the north of the Union was established on Neutral Island in Scoodic River in l(i09, eleven years before the Puritans came to Massachusetts. Two Jesuit Fathers, Peter Biard and Enemond Masse, were, at the request of Henry IV., sent thither by the provincial Fatlier Coton. Thnmgh the generosity of the Marchioness de GuercheviUe a new mission was established in 1612 on ]\Iount Desert Island, at the mouth of the Penobscot, in the present diocese of Port- land, under the name of Holy Savior. But, alas ! a foe soon came to de- stroy the promising mission. A band of Englishmen, under the infamous Argall, attacked the place, killed Du Thet, a lay brother, and carried off priests and colonists. Soon after, the Recollects and Capuchins established missions for the French and Indians on the coast, from Maine to Nova Scotia. In 1646 the Jesuits renewed their efforts among the Indians ; they had in the mean time established a flourishing mission in Canada. Rev. Father Dndl- lettes, S. J., established a new mission in Maine on the upper Kennebec. The love, gratitude, and attachment of the Abuaki to their spiritual fathers were extraordinary. The Catholic missionaries gradually succeeded in convert- ing the whole tribe. But the English drove away the missionaries, destroyed the churches, and persecuted the Indians. Yet amid the hard trials they still adhered to the faith ; and when, in 1695, the Jesuit Sebastian Rale, who was versed in the Indian idiom and renowned as a missif)nary, came among them, they joyfully hailed Ids arrival. This noble priest, after years of labor, was murdered by a troop t>f Englishmen and pagan Mohawks. After France ceded Canada to England in I76'3, the Abnaki mission was left without a priest until after the close of the Revolution, when Rev. Dr. Carroll gave them one in the person of Father Ciquard. The Abnaki bands, known as the Penobscots and Passamaquoddis, have to this day persistently adhered to the faith which they had so eagerly embraced. New York State was inhabited by five tribes of the Iroquois, — a people in many respects superior to the Algonquins, albeit modesty was at a some- what low ebb among them. The Recollect Fathers Le Caron, Nicholas Viel, and others had pi-eached to the Hurons in Upper Canada, and the Jesuit Father John de Brelmif had established a flourishing mission. Froui Quebec as a central point, whence the glorious beams of faith radiated through tlie sons of St. liTuatius, Father Isaac Jogices^ was sent to found a mission among the Mohawks who dwelt on the river of that name. Father Jogues, who had formerly been a missionary among the Hurons in Canada, and had also been the first to plant the cross on the soil of Micliigan, had already been taken prisoner and been tortured by the Moliawks in 1642. Having escaped by the "id of the Dutch, ami gone from New Amsterdam (New York) back to France, 1 Sheas Life of Fr. Isaac Jogues. The Pilgrim of Our Lady of Martyrs. CHRISTIAN MISSIONS IN AMERICA. 151 he returiieil ti) Caii;ula, and thence set out again fur the territory of New York. He and his companion Lalande \vere murdered, on Oct. 18, 1646, at the vil- hi^e of Caughnawaga, now Auriesville, where also Rent GoHpil, novice, S. J., liad slied liis Wood shortly before. Father A. Daniel was martyred by the Moliawks in 1648. The celebrated Father Brebeuf, together with his asso- ciate Lalemant, was captured and put to a horrible death by the Iroquois, ^larch 16, 1649. Father Le Moyne, who may be regarded as successor to Fatlier Jogues, was sent from Quebec, in July, 1653, to the Onondagas, who, like the Mohawks, wished to conclude a peace with Canada. After he had returned to Canada, Fathers Chaumonot and Dahlon came and founded a per- manent mission. They built St. Mary's Chapel near the site where now stands the city of Syracuse. After three years of successful labor, the mis- sionaries, having discovered a plot against themselves and the French settlers set on foot by the medicine-men, withdrew to Canada. Father Le Moyne went again among them in 1661. He baptized two hundred children, after which he returned to Canada, where he died in 1666. After the Mohawks had been humbled by the French, all the missions were re-established. In 1668 the sign of the cross was planted in every village from the Hudson River to Lake Erie. Th^ village of Caughnawaga, on the Mohawk, became the centre of the missions among the Iroquois, called also the Five Nations. That the Indians might escape the evil example and persecution of tlieir hea- thenish brethren, the missionaries subsequently established a Christian village on the banks of the St. Lawrence, at La Prairie, and later at the Si. Louis Rai)i(ls, for the benefit of the converted Iroquois, many of whom were Mohawks; at tlie latter-named place, which was some miles above Montreal, a village was firmly established in 1676. Tliis was the last mission among the Mo- hawks of New York. By the treaty of Utrecht, in 1713, France formally renounced all claim to the Iroquois territory. This was the prelude to the gradual disst)lution of the missions among the Five Nations. Amt)ng the missionaries who had labored in New York among the Indians after the deatli of Le Moyne, were the Jesuit Fathers Fremin, Bruyas, Menard, Millet, and De Lamberville. It was the last-named father who instructed the saintly Mohawk virgin Catherine Tehgahhwita {-\- 1680), in Canada. Father Jogues, as mentijoned above, and his companion, Raymbault, were the first to preach Christianity on the Upper Lakes. They did not, however, remain long. The second mission attempted by the two Jesuits, Leonard Garreau and Gabriel Druillettes in 1656, at the solicitation of the Ottawas of th(* Algonquin race, was frustrated by an Iroquois war-party. Rene Menard, an old Jesuit who had already been in New York State, after a dread- ful voyage, came in 1660, and preached to the Indians on Lake Superior. While trying to reach a band of Hurons, he was lost in the wilderness, and perished either by the tomahawk or of starvation. Thus ended the first Ottawa mission. But, as Bancroft says, " the Jesuits never receded one foot." Claudius Alloues soon succeeded him. In 1665 he established the mission of the Holy Ghost at Lapointe, on Lake Superior, and preached to many tribes. 152 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. Father James Mfflr^wefie,^ of imperishable fame, left Quebec in 1668 to assist In the missions of the West. Father Claudius Dablon was appointed superior of the Upper missions, to which he was sent with Allouez, who had returned to Quebec for a short time. The mission of Sault Ste. Marie's was founded by Marquette. Father Allouez and Louis Andre, who was sent in 1670 with Father Druillettes, directed the missions at Green Bay, which Allouez liad previously begun and had named St. Francis Xavier. When Marquette set out to explore the Mississippi in 1673, he was succeeded in the mission of St. Ignatius, which he had founded in 1671 at Mackinaw, by Father Pierson. As the West was explored, French settlements arose at Detroit, Kiviere au Raison, Sault Ste. Marie, Green Bay, Kaskaskia, Tamaroa, Cahokia, Prairie du Rocher, Vincennes, and Oniatenon, which were attended by Recollect and Jesuit fathers, and by secular priests from Quebec. When Louisiana was colonized, parishes were formed at Mobile, New Orleans, and the chief settle- ments. These were confided to the Capuchins, the Jesuits directing the In- dian missions. In the year 1765 two Jesuits, Louis Lefranc and Peter du Jaunay, were still stationed at Mackinaw ; the missions were abandoned after the suppression of the Society of Jesus. Father Potier (-}- 1781) was the last of the illustrious missionaries around the great lakes. He occasionally visited Illinois also. During the American Revolution Rev. Mr. Gihaiilt M-as alone left to attend to the French and Indians. In 1673 Father Marquette had the pleasure of realizing his long-cherished desire of visiting the " great river," of which he had already made mention in a letter written in 166!). Accompanying the expedition of Louis Joliet, the envoy of the French Government, he left Mackinaw in May, 1673, and from the mouth of the Wisconsin floated down the majestic river, and passed the rivers Missouri and Ohio as far as the mouth of tlie Arkansas, preaching to the inhabitants of the lands which they passed. He returned by the Illinois River, visited the Peorias and Kaskaskias in Illinois, and then stayed for a while in Green Bay to recruit his health. After that, by order of his superior at Quebec, he established his dear Illinois mission, which, at his death in 1675, was con- tinned by Allouez (-1- 1690), Rale, Gravier, and others. The Rectillcct Fathers Hennepin and Zenobius Memhre — the latter of whom accompanied La Salle — continued the exploration begun by Marquette; but various attempts to establish missions in the Mississippi valley resulted only in the martyrdom of several missionaries. Fathers Poisson and Souel were martyred by the Natchez; St. Come, by the Sitimachas ; Nicholas Fou- cault, by the Tonicas. The labors of these lioly men did not here reap such fruit as elsewhere had been the case ; and at length the suppression of the Society of Jesus closed all the Jesuit missions in the lower valley of the Mississipjti. At Quebec, the most important place of Canada, whence, as we have seen, so many missionaries came forth, a bishopric was estab- 1 Missionary Labors of Frs. Marquette, Menard, and Allouez. By Rev. Chr. Vcrivijst, 0. a. F. OUTBREAK OF THE SCHISM IN GERMANY. 153 lished iu 1675 through the influence of Louis XIV. The first holder of that high office was the ilhistrious Laval. The colony Avas ceded to England in 1763. This cession, however, did not stay the progress of religion. II. CHURCH AND STATE. § 160. Outbreak of the Schism in Grermany. — Stand taken by Luther against Indulgences. — Pleasures taken by the Apostolic See. The relative positions between the spiritual and temporal powers in the sixteenth century underwent an essential change, through the apostasy of several Christian nations from the Church ; and their example exercised great influence on the relation hitherto existing between Church and State, even in Catholic countries. The proximate occasion of the schism ^ in Germany was the indul- gence published by Cardinal Albert of Brandenburg, Archbishop of 1 The most important literature of this period is : 1. Of Catholic authors: Coch- Iceus (see § 162), Comiut'iitaria de actis et scriptis M. Lutheri, chronographice ab a. 1517-1546, fideliter eonscripta. Mog. 1549, fol. Suriits (a Carthusian in Cologne, + 1578), Chronicon ab a. 1500-1566. Colon. 1567. Simdon Fontaine, Hist. cath. de nostra terns touchant I'etat de la religion, etc. Ant. 1558. Raynald, Annales ad ann. 1517 sqq. Pallavicini, Storia del Concilio di Trento. Eoma, 1652. 3 vols, lat. of Giottino. Ant. 1673. Bossuet, Hist, des variations des eglises protest. 2 vols. Paris, 1688. (Euvres de Rossuet, torn. xix. Versailles, 1816. Maimbourg, Hist, of Lutheranism. Paris, 1680. Riffel, Christ. Ch. Hist, since the great Schism in Faith and Church. 3 vols. Mayence, 1841 (1844). Dollingcr, The Reformation : its Interior Development, etc. 3 vols. Ratisbon, 1846. Dollingcr, Contributions to the Political, Ecclesiastical, and Cultured History of the last Six Centuries. 1 vol- Ratisbon, 1862. Boost, The Reformation in Germany. Ratisbon, 1845. BitchhoUz, History of the Reign of Ferdinand I. 9 vols. Vienna, 1831. Z«c?)i?/ic?% Jlonuni. Vati- cana hist. eccl. saec. XVI. illustrantia. Frib. 1861. Eohrbachei; Histoire universelle de I'eglise cath. 24 vols. Janssen, Hist, of the German People, 5 vols, (so far) . Evers, Martin Luther. Balan, Monumeiita Reform. Lutheran. Ratisbon, 1884. — 2. Of Prot- estant authors : 5)jrtZaora, a nun of the Cistertian convent of Ximphschen, from which she had effected her flight through the good offices of Luther. When the leaders of the insurrection had been defeated by the army of the Suabian Alliance, Luther changed his tone and called on the princes to slay the peasants like mad dogs. This vehement behavior no more frees the reformer from complicity in the dreadful civil war than does the fact that Thomas ^Nliinzer, an opponent of Luther, stood with his associates at the head of the rebellious peasants. § 165. Introduction of the Lutheran Heresy by several Princes of the Empire. — Luther'' s Organization of Divine Sej'vice. — His Contest with Erasmus. Luther, having failed in his attempt to realize his designs by the help of the knights ami the people, entered into a close alliance with the princes of the empire, to whom he intrusted the propa- gation and protection of his gospel. These, actuated by divers motives, for the most part not very honorable,^ availed themselves of the opportunity to oper-. the way for the pure gospel in their dominions. Of course the^^ met with opposition."^ Their subjects had anticipated something quite different, and did not desire to listen to the words of the Lutheran minister of the Word. But the ad- vantages offered to the princes by the propagation of the Lutheran heresy were too enticing for them not to finish by force what had been begun by deception. The new doctrine found a great friend in Albert, ^Margrave of Brandenburg, Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, who in 1525, following Luther's advice, took a wife, and secularized the territory ^ Luther himself says : " JIany continued to be good Evangelicals, because there still remain chalices, monsti'ances, and cloistral pioperty" to be disposed of. Mathe- siiis, p. 129. '•^ Cf. Melanchth. Ep. ad Kind. l.'i2S. "Videmus quantopere nos odit vulgus." Corp. Kef. i. 941. The remark of Luther (1532) is worth noticing, that it stands in his power, "by two or three discourses, to lead the whole people back to popery, and establish new masses and pilgrimages." Walch, vii. 914. 164 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. of the order. The reformer was less fortunate in his attempts to will over Albert, Archbishop of Mentz, to espouse his cause. He found, however, a faithful ally in the person of Philip, Landgrave of Hesse, who in 1526 convoked a synod at Homberg, at which the apostate monk Lambert of Avignon spoke in favor of the new doc- trine. Lutheranism was then introduced by force. In like manner heresy made its way into other territories. These new partisans had not only the office of forcing the pure gospel on their subjects ; they had also to assist in the organization of the new Church. The " reformer " himself could only tear down ; he knew not how to build up. In a letter to the Elector of Saxony Luther complains bitterly of the evil consequences of the '• pure gospel," and appeals to the temporal power for forcible assistance. With the view of introducing some sort of order into the chaos of pure doctrine, the Lutheran princes were obliged to form special arrangements concerning the manner in which divine service was to be conducted in their respective countries. The divine service, as arranged for Saxony, had the name and exterior ceremonies of the Mass. Luther, however, omitted the canon and everything in the collects that had reference to sacrifice. Yet, in order to mislead the people, he ordered this to be done in such a way that the common people should not observe it. With the same end in view, the Elevation was retained. Private Masses were entirely abolished. The remainder of the divine services consisted in singing, reading the Scriptures, and preaching. But as it soon came to be remarked that the preachers often reformed the new doc- trines, and preached a gospel of their own, a sj'^stem of parochial visitation was instituted in 1527, the visitors to consist of jurists and theologians, of which a commission of four was appointed by the rulers of the respective territories to exercise a general super- vision over all ecclesiastical affairs. The preachers were, moreover, watched over by superintendents, and in 1542 consistories were established. In the year 1527 Melanchthon composed his little book of "Visita- tion for the Preservation of Unity in Doctrine and Worship.'' This^ contained the Lutheran teachings, and informed the clergyman what doctrine he should preach. Luther had already published his postil "Collection of Explanations on the Gospels and Epistles." In the year 1529 he put forth his large and small Catechisms. The ■ progress of the new doctrine was in no way impeded by Luther's controversv with Erasmus on free-will. The renowned THE TREATY OF TORGAU. 165 Humanist euntrovei'ted Luther's doctrine on the enslaved will ; the latter replied, asserting his opinion in bold and abusive language. When Erasmus rebuked him for this, he toned down his abusive expressions, but did not renounce his errors, which Erasmus had termed in his second work an unheard-of doctrine. This terminated the controversy.* § 166. The Treaty of Torgau. — The tivo Diets at Spire ^ in 1526 and 1529. After the termination of the Peasants' War, the Catholic States of the empire endeavored to suppress the religious innovations in their own territories, and to carry out the Edict of Worms. Neither did the Lutheran princes remain inactive. They held several pre- liminary consultations, and then in May, 1526, concluded the Treaty of Torgau, in which the members promised each other mutual assist- ance and support in introducing the new doctrine, in case they should be opposed in the work on the side of the empire. At the head of this alliance were John, Elector of Saxony, and Philip, Landgrave of Hesse. The fruits of this bond were already apparent in June, 1526, when the diet was opened at Spire. The Lutheran States opposed the command of the emperor to carry out tlie Edict of Worms, and extorted the concession from the diet that until the next oecumenical council each State should, as far as re- garded the edict, act according to its own best judgment, and be responsible for its conduct to God and the emperor. That the adherents of Luther should take advantage of a posi- tion of affairs so favorable to them was to be expected. The em- peror was involved in contention with the Pope and Francis I. of France, while his brother was hindered by the disorders in Hun- gary from energetic action elsewhere ; they therefore could pay but little attention to matters in Germany. Conscious of their own strength, the Lutheran princes even thought of forming plans by which they should attack the Catholic members of the empire. As a pretext for this, a forged document of Otho of Pack, Chancellor of Duke George of Saxony, was produced to prove that a Catholic 1 Erasmus published (1524) his " Diatribe de libero arb." Luther answered (15'25) by his treatise " De servo arb." In this he maintains that the human will is a horse, ridden bj^ God or the Devil ; that God works the good and evil in us, etc. Erasmus replied by his " Hyperaspistes diatribae adv. serv. arb. Luth." 1526. (Op. Erasrai ed. Cleric, z^. 1249 sipp) 166 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. alliance had been formed for the suppression of the Lutheran States. The whole news of such a conspiracy was, however, proved to be false. But such events were calculated to destroy more and more a good understanding between the parties. At the Diet of Spire, 1529, the concession of that of 1526 was rejected. It was stipulated that those princes and States that had heretofore followed the Edict of Worms should continue so to do until the next oecumenical council ; that the others should abstain from making further innovations until the same time, while they were by no means to hinder their Catholic subjects from practising their religion. The Lutheran princes protested^ against these articles, and sent their protestation to the emperor, who was then at Piacenza. The emperor returned an ungracious answer, on which the protesting princes sought, by the formation of new alliaiices among themselves, to secure their States from castigation by the em- peror. Even the Zwinglians were to have been included in the alliance ; but this plan was frustrated by their doctrine on the Lord's Supper, and it was in vain that Philip of Hesse sought to reconcile the contending parties.^ The conference on religion at Marburg, Oct. 1, 1529, led to no good result ; and the seventeen articles of Torgau, which contained the doctrine of Luther, hin- dered, at least for a time, every approach calculated to unite Luther to Zwingli. § 167. The Diet at Autable neither to the queen- mother nor to the league. Henry of Guise therefore called upon the Cardinal de Bourbon ^ to make good his claim to the crown. He did this, in the manifesto of Peronne, on the 31st of March, 1585 ; on the 7th of July the king came to an understanding with the league, and published the Edict of Kemours, which forbade the practice of Calvinism in France, expelled the Huguenots from tlie kingdom, and declared them incapable of holding any office. It was in vain that the chiefs of the league sought to obtain from Gregory XIII. a bull approving of their arrangement. Sixtus V. also refused assent to them, though he declared in a formal docu- ment, Sept. 9, 1585, that Henry of Navarre and the Prince of Conde, being formal heretics, were incapable of ascending the throne of France, by the laws that were still in force in that kingdom. INIeantime civil war still continued to rage. Henry of Navarre on the one side gained the battle of Coutras, Oct. 20, 1587. On the other, Henry of Guise, on the 20th of November, defeated the German auxiliary troops of the Huguenots. The conduct of Henry III. was vacillating and dishonest. At first he entered into treaty with Henry of Navarre ; then he joined the league, and at the Eeunion's Edict of Eouen (July 19, 1588) denied the right of succession to a Protestant prince. The murder of Henry of Guise and of his brother Louis, committed by royal mandate, clearly showed the real sentiments of Henry III. towards the league, at wdiose head now stood Charles of jVIayennej a brother of the murdered princes, who had himself escaped the assas- sin's dagger. Consequently the league renounced allegiance to the king. Henry III. then united with the Huguenots, and together with Henry of Navarre laid siege to Paris ; here, on Aug. 1, 1589, he was assassinated by the Dominican James Clement. The contest now presented another phase. Henry of Navarre assumed the i"oyal title, while the league proclaimed the Cardinal de Bourbon king, as Charles X. (+ May 8, 1590). The civil war con- tinued. Henry conquered the army of the league at Arques and Ivry, but found it necessary to become a Catholic in order to secure permanent tranquillity. Consequently (July 26, 1593) he made pub- lie profession of the Catholic belief in St. Denys ; he was crowned 1 He was Illicit' to Henry of Navarre. THE EDICT OF NAXTES. 191 king on the LVtli of February, 1594, but not absolved from excom- munication till the year 15U5. After this the league submitted. Although the unity of France had been in this way re-established, interior peace was by no means restored. The Huguenots repeatedly revolted, and even the Edict of Nantes ^ (April 13, 1598) failed to pacify them. Under Louis XIII. (1610-1643) religious wars again broke forth.'- The Peace of Montpellier (1622) restored peace for a time only ; it was not till the capture of La Rochelle, 1628, that the Huguenots found themselves compelled to submit. The king's minister, the Cardinal Eichelien, then deprived them of their polit- ical privileges and of their strongholds. The other articles of the Edict of Xantes still remained in force. Meanwhile the French clergy had displayed an unwonted energy and activity in endeavoring to bring back the wandering sheep to the fold of the Church. Under the reign of Louis XIV. (1643-1715) multitudes of the Huguenots were converted. The court counte- nanced and encouraged the mission work, which caused new seditions on the part of the sectaries. These seditions, being sujDpressed by force, caused the abridgment of their privileges until, acting upon the advice of his chancellor, Le Tellier, the king finally revoked the Edict of Xantes, Oct. 18, 1 685. The conduct of Louis XIV. and of his minister, Louvois, by which, notwithstanding the disapproval of the Pope,^ they thought to convert these subjects by exterior force, occasioned several rebel- lions in Cevennes. Fanatics of the school of the prophet Duserres, in Dauphiny, inflamed the Calvinists (Camisardes) of that region to acts of the greatest cruelty. They were finally, though with diffi- culty, suppressed by the royal troops. After the death of Louis XIV. the laws against the Huguenots 1 The Edict of Nantes stiimlated, for instance, "that the Catholic religion should be again exercised in places where it had been suppressed." Bat neitlier in Beam nor in any place where the Huguenots felt themselves to be in security, did they allow Catholics the free exercise of their religion. (Picot, 1. c. p. 35.) 2 The Huguenots formed a politico-religious party which, in their provincial con- ventions and synods, negotiated concerning peace and war, concluded treaties with foreign courts, especially with England (1625, 1627, and 1659), and took advantage of every embarrassment in which the court found itself, to extort greater concessions from the king. (Cf. Picot, 1. c. 426 s(pi. ) 3 Pope Innocent XI., who at thai time was not on very good terms with Louis XIV., requested King James II., through D' Adda, his nuncio in London, to intercede with Louis XIV. and prevail on him to adopt a more lenient treatment towards the Hu- guenots. (Miizurc, Hist, de la revolution de 1688, tom. ii. 126. Paris, 1825.) 192 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. remained indeed on the statute-book; but they were never put into execution. In November, 1787, Louis XVI. allowed them the same rights as other citizens. The hostile position taken by the Huguenots towards the Catholic Church is evident from the rancorous expressions of hatred made use of at their national synods, regarding the teaching, the usages, and the institutions of the Church. The synods which thus assailed the Catholic Church were held after the Edict of Nantes, — that is, after the restoration of peace. Cf. Aymon, i. p. 140, pp. 83, 84, 142, 219. § 175. Protestantism in the Netherlands. Protestantism was smuggled into the Netherlands ^ by the proph- ets from Zwickau and by merchants ; but it found few adherents, and against these few Charles V. took strong measures. But so much the greater progress did the heresy make under Philip II. ; while the lower nobility (who for the most part were deep in debt), aud some ambitious men in power, used the occasion as a means to free the coun- try from the crown of Spain. At the head of those who, under the pretext of religion, sought this political severance was the impious and faithless prince William of Orange, who endeavored to decry all the measures of the king as encroachments on the liberties and privileges of the people. The discontent thus called forth was in- creased by the new division of dioceses,^ — a proceeding justified by the necessity which occasioned it, also by the carrying into effect of the edicts against heretics ; and other causes may have contributed to it. This discontent was chiefly manifested at this time by calum- niating and vilifying the able and conscientious Cardinal Granvella, Prime Minister to Margaret, Duchess of Parma, who administered the government for the King of Spain. The first attempt at revolt succeeded. The Spanish troops quitted the Netherlands, Granvella resigned in 1564, and the party of the nobility came into power. William of Orange proceeded yet further in the path of rebellion ; lie strove to stir up the people by the spread of false rumors, such, 1 Stradnc Bomani (S, J.), Hist. Belgicae duae decadps. 2 vols. Eom. 1640 sqq. 2 In the Netherlands there were four bishoprics, — Utrecht, Arras, Cainbray, and Tournay. At the request of the king, Pope Paul IV., 1559, by the bull " Super universas orbis," raised Maliues, Canibray, and Utrecht to the dignity of archbishop- rics, and established fourteen new bishoprics. (Bull. Rom. vi. .'iSQ sqq.) PROTESTANTISM IN THE NETHERLANDS. 193 for instance, as that the king intended to introduce the Spanish Inquisition into the Xetherhands. Thus he effected, in 1565, the so-called compromise, — an alliance of Protestant and Catholic mem- bers of the nobility, — the professed object of which was to keep watch over the rights and privileges of the country. The Govern- ment took no decisive measures against these rebellious nobles, who, aided and countenanced by the Protestants in France and Germany, became bolder and bolder in their demands. At the head of the malcontents, besides William of Orange, were the Counts of Egmont and Hoorne. The rebellion broke forth in 1566. The members of the com- promise sent, by the hands of two hundred and fifty nobles (Gueux, beggars), a petition to the stadtholder (or regent) Margaret, demand- ing the suspension of the edicts of religion and the convocation of the States General, which demands they intended to extort by force. Meantime many Calvinistic preachers had come to the Nether- lands under the protection of the Gueux, who, with the help of the people, plundered churches and cloisters, broke up or burnt pictures and sacred vessels, trod the Blessed Sacrament underfoot, and perpe- trated many other outrages, which opened the eyes of such Catholics as had been led astray. They joined the Government party, which then defeated the rebels. William of Orange fled to Germany, and Count Egmont returned to his allegiance to the king. Instead of coming in person into the Netherlands, Philip II. sent the Duke of Alva, whom he invested with great powers, and placed at the head of a large army ; on this Margaret laid down her office- William of Orange, who had calumniated the king in several pam- phlets, raised troops with the help of the Protestant princes, and began the war against Alva. Alva dispersed the rebels, but by estab- lishing a ''council concerning the disturbances," by commanding the execution of the Counts of Egmont and Hoorne, and especially by the exaction of new and very oppressive taxes, he excited general dissatisfaction, which was heightened by the plundering carried on by the Spanish troops. War broke out anew, which raged especially in the northern provinces. Neither Alva nor his successor, Don Luis de Eequesens, succeeded in putting down the rebellion. The intriguing William of Orange frustrated all concilintory designs; for which purpose he chiefly used Calvinism as a weapon against Spain. After the death of Luis de Eequesens (+ 1576),. Don John of VOL. II. 13 194 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. Austria, the illustrious hero of Lepanto, succeeded him as stadt- holder. Filled with the desire to restore tranquillity to the country, he tried most zealously to promote peace and order by several con- cessions; but his efforts were met with ingratitude, and he was at length obliged to draw the sword against the rebels. He vanquished them, but, being deserted by Spain, could not follow up his victory, and died of grief, Oct. 1, lo78. Under his successor, Alexander of Parma, the southern provinces submitted to the king by the Treaty of Arras, while the northern provinces (Holland), led by William of Orange, entered into an alliance for mutual assistance by the Union of Utrecht, 1579; and when in 1581 Brabant, Flanders, and Mechlin had joined the union, the alliance formally renounced allegiance to the king. After the death of William, in 1584, the war was continued. Maurice of Orange assumed his father's position. In the year 1609 a truce was concluded, in which the independence of the northern provinces was recognized. In 1582 William, in violation of the solemn declarations he had repeatedly made, proscribed in Holland the public exercise of the Catholic religion. In the other provinces which had torn them- selves loose from Spain the same thing was done ; notwithstanding which a considerable number of Catholics there remained faithful to their creed. § 176. Apostasy of England from the Church. A sinful love brought Henry VIII. of England ^ into opposition to the Church, which a short time previously he had defended against Luther.^ He wished for the dissolution of his marriage with Catherine of Aragon, the widow of his brother Arthur, that he might be free to marry Anne Boleyn. Pope Clement VII. at first commissioned Cardinal Wolsey, Henry's minister, and Cardinal 1 Vera et siiicera historia scliismatis Auglicani, de ejus origine et progressu a N. Sandero, aucta et castigatius edita a R. P. Ribadcncim. Colon, 1628. Lingard, History of England, vol. vi. siiq. Dodd, Church History of England, edited anew by Tierncy. 5 vols. London, 1839 sqq. Bhint, The Keforiuation of the Church of England. 2 vols. London, 1869 and 1882. Burnet, History of the Reformation of the Church of England. CohhctL History of the Prote.stant Reformation in England and Ireland. ChaUoncr, Memoirs, etc. Other works are mentioned in Dublin Ecvieic, 1877, p. 426 sqq. 2 Henry wrote " Assertio septem sacramentorum adv. Luth." AP0S7\i:sy OF ENGLAND FROM THE CHURCH. 195 Campeggio,' the papal legate, to examine the question, and at a later date (July 19, 1529), summoned the affair before his own court ; but he could not grant the king's desire, so repeatedly ex- pressed, and in favor of which he (Henry) had obtained the decisions of several universities. This just refusal of the Pope to grant the king's demand irritated Henry VIII. to that degree that he, by the advice of Thomas Cromwell, declared himself to be the supreme head of the English Catholics, and compelled the clergy to acknowl- edge him as the Supreme Head of the Church in England " in so far as allowed by the law of God." Soon after this, Warham, Arch- bishop of Canterbury, died ; and the king promoted to his place the servile and unworthy flatterer Thomas Cranmer, who pronounced Henry's marriage with Catherine invalid, and the one which the king had already contracted with Anne Boleyn (Jan. 25, 1533) to be lawful, and the children of the marriage to be capable of inheriting the crown. The Pope cancelled this decision March 23, 1534, and this act brought about the complete rupture of the king with Eome. Cromwell became Poyal Vicar-General in 1535. The servile Parliament willingly met the wishes of the king. It decreed the abolition of annates (first-fruits), 1532, prohibited the transmission of money to Eome, and appeals thereto ; reserved the right of confirming the election of bishops to the king ; and enacted the statute of succession, as well as that of taking the oath of supremacy. Whoever refused to acknowledge this supremacy and to take this oath was severely punished. The distinguished car- dinal John Fisher, Bishop of Eochester, and the celebrated and learned Thomas More, with others, were condemned to the scaffold (1535). In order to get money, the king proceeded to suppress the monas- teries. The Franciscans had already excited the hatred of the king by defending the lawful marriage with Catherine. Many of them were imprisoned and martyred. P>y a bill of the 4th of ]\Iarch, 1530, the smaller communities were dissolved, on the plea of declining discipline ; and after the failure of the insurrection of the '' Pil- grims," the larger convents were suppressed, and their property confiscated to the king, yet the larger portion of it was practically appropriated by the visitors appointed to examine into the derelic- tions of religious houses. By the year 1540 the work of spoliation was complete. It brought, after all, but little profit to the crown, 1 Cf. Laemmer, Mon. Vatic, p. 25 sqq. 196 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. while the want and misery of the poor were tliereby greatly increased.^ The repudiated Queen Catherine died in 1536. Anne Boleyn, charged with various crimes, was beheaded the same year. Cran- mer now declared that Henry's marriage with Anne had always been null and void. The hope that Henry would become reconciled to the Church died out ; but, on the other hand, Luther could not win over the king to his party. Irritated at the excommunication pronounced upon him by l*aul III., Henry ordered the Church pictures, images, and relics to be burnt ; and he committed other atrocities,^ at the same time that he adhered to the main points of Catholic dogma, and commanded, under pain of death, the observance of the six articles sometimes called " the bloody articles." These enforced belief in transubstan- tiation. Communion under one species, celibacy of the clergy, vows, Masses for the dead, and auricular confession. Cranmer, who had married secretly Osiander's niece, sent her and her children back to Geniiany as quickly as possible.^ Catholics and Lutherans' were persecuted alike ; the former were condemned to death for high-treason,'* the latter for heresy. The proceedings against heretics were conducted by Cranmer, who held the same views himself for which he at that time condemned men to death by iire, — views which, after Henry's death, he professed and defended. " Henry reigned for thirty-eight years ; and during that time he ordered the execution of two queens, two cardinals, two arch- bishops, eighteen bishops, thirteen abbots, five hundred priors and monks, thirty-eight doctors of divinity and laws, twelve dukes and earls, one hundred and sixty-four gentlemen, one hundred and twenty-four commoners, and one hundred and ten ladies of rank."^ The tyrant died in the year 1547. 1 (^n the suppression of monasteries, see, besides Linganl and Cobbet, La conver- sion de I'Angleterre an christianisnie coniparee avee sa pretendue reforme : traduite par Niceron, p. 268 si[(]. Paris, 1729, Spchnan, History and Fate of Sacrilege, etc. London, 1698 and 1846. '- Tlie king ordered St. Thomas a Becket to be arraigned, and condemned as guilty of high-treason. He had his bones dug up and burnt to ashes. ^ Bible-reading was confined to the king and the higher classes, and Tyndale's false translation forbidden. ■* Even near relatives of the king, such as the mother and bi'others of Cardinal Pole, were put to death. The cardinal himself was in safety on the Continent. Cf. Morris, The Troubles of our Catholic Forefathers, related by themselves. Lond. 1872. ^ Alzog's History. APOSTASY OF ENGLAND FROM THE CHURCH. 197 Edward VI., a boy nine years of age, then became su])reme head of the English Church. His uncle, Lord Seymour, under the title of Duke of Somerset, held the reins of government as protector of the realm ; and Granuier afforded him all possible aid in the intro- duction of Protestantism. Parliament struck out the six above- named articles from the statute-book, withdrew the right of electing bishops from the chapters, and assigned to the crown a considerable part of Church property. Marriage was now also permitted to the clergy. Cranmer composed a book of homilies, the use of which was made obligatory on the clergy. Recusant clergy were driven from their livings. Bishop Gardiner of Winchester was impris- oned for the resistance he showed. In order to complete the vic- tory of the so-called Reformation, the Parliament in 1549 passed a law making the use of the liturgy ^ composed by the primate " under the inspiration of the Holy Ghost " obligatory on all ministers. By this measure the holy sacrifice of the Mass was abolished, and Communion under both kinds introduced; and thus "the Church by law established " was made ready. Neither the risings of the English people nor the fall of Somerset through Warwick, then Duke of Northumberland, had brought relief to the Catholics. The faithless primate made common cause with the new regent, at whose command (1552) he, in conjunction with Ridley, I>ishop of London, drew up a formula of belief in forty-two articles.- The liturgy was revised, freed from all ''papistical" rem- nants, and introduced in 1552 by the Parliament by main force. The primate also had a collection of ecclesiastical laws^ made, among which belief in transubstantiation and in the supremacy of the Pope 1 Book of Coinnion Prayer. Whosoever worshippeil after any other fashion was punished. {Lingard.) As assistants, Cranmer summoned to Oxford, 1547, Peter Martyr Verniilio (born at Florence, 1500, he entered the order of Augustinian Monks ; in 1542 he fled to Zurich, and apostatized) and Ochino (§ 187). He invited to Cam- bridge Bucer (§ 168) and Paul Fagius from Strashurg. 2 Burnet, History of the Reformation, ii. 209 sqq. All who took the Doctor's degree had to swear to them. In the oath the following passage occurs : " Deo teste promitto ac spondeo, me scripturae auctoritatem hominuni judiciis praepositurum . . . et articulos . . . regia auctoritate in lucem editos pro veris et certis habit urum et omni in loco tan([uam consentientes cum verbo Dei defeusurum." (Livgnnl, vii. 106.) ^ Cf. Reformatio legum ecclesiasticarum. London, 1640. Calvin wrote to the Protector Somerset that he should destroy by the swoid all such as should resist the new church establishment, especially the Catholics ("gens obstines aux superstitions de I'Andechrist de Rome"). See Henry, Life of Calvin, ii. Appendix, p. 30 (Joh. Calv. Ep. Geneva, 1576, p. 67). 198 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. was threatened Avith cleatii. It was fortunate for the Catholics that Edward VI. died in 1553, before these laws were published. A party headed by the Duke of Northumberland, who thought to secure the succession to the throne in his own family, conspired to deprive the Catholic Queen Mary of the crown, and to substitute the Lady Jane Grey ; but these rebels were vanquished, and their leaders beheaded. The chief anxiety of the queen, who gave her hand in marriage to Philip II. of Spain, was the reconciliation of England with the Holy See. This took place on the 28th of November, 1554. Cardinal Reginald Pole,^ as papal legate, received England again into the communion of the Church. The possessors of the property which had been stolen from the Church were not molested in their ill-gotten goods and lands ; but those possessions which had lieen conliscated to the crown were all restored to the Church. Cardinal Pole (+ 1558) became Archbishop of Canterbury. Unfortunately, the conspiracies of Wyatt, Suffolk, and others, togetlier with the invectives hurled by Protestant preachers on the queen.- compelled the latter to take more stringent measures against the heretics. About two hundred persons — some of whom, however, were convicted of high-treason, as were Cranmer, Ridley, Latimer, Bishop of Worcester — were executed. After a sliort reign Mary died (Nov. 15, 1558), and was succeeded by her sistei- Elizabeth, who was a Pi-otestant b}^ birth, although during the last reign she had publicly i)rofessed Catholicity. Elizabeth was crowned after tlie Catholic rite, and thereby com- pelled to take the oath that she would uphold the Catholic faith. Nev.M'th 'less, being regarded as illegitimate by her Catholic sub- jects, and receiving from Pope Paul IV. an answer that offended her, while it held her claim to the throne as doubtful, she soon after her ascension declared in favor of Protestantism, and took measures against the Catholics. The religious indifferentism ^ of those in the higher ranks favored her policy. With a majority of three votes Parliament renewed in 1559 the laws of Henry VIII. and of Edward VI. against the Church, and by the Act of Uni- formity (June, 1559) prescribed Cranmer's liturgy,* and commanded 1 Epistolanun Eeginaldi Poli, etc. eJ. Quirini (Card, et episc). 5 vols. Brixiae, 1744. This edition also contains a history of the life of the cardinal, composed by his secretary, BcccadcUo ( Latin in the first volume, Italian in the fifth volume). 2 Ridley, Bishop of London, preached in public against the queen. 3 BcntivoijUo, Rdazioni, p. 174. Lee, The Church under Queen Elizabeth. * Lingard, vii, 2)6. APOSTASY OF ENGLAND FROM THE CHURCH. 199 the exacting of the oath of supremacy. The members of the two universities and the higher clergy, especially the bishops, save one, resisted. Such as persisted in their refusal lost their places. Mat- thew Parker, formerly chaplain to Anne Boleyn, was a})pointed Protestant Archbishop of Canterbury. He ordained the other bishops. In the year 1562 the oath of supremacy was extended to the members of the lower house of Parliament (the Commons), to public teachers, to lawyers, to the whole clergy, etc. The con- vocation of clergy in the following year reduced the fortij-two articles to tlurty-nine. The Anglican Church differed from every other Protestant sect in recognizing a hierarchy of three orders of clergy. The ancient eccle- siastical ritual, as contained in the Catholic missal, in the matin office, and in vespers, was, with some alterations, retained. The ordi- nal of Edward VI. was recognized as the authorized ceremonial in the consecration of bishops and in the ordination of priests and deacons. The Established Church encountered opposition from the so-called Nonconformists, who were harshly persecuted ; but under this head it was the Catholics ^ rather than the Puritans "^ who were aimed at, though these latter denied the royal supremacy, the supe- riority of the bishops over the presbytery, and the like. The exam- ination for religious delinquencies was carried on by the Court of the High Commission, — a terrible tribunal of inquisition, which was not bound to follow the ordinary forms of judicial inquiry. The attempt to liberate the unfortunate Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, from the hands of Elizabeth,^ with whom she had sou.ght hospitality ; and the publication of the bull " Regnans in excelsis," of February, 1570, by which Pius V. excommunicated Elizabeth,^ — rendered the condition of the English Catholics still more unbear- able. Parliament prohibited, under heavy penalties, every communi- cation with Rome by English Catholics, and also, under penalty of punishment for disobedience, commanded every subject to be pres- ent at the Protestant service. In the year 1581 the criminal edicts ^ Lingard, vii., viii. ■■^ Lingard, viii. 134 sqq. Ncal, History of the Puritans. Halle, 1754. The Inde- pendents, or Congregationalists, — also called Brownists, from their founder, Robert Brown, — went farther yet, and established their church on the broadest democratic basis. 3 See §177. * Bullar, Rom. (Taurin. 186?), vii. 810 sqq. Compare Hcrgcnrothcr, Catholic Church, etc., p. 678 sqq., in which the absurd calunmy that the Pope had hired assassins to kill Elizabeth is thoroughly refuted. 200 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. became more and more severe, and were more especially directed against the priesthood, so that any exercise of priestly function was punished with death. After the death of Thomas Watson, Bishop of Lincoln (+ 1584), the Catholic hierarchy became extinct. Gregory XV. appointed a Yicar-Apostolic in 1623. In order to provide for the education of Catholic priests for Eng- land, William Allen in 1568 established a seminary at Douay in Flanders, which at a later period was transferred to Rheims,^ but reopened at Douay in 1593. Pope Gregory XIII. in 1579 also founded the English Seminary in Rome. This increased the already vehement severity of the English Government against the Catholic priests.- Spies ("agens provocateurs") were employed to lay snares for the Catholics, for the purpose of denouncing them as traitors ; notwithstanding which they gave many proofs of their loyalty to the inhuman queen, especially when in the year 1588 Philip threatened the shores of England with the invincible Ar- mada, in retaliation for the alliance which Elizabeth had formed with his rebellious subjects of the Netherlands. Their reward for this was in new and cruel persecutions,^ which did not cease even after the death of the tyrannic woman. Elizabeth was the last scion of the house of Tudor. She was succeeded by James VI., King of Scotland, a son of Mary Stuart. He ascended the thi-one of Great Britain under the name of James I. 1 See Records of the English Catholics under the Penal Law, vols, i., ii. Bellcs- heim, Cardinal W. Allen and the English Seminaries on the Continent. Mentz. '■^ Lingnrd, viii. 142 sqq. Whoever gave shelter to a Jesuit, or refused to betray his place of refuge, was put to death. Hearing confessions was adjudged to he high- treason, and was punished as such. Celebrating and assisting at Mass subjected the offender to fine and imprisonment. In the year 1584 it was enacted that all English priests who did not leave the land within forty days, and all who sheltered them after that time, should undergo the penalty of high-treason. Foley, S. J., Records of the English Province of the Society of Jesus. London, 1877. Mrs. Hope, Franciscan Martyrs in England. Annal. Minor, torn. xix. sijq. The first Jesuits came to England in 1580. ^ Respecting the executions under Elizabeth, cf. Challoners Memoirs of the Mis- sionary Priests, and his British Martyrology, with Lingard, viii. 437. They describe the fearful tortures of the rack and instruments of martyrdom. Even before the year 1588, twelve hundred Catholics had lost life, projierty, or liberty ; and yet it was after that period that persecution proper may be said to have broken out. In the last twenty years of Elizabeth's reign, one hundred and forty-two priests were put to death, ninety died in prison, while sixty-two distinguished laymen underwent martyrdom. The persecution raged still more furiously in Ireland (see § 179). As to the moral condi- tion of Elizabeth's court, see Lingard, viii. THE SU-CALLEl) Iti: I-ol! M A I'lON IN SCOTLAND. 201 Mattlu'W Parker, apiMiiiitod Arclibisliui) uf Canterbury by Elizabetli, was cousocratc'd by fuur Prutestaut bisliops, — Barlow, Scorcy, Coverdale, and Hodgkins, — because the Cathdlic bislwps refused to perform tlie consecra- tion. The actual consecrator was Barlow, who under Henry VIIl. had been Bishop of St. Davids, and under Edward VI. Bishop of Bath. After the accession of Mary, he had tied from England ; under Elizabeth he returned, and was in 15.59 nominated Bishop of Chichester. The Anglican ordinations are considered invalid. Cardinal Pole so judged them, and he was certainly well acquainted with tlie state of things. He de- clared all the orders conferred under Edward VI. null and void. Consistently with this view, all the English clergymen who are converted to the faith are re-ordained if they desire to become priests. The reasons for considering Parker's consecration to be invalid, and con- sequently that all orders conferred by him are null and void, are principally these: (1) It is not proved that Barlow himself was really and validly con- secrated bishop ; (2) His character and his doctrine render it doubtful whether he had the right intention in consecratmg ; (3) The formula of consecration was so essentially changed under Edward VI. that, at a convocation of the clergy in the year 1062, it was thought necessary to rechange the formula. The efforts of the learned Anglicans, which are so worthy of recognition, have failed to establish proof of the real and valid consecration of Barlow and Parker. Consult, on this whole question, the valuable treatise, Claims of a Protestant Episcopal Bishop to Apostolic Succession and Valid Orders dis- proved, by S. V. Byan, Bishop of Buffalo. Raynald, 0. Set. B., The Ordi- nal of King Edward VI. ; its History, Theology, and Liturgy. London, 1871. Cf. Dublin Review, new series. No. 41, July, 1873, p. 191 sqq. Estcourt, The Question of Anglican Ordinations discussed. Per contra : For the valid- ity of the Anglican ordinations, see Lee, The Validity of the Holy Orders of the Church of England. Lt.ndon, 1869. Cf. Tablet, V(.>1. xxxiv. u. 1543 ; vol. xl. u. 1688 and 1689; and esjiecially iJatZey, Ordiuum sacroruin in eccl. Anglic, defensio . . . London, 1870. § 177. The so-called Reformation in Scotland. The undue influence exercised by the crown and the nobility in the filling up of ecclesiastical benefices led in Scotland ^ to a grievous decline in morals among the clergy, and to gross ignorance among the people. This rendered it possible for the innovators, under the appearance of zeal for religion and morals, to vilify the Catholic Church and to deride her rites and ceremonies. The first preacher of heresy, Patrick Hamilton (4- 1528), Abbot of Feme, with others, ^ Lingard, History of England, vii. 305 s(jq. James IVahh, History of the Catho- lic Church in Scotland from the Introduction of Christianity to the Present Time. Glasgow, 1874. Bellesheim, History of the Catholic Church in Scotland. 202 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. died indeed at the stake ; but the new doctrine found willing hearers among such of the nobles as were longing to lay hands on the tem- poral goods of the Church. After the death of James V. (+ 1542), the Government, under the regency of the Earl of Arran, favored the apostates, which induced the Cardinal David Beaton, Archbishop of St. Andrews, to proceed all the more vigorously against them. After his murder (May 29, 1546),^ by a mob headed by Norman Leslie, the adherents of the new heresy, led by the furious John Knox and countenanced by Henry VIII. of England, opened the con- test against Church and crown. They were defeated, yet did not renounce their opposition. In the year 1557 the Protestant 'ords formed the '' Congregation of the Lord," in opposition to the " Con- gregation of Satan ; " and, driven to fanaticism by John Knox, who had spent some years in Geneva, and was in 1559 recalled to Scot- land, they renewed the civil wars, which the Regent IMary of Guise thought to put an end to by the treaty of 1559. This treaty insured to Protestants the free exercise of their religion. But they were not content with this ; they wanted the suppression of " idolatrous worship," to effect which they tore down Catholic churches and monasteries, and ill-treated the priests and monks. The contest broke out anew. The rebels were aided by Elizabeth of England, but were not able to attain the mastery. After the death of tlie E-egent Mary of Guise, her daughter, IMary Stuart,^ who was mar- ried to Francis II. of France, entered into negotiations with the rebels. Her plenipotentiaries concluded the Peace of Edinburgh with the Congregation. This peace left to the queen simply the name of royalty ; the real power was placed in the hands of the restless nobility. This decided the victory of the so-called Kefor- raation. In 1560 the Parliament declared the Catholic religion abolished, and adopted a Calvinistic confession of faith. Knox then, by his discipline-book, organized the constitution of the Church after the Calvinistic model. All remnants of papacy were destroyed, churches and monasteries were sacked with the fiiry of vandals, valuable libraries were burnt, and the sacred vessels desecrated and broken up. Attending Mass was forbidden under heavy penalties. ^ His successor was John Hamilton, the last archbishop of St. Andrews (1547- 1570), who had two catechisms edited. The larger, usually called "The Catechism of John Hamilton," was republished in 188-1 ; a copy of the .smaller one was found a few years ago by Rev. Geo. Griffin. ^ Hosak, Mary Queen of Scots and her Accusers. 2 vols. Edinburgh and London, 1870 >nY\. Morris (S. J.), The Letter-books of Sir Amias Poulet, Keeper of Mary Queen of Scots. London, 1874. Narratives of Scottish Catholics under Mary Stuart and James VL Ed. by JV. Forbes-Leith, S. J. THB CATHOLIC CHURCH UNDER THE STUARTS. 203 When jNIary Stuart returned to Scotland in 1501, she found a dis- loyal nobility an J a fanatic people. The concessions she made did not satisfy the ecclesiastico-political demagogues. The reformed preachers vociferated against " idolatrous worship," reviled the queen, and were not willing to suffer jNIass to be said in the chapel of Edinburgh Castle. The insolent and hypocritical Knox, who personally insulted the queen, was the chief antagonist of the Catholic Church. After that, when Lord Darnley, the queen's second husband, had been murdered by a band of conspirators, whose leader is said to have been Bothwell, Knox brought the charge of adultery and murder against the unfortunate queen, who. deserted by her adherents and persecuted by her rebellious subjects, sought refuge in England, where after an imprisonment of twenty years she was beheaded by order of Queen Elizabeth, 1587. During the minority of her son, James VI., the republican system of Church government as devised by the Puritans became predomi- nant ; and the attempt of the king, in after years, to introduce the episcopal hierarchy only gave rise to new revolts, which compelled him to abandon his plan and content himself with mere titular bishops.^ After James had received the English crown also, he reverted to his former plan, and in the year 1610 had thirteen bishops ordained for Scotland. At the price of a persecution of the Catholics,^ Parlia- ment yielded to his wishes ; but so strong was the aversion of the Puritans to the Episcopal Church that the attempt of Charles I. to introduce her constitution and liturgy into Scotland created an uproar, which lent powerful assistance to the other causes which cost that monarch his throne alike with his life. § 178. The Catholic Church in G-reat Britain under the Stuarts. James I.^ was from policy devoted to the English Church, and from taste averse to the Presbyterian Puritans ; yet he allowed the ^ Knox died in 1572. His successor was A. ilelville. The Convention of the Clergy at Leith, 1572, agreed to retain the titles of archbishop, bishop, etc. ; but the General Assembly at Perth, 1572, protested against it, while another in 1581 com- manded the bishops to lay down their office. Parliament, indeed, in 1584 confirmed the authority of the bishops ; but in 1592 the Presbyterian constitution of the Church was legally acknowledged. 2 Gordon, The Catholic Church in Scotland, from the Suppression of the Hierarchy (1603) to the Present Time. Aberdeen, 1874. ^ Lingard, History of England. Morris, Condition of Catholics under James I, 204 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. laws against the recusants (those who refused to attend Protestant worship) to be carried out with great severity, though chiefly against the Catholics. ^ Their condition became even more oppres- sive after the discovery of the famous gunpowder plot.* A new penal code augmented the penalties ^ against Catholics, and the oath of allegiance which was imposed on them * subjected them to the arbitrary caprice of the king ; yet when James, in the year 1G16, somewhat alleviated the severity of their lot, Parliament and the Anglican clergy protested against his doing so. During the reign of Charles I., who had married Henrietta of London, 1872. Documents are in Butler, Hist. Memoirs, etc. 4 vols. London, 1822. 1 At first he suspended the laws, but afterwards broke his princely word, and not only had the tax of twenty jiounds per month levied, but demanded the back pay of forfeiture for thirteen months. The money was distributed among the Scottish favorites. '■ 2 Livgard, ii. The memoirs of the Jesuit Gerard contain very interesting informa- tion concerning the gunpowder yilot, in which they sought to implicate Catholics. Gerard was a companion of the innocently tortured and executed Jesuit Garnet. See Morris, Memoirs of a Jesuit. In remembrance of the discovery of this conspiracy, a feast is yearly celebrated on the 5th of November in London and throughout England, and a prayer was inserted in the liturgy for protection against " malignant and blood- thirsty enemies." Daniel, Cod. liturg. iii. 55.5. ^ Lingard. Catholics, among other disqualifications, could not be judges, physi- cians, or lawyers ; could not be executors of a will or testament ; were obliged to be married before a Protestant minister. Every recusant was considered excommunicated. Instead of the monthly fine, the king might appropriate the whole of the movable and two thirds of the immovable property. Whoever kept Catholic servants had to pay ten pounds monthly. * See Lingnrd, ix. 81 sqq. Hergenrother, Catholic Church and Christian State, p. 686 sqq. Pope Paul V. forbade the taking of this oath (Sept. 1, 1606, and Sept. 22, 1607), " because it contained several things contrary to faith and to the welfare of souls." And such was the case ; for, in the first place, the oath was but a veiled oath of supremacy ; and, .secondly, it condemned as imjiious and heretical the opinion asserted by many respected theologians, that in certain cases, especially in punish- ment of heresy, the Church had the power to depose sovereigns. According to the statement of De Breves, the French envoy at Rome, King James declared himself ready to recognize the Pope as "the first bishop and Head of the Church," if he (the Pope) would renounce the assertion that the Pope could depose kings ; on which Paul V. had replied that he could not do this without incurring the stain of her- esy ("sans etre tache d'heresie"). (Notices et extraits des Mss. de la bibliotheque nationale, vii. 310 sqq. Paris, 1804.) It is, however, improbable that James I., who at the beginning of his reign had said, " I make what I please law and gospel," ever entertained such a project. In fact, had he willed to do it, he had no power to carry it out. (See, on this matter, Hergenrother, new edition, p. 481 sqq. ) THE CATHOLIC CHURCH UNDER THE STUARTS. 205 France, the theory of the sovereignty of the people was supplant- ing that of the absolute power of the monarch. The patriots of England, and the Puritans, or '"Saints," were vociferous in advocat- ing " civil liberty,'' while the Episcopalian clergy preached passive obedience. The Parliament, in which the Puritans possessed the ])redonnnant power, assumed an attitude of opposition to the crown and to the Catholic Church (Xo Popery). The king sacrificed the Catholics ' to the hatred of the Puritans, without being able thereby to silence their clamors ; after which, from the year 1629, he souglit to govern the country without a parliament at all.- His ecclesias- tical measures in Scotland at last brought affairs to a crisis, which resulted in the inevitable catastrophe. The Scotch denounced the English liturgy, introduced in the year 1G36, as the worship of Baal. In 1638 they entered into a national covenant, and in 1639 took up arms against the king. In order to obtain the means of carrying on the war, Charles summoned the " Long Parliament," 1640-1649 ; the majority of the members of which aimed directly at revolution.^ Civil Avar began in the year 1642. In the army of the king were the nobility and the cavaliers ; his opponents were joined by the Eoundheads, who were made up from the fanatical classes of the people. To excite the people still more, the rebels, who in 1643 had allied themselves with the malcontents in Scotland, spread a false rumor of a papal conspiracy against I'rotestants. After the unfortunate battle of Xaseby (1645), Charles fled to Scotland ; but as he did not listen to the proposals made to him by the Scotch to adopt Presbyterianism, he was by them surrendered as a prisoner to the English Parliament. Here the Independents, guided by Oliver Cromwell, the general-in-chief of the Presbyterian army, had the upper hand. The king was conducted to prison at Holmby, and in August, 1647, transferred to Hampton Court. Thence, after escaping and being recaptured, he was removed first to the palace of St. James and thence to Whitehall, where, after undergoing a trial by the " Rump Parliament," which Cromwell had purified and Avhich was governed by him, Charles was sentenced to death ; which sentence was carried into execution on Jan. 30, 1649. 1 Lingard, ix. 291. The Court and Times of Charles I. 2 vols. London, 1848. ■•^ The advisers of the king, after the murder of the Duke of Buckingham, were Lord Strafford, whom Charles betrayed to death on the scaffold, and Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury. ^ The causes of discontent were, among other things, the severity of the Star Chamber, — the highest judicial court established by Henry VIL, — the proceedings of the High Commission Court {§ 176), and the ship-money. 206 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. Under the Lord Protector Cromwell, who had dispersed the Par- liament and placed himself at the head of the English Republic, all sects were tolerated, and even the members of the Episcopal Church were treated with indulgence ; Catholics alone were persecuted. Even after the restoration of the royal dignity, and also of the Established Church, under Charles II., Catholics were exposed to the hatred and persecution of English fanaticism. The Corporation Act of 1661 excluded all non-conformists from the magistracy and from the corporations. The attempts of the king to better their condition signally failed ; and the return of his brother James, the Duke of York, to the Catholic communion increased the fury of the sectaries, who then laid the blame of the Great Fire of London (1666) on the Catholics. Puritans and Episcopalians made common cause. The king was obliged to withdraw his Declaration of In- dulgence in 1671, and by the Test Act ^ it was made impossible for Cathobcs to hold any office of public trust. The lie of a " Popish ■ Plot," ^ invented by Titus Gates, found belief among high and low, and increased the fury of the unreasoning rabble. Lord Stafford and six Jesuits were executed as participators in this pretended conspiracy, and many Catholics were cast into prison. Attempts made by the House of Commons to exclude James, Duke of York, from the succession to the throne, were frustrated by the House of Lords. On the death of Charles, 1685, the Duke of York was recognized as King James II. The Duke of Monmouth's attempt at revolt was suppressed at the battle of Sedgemoor; but the fears of the ad- herents of the High Church party were excited by the proclamation of freedom of conscience, and they were still more alarmed when James granted freedom of worship to the non-conformists, dis- pensed Catholics from taking the test oaths, declared them capable of holding office, and wished to abolish the disgraceful laws of the previous rulers against Catholics and Dissenters. Anglican preachers uttered warnings against the seductions to popery, and seven bisliops refused to have the declaration of the freedom of conscience announced in the churches. The discontent was fomented by Prince William of Orange, who 1 The Test Act decreed that eveiy one who hohls an office must take the oath of .supremacy, receive the Eucharist according to the Anglican rites, and subscribe to a formula denying the doctrine of transubstantiation. 2 Cf. Mazure, Hist, de la revolution de 1688 en Angleterre, torn. i. p. 166 sqq. 3 vols. Paris, 1825. Lingard, xiii. 60 sqq. SCFFElilXaS OF THE CATllUlJCS IN IRELAND. 207 luul long been steadily intriguing against King James, his father-in- law. James ordered the seven bishops who had refused to have his proclamation read to appear before the court at Westminster Hall, where they were acquitted. It was at this time that the birth of a son, the Prince of Wales, deprived Mary, the daughter of James, of her heirship to the throne. William of Orange, her husband, angry at this disappointment, accepted the invitation of several rebellious lords, and landed with an army in England. James, betrayed by the English army and " deserted by his own children," lost courage and fled to France. The Parliament declared the throne vacant, and proclaimed William conjointly with his wife, King and Queen of England. The sufferings of the Catholics were now renewed. The Tolera- tion Act of 1689 revoked all the laws passed against the non- conformists, and granted freedom of worship to all, save and excepting Catholics and Socinians. In England the Episcopalians were the rulers ; in Scotland, the Presbyterians. An act of Parlia- ment excluded all Catholic princes from the succession to the throne. And this sad state of affairs continued during the reign of Anne (1702-1714), and of her successors of the house of Hanover.^ The Bill of Relief of the year 1778 called forth the insurrection of Lon- don (1780), which was headed by the fanatical Lord Gordon."^ It was the American War of Independence that first led to the abrogation of the most stringent of these laws which inflicted pen- alty for conscientious belief. A further relief was afforded to Catholics by the Emancipation Bill in 1829. § 179. The Sufferings of the Catholics in Ireland. Although Ireland^ was not entirely conquered by England, it suffered greatly from the oppressions exercised by the latter. The 1 Hiirtpole Lecky, Histoiy of England in the Eighteentli Century. 2 vols. Lon- don, 1875. 2 Mills, History of the liiots in London in tlie year 1780, commonly called the Gordon Riots. London, 1883. 3 On Ireland, see Lingurd, vii. Thomas Moore, Memoirs of Captain Bock, ed. 1824 and 1852. O'GonncU, A Memoir of Ireland, Native and Saxon. 1 vol. 8vo. Dublin, 1843. Brennan, 0. S. F., Ecclesiastical History of Ireland. Dublin, 1864. /r. D. Killccn, Ecclesiastical History of Ireland. London, 1875. Thomas D'Arcij McGcc, History of the Attempt to establish the Protestant Reformation in Ireland. Boston, 1853. The Analecta of David Rothe, Bishoj) of Ossory, edited with an In- troduction by P. F. Moran, Bishop of Ossory. Dublin, 1884. B'/girell, Ireland under the Tudor.s. London, 188.5. (S.-e Dublin Review, Apr. 1886.) 208 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. members of the so-called Irish Parliameut, who decided on the destinies of the island, were selected from English colonists who had recognized the supremacy of Henry VIII. in 1536. George Brown, who was appointed to the Archiepiscopal See of Dublin by Cromwell, the tool of Henry VIII., submitted willingly to this rec- ognition. But the native clergy and the people of the country op- posed with persevering and vigorous resistance the encroachments of the tyrant. Under Edward VI. there were but few of the natives who did not withstand the introduction of the English liturgy into Ireland ; Irish nationality and the Catholic faith remained bound up together. Under Queen Mary (1553-1558) the Irish en- joyed their faith, and Protestantism became nearly extinct in Ire- land. This hopeful aspect of affairs was, however, entirely changed by Elizabeth, who was intent on subjugating and protestantizing the whole island. A series of atrocious and systematic persecutions was inaugurated, for which it is difficvilt to find a comparison. After long and bloody conflicts the Irish were defeated and subjugated (1603). But, despite confiscation, rack, and scaffold, the Irish clergy and people remained steadfast and loyal to the ancient faith. ^ Among those that suffered martyrdom were Dermot O'Hurley, Arch- bishop of Cashel ; Patrick O'Healy, Bishop of Mayo ; and Richard Creagh, Archbishop of Armagh. When James I. came to the throne, the poor Irish people were soon disappointed in their hope of religious freedom. The new king, in an act of amnesty which he granted, excluded from the benefits thereof only "papists and assassins." Catholic religious services were forbidden ; and in 1605 all Catholic priests were ordered to leave the country under pain of death. Confiscation and coloniza- tion were resorted to, but even this wholesale robbery of property could not suppress the religion. These unrighteous persecutions continued under the reign of Charles I., who was weak enough to yield to the influence of wicked advisers. The Earl of Strafford, Viceroy of Ireland, used his emi- nent talents for the oppression of the Ii-ish, and continued the system of robbery. The king, in 1628, granted to the Irish who had assisted 1 Lingard, x. T. D'A. McGce. Wanicr, History of Eebellion and Civil War in Ireland, p. 294. London, 1768. Up to the death of Elizabeth not even sixty of the natives had be<^.ome Protestants. On the great number of Franciscan Observants who suffered martyrdom, see Annal. Minor, torn. xx. sqq. The Order of St. Francis has given to the Irish Church seventy-three bishops, eighteen of whom lived during the time of the cruel persecutions. SUFFERINGS OF THE CATHOLICS IN IRELAND. 209 him with money lifty-one graces, but failed to keep his word; by the influence of Strafford, these graces were not confirmed, but the pkmdering and oppression still kept on. These drove the people to revolt as a means of putting an end to this grievous wrong. At last the nation arose, as one man, for " God, king, and fatherland." This rising first took place in the province of Ulster. Early in the year 1642 the national convention at Kilkenny pro- claimed war for the Irish religion, for independence of the Irish Parliament, for the ui>holding of the graces conferred in 1628, and for the exclusion of foreigners. A national synod declared these demands to be just and lawful. The combat was maintained on both sides with great bitterness, though at first with success for the Irish, as some outrages committed by the English on peaceful and unarmed natives had roused the natives to take a bloody vengeance. Strafford's successor, the IVIarquis of Ormonde, concluded an armis- tice (1643) known as " The Cessation." But the negotiations for peace were frustrated, because Charles, from fear of the English and Scotch Parliaments, dared not grant the Irish that freedom of religion which they demanded with so much justice. When the king afterwards fell into the hands of the Scotch and English rebels, the Irish rose to free him; but being defeated by the over- whelming power of Oliver Cromwell, they had to pay a dear pen- alty, — the usurper made the conquered feel the weight of his cruelty and of his fanaticism.^ Loss of their possessions, exile, and slavery became the lot of Catholics. A price of £5 was set on the head of a priest. Five millions of acres were confiscated and divided among those who had advanced money to pay the army ; twenty thousand people were transported to the West Indies, and many thousands more to the American colonies. Under Cromwell three hundred ecclesiastics were martyred and one thousand others banished. A law was enacted confining the Catholics to the prov- ince of Connaught, which they were not to leave on pain of death. This command could not be carried out ; but it furnished the Pro- tector's adherents an oi)portunity of cooling their fanaticism on the papists. The Pi*otestant Irish were spared completely. The restoration of the monarchical dignity in England brought no great advantage to the Catholics of Ireland. The regicides remained in possession of the lands they had stolen, and the Catholic owners 1 Hi.storical Sketch of the Persecutions, etc., by Most Rev. P. F. Moran, Arch- bishop of Sidney. Cromwell in Ireland, by Rev. D. Muiyhij, S. J. London, 1883. VOL. II. 14 210 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. received but a small part of their property back again. The con- cessions which the king, Charles II., was willing to make to the Catholics met with strong opposition on the part of Protestant fanaticism. A short interval of peace took place under the vice- royalty of Lord Berkeley ; after which oppression began anew,^ and continued until the accession of James II. (1685), who publicly ac- knowledged himself to be a Catholic. He sent Lord Clarendon to Ireland as viceroy, and granted freedom of worship, with civil and political equality, to Catholics, to place them on the same footing with Protestants. The latter took the alarm ; and the hopes cher- ished by the Irish people were overthrown when James was driven from his throne by William of Orange (1688). James fled to Prance, whence he passed over to Ireland, to place himself at the head of the Irish people, who had remained loyal to him throughout his adversity ; but he and they were defeated by William (1690). William of Orange began a new sort of persecution in Ireland, which reminds one of the Eonmn Emperor Julian's administration. The capitulation of Limerick (1691) promised, indeed, freedom of conscience to the Catholics such as they had enjoyed under Charles II., and the peaceable enjoyment of their property; but the con- ditions of the treaty were not kept. New persecutions were set on foot, which were prefaced by a confiscation of property ; and these persecutions continued with increased violence during the reign of Queen Anne (1702-1714), the second daughter of James II. As early as 1698 the Catholic bishops were banished from the island ; the priests, indeed, were allowed to remain, but under the most oppressive supervision and control.^ Attendance at a Catholic place of Avorship was annexed to disgraceful conditions ; ^ and the right of educating their children was withdrawn fi-om Catholic parents, or was at least so hampered as to make it very difficult. The estab- 1 On the execution at Tyburn (July 11, 1681) of Olivi'v Pluukett, ArcliTiishoii of Armagh, see his Life by Rev. Dr. Crohj, of Mayuooth, Dublin ; Brciinan, y. 44t) siijelke, again to favor Lutheran- ism, after which all that he retained was the liturgy. After the death of John, whose Catholic successor, Sigismund III., was also King of Poland, Charles of Suedermaniand, at the so-called Council of Upsala (1593), had the liturgy rejected and the Augsburg Confession prescribed. Sigismund ratified what had been done, though he reaped only ingratitude and abuse for so doing. After Sigismund had left Sweden, Charles took forcible possession of the government, and the Diet of Suederkoeping in 1595 forbade the exercise of the Catholic religion. The king reappeared in 1598 with an army in Sweden, but was too forbearing with his faithless uncle, who was first elected admin- istrator of the realm ; then, when Sigismund refused to accede to the disgraceful conditions proposed to him, he ascended, as Charles IX., in 1604 the royal throne, his pretensions to which he sought to fortify by beheading many of the noblest Swedes in the kingdom. While Christian II. pretended to enter Sweden as the executor of the papal bull of excommunication, he was seeking to render Den- mark Protestant ; but in 1523 he was deposed by the Estates for ill- treating the prelates and for attempting to introduce Lutheranism.^ 1 " Nobilissiniam et ex catholica stirpe genitam conjugem siiam Lutherana haeiesi infecit, ejusdem haeresis pullwlatores contra jus pietatemque in regnuin nostrum catholicum inilu.xit," etc. (Ludcwig, Keliquiae manuscript, v. 321. Frcfrt. et Lips. 1723. PROTESTANTISM IN LIVONIA, ETC. 215 His uncle and successor, Frederic I. (1523-1533), had indeed bound himself by oath at his election to maintain the Catholic re- ligion ; but in the year 1526 he formally went over to Lutheranism, and at the Diet of Odensee (1527) succeeded in obtaining the decree that Catholics and Lutherans shovild be placed on an equal footing in regard- to civic rights, that priests should be permitted to marry, and that the contirmation of bishops should be the privilege of the king. The Danish bishops could offer no effective resistance. At the Diet of Copenhagen (1530) the Lutheran party, through John Tausen, presented a confession of faith (Confessio Havnica). The bishops caused a written refutation to be composed. The disputa- tion projected was set aside hy the Lutherans. The king now took part with them decidedly ; but the iconoclasts and the invasion of Christian XL, who had been driven from the kingdom, compelled him to proceed with more moderation. After the termination of the civil war. Christian III., whose election had been opposed by the prelates, had all the bishops ill) prisoned (Aug. 20, 1536), and at the Di^^t (jf Copenhagen the episcopal dignity was abolished by law. The imprisoned prelates could only regain their liberty by resigning their dignities. Their revenues were divided between the king and the nobility. John Bugenhagen (Pomeranus) was invited by the king to come from Wittenberg to complete the work of reformation. His ecclesiastical organization was approved by the Diet of Odensee (1539). The new bishops, or superintendents, were consecrated by Bugenhagen. The Catholic priests were forbidden, under pain of death, to enter Den- mark. Efforts made by the Jesuits in after times had no effect. The inhabitants of the kingdom of Xorway, which had been con- nected with Denmark, had hitherto repulsed all the efforts made by heresy to find a footing among them ; but after the flight of the Archbishop Olaf of Drontheim, the introduction of Lutheranism took place through the Government. Iceland for a long time withstood the attacks of Protestantism, which did not prevail in the country until after the execution of the zealous bishop Juhn Aresen of Holum (1550). § 181. Protestantism m Livonia, Courland, Poland, and Sihsia. As in Prussia, so also in Livonia and Courland, Protestantism was introduced by apostate members of the Teutonic (^rder. From the year 1521 the chief commander, Walter of Plettenburg, favored the 216 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. so-called Reformation iu Livouia, where, when William Margrave of Brandenburg (1539) had been elevated to the archiepiscopal see of Riga, Protestantism could freely spread. In Courland, when the chief commander, Gotthard Kettler, in 1561 assumed the title of Duke, he also accepted the Confession of Augsburg. The apostasy of the Bishop of Courland, John of Monnichhausen, facilitated the victory of the novel heresy. The watchfulness of Sigismund I. (+ 1548) and of the episcopate, particularly that of the able archbishop of Gnesen, John Laski (+ 1531), could not indeed hinder the introduction of Protestantism into Poland,^ but it rendered the spread of it more difficult. Yet under the feeble and vacillating king Sigismund Augustus II. (1548-1572), Poland became the refuge of almost every sort of apos- tates, such as the Bohemian Brethren, Lutherans, Reformed Chris- tians, and Unitarians, or Socinians.^ In order not to divide their strength by doctrinal dissensions, the various sectarians in 1570 con- cluded the Union of Sendomir (Consensus Sendomirieusis) on a broad basis of belief, which included all parties. The religious peace of Warsaw, 1573 (Pax Dissidentium), granted to all dissenters — that is, to all non-Catholics — religious liberty.^ The condition of the Catholic Church was seriousl}' endangered, and the more so in that the Archbishop Uchanski of Gnesen (+ 1581) took no energetic measures for the suppression of heresy. But the danger was hap- pily removed by the papal legates Lipomani (since 1556) and Com- mendone (1563), but principally by the celebrated cardinal Hosius, Bishop of Ermland, who brought the Jesuits into Poland, through whose efforts many dissidents were brought back to the Church. The kings Stephen Bathory (1576-1586) and Sigismund III., with the Archbishop Stanislaus Karnkowski (-f 1603) and other prelates, afforded powerful assistance to the Jesuit Fathers ; and this excited the indignation of the dissidents, who were still more exasperated by some measures taken by the king. Foreign rulers fanned the flame of revolt. It was in vain that Ladislaus IV. in 1645 made an attempt to reconcile the dissidents with the Church, by a religious conference at Thorn, thinking thereby to avert the threatened ruin. His well-meant experiment failed. The distracted kingdom finally fell a victim to the avarice of Russia and her allies. The Duchy of Silesia, which had been politically connected with 1 Lubienicki, Hist, reform. Polonicae. Freist. 1685. '^ Concerning this sect, see § 198. 3 Nova Acta historico-eccles. vii. 726 sqq. I PROTESTANTISM IN HUNGARY, ETC. 217 Poland, and since 1392 with Bohemia also, had been prepared for the acceptance of the so-called Reformation by the Bohemian Brethren, the introduction of which by the secular power met with no effective resistance from the weak and in part demoralized clergy. It Avas the Duke Frederic II. of Liegnitz who first invited the Lutheran preachers in 152.3. His example was followed by the Municipal Council of Breslau, who had fallen out with the Cathedral Chapter, and who permitted the Catholic religion to be scoffed at with impunity ; they drove away the clergy and the monks who were displeasing to them, and installed the apostate priest Dr. Hess as rector of the church of St. Mary Magdalen. The half-measures of the Bishop James of Salza Avere of too undecidetl a character to avail anything. King Louis II. (4- 1526) was too much engaged with the Turks ; he could effect nothing, and the remonstrances of King Sigismund Augustus of Poland were not heeded. When the government came into the hands of the Archduke (King) Ferdinand I., Lutheranism had already made great progress. Even then the bishops to whom the general government was intrusted might have erected a barrier against the incoming innovations. But, alas ! the clergy, both high and low, showed themselves cowardly and undecided, and even manifested sympathy for Luther's errors. The Wittenberg reformer, however, himself found a rival in Caspar of Schwenkfeld, who differed from him in many points. § 182. Protestantism in Hungary and Transylvania. The political disorders in Hungary and Transylvania ^ were very favorable to the propagation of Protestantism, the introduction of which had been vainly resisted by King Louis II. and the bishops. After the battle of Mohacz (1526), a part of Hungary passed under the dominion of the Turks, who rather promoted the progress of the new doctrine than restrained it. Many bishops had fallen in this unfortunate battle, and their possessions had been seized by the nobles, who now sought to secure their plunder by adopting Protes- tantism. Even a part of the clergy, many of whom were far from being models of virtue, vmited with them. Ferdinand I. and his antagonist, John of Zapolya, dissipated their strength in civil wars, 1 P. Emher, Dcbrcceni, Hist. Ecrl. Reform, in Hung, et Transylvania, locupletata ;i F. A. Lampe. Traj. ad Rlien. 1728. Pdbini (Preacher in Pressb.), Memorabilia A ;f;nst. conf. in refrno Hung, a Ferd. I. usque ad Carol. VI. 2 vols. 1787. 218 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. and could make no headway against the sects, which, under the protection of the higher nobility and even of some Palatines, as Tarzo and Nadasdy, continued to spread far and wide. The most active agents in this work were Matthias Devay, in Hungary, and John Honter, in Transylvania. At first Lutheranism prevailed ex- clusively, but soon found a rival in Calvinism. At the Synod of ^Nlediasch the Saxon nation decided for the Augsburg Confession, the Magyars adopted Calvinism. The Unitarians, or Socinians, whose leaders were George Blandrata and Francis Davidis, also gained many adherents. In Hungary the Protestants also split into Lutheranism (the German creed) and Calvinism (the Hungarian creed). The dispu- tations, controversies, and synods only served to reveal the interior contradictions of the sectarians without re-establishing unity; but this interior discordance brought many of those who had been wandering from the fold to their senses. At this time, likewise, the Catholic clergy, although hampered in many ways, exerted themselves actively. Among them the Archbishop Olahus of Gran distinguished himself ; he invited the Jesuits to Tyrnau in 1561, The noted Stephen Bathory had already brought them to Transyl- vania. Hated as they were by the Protestants, and repeatedly banished the country, the Fathers of the Society displayed here, as later on in Hungary in 1586, an indefatigable zeal for the conver- sion of apostates which did not remain fruitless.^ A great number of the nobility returned to the Church, and established the Catholic worship on their own domains. After the death of Maximilian II., who had favored Protestantism not a little, the Government also adopted more stringent measures. Rudolph II. ordered some of the churches taken from the Catholics to be restored to them, and renewed the laws in favor of the Catholic religion. The Protes- tants, in unison with Stephen Bocskai, Prince of Transylvania, raised the standard of revolt, and in the Peace of Vienna, 1606, obtained freedom of religious worship. The distinguished Jesuit, Peter Pazman, afterwards Archbishop of Gran, and Cardinal, labored successfully in the cause of the Church - and of his own Society. King Ferdinand II. seconded his efforts ; but this imbittered the Protestants yet more, and they, assisted by Gabor, Prince of Transylvania, revolted. 1 A. Sochcr, Hist. prov. Anstr. Soc. Jesii. Vieime, 1740. Cf. Barker, 1. c. p. 660. 2 HhiifJi/, Hist. Collegii Pazmaniani. Vienne, 1865. CATHOLICS AND PROTESTANTS IN GERMANY. 219 Under Leopold I. many Protestants mixed themselves up in political conspiracies (1670; 1G73), which compelled the Government to have recourse to stringent measures ; and the friction between Protestants and Catholics still continued. The Diet of Oedenburg (1681) confirmed the Peace of Vienna, and made still greater con- cessions ; yet the Protestants, still dissatisfied, repeated their de- mands at the following diets. New seditions took place. The law of 1715, on religion, seemed to be equally unsatisfactory; neither did the Edict of Toleration of Joseph II. (1781) appear fully to correspond to their wishes. In Italy and Spahi the new heresies found no admittance. All the efforts made to introduce them were frustrated in consequence of tlie aversion of the people, the watchfulness of the Inquisition, and the measures taken by the authorities against the sectaries. The Duchess Renata of Ferrara (see ^ 172) was a special friend of the so-called Reformation. Most of the apostate Italians passed over, in after times, to Sociuianism. Cantii, gli Eretici d' Italia. ^^ vols. Turin, 1865 sqq. § 183. RelatAon between the Catholics and Protestants in G-er- many. — The Thirty Years' War. — The Peace of Westphalia. The stipulations of the religious peace of Augsburg satisfied neither Catholics nor Protestants, and the reciprocal bitterness soon became even greater than of yore. In spite of the " spiritual reser- vations," the Protestants took possession of most of the religious foundations -^ in northern Germany, and rigidly carried into effect the so-called rights of the Reformation,^ even extending those rights to the Calvinistic States, which had hitherto been excluded from the treaty. On the other hand, they made bitter complaints when the Catholic States reclaimed the secularized bishoprics and the like, or the right to determine the fate of their subjects. Ferdinand I. in vain exerted himself to obtain unity of spirit between Catholics and Protestants. The religious conference at Worms (1558) had the same result as those of former times ; and the j)ropositions of 1 In this way were lost the archbishoprics of Magdebm-g and Bremen, the bishop- rics of Havelbevg, Brantb^nburg, Lebus, Merseburg, Nmimhurg, Meissen, Caniin, Scbwerin, Halberstadt, Miiiden, Liibeck, Verden, Osnabriick, Ratzeburg, and others. See Eichhorn, History of German States and Laws, iv. 146 sqq. 2 In the Palatinate religion was three times changed by the ruler between 1563 and 1584. The imperial city, Oppenheim, had to change its religion ten times before the Peace of Westphalia. 220 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. peace made by Witzel, F. Staphylus, and George Cassander could not obtain a hearing. The Protestant States even refused to intro- duce into their territory the almanac which had been amended by Pope Gregory XIII. While men's tempers were in this state, various events occurred which tended to increase the hostile feeling on both sides and bring matters to a crisis. Henry IV. of France took advantage of the inimical sentiments of some of these Protestant princes, to weaken the house of Haps- burg and humble the imperial power. It was mainly at his insti- gation that the Calvinistic princes at Ahausen, in Franconia, formed the Protestant Union in 1608 (May 4), of which Elector Frederic IV. of the Palatinate became the head (+ 1610). The Catholic princes opposed to this the Holy League, formed at Munich on the 10th of July, 1609, under Duke Maximilian of Bavaria. Germany at that moment was on the eve of a terrible civil war, which the assassina- tion of Henry IV. hindered from breaking out immediately. The religious conflicts in Bohemia iinally gave the signal for beginning that war, which devastated Germany, degraded her princes, and offered to foreign potentates the opportunity of inter- meddling with the interior affairs of the country. Notwithstanding the penal edicts, the so-called Reformation had made its way into the hereditary territories of the emperor. Maximilian II. had in 1571 granted to the Protestants of Bohe- mia, who were at war alike with the Church and with their king, a religious liberty, which was, however, limited to the lords and knights. The sectarians, fortified by the Utraquists who had gone over to them, extended these concessions to the cities, and in 1609 extorted from Rudolph II. an imperial rescript by which their demands were granted, while the Protestants in Silesia and Austria obtained by force similar concessions for themselves. Under IVIatthias disorders broke out in Bohemia, occasioned by the erection of Protestant churches on the domain of Catholic landlords, in violation of the imperial rescript. The pulling down or closing oi these churches by command of the emperor brought about the revolt. The rebels, headed by the Count of Thurn, made their way into the royal castle at Prague (May 23, 1618), threw the two imperial counsellors, Martinitz and Slawata, out of the window, and set up a new government ; then, aided and abetted by the Protestant Union, they not only persecuted the Catholics and those cities of Bohemia which remained faithful to the king, but made their way into Austria also. THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 221 On the death of tlie Emperor ^Matthias (1C19), the Protestants of Bohemia, unwilling to recognize his nephew, Ferdinand II., as his successor, bestowed the crown on Frederic V. of the Palatinate. Ferdinand II., although reduced to great necessity, remained stead- fast in his most embarrassing condition, and finally, with the aid of the Elector of Saxony and Duke Maximilian of Bavaria, defeated Frederic in the battle on the White Mountain near Prague (Nov. 8, 1620). Some other attem})ts were set on foot by his adherents, but the imperial generals, Tilly ^ and Wallenstein, defeated the cham- pions of Frederic's cause. The victory of Tilly near Lutter, on the Barenberg (1626), com- pelled Christian IV. of Denmark, who, aided by England and the Netherlands, had engaged in the war, to conclude the Peace of Liibeck (1629) with the emperor. Frederic lost the electoral dig- nity which was conferred on the Duke of Bavaria ; the rebels were obliged to submit, and peace appeared to be again restored. The Restitution Edict issued by Ferdinand II. in 1629, though just in itself and strictly justifiable, exasperated the Protestant princes, who thought themselves injured in their own interests, and gave an occasion to the Swedish king, Gustavus Adolphus," which life had long wished foi*, of aggrandizing his power at the cost of the empire. Under the hypocritical pretext of rendering assistance to his distressed fellow-believers, he, assured of the support of Kichelieu, landed in 1630 with an army in Germany, and with the aid of the Protestant princes, gained a victory over Tilly ^ at Breiten- feld, near Leipsic, 16.31, whence his troops, murdering and plundering, marc'.ied forward into southern Germany. After the death of Tilly, Wallenstein became commander-in-chief. The King of Sweden met his death at the battle of Liitzen, in Sax- ony (Nov. 6, 1632). The war was, however, not yet at an end. The ambiguous conduct of W^allenstein and the French subsidies gave encouragement to the Swedish generals to continue hostilities 1 Concerning the so shamefully calumniated Tilly, the brave and virtuous general of the League, see ViUermont, Tilly ; or, the Thirty Years' War. For the history of the whole war, see the important writings of Onno Klopp. 2 Historical researches have unveiled the true plan of the Swedish king, who has been the object of so much unmerited praise. Before his invasion of Germany he had already entered into treasonable relationship with the enemies of the German Empire. See the historians Gfrorcr, Onno Klopp, Droyscn, Chronliolm, Hurler, Leo, and others. * On the 20th of May (1631) Magdeburg was taken by Tilly ; but Heising and others prove that he (Tilly) was not responsible for the destruction of the city. 222 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. under the command of Duke Bernluird of Weimar. The rebellious Protestant princes were so lost to every honorable feeling as sub- missively to entreat Oxenstiern, the Swedish Chancellor, to under- take the direction of the new confederation of the Protestant States. The battle of Nordlingen (1634) ended with victory to the emperor, with whom the Elector of Saxony then concluded the Peace of Prague (May 30, 1635). The interests of France and Sweden, however, demanded the continuance of the contest ; and unhappy Germany, betrayed and humiliated by her own princes, had to be for long years the scene of a civil war which converted her most beautiful provinces into deserts. It was in vain that Ferdi- nand II. (+ 1637) and his son Ferdinand III. sought to put an end to it. The war continued with varying fortune till the year 1648. Then the Peace of IVestpJt'iUa was concluded, which deprived Ger- many of several provinces, opened the way for foreign potentates to interfere in the interior regulation of affairs, and sanctioned the so-called right of the States to introduce the Reformation. Not only the Lutherans, but the Calvinists or members of the Reformed Church also were recognized and considered as a religious body. The protest of the papal legate Fabio Chigi against the articles of the treaty which violated the rights of the Catholic Church, and the ratification of this protest by Innocent X. in his bull " Zelo domus Dei," of the 26th of November, 1648, were not taken notice of, or in any way treated with respect. The Peace of WestphaUa fixed Jan. 1, 1624, as the normal day ("dies decretorius "j with regard to the secidarization of ecclesiastical property (Art. 5, M), aud confinned the " reservatuni ecclesiasticum " of Augsburg (^ 15). For all matters of religion at the diet the "jus eundi in partes," witliout re- gard to the majority of votes was decreed (§ 52, " Corpus Evangelicorum et Catholicorum "). The "jus reformandi " (the right of reforming) was limited by the decision that the Catholics and Protestants who in the normal year of 1624 had public or private divine services should retain them, together with all " aiinexa reliaionis " (^ 31). The jurisdiction of the bishops over Protes- tants was suspended (§ 48). See Instrumentum pacis Westph. in Meiern, Acta pacis Westph. Adam Adam i, Relatio hist, de ])acif. (;)snabrugo-Monast. Francof. 1707. On the change which the Peace of Westphalia underwent by the so-called Clause of Ryswnck (1697), see Instr. pacis Ryswic, Art. 4, in Schmauss, Corp. Jur. Publ. p. 1104. Putter, Historical Development of the Present State Constitution of the German Empire, ii. 300 sqq. GENERAL REMARKS. 223 § 184. Greneral Remarks on the Propagation, Nature, and Effects of the Reformation. The introduction and spread of Protestantism, as shown histori- cally in dilTerent countries, are not everywhere to be ascribed to the same causes. One cause which conduced very much to promote the so-called Reformation consisted in the unfavorable sentiments prevalent, alike among the clergy and the laity, towards the Apostolic See, and the call so often repeated for a reformation of the Church in the Head and members. This facilitated the work of the authors of the new heresies, who, under the mask of reformers, won to their side many well-disposed men, who, at least in the beginning, forwarded the work of the false reformers. The frivolous satires and caricatures on the clergy and on the usages of the Church, the popular German writings of Luther, with his coarse attacks on the Pope, and the misrepresentations of Catho- lic doctrine and institutions made by him and his associates, con- tributed not a little to the spi-ead of the innovations. Another cause, not to be undervalued, of the spreading of the so- called Reformation was the Protestant theory of justification, which frees man from the need of co-operation in the work of sauctifica- tion, and was most welcome to such as led lives in direct opposition to the dictates of conscience. The abolition of the necessity for celibacy, and the dispensation from all monastic vows seduced numerous persons to become pro- moters of the new religion, both from the secular and the regular clergy ; the novelty was, in fact, also promoted by the weakness and negligence of several of the prelates as well as of the lower clergy in many countries : to these causes may be added the ignorance of the people and the base avarice of a portion of the nobility and princes. As regards the common people in particular, they were alienated from the faith of their fathers by various means. As most of the old forms of worship were retained, very many persons did not perceive the interior contradiction between the doctrines of the old Catholic Church and the new errors ; while the abolition of the days of fast and abstinence, of auricular confession, and of other precepts and practices so irksome to sensual men, was of no little influence when deciding in favor of the " purified gospel." More- 224 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. over, the increasing distribution of the Holy Scriptures in the mother-tongue, — the interpretation of wliich was left, at least in theory, to the private judgment of each individual, — with the communion at the Lord's Supper under both species, and the use of the vernacular in the worship of God, invested the innovations with a peculiar charm. As for the rest, people of simple earnest faith almost everywhere showed so great an aversion to heresy and those who preached it, that in most places the whole power of the secular arm was needed to tear from the heart of the Catholic Church those congregations which had been deprived of their pastors, even if they had been deserted or betrayed by them. In this manner the rapid spread of the heresy may be explained ; it was principally the work of despotic severity and of tyranny on the part of apostate princes or magistrates ruling over an unprotected people. The chief characteristics of the various Protestant sects are their denial of the infallible doctrinal oifice of the Church, which they replaced by Holy Scripture as the only source of faith ; their re- jection of the ecclesiastical hierarchy, the rights of which were transferred to the secular power ; ^ their disturbance of the univer- sality of the Church, by founding national and territorial churches, of which the secular TvHev became virtually the supreme bishop. Another mark of these sects which they have in common is the continual change in matters of faith, united to a fearful bigotry and intolerance, which are the more remarkable from the fact that their originators can neither prove their mission and succession ^ to be legitimate, nor in any other way demonstrate that they have received a divine commission. The effects of this so-called Reformation may be summarized in the following manner : — Although it cannot be denied that the so-called reformers had a learned education, and did much for the education of the people 1 At the convention iu Naumburg (1554), the Lutheran theologians founded the doctrine of the dependence of the Church on the temporal ruler on Ps. xxvii. 7, "At- tollite portas, principes, vestras," etc., and on Isa. xl. 23, " Et erunt reges nutritii tui," etc., which they cite from the Vulgate, as the Hebrew text affixes another meaning to the words. Camer, Vita Melanchth. ed. Sirobel, p. 319. The Lutheran and the reformed symbols attribute to princes the dominant power in religious affairs. 2 The High Church Anglicans are the only ones who seek to d^ve thei)- bishops from apostolic succession (§ 176). I GENE UAL REMARKS. 225 and of youthful students, yet it is not less a fact, acknowledged by the Protestants themselves, that the Reformation exercised a lam- entable influence iu the decline of learning; that, in especial, the suppression of the monasteries was a great disadvantage for the elementary development of youthful education ; and that even Lu- ther uttered the bitterest complaints of this neglect of elementary instruction. The reformers themselves also describe the moral condition in- duced by the religious movement as one of neglect of prayer, re- ligious worship, and good works, as shown in contempt for the preachers, in hard-heartedness, debauchery, and immorality among their adherents, and the like. Their words leave no doubt of the destructive tendency of the " new- gospel " in all that concerns piety and virtue, and this testimony is confirmed by contemporary and later authors. History also shows us that the Protestant princes gave their subjects arbitrary rules of faith ; that they treated the preachers with contempt, and forced all, both preachn-s and subjects, to change their religion according to their own whims, or to leave the country. This tyi-anny exercised over the conscience was simultaneous with the annihilation of civil liberty. The Protestant princes, with .the consent of their theologians, restored and made ample use of the absolutism in political affairs which Christianity in the Middle Ages had so triumphantly overcome. One extreme naturally led to another. Side by side with the duty of obedience to power concen- trated in the hands of the prince, came the theory of the lawful- ness of active revolt against authority, — a theory of revolt which even permitted the assassination of princes.^ While these effects of Protestant principle became daily more 1 See §§ 164, 170, 172, 173, 178. Bossuet, Hist, des variations, x. 45, and Aver- tissements aux protestants sur les lettres du niinistre Jurieu ((l^luvres compl. vii. 451 si|ii.). Defense d' I'histoiie des variations contre la reponse de JI. Basnages, 1. c. p. 500 sqq. The Calvinistic preacher Jurieu taught in 1689, in a pastoral letter, that kings are but the depositaries of sovereignt}^ ; that they are responsible to the people for the bad administration of this deposit ; that the people have a right to withdraw this deposit whenever the public welfare and the interest of religion re(juire it, and in that case to confide it to whosoever seems best fitted to use it properly. Cf. Traite de I'eglise, c. 21. The whole ([iiestion is treated at large, with proofs, by Bianchi, Delia potesta e della pi)litia della Cliiesa, torn. i. lib. i. §§ 6 and 7. Cf. Hergenrother, Catholic* Church, etc., p. 485 sijcj. On the existence and operation of the so-called Reformation, see Bass, Converts, etc. VOL. ir. 15 226 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHl'llCH. manifest, and were not without injurious influence on the Catholic Church itself, that Church, through the Council of Trent, was developing the principles on wliich a true reformation is founded, — a reformation in the Head and its members, which called forth an indefatigable activity, displayed in converting the heathen, in call- ing back the wanderer to the fold, and, above all, in regulating the moral and religious life of its own members after the true pattern. The relation of the CathoUc States to the Cliureh, especially to the Apostolic See, caunot be represented without touching on ecclesiastical constitution and discipline. It will therefore be referred to in the history of the constitution of the Church and of the development oi doctrine. B. HISTORY OF THE INTERIOR CONDITION OF THE CHURCH. I. CONSTITUTION OF THE CHURCH. § 185. The Council of Trent As soon as the impediments which had heretofore rendered the convocation of an oecumenical council impossible were even par- tially removed, Paul III. (1534-1549) convoked such a council to meet at Mantua in 1537 ; but it was found that it could not be held in that city, nor yet in Vicenza in 1538. The Pope, therefore, some years after (in 1542) summoned a new council to meet at Trent ; - 1 Pictro Soavc Polano (Paul Sarpi, a Servite monk), Istoiia del Cone, di Treuto. London, 1619. This partial and untrue history was translated into several languages. Pallavicini, wlio had been a Jesuit, and was subsequently a cardinal, wrote his Istoria del Cone, di Trento, Rom. 1652, in confutation of Sarpi. Cf. Brisclmr, Ciiticism on the Controversies of Sarpi and Pallavicini. Gbschel, Historic Review of the Council of Trent. The protocols written by the secretary of the council, Masarello, Bishop of Tele- .sia, form a principal source of information. These were given to the world by Aug. Thcinr.r (see § 238) in an incomplete form, in violation of his oath and against the express will of the Pope, under the title Acta genuina SS. cone. Tridentini. 2 vols, tol. Zagrab. in Croatia, 1874, Canones et decreta Cone. Trid. Rom. 1564, ed. Judoc le Plat, Lovan. 1770. From the same author appeared : Monunientorum ad hist. Cone. Trid. potissimum illustrandam spectantium ampl. collectio. 7 vols. Lovan. 1781 sc\i\. Can. et dec. ed. stereotypa Lips. 1846 ; ed. PdcMcr et SchuUe. Lips. 1853. Acta et dec. Cone. Trid. ab anno 1562 a Gabr. Card. Palcotta descript. ed. Mcndham. London, 1842. Cf. Laemmer, Monum. Vatieana, Friburg, 1861 ; Meletematum Ro- manorum mantissa, p. iii. Ratisbon, 1875. Bollinger's Unprinted Reports and Diaries of the Hist. Cone. Trent. Nordl. 1876. THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. 227 and even here, on account of the war carried on between the emperor and the King of France, the first session could not be opened till Dec. 13, 1545.^ When it did meet, however, there were present the papal legates Del Monte, Cervini, and Pole, with four arch- bishops, twenty-two bishops, and five generals of religious orders. After the Nicene Creed had been read, at the third session, the assembled Fathers, having agreed concerning the formation of cer- tain congregations, and on the form to be given to the decrees, on the subjects that were first to engage their attention, on the kind and manner of voting,'-^ proceeded, at the fourth session, to enact decrees concerning the canon and the interpretation of Holy Writ, on the use of the Vulgate, and subsequently, at the fifth and sixth sessions, to discuss the doctrine of original sin ^ and of justification, and condemned the errors that had arisen in respect to these. At the eighth session the doctrine on the Sacraments in general, and on Baptism and Confirmation in particular, was treated. The unfriendly relations in which the emperor stood to the Pope after the termination of the war of Smalkald, together with a pestilential disease which broke out in Trent, at the eighth ses- sion caused (March 4, 1547) the synod to be transferred to Bo- logna, where, after some unimportant sessions, it was indefinitely prorogued. Pope Julius III. (del Monte, 1550-1550) retransferred, on March 4, 1551, the council to Trent, ^ whither, however, the French bishops would not come, because King Henry XL, being angry with the Pope, protested against the synod and forbade his bishops to take any part in it. After two preparatory sessions the Fathers, in the thirteenth session, entered on the discussion of the doctrine of the Holy Eucharist, and condemned the errors of the so-called reformers. They, however, gave no attention to the scholastic controversy on 1 See Cardinal Manning's treatise in the March number of the Nineteenth Century, 1877. 2 The voting was not to be regulated according to nationalit}', but, as it had been before the Council of Constanct-, by the individual voices of those present. The pro- curators of absent bishops were not to be allowed to vote {Theiner, 1. c. i. 24). The generals of religious orders were allowed one vote, and one vote was accorded to every three abbots. ^ To the decree the synod added : " Non esse suae intentionis, comprehendere in hoc decreto, ubi de peccato original! agitur, beatam et immaculatam Virginem Mariain," etc. * § 170. 228 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. the mode of Christ's presence in the Blessed Sacrament, whether it is by production or adduction. In the same session a form of safe-conduct was drawn up for Protestants wishing to visit the council. Out of consideration for them, the council, which in the four- teenth session had defined the doctrines of Penance and of Extreme Unction, prolonged the proceedings in the fifteenth session, and on Jan. 25, 1552, drew up another form of safe-conduct, as the former had not been considered satisfactory. But the expectations they had entertained were not fulfilled. The Protestants had many ob- jections to raise against the new letter of safe-conduct ; then they desired seats and votes for their own theologians, fresh discussion of the subjects already decided on, recognition of the Bible as the sole source of faith, the subordination of the Pope to the council according to the decrees of the synods of Constance and Basle, and the release of the bishops from their oath of allegiance to him. Such exorbitant commands could not be complied with by the synod ; therefore the envoys from Wurtemberg and Electoral Saxony again left Trent. The revolt of Maurice, Elector of Saxony, necessitated the sus- pension of the synod. The excellent Pope Marcellus II. (" Cervini ") reigned only twenty-one days.^ His successor, Paul IV.^ (Caraffa, 1555-1559) soon became involved in strife with the emperor and his brother and successor Ferdinand I., so that the reopening of the council, which was refused by Paul IV., could not take place until the time of Pius IV. ("Medici"), when it resumed its sit- tings on Jan. 18, 1562. The Pope nominated five legates ; namely, the Cardinals Gonzaga, Bishop of Mantua, Dupuy, Seripand, Stan- islaus Hosius, and Simonetta. In the first sessions (17-20) no important subjects were discussed, as it was hoped that the I^rotes- tant princes of Germany and of other countries, for whose envoys a new form of safe-conduct had been drawn up in the eighteenth session, would send representatives to the council. After the Fathers had for some time waited in vain for the arrival of these Protestant representatives, they, in the twenty-first session, pronounced decisions on giving Communion in both kinds to the laity ^ and on the communion of children. The following 1 Polidori, De vita Marcelli II. comnientai'. Koiii. 1744. - On the good (jualities and zealous labors of this Pope, see Herr/cnrbtlicr, Church History, etc., ii. 411. 3 On the proceedings regarding the chalice for the laity, cf. Thf.iner, I. c. ii. 7 sqq. THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. 229 sessions treated of the Saeritice of tlie Mass (Sess. 22), of the Sacrament of Holy Orders (Sess. 23, July 15, 1563),^ and of Marriage (Sess. 24).^ At the twentj'-fifth and last session the members of the council occupied themselves with the dogmas of purgatory, of the invocation of saints, with that of the veneration to be paid to images and relics, with the doctrine concerning indulgences,^ with the precepts on fasting and those on keeping the feasts of the Church, etc. The Fathers of the council did not, however, content themselves with condemning heresy ; they issued the most salutary decrees on reformation. They attached pre-eminent importance to the instruction and training of the clergy, and laid their injunctions on the bishops to provide theological professors' chairs. (Sess. 5) and to provide semi- naries for youth (" Seminaria puerorum," Sess. 23, c. 18, de reform.). The bond of unity among the clergy was to be strengthened by provincial and diocesan synods (Sess. 24), the holding of which was imposed as a duty upon the bishops. The duty of residence was inculcated on both the higher and the lower clergy (Sess. 6 and 23). Simplicity in dress and housekeeping (Sess. 14 and 25) was prescribed, and bishops were enjoined to visit and watch over their dioceses (Sess. 6). Kegulations were Pallav. 1. c. xviii. 4. The council left the decision to the Apostolic See. Pius IV.,, by a hull of April 16, 1564, permitted the German bishops, under certain conditions, to distribute Holy T'ommuniou under both kinds. 1 A vehement controversy ensued respecting the question whether the bishops re- ceived their power and mission immediately from God, or only mediately from Peter and his successors. The Spanish and French bishops decided for the first view, while the Itahan bishops maintained the latter proposition. Cf Thcincr, 1. c. ii. 1,56 sqq. Pallav. 1. c. xviii. 14 and 15 ; xix. 6 ; xxi. 11. Pht'Nijis, Ch. R. i. 186 sqq. 2 Canon 7, which treats of the inviolability of marriage, at first ruled : "Si quis dixerit, propter adulterium alterius conjugum posse matrimonium solvi, et utrique conjugum vel saltern innocenti . . . lieere, altero conjuge vivente, aliud matrimo- nium contrahere . . . anath. sit." In deference to the representation of the Vene- tian ambassadors, the canon was so worded as to take into account the condition of the United Greeks, and stands thus : "Si([uis dixerit, ecclesiam errare, quum docuit et docet . . . propter adulterium alterius conjugum matr. vinculum non posse solvi," etc. Cf. Theiner, 1. c. ii. 3.35 sqq. Pallav. 1. c. xix. 7, n. 27. Carriere, Praelect. theol. p. ii. n. 295. 3 Leo X. had already given a dogmatic decision on indulgences (see § 160), oti which account the council only explained that the Church has received power from God to grant indulgences, and that the use of indulgences is very salutary to Chris- tian people, but that the use of them .should be moderated, "ne minia facilitate eccle^iastica disciplina enervetur" (Deer, de Indulg.). 230 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. also passed respecting benefices (Sess. 7j. The jurisdiction of bishops was discussed (Sess. 13) ; regulations respecting ordination and the installation of clerics were made (Sess. 21). The monas- teries also received the attention of the council (Sess. 25). The decree it passed on marriage protected the sanctity of that sacra- ment. Clandestine marriages were forbidden under pain of losing their validity. This enactment was to take effect thirty days after its publication, which publication was, however, to be made in every single parish. By special enactment (Sess. 25), the Fathers sought to prevent the barbarous practice of duelling, and the misuse of the power of excommunication. In order to protect the faithful from dangerous reading, a prohi- bition of certain books was passed, and a commission appointed to make a catalogue of forbidden books ("Index librorum prohi- bitorum "). The Catechism ("Catechismus Eomanus"), ordered by the council, was composed by several learned men, among whom St. Charles Borromeo occupied a prominent position : it appeared under Pius V. (1566), and is truly a masterpiece in form and contents. The im])roved Breviary was published in 1568, and the Missal in 1570. After the twenty-fifth session the Council of Trent, which, with two interruptions, had lasted eighteen years, was closed on Dec. 4, 1563. The bull of confirmation by Pius IV. appeared on Jan. 26, 1564. To the decrees were affixed the signatures of the four legates, and of two other cardinals, of twenty-five archbishops and a hundred and sixty-eight bishops, of seven abbots, and of seven generals of re- ligious orders, all of whom added the words "subscripsi definiendo ; " also of thirty-nine procurators, who added " subscripsi,/?/(//m?«f/o." It is true that this synod, so fraught with blessings, and at which the most excellent bishops and the most distinguished theologians were assembled, also met with censure, as had been the case with other councils ; but the charges brought against it are utterly unfounded, and to the Fathers of this council^ belongs the high merit of having investigated and defined with admirable clearness the dogmas of the Church, and of having issued the wisest and most beneficial reformatory decrees. The Tridentine profession of faith, drawn up at the command of 1 Of these, the Venetian Jerome Ragosini, Archbishop of Naziaiizum, says : "At quos viros ? Si doctriiiam spectemus, eruditissinios ; si nsnm, peritissimos ; si inge- nia, perspicacissimos ; si pietatem, religiosissimos ; si vitam, imiocentissimos ! " DECREES OF THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. 231 Pope Pius IV., gives special prominence to the dogmatical differ- ences between the Catholic Church and Protestantism. The decrees of the council, without further restriction, were published in most of the Italian States, in the republic of Venice, in Portugal and Poland. Philip II. also accepted them for Spain and Naples, with the proviso "without detriment to the regal prerogatives." Their acceptance or publication encountered greater difficulties in Germany. Ferdinand I. and Duke Albert of Bavaria expressly demanded the chalice for the laity, and marriage for the priesthood, of which demands the Pope granted the former only. After the death of Ferdinand, in 1564 jVIaximiliau II. had the decrees published in the States of the Empire. The Catholic princes of Germany accepted them at the Diet of Augsburg in 1566. France offered no opposition to the dogmatic decisions, but protested against several regulations of discipline, for which reason a formal reception of all the decrees was not made on the part of the State, but such took place at various provincial synods, § 186. Carrying into Effect the Reformatory Decrees of the Council of Trent. iSTotwithstanding the opposing efforts of heretics and of states- men who were inimical to the Church, notwithstanding also the resistance made by some depraved clergymen and laymen, the true reformation of the Church in her Head and members, which was inaugurated at the Council of Trent, was gradually carried into effect in Catholic countries. The moral and religious regeneration of their contemporaries is due to the numerous members of the clergy and laity who were distinguished for learning and virtue, and whose work was essen- tially forwarded by the new and religious orders and by the great saints of this age. The chief merit, however, is due to the Apostolic See. All the true reformers recognized, as a chief means of attaining their end, the necessity of a moral and religious training for the clergy, of thorough instruction for the people, of the cultivation of a genuine religious life in high and low, and especially of the fre- qvrent reception of the Holy Sacraments. Properly speaking, the work of reform began soon after the public appearance of Luther, and made a peculiarly good progress under 232 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. Pope Paul III. (Farnese), who invited the most eminent men to his court in order to have a plan of reform drawn up by them (1537),^ and who for tlie same purpose convoked the Council of Trent. For the reformation of Italy and the lands beyond its boundaries, the following men, most of whom became cardinals, were specially energetic : the Apostolic Bishop John Giberto of Verona, the rules of whose diocese served in many respects as a model to the Fathers at Trent ; and his friends the Cardinals John Peter Caraffa (Paul IV.) and James Sadolet, Bishop of Carpentras ; and, besides these, St. Cajetan of Thiene, the open-hearted Venetian Contarini, Gregory Cortese, Reginald Pole, Legate of England (§ 189), Fregosa, Bishop of Gubbio, the "Great" Cardinal Farnese, and his col- leagues Hippolyte of Este, and Morone, jNIadruccio, the '' Great " Cardinal of Trent, Sirletto, Paleotto, Gesualdo, the saintly ]Mar- cellus Cervini (Marcellus II.), the pious and learned Thomas Badia, " Magister Sacri Palatii," Jerome Aleander. Rudolph of Carpi. With the above, St. Philip Neri and St. Ignatius of Loyola united their efforts. To these may be added the Bishops Thomas Cam- peggio of Feltri, Aloysius Lippomano of Verona, and Cardinal Francis Commendone, but, above all, St. Charles Borromeo,^ Car- dinal Archbishop of Milan. These all displayed an admirable diligence in reawakening and cherishing true religious fervor. What Charles Borromeo did for Italy was also done for Portugal by Bartholomew de INIartyribus, Archbishop of Braga, whose " Stimu- lus pastoruni " is a collection of flowers culled from the works of the Fathers of the Church. Equally successful is his brother in the Order (Dominican), Louis of Granada, whose merits were publicly acknowledged by the Popes Gregory XIII. and Sixtus V. St. Thomas of Villanova, Archbishop of Valencia, St. Peter of Alcantara, St. Theresa, St. John of the Cross, John of Avila, and others gave a new impetus to religious life in Spain, which was favored and fostered l)y King Philip II. In France the person who specially interested himself in carrying 1 See Lc Plat, Monum. etc. ii. 596 sqq. Nnt. Alex, Hist. eccl. saec. 16, c. i. art. 16. - Acta eccles. Mediolanensis. 2 vols. Mediolani, 1599. Giussano, Life of St. Charles Borromeo. Histoire de Saint Charles Borromee, etc., par I'abbe Ch. Si/Ivam. 3 vols. Societe de Saint-Augustin, 1884. Dieringer, St. Charles Borromeo. Co- logne, 1846. Von Ah. Life of St. Charles. 1885. DECREES OF THE COUN(_:iL OF TRENT. 233 out the decrees of reform was the Cardinal of Lorraine (Guise). His work was rendered the more dittlcult by the Huguenot warfare and by the vacillating conduct of the court. French Switzerland and Savoy found an apostle in St. Francis de Sales. -^ He strength- ened the faith in Catholic souls, and brought back a number of the wandering sheep to the true fold of the Church. Great difficulties had to be overcome in Germany. But, notwith- standing this, the true reformation, founded on the decrees of the Council of Trent, made considerable progress. Among the Catholic princes, the Dukes William IV. and Albert V. of Bavaria distin- guished themselves by their zeal for religion. Equally successful were the efforts of the three electoral princes of the Rhine, James von Elz (1567-1581), Archbishop of Treves, Daniel Brendel (1555- 1582), and John Adam of Bicken (1601-1604), Archbishop of Mentz, with those of Duke Ernest of Bavaria (+ 1612), Archbishop of Cologne and Bishop of Munster and Hildesheim, in purifying their dominions from the heresy with which they were permeated. Their example was followed by Balthasar of Dermbach (1570), the Abbot- prince of Fulda, and by Theodore of Fiirstenberg, Bishop of Paderborn. The two cardinals Stanislaus Hosius, Bishop of Culm and after- wards of Ermland, and Otho of Truchsess, Bishop of Augsburg, were veritable ornaments of the German episcopate. In Wiirzburg Bishop Julius Echter of Mespelbrunn, and in Bamberg Bishop Ernest of Mengersdorf, labored for true reformation. A cheering religious revulsion also took place in the hereditary States of the emperor. A prominent merit of this is due to the Jesuits, who had already been invited thither by the Emperor Fer- dinand I., and to the Capuchins. The celebrated Peter Canisius, a Jesuit, for a time administered the bishopric of Vienna, and in unison with other companions of his order labored at the univer- sity in that place. Cardinal Melchior Klesel successfully combated the innovations. Finally, it is not to be forgotten that the noble regents of the House of Hapsburg ^ have done great things for the preservation of the Catholic religion. 1 Vie de St. Francois de Sales. Pans, 1858. (Euvres comp. ed. Paris, 1836. 4 vols. The best known of his works is the Philothea. 2 A faithful picture of their lives is given by P. Gaudentius, 0. S. F., in his Con- tributions to the Church History of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. 234 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. § 187. Tlie Jesuits and the Order of Capuchins. Among those Avho took an active part in the great struggle against heresy and the moral depravity of the times, were the members of the newly founded orders and congregations, who, taking posses- sion not only of pulpits and of confessionals, but also of professorial chairs at universities and seminaries, strove, by writing learned works, popular books of devotion, and catechisms, by prayer, and by the practice of works of Christian love to one's neighbor, to renew, alike in the palaces of the nobility, in the houses of the middle classes, and in the hovels of the poor, the fervor and piety that characterize Christianity, and by inflaming the hearts that are too much given to earthly considerations to direct them to higher views. Of these congregations, those of the Jesuits and Capuchins are the most renowned ; mutually assisting one another, they were suc- cessful alike in refuting heresy and iii renewing religious fervor among the Catholics. The founder of the Society of Jesus was St. Ignatius di Loyola, born in 1491.^ His order was approved by Paul III. in 1540. Its constitution differs in many points from the rule of the earlier orders,^ The members of the society are divided into lay-brothers, or temporal coadjutors, and clerics; these again are subdivided into scholastics, spiritual coadjutors, and the professed. Only the last- mentioned add to the usual vows of religion a fourth one, — that of unconditional obedience to the Holy See with regard to missions. The general is elected from the number of the professed. On his part, he appoints the other superiors, as the provincials, rectors, etc., and the professors of theology, who must, however, all belong to the professed. Assistants,^ elected in the general congregation, are ap- 1 He was joined by St. Francis Xavier of Navarra (see § 157), Peter Le Fevre (Faber) from Savoy, the Spaniard .Jacob Lainez, Alphonsus Salineron, Nicholas Boba- dilla, and the Portuguese Rodriguez. To them came Le Jay from Savoy, John L'odure from the Dauphiue, and Pascal Broet from Piuardy. Life of St. Ignatius, ap. BoUand. m. Jul. VIL 420 S(iq. (ed. Paris, 1868). Rib(idencira,\\ti\ \gi\. Neap. 1572. Newer biographies by BoahoiLrs, German of Haza-Rndlitz. Vienna, 1835. Geneili, liisbi-. 1847, etc. See Potfhast, Bibliothek hist, medii aevi, i. 572. Hist, of the Soc'y of Jesus, by A. Wilmot. 2 Institutum Soc. Jesu, Pragae, 1767. Concerning the institution and fate of the Jesuit Order, see Crctineau-Johj, Hist, of the Society of Jesus. ^ At first there were five ; later on, six, — one each from Italy, France, Gennany, Spain, Portugal, and Poland. Poland was at last combined witli Germany, while an assistant for England has been added. That of Portugal was abolished when the order was stippressed in that country. THE JESUITS AND THE ORDER OF CAPUCHINS. 235 pointed to aid him, besides which he, with every other superior, has a special admonitor to warn and advise him. The order has houses of the professed, colleges, residences, and mission-houses. Only the colleges are allowed to receive endowments. No special dress is prescribed, nor was the office in choir introduced. Admission into the society is preceded by a two years' novitiate, at tlie end of which the studies begin. When these are ended the candidate has another year of novitiate to spend. The members of the society are not allowed to accept dignities of the Church except at the command of the Holy Father. The new community spread very quickly. In 1540 it had already made its appearance in Germany, where the first Jesuit who arrived there, Peter Faber, received Peter Canisius into the order. Here they found a rich field for their labors. In the year 1542 King John III. of Portugal invited them thither. Their first college was established at Coimbra. They were not received with the same cor- diality in Spain ; for there they found an implacable enemy in the person of the celebrated Dominican Melchior Cano, who was at that time professor in the University of Salamanca (1548). On the other hand, they were all the more aided and favored by the Duke of Gandia, St. Francis Borgia,^ who himself entered the order, and did much to extend it in Spain. But Spain did not stand alone in its opposition to the Jesuits ; they found enemies as well as friends in France also. To the former, besides the Huguenots, belonged the Parliament, the Sor- bonne, and some bishops, — as Eustace du Bellay, Archbishop of Paris. The Convocation of Poissy, in 1561, was the first to allow them to settle down in France, under the name of the College of Clermont. The numerous limitations attached to the permissions happily fell off in the course of time, and in 1564 the Jesuits were allowed to begin a course of lectures in Paris. They were soon admitted at Lyons, Bordeaux, Toulouse, and other cities, so that in a short time many colleges were erected. Unfortunately, the labors of the Jesuits were rendered much more difficult by vehe- ment polemics and persecutions on the part of the Huguenots, as well as by the false accusations and calumnies with which, during the war with the League, they were assailed. The motion for their expulsion from France, which was brought forward by the rector of the University at Paris, James Amboise, and by the par- 1 Vie de saint Fran9ois de Borgia. Bruxelles, 1824. Bartoli, Saint Francis I'ortria. 236 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. liamentary couusellor-at-law, Anthony Arnauld, did not pass the house at that time ; but after the assault of Chatel on the life of Henry IV., they were banished by order of the Parliament of Paris, on the 29tli of December, 1594. But this edict was not carried out everywhere, and was in 1603 revoked by the king ; whereupon the Jesuits returned to their former houses, to be, however, exposed to new trials after the murder of Henry IV. by Ravaillac (1610).^ The order was always held in high esteem by the Apostolic See •, but under Paul IV. and Sixtus V. it was threatened with dangers, which were, however, soon removed. Some years before the foundation of the Society of Jesus the Order of the Capuchins took its rise.'^ Its founder was the Minorite Observant Matthew Bassi, who received (1526) from Clement VII. the permission to wear the genuine dress of St. Francis of Assisi, and to imitate that* saint's austere mode of living. The first years of this new society (confirmed in 1528) were years of great trials. Bassi himself retired from the order; and the third vicar-general, Bernardin Ochino, embraced the Protestant heresy, which act of his for a time rendered the whole existence of the order questionable. The danger fortunately passed away; and the society, which hitherto had been confined to Italy, began to make its way into other coun- tries also. King Charles IX. invited the Capuchins to France in 1573, where in a short time they founded several convents. By the exertions of St. Charles Borromeo they came to Altdorf, in Switzer- land, in 1580. In 1593 Archduke Ferdinand built them a cloister in Innsbruck. Rudolph II. asked Clement VIII. for some members of the order for his hereditary States. In all the Catholic territories of the German Empire convents of this order were established, espe- cially in the Rhenish archbishoprics and in most of the other dioceses. Pope Paul V. allowed the Capuchins, in 1606, to accept the convents offered to them in Spain. The same Pope granted, in 1619, to the faculty of the members of the order, who had been hitherto subject to the general of the Minor-Conventuals, the right to elect a general of their own, independently of the others. 1 Cretineau-Joly, ii. 334 ; iii. 34, 175 sqq. Matthieu, Hist, de la mort deplorable de Henri IV. p. 120. Duplcix, Hist, de Henri le Grand, p. 163. 2 BuUarium ordinis fratrum niin. s. P. Francisci Capuchinorum notis et scholiis elucubratuni a Michael a Tugio. 7 vols. fol. Rom. 1740. Bovcrio, Annal. ord. niin. qui Capuc. nuncnpatur. 3 vols. fol. Lugd. 1632 sqq. Lechner, Lives of Saints of the Order of Capuchins. 3 vols. Munich, 1863. P. Gaudentius, Contributions, etc., p. 275 sqq. OTHER ORDERS OF THIS ERA. 237 The Order of Capuchins, which bestowed its care and attention in tending souls of the lower classes of society, has been of great service to the Church and to religion. ]\Iore than one tract of coun- try in Germany owes the preservation of its religion or the restora- tion of the Catholic faith to the indefatigable zeal of the Capuchins; with equal fervor and generous self-sacrifice they undertook the conversion of the heathen, especially in Africa and America. With regard to the accusations hrouiilit against the Order of the Jesuits, we may add a few words. 1. The assertion that the Jesuits approved and practised the principle "The end sanctifies the means," is an untruth which, contradicted as it is by the lives and writings of the Jesuit Fathers, needs no further refutation. 2. Not less false is the reproach cast at them, that the superior can bind an inferior to commit a sin. This calumny originated in the misapprehension of the words of the constitution, which declares that the rules, save in the obser- vance of the three or four vows, do not oblige under pain of sin ("ad pecca- tuin"), unless the superior's command be given in the name of Jesus, and by virtue of holy obedience. The expression "ad peccatum" cannot be con- strued "obliged to sin:" but means "under pain of sin," in which sense the phrase is used by St. Thomas, and also in the rules of the third order of St. Francis, and in the Dominican Rule (c. 4-6: " Regulae nostrae non obligent uos ad culpam sed ad poenam nisi propter praeceptum vel contemptum "). (1. c. iv. p. 13.) 3. With regard to the unjust accusation that the Jesuit Order teaches that the murder of tyrants (not of kings) is allowed, we reply : (a) This doctrine was taught long before the foundation of the order. (Compare the assertion of Jean Petit, Doctor of the Sorl)onne, condemned at Constance, 1414.) (6) Cath- olic and Protestant writers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, even Luther himself (TraZc/i, xxii. 2151), defended the doctrine, (c) Only a few (fourteen) members of the Society of Jesus were in favor of it, while the great majority of them condemned it ; and (d) Aquaviva, the general of the society, after reading the book of Mariana (" De rege et regis institutione," lib. iii. Tolet. 1599), which goes the furthest respecting the murder of tyrants, in a decree of July 6, 1610, forbade the discussion of the doctrine, either publicly or pri- vately, whether by lectures or in writings. Cf. Documents historiques, critiques apolog. concernant la Compagnie de Jesus, torn. ii. 82. Paris, 1828. 4. The so-called "Monita secreta " — Secret Instructions of the Society of Jesus — was first published in Cracow in the years 1612 and 1761, and afterwards in Paris and other places. It is the work of a calumniator. § 188. Other Orders and Congregations of this Era. The age of the so-called Eeformation was very prolific in religious societies, which in course of time came to be acknowledged by the 238 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. Church as separate congregations or orders. Those who devoted themselves to the education and the literary and scientific training of the clergy, together with the holding of missions for the people, were : — 1. The Theatines, founded by St. Cajetan of Thiene (+ 1547) and Peter Caraffa (Paul IV.), Bishop of Chieti (Theate), in 1524, and approved by Clement VII. They also took care of the sick, and asked no alms, but lived on the "providence of God," — that is, on the contributions freely brought to their convents. 2. The Barnabites (1530) were austere preachers of penance, who at the same time took charge of the seminaries for the priesthood. 3. The same may be said of the Oratorians of St. Philip Neri in Italy, which were approved by Pope Gregory XIII. in 1574, and those of Cardinal de Berulle ^ in France, which congregation was sanctioned by Paul V. in 1613. Both congregations have gained great renown by their learning and their scientific attainments. Unfortunately, many French Oratorians inclined to Jansenism. 4. The Lazarists, or the Priests of the Mission of St. Vin- cent de Paul,"^ from the year 1624 have effected more good than even the Oratorians in missionary work and in educating secular priests. Pope Urban VIII. in 1632 approved them as a congre- gation. 5. The Redemptorists, or the Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer, the founder of which was St. Alj^honsus Liguori,'* Bishop of St. Agatha of Goti in 1732, are to be classed among the most prominent missionaries. In the nineteenth century they have extended their labors beyond Italy. 6. The Passionists of St. Paul of the Cross (+ 1775) also devoted themselves to the missionary work. Those who especially devoted themselves to the instruction of youth were : — 1. The Congregation of the Oblates of St. Ambrose, founded in 1578 by St. Charles Borromeo, who also occupied themselves in the care of souls. 2. The Hierony mites, or Somaschaus (from the year 1526), who 1 Tabaraud, Hist, de P. de Berulle. Paris, 1817. 2 Abelhj (+ 1691), Vie de St. Vincent de Paul, etc. Paris, 1664. Stolbcrg, Life of St. Vincent de Paul. Munster, 1819. 3 On the 7th of July, 1871, Pope Pius IX. named St. Alphonsus " Doctor eccle- siae." CoUezione conip. opere di St. Alphon. Maria de Liguori. Monza, 1839 sqq. 68 voU. 12. Giatini, Vita del b. Alphonso. Rom. 1815. or II Ell UltDElLS OF THIS ERA. 239 were principally devoted to the care of orphans. Their founder was the Venetian nobleman Jerome ^milian.^ 3. The Fathers of the Christian Doctrine of Caesar de Bus (1592), and the Clerici Regulares Minores of John Augustus Adorno (1588) ; the Congregation of the Brothers of the Christian Schools, founded in 1680 by John Baptist de la Salle, Canon of Rheims (+ 1714), and the Fathers of the Pious Schools, or Piarists, of St. Joseph Cala- sanctius (+ 1648). The Ursuline Nuns, founded by St. Angela Merici (+ 1540) in Brescia, were devoted to the education of young girls. In 1544 Pope Paul III. elevated the institution to the dignity of a religious congregation. There was also an association of "English Young Ladies," whose rules were approved by Pope Benedict XIV. ; ^ and the Order of the Visitation of our Blessed Lady, founded in 1618 by St. Francis de Sales and St. Frances de Chantal, the original and principal object of which was, however, the tending of the sick. The Brothers of Mercy, founded by St. John of God ( + 1550), and recognized as a religious order by Paul V. in 1617. The Bethlehemites, the Sisters of Charity (''Filles de la charite," "Soeurs grises ") of St. Vincent de Paul and the widow Le Gras (1618), whose rule was confirmed by Pope Clement IX. in 1668, and the Sisters of St. Charles Borromeo, to whom the Cistercian abbot Epiphanius Louis de Estival gave a rule of life, devoted them- selves to the care of the sick. The Sisters of the Good Shepherd take care of fallen women. The Nuns of the Adoration were founded for the continual adora- tion of the Blessed Sacrament. But the growth of religious ardor in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was not only manifested in the foundation of new orders ; it showed itself also in the re- generation of the older ones.^ The first order that was regenerated in the sixteenth century was that of the Carmelites, the renewal 1 Cf. Bolland, M. Febr. ii. 217 sqq. (ed. Paris, 1867). ^ The first attempt at founding such an order was made by Maria Ward, an English lady (-1-1645) ; yet Urban VIII. abolished the institute by his bull " Pastoralis Komani Pontificis," on Jan. 13, 1630. Nevertheless, separate houses still continued their work, and finally obtained recognition from the Apostolic See. Benedict XIV. gave the last decision through his constitution " Quam vis justo," on April 30, 1749. See Schels, The Associations of Religious Women, p. 59 scjq. Schaffhausen, 1857. Leitner, History of English Women. Ratisbon, 1869. ^ On the great reform of the Franciscan Observants after their reunion by Leo X- (1517), see P. Gandentius, p. 240 sqq. 240 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. of which was the work of St. Theresa and of St. John of the Cross. The Benedictine Order also underwent a salutary reform in France by means of the Congregation of St. Vannes and St. Hidulph, founded by Didier de la Cour, prior of the abbey of St. Vannes (" scti Vitonis "), from which the Congregation of St. Maur took its rise, the members of which produced valuable works in the depart- ments of theology and of history.^ The Trappists are remarkable on account of the rigorous austerity of their discipline. They are a branch of the Cistercians. Their founder is Bouthillier de Kance,^ Abbot of La Trappe (+ 1700)> who reintroduced the old strict rule of the Cistercians into his abbey. § 189. Exertions of., and Enmity totvards, the Holy See. The work of the true reformation, to forward which Adrian VI., Clement VII., and Paul III. had exerted themselves so much, still continued uninterruptedly after their death. Julius III. and Mar- cellus II. followed in the path indicated by their predecessors. Paul IV. was also intent on the preservation of the purity of faith and the improvement of morals ; but he injured his own authority by his excessive rigor,^ especially b}' his conduct towards the cardinals Pole and Morone.^ He is also open to the charge of nepotism. Under Pius IV.^ the Council of Trent was closed. The same Pope took great pains to enforce the decrees of the council, in which he was greatly aided by his nephew St. Charles Borromeo. His succes- sor, St. Pius V.^ (Ghisleri, 1566-1572), issued very salutary decrees in the interests of faith and of religious life, which he enforced with uncompromising rigor. He was a loving consoler and helper to the oppressed Catholics of England, while he was a sturdy opponent of 1 Tassin, Hist, liter, de congreg. de St. Maur. Paris, 1726. 2 Cliateauhricmd, Vie de Ranee. Paris, 1844. Dubois, Hist, de I'abbe de Ranee. 2 vols. Paris, 1866. Gaillardin, Les Trappistes, etc. Paris, 1844. 3 On his two bulls, " Qiuim quorumdam " of Aug. 7, 1555, and "Cum ex aposto- latus officio" of Feb. 15, 1559, see Hcrgcnrothtr, Catholic Church, etc., p. 763 sqq. ■* He deposed Pole from his office as Legate of England, and imprisoned Cardinal Morone on suspicion of heresy. See Qicerini, Vita Card. Poli, c. 31,' in Epistolar. Card. Poli, i. 43 sq. Pius IV. set Morone at liberty, and afterward named him as his legate to the Council of Trent. Morone died as Cardinal-Bishop of Ostia. 5 He founded the Congregatio interpretum. Cone. Trid. 6 Falloux, Vie de St. Pie V. ENMITY TOWARDS THE HOLY SEE. 241 the deplorable policy of the French court, and in other countries also was a firm and indomitable defender of the Church. During his pontificate the brilliant victory at Lepanto took place in 1571, to which he contributed no little share. His decree, however, that the bull " In Coena Domini " should be proclaimed every year throughout the whole of Christendom met with vehement opposition.^ Pius V. was succeeded by Gregory XIII. (Buoncompagni, 1572- 1585), a man deeply versed in canon and civil law.- By founding six new colleges^ in Rome, and by endowing others, he did much for the promotion of learning in Rome. He sent nuncios to Lucerne (1579), to Vienna (1581), and to Cologne (1582); he also had the Julian Calendar rectified.^ His relations to the Catholic States were, on the whole, friendly. The republic of Venice formed the only excep- tion. For the embellishment of Rome this Pope effected much ; on the other hand, he was not able to suppress the banditti. Yet this was successfully achieved by his genial successor, Six- tus V.^ (1585-1590). I^eing descended from an impoverished family, he had raised himself to the highest dignities, and in this stormy time with indomitable firmness and courage steered the helm of the Church. The administration of strict and impartial justice distinguished his pontificate. By successful financial operations he 1 This bull is the work of several Popes. Its first composition dates from the four- teenth century. Urban VIII. in 1627 had it revised, since which time it has received no essential alteration. It begins with the words "Pastoralis Eom. pont. vigilantia " (Bull. Rom. ed. Taurin. xiii. 530 si^q.), and contains a catalogue of such crimes as subject the offender to excommunication. It .specially condemns public heretics, schismatics, apostates, falsifiers of ilontifical writings, pirates, etc. ; those who ap- peal from the Pojie to an oecumenical council, or from the spiritual to the secular courts ; those who are robbers of Church property or who plunder pilgrims ; those who assist the enemies of religion, especially the Turks, with ammunition ; those who levy unjust taxes, etc. In 1770 Clement XIV. suspended the proclamation of this bull ; also in the Greek Church, on Orthodox Sunday (first Sunday of Lent), heretics and other criminals were excommunicated. By the constitution "Apos- tolicae sedis moderationi" of Oct. 12, 1869, Pius IX. abolished many censures of the bull " Coena Dom." (Cf. Acta et decret. S. S. concilii Vaticani, Fasc. i. 77 sqq. Frib. 1870.) ■■^ FAlition of the improved Corp. juris canonici. 3 These were colleges for Catholic Englishmen, for converted Jews, for Greeks, Maronites, and Piomans (Coll. Eomanum). He also endowed the German College (Coll. Germauicum), with a sufficient income. Cordara, Hist. Colleg. Germ, et Hun- gar. Rom. 1770. * It was introduced by the bull "Inter gravissima," of Feb. 24, 1582. See Jaiisscn, vol. V. p. 343 Sqi|. 5 Felix Peretti, .oiinnoiily called I'anlinal Montalto. Tcmpesti, Storia della vita e geste di Sisto V. R,,;na, 1754. H^ich,!,,-, Sixte Quint. Paris, 1870. viii.. ir. To 242 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. laid the foundation of the papal treasury. He also embellished Rome by the erection of new buildings, and by opening new streets; he likewise enriched the Vatican Library.^ In the political questions of his day, Sixtus V. took the warmest interest.^ He labored for the well-being of the Church by reforming the College of Cardinals, whose number he fixed at seventy, by the establishment of fifteen congregations,* and by salutary laws of discipline. Nor is Sixtus behindhand in the promotion of learning. Like his prede- cessor, he also patronized educational institutes. He was feared and honored by the Romans. The Popes Urban VII. (Castagna), Gregory XIV. (Sfondrato), Innocent IX. (Fachinetto), reigned successively till 1592. Clem- ent VIll. (Aldobrandiui, 1592-1605) called Baronius, Bellarmine, and other learned celebrities into the College of Cardinals, under- took the publication of the revised edition of the Vulgate, and appointed the so-called "Congregatio de auxiliis."^ He reunited Ferrara with the Papal States in 1598, and caused the war against the Turks to be prosecuted with great zeal. The Jubilee published by this pontiff: brought about three millions of pilgrims to Rome. Leo XL (de' Medici) died twenty -five days after his election, and was succeeded by Cardinal Camillo Borghese of Rome, who took the name of Paul V. (1605-1621). During his pontificate the hostili- ties began against the Apostolic See, whose relations to the Catholic States undei'went a great change in consequence of the religious upheaval of the sixteenth century. The views of the Middle Ages succumbed more and more to the false theories of the omnipotence of the State, which violated the rights of the Church, especially in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. 1 Sixtus liad the cupola of St. Peter's conii)leted, the obelisk (Nero's Needle) placed on St. Peter's Square, and an excellent aqueduct (Aqua Felice) built. The architect he employed was Domenico Fontana. 2 See § 174. 3 There were eight congregations for ecclesiastical purposes, which, although not all newly established by Sixtus, were better organized by him. To these the Inqui- sition also belonged. Paul III. had already given a new management to the Inquisi- tion by nominating six cardinals to form a permanent " congregatio inquisitionis. " Pius IV. in 1562 gave them full power to proceed against all and every one, without distinction, who clung to the heresy of Luther, Zwingli, Calvin, or that of the Anabaptists. St. Pius V. augmented the authority of this tribunal, and made some alterations in the manner of proceeding. The present arrangement comes down to us from Sixtus V. * See § 199. ' ENMITY TOWARDS THE HOLY SEE. 243 The first serious struggle with Rome was given by the republic of Venice, in her decrees touching the rights of the Church/ which were so full of enmity that Paul V. found himself at last compelled to impose ban and interdict on the Signoria. The Government, how- ever, remained refractory, and banished those of the clergy who obeyed the papal commands. They also ordered Paul Sarpi,- a Servite monk, to draw up a special defence of their conduct in writing ; whilst Baronius, Bellarmine, and others took up the cause of the rights of the Apostolic See, which they defended with great skill and depth of learning. Finally, by the mediation of Henry IV. of France, a reconciliation took place between the Senate of Venice and Rome. The exiled members of the clergy were allowed to return, excepting only the Jesuits. Nevertheless, peace was not as yet fully restored. Pope Paul V. displayed great zeal for the purity of faith and for the efficient education of the clergy, for the success of the mis- sions, for a becoming decoration of churches, etc. He devoted special care and attention to the Catholics of England. He aided Ferdinand II. in his contest with the rebellious Bohemians. Gregory XV. (Ludovisi, 1621-1623) succeeded Paul V. He issued a new decree concerning papal elections.^ Urban VIII. (Barberini, 1623-1644) founded the Collegium Urba- num, and in 1626 united the Duchy of Urbino with the States of the Church. Out of fear of the preponderance of an Austrian- Spanish power, the Pope at first lent himself to the policy of the French, and refused the subsidies asked by Ferdinand II. in the Thirty Years' War. It was not till after the successful campaigns of Gustavus Adolphus that Urban VIII. recognized the danger to the Catholic Church from his warfare, and sent to the emperor the help he had requested. Urban VIII. was well versed in the sciences. 1 Daru, Hist, de la republi<[ue de Venise, torn. iv. 258 sq(|. Paris, 1821. The republic forbade in 1603 that churches should be built, that monasteries or hospitals or new orders should be introduced without her permission ; and in 1605 she for- bade that real estate or other immovable propertj^ should be bequeathed to the Church, or sold to it, or even mortgaged to it for more than two years ; and she summoned two clergj'men before the civil tribunal in violation of the " Privilegium fori." 2 See § 185. Sarpi, "the theologian of the republic," was greatly inclined to Protestantism, and was, moreover, a furious enemy of the Jesuits. ** Constitution " Aeterni Patris," published with the bull " Decet Romanum " (BuUar. Rom. xii. 619 sqq., 662 sqq. He ordered that the cardinals should vote secretly. Besides the form of scrutiny, those of "access," "compromise," "acclama- tio;i,"' and " i|u;i.si-insjHration " were also allowed. 244 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. He enriched the new breviary, edited by himself, with some hymns of his own composition ; bnt he could not quell the disorders in Kome. It was during the pontificate of Urban that the memorable and often falsely described trial ^ of Galileo (+ 1642) occurred, in the courts of the Inquisition, concerning the system of the world laid down by the renowned Copernicus (+ 1543), Prebendary of the Cathedral of Frauenburg. Innocent X. (Pamphili, 1644-1655) protested in vain against the Peace of Westphalia, waged war against the Duke of Parma, and brought to account the Barberini, who had enriched themselves greatly under Urban YIII. The relatives of this Pope were not without influence over him, — particularly the widow of his brother, Olympia Madalchini. Pope Alexander VII. (Chigi, 1655-1667), a friend of learning and an efficient prince of the Church, can be reproached with nothing save perhaps too great a love for his relations. He restored the good understanding between the Holy See and Venice, but was subjected to great humiliations by Louis XIV. of France.^ Clement IX. (Eospigliosi, 1667-1669) negotiated the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1668, restored diplomatic intercourse between Portugal and the Apostolic See, and assisted the Venetians against the Turks. The taking of Candia by the latter hastened the deatli of the Pope. He was succeeded by the octogenarian Clement X. (Altieri, 1670-1676). Innocent XL (Odescalchi, 1676-1689), an enemy of nepotism, strenuously exerted himself to promote discipline and simplicity alike among the clergy and tlie people, and he issued very salutary decrees. He lived to see the glorious victory of King John So- bieski of Poland over the Turks under the walls of Vienna (1683). The differences between the Apostolic See and Louis XIV. of France, which had begun under his predecessor, were still further increased during this pontificate. The proximate occasion for contention was given b}- Louis XIV., 1 Olivieri di Copernic. e di Galil. Bologna, 1872. It is remarkable that Galileo's system, when previously brought forward by Copernicus, was not censured by the ecclesiastical authorities. The religious agitation caused by the new impertinent heresies, togetlier with Galileo's own provoking behavior, led to the declaration of the Congregation against his theory, which was, however, by no •mca.XM^ a. di fin it ion ex cathedra. See Rev. J. Gmeiners Scientific Views, p. 15. - During his reign Christina of Sweden, the daughter of Gustavus Adoljilius, and Ernest, Count of Hesse, returned to the Catholic Chnich. THE SO-CALLED GALLIC AN LIBEiniES. 245 who insisted on extending the Right of Regalia, by which he claimed the disposal of the revenues of vacant bishoprics and the collation of simple benefices until the incoming bishop had registered his oath. This right had, in the Second Synod of Lyons (1274), been continued in those bishoprics in which it had before existed. It had since been extended to all the churches in the kingdom. The con- vocation of the bishops acquiesced in this oppression. Only two of them, Caulet of Pamiers and Pavilion of Aleth, protested against it, and appealed to the Holy See, who took their rights under its pro- tection against the despotism of the king. After lengthy negotia- tions, the affair was settled by a treaty. To this difficulty another was added ; namely, the dispute concern- ing the privilege of asylum enjoj^ed by the residences of foreign ambassadors. The other European courts had resigned this privi- lege ; but the French ambassador, the Marquis of Lavardin, insisted on retaining it, notwithstanding the threat of excommunication ; and he abused it so grossly that the Pope was compelled to inter- fere. Louis XIV. took the part of his excommunicated ambassador, drove the papal nuncio out of France, took forcible possession of Avignon and Venaissin, and appealed to an oecumenical council. Under Alexander VIII., however, he relinquished the privilege of asylum. § 190. The so-called G-allican Liberties. During the contentions concerning the regalia, and the right of asylum at the residences of foreign ambassadors, Louis XIV., in order to avenge himself on the Pope, assumed the part of Protector of the Liberties of the Galilean Church, which were now officially established.^ Highly schismatic and one-sided views had prevailed in France as early as the fifteenth century, and had found expression in the Pragmatic Sanction of P)0urges in 1438. The Concordat of 1516 did away, it is true, with the Pragmatic Sanction ; ^ yet the false prin- ciples which it contained were still defended in Parliament, and in the first instance found upholders even in the Sorbonne, while the court neither directly favored these anti-ecclesiastical tendencies nor yet positively attacked them. 1 On these contentions, see Gerin, Recherches historiques sur I'assenible'e de 1682. Paris, 1869. Bouix, De Papa. Paris, 1869. Acta et decreta sacr. cone, recent. (Collectio Lacensis), i. 793 sqq. 2 See §§ 128, 129. Eoskovdn/f, Rom. pontif. ii. 898 sqq. 246 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. Towards the end of the sixteenth century (1594), Pithou ^ com- piled the so-called Galilean Liberties, and Du Puys '^ in 1639 pub- lished a treatise in defence of them. Edmund Kicher, Syndic of the Sorbonne (1611), and Peter de Marca(1641). ;i't-M-\vards Archbishop- elect of Paris, also wrote in favor of the Liberties, but submitted their works to the decision of the Apostolic See. The Assembly of the States at Paris in 1614, and the Parliament both took part in this contest ; while Louis XIV., on the contrary, suppressed the anti-ecclesiastical efforts, to which even some of the clergy lent their influence. During the controversy on the regalia, the king altered his mind. At an assembly which he had summoned to Paris in 1681, at which were present thirty-flve prelates, thirty-four deputies of the clergy, together with two general agents of the French clergy, he caused to be drawn up a declaration concerning the extent of the papal power in France. The framing of this document had been com- mitted to Choiseul, Bishop of Tournay, who was already at the point of proclaiming a schism, when in good time Bossuet undertook to draw up the act recpiired (March 13, 1682). A royal edict commanded the clergy to sign the declaration, together with the four Galilean articles on ecclesiastical authority which were annexed to it. The first of these articles proclaimed that the king and temporal princes in respect to temporal concerns were completely independent of Church authority and of ecclesias- tical power ; also, that princes could not be deposed. The second declared the unlimited force of the decrees of Constance, passed in the fourth and fifth sessions, regarding the superiority of the coun- cils over the Pope. The third affirmed that the use of the "apostolic power is to be restricted by the canons ; that the rules, customs, and institutions of the Galilean king, kingdom, and church are yet in force ; and that the limits set by the Fathers remain inviolate. The fourth recognized that in matters of faith the Supreme Pontiff has the chief part to perform ; that his decrees appertain to each and every church ; but it added that his judgment is not irreversible (" irreformabile ") unless the Church has formally ratified it by her consent. By this the infallibility of the Pope was denied. These articles far surpass the six articles on the Pope which had been 1 Libertez de I'eglise Gallicane. In this writing, which is dedicated to Henry IV., Pithoii revie.vs the Gallican Liberties in eighty-three articles. 2 Traite's des libertez de I'eglise Gall, avec les preuves. He also wrote a com- mentary on Pithou's work. Paris, 1652. THE POPES OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 247 adopted in 1663 by seventy members of the Sorbonne when under compulsion by the Government. Whoever refused to subscribe the declaration was compelled thereto by main force. It was in this way that the registration of this document was forced into the acts of the Sorbonne. The Apostolic See protested against these schismatic efforts, which were earnestly reprehended in the Catholic countries of Europe. Innocent XI. refused to confirm the appointment of the two mem- bers of this assembly whom Louis had nominated bishops. His successor, Alexander VIII. (Ottoboni, 1689-1691), by the bull " In- ter multiplices," of Aug. 4, 1690, proclaimed that the Declaration was void ; and Louis began to see that he had gone too far ; while Innocent XII. (Pignatelli, 1691-1700), who issued a bull against nepotism, induced the king in 1693 to withdraw his edict. After the death of Louis XIV. the Parisian Parliament again commanded the royal edict to be put in force. Pius VI., in the bull '' Auctorem fidei," condemned the four articles, which in after times Napoleon I. again enacted as law. The last condemnation of Gal- licanism occurred at the Oecumenical Council of the Vatican. Bossuet had written a defence in explanation of the Declaration, which, however, did not appear in print until twenty years after his death (+ 1704). Whether the edition as it now stands is the composition of Bossuet is very doubtful ; be that as it may, its publication procured for the celebrated preacher for many years the credit of being one of the principal supporters of Gallican- ism, — an impression which many minds retain even to the present day. § 191. The Popes of the Eighteenth Century. — Fehronius. The very first Pope of this century, Clement XI. (Albani, 1700- 1721), a learned man and an able prince of the Church, had a dif- ficult pontificate. The war concerning the succession in Spain disturbed the good understanding between the Apostolic See and the courts of Austria and France, and the arrogance of the pre- tensions to ecclesiastical prerogatives of the " Sicilian Monarchy " made by Duke Victor Amadeus of Savoy, who, in virtue of the Peace of Utrecht, 1713, had become King of Sicily, compelled the Pope to place that kingdom under an interdict. The protest (1701) of Clement XI. against the assumption of the title of King of Prussia by Frederic, Elector of Brandenburg, was of no effect. 248 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. On the other hand, he succeeded, with the Emperor Joseph I., in adjusting amicably the conflicting claims regarding the right of presentation to cathedral churches and religious foundations. Clem- ent issued the bull " Unigenitus " against Quesnel. Pope Innocent XIII. (Conti, 1721-1724) in 1722 invested the Emperor Charles VI. with the fief of Naples, assisted the Maltese and Venetians in their struggle against the Turks, and promoted to the best of his power the welfare of the Church. It was with tears in his eyes that he subscribed the nomination of the unworthy abbe Dubois to the cardinalate which was forced upon him by France. Benedict XIII. (Orsini, 1724-1730) settled the dispute regarding the Sicilian Monarchy, terminated the strife between the Holy See and the Dukes of Sardinia and Savoy, and in 1725 convoked a provincial synod in the Lateran,^ for the improvement of ecclesiastical disci- pline. The extending of the celebration of the Feast of the Hoi}- Pope St. Gregory VIL over the entire Church called forth vehement opposition in Venice, Germany, and France ; and the refusal of the Pope to raise the nuncio Bichi, who had been recalled from Lisbon, to the cardinalate, led to discord between him and the Portuguese court. This excellent Pope unfortunately placed too great con- fidence in the unworthy cardinal Coscia. Clement XII. (Corsini, 1730-1740) ended the difficulty by creating Bichi a cardinal, which restored the good understanding with Portugal. Disturbances in Italy and numerous offences from the side of Spain disturbed his pontificate. He was the founder of the IMuseum of Roman An- tiquities, and he sent the learned Assemani into the East to buy manuscripts. This Pope founded a seminary at Bissignano, in Calabria (Seminarium Corsini). In 1738 he pronounced excommu- nication on the Order of Freemasons.^ The disrespectful conduct of some Catholic courts towards the Apostolic See, and the encroachments they made upon ecclesiastical rights continued throughout the pontificate of the learned Pope Benedict XI V.^ (Lambertini, 1740-1758),'* although he succeeded in coming to an understanding with Sardinia, with Portugal (John V., "rex fidelissimus," 1740), with Spain in 1751, and with others by treaties with each respectively, conceding some points. With the ^ Acta et decret. sacror. concil. (Coll. Lacensis), i. 345 sqq. 2 Bull "In eminenti" of April 28, 1738. Bull. Rom. ed. Taurin. xxiv. 366, 67. 3 Op. omn. Bened. XIV. ed. Azevedo. Rom. 1747 sqq. 12 vols. Venet. 1767. 15 vols. His bulls are in Continuatio Bull, magni. Luxemb. torn, xvi.-xix. * Vie du Pape Be'ne'd. XIV. Paris, 1783. FEBROXIIJS. 249 republic of Venice alone, wliicli in 1754 had subjected all papal bulls, briefs, precepts, and the like to the supervision of Government before publication, no agreement was established. At the instance of some Catholic governments, the Pope in 1748 reduced the number of the festival days of obligation ; he also re newed, on March 18, 1751, the ordinances of his predecessor against Freemasonry,^ and raised Fulda to the rank of a bishopric. After his death the conflict against the Holy See was carried on with greater acrimony than ever by the Kegalists, Freemasons, and Jansenists. John Nicholas of Houtheim, Bishop-coadjntor of Treves, a pupil of the Jansenist canonist Van Espen (+ 1728), stood prominently forward as the leader of the anti-papal party. In 1763 he published a book, nnder the name of " Justinus Febronius," ^ which was the most correct expression that has been published of the anti-eccle- siastical views of his century. The pretended object of this work was the reuniting of the Protestants to the Catholic Church ; in reality, the author sought to degrade papal authority. According to Febronius, the Pope is, in respect to the other bishops, only primus inter pares, who, without the consent of the episcopate, can neither give decisions of faith nor condemn heresies ; neither can he enact laws for the universal Church, nor interfere in the jurisdiction of individual dioceses. But, continues Febronius, as the " Roman curia," chiefly resting on the Pseudo-Isidorean Decre- tals,^ has in the course of time arrogated to itself various privileges, it is necessary, in the interests of peace, to withdraw from the Pope all these non-essential rights, and by limiting him to those rights which are essentially his, thus re-establish the original constitution of the Church. It is incumbent on bishops and temporal princes to effect this end. Although this work, which is styled, even by Lessing, a " miser- able flattery of princes," is only a compilation of Protestant, Jan- senist, and Galilean writings, replete with contradictions, and put together without any logical connection, yet it was praised by all anti-ecclesiastical writers, was translated into various languages and turned to practical account by governments hostile to the Church. 1 Bull. Magn. ed. Luxemb. scTiii. 214 sqq. 2 Justini Febronii, de statu ecclesi;e et legitima potestate Roman! Pontificis liber singularis ad reuuiendos dissidentes in religione Christianos. Bulloni (Francofurti). 3 See § 94. 250 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. Pope Clement XIII. (Rezzonico, 1758-1769) iu 1764 censured the dangerous book, the author of which, at the instance of his arch- bishop, retracted his errors in 1778. But his recantation was not sincere, as was shown by the commentary he appended to it in 1781. And neither the dubious recantation nor the excellent refutations written by the learned men of this period — as, for example, those of the Jesuit Zaccaria in 1767 and of Peter Ballerini in 1768 — sufficed to undo the mischief and scandal caused by the dissemination of Hontheim's work. The severely tried Pope had to suffer still greater indignities. The republic of Genoa protested against a papal visitor being sent to Corsica to settle ecclesiastical matters there, and offered a reward of 6,000 scudi for the arrest of tlie papal envoy. In 1760 the King of Portugal sent the papal nuncio across the frontier under the conduct of an escort of soldiers ; while the Bourbon courts, chiefly those of France and Naples, iu very ignoble ways avenged themselves on the Pope for the action he had taken against the Duke of Parma, who had enacted several anti-ecclesiastical laws in 1764. Agitation against the Jesuits reached a high pitch of excitement under the pontificate of Clement XIII. Yet the Pope firmly refused to accede to the demands of Portugal and of the Bourbon courts for the suppression of the order. Clement XIII. conferred on the Empress Maria Theresa and her successors the title of "Apostolic Majesty " (" Rex apostolicus ").^ His successor, Clement XIV. (Ganganelli, 1769-1774), had less firmness of character. He created the brother of Pombal, Minister of Portugal, Cardinal ; abolished the practice of annually reading the bull " In Coena Domini," and suppressed the Order of the Jesuits. The absolutism of the courts had apparently reached its aim. State ecclesiasticism flourished, and the Church seemed to have no other destiny than merely to serve the interests of the State. Yet in reality the deluded princes had become representatives of prin- ciples the carrying out of which entailed ruin on themselves. The political absolutism of the Bourbons led, as a necessary conse- quence, to the Revolution of which Louis XVI. of France was the victim. 1 Clement XIV. promoted science and art, aided missionary work, was solicitous for the Poles, etc. I JOSEPH ISM. 251 § 192. Josepliism. Under Pius VI. (Angelo Brasclii, 1775-1799), the enemies of the Church, whom his predecessor thought he had satisfied by sacrificing to them the Order of the Jesuits, began anew to harass the Apostolic See. The acutest sensibilities of the Pope were wounded, not only by temporal princes, but by deluded spiritual rulers. The religious condition grew particularly sad in the hereditary States of the Empire. Even during the reign of the Empress IVIaria Theresa, the false enlightenment of the day had been introduced into Austria, and had been encouraged by some prominent men, such as the Jansenist Van Swieten, the private royal physician and director of studies ; the Abbot Rautenstrauch, a man lacking in the true ecclesiastical spirit ; the ill-famed canonists Eybel and Pehem ; and the vain and arrogant minister Von Kauuitz.^ The destructive tendencies of these erroneous principles soon manifested themselves. So long as the Empress Maria Theresa lived, the advocates of enlightenment could not carry out all of their anti-ecclesiastical innovations ; but their prospects became more favorable under Joseph II. (1780), a prince destitute of true piety, who did not pos- sess the real talent of a ruler, but only sought to carry out what the frivolous craving for enlightenment had devised. The encroachments of the would-be reformer began by his issuing in rapid succession ordinances regarding the celebration of divine service, including the benedictions and usages of the Church, with regulations concerning processions, pilgrimages, burials, etc. ; each succeeding regulation being meaner and more despotic than the preceding. The anti-ecclesiastical sentiments of the imperial rubric-maker were still more distinctly manifested in his enactments respecting monasteries, especially in his suppression of those orders that were not occupied in taking care of the sick or in the education of youth ; it was also shown in the Austrian monasteries in the separation of the communities from their " foreign " superiors. The monarch, misled by his impious advisers, arrogated to him- self the legislation on matrimony ; he abolished several ecclesiastical impediments, and forbade his subjects to seek matrimonial dispensa- tions from Rome. ' Consult, on the affairs of Austria at that time, the works of Brunner, Eitter, Wolf, and Fessler. 252 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. The emperor also iutroduced the placet for episcopal ordinances, for pastoral letters, nay, even for Church almanacs (directories) ; aud he commanded that the bulls " In Coena Domini " and " Unigenitus " should be cut out of the Church books. On the other hand, this same emperor, by his Edict of Tolerance of Oct. 13, 1781, granted greater rights to the Protestants and to the schismatic Greeks, and by his granting liberty of the press gave facilities for the basest and most impious writings to be disseminated throughout Austria. As if to fill up the measure of evil, the deluded emperor then suppressed the diocesan seminaries, and replaced them by four general seminaries at Vienna, Festh, Pavia, and Louvain, together with five inferior affiliated institutions at Olmiitz, Gratz, Prague, Innsbruck, and Freiburg, which the students of theology were re- quired to attend, thus to receive under State supervision their scien- tific and moral training from the professors of enlightenment whose lives and teachings were, according to the testimony of trustworthy eye-witnesses, equally prejudicial to the minds and hearts of the youthful population studying under their influence. Few were the bishops of Austria who possessed courage and energy sufficient to stand out against the anti-ecclesiastical measures of the emperor. Among them, however, were Cardinal Migazzi, Archbishop of Vienna, Prince Esterhazy, Archbishop of Agram, Archbishop Bathiany of Gran, and Count Edling, Archbishop of Gortz. Most of the prelates either remained inactive in servile and cowardly com- pliance, or even undertook to defend the so-called reforms. But the protestations and representations of individual bishops had no effect on the mind of Joseph II., who even answered the remon- strances of the Elector of Treves, Clement Wenceslaus, in an unbe- coming manner, whereas a unanimous protestation from the bishops would certainly have brought about a salutary crisis, and probably have freed the Church from this her state of tutelage under the State. In 1782 Pope Pius VI. went in person to Vienna in the hope of averting the threatening calamity ; but he was received at the im- perial court, and particularly by the minister Kaunitz, in a very unworthy manner. He found, however, some compensation for this in the unfeigned love and enthusiasm with which he was greeted by the people. While the Pope was yet present in Vienna, Valen- tine Eybel published his insolent pamphlet " What is the Pope ? " which was condemned by Pius in the bull " Super soliditate." While the Austrian bishops thus quietly permitted the yoke of CONTEST CONCERNIXa THE NUNCIATURE. 253 a State Church to be laid on their uecks, the bishops of Belgium, with Cardinal Frankenberg, Archbishop of Malines, at their head, the States of Brabant, and the Catholic people protested against the innovations which were to be introduced there ; but Joseph paid no heed to their representations, and when he sought by violent measures to attain his end, the whole country rose in insurrection ^ against him. At the prayer of the emperor, Pius VI. called upon the inhabitants of Belgium to lay down their insubordinate prepa- rations for revolt. But Joseph did not live to witness its suppres- sion. He died on Feb. 20, 1790. He had desired to render his people happy; but in very fact, by his reforms, he brought name- less miseries upon his subjects, and drew upon himself the con- tempt and mockery of his infidel contemporaries. § 193. Contest concerning the Nunciature. — The Congress of Ems. The example of Joseph II. found imitators in several ecclesiasti- cal princes of Germany, who not only permitted the Jansenistic and Gallican theories to be taught at their theological institutions of learning, but also endeavored to reduce these false principles to practice.^ The three spiritual electors were the most forward in the matter, and proceeded to the greatest lengths. Influenced by anti-ecclesias- tical professors and spiritual advisers, they desired to restore the " original " (!) archiepiscopal rights, and therewith opened a conflict with the " Koman Curia." As early as the year 1769 the ill-advised archbishops Emmeric Joseph of Mentz, Clement Wenceslaus of Treves, and Maximilian Frederic of Cologne, had, through their deputies, Deel, Hontheim, and Hillesheim, formulated and presented to the emperor, in Cob- lentz, thirty-one Desideria, that he might procure the fulfilment of their demands by the Apostolic See. This letter of grievance is also directed against the jurisdiction of the nuncios, who were a stumbling-block to the archbishops ; but the Apostolic See was so little inclined to accede to their wishes that Pius VI., at the petition of Charles Theodore, the Elector Pala- tine of Bavaria, in 1785, appointed for his dominions a nuncio who 1 Cf. Gachard, Documens politi«iues et diplomatiques sur la revolution Beige de 1790. Bruxelles, 1834. 2 Cardinal Pacca's Historical Memoirs of his Residence in Germany from 1786 to 1794. Briick, Rationalistic Strivings in Catholic Germany. Mentz, 1865. 254 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. was to take up his residence at Munich. Astounded at this, the above-named archbishops at first attempted to prevent Zoglio, Archbishop of Athens., the nuncio designated, from being sent to Munich. Not succeeding in tliis endeavor, they formed a union with Jerome, Archbishop of Salzburg, and by their plenipotenti- aries drew up a protest at Ems in the year 1786. This document consisted of twenty-three articles, and is known as the notorious "Punctuation of Ems," in which the pretensions are to restore the rights of the bishops, but which in fact make little popes of the archbishops. Although the Emperor Joseph had promised to aid the authors of the Punctuation, that document did not meet the approval of all the bishops. The Bishop of Spire, August, Count of Limburg- Styrum, and the Elector Charles Theodore energetically defended the rights of the Holy See. The archbishops obstinately adhered to their anti-papal efforts ; and when Bartholomew Pacca, the papal nuncio of Cologne, pub- lished a circular letter, in which he declared that dispensations granted by the archbishops in such cases as were reserved to the Holy See were of themselves null and void, they vehemently opposed the acceptance of such a letter, and again applied to Joseph for assistance. But notwithstanding the aid he afforded, the haughty archbishops were finally compelled to renounce their pretensions. During these contests a prodigious number of writings appeared against the pretended arrogance of the nuncios, whose supposed en- croachments were even made the subject of pastoral letters. But the Apostolic See had also able defenders, among whom were some ex-Jesuits. The cathedral chapters likewise energetically resisted the efforts of the archbishops ; and Pius VI. in 1790 issued a letter,' addressed explicitly to them, in which he demonstrated that their demands had no foundation in justice. § 194. Italy. — The Synod of Pistoja. The false enlightenment sought to propagate itself in Italy also. Its conspicuous promoter was the Grand Duke Leopold of Tuscany, who undertook to play the same part as that which had been taken by his imperial brother ; he, however, proceeded with more caution. 1 Kesponsio ad Metropolitanos Mog. , etc., super Nuntiaturis Apostolicis. Eomae, 1789. ITALY. - 77/7^ SVXOD OF PISTOJA. 255 After introducing several so-called reforms, beginning in 1780, he in 1786 presented to his bishops a more copious plan of reform, con- taining lifty-seven articles,^ framed on Jansenistic and Febronian principles, for their examination and acceptance. The greater part of the bishops pronounced a decidedly unfavorable judgment on these reforms. Only three of them declared for the plan of the Gov- ernment, so that for this time the grand duke could do nothing. He did not, however, lose sight of his plan, which he still hoped to realize by the help of Scipio Kicci, the Bishop of Pistoja and Prato. This prelate, who was entirely taken up with the Jansenist and State-Church fallac}', summoned a diocesan synod in the year 1786, in order to complete the work of an improved Church organ- ization, by which he meant the adoption of the jjlan of the grand duke. As promoter of the synod, he appointed the Josephist can- onist Tamburini of Pavia. The Synod of Pistoja held, in all, six sessions. The anti-ecclesi- astical spirit which animated the members of the synod, or rather its leaders, many of whom were from the neighborizig States, chiefly manifested itself in the recommendation of Jansenist works ; in the adoption of the four Galilean articles ; in the false reformatory prop- ositions respecting religious orders, the impediments to marriage, the relations bishops bear to the Pope, Church ceremonies and usages, the devotion to the heart of Jesus ; and especially in sub- ordinating the Church to the power of the State. Rejoicing in the success of this synod, Leopold summoned his seventeen bishops to Florence in the year 1787 ; here a national synod was to be held for the purpose of introducing and adjusting the particulars of these reforms. But the reformatory project was again frustrated by the ecclesiastical spirit of the bishops of Tuscany. The grand duke dismissed the assembly with signs of his displeasure, and now began to introduce the reforms by his own authority. This led to a rupture between him and the Holy See. Meantime, as early as the year 1787 an insurrection had taken place against Bishop Ricci in the dioceses of Pistoja and Prato ; and the indignation excited at his anti-ecclesiastical innovations eventually reached so great a height that he was compelled to resign. The circulation of the acts of the Synod of Pistoja, and the ^ The acts and other documents regarding the Synod of Pistoja are printed in Acta et decreta Syn. dioeces. Pistoriensis, torn. ii. Ticini, 1789. 256 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. profit which the enemies of the Church sought to derive from them, induced Pope Pius VI. to condemn, by the bull " Auctorem fidei," ^ eighty-five assertions of this synod as heretical, scandalous, etc. Scipio Eicci, after having given a kind of retraction in 1799, sub- mitted to the papal decision on May 9, 1805. Yet, in his letters to his friends after this, he still showed signs of adherence in some measure to Jansenism. He died Jan. 27, 1810. IL DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTKINE. 1. Ecclesiastical Learning. § 195. The Theological Studies of this Period. The invention of printing and the reawakened impulse given to humanistic studies exercised a powerful, though at first it seemed rather an injurious, infiuence on learning, which, however, about the middle of the sixteenth ceutury was again guided into the right path, and called forth many learned works in the sphere of theology, the authors of which increased the spiritual attainments of mediaeval scholasticism by comprehensive exegetical and patristic studies, and knew how to clothe their thoughts in a truly classical form. Even before the Council of Trent theological studies had reached an elevation which was far from insignificant ; this is attested by the most prominent theologians who were present at that council. And yet the flourishing time of theology begins uftet' this synod, which by its decrees contributed so greatly not only to the promo- tion of true learning, but to the religiously moral regeneration of mankind. The exegetical studies pursued with great earnestness in the six- teenth century were especially those called forth by polemical inter- est against the Protestants, the leaders of whom sought to prove their heresy by Holy Scripture. Besides learned dissertations, com- mentaries on separate portions and on the whole of Scripture were made, the literal meaning of which was principally taken into con- sideration. Critical editions of the Bible, polyglots, and other means of assistance lightened these studies, and essentially pro- moted them. They flourished in a special manner from the sixteenth 1 Bullar. Rom. Contin., etc., ix. 395 sqq. Ed. stereotype Cone. Trid. Leips. 1846, p. 292 sqq. THE THEOLOGICAL STUDIES OF THIS PERIOD. 257 to the eighteenth century. Numerous translations of the Scriptures in the mother-tongue were also prepared. To the more important exegetical authors of this period belong the Jesuit John Maldonat (+ 1583), Alphonsus Salmeron (+ 1585), Francis Toletus (+ 1596), the Neapolitan Agellius, Bishop of Acerno (+ 1608), William Estius, Chancellor of the University of Douay (4- 1613), Cornelius a Lapide (+ 1637), Augustine Calmet C+ 1757), and others. ^\'ithout giving up the scholastic method, the great theologians of this time endeavored to found their articles of faith more on Holy Scripture and Tradition. The work of the Dominican Melchior Canus (§ 187), called " Loci theologici," is truly classical ; yet the celebrated Jesuit Dionysius Petavius (+ 1625) surpasses him in acumen and erudition : the most meritorious work of the latter was unfortunately never completed. The likewise incomplete work on Dogma of the Oratorian Thomassin (+ 1695) is very valuable, and highly prized by the learned. Scholastic theology, like positive theology, also received a new impetus. Its chief representatives are the Dominican Dominic Bannez (+ 1604), the Jesuit Gabriel Vasquez (Hispanus Augustinus, + 1604), Francis Suarez (Dr. eximius, + 1617), famed alike for learning and for speculative ability, and Didacus Euiz de Montoya (+ 1632), the theologians of Salamanca, of the Order of Carmelite- Observants, with others. Among German theologians, the Jesuit Adam Tanner (+ 1632) occupies a prominent position. But it was the apologetico-polemic theology that called forth the first labors. Beside the controversialists mentioned in the history of Protestantism, we have yet to name the bishops Nausea, of Vienna (+ 1552), and Berthold, of Chiemsee, whose '' German Theology " (" Teutsche Theologie ") belongs to the most remarkable writings of the sixteenth century. The Louvain theologian, William Lindanus (+ 1588) ; the Englishman, Thomas Stapleton, Professor at Douay and Louvain (+ 1598) ; the Jesuit Gregory of Valencia (+ 1603) ; and the Cardinals Du Perron (§ 174), and Hosius (§ 186), are re- nowned as polemical writers. But the first place among these writers belongs to the Jesuit Robert Bellarmine (+ 1621), who was as well acquainted with the writings of the heretics as he was with those of the Fathers of the Church, from which he proved the falsity of the new teaching. His brothers in the order, James Gretser, in Ingolstadt (+ 1625), Martin Becanus (+ 1624 at Vienna), as also the two brothers Adrian and Peter de Walenburg (+ 1675), Vicars- VOL. II. 17 258 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. General of Culm and Mentz, and Nicholas Serrarius, who closed his career as Professor at Mentz (+ 1609), also deserve to be remem- bered for their defence of the Catholic religion. Bossuet's well- known and distinguished work, "Histoire des variations," shows up the inconsistencies and self-contradictions of the so-called re- formers. Separate dogmas were also made the object of historical research. The work of the Jansenists Arnauld and Nicole on the Blessed Eucharist is of high value. Morals were, as in early times, systematically treated of, and frequently connected with dogma; many works on casuistry also appeared, in which the principles were hrst laid down, and then individual cases decided in accordance with them. But among the influences of the time for the promotion of piety and good manners, the ascetical works breathing the very atmosphere of genuine mys- ticism and of interior devotion were of inestimable value. Among these, besides the works by the men and women we have already mentioned, may be named with a special commendation the spiritual exercises ("Exercitiaspiritualia") of St. Ignatius. Besides these, there are works of celebrated men, theologians, Avho, like Louis Bail {-\- 1670), Superior of Port Royal des Champs, with the Dominican Contenson (+ 1674), and Nicholas Hauteville, Doctor of the Sorbonne, worked out the " Summa " of St. Thomas in an ascetic- mystic manner, and either in sermons or edifying writings added the results to the value of mediaeval mysticism. The writings of the great preacher and " Apostle of Andalusia," Juan of Avila (+ 1568), are of great value ; and mystical literature was greatly enriched by the Spanish Jesuits Balthassar Alvarez (+ 1580), Francis Arias ( -|- 1605), Louis de Ponte ( + 1624), Al- phonsus Rodriguez (+ 1616), and the associates of their order, Eusebius Nieremberg (+ 1638), Jeremias Drexelius (+ 1638), chap- lain to the Elector Maximilian I. of Bavaria, and James Nouet (-f 1680). Cardinal de Berulle, and Olier, founder of St. Sulpice, the Capuchin d'Argentom, and the JVIinorite John de Cartagena (-f 1617). are to be numbered auiong the Mystics. The " Spiritual Combat " commonly ascribed to the Theatine Laurence Scupoli (+ 1610 in Naples), the writings of the two Jesuits Rogacci {-\- 1719) and of Scaramelli (+ 1752), are prized as ascetical productions. The system of probabilities (" Probabilismus "), propounded in 1572 by Bartholomew of Medina, occasioned much controversy among the moralists, and was especially combated by the Jesuit Comitolus (+ 1626). Many casuists meantime adopted this system, which, THE THEOLOGICAL STUDIES UF TIUS PERIOD. 259 when the uecessary limitations are applied .to it, is quite justifiable, but which may, ou the other hand, lead to so many erroneous con- clusions, and has in fact done so, that the Apostolic See has been obliged to put a check ou such degeneracy. In the sphere of ecclesiastical history, of patristic lore, and of archaeology, the French Congregation of St. Maur have earned im- mortal honors by their critical editions of the "■ Fathers of the Church," by learned treatises and historico-polemical writings. In these honors Dominicans, Jesuits, and Oratorians participate. The Bollandists have furnished us with a full, copious, detailed account of the lives of the saints, taking as a model for their work that of the Carthusian Laurence Surius. The Cardinal Cesar Baronius com- mences the list of the great examiners of history in the last cen- turies. The knowledge of Christian antiquity was much advanced by ]\Iamachi, Selvaggio, Martene (+ 1739), Muratori (+ 1750) Pellicia, and others. The re-discovery of the Roman Catacombs in 1578 — the first close examination of which Bosio attempted with good success — gave a considerable impetus to archaeological studies. The works already before the public on canon law were at this time considerably augmented in number by copious treatises by Aug. Barbosa (+ 1649), Gonzalez Tellez, Fagnani (-1- 1678), Pirhing, Keiffenstuel, etc. ; as also by the learned works on the constitution and discipline of the Church by Thomassin, Ferraris, etc. ; but especially by the solid works on the fundamental position and rights of the Primacy which the Cardinals Aguirre (+ 1699), Orsi (+ 1761), and Gerdil (+1802), the Dominican Roccaberti (+ 1699),. the Bene- dictine Petitdidier, the ]\[inorite Bianchi (+ 1758), the Capuchin Benettis, Adrian and Peter Ballerini, the Jesuit J. B. Bolgeni, and others, composed and published. Pulpit oratory took a higher, more elevated standing when the French preachers, Bossuet (+ 1704), Bourdaloue (+ 1704), Fenelon (+1715), Massillon (+1742), and others won their glorious tri- umphs. A more earnest preacher of morals was found in the Ora- toriau Lejeune (+ 1672). Among the Italian pulpit orators, the Jesuit Father Segneri ( + 1694) shone with brilliancy. Among the Portuguese, Vieyra ( + 1697) made his mark. Germany also pos- sessed no small number of able preachers, to which class belong the preachers at the cathedrals of ^Nlentz, Nausea, and Wild (Ferus, + 1554^, Eisengrein ( + 1578), Provost of the Cathedral at Passau, John Fabri ( + 1558) at Augsburg, and others. The manner and 260 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. way in which the original and witty Abraham a Sancta Clara (+ 1709) carried on his office of preaching in Vienna is, even if well meant, not compatible with the dignity of the Divine Word. For the instruction and edification of the people, the Jesuit Naka- tenus (" Coeleste palmetum "), the learned and pious Capuchin, Martin von Cochem (4- 1712), the Praemonstratian Goffine (+ 1719), the Jesuits Goldhagen (+ 1794) and Vogel, wrote works which, up to the present date, are the favorite reading among the faithful. In conclusion, we would remark that the great theologians and canonists mentioned above did not confine themselves to one branch of learning alone, but cultivated skilfully and with success every department of theological and philosophical science. 2. Heresies and Schisms. § 196. The Errors of the so-called Reformers. The false theory ^ which Luther, Zwinglius, and Calvin propounded with regard to justification is intimately connected with their views of the original state of man, and the consequences of his fall into sin;^ that is to sa}', they denied the difference between the natural and the supernatural sanctity and justice of man in his original condition, and explained the perfection which is attributed to the first man i\& a natural good and an essential part of his human nature, whereas this perfection is in reality sometldng super- natural. With this fundamental error they combined the denial of free-will ("liberum arbitrium") to man, by asserting that all human action is the resvilt of an absolute necessity, •' a deed of God." According to this doctrine, original sin is not the loss of the supernatural gift of grace, but a horrid corruption of man's nature, a wicked desire and inclination to sin ("concupiscence"), as the "Solida declaratio " expresses it. In some places Calvin calls original sin " an anniiii- lation of God's image in man ; " in other places, " a horrid disfiguring 1 Lib. symbol. Eccl. Luth. (Confessio Augsb., Apologia confess. Augsb., Articuli Smaloaldi, Catechismi Lutheri ; Formula Coiicordiae), ed. Hasc, ed. Kocthc (German), Corpus lib. symb. Eccl. Reform, (the various symbols of the Reformed Church, the catechisms of Geneva and Heidelberg), ed. Aiigusti, etc. Dorner, Hist, of Protest. Theology. Munich, 1867. 2 On the dogmatic contradistinctions between Catholics and Protestants, see J/o/'i?c;-'.9 Symbolism; Dollinger's Reformation and its Interior Development (3 vols.). THE ERRORS OF THE SO-CALLED REFORMERS. 261 of it." Zwiuglius considers it as a natural disposition to sin, as an evil from which other sins spring up as branches from a tree. This condition of interior corruption, according to Protestant views, continues to exist even after justification ; for this is only a declaration of justice (" favor externus "), an exterior imputation of the merits of Christ, whose justice is in virtue of special faith, the so-called " fides specialis," imputed instrumentally to the sinner (" justitia imputata") without any interior change or sanctification of man taking place. The " fides specialis " is nothing more than the firm confidence possessed by the sinner that God will not, for the sake of the merits of Christ, impute his sins to him. When, therefore, Protestants say that faith alone justifies ("sola fides justificat "), they understand by " fides " neither the dead faith nor the faith working by love {"■ fides formata "). The " fides specialis " has nothing to do with faith in its proper sense. A consequence of this doctrine is the supposition that man can have the absolute certainty of the acquired justification, which justification he can never lose ; another consequence is, the asser- tion that justice is equal in all men, being capable neither of increase nor of decrease. According to Luther, the loss of justification can only result from unbelief, — that is, from the want of '' fides specialis." Cal- vin, however, asserts that a man who is once justified is absolutely certain of his salvation, and can never again lose the special justifying faith. This view of the Genevan reformer is but a corollary of his doctrine of absolute predestination, according to which those pre- destined to life eternal receive faith and justification, whereas the reprobate never participate in the grace of justilication. Another consequence of this erroneous theory of justification is the rejection of the veneration of the saints, since, according to this system, no interior and true sanctification takes jilace, whence it follows that the sinner cannot acquire a disposition for justi- fication. Connected with the denial of free-will and the doctrine of im- puted justice is the teaching of these so-called reformers on good works. At first they denied the possibility of good works ; but gradually they softened down the harshness of a doctrine so repug- nant to every Christian feeling, and admitted the possibility of a certain fulfilment of the law. On the other hand, they strenuously denied that good works are necessary to salvation, or that it is the 262 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. duty of the justified to fultil tlie law ; thus setting forth a formal contradistinction between law and gospel. When, at a later period, Melanchthon and the Protestant theolo- gians, in reply to various controversies that had arisen (see § 197), si^eak of the use of good works to the justified, they still regard them as matters of indifference in respect to the justification and sanctihcation of men. The rejection of the dogma of purgatory, of prayer and of other good works for the dead, of indulgences, and the denial of the dis- tinction between mortal and venial sin, were but necessary conclu- sions arising from the Protestant doctrine of justification. According to this doctrine, also, the sacraments could not be in- struments of imparting grace and justice (" causa instrumentalis "). Luther considers them only signs of the divine promise of grace, a means of confirming the faith of the recipient in the remission of his sins. Zwinglius and Socinus considered them as " a sign by which the members of the Christian creed can be recognized." Calvin teaches that the sacraments are outward signs with which an interior efficacy of the Holy Ghost is connected. Luther and Zwinglius make the efficacy of the sacraments depend on the belief of the recipient in the divine promises. Calvin, on the other hand, considers this efficacy dependent on predestination, so that the non-believer — that is, the reprobate — receives only the outward sign, and for such the administration of the sacraments is but an empty ceremony. Of the seven sacraments, Luther adopted, at least in the beginning^ three ; Zwinglius and Calvin, only two. Baptism, according to the so-called reformers, had no sin-destroy- ing power, which the " fides specialis " alone possesses, but is either a sealing of faith, or a sign by which, as Zwinglius thinks, " one is enlisted into a Christian life." The baptism of children presented great difficulties to the innovators. The Anabaptists placed them in a most painful position, out of which they tried to get by adducing various though insufficient reasons for the practice. With regard to the Holy Eucharist, the opinion of one differs from that of the other. They one and all reject the sacrificial charactei' of the sacrament, transubstantiation, the permanent pres- ence of Christ in the Holy Eucharist, and the adoration of the same ; but Luther teaches that the body of Christ is receivpd hi, under and with the bread ("in, sub et cum pane = consubstantiation FHE ERRORS UF THE SO-CALLED REFORMERS. 263 or impanation). Zwinglius holds that the Lord's Supper is only a memorial of the suffering and death of Christ ; while Calvin adopts a virtual presence of Christ and an interior efficacy of grace as connected with the reception of the bread and wine, but only for the predestined. Penance has no real signification in the Protestant systems ; and although Luther and Calvin do not altogether reject it, — although, in fact, they desired to retain the special confession of sins, — they have another reason for it than that of a belief in the necessity of confession for the remission of such sins as have been committed. All these opinions were contradictory to the universal doctrine that had been taught by the Church in all ages. To give them a plausible foundation, on which the so-called reformers proposed to establish the truth of their system, and to be able to demonstrate it, they propounded a new rule, asserting that the Holy Scripture is the sole source and judge of faith, ^ by means of which man attains to faith by an interior instruction received from God. From what has been said, it is obvious that Luther, Zwinglius, and Calvin had conceived very erroneous notions of what constitutes the Church. The doctrine of justification by faith alone ("sola fides "), and the immediate interior instruction given by God to man by means of Holy Writ, necessarily led to the rejection of the exterior ministry of preaching and of a dogmatical tradition, as well as of a special priesthood, and especially of the necessity of an exterior, a visible church. They professed, indeed, that the Church was " a community of hearts in one faith," ^ — something, therefore, invisible, interior, — but. constrained by circumstances, they were soon obliged to admit a visible Church ; for, in order to render possible the establishment of particular congregations, the appointment of preachers and the administration of the sacraments according to the new rite, and at the same time to oppose the consequences of their own views, — which first manifested themselves among the Anabaptists, in the contempt ' Cf. Formula Concord. Epitome 1, De compend. regul. : " Credimus, eonfitemur et docemus, iinicam regulam et iiormam, ex (i[ua omnia dogmata, omnesr[ue doctores judieare oporteat, nullam omnino aliam esse, quam prophetica et apostolica scripta, turn veteris, turn novi testamenti." {Ease, 1. c. p. 570.) 2 Conf. Augsb. art. 7 : "Item docent, quod una sancta ecclesia perpetuo mansura sit. Est autem ecclesia congregatio Sanctorum, in qua Evangelium recte docetur et recte administrantur sacramenta. Et ad veram unitatem ecclesiae satis est, consentire de doctrina evangelii et adnunistratione sacramentorum." (Hasc, 1. c. p. 17.) The Reformed symbols teach the same thing. 264 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. they had for their preachers, and in the refractory conduct of the people, — these so-called reformers found themselves compelled to acknowledge the existence of a Church invisible in itself and of itself, but at the same time recognizable by the senses, therefore visible. According to their representations, this visible Church pro- ceeded from the invisible Church when the dispersed and hidden disciples of the Savior assembled everywhere, formed congregations, and made preparations for preaching the pure gospel and for the right administration of the sacraments ; by which they meant, chiefly, the abolition of the Mass, and Communion under both kinds. The marks by which this Church is to be recognized are, thus, the right preaching of the gospel and the right administration of the sacra- ments ; whereby no criterion is given by which the true Church is to be distinguished from the false. It requires but a hasty glance at the history of Protestantism, especially at the manner in which it was introduced, to see clearly that this confused, intricate mingling of truth with falsehood, pre- sented by this view of the Church, is contrary alike to the nature of things and to history. Although in theory Luther rejected all ecclesiastical authority, he did not hesitate to impose his own subjective opinions as objec- tive ones on others, and to let preachers be inducted into their office (" Lutheran ordination ") by temporal princes as sovereign bishops ; neither did he, in his controversy with the Sacramenta- rians, neglect to appeal to the traditions of the Church, to the com- mon teachings of the Fathers. Calvin, profiting by the experience of Luther, and alarmed at the unbridled licentiousness which had spread throughout Geneva, laid more stress on the necessity of a visible Church, on the duty of obedience to the preacher, and the like, and introduced a kind of ordination to be performed by the presbytery ; but it is nevertheless true, that in doing so, his views could neither be brought into harmony with his teaching, nor could he in this way justify his own conduct in having left the Catholic Church. § 197. Contentions among the Protestants. The false principle of " free inquirj- " which was propounded by the so-called reformers naturally elicited a mass of dissensions among those who adopted that principle ; and the dissensions which shortly afterwards broke out were carried on with great CONTENTIONS AMONG THE PROTESTANTS. 265 bitterness, and were finally decided, not by the authoritative teach- ing of the infallible Church, but by the caprice of individual princes. Besides the contentions concerning the sacraments and the adia- phora,^ there was an Antinomian contest going on, while Luther was yet living, between Melanchthon, Luther, and John Agricola (+ 1566), a professor at Wittenberg, and subsequently chaplain at the court ol Berlin. The object of this contention was the sig- nification of the Law, which Agricola rejected, but which Luther wished to be employed as a means of producing a wholesome fear of God. To this contest may be added, as one of the same category, the Majorian conflict, between George Major, professor in Witten- berg (+ 1574), who maintained the necessity of good works to sal- vation, and the Lutheran zealot Nicholas of Amsdorf, who sought to prove that they were actually prejudicial thereto. The religious conference at Altenburg, 1568, served but to add fuel to flame. About the same time the assertion of Andrew Osiander, professor of Kbnigsberg, that the justification of man was interior, an actual indwelling of Christ in the soul, and not proceeding from a judicial sentence of God declaring him righteous, led to vehement discus- sions between the followers of Osiander and the strict Lutherans, at the head of whom stood Joachim Morlin, in the first place as a mediator, afterwards as the chief of a party. The quarrel lasted after the death of Osiander, in 1552, whose place was filled by the court chaplain Funk ; and the followers of Osiander were victorious as long as Duke Albert of Prussia lived. After his death, however, fortune changed. Morlin, who had been sent into exile, was recalled and installed as Bishop of Samland ; his adversary Funk expiated his advocacy of the '' Osiandrist heresy " on the scaffold in 1566, and the victory of Lutheran Orthodoxy over Osianderism was cele- brated in the '' Corpus doctrinae Prutenicum " composed by Martin Chemnitz. Among the opponents of Osiander was Francis Stancari, a pro- fessor in Konigsberg. He maintained that Christ was our redeemer through his human nature alone, that his divine nature was not taken into consideration in the work of redemption ; but by this he displeased the Lutherans, and had to wander hither and thither until he died, in 1574, at Stobnicz in Poland. ^ "Adiaphora" was the word used to designate questions of ritual and ceremony, and others of minor importance to those of doctrine. 266 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. But the Synergistic Controversy, which treated of the co-opera- tion of the will in the work of justihcation, assumed a far greater importance than the above-named conflict. Melanchthon gave occasion to it. The contest began between John Pfeffinger, pro- fessor in Leipsic, and Nicholas of Amsdorf, and was continued by the theologians of Wittenberg and Jena; at length, however, it was confined more especially to the latter place. The chief oppo- nent of synergism was Flacius Illiricus, whose persuasions induced the Duke John Frederic to imprison Yictorinus Strigel, its ablest defender, and the preacher Hugel. After the religious conference at Weimar, however, where he declared original sin to be a "sub- stance," he lost the favor of the court, and with his followers was compelled to leave the country. Under Duke John William the latter were permitted to return, and again acquired the upper hand ; but the dukedom remained closed to Flacius, who died in 1575. The colloquy between John Wigand, professor at Jena, and the Synergist Paul Eber, of Wittenberg, in 1568, led to no result. The most formidable enemies of Lutheranism were the Crypto- Calvinists in the Electorate of Saxony. Melanchthon (-{- 1560) stood at their head, and after him his son-in-law Peucer, physician to the elector and one of his privy council. Most of the theologians of Wittenberg were won over to their side ; those of Jena, on the other hand, held firmly to Luther's doctrine concerning the Lord's Supper, and to the doctrine propounded by Brenz of Wiirtemberg in 1559 concerning the ubiquity of Christ's presence even in his human nature,^ and accused the Philippists of heresy. The latter, however, drew to their side the Elector Augustus, who, although a strict Lutheran, declared the " Corpus doctrinae Philippicum " to be a symbolical book, which, at the religious conference at Altenburg in 1569, he insisted on all preachers accepting on pain of losing their places. The distrust which the Wittenberg Catechism awak- ened in his mind in 1571, the secret Calvinists knew how to allay by the "Consensus Dresdensis." The deluded elector even drove the zealous Lutherans Hesshusius and Wigand out of the Duchy of Saxony, in which, after the death of John William, he exercised the office of regency for the lieir, who was yet a minor. But his anger was all the more excited by the publication of the " Exegesis per- 1 With this doctrine the view concerniug the " Comraunicatio Idiomatum " is connected. This was likewise an object of contention between the Liitherans and the Reformed. The latter accused the Liitheraus of Monophysitism, on which the others cast the reproach of Nestorianism on the Reformers. CONTENTIONS AMONG THE PROTESTANTS. 267 spicua controversiae de coena Domini," which laid open Calvin's doctrine of the Lord's Supper witliout disguise; his wrath then broke out violently against the Crypto-Calvinists, and they had to expiate their offences severely. The Chancellor Cracov and the court chaplain Stoessel died in prison ; Peucer languislied in con- hneiuent from the year 1574 till 1586. Those who were of Calvin- istic sentiments were driven from their places, and the strict Lutherans installed in their stead. A medal was struck commemo- rating the triumph of orthodoxy over reason and the devil. In order to put an end to the disputes among the Lutherans, a Form of Concord was drawn up on the 28th of May, 1577, in the monastery of Bergen, near Magdeburg, by James Andrea, Chancellor of Tubingen, Martin Chemnitz, a Saxon theologian, and iS'icholas Selnecker ; this was to serve as a model for doctrine. It was with reluctance that the preachers of the Electorate of Saxony signed this document. In many Lutheran courts the opposition was still greater ; they rejected the Form of Concord in so decided a manner that this Formula of Concord became a Form of Discord.^ It was not even found possible to force the acceptance of this formula on the Crypto-Calvinists in the Electorate of Saxony ; on the contrary, under Christian I. the attempt was renewed by them to regain the upper hand for themselves. The prospects were favor- able. The Chancellor Nicholas Crell, a concealed Calvinist, used his influence with the elector in favor of Calvinism, the introduction of which went rapidly forward. Most of the Lutheran preachers concluded that it was best to teach according to the sentiments of the court ; those who did not do this were deposed and exiled. Good Calvinists were put in their places. The work thus begun had even better success when in 1590 the Calvinistic Bible appeared, with its interpolations and interpretations. In the year following the Crypto-Calvinists abolished the exorcisms. Then the Electoral Prince died, and the predominance of Calvinists came to an end in Saxony. Crell, after undergoing a horrible imprisonment of ten long years, was beheaded ; his followers had the choice given them either to leave the Electorate of Saxony or adopt Lutheranism.^ 1 It was not till the 25th of June, 1580, that fifty-one Lutheran Princes and States, at the diet held at Dresden, accepted the Lutheran Symbol in the modified Codex of the Elector Augustus, which also contained the Formula of Concord. 2 The principal defenders of orthodox Lutheranism were Martin Chemnitz ( " si Martinus, scl. Chemnitius non fuisset, Maitinus, sol. Lutherus, non stetisset "). John Gerhard, Professor at Jena (1637), and Leonard Hutter in Wittenberg (+ 1616). The 268 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. A few years after this strife with the Crypto-Calvinists was ended, the Syncretistic Controversy began, through the medium of the learned and conciliatory George Calixtus, who from the year 1619 had been professor at the University of Helmstadt. His very first writings aroused the suspicions of the more strict Lutherans, and these were increased in the year 1629, until the contest broke forth after the religious conference at Thorn, 1645. ]\Iost of the pro- fessors of Helmstadt, who, together with the Form of Concord, had rejected the narrow views of Lutheranism, and the slandering of philosophy by Daniel Hofmann in 1602, with somewhat of vehe- mence, now took part with Calixtus ; while the theologians of the Electorate of Saxony, Weller, Hiilseman, Scherpf, with the hot and excitable Abraham Calovius, professor in Wittenberg (from the year 1650), were violently opposed to him. Calixtus was accused of syncretism and cryptopapism, because he, although continually opposing the Catholics in his polemics, neither denied salvation to them nor to the members of the reformed communion. It was in order to combat more effectually the secret papists, whose friends Latermann, Behm, and Dreier were harshly persecuted and calum- niated in Konigsberg, that Calovius drew up the " Consensus fidei repetitus Ecclesiae Lutheranae," in eighty-eight articles, without, however, being able to give it the authority of a creed or symbol. The attempts at mediation made by the theologians of Jena proved fruitless ; the strife continued even after the death of Calixtus (+ 1656), some of whose disciples became Catholics. Of the conflicts among the Calvinists, the Arminian disputes in Holland deserve attention. Dissatisfied with the strict doctrine of predestination taught by Calvin, James Arminius, professor at Leyden, moderated this in some points, but found a violent oppo- nent in his colleague, Frank Gomarus. The preachers espoused the cause of the latter ; the people, that of the former. After the death of Arminius, in 1609, Episcopius, one of his adherents, pre- sented in 1610 a remonstrance^ to the States, and desired religious freedom. Two political parties at that time divided Holland. theological compendium of the last-named was lately edited by Hose ( " Hutterus redi- vivus"), with remarks upon it. 1 It contains the Arminian system in five articles. Predestination is by divine foresight rendered conditional on the human use or application of grace ; only those who believe in Christ and persevere in obedience are saved ; Christ died for all men ; man cannot of his own strength be saved without grace, but grace does not act irre- sistibly ; the believer can persevere in grace, but also he can lose both grace and faith through negligence. THE SMALLER J'llUTESTAMT SECTS. 269 Maurice, Prince of Orange, took sides with the Gomarists ; his opponent Olclenbarneveld, with the Armiuians. Maurice conquered ; and that decided the fate of the Arminians. Oklenbarnevekl was beheaded, Hugo Grotius thrown into prison; and at the Synod of Dordrecht, 1018, which was attended by Calvinists from many countries, the strictest doctrine of predestination was insisted on as dogma. The Armiuians were excommunicated, and forbidden to hold divine service. The party of Collegiants was now formed. At their head stood the three brothers Van der Codde. They hekl their religious assem- blies in private houses, and separated themselves from the Gomarists (who were divided into Supralapsarans and Infralapsarans), not only by their Arminiau predestination doctrine, but also by their rejection of baptism, etc. In England some Latitudiuarians, — among whom John Hales (+ 1656) played a conspicuous part, — and in France some of the reformed theologians, combated Calvin's doctrine concerning pre- destination. § 198. TJie Smaller Protestant Sects. Several persons, dissatisfied with the half-measures of the orthodox Protestant sects, separated themselves at a very early period from the Lutheran State churches, and became founders of smaller sects, Avhich took principally a fanatical or rationalistic direction, according as the sectaries developed the principles of the reformer on the one side or the other, and gave them thus a wider scope. While Luther yet lived, the enthusiastico-fanatical Anabaptists in Wittenberg, who founded the new Jerusalem in Munster, made their appearance ; and later emerged under another form, that of Men- nonites, called so from their founder, Menno Simonis (+ 1561). The members of this sect, who agreed with one another in rejecting the baptism of children, in the doctrine concerning the Lord's Sup- per, in that of justification, in their views as to what constitutes the Church, as well as in their unwillingness to undertake military service or any official duty, in their refusal to take an oath, and the like, at length split into two sects (in 1554), — " Fine " (chiefly Flemings) and " Coarse " (Waterlanders) Mennonites ; further, in consequence of a dispute as to the conditions under which a mem- ber should be received into their union, in 1664 they received the names of Galenists on one side, and of Apostoolists on the other, from their heads Galenus and Apostool. 270 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. The spiritual sect of tlie Schwenkfeldians may also be traced back to the times of the Wittenberg reformer. Caspar von Schwenk- feld, from Ossig in Silesia, was at first a warm follower of Luther, but afterwards rejected his doctrine of justification, together with the authority of the mere exterior word and of the dead letter ; he denied the efficacy of the sacraments, propounded new views of the Lord's Supper, and in his doctrine of the two natures in Christ fell into Eutychianism ; he was the special advocate of interior puritj^ of life as necessary for man, in opposition to the doctrine of imputed righteousness. Being for a long time persecuted by Luther and his friends as a heretic, Schweukfeld wandered about lestlessly, and died at Ulm in 1561. His adherents have settled in Silesia and Pennsylvania. As time went on, and Lutheranism developed itself more and more into a dr}^ dogmatism and an unfruitful pulpit polemic, such men as sought for an interior Christianity felt themselves more and more repelled from it. A reaction on the side of such as these against orthodox Lutheranism was inevitable, though it many times manifested itself in a false fantastic mysticism. But the works of J. Arndt (+ 1621), the general superintendent, were free from such errors, as he had made diligent use of Catholic mysticism ; while, on the other hand, false mysticism is so much the more apparent in the writings of Valentine Weigel (+ 1558), preacher at Zschoi^au in Saxony. The secret society of Rosicrucians, the origin of which is accredited to the satyrical writings of John Valentine Andrea (+ 1654), Protes- tant Abbot of Adelberg, plunged and floundered deeper yet in the labyrinth of false mysticism, of magic, alchemy, and the like pursuits, from the errors of which the views of the original Theosophist, James Bohme (1624), a cobbler of Gorlitz, were not free. The study of the works of the physician Theophrastus Bombast of Hohenheim, commonly called Paracelsus (+ 1541), exercised no small influence in directing the spirit of this '' German philosopher." J. B. Gichtel (+ 1710), the founder of the Gichtelians, or Brothers of the Angels, was an extraordinary admirer of Bohme. The main assault on Lutheran orthodoxy was made by the Pietists, who formed a church within a church (" ecclesiola in ecclesia"). Their spiritual father is Philip James Spener, who in 1666 was at first dean in Frankfort, then chaplain to the court in Dresden, and from the year 1691 provost in Berlin. He died in 1705. In his "Pia desideria," which appeared in 1675, he deeply laments the THE SMALLER PROTESTANT SECTS. 271 alienation and decline of Lutheranism, and sought by his pious reunions (" Collegia pietatis "j to inculcate and found a system of interior piety. The undertaking of Spener, who rejected the author- ity of the symbolic books, declared dogma useless in regard to lead- ing a Christian life, and held the theology of "those not born again " for no true theology at all, called forth both approbation and oppo. sition. The orthodox Lutherans, Carpzov and Loscher in Leipsic, were violent to an extraordinary degree against August Herman Franke, Paul Anton, and Caspar Schade, the founders of the " Collegium philobiblicum," and in 1690 succeeded in driving them away. About this time the University of Halle was established, to which Franke, Anton, IJreithaupt, and similar-minded men were called. Thomasius also joined them, although belonging to another direc- tion, so that the university became the head bulwark of pietism. Here it was that Franke founded the celebrated Orphan House. The violent contentions which broke out between Sj)ener's adherents and the orthodox theologians laid open the nakedness and inconsis- tency of Lutheranism, in the stead of which the Pietists introduced a false emotional system of religion. Like the Pietists, the Herrnhuters (watchers of the Lord), or the New United Brethren, joined the pride of Separatists, which in them was keenly prominent, to a one-sided emotional enthusiasm. The sect arose from an association of some "Awakened " Protestant with some wandering Moravian brothers (1722), and for spiritual superior had the Count Nicholas Louis von Zinzendorf, who, assisted by his friends Von Wattewille and Spangenberg, in 1727 organized the community of brothers. In 1737 he was ordained bishop by the court chaplain Jablonski in Berlin ; but in 1741 he laid aside this office, and called himself only the ordinary of the brothers (" Ordi- narius fratrum"). Being driven out of the Electorate of Saxony as a heretic on account of his confused views of religion, he settled for a while in Wetterau, besides which lie made several voyages to America and other places in order to convert the heathen. He died in 1760. The whole community, which laid no stress on the difference of creeds, was divided in 1744 into three tropes (rpoTroi TratSeias), — the Lutheran, the Moravian, and the Reformed. Their central point of union is the doctrine of redemption through the bloody sacri- ficial death of Christ (the Cross and Blood Theology) and that of union with Christ, which Zinzendorf often represented under absurd 272 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. and sometimes even under obscene figures of speech, in his sermons and his hymns. Divine worship was performed in halls; and Agapae, or love-feasts, preceded the celebration of the Lord's Supper. Many- members of this sect took upon themselves the obligation of the hour of prayer ; this prayer lasted from midnight to midnight, and the watchers were relieved every hour. On some days relaxation was granted, when private prayer was to supply the duty. The general synod was the appointed guide of the whole community of brethren ; by this the united conference of elders was chosen. Individual com- munities became united in distinct choirs ; disputes were decided by the judicial authority of the community. Appointment to places and reception of members and the like were determined by lot, which in the earlier days was also the case with marriages. Among the Lutheran theologians Carpzov, Baumgarten, and Bengel were foremost in the polemical contest with the Herrnhuters ; besides Zinzendorf, their defence was undertaken by August Theophilus Spangenberg (+ 1792), the most learned theologian , belonging to the union. The sect spread beyond Germany : it found its way to England in 1749, and to Russia ; moreover, it had its mission stations. The Methodists (" Methodus vitae") in England are akin to the Herrnhuters. At first (1729) they formed an association of students in Oxford, under the leadership of John Wesley. In doctrine they did not differ from that of the High Church ; but they were intent on cultivating the religious life in their own persons, and at the same time making headway against the increasing infidelity and moral depravity of their age. In the year 1732 the small association received an important coadjutor in George Whitefield, a man of forcible eloquence, who founded schools for the children of the poor, and soon gained great numbers of adherents. Charles Wesley, brother to John, when on a voyage to North America in 1735, made the acquaintance of some Herrnhuters, and was favorably impressed by their teaching and their practices. In the company of Spangenberg, he in 1738 visited several of their communities in Germany and Holland. He was powerfully im- pressed by the doctrine that after experiencing strong feelings on the subject, the conscious presence of divine grace, accompanied by a heavenly peace, would suddenly make itself felt in the soul. But it was not till May, 1739 (1738 ?), that he enjoyed this happy state himself; and since then this doctrine has been zealously preached. Numerous conversions, frequently accompanied by convulsions of THE SMALLER PROTESTANT SECTS. 273 the body, took place. Auglican clergymen soon denounced the Methodists as eccentric enthusiasts and fanatics, for which cause the latter gradually separated themselves and formed a sect apart ; John Wesley assuming the office of a bishop, ordaining ministers and appointing bishops. For a time an intimate association existed between the Methodists and Herrnhuters, and they held meetings in common at London. But this union did not last long: apart from the personal rivalry of Wesley and Zinzendorf, there was a great discrepancy between the two sects in the teachings respecting the workings of grace and of regeneration. Shortly after the Methodists themselves broke into a schism.^ Wesley and Whitefield became divided in opinion ; the latter adopted Calvin's views on predestination, the former those of Arminius. In this way arose Wesleyan Methodists and those following Whitefield, who carried on a bitter controversy with each other. Notwithstand- ing their aspirations after perfection, many Wesleyans fell into Antiuomian principles and led frightfully immoral lives. Fletcher,^ an ardent and active disciple of Wesley, drew special attention to the difference of principle between Wesley and Whitefield, thus widening the chasm. In 1771 a conference was held, at which John Wesley, who had been appalled at the advancement of immorality, took the lead as president. It was found that the cause of the dis- order proceeded from the view that Christ had abolished the moral law. As a general rule, the Methodists, especially the Wesleyans, con- tinued to insist on the necessity of interior sanctification and per- fection. They claimed to be iii extraordinary communion with God, maintained that they had a divine mission and the gift of grace, rejected reasoning in matters of revelation, held their religious services mainly if not entirely in accordance with the liturgy of the English Establishment, and introduced immersion at baptism. The whole community received the Lord's Supper every Sunday ; every Wednesday night a meeting of all the members took place ; Saturday night was spent in teaching, singing, and praying. Every community was divided into classes, and these into bands ; several communities formed a circuit, presided over by a superintendent; several cir- 1 R. Sauihcy's Life of John Wesley, etc. 2 vols. T. Jackson, Historj' of the Commencement, Progress, and Present State of Methodism. London, 1838. S. War- ren. Chronicles and Digest of Laws, etc., of Methodism. 2 vols. London, 1827. 2 See Fletcher s Checks to Antinomianism, vol. ii. pp. 22, 200, 215. VOL. II. 18 274 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. cuits made a district. The annual conference formed the supreme governing body. England, and still more America were the chief countries visited by the Methodists. Whitefield died at Newburyport in 1770. At the death of John Wesley in 1791, his system had in England three hundred and thirteen, and in North America one hundred and ninety-eight ecclesiastics, with on the whole about one hundred and thirty thousand adherents. He left numerous writings. The num- bers of the Methodists continually increased, but so also did the schisms in the sect. False spiritualism is developed in the most consecutive manner by the Quakers, or Friends.^ George Fox, a cobbler, born at Drayton, a village of Leicestershire, in 1624 (-f 1791), a man of melancholy temperament, is generally recognized as the founder of the sect. Filled with interior light, he came forth in 1649 as a preacher, and gained adherents, who, however, on account of their wild fanaticism and senseless visionary ravings, were very hardly dealt with by the English Government. It was under James II. that they first received toleration, and under William III. that they attained religious free- dom. In 1681 the Quakers came to America (Pennsylvania) under William Penn (-f 1718). The fundamental principle of their system is the doctrine of the inner light, or enlightenment from heaven, which is the cause of religious knowledge and the source of a pious life. It is from this light that the Holy Scriptures derive their authority and sense. Exterior worship, ecclesiastical ceremonies, the holy sacraments, are useless and superfluous. On this account the sect has no special order or class of preachers as administrators of the divine office of teaching, neither have they any defined liturgy. To the peculiarities of the Quakers, in which convulsions play no insignificant part, belong the omission of the usual signs of polite- ness, refusal to take an oath, to pay tithes, and to perform military service. A degree of moral earnestness is shown in the prohibition of certain games, of theatrical amusements, and of dancing. Music is also forbidden. The members of the Society who do not strin- gently live up to these rules are called " wet " Quakers ; those who observe them strictly are termed " dry." Their chief theologian is Kobert Barclay (+ 1690). 1 Robert Barclay, Theologiae vere Christianae apologiae (2d ed. ). London, 1729. W. R. JFagstaf, History of the Society of Friends. New York, 1836. Mohler, Symbolism, p. 568. THE SMALLER PROTESTANr SECTS. 275 The doctrinal system of Eniauuel Swedenborg ^ (1()88-1772) is a singular mixture of rationalism and false mysticism. Emanuel was the son of Jesper Swedberg, the Lutheran titular bishop of Skara, in West Gothland. He professed to have received a call from God to restore original Christianity and to found the Church of the New Jerusalem. The doctrine of Swedenborg has an eminently practical bearing. He combated alike the Protestant doctrine of justification and Calvin's predestination. The Trinity is to him only a triple manifestation of the Godhead ; he rejects the doctrine of the fall of man, and of original sin, together with the Christian idea of the resurrection. He treats the doctrine of redemption according to the interpretation of the Gnostics, and in particular denies the vicarious atonement of Christ. Of the sacraments he retains only baptism and the Lord's Supper. Like the ancient heretics, Swedenborg treats and interprets Holy Writ in an arbi- trary fashion. Of the Xew Testament he accepts only the four Gospels and the Apocalypse. His followers were quite numerous ; in Sweden they numbered about two thousand, and they spread to England, North America, France, and Wurtemberg. Tafel of Tu- bingen is in the last-named country a special defender of his views ; he is also the publisher of his fantastic writings. The Baptists in England originated in 1608. They were inde- pendent of the Mennonites in Germany and Holland, but did not rise into importance before 1688. They administered baptism to adults only and by complete immersion, strictly adhered to the Cal- vinistic doctrine of predestination, kept holy the Sabbath day (Satur- day ) instead of Sunday, and frequently held Antinomian views. A community of Baptists was formed at New York in 1762, and their opinions spread rapidly in America, where their numbers increased, especially of that part of the sect which acknowledged free-will (1780). Among the non-episcopal religious associations of England that of the Presbyterians had been the strongest ; but in the eighteenth century it disappeared almost wholly, owing to change of doctrine among them. The most prominent theologians of this sect, Richard Baxter and Daniel Williams, had so clearly and convincingly proved the contradictions involved in the Calvinistic theory on justification and the detrimental effect it had on morals, that most congregations ^ Mohlcrs Symbolism, p. 568. Gorres, Swedenborg and his Relation to the Church. Strasburg, 1827. 276 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. gave up the doctrine and took to Arminianism, by which the spir- itual bond was dissolved and the dismembering process begun. Others turned to Ariauism, and thence naturally slid into the so-called Unitarianism, which holds Christ to be a man. The rationalistic tendency of this sect was more closely developed and defended by Lselius Socinus (+ 1562), a friend of Melanchthon.^ It denies the fundamental articles of Christianity ; namely, the Trinity, original sin, the redemption, the efficacy of the sacraments, etc The Uni- tarians found admittance chiefly in Poland, where they received the name of Socinians from their chief leader, Faustus Socinus (+ 1604), the nephew of Laelius. Driven out of Poland, they found a refuge in Prussia and Transylvania. In the latter country Socinian com- munities still exist.^ § 199. Controversies on the Relation tvliich Grace hears to Free- Will. The question as to how the efficacy of grace harmonizes with the freedom of the human will caused great disputations among Catholic theologians. Some laid so great a stress on grace that they seemed even to deny the freedom of the will, while others defended that free-will so strongly that they appeared to exclude the necessity of divine grace. Michael Baius,^ professor of theology at Louvain, belonged to the first class. He, like his colleague John Hessel, was an oi)ponent of the scholastic method, for which they wanted to substitute the positive. The false assertions of Baius respecting the original state of man, the nature of original sin, the state of fallen man, and especially his opinions on free-will, good works, and their merits, were condemned by Pius V. in the bull " Ex omnibus afflictionibus " (Oct. 1, 1567), in seventy-nine articles.* The adherents of Baius opposed the papal decision, which they sought to interpret in a way more favorable to themselves by chang- 1 See Trechsel, Protestant Anti-Trinitarians before Faustus Socinus. 2 vols. Heidel- berg, 1844. 2 The Catechism of Rakau is a main source for this sect (1609). Catech. Racovi- ensis, ed. Oeder. Frankfort, 1739. 3 Baii, Op. Colon. 1696. Petavius, De theolog. dogma, tom. iii. Conference d' Angers sur la grace. Paris, 1789. Du Che.tne, Hist, du Bajanisme. Donay, 1731. * BuUar. Rom. (ed. Taurin.) viii. 314 s([i\. Edit, stereotyp. Cone. Trid. Lips. p. 273 sqq. Cf. Denzinger, Enchir. p. 302 sqq. RELATION WHICH GRACE BEARS TO FREE-WILL. 277 ingthe punctuation;^ and this caused Gregory XIII. (Jan. 29, 1579) to renew the sentence of his predecessor. Baius submitted, and died in peace with the Church, 1589. The opponents of Baius were two Jesuits, Leonard Lessius and John Hamel (1587), whose views on the relation of grace to free-will went to the opposite extreme, and seemed to the Louvain professors to savor of Semi-Pelagianism. The theological faculty disclaimed thirty-four of the propositions drawn from the writings of the two al)ove-named, and the University of Douay confirmed this decision. The Belgian bishops were divided in their opinions ; and the Apos- tolic See, to whom the controversy was referred for decision, com- manded both parties to await that decision, and meanwhile not to censure each other. But before the Holy See had passed judgment on the matter, the controversy broke out anew in Spain. The doctrine of the Domini- cans, of the " praedeterminatio " or "praemotia physica," whose chief defender was Bannez, gave offence to the Jesuits. It was assailed by Louis Molina, who, while fully recognizing the principle of the necessity of grace, placed the cause of its efficacy, not in the " prae- motio," but in the free assent of the human will. He traced the infallible efficacy of grace back to the so-called mediate knowledge of God (" scientia Dei media "), as had been taught by Pedro Fonseca (1566), his master. Molina's book was attacked by the Dominicans Alvarez and Thomas de Lemos, who accused him of Pelagianism. This induced the Jesuits to refer the said work to the Inquisition, which, at the command of Clement VIIL, asked of the Dominicans and Jesuits theological explanations of the teaching of their schools, and also requested of the Spanish episcopate and of several universities and academies well-considered opinions on the contested points of teaching. But in order to sift the whole controversy still more thoroughly, Pope Clement VIIL, in 1597, established the celebrated congrega- tion " De Auxiliis."^ The majority of the "consulted," after mature ' At the end the Po|)e says : " Quas riiiidem sententias stricto coram nobis examine ponderatas, qiianquam nonniillae aliquo pacto sustineri possent, in rigore et proprio verborum sensu ab assertoiibns intento haereticas, erroneas, suspectas, tenierarias, scandalosas, et in pias aures offensionem immittentes respective, ac quaecunque super iis verbo scriptoque emissa praesentium auctoritate damnamus." The adherents of Baius effaced the comma after " possent," and inserted one after " intento " (Comma Planum). - On its establishment and Labors, see Historia emifrfi^fr- de auxiliis, ctr. 278 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. examination, decided against Molina's book. The Pope, however, ordered a new investigation, which was not brought to a close till the pontificate of his successor, Paul V. (1606) ; even then no defi- nite decision ensued. The Apostolic See tolerated both systems, and forbade the adherents on both sides of the question to accuse each other of heresy. In the mean time the system of Molina was modified by the Jesuits into so-called Congruism. This was afterwards expanded and devel- oped by Suarez and Vasquez. According to them the efficacy of grace depends on its congruity (" gratia congrua et gratia incou- grua "). This system, which is quite different from that of Molina, was in 1613 ordered to be taught in all the schools of the Jesuits by the general of the order, Claudius Aquaviva.^ § 200. Jansenism. Two pupils of the University of Lou vain, Cornelius Jansenius, a professor of Louvain, afterwards Bishop of Ypern (+ 1638), and his somewhat visionary friend Du Verger de Hauranne, Abbot of St. Cyran (+ 1643), conceived the plan of framing an apology of the doctrines of Baius and of attacking the Jesuits. For this purpose Jansenius was to work out the dogmas, St. Cyran to write concerning the hierarchy. ■■* For twenty long years Jansenius labored at his work, that made its first appearance after his death in 1640, under the title of " Augustinus ; " ^ but it reproduced, not the doctrine of the Bishop of Hi])po, as the author announced it was to do, but rather the errors of Calvin, inasmuch as Jansenius, with a glaring misapprehension ^ By him the Order of Studies, "Ratio studiorum " (Institut. Societat. Jesu : Prague, 1757), was drawn up and introduced, 1584. 2 Lcydcclccr, Hist. Jans. Traj. ad Rh. 1695. Luchesini, Hist, polem. Jans. 3 vols Rom. 1711. The various writings for and against Jansenists are to be found in Ros- kovdnij, 1. c. ii. 757 sqq. Memoires du P. Rene Rapin sur I'eglise, etc. 1644-1669, puhlies ]iour la premifere fois par L. Aubineau. 3 vols. Paris, 1865. Hapin, Hist, du Jansenisnie, ouvrage completenient inedit ; revu et publie par I'abbe Donienech. Paris, 1865. 3 Augustinus, seu doetrina S. Aug. de hunumae naturae sanitate, aegritudine, niedicina adv. Pelagianos et Massilieuses, tribus toniis coniprehensa. Lovan, 1640, St. Cyran wrote under the name Aurelius : op. ed. Paris, 1646. Respecting the so-called learned assembly at Bourg-Fontaine (1622), at which St. Cyran, Jansenius, and others projected a formal conspiracy against Christianitj', and are said to have taken counsel together as to how to accomplish its overthrow, see La realite du project de Bourg-Foiitaiue. 2 vols. Paris, 17.')6 fijq. JANSENISM. 279 of what constitutes the natural and the supernatural, as also of the state of man before and after the fall into sin, denies to man in his fallen nature free-will (''liberum arbitrium"), and maintains that fallen man must follow of necessity the " delectatio carnalis " (concupiscence) or the " delectatio coelestis " (the holy love of God), according as this or that relatively obtains the victory ("relative victrix "). As the chief opponents of these errors, the Jesuits of Louvain came forward; they extracted several false propositions from the '' Augustinus," and laid them before the Apostolic See for examina- tion. (3n this. Pope Urban VIII., in the bull " In eminenti," forbade the book (March 6, 1642). But the contest was not therefore at an end ; on the contrary, it was now first carried on with great vehemence in France, where the '^Augustinus" was widely diffused, and found opponents as well as eager defenders. To this last class belong Anthony Arnauld, Doctor of the Sorbonne (+ 1694), Pascal i (+ 1663), Nicole (+ 1695), and others. These controversies caused eighty-eight French bishops, in the year 1650, to lay five propositions drawn from the " Augustinus " before the Apostolic See, by the hand of the Syndic Cornet, that the Pope might pronounce judgment upon them. After mature ex- amination, Pope Innocent X. rejected as false and heretical five propositions, taken from the work of Jansenius, in the bull " Cum occasione," which he issued May 31, 1653.^ As these five propositions, which Bossuet rightly characterizes as the soul of the Jansenistic system, did not all stand in "Augustinus " word for word as they were expressed in the document laid before the Pope, the Jansenists thought to evade the papal censures by 1 (Euvres de Pascal, iiouvelle ed. 5 vols. Paris, 1819. The most valuable work of Pascal is his " Pensees sur la religion," which is a splendid apology for the Church. 2 BuUar. Rom. xv. 720 sqq. Ed. stereotyp. Cone. Trid. p. 278 sqq. The five propositions are worded thus: "(1) Aliqua Dei praecepta hominibus justis volenti- bus et conantibus, secundum praesentes quas habent vires, sunt impossibilia ; deest (pioipie illis gratia, qua possibilia fiant. (2) Interiori gratiae in statu naturae lapsae nunijuam resistitur. (3) Ad merendum et demerendum in statu naturae lapsae non recjuiritur in homine libertas a necessitate, sed sufficit libertas a coactione. (4) Semi- peiagiani adraittebant praeveuientis gratiae interioris necessitatem ad singulos actus, t'tiam ad initium fidei, et in hoc erant haeretici, (juod vellent eani gratiam talem esse, cui posset huuiana voluntas resistere vel obteniperare. (5) Semijielagianum est dicere ("hristum pro omnibus omniuo hominibus mortuuiii esse aut sanguinem fudisse." Dumas, His. de cinq, propos. de Jans. Trevoux, 1702. 280 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. asserting that the five rejected propositions are certainly heretical, but they are not in Jansenius, or at least he did not teach them in the sense in which they were condemned. On this an assembly of thirty-eight French bishops declared (March 28, 1654) that the five propositions under censure were really contained in the work of Janseniiis; and the Pope confirmed this judgment in a special brief (Sept. 29, 1654). Even this did not adjust the strife ; for the Jansenists, who had been joined by the nuns of Port-Eoyal-des-Champs (in-the-fields), under their abbess Angelica Arnauld, now started a distinction between the question of the right and that of the fact (" quaestio juris et facti ") ; and they maintained that the Church is certainly infallible when she rejects an opinion as heretical, but she cannot with infallible certainty determine that the propositions she rejects as erroneous are to be found in the book of a certain author. There- fore to her expression concerning facts only a reverential silence is required (" silentium obsequiosum "). This false distinction, which Pascal specially defends in his pro- vincial letters, Alexander VII. rejected (Oct. 16, 1656) in the bull " Ad sanctam," and (Feb. 15, 1665) caused a formulary to be laid be- fore the French clergy, in which each one was required to reject the five propositions contained in the " Augustinus," as they had been condemned by the Apostolic See. The pernicious contest was now laid to rest for a long time, till in the year 1702 the Case of Conscience invented by the Jansenists Avas brought forward ; this recalled it into existence, and indeed in such a manner that the Constitution of Clement XI., ''Vineam Dom- ini" (July 10, 1705), could not again restore tranquillity. The most zealous defenders of Jansenistic errors in France were the hyper-rigoristic *' Hermits" in the neighborhood of Port-Eoyal- des-Champs. They, by their severe practices of penance,^ and above all by discouraging the frequent reception of Holy Communion, worked unspeakable mischief among the people. Encouraged by these Hermits, alike through word and example, even the nuns of Port-Royal, whose reputation for piety was of the highest character, refused to submit themselves in an unqualified manner to the decision of the Church, which refusal after a long contest finally resulted in the suppression and destruction of their abbey in 1710. * Petavius wrote against Arnauld. " De la penitence publique," etc. Paris, 1644. JANSENISM. — QUESNEL. 281 § 201. Jansenism (^continued). — Quesnel. A new act of the Janseuistic drama began with the censure of the " Moral Reflections " of the Oratorian ^ Paschasius Quesnel, who under a very artful disguise sought to disseminate the Gallican errors and those of Jansenius. The first edition of this spiritual book, so full of unction, appeared in 1(571 at Paris,"^ and found a very favor- able reception. Several bishops recommended the book to their diocesans. On account of his predilection for Jansenism, Quesnel in the year 1684 was expelled from the Ora.torian Community, and took up his residence in Brussels, to which place Anthony Arnauld had withdrawn in 1679. Encouraged by him, Quesnel in the sub- sequent editions of his works (1687-1692) gave freer utterance to his views, and without disguise expressed his Jansenistic errors. This occasioned many learned men of note to express disapproval of the " Moral Reflections," although Louis Anthony of Noailles, in 1680 Bishop of Chrdons, and from Aug. 19, 1695, Archbishop of Paris, who in 1700 was created cardinal, had renewed his approval of the book on July 20, 1695. The strife had spread over a large territory when in the year 1703 some French bishops forbade the book. The question in dispute was brought before the Holy See, and Pope Clement XI. in a brief of 1708 rejected the errors of the "Moral Reflections." As this papal decision, however, did not bring the contest to an end, Clement XL, after a renewed and close examination of the " Moral Reflections," issued (Sept. 8, 1713) the celebrated bull "Unigenitus,"^ 1 On the iiiHuence of Jansenistic views on the members of the communities of St. Maur and of the Orator}', see Fenclon, Memoriale Sanctissimo Dom. n. clam legendum (Q^luvres, ed. Paris, 1850), torn. iv. p. 452 sqq. 2 It appeared under the title "Abrege de la morale de I'Evangile ou pensees chretienues sur le texte des quatres Evangiles," Paris, 1671, in duodecimo, and had the approbation of Bishop Vialard of Chalons. 3 Bullar. Rom. xxi. 568 sqq. (ed. Taurin.). Lafiteau, Histoire de la constit. Unigenit., 3 vols., Paris, 1737 (ital. by Nucci Rom. 1794), and La vie de Clem. XI. 2 vols. Fontaine, Constitutio Unigenitus theologice propugnata. Dillingae, 1720. Schill. The Constit. Unigenitus ; the Occasion of it, and its Consequences. Freib. 1876. A mass of writings, great and small, appeared against the bull. Bauer (p. 32) considers the writing Frickius, Inclementia dementia examinata, h. e. Bulla Clem. XL papae, etc., Ulmae, 1719, to be the work of a Jansenist rather than that of a Protes- tant. Respecting the fate of the bull and the reception of it by the Catholics of the whole world, see Temoignage de I'eglise universelle en faveur de la buUe Unigenitus a Bruxelles, 1718. Schill. p. 317 sqq. 282 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. which condemned one hundred and one propositions extracted from the work of Quesnel, as heretical, scandalous, etc. Most of the French bishops, and the Sorbonne in 1714, accepted the bull unconditionally ; but a few prelates refused to receive it, although with one exception they forbade the censured book. To the last-named belonged Cardinal Noailles, whose resistance was not tc be overcome either by the Pope or by King Louis XIV. Under the regency of the dissolute Philip, Duke of Orleans, the strife still continued, and took quite a formidable character. The French clergy were divided into two classes or parties, — some calling themselves Acceptants, the others Appellants ; the Accept- ants were such clergymen as accepted the bull " Unigenitus," and the Appellants were those who appealed from the decision of the Apostolic See to an oecumenical council. The confusion which this caused was increased to a still higher degree when Cardinal Noailles, at first secretly and then publicly, joined the Appellants, and with him the Sorbonne, although by so doing the members were in contradiction with their earlier decision. Attempts made to reconcile the parties failed. Clement XL, at length, in his bull " Pastoralis officii " (1718), threatened the disobedient with the cen- sures of the Church. It was not till Oct. 11, 1727, that Cardinal Noailles (+ May 4, 1729) accepted the bull " Unigenitus." In 1729 the Sorbonne followed his example, and other Jansenist-minded clergymen soon after did the same.^ The Jansenists proper, however, who poured forth the most outrageous insults against the papal bull and the Apostolic See, continued their opposition, and when they had lost their chief defenders, took refuge in the simulated miracles of the Deacon Francis of Paris, an Appellant (+ 1727), whose bones repose in the cemetery of St. Mcdard. The Archbishop de Vintimille of Paris and other bishops asserted that the alleged cures were fictitious, and in 1732 the Government closed the cemetery. But the same scenes were now enacted in private houses, which gave rise to so 1 The bishops of Montpellier, Auxerre, Troyes, and Bishop Soanen (+ 1740) of Senez, remained obstinate. On Aug. 28, 1728, Bishop Soanen issued another pastoral letter against tlie bull " Unigenitus," which he asserted destroyed dogma, morality, discipline, and the hierarchy. On June 15, 1727, his Metropolitan Archbishop Tencin of Embrun summoned a provincial synod, by whom Bishop Soanen was sus- pended on account of his pastoral letter. Cf. Collectio Lacensis, i. 615 sqq. Twelve French bishops protested against this decision, among whom was Cardinal Noailles. Louis XV. refused to hear them ; on which nine of them appealed to Parliament on May 7, 1728. THE SCHISM OF UTRECHT. 283 many scandalous enormities that many Appellants publicly dis- claimed this mode of proceeding ; their doing so caused another split among the Jansenists, — the Convulsionaries and anti-Convulsion- aries. The revolutionary parliaments, which took the Convulsion- aries under their protection, and sought to compel the Catholic clergy to administer the sacraments to dying Appellants, hindered the complete dissolution of the schismatic party ; while the conduct of the court, which was a singular mixture of despotism and un- dignified weakness, only strengthened the disobedient still more in their obduracy. It was in vain that Pope Benedict XIV. endeavored, through the brief " Ex omnibus," in 1756, to give peace to the much-afflicted Church of France, which had been fearfully distracted and laid waste by Jansenism. It was not till the French Revolution that this sadly pernicious heresy came to an end, and even then all its erroneous principles were not destroyed. § 202. The Schisin of Utrecht. Outside of France, the Jansenists principally found adherents in the Netherlands, where they found themselves able even to organize a society for their schism, the history of which is as follows : ^ — The Vicar Apostolic Peter Codde,* a Jansenist, refused to sub- scribe the formulary of Alexander VII., and this drew upon him suspension in the time of Clement XI. (1702), and Theodore von Kock was named pro-vicar in his stead. Put he, as well as his suc- cessor, met with violent opposition from the States General, as also from the vicariate of Utrecht, acting under the influence of Ques- uel, which vicariate also refused to subscribe the formulary, and at a later date would not receive the bull " Unigenitus," and appealed to an oecumenical council. The schism was completed by the vicariate of Utrecht declaring itself to be the cathedral chapter, and in the year 1723 electing Cornelius Stenhoven as archbishop ; he was consecrated on Oct. 15, 1724, by the suspended titular bishop 1 Hoynk van Papendrechf, Hist, de rebus eccl. Ultraject. Colon. 1725. Mozzi, Storia delle levoluzioni Jella Chiesa d' Utrecht. 3 vols. Yenez. 1787. See Bnuer in " Voices from Maria Laach," i. 376 sqq. 2 The separation of the Netherlands from Spain was followed by the dissolution of the bishoprics and of the cathedral chapter, with the exception of the chapter of Haarlem and rtn-cht. The Catholics of Holland were placed under a vicar apostolic. 284 HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. of Babylon, Domiuic Varlet, a partisan of Jansenism. The schis- matic party then applied for the confirmation by the Holy See of Stenhoven's election, but in 1725 Benedict XIII. refused to ratify the uncanonical proceeding. In spite of this, after the death of Stenhoven (April 3, 1725), the schismatics proceeded to the election of a new archbishop, who was recognized by the Apostolic See as little as the former one had been. In order to maintain the schism, Archbishop Meindarts nominated two suffragan bishops, — one for Haarlem in 1742, to whom the cathedral chapter of that place refused obedience ; and one for Deveuter in 1757, whom the chapter also rejected. On Sept. 13, 1763, the schismatic bishops held a pseudo- synod in Utrecht, at which three bishops, six canonists, and nine parish priests were present ; here the parish priests had also deciding votes. Clement XIII., on April 30, 1765, rejected the resolutions. The schism now numbers about six thousand adherents. Lately these schismatics have fraternized Avith the so-called Old Catholics. § 203. Quietism. The errors of the false mysticism of the Alombrados (the " over- shadowed" of the seventeenth century) in Spain had been suppressed by the Inquisition ; yet they soon reappeared in Eome, and there found a defender in the person of the Spanish priest Michael de Molinos, who in his " Spiritual Guide," in 1675, and in other writings gave utterance to views as intricate and confused as they were injurious to morals. According to Molinos, the highest degree of perfection which the soul can attain consists in the annihilation of the various powers with which it is endowed, and in a total absorption in God, during which it abstains from all activity, neither desires heaven nor fears hell, neither awakens any act of faith nor offers any particular prayer, renounces hope alike with fear, affords no resistance to temptation, but, abandoning itself to its nothingness, keeps itself absolutely passive, that God may alone work out his will in it, etc. As the result of such teaching in Rome was the formation of conventicles of false mysticism, the Apostolic See had Molinos's writings examined more closely, and in 1687 Pope Innocent XI. rejected sixty-eight propositions extracted from them.^ The author ^ Denzinger, Enchir. p. 333 sqq. The Jesuit Segneri was the first to oppose Molinos, which he did in his " Concordantia laboris cum quiete in oratione." RELKJIOUS CONDITION OF GERMANY. 285 submitted,^ and remained imprisoned in a monastery until his death in 1696. The spiritualism of the pious widow Joanna de la Mothe Guyon differs frour these errors, although it is also erroneous. Madame Guyon was a disciple of the Barnabite La Combe, whose mystical writings contain erring views on what constitutes '' pure love," on contemplative prayer, etc. The Archbishop of Paris, Francis de Harlay, and the Bishop of Chartres, condemned these writings ; and the Conference at Issy, summoned by Louis XIV. (1694 and 1695), explained in thirty-four articles the principles of genuine mysticism in opposition to those of a false spiritualism and quietism. Madame Guyon subscribed these articles without demur, and from that time forth took up her residence in St. Cyr (+ 1717). But this did not end the matter in dispute. Bossuefs treatise " On the States of Prayer," ^ caused Fenelon to publish a work on "The Maxims of the Saints concerning the Interior Life." On this a vehement controversy began between the two illustrious prelates. The question in dispute was at length referred for decision to the Apostolic See ; and on March 12, 1699, Innocent XII. rejected twenty-three propositions '^ taken from Fenelon's writing. The pious archbishop submitted unconditionally to the papal decision. § 204. Tlie Religious Co7idition of Germany after the Peace of Westphalia. — Several Attempts at Union. In spite of the Peace of Westphalia contentions between Catho- lics and Protestants still continued, especially in the territories inhabited by a mixed population, and often formed the theme of discussion in the diet. The spirit which the Protestants cherished towards the Catholics may be judged by the continued opposition made by them to the introduction of the Gregorian Calendar. It was still more strikingly 1 See Breve relatione dell' Abjura del Dottor Molinos e suoi seguaci seguita li 3 e 4 Settembre, 1687, in Laemmcr, Melemetematum Rom. mantissa, p. 407 s