Yj

_

\ ~~
SS
‘ A\

\

 
 

 

Cornell Mniversity Library

BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME
FROM THE

SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND

THE GIFT OF

Henry W. Sag

1891

 

 

RETURN TO
ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY

ITHACA, N. Y.

 
CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY
 

Babcock Flask, Showing Fat in Neck (after Harrington)

(Frontispiece)
THE
PRODUCTION AND HANDLING

oF

CLEAN MILK

BY

KENELM WINSLOW, M.D.; M.D.V.; B.A.S. (Harz.)

Formerly Instructor in Bussey Agricultural Institute and Assistant
Professor in the Veterinary School of Harvard University.
Author of a text book on Veterinary Materia Medica
and Therapeutics, Chairman of the Committee
on Milk of the Washington State
Medical Association, ete.

NEw Yorre

WILLIAM R. JENKINS Co.
PUBLISHERS

851-853 SixtH AVENUE
i
4

s

PREFACE

The writer is a graduate in agricultural science, in veter-
inary and human medicine, and has been connected with a
laboratory in which is examined the milk supply of a large
city, and finally has had. considerable practical experience in
the. production and distribution of clean milk,

These facts are simply mentioned to show that the
book is written from various points of view.

Much blame is attached to sundry persons engaged in
vending milk, but the unfortunate farmer is apt to receive
an. unjust share because. of the commonly unclean and there-
fore unsanitary condition of most market milk. While city
contractors and dealers. may have much influence in
instructing and requiring the farmer to live up to recognized
standards of cleanliness, yet, after all, the chief responsibility
lies with the consumer. The essential object in the clean
mk crusade should be to awaken the public to the dangers
of unclean milk.and to emphasize the fact that it is impos-
sible to produce and obtain clean milk except at unusual
expense.

When the public is sufficiently aroused to the evils of
consuming unclean milk and evinces willingness to pay for
clean. milk, there. will be no difficulty about its production.
It is merely.a. question of supply and demand.
PREFACE

It is not generally known that the farmer sometimes
receives but one-quarter of the retail price of milk (frequently
but 2 cents a quart), and he can hardly be expected to
undertake a considerably increased expenditure for the
production of clean milk—this being the case.

There is probably more interest being shown in this
and other countries in a pure milk supply than ever before.
For this reason it should be a comparatively easy task for
any individual desiring to produce clean milk in any con-
siderable community to find a sufficient patronage, particu-
larly if the local medical profession is asked to assist,
always providing that the proper standard is constantly and
conscientiously maintained. The idea of financial return
must be subordinated to this, and yet a reasonable profit
can and must be had to sustain the required standard.

The aim of this book is to provide a working guide for
those pursuing or wishing to pursue one of the most whole-
some, worthy and laudable undertakings—the production
of clean milk.

Most of the books at our command either touch the
subject in a general manner or else describe special phases
of it in detail. The attempt has here been made to cover
the whole ground in as small compass as possible. That
such an attempt must fall short the author is aware, as the
topic of feeding cows alone (accorded but a chapter in this
book) can only be fully treated in a large volume devoted
wholly to this subject. .

Objection may be made to the recommendation of

particular apparatus of certain manufacturers. But the
PREFACE

writer has been so desirous of making the book practical
that it has been deemed essential to choose special appliances
in order to avoid generalities and vagueness.
While endeavoring to select the best, it does not follow
that other appliances are not as good, or even better than
“those advised; but the author can truthfully affirm that
~ both he and his publisher are entirely free from the remotest
financial interest in advertising any special dairy appliances.
Such appliances are undergoing the most wonderful and

rapid improvement, almost from day to day.

KEeNELM WINSLOW.
CONTENTS

CHAP.
I. GERMS IN THEIR GENERAL RELATION TO MILK
II. Composition oF MILK AND CREAM AND THEIR PRo-
DucTS
III. MILK PRODUCTS
IV. FEEDING FoR MILK
V. Hovusinc anp CarE oF Cows...
VI. HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM
VII. Cost oF PRODUCING AND DISTRIBUTING CLEAN MILK
VIII. Some Hints ConceRNING MILK DISTRIBUTION
IX. MILK INSPECTION .
APPENDIX—PLANS OF BARNS, MILK HOUSES, ETC. .
GENERAL OUTLINE OF A SCHEME FOR THE CONTROL, SUPER-
VISION AND INSPECTION OF A CITY MILK SUPPLY .

INDEX

PAGE

23
33
46
57,
71

125

134
169

198

203
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Frontispiece

Fig
I
2

General Shape of Bacteria . ‘

The Constituent Elements of Milk—Fat, en ee

Sketch A—Two methods of ventilating a Dairy Farm.

Sketch B—Method of ventilating a Lean-to Stable

Sketch C—Section of the Cow Stable of the Dairy Barn at
the Wisconsin Experiment Station

Iron Milking Stool

The Gurler Milk Pail . : ‘

A Recent Improvement on the Gurler Mitk Pail |

Modification of Stewart’s Milk Pail

The Conical Cooler

Star Cooler .

Tubular Cooler

Star Cooler .

Star Cooler .

Star Cooler .

Trap Milk Strainer -

Wash Sink . 4

Various Forms of Brushes .

Milk-Can Jacket .

Star Side-Bar Filler

Star High-Pressure Cylinder

Star Sterilizer

Bottle Brush :

Star Metal Wash Sink

Star Bottle-Washing Outfit .

Steam Heating Tee

Page

24
62

63

64
72
73
73
74

79
80

80
81
82
83
84
86

88
“89
go
92
93
94
95
95
Fig.

2I
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40

41
42
43
44
45

46

47

LIST OF ILLUSTRA TIONS

Glass Dairy Thermometer . :

Machine for Chopping Ice used to at aed milk bottles :

Banjo Conductor for carrying milk through a wall

Cylinder for conveying milk through a floor

Cream Cooler connected with Separator

Cream Bottle Filler

Bottle Carriers : ‘

Car for conveying Carriers and Bottles

Car for conveying Carriers and Bottles

Wagon Box for carrying bottles on ice

Star Milk Bottles ‘ ‘ ‘

Hand Separator for separating cream from milk .

Milk Wagon

Milk Wagon

Delivery Basket . ; : : : ;

Small Babcock Machine, with Ace necessary paraphernalia

Eight-Bottle Babcock Machine

Power Babcock Machine :

Pipette for making the Babcock test

Shows method of introducing milk into Babcock athe with
pipette in making the fat test

1 cc. Pipettes enclosed in tubes for sterilizing

Flasks and Vials for quantitative bacteriological analysis

Two Burettes arranged for neutralizing culture media.

Petri Dishes

Sketch showing ana aise of milk beige ated i J. D.
Farrell, Esq.

Rough sketch of ground plan of — for ieee cows (w. H.
Paulhamus, Esq.) i d

Rough sketch of ground plan of milk ae (w. H. Paul-
hamus, Esq.)

Page

96

97

98

99
100
IOL
102
103
104
105
106
107
126
127
128
142
143
143
144

145
149
150
152
153

179

181
II
III
IV

. VI
VII
VIII
IX

XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATES

Yeksa Sunbeam (Guernsey) : : ‘ . follows

Shadybrook Gerben (Holstein) .

Pansy of Woodroffe (Ayrshire) .

Loretta D. (Jersey) .

Stable (J. D. Farrell, Esq.)

Stable (J. D. Farrell, Esq.)

Wash Room (J. D. Farrell, Esq.)

Milk Room (J. D. Farrell, Esq.)

Interior of the Paulhamus Barn . ‘ :

Bottle-washing Machine at the Paulhamus Farm

Concrete and Cement Sterilizer, of

The Improved “‘ Drown”? Stall . ‘

The Burrell-Lawrence-Kennedy Cow Milker

The Pulsator : : , ‘ .

Illustrating the Hegelund method of milking

Dipper and Siphon for removing cream and milk
respectively .

Colonies or collections of germs .

Page
170
170
172
172
178
180
180
180
180
182
184
186
188
188
192

132
156
CHAPTER I

GERMS IN THEIR GENERAL RELATIONS
TO MILK

HE object of this book is to show the importance—
nay, even necessity—of a clean milk production, and
the practical methods by which it may be obtained.

Heretofore milk has been regarded much in the same light
as other articles of food, but it differs from them in many
important respects. It is the only animal food which is
commonly eaten in the raw state, and it forms the sole diet
for human beings at an immature age, when they are least
able to cope with the disorders which contaminated and
dirty milk is liableto produce. Again—and this is the chief
reason why milk needs especial care in its production—it
always contains more or less germs, and, indeed, forms one
of the most favorable foods on which germs grow.

The common idea of germs appears to be that they are
chiefly important in being the cause of disease, and while
some germs do produce disease—and occasionally those
inhabiting milk which has not been properly cared for—yet
they mainly interest the farmer on account of their powerful
and enormous influence upon milk and its products. The
chief aim of this book is to enforce on the farmer and dairy-
man this one fact, that the One Essential in producing and
handling milk is CLEANLINEss, and cleanliness means in this
connection freedom from germs, so far as this is possible.
2 CLEAN MILK

It would scarce be an exaggeration to say that ali the trouble
which arises in the endeavor to secure good milk or milk-.
products results from the contamination of milk with unde-
sirable germs. Thus the proper taste, odor, color, consis-
tency and keeping qualities of milk depend upon its
comparative freedom from undesirable germs. Conversely,
the souring of milk and faults in odor, color, consistency
and taste depend almost wholly upon the presence of one
or more varieties of germs.

Moreover, the prevention of contamination of milk
with miscellaneous germs is just as important in order to
make the best products from milk, as it is to avoid disease
in man. Thus the finest cream is only produced from milk
in which germs are comparatively absent. Cream laden
with miscellaneous germs has bad keeping qualities and
often a faulty taste or odor. Most of the so-called faults of
butter arise not from improper feeding of cows or from
improper making or handling of butter, but from undesir-
able germs which infest it. Among some of the more com-
mon faults of butter are poor flavor, tallowy or oily butter,
butter having a bitter, rotten or root-taste like turnips,
rancid, mottled and moldy butter, and butter of unusual
colors; all of these faults have been proved to be due to
the contamination of butter with germs which existed in the
milk.

While germs in milk produce changes in cheese which
give rise to its proper consistency and flavor, yet it is only
a certain type or types of germs which are desirable, and a
general pollution of milk with germs of many kinds may
wholly unfit milk for cheese making.

It is essential that milk should be pure when employed
for condensing, and, although germs are destroyed in the
GERMS IN RELATION TO MILK 3

process, this is much more readily accomplished if the milk
is clean in the beginning and the keeping qualities will be
much better. Above all, when milk is sold for general con-
sumpfion it must be pure—comparatively germ-free—to be
wholesome, to bring a good price, to keep, and to fall
within the legal requirements which will soon become gen-
eral throughout this country.

Heretofore, when milk was regarded in the same light
as any other food, the law required simply that it should
not be adulterated and that it should contain a quantity of
food-constituents equivalent to the minimum standard in
force. Now, however, it has come to be realized that of
the two the cleanliness of the milk is an hundredfold more
important than its food value. While a milk poor in fat
may mean a certain loss of nutriment to one using it, the
contamination of milk with certain germs may be a matter
of life and death to the consumer—particularly if an infant.
The sooner the farmer and dairyman realize that the secret
of success in the making of milk and milk-products is clean-
liness—and by cleanliness we mean essentially methods to
prevent the entrance of germs into milk—the better will it
be for them and for everyone.

Germs, or, as they are more technically termed, bac-
teria, are the most minute forms of plant life we know.
They occur in various shapes, but chiefly in the form of
either rods, round cells or spirals. When seen through the
microscope they present somewhat the appearance of minute
pencils, billiard balls or cork-screws, according as they be-
long to one or the other of these three types. In masses
of thousands they may be visible to the naked eye as specks
like mold, but singly they can only be seen with a com-
pound microscope magnifying more than 500 times. The
4 CLEAN MILK

most common of all varieties of germs in milk are those-
which cause it to sour—the lactic acid bacilli (the bacilli are
the rod or pencil-shaped germs), and these are about 3-25,000,
of an inch long and 1-25,000 of an inch broad. Germs.
grow on vegetable and animal matter, but not in the tissues
or cells of living animals or vegetables, although they are
found on all parts of them exposed to the air. Germs are,
in fact, everywhere—in the air, in water, in soil, on the
skin and in the digestive canal of animals and on the sur-
face of plants and in dust. Professor Conn has found as.
many as 200 different kinds of germs in milk alone. Germs..

Fic. 1.

 

General shape of bacteria. a, spheres; 5, rods; c, spirals. (After Conn.)

propagate by dividing into two equal parts—more usually-
—which form new individuals. The time required for a
germ to mature and form a new germ may not be more than
twenty minutes,

Germs also multiply by spores—that is, small, round.
or egg-shaped bodies appear within the mature germ and.
these later break loose and develop, under favorable cir-
cumstances, into full-grown germs again. Germs which
increase in this manner are much more difficult to kill, for:
in the spore stage they often defy prolonged heat, even at
the boiling temperature, and also cold at or below freezing~
and dryness, as dust, in which they may exist for years..

 
GERMS IN RELATION TO MILK 5

‘To show the possibilities in the way of multiplication, it has
‘been calculated that a single germ, under favorable circum-
“stances, may within twenty-four hours produce over sixteen
millions of progeny.

Germs, however, depend upon certain conditions for
‘their growth; otherwise they would crowd all other life
off the globe. Besides organic matter to feed on, the chief
‘circumstances limiting their existence are heat and moisture.
Germs usually do not grow at a temperature below 39° or
-above 140° F. Freezing does not necessarily destroy
-germs—as, for instance, the germs of typhoid fever have
remained alive in ice for a period of three months—but this
‘temperature cheeks their growth and many kinds of germs
are killed by it. Ice water is therefore comparatively free
from germs. The most favorable temperature for the
growth of disease germs is that of the animal body—from
98° F. to 103° F.—while most other germs multiply most
readily between the temperatures of 59° F. and 77° F.

This knowledge is of the greatest importance in the
-care of milk and teaches us that the chief essential consists
in cooling it immediately to a low temperature— o° F. to
50° F.—and keeping it at this temperature thereafter tilt
‘consumed. The number of germs in milk is always estimated
-as that number contained in a cubic centimeter of milk. A
cubic centimeter represents a cube holding a quantity of
liquid equivalent to about one-quarter of a teaspoonful, or
sixteen drops of water. If milk is kept at below 50° F. for
24 hours there is not only not an increase but generally a
‘decrease in the number of germs, and the same usually
holds good for milk kept 36 hours below 45° F. After 36
hours, when milk is kept at 40° F., there is an increase in
the number of germs. Dr. Park found in a sample of milk
6 CLEAN MILK

containing only 3,000 germs in the cubic centimeter, that
after 24 hours at 42° F. it contained 2,600 germs; after 48
hours 3,600 germs; and after 96 hours 500,000 germs to
the cubic centimeter. The number of germs in milk kept.
at 32° F. lessens from day to day.

When milk is kept at higher temperatures the germs:
multiply rapidly and it sours and deteriorates correspond-
ingly. It has been shown that very clean milk (containing
but 3,000 germs to the cubic centimeter), if kept for 24
hours at 60° F., held 180,000 germs; if kept at 86° F. for
24 hours it contained 1,400,000 germs; and at 94° F. the.
germs multiplied so tremendously that at the end of 24
hours the same milk contained 25 billion germs per cubic:
centimeter.

All germs require some moisture in order that they may
actually grow, but they may exist in large quantities—for a
longer or shorter time—in dust. Some require air for their:
existence, others do not.

Sunlight is one of the most powerful enemies of germs,
since few will thrive in sunlight, especially in the presence
of plenty of air. This explains the value of sunning dairy”
utensils and of permitting the sunlight to enter freely into
the barn and dairy. Some germs grow more readily in sub-.
stances having an alkaline or neutral reaction; others, as.
those which cause milk to sour, flourish in an acid medium,
providing the acidity is not too great.

The most potent factors in destroying germs are intense:
heat and cold, sunlight and chemicals. A temperature
varying from 140° to 158° F. will kill most germs—if con-
tinued long enough or repeated at frequent intervals. Milk
treated by continued, intermittent heating at 140° F. has.
been: kept for years without changing, owing to the destruc-.
GERMS IN RELATION TO MILK 7

tion of germs (and ferments) in it. As the time required
for the destruction of germs at this temperature is too great
for practical dairy purposes, a temperature of 165° F. is
usually applied for either killing or checking the develop-
ment of germs in milk. Heating milk with this object in
view is called technically pasteurization, after the great
originator of the process. If properly done for twenty min-
utes, pasteurization kills most of the germs in milk and this
is the best way to obviate the dangers of dirty milk for
human consumption—more particularly in the case of
infants. There are certain drawbacks to the process, how-
ever. Ifthe milk has been kept long before heating, poisons
may form in it which the heat will not destroy. Many
medical authorities believe that milk thus heated is less
digestible, but this is an unsettled matter at present. ‘There
are certain substances present in cows’ milk exactly resem-
bling those which bring about the digestion of food in the
stomach and bowels of man and animals. These chemical
substances in milk or in the digestive organs are called fer-
ments. They appear to aid the digestibility of milk,
particularly in infants, and are destroyed by heating milk
over 179° F., or at a lower temperature if the milk is
repeatedly heated. It is generally accepted, however, that
babies will not thrive so well on pasteurized milk for long
periods, as on clean, unheated milk, and occasionally
develop malnutrition, anemia, rickets and scurvy. The

last may be prevented by feeding infants a small amount
of orange juice daily. The simplest method of home
pasteurization consists in pouring a quart of milk into
a two-quart glass preserve jar and placing the jar
with the milk in it on a flat, thin piece of wood (to
prevent breaking of the jar- by heat) in an open kettle.
Warm water is then poured into the kettle so that it

4
8 CLEAN MILK

will rise to almost the level of the milk in the jar and
the kettle is set upon a stove. When the water in the
kettle begins to boil the kettle is removed to the back or
side of the stove—where it will receive but little heat—for
twenty minutes, and then the bottle is taken from the kettle
and placed inarefrigerator. As I have observed, in pasteur-
ization done on a large scale for market purposes in Seattle,
the result has been a farce other than it enabled the milk-
man to keep the milk for perhaps twenty-four hours longer
than it would have otherwise kept sweet. The pasteuriza-
tion of the market milk was only done for three minutes,
possibly because the machine—which permitted of a contin-
uous flow of milk through it—was not competent to do the
work properly, but also because thoroughly pasteurized
milk has a cooked taste and cream does not rise readily
from it, much of the fat remaining in the skim milk. The
pasteurizers having a large chamber, in which the milk may
be retained for the required time at the proper temperature,
are preferable. Short pasteurization prevents milk from
souring quickly because the germs which cause milk to sour
are those most readily succumbing to heat. The general
effect of short pasteurization is simply to check—for a longer
or shorter time—the growth of germs. They are retarded
in their development, not killed. Disease germs are not
destroyed at all in the process. Experiments which I have
conducted with the pasteurized milk of the general market
showed that while containing but 15,000 germs to the cubic
centimeter, soon after emerging from the pasteurizer on the
delivery wagon, in twenty-four hours the same milk con-
tained several million germs to the cubic centimeter.. Drs.
Bergey and Pennington found much the same result in
Philadelphia; that raw and recently pasteurized milk con-
GERMS IN RELATION TC MILK 9

tained respectively 1,260 and 12 bacteria, but, at the end of
72 hours, the numbers were 17,000,000 and 148,000,000
germs. Also the harmless lactic acid germs of raw milk
are killed by heat, and the more dangerous germs from
dirty bottles, corks and dust contaminate the improperly
pasteurized milk. I have, however, pasteurized fresh, clean
milk for twenty minutes and exposed it at mild spring
weather temperature for nineteen hours in a sealed bottle
with the result that it was absolutely free from germs at the
end of that time. If pasteurization is done thoroughly the
lactic acid bacilli (sour milk germs) are destroyed and so
the milk does not sour but putrefies when it ages.
Pasteurization prevents milk from being properly cur-
‘dled by rennet and so unfits milk for cheese-making. Pas-
teurized milk or cream may be used to advantage for butter-
making when the lactic acid germs are added in the form of
‘sour milk, known asa “starter,” which will be described later.
If we must have dirty milk, pasteurization is the best remedy
for this unhappy state of affairs, but it may well prove
undesirable to thus remove the incentive to dairymen to
produce clean milk. If done at all for the market, it should
‘be done thoroughly by heating the milk for twenty minutes
to 165° F., followed by rapid cooling.* If milk is not cooled
-down to a low point after pasteurization, spores will develop
which have escaped destruction on account of their great
resistance to heat, and these will result in germs which,
while not souring milk, act on the casein to cause it to
curdle and perhaps become poisonous and putrid. In
Europe pasteurization of milk is much more common than
in this country, since ice is in less common use. In Den-
mark it is required by law, so that tuberculosis may not be
spread when skim milk is returned from the creameries and

“.  * Pasteurized milk which is sold for general consumption should be always
marked as such, in order that infants shall not-be harmed. by its use.) —
10 CLEAN MILK

fed to calves. This custom might well be imitated in the
United States, since the young stock are not only protected
from disease, but the keeping quality of the skim milk is so.
much improved. A higher temperature than 165° F. gives.
the milk a boiled taste and alters its composition to some
extent. Steam or boiling water are used to destroy germs
in or on dairy utensils.

Chemicals find little use as germ-destroyers in a pro-
perly conducted dairy or farm. They may be employed to.
some extent in the barn (as lime scattered on the floor),
or in case milk products become faulty through some con-
tamination with special germs in the stable or dairy, when
general disinfection is in order. The employment of the
various preservatives under the trade names of Freezine,
Iceline, Preservaline, Milk Sweet (all containing from two
to five per cent, of formaldehyde), and others containing
boric acid, as Dry Antiseptic, Preserving Salts, “A” Pre- ,
servaline, Cream Albuminoid, Patent ‘“‘M” Preservaline
and Ozone Antiseptic Compound, are employed to keep.
milk from souring without the use of ice or cleanliness by
killing or checking the growth of germs in milk. Their
use is contrary to law and detrimental to the consumer’s.
health, especially when employed, as they usually are, in a
careless way, without regard to what the-effect of a con-
siderable amount of the chemical might be. Thus the
following instance is related in the Year Book of the
Department of Agriculture for 1900 of a case where a
preserving fluid was first added to the milk by the farmer,
then by the collector of the milk, again by the wholesale
dealer, and finally the fourth dose by the retail dealer.

If it were impossible to produce clean milk or to pre-
serve it with ice, and if preservatives could be used properly
GERMS IN RELATION TO MILK Il

in a harmless dose, their employment might be permitted, .
but such is not the case.

Significance of Germs in Milk

The growth of large numbers of germs in milk causes .
it to deteriorate because they remove nutriment or alter the.
milk chemically and thus lessen its food-value. Ordinary -
market milk, which is overrun with germs, loses much of ‘its.
value as food after it is twenty-four hours old. The ideal
result would be reached if milk could be withdrawn from
the cow absolutely free from germs. This might be pos-.
sible if germs did not enter the udder in the air through the
opening in the teat and find their way into the cavity or
milk-cistern in the lower part of the udder. Asthe milking
proceeds the germs in the-milk-cistern and teat are washed
away so that the latter part of the milk withdrawn is often
absolutely free from germs until contaminated with the out-
side air. Occasionally germs may persist in milk throughout.
milking, and the strippings may contain as many as 500.
germs to the cubic centimeter. If the latter part of the
milk is withdrawn through an absolutely clean milking tube
into an absolutely clean bottle, it will often be wholly with-
out germs, and may keep sweet for months or years if it
does not come in contact with the air. Such painstaking
cleanliness as is necessary to make this experiment suc-
cessful, is not of course practicable in actual dairy work,
since it is not economically possible to throw away a larger
part of the milk nor to withdraw milk so that it will not
come in contact with air.* Therefore, under any ordinary
conditions a certain number of germs must inevitably be
present in the cleanest milk—perhaps 200 to 4,000 as the
least number to the cubic centimeter.

* Since writing the above the use of the milking machine (see p. 189) makes
withdrawal of milk without exposure to air practicable.
12 CLEAN MILK

Then, if the milk is immediately cooled to 40° F. and
retained at this temperature, the number of germs will lessen
until it is thirty-six hours old.

The presence of many thousand germs to the cubic
‘centimeter in milk freshly withdrawn indicates filthiness of
the cow, milker or surroundings.

The existence of a great variety of germs in milk sev-
eral hours old signifies contamination of the milk with filth
also, because in clean milk only one kind of germs (lactic
acid bacilli) are found very numerous after many hours.

While the .mere fact that milk contains a vast number
of germs is not a sure proof of its unwholesomeness—
because the commonest germs in milk are harmless and
because milk may contain but a few germs and these may
be the cause of dangerous disease in man—yet the estima-
tion of the number of germs in milk is to-day the best
method we possess for determining its purity.

Ordinary market milk contains as many germs as sew-
age, and unusually dirty milk contains more germs than
sewage was ever known to hold. This is, however, not at
all a fair comparison, for while sewage is likely to contain
all sorts of germs of disease, the germs in dirty milk are
mostly not disease-germs.

We may consider the influence of germs in milk under
two heads: 1. The effects of germs on milk and its products,
2. The influence of germs in milk on the consumer.

1. The Effects of Germs on Milk and Its Products.—
All fermentation and putrefaction orerotting, anywhere and
of anything, are due to germs.

Germs are the great disintegrating agencies in the
world ; they tend to break up complex, natural constituents
GERMS IN RELATION TO MILK 13

in milk and its products into simpler bodies. The com-
monest germs in milk—as we have noted—are those causing
souring of milk; they are invariably present and are about
the only kind existing in very clean milk. They act to fer-
ment or change the natural sugar of milk into an acid (lactic
acid), and if they occur in large numbers a few hours after
milking it is a sign that the milk has not been properly
cooled and will sour early. Lactic acid germs, or those
producing souring of milk, besides being the most common,
are of most importance in their influence on milk and its
products. They exist in very small numbers in milk soon
after leaving the cow, but as they grow more readily than
all other germs in milk at favorable temperatures (above 502
and better over 70° F.), they often constitute almost 50 per
cent. of all the germs in twenty-four hours. While, after
this time, they gradually crowd out the different varieties of
competing germs until they produce so much acid that the
milk or cream sours and curdles, and they have multiplied
so rapidly and have made the milk so unfavorable for other
germs that they form from go to gg per cent. of all the
germs present. This is a most favorable occurrence, because
the flavor of most butter and cheese is chiefly dependent on
the action of the lactic acid germs, and in their growth they
protect the milk from the action of miscellaneous germs
which would spoil these products.

Even to man the growth of the lactic acid germs is a
favorable happening, as they are not harmful to adults in
themselves and tend to check the development of other
harmful germs in the digestive canal.* As we have pointed
out, heating milk to 155° or 165° F. readily kills the lactic
acid germs. Therefore such milk does not sour, but is
changed by the action of other harmful germs so that it rots

* Indeed Metchnikoff, perhaps the most celebrated living authority on the

action of germs on the body, belives that lactic acid germs in buttermilk consti-
tute one of the best agencies for prolonging life.
14 CLEAN MILK

or putrefies when old. A low temperature (40° F.) also
retards the development of the lactic acid germs and they
are killed when the milk or cream becomes very sour by
means of the lactic acid they themselves produce. The
action of these lactic acid germs is taken advantage of in
the ripening of cream for butter by adding them in great
numbers, either by the use of sour cream or milk, or by
laboratory methods by which they can be obtained in pure
culture—that is, free from admixture with other varieties of
germs (see page 39). Lactic acid germs are not found in
milk when it leaves the udder, but enter the milk when it is
exposed to air. They are thought to reside on the skin of
the cow, in dust, in the air or surroundings of the barn.
Ordinary market milk at 50° F. sours in 120 hours; at 60°
F. it sours in 66 hours; at 98° it sours in 16 to 18 hours.
At the Paris exposition of 1900 there was an exhibit of
dairy products, under care of Major Alford of the U.S.
Department of Agriculture, which consisted of fresh milk
_and cream shipped from Illinois, New Jersey and New York
in hot weather (July). Coming some 3,000 to 4,000 miles,
the cream and milk were perfectly sweet a fortnight after
being bottled, while the only other competitor was the
French with a local supply which did not keep a day after
reaching the grounds. Cleanliness and cold were the only
methods used in so wonderfully preserving this milk,
If milk is very dirty, however, it is not safe to keep it
‘too long with ice, even if it does not sour and is unaltered
‘in taste, as various sorts of harmful germs may develop at
_alow temperature. Thus, milk containing, soon after milk-
ing, some 800,000 germs to the cubic centimeter, after four
-days at 41° F. contained almost five million germs and
‘became sour. At the end of ten days this same milk con-
GERMS IN RELATION TO MILK 15

tained over 400 million germs, or over ten times the num-
ber of germs in the same milk kept the same time at 59° F.*
The milk kept at a higher temperature soured more quickly
and the acid destroyed many of the germs in the process.

There is a large class of germs known as putrefactive
germs because they produce changes in milk which are akin
to rotting of meat. If these continue to develop long
enough they may impart a bad odor to milk or its products
and are likely to induce diarrhceal diseases in children.
These germs are more liable to arise from the contamina-
tion of milk with manure and are the germs which have
escaped from the intestines of the cow.

If milk contains many of this type of germs it signifies
that the milk was withdrawn under filthy conditions. There
are a great number of germs in milk which apparently have
no effect upon its character and also are not harmful to the
consumer. It is practically impossible to discover the
germs of special diseases in milk with any certainty, so that
besides recognizing the chief types of germs—the lactic acid
germs, the putrefactive germs, and miscellaneous germs
whose action is unknown to us—the best that can be done
at present is to estimate the number of germs in milk per
cubic centimeter. Large numbers of miscellaneous and
putrefactive germs signify that the milk is contaminated
with filth and is most dangerous, Large numbers of lactic
acid germs indicate that the milk has not been kept cool
enough or is old. Freedom from any considerable number
of germs is a pretty certain sign that the milk has been
drawn from the cow and handled in a cleanly manner; has
been properly cooled and is likely to be uncontaminated

* Swithinbank &. Newman.
16 CLEAN MILK

with disease-germs. This is the justification of cities whicly
require that milk shall not contain more than a specified
number of germs (bacteria) to the cubic centimeter,

Thus the law in force in Boston requires that milk sold
in that city shall not contain more than 500,000 germs to.
the cubic centimeter. .

It has generally been admitted that it is difficult to.
obtain any large supply of milk which shall certainly contain
less than 30,000 germs to the cubic centimeter. In various.
parts of the United States milk of such purity is now sold
and is often called “Certified: Milk,” when certified by some
responsible body who have a laboratory to daily determine
that the milk comes up to the required standard. The
name ‘Certified Milk” originated with Henry L. Coit,
M.D. He established a commission of medical men in
Newark, N.J., in 1893, who made an agreement with a
dairyman of Caldwell, N.J., to furnish milk subject to their
requirements and inspection which should be known as
“Certified Milk” when approved by the commission.

Any person who pretends to produce clean milk must
submit to the germ standard, as this is the best means of
estimating purity which we now possess. Exactly what
that standard should be has, however, not been generally
agreed upon.* It is perfectly possible to produce milk
which shall not contain more than a few hundred, or, at
most, not more than 2,000 to 4,000 germs to the cubic.
centimeter without great expense, if every precaution to
secure cleanliness be observed in milking and handling:
the milk.

The usual contamination of milk with germs may be
judged by the following figures with the understanding that
great improvement is taking place owing to the interest

*It is not unusual to find 10,000 germs as the maximum number per cubic -
centimeter permitted in certain localities for certified milk.

The standard of Albany for certified milk has been 80,000; for Rochester -
and New York City, 30,000; for Philadelphia and Milwaukee, 10,000.
GERMS IN RELATION TO MILK 17

which has been shown in the matter of obtaining a pure
milk supply in recent years by physicians and others. In
Boston, during the spring of 1890, 57 samples of milk showed
an average of 2,355,500 germs in the better class milk, and
of 4,557,000 germs in grocery milk. In winter the growth
of germs is considerably lessened by the colder temperature
and this is somewhat counterbalanced by the filthier condi-
tions of the barn floors, air and of the animals. On the
whole, winter milk is, however, much freer from germs.
The New York County Medical Society issue a certificate
of inspection to farmers who will follow their directions for
producing a second-grade, pure milk which shall not average
over 100,000 germs from May to October, and not over
60,000 germs from October to May. In Seattle I found
in twenty-eight examinations of different samples of milk
on as many days in May and June, that sixteen samples
averaged over 3,000,000 germs, and twelve samples less
than 1,000,000 germs per cubic centimeter. The examina-
tion of these milk samples was done when the milk was
fifteen to thirty-six hours old, on the way to the consumer’s
house, being taken from the delivery wagons or on arrival
of the milk train.

A great many conditions may alter the number of
germs in milk if milk is not produced and handled in a
proper manner. Time and temperature are the two most
important factors upon which the growth of germs depends
—and the greatest of these is temperature. The milk from
one farm examined at the same hour on two consecutive
days averaged 1,150,000 germs on the first day—which was
warm for May—and 48,000 germs the following day, which
was cold and rainy. The great increase of germs when milk
is kept at improper temperatures, we have already noticed,
18 CLEAN MILK

the number of germs in such milk depending entirely upon
its age. To show the effect of dust and unclean utensils on
milk I may cite the following: a sample of pasteurized
milk, taken from a delivery wagon and examined by the
writer, contained seven million germs, while from the same
wagon was also taken a sample of the same milk put into
sealed milk bottles which contained but 24,000 germs
to the cubic centimeter. The first sample was taken from
a large can which was frequently opened to pour out small
quantities for consumers and very likely the can was unclean
before the milk was put into it.

Germs do not multiply at all in milk at 32° F., no mat-
ter how long it is kept. After the milk is withdrawn from
the cow the number of germs in it generally diminishes for
a longer or shorter time, and after this period the number
rapidly increases. Thus at fifty degrees the number of germs
may not be greater in thirty or forty hours than it was when
the milk was first withdrawn. At a higher temperature the
germs begin to multiply in the milk as soon as the third
hour after it has left the cow. Each variety of germ
has a special temperature at which it flourishes to best
advantage. The lactic acid germs grow more favorably at
comparatively high temperatures—from 70° to 90° F., or

even higher.

There are certain special germs—not all of which have
been studied—which produce special faults, or, as they have
been called, diseases of milk.

Thus the butyric acid germs develop that acid by the
splitting up the fat in rancid butter. Yellow, red, blue,
brown and green milk are rarely seen and the particular
coloration is due to changes produced in the milk by special
germs. So also are slimy milk, bitter, stringy and soapy
GERMS IN RELATION TO MILK 19

milk, entirely owing to germ-development and its effect on
milk.

This whole book is chiefly devoted to the influence of
germs on milk, in one way or another, and further reference
to the subject will be found under the special topics con-
sidered.

2. Action of Germs in Milk Upon the Consumer.—-
As we have already intimated, germs do not enter milk
during its formation in the udder of the cow, in normal
conditions, but only gain entrance to milk through the
medium of the air when the milk flows into the receptacle
or cistern which communicates with the air through the
opening in the teat. We showed that if the milk cistern
was washed out clean and that if then a milking tube was
introduced into the teat it was possible to secure milk
free from germs altogether and which would therefore
remain sweet indefinitely if kept in a sealed flask. If the
cow is suffering from a germ disease it is possible for the
germs to get into the milk, during its formation in the
udder, from the blood of the animal, if it has a general dis-
ease, or what is still more likely, if there is disease of the
udder itself, the germs may find their way into the milk
directly from the diseased parts. Inflammation of the udder
may be caused by various germs, of which the germ of tuber-
culosis is one and perhaps the most dangerous. This germ
is found in milk then more frequently when tuberculosis
affects the udder, but possibly also when tuberculosis attacks
other parts of the cow. Just how common, and how
important, therefore, is tuberculosis in the cow a source of
the disease in man through drinking milk of tuberculous
cows, it is impossible to say. Cases of tuberculosis in
20 CLEAN MILK

human beings have undoubtedly arisen from this source and
in consequence it is essential that all cows should be tested
with tuberculin, to exclude the possibility of tuberculosis,
before the milk is used for dairy purposes.

The germs of tuberculosis have been found not only
in milk, but in cream and butter, although there is no cer-.
tain evidence that the disease was ever produced in man by
the latter two products.

The more ordinary germs which cause acute inflamma-.
tion of the udder, or garget, are those which produce acute
inflammation and pus in all parts of the body, and pus or:
“matter” is often found in the milk (see page 159).

Milk obtained from cows with garget is highly danger--
ous to man and causes disease in him which in some cases
resembles diphtheria and at other times has appeared iden-
tical with scarlet fever. The milk from such cows may com-.
municate the inflammation of the udder to other cows in
the same barn by means of germs carried by the milker’s.
hands. Therefore cows with caked or inflamed udders.
should be kept apart and milked by one not milking the
healthy cows. The milk from cows with foot-and-mouth.
disease has been the means of communicating this disease -
to man, giving rise in him to sore mouth, tender swellings.
under the jaw, an eruption of blisters or “cold sores” on the.
face, fever and disturbance of the digestion. Cow pox,.
milk fever, anthrax and pleuropneumonia in cows have-
been conveyed by the germs of these diseases, in their milk, |
to human beings.

It may be positively affirmed that the milk from a sick:
cow or one receiving drugs, is not fit for human consump--
tion. The milk of tuberculous cows may be safely fed to:
swine or calves after boiling for ten or more minutes.
GERMS IN RELATION TO MILK 21

The germs of typhoid fever, diphtheria and scarlet
fever* (rarely of cholera, dysentery and smallpox) occasion-
ally find their way into milk, owing to the milk coming in
‘contact with human patients suffering from these diseases,
or with their surroundings, or from contamination of milk
utensils with water harboring the germs of typhoid fever.
Also, by wading in filth containing the bowel and urinary
‘discharges of human beings, cows may contaminate their
udders with germs of typhoid fever and thus convey them
‘to milk.

Other agencies by which disease germs may be carried
‘to milk and by which many cases of typhoid fever, diph-
teria and scarlet fever have been communicated to man
are as follows: by attendants in the sick room coming in
contact with milk, by dish cloths, brushes and other articles
‘coming in contact with the sick and milk utensils as well,
by contact of milk with flies and by contact of milk with
persons handling human excremeit.

The lesson which should be taken to heart is that no
“sick person or one coming in contact with persons sick with
‘communicable diseases, should be allowed to have anything
‘to do with the handling of milk, milk utensils or be per-
mitted entrance to barn or dairy. Milk should be kept ina
‘room separate from human habitation, and all the utensils
‘should be kept and cared for in this milk room. Young chil-
dren should be excluded from barn and dairy, as they are
‘much more prone to contagious diseases than adults. Dogs
-and cats may be carriers of germs, dirt and parasites, and
‘should also be kept out of these places. The water used in
connection with the dairy should be examined for purity
‘by a competent chemist.

All forms of disease conveyed by germs in milk to

* Physicians are required by law to report all cases of infectious disease to
‘the local board of health. It should also be made mandatory that physicians
state the name of the milk dealer supplying the patient with milk, in the case
-of every report of infectious disease, as is done in Mt. Vernon, N.Y. In this way
-endemics originating in milk contamination with human infections could be
weadily traced.
22 CLEAN MILK \

human adults areas nothing in comparison with the damage
wrought by germ-laden milk upon infants. Cholera infan-
tum, in fact, is but another name for acute milk poison-
ing. Practically almost all the cases of summer diar-
rhoea in babies are caused by germs in milk. These
are probably chiefly of the putrefactive type which
enter milk from manure on the cow. Indeed, in some
localities from 40 to 60 per cent. of the deaths in infants.
from all causes result from dirty milk. The wonderful
reduction in the death rate of infants in some of our large
cities—which is one of the remarkable signs of modern
progress—has been brought about solely by the recognition
of this fact.

This reduction is directly traceable to the use of pure
milk or, where this is not obtainable, to milk heated to 165° I.
for thirty minutes, at which temperature the growth of germs
is killed or checked. Violent and often fatal poisoning,
resembling cholera, is produced by a substance (tyrotoxicon)
formed by certain germs in milk kept in dirty, covered
vessels during hot weather. The same poison has some-
times been found in cheese, cream and ice cream and has.
also caused fatal results. Heating impure milk will destroy

this poison. Chiefly through the laudable and efficient
work of Health Officer G, W. Goler, M.D., in supplying cer-
tified milk to the public of Rochester, N. Y., the infant
mortality has been reduced as follows: 1887-1896, before
milk work was done, the average mortality in infants under
I year in the month of July was 1,010; 1897-1906, after the
milk work was begun the average mortality was only 413
in July under the same circumstances.
CHAPTER II.

COMPOSITION OF MILK AND CREAM AND.
THEIR PRODUCTS

ILK is a white, opaque fluid, when seen in bulk,
| ) | but appears transparent in thin layers. It has a
peculiar, pleasant odor and taste which cannot be
described. They can best be appreciated—by comparison
—when they are absent. Thus, milk which has been heated
in open vessels or passed through a separator loses some of
its finest flavor. This flavor resides in a volatile substance
which escapes in either process.

Chemically, milk is composed of all the essentials of a
complete food. That is, it is a single substance which con-
tains all the food-elements necessary to indefinitely support
life. These food-elements are known technically as Pyo-
tetds, Fat, Sugar and Mineral Matters.

Proteids in milk have the same food value as flesh or
eggs. Water is, of course, the largest constituent of milk,
forming about 87 per cent. of it.

The solids make up the remainder of milk, amounting
to about 13 per cent. and comprising the substances we
have just enumerated, proteids, fat, sugar and mineral mat.
ters. Omitting the mineral matters or salts, we may, in a
general way, remember the proportion of proteids, fat and
sugar as four per cent. of each, the percentage of proteids
being slightly below and that of sugar slightly above these

figures. The fat is the only one of these constituents which
3
24 CLEAN MILK

varies greatly and this indeed varies tremendously (from
1.5 to 13. per cent.) and owing to a great variety of
circumstances which will be noted.

If the fat is all removed from milk—which can practi-
cally be done with the separator—we have left the skim
milk, which is composed of the proteids, sugar and water.
The sugar is of a kind peculiar to milk and therefore called
milk sugar. It is found in no other substance and is not
nearly so sweet as ordinary or cane sugar. The souring of
milk is due to fermentaton of milk sugar which takes place
through the action of certain germs (lactic acid germs),
which we have already mentioned and which are always
present in the cleanest milk. These germs lead to the
breaking up (fermentation) of the sugar-in milk into lactic
acid (or milk acid), We have accounted for the sugar in
the skim milk; we have left for consideration the pro-
teids and mineral matters. The proteids are of two kinds:
Casein (or casetnogen) and Albumin. Casein forms.
nearly four-fifths of the proteids and is‘that part of milk
which makes the curd of skim milk or the part of milk which
forms the bulk of cheese. The word caseous means cheesy.
The other kind of proteid or albumin‘ remains mostly in the
whey when milk is curdled. Casein exists in the form of
microscopic solid particles floating in the milk, while the
albumin is in actual solution, together with the mineral
matter, in the water of the milk.

This will be apparent if milk is kept a long while, when
the cream (mostly fat) rises to the top; the casein settles as
another white layer to the bottom of the vessel, while in
between these is seen a third clear layer (serum) consisting of
water, in which remain dissolved the mineral matter and

albumin (Fig. 2).
 

The Constituent Elements of Milk—Fat, Serum, and Casein.
(Fron Swithinbank & Newman).
COMPOSITION OF MILK AND CREAM 25

Milk curdles because the casein in it clots or coagulates
‘by the action of dilute acid (the lactic acid of sour milk), or
sby the ferment, rennet, which represents the dried secretion
‘scraped from the calves’ stomachs. The second form of
‘curdling is what naturally happens when milk is taken into
the stomach as food. The albumin of milk is not curdled
‘by the souring of milk or by rennet, but is, to a slight extent,
-by heat at a temperature over 162° F,

The fat in milk occurs as the most minute, microscopic
‘globules which float through the milk and, on account of
their buoyancy, rise more or less quickly to the surface and
there form cream. These minute droplets of fat are appa-
rently surrounded by a wonderfully thin pellicle or covering
which is thought to consist of a layer of casein adhering by
capillary attraction. Ifthe fat were not thus surrounded the
globules would run together and produce an oily mass.
‘The fat globules vary greatly in size, some being six times
the diameter of others. They average about 1-5,000 of an
inch in diameter, and one drop of milk no larger than a pin-
head may contain 1,500,000 fat globules. The larger glob-
ules of fat are most buoyant and rise to the surface ; only
the smallest remain in skim milk. The fat globules are
laryer in some breeds of animals, particularly the Jerseys,
and the cream therefore rises more rapidly and completely.
The fat globules are arranged in groups or clumps in milk
instead of being uniformly scattered throughout the fluid.
This is of considerable practical importance, for milk which
has been separated or heated (pasteurized) does not cream
so well because the clumps of fat globules are broken up and
so do not rise so quickly or completely. For example, milk
is passed through a separator not revolving fast enough to
‘separate the milk from the cream (which is sometimes done to
26 CLEAN MILK

remove the dirt from milk), and the milk is bottled. The
cream will rise from this milk slowly and incompletely, and
the cream, when it has risen, will appear so thin that a
twenty per cent. cream may not seem thicker nor richer
than rich milk.

Pasteurizing milk will cause much the same result, if the
milk is subjected to considerable agitation in the process.

The mineral matter in milk comprises a very small
amount of variety of salts and altogether they do not form
quite one per cent. of the whole milk.

The following table perhaps fairly represents the com-
position of what might be called average milk} from a large
herd of average cows of various breeds:

Per Cent,
Watefeoiiacccnsieands 64 eae SanaGetetomownddaiews 87.00
Fath ctaseewatea sericea tas Sa vaie eg nee te eam eae ee 4.00
Proteids s.ciciiiek isis seaweed ow alnacs wee ea ow aerate 3.30
Sugar: 2055 pig ates aise tinnsaen a sa nackieehyeeenee 4.95
Mineral Matter......... ccc cccee erence cence eae 0.75

We will now consider in detail the various circum-
stances which modify the composition of milk. It is a curi-
ous fact that the character of the food of cows has little
influence upon the composition of milk although it affects
tremendously the yield of milk. The composition of the
milk is dependent on the cow and breed, and is as mucha
characteristic as her color and as difficult to change. The
following table illustrates the average composition of the
milk of herds of different breeds of cows:

 

 

 

 

 

 

*Durham | Holstein- B c
Fat........ 4.04 409 3.89 2&8 5 22 4.co 3 69
Sugar..... 434 432 4-41 4 33 484 4 30 4-35
Proteids...| 4.17 4.04 401 3-99 3.58 4.00 409
Min’im’t’rs| 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.74 0.73 0.76 0.76

 

 

 

 

* Abstract of tables compiled by Mr. Gordon, of Walker Gordon Laboratory.
The figures for Holstein-Friesian in the case of fat are rather low; 3.2 per cent.
fat would be nearer the minimum average.—K. W.

+ The U. S. Pure Food Act of 1906 fixes the standard for milk as follows:
Solids not fat, 8.5 per cent.; milk fat, 3.5 per cent.; milk solids, total, 11.75 per
cent. Skimmed milk to contain 9.25 per cent. of total solids.
COMPOSITION OF MILK AND CREAM 27

According to the statutes of the various states,* the
required standard of composition of milk differs to a slight
extent, but as much as three per cent. of fat is demanded in
every state, except Rhode Island, and solids amounting to
twelve per cent., in most states, and as high as thirteen per
cent. in some.

The composition of milk varies according to the period
of milking, the milk growing richer in fat and the fat glob-
ules larger as milking advances, the last of the milking or
“strippings” being very rich.

Per Cent.
Fat.
PFore Milkivs sce sssssis saewrsesideiecs Sevewerereente 38
Middle: Milks g.icc.scccsastcaiescasenebase ces gas 674
DUCMPPINGS ges hited ais Searle ce mastiarhianegietnis Ss ocaihe 8.12

The reason for this is said to be that the fat globules are
retarded by friction on the sides of the milk ducts in the
udder and are forced out in abundance towards the last of
milking. The percentage of the other solids remains prac-
tically unchanged at different periods of milking.

If cows are milked at frequent intervals the yield of
milk is greater and the percentage of fat larger. The milk
is formed in the cells of the udder and is conducted through
numerous fine tubes of increasing size until it empties into
a reservoir (holding about one-half pint on an average) con-
nected with the upper end of the canal or opening in the:
centre of each teat. There are therefore four milk cisterns.
in the udder, one for each teat. It is probable that when
the udder has become accustomed to hold in its ducts and
cisterns a certain quantity of milk it will for a time secrete
nearly the same amount during each interval between milk-.

* Laws in force in Jane, rgoo.
+ Dr. Charles Harrington’s analysis.
28 CLEAN MILK

ings. After a while, however—if the cow is milked more
frequently than usual—the udder will not continue to secrete
the same amount of milk and the exceptional quantity
obtained by frequent milkings will cease. Milking three
times daily is practiced in some parts of Europe, but milk-
ing more than twice in the twenty-four hours is rarely con-
sidered economical in the United States, and is not done
except in the case of very heavy milkers or in cows newly
-calved.

The longer the interval between milking the larger the
quantity of milk and the poorer the quality of the milk ; the
shorter the interval, the smaller and richer the yield of milk.
In the summer the nights are short and therefore the morn-
ing milking is apt to be richer. In winter the reverse is
true and the night milking is likely to be the richer.

The following analyses of the milk of one herd at the
Delaware Experiment Station show this :

Night Milk. Morning Milk.
Per Cent. Fat. Per Cent. Fat.

July 2dthics catianasseevs wenareew ee 3 76 4.67
February 5th.............. 0.04. 4.56 3-53

The season of the year influences the composition of
milk. In the summer the percentage of fat and other solids
is lowest. In the winter months the milk is richest in fat
and solids not fat. Thus in the months of November,
December and January, the solids may average 13.36 per
cent. and the fat, 4.16 per cent.; while in May, June and
July the solids may average 12.68 per cent. and the fat 3.82
per cent.

The changes in the composition of one cow’s milk are
great and may be brought about through various influences,
_as, for instance, fright, excitement, rough handling, change
COMPOSITION OF MILK AND CREAM 29.

of milker, exposure to bad weather, unfamiliar surround- .
ings, sudden change in the character of food, and irregu-
larity in time of milking. It follows without saying that all
these unfavorable influences are, as far as possible, to be
avoided.

In an analysis of hundreds of samples of milk from
single cows, Farrington found that in the case of a Holstein.
there was as much difference between the highest and low- .
est percentage of fat as between 6.6 per cent. and 1.5 per
cent., while in the case of the Jersey—in which sudden
changes are most common—the highest was 12.3 per cent.
of fat; the lowest, 2.9 of fat.

The mixed milk of a large herd is pretty constant in com- .
position except as influenced by the season and by the times
the cows calve. For the composition of milk varies at dif-
ferent times in the milking period. The milking period
of the cow lasts about 323 days on the average after
calving, she going dry about eight weeks before she calves .
again.*

In cows which are well tended and fed the percentage
of fat increases as the milking period progresses, so that the
milk is richer at the close than at the beginning of the.
period of milking.

The period of heat in a cow is often accompanied by a

diminished yield of milk which is poor in fat (so that the
fat may be reduced to one per cent.), and the milk curdles
on boiling. The fat after this period is, however, propor-
tionately increased over that usually present.

The milk-yielding capacity of cows generally increases
up to the eighth year of age, and then decreases. With
the decrease of yield there appears to be often a decrease in
fat and total solids in the milk. It was thought at one time

* The interval between two calving days averages about 398 days.
30 CLEAN MILK

that the spaying of cows would prove of advantage in sus-
taining the yield and improving the richness of their milk,
but it has not been found so in practice, except in those ani-
mals which are constantly in heat owing to disease.

The dehorning of cattle is said to improve the yield of
milk, but there can be no conceivable reason for this other
than in the freedom from fighting and wounds which this
practice accomplishes.

The composition of milk is of great importance in that
the value of milk depends upon the amount of fat it con-
tains, other things being equal.

It has now become the custom for creameries in most
parts of the country to pay a sum for milk proportionate
to the amount of butter-fat it contains as estimated by the
use of the Babcock machine at certain stated intervals.
First-class, pure or “certified” milks now sold for an
advanced price in cities should contain a high average of fat.
Such milk often averages five per cent. Then again it is for
the farmer’s advantage, if he is to produce a high quality of
milk, that he know the composition of the, milk of all his
individual cows so that the poorer ones may be weeded out.
This may be accomplished by the use of a Babcock machine
on the farm (see p. 142).

Colostrum (common name beastings, etc. ).—Colostrum
is the milk secreted immediately after calving and differs
very markedly in composition from ordinary milk. Colos-
trum is of a slightly yellowish or brownish color and has a
peculiar smell, a slimy consistency and salty taste. The
proteids are at first large in amount and represent albumins
rather than casein. For this reason the milk becomes
curdled on boiling and this is a test for colostrum; if it
curds on boiling it is unfit for use.
COMPOSITION OF MILK AND CREAM 3r

The sugar in colostrum is not milk sugar, but repre-
sents several other varieties. The percentage of fat is
variable, while that of mineral matter is high. Colostrum
usually separates into two layers on standing. Under the
microscope there are to be seen in it very large globules of
fat, called “ colostrum corpuscles,” and these are character-
istic of this form of milk. The colostrum varies in com-
position from one milking to another after calving, becoming
more and more like ordinary milk.

The following analysis will give an idea of its compo-
sition :

 

Per Cent.
Water nccxenaucioees vee Aue an eaeeawt ss ecaeGoes 78.7
Patisyedscegccarek tee SESE Radio ee Aa aee esas 4.0
PROLEIdS opie cossie Wa ess scaasicvaue'S erste ovace sa Gea 'a ecb a aleve nustas he 14.8
SUgar fas 2oee caged end nia saad as sloewantion cae a I.5
Mineral: Mattets vss. sca neds oo dtneieaW er cedes 1.0
100.0

While the proteids in colostrum are so soluble that they
can be absorbed by the calf without any tax on its diges-
tion, and appear to start up digestion in this animal, yet .
colostrum is not wholesome for man for from five to twenty
days after calving. Legal requirements vary somewhat,
but usually demand that cows’ milk shall not be sold for
fifteen days before, nor from five to twelve days after the
calving of the cow supplying the milk.

The boiling test, referred to above, will show when the
milk is fit for human consumption. The milk is not fit for
churning until five days after calving, nor from ten to twelve
days for making cream cheese.

Colostral milk and the milk obtained from the cow
within fifteen days before calving have produced disease in
man. Colostrum has caused high fever, inflamed throat and
mouth, which were covered with small sores or ulcers;
32 CLEAN MILK

while milk from cows, withdrawn a few days before calving,.
is sometimes the source of colicand diarrhoea in the human.
The milk from a cow immediately after calving frequently
contains blood, coming from that which soils the udder and.
tail after flowing out of the vagina.
CHAPTER III

MILK PRODUCTS

T is a curious fact that the quantity of cream obtained
| from setting rich or poor milk is about the same for rich
as for poor milk, but the cream from the poor milk is
much thinner and contains less fat. As seen in a glass
quart milk-jar, the layer of cream forms almost a quarter of
the bulk of the contents of the bottle, at first, but after
twenty-four hours or longer the layer of cream becomes less,
owing to the crowding together of fat globules. When cream
rises in tall vessels it contains a great deal more fat in its
upper than in its lower layers.

In fact, of the cream which rises in a bottle of milk, the
upper ounce contains as much sometimes as 25 per cent. of
fat, while the fat in the cream regularly diminishes until at
the lowest part of the layer of cream, which can be seen as
a sharp line above the milk, the percentage of fat is not
quite 10 per cent. As we have already said, the higher the
creaming temperature the richer will be the cream, and for
this reason the quantity of it will be much less than from
.the same amount of milk which is set at a low temperature.
For the lower the cream temperature, especially at the end
of the creaming period, the greater will be the amount of
cream and the thinner will it be owing to the greater
quantity of water in it. Milk which has been watered
throws up its cream much more rapidly than other milk.*

* This accounts for the custom, with many farmers, of pouring a considerable
amount of cold water into their milk cans when they wish to secure cream quickly
for their own use.

33
34 CLEAN MILK

Separator Cream

By the use of a separator, which consists of a rapidly
whirling steel bowl (5,000 revolutions, more or less, per
minute), the heavier portions of the milk—the skim milk
and dirt—are thrown against the inside of the rotating bowl
by centrifugal force, while the lighter portion—the cream—
remains near the centre. The dirt sticks to the side of the
bowl, where it forms a tough, sticky layer known as separ-
ator slime, This separator slime is not composed by any
means of filth entirely, because a good part of it is made up
of the proteid constituents of the milk (curd); one authority
says that nine-tenths of the dried slime is formed of this
natural product of the milk. That there is a great amount of
filth in ordinary market milk has been abundantly shown, It
has been estimated that the citizens of New York eat daily
ten tons of barn filth and refuse in their milk. This amount
is probably exaggerated, since Berlin is said to furnish its
inhabitants but 300 pounds of cow dung in its daily milk-
supply, and, allowing a wide margin for our native progres-
siveness, we could hardly be credited with beating the
Germans so tremendously in this international filth contest.
In the separator slime are to be found, in addition to the
cheesy matter from milk, manure, fodder, hairs, particles of
skin, insects, down from birds, threads from clothing, bits of

bedding

g, cobwebs, bristles, soil, etc., and large quantities of

germs. The slime forms from .o4 to.3 of 1 percent. of the
weight of the new milk, depending upon its original state of
cleanliness. The use of the separator is superior to all
other methods of obtaining cream on account of its power
to more rapidly and thoroughly extract fat from milk. Thus
it shortens the period for growth of germs permitted by the
MILK PRODUCTS 35

older methods of creaming, and—to some extent—removes
germs already present in the milk. The cream, however,
will be found to contain as many or more germs as the milk
did before separation, although the skim milk leaving the
separator may show one-third to one-half less germs in
pretty clean milk, but in filthy milk the number of germs
after separation is practically unaltered.* Cream, after sep-
aration, must therefore be rapidly cooled down from the
high temperature of separation (86° F.) to 40° F. in order
to prevent the growth of germs which have not been
removed to any great degree by the process.

The use of the separator to free milk of germs is not
_a success, although this method has been practiced in large
cities to cleanse milk.

None of the disease germs occasionally present in milk
is certainly removed by separdtion. When used to cleanse
milk the separator is run at a comparatively low speed so as
not to separate the cream from the milk, but sufficient to
remove much of the filth and therefore the so-called animal
odor. Although there may be an improvement in the flavor
and odor of the milk, it will not keep any longer, showing
that germs are not removed. Filtering milk by various

_ devices has about the same value.

The filth and dirt are removed more or less completely,
and the taste and odor improved thereby, but the essential
contamination—the germs—are not removed. For, as Prof.
Conn has pointed out, the germs are so minute and so much
smaller than the fat globules that it would be necessary to
employ a filter which would remove all the fat in the milk
in order to catch the germs in the filter.

oe Recent experiments show that of the germs present in whole milk before
‘separation, 47 per cent. appear in slime, 29 per cent. in milk and 24 per cent. in
cream after separation.—Eckles & Barnes, Iowa Sta. Bull., 1902.
36 CLEAN MILK

Complete separation of milk into cream and skim milk
is sometimes done for cleansing purposes, the skim milk
and cream being reunited. Many physicians believe that
milk thus treated is often the cause of indigestion in infants.

Neither these nor any other methods will make dirty
milk clean.

Contamination of milk begins at the farm, and only at.
the farm can it be eradicated. Absolute cleanliness with
respect to milking and everything which comes in contact:
with the milk, together with immediate cooling to 50° F.or
below, will alone insure success. The importance of germs.
in relation to milk is as great as to the operating surgeon,
and the amazing progress in both surgery and dairying is.
due chiefly to the appreciation of this fact.

Exclusive of fat, the percentage of the other constitu-
ents of milk—proteids, sugar and minera] matters—is.
about the same in cream as in milk, unless the cream be of
unusual richness. For the same reason, the composition
of skim milk is'‘about the same as whole milk, the fat-
excepted. The fat is practically absent from separator
skim milk and is present in skim milk, from which the cream
has been removed by hand, to the extent of one-half to one,
or even one and one-half per cent. The following tables.
illustrate these statements :

Composition Composition Composition Composition
of Milk of 20% Cream of 25% Cream of 674 Cream

Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent.
ati ois oeguises exe 4.00 20.00 25.00 67.00
Sugars ecesdeus sx 4.50 48 4.8 22
Proteids......... 3-5 3.05 3.2 1.2
Mineral matters. 0.7 0.6 0.7 OL

Composition of Composition of
Hand-skimmed Milk Separator Skim Milk

Per Cent. : Per Cent. Per Cent.

Fat scasidaaiiakers 075 0.12 to

o.1
(hand) (power)
MILK PRODUCTS 37

The cream from set-milk contains 90 to 99 per cent. of
the germs which were present in the whole milk, because in
rising the fat globules entangle the germs and carry them
along to the surface. These germs are chiefly made up of
the varieties which cause the souring of milk or cream
(lactic acid bacilli), and these increase for forty-eight hours
at favorable temperatures—60° to 70° F.—in cream, and
then gradually die out, owing to the unfavorable influence
-of the acid formed in souring, so that in a week few remain.
During the first few hours there are to be found a great
variety of germs in milk and cream, but the lactic acid
bacilli crowd these out, because they grow so much more
readily than dothe other kinds of germs, and at the end of
forty-eight hours there may be as many as 500,000,000
lactic acid germs to the quarter teaspoonful. Butter is com-
monly made from cream which has “ripened.” By ripening
is meant the changes which occur in cream owing to the
growth of germs in it during the process of souring.

The ripening of cream may be compared to the change
‘which takes place in grape juice when it turns to wine.
Both changes—in the grape juice and cream—are brought
about by fermentation, and fermentation is simply a term
for describing the changes—chemical and physical—which
occur in a substance owing to the action of germs and their
products upon it.

In the ripening or fermentation of cream the germs
alter the character of the cream and supply bodies which
give to the butter its peculiar flavor and improve its keep-
ing qualities. Butter made from fresh cream has less flavor
and does not keep well. The sour milk germs give butter
part of its flavor, but the miscellaneous germs which are
crowded out by the former also are responsible for much of
38 CLEAN MILK

the flavor. In this country the popular palate requires a.
much stronger flavored butter than the European taste,
which regards our butter as rank in flavor. Therefore
abroad it is often customary to pasteurize fresh cream to
kill the miscellaneous germs and add the sour milk germs.
in the form of a “‘starter,” thus getting a butter made from
ripened cream, but avoiding the stronger flavor caused by
the miscellaneous germs. The flavor and aroma of butter,
then, depend upon the varieties of germs in cream. Butter
is thought to possess the finest flavor in May and June
because at this season the greatest variety of germs flourish
in the milk.

The chief reason why butter is so much better from
certain dairies than others is because the better dairies are
the homes of special kinds of germs, which give butter a.
good flavor and aroma, while in the others—owing to want
of cleanliness of the cows, barns, milk rooms, employees or
utensils—special germs of filth which are unfavorable to.
good dairy products come to occupy the premises.

The action of the germs is, then, the essential factor in
the production of good butter, as in all other departments.
of dairying. As we have pointed out, the lactic acid germs,
while in the minority in the milk just drawn from the cow,
soon gain ascendancy by multiplying in milk or cream, and
it is to this type of germ that the ripening of butter and of
cheese is chiefly due.

We have also shown that, to the miscellaneous germs
in milk and cream, butter also owes some of its flavor. But
as some of these are deleterious to flavor and aroma, and
are not to be depended upon, the endeavor has been made
to employ only the lacticacid bacilli to ripencream. These
are present in pure culture ; that is, they form the only type
MILK PRODUCTS 39

of germ in the commercial starters, which may be bought
in market in various shapes, as bottles of milk, pastes, pow-
ders and pellets, all merely vehicles for the growth and
preservation of lactic acid germs. This starter is added to
fresh cream to ripen it. If the cream is already sour it is
useless to add a starter. It is best to first heat cream
to 155° F., to destroy the miscellaneous germs, before add-
ing the starter containing the lactic acid germs, but in this
country, where the added flavor caused by the miscellaneous
germs is desired, the starter is more commonly added to
fresh cream. The starters which were first used consisted
simply of a quantity of sour milk or cream containing a
great number of germs, suitable for ripening cream, which
was added to fresh cream to quickly sour and ripen it, espe-
cially in cold weather. These are called natural starters,
and are still used extensively. To prepare such a starter
the milk is withdrawn from the cow in the most cleanly
manner; the milk is then separated and the skim milk is
collected in an absolutely clean vessel and set aside at a
temperature of 60° to 70° F. to sour. _ This sour milk may
contain all sorts of germs, but if it is clean there are
apt to be few miscellaneous germs and these are likely
to be crowded out by the growth of the lactic acid germs,
so that the result may be almost as pure a culture or collec-
tion of. lactic acid bacilli as is found in the commercial
starters. We quote the following from Farrington :

The foundation material for both kinds of starters is usually skim milk.
This is first freed from most of its bacteria by heating it to 180 deg. F. or
above, for at least one-halfan hour. It isa good plan to keep this hot milk well
stirred and covered while it is being heated. After this period of heating, the
skim milk is cooled. The cooling is usually done by setting the can of hot
skim milk into cold water, The quicker it is cooled the better, When the
temperature of the skim milk reaches 80 deg. F., it is then in condition to
40 CLEAN MILK

receive either the pure culture which has been bought from the dealer, or the
sour milk which has been selected and allowed to sour naturally,

The so-called commercial starters are made by adding to about a gallon
of this skim milk a small quantity (about an ounce) of the pure culture which
has been bought from a dealer in this material. After the pure culture has been
added to the skim milk the mixture is kept at a temperature of about 80 deg.
F, until the skim milk has become soured by the pure culture bacteria. This
preparation is sometimes called ‘‘startolene,” and it may amount to about
four quarts of sour milk, This is added to a larger quantity of pasteurized
skim milk, which has been prepared by heating and cooling as previously
described, and the mixture is allowed to stand at a temperature near 80 deg.
until it becomes sour and has an acidity of about six-tenths of one per cent.*
If the cream in which the starter is to be used is now ready, the starter may be
added to it in about the proportion of ten pounds of starter to one hundred
pounds of cream, A small quantity of this starter is saved each day and added
to a new lot of pasteurized skim milk. In this way the starter is carried on
from day to day and a new lot for use in ripening cream is prepared every day.

The natural starter is made in exactly the same way as the commercial
starter, except that in place of the ounce of pure culture which is bought from
a dealer, a small quantity of selected sour milk is added to the pasteurized
skim milk. The starter is then built up from this mixture as before described.

This in general is an outline of the methods used for making cream
ripening starters. The successful handling of starters depends entirely on the
carefulness with which the skim milk is pasteurized and the skill used in pro-
tecting the starter from outside contamination by dust, dirty cans, etc. In
some cases the butter maker often goes so far as to wash his hands before
handling his starter, These refining precautions used to protect the pure cul-
ture and the starter from contamination are very important.

If the starter does not give satisfactory results, it is best to throw it away
and begin a new one; but, when once obtained, a good starter should be
propagated from day to day as long as possible, and the length of time which
it may be kept pure depends on the care with which it is made from
day to day.

It is always better to seed a new lot of pasteurized skim milk with a por-
tion of fresh starter taken out just before it is poured into the cream, than to
attempt to propagate a new starter every day by means of buttermilk obtained
from a churning of cream in which the starter was used. A buttermilk starter
may often give good results ; but, asa rule, it cannot be depended on, because
some unpleasant flavors may develop in the cream during its ripening. These,
of course, are carried into the buttermilk, and when this is used for making
the next starter, the unpleasant flavors may be continued in the butter from
day to day,

* See page
Mat

MILK PRODUCTS AI

One of the important elements in starter making is the ability to detect
a satisfactory starter when it is made. A person with a keen sense of smell
and taste is able by inspection to select a good starter and know that it will
produce good results, while other persons, without this ability, are unable to
accurately judge between two different starters and they may keep on using a
poor one day after day without noticing it. This faculty of judging starters
may be cultivated by practice, and the butter maker who is most successful in
training himself to detect a good starter, and a poor one as well, will be the

“- most successful in making butter of a fancy grade,

The commercial starters are more expensive, but uni-
form, certain and convenient ; while the natural starter costs
little or nothing and is less uniform but generally success-
ful. Both are in common use.

Butter made from ripened cream, besides having more
flavor, aroma and better keeping qualities, is more readily
churned and can be obtained in somewhat larger quantities
than from fresh cream. Butter made from fresh cream
is preferred by many persons and, perhaps it may be
said, by those with the most refined taste. However, the
market for such butter is limited and it must be sold imme-
diately it is made. Fresh separated cream is much more
readily churned than gravity cream.

Cheese is made from the curd (casein or cheesy por-
tion) of milk obtained by souring milk or by curdling it
with rennet, chiefly by the latter method. The whey is
removed in different ways. In soft cheese, as Brie or Cam-
embert, the whey is merely permitted to drain naturally
from the curd. The whey being not all removed, soft
cheeses keep poorly.

In the case of hard cheeses, the curd is cut up, and
sometimes heated to 110° F. to toughen it, and pressed for
days. Both soft and hard cheeses must ripen, which pro-
cess takes days or months, The lactic acid germs are
those chiefly instrumental in ripening hard cheeses, while
42 CLEAN MILK

molds and miscellaneous germs ripen the soft cheeses. In
ripening, the various flavors characteristic of the special
cheese are developed through the action of chemical pro-
ducts formed by the growth of these vegetable parasites or
germs. In addition, the cheese becomes softened, and
therefore easier of digestion through the action of a ferment
natural to milk, resembling rennet, the latter being a secre-
tion of the animal stomach.

How important is the influence of special varieties of
germs in the successful making of cheese may be appre-
ciated from the fact that it is a practice to smear shelves and
walls of new factories with fresh cheese (as Brie and Lim-
burger) to convey to them the special germs necessary
to produce the flavor and characteristics of the cheeses
which it is desired to make. A starter is often added to
milk from which American cheese is to be made. As in the
case of cream for butter, the addition of the lactic acid germs
tends to crowd out miscellaneous and undesirable germs and
give a more certainly uniform product. The commercial
starters are most reliable for the ripening of cheese, as for
butter. Asa general practice, milk cannot be pasteurized
to kill the undesirable germs before adding the starter, when
cheese is to be made, because heating the milk destroys the
ferment in it which assists in ripening cheese, and heated
milk does not curd so well with rennet, Certain of the sour
milk, and of the soft and hard cheeses are, however, made
successfully from pasteurized milk or cream to which is.
added a starter.

If cheeses made from unpasteurized milk, to which
starters containing lactic acid germs have been added, are
ripened in low-temperature cellars, the miscellaneous germs
are not Tikely to develop.
MILK PRODUCTS 43

The chemical composition of buttermilk and whey, bye
products in the manufacture of butter and cheese, is given
below.

Buttermilk is usually sour from lactic acid, while the
proteids are more digestible than in ordinary milk because
existing in a flaky form.*

Whey possesses but slight food value, containing only
the ash, sugar and albumin of milk. It is sometimes the
only food, when combined with a little cream, which infants
with delicate digestion can tolerate.

We also append a table showing the composition of
butter.

Buttermilk Whey Butter
Per Cent, Per Cent. Per Cent.
Proteids............ 4.06 0.81 1.00
Hatinvecasieienetelee-acsid 0.93 0.36 84.00
Sugar and Ash...... 4.40 5-71 3.00

Good cheese contains about 33 per cent. each of pro-
teids and fat, and possesses two to three times the food
value of meat, providing it is well digested, as it is more apt
to be if cooked with macaroni or vegetables.

4

Skim Milk

Skim milk forms a valuable food for man or beast,
especially for calves and pigs. The milk should be fed young
animals sweet, and warmed to the temperature of the body,
when it possesses about one half the value of whole milk for
food. The use of the hand separator at the farm will often
be found lucrative, for the reason that the skim milk may
then be obtained warm and fresh for calves or pigs and the
cream bring as large a price as the whole milk, while retain-
ing the most valuable element—the nitrogen in the proteids

* Quite recently the advantages of concentrated and preserved buttermilk
have been advocated. Its use will probably become much extended in time. Also
an innovation is buttermilk made from clean skim milk. This should be set at
700-800 F. to clabber when it is churned and until the casein is in a finely divided
state and immediately cooled to below 50° F. and sold within 24 hours, A pasteu-
rized skim milk may be used. There is a great field for absolutely clean butter-
milk thus made for consumption in cities.
44 CLEAN MILK

of the milk—on the farm. This because the nitrogen is
returned to the soil in manure. For man, skim milk, through
its proteids, is said to be three times as cheap as meat,
though a much more bulky food. If the skim milk is
returned from the creamery for feeding, it is best that it be
first pasteurized to kill any germs of tuberculosis which may
be contained in it and to prevent souring. Calves should
be permitted to suck the first three days of their existence,
and then may be given whole and skimmed milk for ten
days, gradually reducing the whole milk. After that time
they may be given only skim milk, five to six quarts daily
in three feedings for the first two weeks. At the end of this
time five pints of skim milk may be fed twice daily with a
tablespoonful of flaxseed or Indian meal to supply the defi-
ciency of fat in the food. A liking for corn meal may be
encouraged by placing a little on the tongue after feeding
milk. Skim milk is fed pigs in the proportion of three
pounds to one of corn meal ; to fowls, also, with grain. The
utensils and troughs in which the skim milk is fed to young
animals should be kept scrupulously clean, and the milk
should not be fed sour.

Bye-Products

In speaking of milk products the bye-products of milk.
are used to an extent in the arts but little appreciated.
This has recently been brought out in an address at Chicago.
by Dr. Nowak, the inventor of a process for using skim
milk in the tanning of leather. The curd or casein of skim
milk is the essential part of the milk employed for the
following manufactures :

For sizing straw and felt hats; for making and glazing
paper; for glazing and finishing leather; finishing and
MILK PRODUCTS 45

sizing silk, cotton, woolen and linen goods; for making
wall paper, roofing paper and linoleum. Also, casein is an
important ingredient of cements, glues, putty, woodfillers,
paints (especially dry paints), imitation ivory for balls, and
buttons, etc.

Some of the most lasting of the old Roman structures
were made from a mixture of milk, lime and sand, and the
most celebrated old mural decorations of Europe from
casein mixed with color.
CHAPTER IV

FEEDING FOR MILK

N_ feeding cows for milk the most essential fact to grasp
is that the composition of milk can not be altered to any
extent by feeding. The solids may be increased slightly

by a food very rich in protein, or, on the other hand, the solids
may be lessened, if the diet is very watery, but the percent-
age of fat, cugar and proteids in the milk is not affected to
any degree by different kinds of foodstuffs. One often
reads of the marked influence of a change of food in increas-
ing, or otherwise, the percentage of fat in the milk. But,
while a sudden change in the ration may produce a corre:
sponding alteration in the percentage of fat in the milk, it
will be found only a temporary matter. The single excep-
tion to the rule that the composition of milk is not changed
by feeding is when the animals are not in anormal condition.
If an animal has not enough food to be maintained in a nor-
mal condition, there may be a disturbance of the functions
of the udder, as of any other function in the body, and
therefore alteration in the composition of the milk.

Milk is formed by the constant breaking down of the
substance of the cells of the udder into the proteids, fat, and
perhaps to some extent the sugar, of milk. This process is
followed by a rapid rebuilding of the udder cells. The con-
stituents of the food of cows are not transformed directly

into milk, but are altered and absorbed into the blood and
46
FEEDING FOR MILK 47

serve only to build the cells of the udder, as they do any
other part of the body. The gualzty of the milk from any
cow depends upon the natural characteristics of the cells of
the udder; the guantzty of milk depends on the capacity
for rapid cell-building and, to a degree, upon the size of
the udder. The cells of the udder being made of a sub-
stance similar chemically to the proteids of the milk, there
must be an abundance of protein in the food to constantly
rebuild these cells as they liquefy into milk. Indeed, the
proportion of protein in the food has to be higher in feeding
for milk than for any other purpose. This proportion has
been determined by experience and experiments (see
Wolff's table below).

While it is possible to secure the proper proportion of
protein by the use of the greatest variety of fodders, the
special foodstuffs which may be employed in any given case
should be determined chiefly by the local cost of special fod-
ders and the price of milk.

The richer a food in protein the more costly is it, and,
if the price of milk is low, it may not pay to increase the
amount of proteids in the food sufficiently to attain to the
maximum milk-yield. A food rich in protein tends to sus-
tain the period of lactation and keep up the flow of milk—
which is ordinarily greatest soon after calving—for a con-
siderable period. In case of large milkers which receive an
insufficient supply of protein, the proteids of the tissues of
the body are called upon to make up for the loss of protein
in the formation of milk from the udder cells, and the ani-
mal rapidly loses flesh.

Notwithstanding the fact that the composition of milk
can not be materially altered by feeding under ordinary cir-
cumstances, yet by good feeding and breeding (taking
48 CLEAN MILK

advantage of increased fat yield in milk through careful
selection), it has been found possible in several generations.
to produce an animal giving milk one per cent. richer than
that common to its breed. This has been accomplished by
some in the case of the Holsteins.

Wolff's original feeding standard for milk cows, per
day and 1,000 pounds live weight, is as follows :

Pounds

Digestible protein. .......... 00. cee cece eee eee 2.5

“ fatuecieicsad oeee es aviaie ale sag'e ate 0.4

os carbohydrates.............0.050000e 12.5
Total dry Mattéf is: coc. sie cns wens gee ceelel 24.

Nutritive ratio... sac eiweee eases seen oes Ito 5.4

The nutritive ratio means the proportion of nitrogen-.
ous to non-nitrogenous constituents of the food. The pro-
tein represents the nitrogenous, and the fat and carbohy-
drates together represent the non-nitrogenous nutrients, as.
the food constituents are called. But to put fat on the same
basis as carbohydrates, in calculating the nutritive ratio, the
percentage of digestible fat is multiplied by 2.5 and the
result is added to the total of digestible carbohydrates. The.
reason for this is because fat is thought to have two and.
one-half times the food value of carbohydrates, since a given
weight of fat produces two and one-half times as much heat
in burning as carbohydrates. This method of reasoning is.
realized, however, to be very imperfect. In books* on
cattle feeding tables showing the composition of foodstuffs.
may be found. The carbohydrates are found under the
headings Crude Fibre and Nitrogen-Free Extract. There:
are other tables showing the percentage of digestibility
of the fat, protein, crude fibre and nitrogen-free extract.
in the various fodders.

*Armsby’s ‘‘ Manual of Cattle Feeding.”
»

FEEDING FOR MILK 49

By multiplying the amount of any of these constituents
in any given fodder by the percentage of the constituent
digestible, we get the quantity of the digestible constituent
in the fodder. Thus, if we look ata table showing the com-
position of hay: Average hay we find contains in the 100
Ibs. as follows: 9 Ibs. protein, 2 Ibs. fat, 43 Ibs. nitrogen-
free extract, and 26 lbs. crude fibre. To find the digesti-
bility of these nutrients we look in another table and there
discover that 46 per cent. of the fat in hay is digestible, 57 per
cent. of the protein, and that the total amount of nitrogen-
free extract in a coarse fodder represents the total quantity
of digestible carbohydrates it contains. So in our 100 lbs.
of hay we calculate that there are 5.13 lbs. of digestible pro-
tein (multiply 9 x .57); and o.g2 Ibs. of fat (multiply
2X .46) and 43 lbs. of carbohydrates digestible.

When we can not figure the amount of nitrogen-free
extract as equal to the total digestible carbohydrates, as we
do for convenience in a coarse fodder, we find the amounts
of digestible crude fibre and nitrogen-free extract in the
tables and add them together to represent the total digestible
carbohydrate in the foodstuff. Fat is often spoken of as
ether extract by some writers. Itis not necessary, of course,
to try to secure a ration which shall be the exact chemical
counterpart of Wolff's table above, but only to approach it
as nearly as may be, especially in the matter of protein.
The general idea should be to take the foodstuffs at hand
and look up the amounts of digestible nutrients* they con-
tain and combine them in the proper proportions as indi-
cated by Wolff’s table. Proteint is an expensive food con-

*Armsby’s ‘‘ Manual of Cattle Feeding.”

+ In cattle foods protein costs, by weight, twice as much as carbohydrates and
about one-half as much as fat, but there is ordinarily enough fat in a ration.
50 CLEAN MILK

stituent or nutrient, and it should be fed in the cheapest
form of fodder available in the locality. The best manner
of feeding is to weigh out the food necessary for the whole
number of cowsat one feeding and distribute the amount to
each cow ia proportion to her weight, secretion of milk, etc.
Professor Haecker’s work on cattle feeding teaches that the
daily quantity of nutrients should be proportioned to the
amount and richness of daily milk-yield as displayed in the
following table :*

FOR COWS WEIGHING 1,000 POUNDS

 

Milk- Yield Digestible Nutrients Required
Daily Amount Testingin Fat Protein Carbohydrates Fat
lbs. per cent. lbs. lbs. Ibs.
3 I.10 8.84 +24
Io 4 1.17 9-14 -26
5 1.24 9-47 -28
3 1.50 10.62 237
20 \; 1.63, 11.28 «42
5 1.78 II.94 -47
{i I.go 12.43 -51
30 4 2.10 13.42 -58
5 2.30 14.41 -65
3 2.30 14.24 -65
4a \3 2.57 15.56 “74
5 2.85 16.88 -83
3 2.70 16.05 -68
5¢ 4 3.04 17 70 +90
5 3-39 19-35 1.01
3 3-10 17.86 -92
60 4 3-50 19.84 1.06
5 3-92 21.76 1.19
\i 3-50 19 67 1.05
70 4 4.00 21.98 1.22
5 4.46 23.82 1.36

In practice it may also be broadly stated that there
should be a certain proportion of coarse fodder, or rough-
age, to the more concentrated foodstuffs, as grain and bye-
products. Haecker’s rule giving one pound of concentrated
food for every three pounds of milk yield, affords a very
useful basis for calculating a ration.

*This table and following rations were selected at random from Hoard’s
Dairyman.
FEEDING FOR MILK 51

Thus, for a daily ration, 20 to 4o lbs. of roughage,
including hay, silage, stover, etc, may be fed with about
8 Ibs. of concentrates (consisting preferably of a mixture of
a variety of grains) to a cow of average size and giving
about 25 Ibs. of milk daily. To cows giving daily 35 Ibs. of
milk, 10 lbs. of concentrates are suitable, and if the milk
contains 5 per cent. of fat, 12 lbs. may be fed. The great
milkers are often fed 30 to 4o lbs. of roughage with 15 to
16 lbs. of a grain mixture daily.

Some such rations as the following may be used for
milk cows of average weight and giving about 25 pounds
of 4 per cent. milk :

Roughage, 20 lbs, of timothy hay, with a mixture of
oats, 2 lbs.; bran, 4 lbs.; and gluten, 4 lbs. This contains
as follows: Dry matter, 26.3 lbs.; digestible nutrients—pro-
tein, 2.18 lbs.; carbohydrates, 13.09 Ibs.; fat, 0.58 Ibs.

Roughage, 20 lks. of timothy and clover hay, with a
mixture of oats, 4 lbs.; barley, 3 lbs.; and oil meal, 1 Ib.
This is equivalent to: Dry matter, 24.3  lbs,; digestible
 nutrients—protein, 1.88 lbs.; carbohydrates, 12.1 Ibs.; fat,
0.6 Ibs.

Roughage, 30 Ibs. of ensilage and 10 bbs. of clover hay,
with a mixture of barley, 4 lbs, and bran, 4 Ibs. This
ration is equivalent to: Dry matter, 25.5 lbs.; digestible
nutrients—protein, 4.92 lbs.; carbohydrates, 11.92 lbs.; fat,
0.56 lbs.

Roughage, ensilage, 30 Ibs., and oat hay, 30 lbs.; with
mixture of ground rye, 4 lbs., and gluten feed, 4 lbs. This
feed is equivalent to: Dry matter, 23.56 lbs.; digestible
nutrients—protein, 2.08 lbs.; carbohydrates, 13.32 lbs.; fat,
0.54 Ibs.

1t will be seen that the protein is a little low in all
52 CLEAN MILK

these rations.* Cottonseed (or linseed) meal is one of the
richest foodstuffs in protein we possess, and may be added
to advantage to bring up the proportion of protein in the
ration, as one pound of the meal is equivalent to about
one-third pound of digestible protein. Not more than two.
to three pounds daily of cottonseed meal should be fed,
however, on account of its poor digestibility in considerable
amounts, and because in excess it may render milk unfit for:
use as an infant food.

The following mixtures of concentrates may be em-
ployed with an appropriate amount of roughage (if hay is.
used, as much may be given as the cow will eat without:
waste) as daily rations for an average cow:

Bran, 4 lbs.; corn chop, 3 |bs.; oil meal, 1 Ib. Or, 2 parts.
bran; 2 parts ground oats; 2 parts gluten, and 1 part oil
meal, giving 8 Ibs. of the mixture daily. Or, 4 Ibs. oats ;
3 lbs. bran; 1 lb. oil meal. Or, 4]bs. of bran and 4 Ibs. of
oats ; or, a mixture by weight of bran, 3 parts; gluten feed,
2 parts; corn chop, 2 parts; and oil meal, 1 part, giving 8.
to 10 Ibs. daily. A ration having the proper proportion of’
nitrogenous to non-nitrogenous nutrients, or, in other words,
the proper nutritive ratio according to Wolff, is now called.
a balanced ration. Oil meal is linseed meal. The exact.
amount of fat in the daily ration is not of much moment,
but we should endeavor to approximate Wolff's feeding
standard with the more recent modification (page 50) of
adjusting the ration somewhat to the quantity and richness.
of the milk-yield. An amount of salt equal to one tea-.
spoonful should be given with the feed of each cow twice
daily. ,

* That is according to Wolff’s standard of fifty years ago, but these rations.
are calculated from the table to be found on page 50,
FEEDING FOR MILK 53

Cows may be watered to advantage twice daily; once
before they are turned out for pasture or airing, in the
morning, and again before the evening feeding.

The matter of a pure water supply in the pasture, farm
and dairy is of great significance. This is the case, not
because the milk is contaminated by germs or poisons swal-
lowed by the cow in impure water, but because the cow’s
_ udders become contaminated from wading in impure water.
The dairy utensils may likewise be contaminated by wash-
ing them in an infected water supply containing the germs
of typhoid fever or dysentery. The presence of pools of
water in pastures which in any way can be polluted with
human excrement or urine should be avoided. Germs or
microdrganisms existing in stagnant pools in pastures may
impart a fishy taste to milk when such water is wallowed ia
-or swallowed by cows. Water™ for cattle and for dairy pur-
poses is best obtained from a public water supply of known
purity, but when this is not possible a spring, away from
sources of pollution, or a driven well, may afford excellent
water. The neighborhood of a privy or manure pile should
always be shunned, and surface drainage of any kind should
be prevented from entering the well. Below the depth of
of three and one-half feet germs do not live in the soil.
Where there is any doubt—and some doubt must always exist
‘concerning open wells and those situated near dwellings—
a half gallon of the water should be submitted to a compe-
tent chemist for analysis. Wells must be free of all solid
‘objects, even stones, and water containing over 300 germs
to the cubic centimeter is unfit for dairy purposes.

The kind of food and manner of feeding cows has an

*Cows do not like very cold water. Avoid giving it to them when
prslu ec.
54 CLEAN MILK

influence upon milk which is of much importance, especially
when the milk is to be used by infants.

Many chemical substances in the food are eliminated
—either changed or unchanged—in the milk, and may
impart to it an unnatural odor, taste or appearance, and
may render it unfit for food. A sudden change from dry
fodder to grass, or any other green food in considerable
amount, is apt to give rise to milk which will cause digestive
troubles in babies.

Fresh corn fodder in considerable quantity, when fed
to cows, will often render the milk harmful to infants.
While roots and ensilage are commonly said to produce a
milk which will disagree with infants, yet I believe these are
harmless when fed in moderate quantities and after milking.

Silage should not be given ina greater amount than
twenty pounds daily, and not more than two pounds of oil
meal should be fed, when the milk is especially intended for
infants’ use. The feeding of spoiled, moldy ensilage, and
remnants of ensilage which have been allowed to accumu-
late about the barn, are chiefly responsible for the harm
this foodstuff inflicts upon milk. In fact, some authorities
say that a ration of under 4o lbs. daily per cow is not
damaging to milk. Some of the largest buyers of milk
in the United States, however, refuse milk from ensilage-
fed cows, and those versed in the use of milk for baby
feeding find that a small feed of ensilage is safer. Grass,
hay, clover and grains constitute the best food for cows
supplying milk for use by babies.

The time of feeding is a matter of great moment. In
general, it may be said that milk cows should only be fed
after milking to avoid dust in the barn, and fodder, when
given at this time — as mangolds, turnips, rutabagas, carrots.
FEEDING FOR MILK 55

or their tops — will not impart a bad odor or taste to the milk.
It is not necessary to feed cows in order that they be quiet
during milking; they can soon be habituated to being fed
after milking. Indeed, so great is the danger of dissemi-
nating germs in the air when cows are fed before or during
milking, that it is now recognized that when dry fodder is
thus fed it is impossible to secure clean milk. Moreover,
when hay is kept in mows open to the cow-barn, it is very
difficult to produce clean milk. If feeding is done at milking
time, it should only be moistened grain.

There are certain pasture plants which are harmful to
milk, and sometimes to human consumers of it. Among
these are the following: Poison ivy, poison oak, meadow
saffron, Jamestown weed, sorrel, poisonous mushrooms, wild
mustard, carrot tops, milkweed, sumach, henbane and skunk
cabbage. The disease known as milk sickness, or trembles,
which sometimes attacks man, and is exhibited by vomiting,
great weakness and twitching of the muscles, is attributed
to the drinking of milk from cows feeding on poison ivy.
Meadow saffron consumed by cows may lead to severe
diarrhoea in man drinking their milk.

Milk is not of good quality for any purpose when the
animals yielding it are fed upon swill, brewers’ grains or
food in a state of marked fermentation or putrefaction.
Such milk may cause digestive disturbances in man—par-
ticularly in babies—and the manure is very soft and stink-
ing from cows eating fermented food, and splashes about, and
is therefore more apt to soil the cow and milk. The milk
produced with brewers’ grain does not keep sweet so long
as good milk should, neither are the cows consuming large
quantities of it long-lived. The use of this food is now
prohibited by law in most cities. Dried brewers’ and
56 CLEAN MILK

distillers’ grains constitute wholesome food for cows.
Moldy hay, straw or grain; decayed leaves, salt hay,
onions, garlic and cabbage may give to milk a bad odor or
flavor.

The expressed pulp from the sugar beet is inadvisable
as a food for cows, because of its richness in potassium salts,
which find their way into the milk and render it unfit food
for human beings or animals.

The milk of cows receiving drugs is unsuitable for food,
since many medicines are eliminated in the milk. Further-
more, the milk of cows sick in any manner should be with-
held from feeding purposes, as poisons in the blood or
germs of disease may be conveyed to man or animals in the
milk from the sick cow. The milk of cows undergoing the
tuberculin test may be used as food unless the animal
reacts to the test, when it should be permanently rejected
for human consumption, or boiled before feeding it to
animals.
CHAPTER V
HOUSING AND CARE OF COWS

N considering the practical details concerned with the
housing and care of cows, and the handling and mar-
keting of milk, our object will be to emphasize the

essentials required for the production of clean milk.

Many different methods may be employed to attain the
same end, but certain principles are essential. Ideal
methods are unfortunately expensive, and the most approved
appointments of the modern stable and dairy rival those of
the surgeon’s operating room in elaborateness and cost.
Nevertheless, milk which will fulfil all the requirements
necessary for “certification” can be produced by care and
cleanliness in an ordinary stable, and without any great out-

lay for plant.
The Barn

The essentials are that it shall be clean, light, airy, free
from dust, flies and odors. In regard to the air space in a
barn, this is a matter which depends wholly on the ventila-
tion. When the ventilation is good, 500 cubic feet of air
per cow is sufficient, as the air is in constant movement.
The number of cubic feet of air, rather than air space, is.
the important matter. The King system for stables is that
commonly used, the principle being to secure a current of
air traveling at the rate of 200 to 500 cubic feet per minute
through the barn.

57
58 CLEAN MILK

The animal's heat is used to aid the movement of air.
If the stable is too high, the animal-heat will be lost, so that
in cold climates a height of 8 feet is sufficient, while a good
width for a stable is 36 feet. The cows are to be placed
in two rows running the length of the stable, and either
facing each other or toward the outside of the building.
There is much disagreement as to which arrangement is the
better. If the cows face outward, there should be feeding
alleys in front of them at least 6 feet wide, while the central
aisle in the barn behind them is used for removing manure.
If the cows face inward, the central aisle between the rows
of cows is used for feeding purposes. In either case an
overhead railway is often used for removing manure from
the centre aisle, when the cattle face outward, or for carry-
ing feed when the animals face toward each other. The
writer gives the preference to the plan of facing the cows
towards the outside of the building. By this arrangement
the cows get more air and light, and their breath does not
commingle. At the same time the manure can be more
readily removed, which is more important than ease of
feeding, for the production of clean milk. In the cow stall,
the chief object should be to have an arrangement which
keeps the cows wholly apart and does not cumber the floor
so as to make places where dirt can collect. The best
floors are of concrete, covered with cement, and made some-
what rough, so that the cattle will not slip. Some com-
petent dairy men cover the cement with movable wood
flooring, under the cows, to prevent them from lying on
this hard and cold substance. (See Appendix.) If not of
cement, the floor should be of planed, matched planking,
and the cracks filled in with tar. In case planking is used,
it is best at any rate to have the gutters of cement.
HOUSING AND CARE OF COWS 59:

To secure drainage of the floor of the stall, the rear
half of it—that is, the half nearest the manure trench—
should have a fall of two inches. The manure trench should
be sixteen inches wide and about eight inches deep.
The trench should have a fall for drainage, being, for
instance, six inches deep at one end and ten inches deep
at the other; or, the whole floor of the stable may be
made to slope, with the trench of the same depth from
end to end.

A number greater than forty cows is not desirable in
one barn. There should be a continuous window space
along each side of the barn. The windows may hinge from
below, or be made to open and close as one, by means of a
continuous rod. In cold climates, the sides of the barn mayi
be built of two layers of inch, matched boards with a space
of eight inches between, filled in with cut straw or sawdust.
Besides this, building paper should be laid inside each layer
of the boarding. The inner layer of boarding should be
without beading and laid perpendicularly. The ceiling
overhead should be perfectly tight. If it is composed of a
double floor with building paper between, there is no reason
why hay should not be kept overhead, providing it is
brought down into a room separate from the main stable.
There should be tightly-fitting double windows in winter
in cold climates. The King ventilating system consists of
numerous flues on all four sides of the building for the
intake of air, 4x 4 inches in diameter, and opening three or
four feet below the ceiling outside the stable, and entering
the stable just under the ceiling. These are furnished with
sliding doors, or closed with an arrangement like a furnace
register in a dwelling house. The outake for air should be
only one for every twenty cows or less, being a shaft with
60 CLEAN MILK

openings — the same size as the shaft —at the floor and just
below the ceiling. This shaft should be placed on the out-
side of the centre of one side of the barn, and should be
carried straight upward like a chimney, six feet higher than
the top of the roof.

The shaft or flue should be absolutely air-tight, and
may be made of metal, or preferably of two layers of wood,
with filling of sawdust or building paper between, and covered
witha cap, to keep the rain out, one foot above the top. The
openings near the floor and at the ceiling should be pro-
vided with doors or dampers of some kind. The number
of flues and size of flues are governed by the number of
cows in the barn. Only one flue is necessary for the out-
take of air when there are less than thirty cows in the barn.

1 flue I ft. square for 6 cows.

1“ ~x2 “ “ Io oe
I “ 2x2 ity ec“ ee 20 “
2 “ 2x2 ce “o “cr 40 ae
3 “ axa 6“ cry 100 oc

The movement of air in the ventilating system is.
brought about by the following forces: Wind pressure
against the barn, forcing air into the building ; wind suction
on leeward side, tending to suck air out; wind blowing
across top of ventilating shaft, tending to suck air out of it;
by difference of temperature between the air inside and that
outside the building. Thus air enters the intake near the
ceiling and is distributed over the building. The air at the
bottom of the barn is the foulest, because carbonic acid gas ©
exhaled by the animals is heavier than air. This air is also
the coldest. In cold weather the bottom opening of the
out-take shaft should be open, and the upper opening near
the ceiling shut. The cold, foul air is then sucked from the
floor of the barn up the flue into the outer air. In hot
HOUSING AND CARE OF COWS 61

weather the upper opening in the out-take flue may be
opened, and the lower closed. This permits of escape of
heated air from the stable, and may be done at any time to
secure better ventilation, but at the expense of the animal
heat. In order that the system work well, it is essential that
every part of the barn be absolutely tight, with well-insu-
lated walls to prevent chilling and condensation of moisture,
as about ten pounds of water are eliminated daily from the
lungs and skin of a cow. The doors” leading outdoors
should be double. There must be no leakage of air in or
out anywhere, except through the ventilating system—even
hay shutes must be closed, and no escape of air into the loft
be permitted. It is not possible to state just how many in-
take flues there should be, but ‘it is better to have them
numerous on each side of the barn, as they can easily be
closed if necessary.

It is feasible to sustain a pretty even temperature in a
tightly built stable properly ventilated—somewhere between
55° and 60° F. in cold weather. If the air is too hot, the
out-take flues are not sufficient ; if too much cold air rushes.
in, the intakes should be closed to some extent, as there
should be no considerable drafts when the system is work-
ing properly. The intake flues are commonly built in the
walls of the barn, and the out-take flues may also be so con-
structed, in which case they are made of two layers of tight
boarding with roofing paper between.

Metal flues are not so advisable as wooden ones, be-

‘ cause moisture condenses more readily in them. The fol-
lowing sketches of some barns ventilated by the King
system are taken from King’s ‘“‘ Physics of Agriculture,”
to which the author wishes to acknowledge his indebted-
ness for some of the matter concerning ventilation pre-
63 CLEAN MILK

sented above. Old stables can be remodeled with concrete
floors, and later the ventilating system, with stuffed walls
and tight ceilings, doors and windows, may be added.
Sketch A shows two methods of ventilating a dairy
barn. On the right (Fig. 1) the ventilating flue D F rises

Fig. 1.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sketch A—Two methods of ventilating a dairy farm.

straight from the floor, passing out through the roof and
rising above the ridge. One, two or three of these would be
used according to number of cattle. The flues should be at
one or the other side of the cupola rather than behind it.
On the left C E represents how a hay shoot may be used
HOUSING AND CARE OF COWS 63

also for ventilating flue. In each of these cases the ven-
tilating flue would take the place of one cow. This method
would give the best ventilation but has the objection of
occupying valuable space. C, in the feed shoot, is a door
which swings out when hay is being thrown down, but is
closed when used as a ventilator, the door not reaching
quite to the floor. To take air into this stable, if it is built
of wood with studding, openings would be left at A about
4x12 inches every twelve or sixteen feet, and the air would

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sketch B—Method of ventilating a lean-to stable.

enter and rise between the sheathing of the inside and the
siding on the outside, entering at B as represented by the
arrows. Fig. 2 shows intakes through a brick wall.

Sketch B shows a method of ventilating a lean-to
stable. The air enters as represented by the arrows at
A B and passes out through a flue built on the inside of the
upright or main barn. This flue may rise directly through
the roof or it may end at E as shown in the figure, the air
passing through a cupola. If the upright barn has a balloon
frame, then the space between the studding could be used
64 CLEAN MILK

as ventilating flues. These flues could be made tighter
by covering inside and out on the studding with the lightest
galvanized iron.

Sketch C shows a section of the cow stable of the dairy
barn at the Wisconsin Experiment Station. A single

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sketch C—Section of the cow stable of the dairy barn at the Wisconsin
Experiment Station. é
ventilating flue D E rises above the roof of the main barn,
and is divided below the roof into two arms A B D, which
terminate at or near the level of the stable floor at A A.
These openings are provided with ordinary registers, with
valves to be opened and closed when desired. Two other
ventilators are placed at B B, to be used when the stable is .
HOUSING AND CARE OF COWS 65

too warm, but are provided with valves to be closed at other
times. C is a direct 12-inch ventilator leading into the
main shaft, and opening from the ceiling, so as to admit a
current of warm air at all times to the main shaft to help
force the draft. This ventilating shaft is made of galvanized
iron, the upper portion being 3 feet in diameter. The
covering on the outside is simply for architectural effect.
G F show method of intake of air.

Cow Stalls

It is generally considered of advantage to be rid of
stanchions and tie-ups of all kinds, and confine the cow in a
stall giving entire freedom to the head. The partitions
between the cows are made in the form of metal or wooden
gates about five feet high, but not touching the floor. The
cows are held in place also by a chain or rope fastened by
snap hooks to the uprights at either side of the back of the
stall, and in front there is a movable partition of metal or
wood adjusted to the length of the cow, so as to keep her
standing well back to the edge of the manuretrench. The
whole length of the stall is six feet to six feet eight inches,
according to the length of the cow. The cow is fed off the
floor, or from a gutter cut in cement inside of the front par-
tition. Metal stalls are comparatively expensive. The
chief object is to keep all of the stall structure off the floor,
as far as may be, to have a clean floor-space free from
nooks and crannies to harbor dirt and dust. The width of
the cow stall varies between thirty-eight to forty-five inches,
according to the size of the animals. The milker opens
the gate of the stall just behind him when milking, which
gives him more room and keeps the next cow away from his.
back.
66 CLEAN MILK

When the cows are let out the chains may be retained
in place and the gates are opened. For details and illustra-
tions of serviceable stable arrangements see Appendix.

It is well to round up the cement floor to a point six
inches or so up the wall of the stable. The urine should be
drained into a tank, which can be emptied once or more
daily, or be received into a regular drain with a trap.*
Chains or ropes should be stretched lengthwise with the
stable under the cows’ necks to prevent them from lying
down after grooming and before milking. The manure
must be removed as soon asit falls,t except at milking time,
and carried not less than several hundred feet from the
barn, so as not to attract flies. Flies convey germs to the
milk and annoy cattle. One fly falling into the milk pail is
said to bring as many as 250,000 germs into the milk.
Many of the preparations for spraying cows with the pur-
pose of keeping off flies are of great service, and are widely
advertised in the agricultural journals. Shutters are useful
in hot weather to darken the stable and, with netting,
aid to keep out flies. Water may be run in the feeding
gutter of cement floors, before feeding time, or supplied in
iron vessels raised from the floor.

Before sweeping the barn floor it should be sprinkled
to avoid dust, and neither sweeping nor removal of manure
should be done within half an hour of milking—to prevent
contamination of the air. While most of the germs in milk
come from dirt on the cow, nevertheless there is also danger
of contamination from dust in the barn. For this reason
the most ideal way is to keep a barn, built with cement floors,
entirely for milking purposes. The floors are sprinkled
and the cows only driven in the building at milking time

* If the urine can not be so removed it is well to have the gutters tight (with-
out outlet) and use rotted sod, sawdust, or leaf mold to absorb the moisture and
save the fertilizing properties of the urine.

+ When this is not feasible, by using absorbents, as above, and occasionaliy
sprinkling 5 per cent. creolin solution in the gutters (if of wood), the stable may
be kept clean, The manure should be taken out at least once daily. Sprink-
ling wood ashes and slaked lime in the trenches daily after removal of manure,
is of service,
HIOUSING AND CARE OF COWS 67

and removed immediately after. In the air of the ordinary
barn germs are fifty per cent. more abundant, owing to the
dust in the air, than in a school room at the close of the day.

It is advisable to have a number of box stalls for sick
animals, for cows about to have calf, and for calves. These
had preferably be in a separate stable, because contagious
diseases may thus be kept away from the rest of the herd,
as contagious abortion, for instance.

A milk receiving room in the stable is useful, in which
the milk from separate cows may be weighed and recorded
before the milk is carried to the milk room. (See Appendix,
page 182.)

The most suitable bedding for cows in the production
of clean milk consists either of shavings from kiln dried
lumber (which have, in the process of kiln drying, been ster-
ilized), or sawdust, or straw.

We have been laying down ideal rather than the
essential requirements in the housing of cattle to secure
clean milk. Suppose we take an ordinary barn. The hay
is probably stored over the cows. If this is so, then either
the hay must be removed, and also the ceiling over the
cows, or the ceiling must be made dust-tight and the hay
never removed before milking time, to avoid dust. It is
probable that there are not enough windows. More win-
dows, or, better, a continuous row of windows should be
put in. There will be also probably unnecessary feed
boxes which can not be readily cleaned, rubbish and imple-
ments and dirt to be removed.

Everything which may collect dust or dirt should be
done away with. The whole premises then should be
washed, swept and painted or whitewashed. The material
sold in the form of a powder and known in the trade as
68 CLEAN MILK

water paint, and which is mixed with water by the user, is
not much more expensive than whitewash and is infinitely
better. The floors of the cow stalls must be smooth and
tight, to be kept clean, and may be of matched wood—
although the gutters are preferably of cement. The floor
of the stall must not be too long or too short, so that the
cow when up will just stand on the edge of the gutter. If
the cows are of different breeds and sizes this may be regu-
lated by arranging the ties at proper distances from the
gutter. It is well to have a sufficient space behind the gut-
ters, so that one can walk without being soiled with manure,
five feet at least, and in some stables this space is made
wide enough to drive a wagon for filling with manure. This,
however, is not necessary, nor the best way to remove the
manure, as it should not be allowed to collect at all. The
gutters must be deep enough (eight inches or more) to
keep the cows clean when lying down, or may be made six
inches deep at one end and ten inches at the other end of
the barn to secure a fall for flushing them out with water.
They should be made watertight. It is well to keep land
plaster or lime always in the gutters to absorb odors.
Extra ventilation may be added by installing the King sys-.
tem without great expense.

Feeding should only be done after milking. A suffi-.
cient supply of hot and cold water and basins, soap and
towels should be provided in a convenient place for the
milkers to wash, and this may be used as a dressing room.
No manure should be permitted to remain within several
hundred feet of the barn, and the ground about the barn
must be kept clear of rubbish, dirt and stagnant water, and
sprinkled when very dusty. Children and cats and dogs.
must be excluded from the barn at milking time.
HOUSING AND CARE OF COWS 69

The essentials in relation to the stable, then, are:
Sufficient pure air and light; freedom from dust ; clean
floors, gutters, walls and ceilisgs ; and clean surroundings,
free from manure and rubbish.

Care of the Cows

All cows should be tested with tuberculin before their
milk is used for human consumption, either as raw milk or
in the form of cream, butter or possibly even cheese. The
germs of tuberculosis have been frequently found in milk,
cream and butter. Those remarkable surgeons, the Mayos,
of Rochester, Minn., have recently shown the large propor-
tion of tuberculosis of the abdominal organs among their
patients who come from the agricultural regions. The
natural inference which they draw is that the source of

. the infection in these people must be from milk, since they

are milk-users, and germs entering the lungs in the air
~ would cause tuberculosis of the lungs, or consumption.*
The milk of cows which are béing tested with tuber-
“culin may be used, providing that they do not react to
the test. It is well, also, that a veterinary surgeon familiar
with cattle examine each herd of cows twice a year.

’ Cows with gargett should be milked by one who does
-not milk the other cows, and animals about to calve should
be kept apart from the herd. In view of the wonderfully
successful results from the use of air for inflating the
udders of cows suffering from milk fever, it will be wise for

* Having caked udders or pus (slime) and blood in the milk.

+ In the light of most recent scientific studies and experiments tuberculosis in
man appears to start more frequently in the digestive tract than was formerly
supposed even when the disease is situated only in the lungs and other parts of
the body. No cowshould be placed in a herd until it has been tested and found
free from tuberculosis. Such testing must be repeated once a year. One tuber-
-culous cow may infect the entire herd.
70 CLEAN MILK

the farmer to keep the simple apparatus on hand for prac-
ticing the treatment. Every agricultural paper advertises
information for obtaining and using the apparatus.

The hair about the flanks, udder, and the brush of the
tail should be clipped short and the cows groomed once —
or twice daily, if necessary, — one-half hour before milking,
to allow dust to settle.

Before each milking, the udder should be wiped with a
clean, damp towel, or washed, if necessary, with soap and
water and dried with a dry towel.

The towels must be clean and the water pure for this
purpose. The teats and udder should always be dry dur-
ing milking. It is well to tie up the cow’s tail to the stall
while milking. Handling the udder stimulates the flow of
milk. So that the udder should be cleaned by a man or
boy especially devoted to this work, who goes immediately _
ahead of the milker with pail of warm water, wash cloth,
soap and clean towels. He can thus clean as many udders.
as would require ten milkers to milk. If the udders are
cleansed some time before milking begins—as by the
milkers themselves—the cows are apt either to leak their
milk or to shrink in milk-yield. The general grooming
of the cow’s bodies may well be done some time before
milking. Do not allow the cows to become excited by hard
driving, abusive treatment or even loud talking.

The best plan is to allow no talking whatever to the
cows at milking, and then, when there is a change in milk-.
ers, it will not influence the animals so much.
CHAPTER VI

HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM

Milkers and Other Employees

HE milker should be clean.* Before milking he must
wash his hands thoroughly with warm water, soap
and a nail brush. The hands must be well dried on

a clean towel before milking is begun.

A special suit of clean, washable outer garments should
be worn during milking and at no other times. When not
in use they must be kept in a clean andairy place. Each
milker must be provided with a lantern when milking is
not done in daylight, ‘unless the barn can be otherwise
lighted.

Milking ought to be performed at the same hour,
morning and evening. Milking must be accomplished
quietly ; jerking the teats causes dirt and germs to drop in
the milk and is not permissible.+ The first few jets of milk
from each teat must be rejected, because the germs are
washed out of the milk cistern by the first part of the milk.
If any of the milk in the pail becomes contaminated through
accident or through mixture with stringy or bloody milk
from the udder, the whole must be thrown away. Milking
stools must be clean; iron stools, painted white, are recom-
mended (see Fig. 3), or, better, the use of a milk pail as a
seat (see Fig. 3c, page 74).

® Milkers should be clean shaven and wear clean, washable coats. Hair on
the face is inadvisable.

+ For more detailed account of milking and use of milking machine, see
Appendix, p. 189-192. :
72 CLEAN MILK

After the milker has donned his milking suit and
washed his hands, he should touch absolutely nothing but
the cleaned teats of the cow and his clean stool and milk
pail. Where great care is observed the milker is required
to wash his hands after milking each cow.

No person employed to milk, or handle milk in any way,
should have, or have come in contact with, any contagious
disease. In case of illness in the household of an employee
a physician’s certificate should be required of the employee
stating that the illness is not communicable before permit-
ting the employee to come in contact with milk in any
manner.

Fic. 3.

 

Iron Milking Stool.

The safest rule is to debar a person from handling
milk who has throat trouble or any disease, or has come in
contact with a patient suffering from contagious disorder, or
entered a dwelling in which there has been contagious disease.

The milk pail is an important factor in the production
of clean milk. The writer first employed a pail which has a
removable cover crowned up so that it is about four inches
above the top of the pail, with a hole in the cover six inches
in diameter. The pail has a spout arising from its upper
part and reaching a little above the cover of the pail when
it is in place. The spout on the pail is covered by a remov-
able metal cap.
HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 73

Two layers of sterilized cheese cloth are placed across
the top of the pail and then the: cover is fitted on over the
top of the pail, stretching and holding the cheese cloth in
place. When the pail is full it may be emptied through the
spout without disturbing the cheese cloth, and so be used
through a whole milking. The gauze is washed in warm
water, then in soda and water, and rinsed in cold water and
boiled 20 minutes, or placed in the steam sterilizer before
being used again. The Gurler milk pail (Fig. 3a) is very
similar, with a removable cover, the opening in which is

   
    

       
 

 

im A
Mi mt of,

      

 

The Gurler Milk Pail. A recent improvement on the Gurler Pail.

larger than it need be, however. Otherwise it is a very
satisfactory pail. Cheese cloth is laid over the top of the
pail and the cover is fitted on, stretching it into place.
Experiments have shown that milking through a clean
cheese cloth strainer is capable of yielding a comparatively
clean milk, even in rather dirty premises.

The writer has recently known excellent results with
tthe use of a milk pail modified from one described by
Stewart of Philadelphia. This is made of spun steel,
10% inches high, and is covered with a flat, removable lid
on which the milker sits. The milking is done into a spout
74 CLEAN MILK

which has an expanded opening 7 inches in diameter. The
spout is covered at the end by a removable pan, and the
bottom of the pan is a wire strainer—1oo meshes to the
inch. The opening of the spout is nearly vertical, so that
dirt will not easily fallintoit. Any metal worker can make
such a pail. Stewart’s pail may now be procured of the
Star Milk Cooler Co. Stewart found that milk in this pail
contained only 29 germs, as against 125,000 germs to the
quarter teaspoonful of milk drawn iato an open bucket.

 

Modification of Stewart’s Milk Pail, the most satisfactory
to the author.

The metal strainer is safer where milkers are unreliable,
as they will handle cheesecloth strainers and lay them down
in dirty places. Cotton wool laid between two layers of
cheesecloth to strain milk—while milking—into the pail,
is more effective than cheesecloth alone, but we have found
that the cotton wool is matted in lumps by the jets of milk
and that only those absorbent cotton strainers made by
dairy supply companies for the purpose are to be recom-
mended. We have been content with the good results
obtained from cheesecloth alone.
fTANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 75.

The handling of milk may be conducted properly in
many ways. Some of these are very simple and inexpensive ;
others, which are quite expensive and elaborate, are required
for convenience and certainty when large quantities of milk
are to be handled in the most approved style.

To such a degree of refinement has this matter been
carried, and such a multitude of utensils have been devised,
that the inexperienced, would-be dairyman is disheartened
at the very outset by the great number of appliances which
he finds are alike recommended and reviled by his various
advisers. The matter of the best way to handle milk is a
source of constant study, and improvements are as constantly
taking place, and while there will never be a time when
competent men will all agree on special details, yet they are
agreed on the principles and essentials of the business. We
have already described the principles, and dwelt upon the
facts which have led up to the establishment of those prin-
ciples; we now propose to devote our attention to the
essentials in handling clean, pure milk. First: We will
consider those essentials necessary to insure the continu-
ance of the cleanliness of the milk until it reaches the con-
sumer, and then the various devices for convenience, labor-
saving and system required in handling large quantities of
milk in the best manner knewn at the present time—always.
with the admitted possibility of improvement in details.

The milk room is the first essential. It must be clean,
proof against dust and extreme weather conditions, and
separate from barn and house. It need not be expensive
or elaborate. The floor, although preferably of asphalt or
cement, may be of oiled or painted wood (if smooth and
tight), and if on the level with the bottom of the milk
wagon, will make it easier in loading the milk.
76 CLEAN MILK’

All water and washings from the room must be carried
away in pipes to a point fifty yards from the milk house.

The milk room should be surrounded by grounds free
from rubbish, pools of milky water, or dust (fifteen grains
of dust have been shown to contain as many as seventy
million germs), and should be at least forty feet from the
barn,

It must be well lighted, with mosquito screens at the
windows and doors. The windows and doors should be
closed, as far as possible, at the time the milk is handled in
the house, to exclude dust—ventilation being obtained by
the King system. If there is a closed porch or vestibule, it
will be an added safeguard against the admission of dust in
windy weather, by providing an entrance with double doors.
The construction of the milk room may be of wood, with
walls and ceiling of wood or plaster, preferably painted.
Whitewash may, however, be used on the inside of the
room and should be renewed every three months. Scrupu-
lous cleanliness must be observed in the milk room, and it
should be kept as dry as possible in all its parts, with no
spots of mold on the walls. No sour milk should be left in
the room, as the sour milk, or lactic acid germs, will get
into the fresh milk. The milk room ought not to be used
for any other purpose than to handle the milk, and should
contain nothing that is not required in handling milk.

When milk is to be shipped in cans, the following
utensils are essential :

Milk pails.

Receiving tank or cans.

A strainer.

A cooler or aerator.

A collecting can,
Shipping cans with all seams flushed with solder.
HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 77

A tank for washing purposes.

A tank for immersing cans in cold water.

Also washing soda or soap powder, brushes to scrub utensils and
inside of cans, and cheese cloth for straining purposes.

Pure hot and cold water, and steam if busi: ess is conducted upon
a large scale.

Method of Handling Milk To Be Shipped in Cans

Cooling the Milk.—I can not agree with such authori-
ties as Dr. Chapin, of New York (than whom no one has
done more to introduce clean milk into that metropolis),
when he says on page 131 in his book on “ Infant Feeding”:
“For cooling the milk to best advantage a can placed in ice
water is better than the commercial coolers.” Clean milk
calls for milk cooled to below 502 F. within an hour.

This will not be accomplished by placing milk warm
from the cows into large cans and then immersing the cans
in ice water, unless by constant stirring of the milk in each
can. Warm milk placed in quart bottles and immersed in
ice water can be cooled properly—that is, to 45° F.—within
the hour. When milk is obtained from cows giving
milk varying greatly in composition, as is usually the case,
it must be thoroughly mixed before bottling. But, inas-
much as half an hour or more is commonly required to milk
sufficient milk to mix, and inasmuch as one can not keep
warm milk for this period without great increase in germs,
the only way is to cool each pailful as soon as it is milked.

Then the milk may be kept an hour or more before it
is mixed and bottled. I started out prejudiced in favor of
cooling milk by immersion of cans or bottles in ice water,
but did not find it practicable, except under certain condi-
tions (see p. 84).*

The chief essential consists in immediate cooling of the
milk. When milking begins, as soon as a milk pail is filled,

* There is no doubt but that the cooler and all apparatus, not necessary in
handling milk, should be abandoned when possible. The oftener milk touches
objects the more likely will contamination result, especially by aeration in a
dusty atmosphere. But immediate cooling is essential.
78 CLEAN MILK

the milk should be taken directly to the milk house and the
milk poured into the strainer, which is placed in the receiv-
ing tank of the cooler. The milk runs over the cooler and
is received in the shipping can, which, when filled, should
be immersed in a tank of cold or iced water above the
shoulder of the can with the cover of the can left off until”
shipping time. The milk, falling from the cooler, should
pass through two layers of cheese cloth laid over the top of
the shipping can. The milk should be cooled below 50° F.
Two types of coolers or aerators arein common use. Aera-
tion,* or exposure of the milk to air, is not essential if the
milk is withdrawn from the cow in a cleanly manner, but if
the milk is more or less contaminated with manure, by
impure air or by odors caused by imperfect feeding, aeration
frees it to an extent of so-called animal odor. The coolers
in ordinary use do, however, aerate the milk at the same
time that the milk is cooled. The conical cooler (Fig. 4)
may be employed when a moderate quantity of milk is
to be handled, but requires more labor, as, in order to cool
the milk satisfactorily, the water in the aerator must be
constantly stirred to continually change the layer of water
lying against the inner surface of the tin over which the
milk runs. This aerator is fitted with an inflow and outflow
pipe for running water, at either side of the base of the
aerator, but unless the water is near the freezing point, it is
better to fill the aerator with cracked ice, salt and water.
In this case the aerator may be simply used as a storage
tank for ice water, and both the inflow and outflow pipes are
closed. By constant stirring of the ice water in the erator
while the milk is flowing, it is possible to reduce the tem-

* Aeration is inadvisable, in so far as the milk is exposed to germs in the
air during the process.
HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 79

perature of the milk coming from the cooler to below 50° F.
In this style of aerator the milk flows from the reservoir at
the top through fine holes all about the base of the res-
ervoir out on to the surface and corrugations of the cooler,
collects in the gutter below, and is carried off by the pipe
leading from the gutter (in the front of the aerator in the
cut) into the shipping can. Often these holes are too large

Fic. 4.

 
  

\

—

SS
mM 1 ;

  

The Conical Cooler.

or too numerous, allowing the milk to flow too fast, when
some must be closed by solder. This kind of aerator
works very unsatisfactorily if the water is not constantly
stirred, and is not to, be recommended if running water
is at command and permits of use of a star or tubular
cooler.

The Star cooler (Fig. 5), or that of the-tubular variety
(Fig. 6), are by far the most efficient, certain and conven-
ient coolers, although more expensive in first cost than the
80 CLEAN MILK

conical zrators. The much greater surface offered by the
tremendously corrugated form of the cooler, together with

 

Star Cooler.

the forced circulation of water which flows continuously
from below upward through the cooler, account for the
superiority of this type of cooler.

Fic. 6.

i SPRING WATER?

 

   

@ IcE WATER .
. SUPPLY

Tubular Cooler.

The temperature of the milk may be lowered to a point
two degrees above that of the water circulating through the

cooler.
HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 81

The Star cooler is made of two sheets of corrugated
copper, tinned on its outer surface, which comes in contact
with the milk. The water enters below, filling the entire
space between the copper sheets, and flows upward through
the cooler, while the warm milk drops through the holes
punched along the whole length of the feed trough at the
top of the cooler and flows down over both cooling sheets.
As the milk is cooled, flowing down the outside, the water
is warmed as it moves up the inside of the cooler
(see Fig. 5).

 

The water supply for the cooler may be obtained in
various ways: From a common source of water, as a town
supply ; from a barrel or tank over the cooler (see Fig. 7);
or from a barrel beneath the cooler by means of a siphon
attachment (see Fig. 8). If it be desired to cool the milk
much under 50°, it may be necessary to use ice water in a
part of the cooler.

This is most economically accomplished by an ice water
section, which is made to be hung on the bottom of the
Star cooler and is practically a small counterpart of the
82 CLEAN MILK

larger cooler above (Fig. 9). Ice water is run through the
ice section alone and is obtained from an overhead barrel
holding broken ice, over which water is sprayed from a
large-surface nozzle, and flows from the barrel through a
short hose through the ice water section.

A similar result may be secured by using a tubular
cooler (Fig. 6), arranged so the general water supply may
be run through the upper half of the cooler, and the ice
water or cold brine through the lower half. By either of

 

 

these contrivances milk may be reduced to a temperature
below 40°.

| In place of the spray-head for sprinkling water on
cracked ice in a barrel, to supply the ice water section of
the Star cooler, it has been found (by my friend Mr. Paul-
hamus, of Sumner, Wash.) that the following arrangement
is better: A medium-sized cask is lined from top to bottom
with a coil of a hundred feet or more of half-inch pipe.
The water supply is connected with the bottom of the coil,
and the top of the coil is connected with the ice water sec-
tion of the Star cooler. Large pieces of cracked ice are
HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 83

used to fill the cask to the top, to which may be added rock
salt and then water. If salt is used, care must be taken to
have the water running constantly through the coil in the
cask, otherwise the water will freeze in the coil. This way
of cooling the water supply for the water section of the
Star cooler is both more convenient and satisfactory be-
cause the cask may be placed directly on the floor of the
milk room, instead of up in the air as required for the
sprinkler, and much less ice is used than when a sprinkler
is employed.

   
 

IcE WATER,
DISCHARGE;

 

ya
COPYRIGHT, 19038, Aa

Star Milk Cooler.

The advantages of such arrangements consist in utiliz-
ing the natural temperature of the regular water supply of
the dairy to do the chief part part of cooling the milk,
while the ice water is only required to complete the smaller
part of the reduction of temperature in hot weather. There
are many different sizes of both the conical, tubular and
Star coolers adapted to the quantity of milk which is
handled. The tubular coolers are constructed to withstand
high water pressure, while the Star coolers are not.

While milk may be simply poured from the milking
84 CLEAN MILK

pails through two or three thicknesses of cheese cloth into
a receiving can, from which it is transferred to the receiving
tank of the cooler, a better form of strainer is the trap
variety (see Fig. 10), which is placed in the receiving tank
of the cooler. The milk is poured into the upright funnel,
and has to rise from below up through the cheese cloth
strainer to seek its level.

Particles of dirt and foreign matter would naturally,
through gravity, fall to the bottom of the vessel and not be
forced through with the milk, as commonly happens when
milk is poured from above through a strainer.

Fic. 10

   
   
 

COPYRIGHT, 1903,

 
   

<a

Sages y=

 

Trap Milk Strainer.

The simplest, cleanest and most inexpensive method of
handling milk is to place it—as soon as milked—in a bottle~
filler tank and run it at once into bottles and immerse the
bottles in ice water. By this method, the need of a cooler:
is avoided and the chance of germs getting into the milk
during its exposure to the air in running over the cooler.
On the other hand, there are two objections. There should
be four milkers or so to supply enough milk at any time, so
that the mixed milk from a number of cows may be bottled.
If one waits until milk from several cows is obtained, with
one or two milkers, the germs will have a chance to multiply
in the warm milk. The other objection consists in the
HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 85

immediate bottling of milk without aeration. This objec-
tion does not hold if the milk is withdrawn from clean cows
in well ventilated stables, and milk is handled in this manner
in many of the best dairies.

The milk will be cooled to 45° F in ice water in an hour
and by no method will the cream rise more rapidly.

ffot Water.—Hot water may be readily obtained at
‘comparatively small expense from a tank, such as is com-
monly employed for supplying households with hot water
when attached to the kitchen stove, by connecting the tank
with a coil of pipe placed in an ordinary air-tight, wood stove.
If a steam boiler is in use, the steam may be run into a tank
of cold water.* In either case the stove or boiler should be
placed in an adjoining room, to avoid dirt, while the tank
is in the milk room.

Cleaning Utensils.—After milking, all the utensils, in-
cluding milk pails, receiving tank, cooler, straining cloths,
-etc., should be at once rinsed in cold water, then washed in
hot water and soap powder or washing soda (sodium
carbonate in 3 per cent. solution), and rinsed again in clean,
-cold water. Finally, all metal dairy utensils should have
boiling water poured over them, which sterilizes and dries
them at once. Dairy utensils should never be dried with
‘towels. The cans should be scalded with boiling water or
have live steam turned in them and be placed upside down
-on bars to drain in the milk room, thus also admitting air.
Rusty cans should never be used ; they sometimes impart a
fishy taste to milk. A fishy flavor is said to be given to milk
-and butter when washing powder is not well rinsed from
dairy utensils, also by cows drinking stagnant water.

The strainer cloths used over the milk pails and other
‘utensils may be of various materials. The writer has em-

* The steam heating tee is a most convenient appliance for heating water (see
“page 95).
86 CLEAN MILK

ployed chiefly cheese cloth or rather gauze (which is cheese
cloth prepared by washing, to remove the sizing and impur-
ities, and dried), of the finest mesh, and two layers in
thickness.

A single thickness of coarse cotton flannel or Turkish
towelling may be used, however. When the strainer
cloth can not be sterilized in a regular sterilizer, it should
be boiled for twenty minutes wrapped in a towel or clean
cloth and left enclosed in this wrapping until used. Then
it should be removed, but the fingers should not touch
that part of the strainer cloth which will come in contact

Fic. It.

\ OOPYRIGHT, 1909,

 

Wash Sink.

with the milk. Before sterilizing the cloth, it should be well
rinsed in cold water, washed in hot water and washing soda,
and rinsed in cold water again. Every little detail must be
carried out conscientiously, as one failure in caring for the
milk properly will spoil the result entirely.

A convenient arrangement, when steam is employed,
is the wash sink (see Fig. 11), provided with draining trays
at each end. The can is placed upside down over the two
nipples in the tray, one supplying a jet of water to rinse the
can, and the other a jet of steam to sterilize or kill germs in
it. Various forms of brushes are desirable for scrubbing
HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 87

the utensils (see Fig. 12). They should be boiled daily for
ten minutes after use.

To keep milk cool in cans during shipment the refrig-
erator car is commonly employed. Where this is not pos-
sible, the writer has known of the use of a cylindrical, hollow
can of tin, with open top and closed bottom, being suspended
bottom down, well into the milk or cream, from the
mouth of the shipping can, and filled with cracked ice. The
milk can jacket, made of hair, felt and canvas, will protect
cans against the effect of heat and cold to a considerable
extent (see Fig. 13).

 

Various Forms of Brushes.

Bottled Milk.—\lf{ milk is to be shipped in bottles
instead of cans, the following utensils will be essential in

the milk room:

Glass Bottles, made to withstand heat, and Delivery Boxes.
A Receiving Tank, with Trap Strainer.

A Cooler, with Ice Water Section.

A Collecting Tank.

A Bottle Filler, with Table.

A Sterilizer.

A Washing Outfit.

The cooling arrangement is precisely as described
above for cooling milk to be shipped in cans. When there
are eight or ten milkers, so that the milk from as many cows
may be mixed as soon as milked without loss of valuable
88 CLEAN MILK

time when it should be cooling, then the warm, mixed milk
may properly be drawn directly into the bottles from the
bottle filler. The bottles should, on being filled, be
instantly immersed to the neck in ice water. In this way
bottled milk may be suitably cooled, with the avoidance of
the unnecessary exposure to two tanks and the air in
passing over the cooler. The bottle filler is indispensable
(see Fig. 14) for conveniently filling several bottles at once.
By moving a lever one can fill from four to eighteen bottles
to the same level at one time. The prices of these contri-

Fic. 13.

nh

  
  
     

Daa

    

Milk Can Jacket.

vances vary greatly with the size and material used in their
construction.

The sterilizer is an important utensil. It is a tight
chamber into which steam is turned, with the object of
destroying germs, and is made to hold the bottles dnd
absolutely every other dairy utensil with which milk comes
in contact.

The germs are not only those which may have inhab-
ited the milk, but occasionally there may be germs of dis-
ease contaminating the returned bottle, owing to it having
been in a house in which such disease existed.

There are two styles of steam sterilizers—those in
HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 89

‘which the steam is not under pressure, and those confining
steam under pressure.

The latter type is more efficient, in that with steam
‘under pressure it is possible to obtain a much higher tem-
perature than when it is not. Steam, when not under pres-
sure, will not exceed in temperature boiling water (212° F.).
With a pressure of ten pounds and a temperature of 241° F.

  

—s
==

lit ais

“ i " in
ie an i

  

oS

   
  
  

    

 

 

 

 

 

        

 

Star Side-Bar Filler. ‘

in the high pressure sterilizers, it is possible to destroy the
germs in the milk utensils with as much certainty in twenty
minutes as with steam at 212° F, in the low pressure ster-
ilizers in an hour. The heavy pressure or high pressure
‘sterilizers are, however, exceedingly expensive, and, if the
bottles are properly washed, there is practically no danger
in relying upon the less expensive steam sterilizers in which
the steam is not confined under pressure.* In Fig. 15 is

* Indeed, washing and sterlizing may be done at the same time (see page 185).
gO CLEAN MILK

shown a high pressure sterilizer. It must be built very
strongly to withstand the pressure, which ,is over fifteen
tons against the door alone, with a pressure of ten pounds

of steam in the sterilizer, The matter of a sterilizer in

 

which the steam is not confined under pressure is a compar-
atively simple affair.

One may be home-made. The writer had a sterilizer
built of two-inch plank, lined with galvanized iron, with
double doors fastened with an iron bar across the front.
HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM gI

The shape was nearly square and the capacity was about
250 quart bottles. There was a movable sheet of galvan-
ized iron, partitioning the sterilizer in two, and movable
shelves of the same, perforated with holes, in which the
bottles rested upside down on their shoulders. The shelves
stretched horizontally across the sterilizer, from each side
to the partition in the centre, resting on galvanized angle
irons soldered along both sides and oa each side of the par-
tition in the centre.

The shelves were just far enough apart to give room
for a tier of bottles. Shelves and partition were removed
to allow of room for sterilizing the milk pails, cooler, bottle
filler and strainer, cheese cloths, and tanks supplying and
receiving milk from cooler, etc. The sterilizer was fed from
a ten horse power boiler with steam from below, and also
had an exit or exhaust in the bottom, while at the top there
was a hole in which was a cork holding a thermometer in
place, with bulb inside and recording part outside of steril-
izer. The doors were not steam-tight, and no pressure of
steam was attempted or possible in the sterilizer, but the
temperature was raised to 212° in about twenty minutes,
and maintained for the time—one hour—occupied by steril-
ization.

A very successful sterilizer has recently been made by
my friend, Hon. W. H. Paulhamus, of Sumner, Wash.,
entirely of concrete faced with cement, and costing about
$75.00.* It isa rectangular chamber 6% feet high by 8 feet
wide and about 14 feet long and 6 inches thick, with one
iron door. In the top, iron bars were used to reinforce
the concrete. Two half-inch pipes enter one side of the
chamber just above the floor for intake of steam from a
twenty-five horse power boiler,and,at the top, there is a single

* See plate opposite page 184.
92 CLEAN MILK

pipe for outlet of steam when sterilization is over to cool off
the oven, andonetodrain the floor. Inthe middle of one side
there is also a pipe inserted, large enough to hold a thermo-
meter. This sterilizer is enormous, and will hold 100 dozen
bottles and every bit of dairy apparatus used on four farms,
including the milk pails and milk cans, coolers, and bottle
filling apparatus, strainer cloth, etc. If one does not wish to
make a sterilizer, the largest size only should be bought

 

 

Star Sterilizer.

(Fig. 16), as it is most economical in saving the expense of
doing several sterilizations daily, because with it all bottles
and every article of dairy utensil can be sterilized at one
time. In case the Star galvanized sterilizer is used, the
bottle carriers described on page 102 may be employed to
hold the bottles in the sterilizer, or a rack and truck similar
to that pictured on page 103 and 104 may be utilized.

This sterilizer is made of heavy galvanized iron,
HITANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 93°

riveted and soldered together, and holding from 240 to 632
quart bottles, according to the size. It is supplied with
perforated steam coil and trapped drain outlet, and it is
well to have an exhaust to carry off surplus steam, although
the doors are not steam-tight when closed. A thermometer
placed in the center of the door is also advisable. Both the
heavy pressure and the galvanized iron sterilizers are made
either with a door at one end or a door at each end. The
latter arrangement is a convenience when there is a separ-
ate room for washing the bottles, the sterilizer being placed
in the partition between the washing and bottling room and’
the bottles passed in the sterilizer through a door in the
wash room and taken out through the other door in the.

 

Bottle Brush.

sterilizer in the bottling room. Every single utensil with
which milk comes in contact, including the various tanks.
and strainer cloths, should be thoroughly washed and steril-.
ized after each milking for one hour at 212° F. To avoid:
sterilization twice daily, however, it is better to have two.
sets of utensils, which may be sterilized all together once
daily.

Washing Outfit—A separate room should be provided
for washing milk utensils where the best plan is pursued.
Since we are considering the essentials for handling clean
milk we have not included a wash room separate from the
milk room, as clean milk can be handled in a combination
bottling and wash room, although not to the best advantage.
The bottles should be rinsed in warm water and washed with.
94 CLEAN MILK

washing soda and hot water (in 3 per cent. solution) with a
bottle brush (see Fig. 17), and then rinsed in clean hot water
and inverted over the trays or shelves, which are placed in
the sterilizer. The most convenient arrangement is such as
that shown in the cut (Fig. 18), two tanks, one holding
lukewarm water in which the bottles are soaked and the
other hot water containing washing soda, while at the end
there are projecting nipples over which the bottles are
inverted, and, by turning the lever, several bottles are
rinsed at once. Each tank has an overflow standpipe to
carry off the grease floating on the top of the water.*

  
  

COPYRIGHT, 1908,

Star Metal Wash Sink.

An additional improvement is the turbine bottle washer
shown in the illustration (Fig. 19). It consists of a revolv-
ing brush which is turned by a turbine wheel with steam at
a pressure of. twelve to fifteen pounds. In this cut are
shown the two large tanks on the left, for soaking and wash-
ing bottles in washing soda and water, and then the small
tank, next the bottle washer, over which the bottles are
inverted to be rinsed inside. This is accomplished by
nipples as shown in the cut (Fig. 18) spraying water into
the interior of a number of bottles at one time, which are

* For a washing apparatus, where 1,000 or more bottles are handled, see
Appendix, p. Sus.
HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 95

then dipped in the small tank below to wash the outside of
the bottle, and.are transferred to the tank at the extreme
right to drain.

None of this special bottle-washing outfit is essential.
Any convenient arrangement of tubs and hot water by
which the bottles are put through three processes in wash-
ing—first rinsing in warm water, then in hot alkali and
water, and finally in clean hot water—will suffice.

   
    

 

 

a ig

   

Star Bottle Washing Outfit.

If the bottles are thoroughly rinsed at the consumer's
house the first rinsing in plain water may even be dispensed
with, provided the bottles are thoroughly
scrubbed inside with a brush and hot alkali
water and well rinsed in clean hot water.

Fic. 20

The hot water may be supplied from a hot
water tank, as suggested (p. 85), or by means

ne of a steam heating tee (Fig. 20).
ee.

 

This is an arrangement by which water
may be heated to almost any temperature desired (short
96 CLEAN MILK

of boiling), by steam and cold water coming in contact, in
varying proportions, according to the amount of either
which is permitted to flow into the tee. Thus the steam.
enters the side and the water the top of the tee, both being
regulated by valves in the steam and water pipes, and the
hot water flows out below. Cold water or steam may be
obtained separately also, from the device, which is com-
paratively inexpensive. A very convenient bottle-washing
machine is shown in the Appendix (p. 185.)

The routine of operating the dairy would be as fol-
lows: The empty, returned bottles would be taken from the
wagon boxes into the milk room and there rinsed in warm
water, in one tub, and then scrubbed with a brush in another
tub holding alkali and water, as hot as the hand can bear.

Fic. 21.

 

The bottles should be next rinsed in clean, hot water, in--
verted in the racks and placed in the sterilizer, where they
are sterilized at 212° F. (bya reliable thermometer) { Fig. 21)
for an hour. The bottles should remain inverted until used.

The milk is brought from the barn in milk pails or cans,
as soon as milked, and poured into the Star trap strainer
resting in the receiving tank of the Star milk cooler with ice
water section. The milk flows from the collecting tank of
the cooler through sterilized cheese cloth into a large can,
if it is desired to thoroughly mix the milk of many cows
before it is bottled. Instead of a can for mixing the
cooled miik, it is better to use the large tank for filling the
bottles—-that is, the bottle-filler tank ; and after twenty gal-
lons or more of milk have flowed from the collecting-tank
HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 97

of the cooler into the bottle-filler tank, the milk should be
well stirred with a sterilized stirrer and the bottles filled
while the milk is being mixed. The stirrer may be made
like a huge fork, from heavy tin.

The warm milk of several cows may be mixed in the
barn by pouring the contents of a number of milk pails into
alargecan. But unless there are enough milkers to do this
within a few minutes, it is better to carry each milk pail to
the cooler, as soon as it is full and mix the milk after it

Fic. 22

 

Machine for chopping ice used to pack about milk bottles.

has cooled. The time elapsing between milking and bot-
tling should be as short as possible. The milk must be
cooled instantly after milking, and be bottled within an hour
of milking. In some establishments the milk is bottled
within eight minutes of milking. The cooled, mixed milk
is poured into the bottle filler and. flows immediately into
the bottles, which are then quickly capped with sterilized
paper caps, and placed in the wagon boxes well surrounded
with ice in warm weather. The milk should be delivered to
the consumer the year round at a temperature not over 45° F.
If not shipped immediately—as in case of the night’s
*

98 CLEAN MILK

milk—the milk may be stored in the wagon boxes over
night with ice or kept in cold storage or in sufficiently cold
water. (Fig. 22).

All the dairy utensils should be rinsed in clean warm
or cold water as soon as the milk has been bottled and then
washed with scalding alkali water and rinsed with clean cold
water, and sterilized an hour in the sterilizer, including the
cheese cloth used in straining the milk in the milk pails, in
the Star trap strainer, and that used over the can in which
the cooled milk is mixed. The floor must be kept damp to
avoid dust, and the windows and doors should be closed
while the milk is being handled for the same reason. When
dairy utensils are not in use, they may be kept in a sterilizer,

Fic. 23.

« a

COPYRIGHT, 1903,

   

Banjo Conductor for carrying milk through a wall.

or, if this is not practicable, it is well in many milk rooms to
cover them with a clean sheet, to keep off the dust, and to
rinse the cooler with clean, cold water just before using, for
the same reason. A properly constructed and managed
milk room should be dust-proof and dust-free, and such
precautions should be entirely unnecessary.

Turning live steam against the walls of the milk room
each day is useful as an aid to cleanliness, provided that
they are constructed to withstand the process.

The employees in the milk room ought to wear clean,
washable clothes. Linen gowns, like those worn by butchers.
which may be slipped over the clothes, are most convenient.

The final test of perfection of cleanliness of the milk,
produced as described, isthe laboratory. Such tests should
HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 99

‘be made once a week. If the milk is sold as “certified,” it.
must receive the sanction of some reliable and disinterested
society or person. The bacterial content or number of
germs should not exceed 30,000* to the cubic centimeter,
according to the consensus of authorities at the present
time, in so-called.certified milk. It is perfectly possible to
produce milk which shall not exceed in number 2,000 to
4,000 germs to the cubic centimeter by the comparatively
simple and inexpensive plant which has just been described
above, as the author has practically demonstrated.

Fic. 24.

y

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

SS
PEE TOY

:

 

SSS =

COPYRIGHT, 1908,

Cylinder for conveying milk through a floor.

A more perfect arrangement in a dairy building for
handling clean milk is of advantage when one can afford it.
The most important improvement consists in separating
the bottling or milk room proper from the wash room, in
which the sterilization and washing of the milk utensils are
done, and to devote two rooms to these different processes.
(1) The boiler and engine should have a separate room, and,
adjoining this, (2) a room for washing and sterilization, and
then a room (3) in which the milk is cooled and bottled.

* yo,oco germs is the maximum number permitted by many Milk Commis-
sions.
100 CLEAN MILK

A still further development comprises the following in the

dairy building :
A Milk Receiving Room. A Boiler Room.
A Milk Room. A Cold Storage Room.
A Bottle Room. A Shipping Room,
A Wash Room. A Lavatory.
An Engine Room. A Laundry.

 

Cream Cooler connected with Separator.

The milk receiving room may be connected with the
barn by a cable system by which two 5 to 10 gallon cans are
suspended on can carriages running on an overhead wire.
The milk receiving room is on a higher level than the milk
room, so that the milk flows from it through the floor
through a funnel or cylinder, or through the wall by a
Banjo conductor (see Figs. 23 and 24) directly into the
receiving tanks of the cooler or separator in the milk room.
below, thus avoiding uanecessary handling.
HIANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM IOI

The milk room should not be connected with tne outer
air by a door or open window, but must be ventilated so as
to exclude dust and only be connected with the other rooms.
It contains the appliances for cooling and bottling milk we
have already noticed, and also a separator, cream cooler and
cream bottle filler (Figs. 25 and 26), if cream is to be made,

The bottle room adjoins the milk room, in which the
clean bottles are kept after being sterilized. One end of
the sterilizer projects into this room from the wash room.

 

COPYRIGHT, 1908,

Cream Bottle Filler.

The wash room contains the sterilizer, the bottle washing
-outfit, and a Babcock tester. The cold storage room is of
great convenience where large quantities of milk are
handled and may be arranged with natural ice, or by means
of ammonia compression and an artificial refrigerating and
ice-making plant. The lavatory and laundry are for the
use of the employees in the dairy, the former with a shower
bath, set basin and dressing room, and the latter to wash the
clothes used by the employees. In the shipping room are
the cases for holding the bottles, and the floor platform for
loading the wagons should be onalevel withthem. Where
102 CLEAN MILK

there is machinery, as for a refrigerating plant, it is well to.
separate the boiler by a partition from the engine and fire.
room and thus avoid the dust, ashes and dirt from fuel.*
Space does not permit of more than a brief outline of the.
more elaborate dairy plant, but we would refer to onet who
makes a business of planning and installing such, from whom
we have derived many valuable suggestions. The object of
this book is to detail the less elaborate and more essential.

Fic. 27

 

COPYRIGHT, 1903,
Bottle Carriers.

methods which may be used by the farmer without great.
expense in the production of clean milk on a moderate scale.

In the handling of milk bottles in the dairy, it is much
more convenient—though not essential—if they can be.
transported and inverted in numbers without handling each
bottle separately. Thus carriers have been invented for
holding them, with reversing racks, so that the bottles may
be inverted—as when they are sterilized—by turning over

* For plan of milk house, see p. 179.
t Samuel M. Heulings, Haddonfield, N. J.
HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 103

as many as 20 bottles at once (see Fig. 27). Cars are also
made which are used to transport these carriers and the cars,
carriers and bottles are all wheeled directly into the steri-
lizer and out again without handling the individual bottles
(see Figs. 28 and 29).

Shipping Cases ana Boxes.—Milk bottles of glass must
be shipped in some sort of box. The writer has had such
boxes made of strong galvanized iron (24 gage) with rolled
edges at all the joints, with a hinged cover and padlock, and

Fic. 28.

COPYRIGHT, 1903,

 

A Car for conveying carriers and bottles.

with metal handles ateither end. Padlocks must be made
to have the same key fit them all; but we have found gréat
trouble in getting padlocks which were not continually
getting out of order. For this reason, and because keys
for such padlocks are readily obtained by outsiders, I
recommend the use ofa lead seal having an opening through
which the ends of short wires are passed. The seal is then
compressed by a special punch, thus locking the ends of the
wires and serving as a perfect padlock which is not likely
104 CLEAN MILK

to: be tampered with without detection. The seal and wire
for each shipping box cost about one-sixth of a cent and
may be obtained complete with the punch.. One called
“The Enterprize Punch & Seal” has proved efficient.
The boxes hold 12 quart bottles, which are separated by
a framework of galvanized iron on the same plan as the
pasteboard partitions or fillers in egg cases. These frames
lift out of the boxes and are 3% inches deep. The boxes
are 12% X17% X10 inches deep and have a small hole

 

COPYRIGHT, 1908,

A Car for conveying carriers and bottles.

punched in the bottom to allow the water, from melting ice,
to drain away. This is advisable in saving ice and the
weight of the water in transportation. I have found the
locked boxes necessary to prevent theft of the milk and
empty bottles in transportation. Boxes may be bought
holding various quantities of bottles, as 20 or 14 pints
(see Fig, 30). t

Bottles.—In regard to glass bottles there is not much
to say except that a bottle of good material and proper
HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 105

annealing must be secured to stand the repeated steriliza-
tions (Fig. 31). Theshapes are morea matter of taste than
anything else. The bottles with the long and slender necks
make a greater display of cream. The latest departure in
the way of a milk bottle is the Single Service Paper Milk
Bottle sold by the Renno Case Co., 3951 Market Street,
Philadelphia. This does away with the breakage, the clean-
ing, the sterilization, and the loss incurred in collection of
empty milk bottles. The paper bottles are made in quarts,
pints and half-pints, are saturated with paraffin and are ab-
solutely sterile—that is, free from germs. The paper bottle
weighs 2 ounces, as against 24 to 26 ounces in the case of

 

Wagon Box for carrying bottles and ice, not covered or locked.

the glass quart bottle. The chief advantages of the paper
bottle lie in the saving of expense in not having to collect
(and lose) bottles, as they are only made to be used once
and rejected; and in the saving of weight in transportation,
as almost twice as much milk can be carried on a wagon.
Then the bottles are about 2% inches shorter than the glass
bottles, on account of their thinner walls; the paper lids
fit down into the bottle and allow of no leaking ; and the
necks are wide enough to remove the cream with a spoon.
The cost is about 1 cent each for quart, and eight-tenths of a
cent for pint paper bottles. The only disadvantage which
occurs to the writer is the fact that quality and quantity of
106 CLEAN MILK

the cream would not be so apparent in the paper bottles,
nor would dirt.

The advent of the paper bottle would seem then to be
of enormous advantage to farmers in enabling them to ship
milk in bottles without all the expense and labor of the
washing and sterilizing outfit now required for glass bottles.
At present writing it is, however, impossible to secure the
bottle as the makers are as yet not supplying dairymen at
large, and the writer has had no practical experience with

Fic. 31.

 

Star Milk Bottles,

the paper bottle. The foregoing statements were taken
from the report of Dr. A. H. Stewart, who made a study of
the paper bottle, in Saxztatzon for December 6th, 1905.
The same care should bé exercised in the production of
cream as in the case of milk. While 99 per cent. of germs
in milk are to be found in the cream which rises naturally
on that milk, separated cream contains about one-fourth of
the germs in the milk from which it is obtained. But as the
cream constitutes only a small part of the original milk—
say one-sixth—the actual number of germs in a given
amount of separation—cream would be greater than in the
HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 107

same quantity of the milk from which the cream was
separated.

Cream in cities is consumed largely on the table and
for making ice cream and whipped cream. Fatal poisoning
has occurred from ice cream made from unclean milk (see
p- 22). Babies are chiefly fed nowadays on cream and

. water. The cream is usually re-
moved from milk at the infant’s
home, but market cream is often
used for this purpose.

When cream is used for any
of the purposes recited, it is impera-
tive that the cream should be clean
or as free from germs as possible.
We have already alluded to the
value of clean cream for butter-
making.

The warm milk direct from the
cow must be immediately separated,
as a temperature of 86° F. is most
favorable for separation. Nor must
time be permitted for germs to mul-
tiply in the warm milk between milk-

 

ing and separation; the milk must

Hand Separator for separat-
ing cream from milk.

be separated as fast as milked. As
soon as the cream is separated it
should be immediately cooled to below 50° F., pre-
ferably to 40° F. This is best accomplished by allowing
‘the cream to run directly from the separator into the
receiving tank of a tubular or Star cooler. The cooler
is identical with that for milk, but the holes are larger
in the receptacle which feeds the cooler. The cream is.
108 CLEAN MILK

transferred from the collecting tank of the cooler to
a cream bottle-filler, and then is run into sterilized
bottles. The bottles are shipped like milk in shipping
boxes and, except in cold weather, are packed in ice.
The bowl and all movable parts of the separator must
be washed as carefully as any other dairy utensils by
first rinsing in cold water, then scrubbing in warm water and
washing soda with a brush, and rinsing again with clean,
-cold water. Finally, the parts should be sterilized with
boiling water or by placing them in a sterilizer. ‘All this
-should be done after each use of the separator. For this
reason a separator having as simple construction and as few
parts which come in contact with milk as possible should be
preferred. The Sharples separator is one of the simplest
in this respect and therefore most readily cleaned.*

If the cream is shipped in cans, it may be kept cool in
the same manner as that recommended for milk (see p. 87).
Cream thickeners of gelatin are not uncommonly used to
‘thicken cream. Starch and syrup of lime, known as
““Viscogen,” are also employed. Separated cream does not
whip quite so readily as set cream, and syrup of lime may
be used to aid its whipping, without injury to the consumer,
provided that only a small amount—not over 1% teaspoon-
ful of the syrup to the pint of cream—is used. In fact, this

proportion is often employed in cream mixtures for feeding
babies to increase the digestibility of the cream. Viscogen
should not be added to cream for sale in the market. For
tests for adulterants of cream, see p. 140.

Cream of varying composition is sold in the market.
It generally varies from 20 to 50 per cent. in fat-content.
Cream must contain at least 18 per cent of fat according
to the U. S. Pure Food Law, June, 1906.

* See page 175 for management of separators.
HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 109:

In order that cream may be readily whipped, it should.
contain over 20 per cent. of fat, preferably 30 to 4o per
cent., and be below 50 per cent. in temperature. Cream
should be at least 24 hours old—to contain a small amount
of acid—in order to whip well. Pasteurized cream will not
whip satisfactorily unless viscogen is added to it; or a
starter, to develop slight acidity in it. The vessel in which
the whipping is done should be cold and round-bottomed ;
the whipping should be done with great speed; and the
whipper should not be more than three-fourths covered with
cream. The cream sold in this city (Seattle) commonly
contains from 31 to 33 per cent. of fat.

In concluding the subject of the production and handling
of clean milk and cream, I wish to emphasize the fact
that most farmers can produce clean milk without great
expense in ordinary barns and milk rooms, and can, by so
doing, make more money—even with the added expense.

If paper bottles come into general use, the greater part
of all the extra trouble and expense now entailed in bottling -
milk at the farm will be abolished. Clean milk may be
shipped in cans, with but slight cost over ordinary milk, and
is just as satisfactory, providing the cans go directly to the-
consumer and their contents are used wholly by him. It is.
the constant dipping into cans in retailing small amounts of
milk which causes the contamination, as noted on p, 18.
CHAPTER VII

COST OF PRODUCING AND DISTRIBUTING
CLEAN MILK

FEW words first in regard to the cost of production
and profits on ordinary milk sold to creameries, for
butter and other products; and for consumption as

market milk in cities and towns throughout the United
States.

It has become only too evident to readers of dairy
literature of late that a large number, perhaps the majority,
of milch cows in this country do not yield any considerable
profit to their owners. Thus, in a report of the Ohio Cow
Census in Hoard’s Dairyman* of April 28, 1905, we find that
among 87 herds representing 635 cows, with a yearly
average of 3,839 lbs. of milk per cow, the average yearly
return was $29.93 per cow. Among this number of 87 herds,
29 herds were kept at a loss, and out of the whole 87, only
26 herds paid a yearly profit of over $5 per cow to the
owners.

Yet in this same report we note one herd of 24 cows,
mixed breeds, yielding annually per cow an average of

*In the Cow Census made by Hoard’s Dairyman in Vermont (see the
number for August Ist, 1905), it was shown that out of 100 dairies, 69 did not pay
the cost of keeping the cows. The cows were natives or grades.

The estimated cost of feeding ranged from $33.50 to $41.00 per cow, per year.
The annual profit per cow, of the 31 dairies which paid any profit, varied from
43 cents to $22.57. The losses per cow annually, in the dairies which did not pay.

ran from 2 cents to $21.46. The production of the dairies varied from 72 to 270 lbs
of butter fat per cow annually.
PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION III

7,756 lbs. of milk and giving a yearly profit of $167 per
cow. Again, in this same report, we discover another herd
which paid its owner an annual average profit of 10 cents
per cow. How may we explain such an enormous inequality
in returns? Let us compare the report of the two herds:

Herd No. 12 Herd No. 100
(2Jerseys,3grades) (Mixed breeds)

Cost of keep per cow yearly........ $25.00 $70.00
No. Ibs. milk per cow yearly ....... 3,048 7,756
Profit annually per cow. ........... $0.10 ~ $167.00
Returns from $1.00 invested in feed. $1.00 $3.40
Average price of milk per 100 Ibs... $0.62 $3.05

In herd No. 12, we find that the annual cost of keep
was $25, and the yield 3,048 Ibs. of milk, which brought
82 cents per 100 lbs. at the creamery, or a little less than
7 cents a gallon the year round. A gallon of milk weighs
8.6 lbs. Herd No. 100 paid yearly $167 per cow, while the
cost of keep was $70 per cow, and the milk brought a little
over 25 cents a gallon, or over 6 cents a quart the year
round.

Certain remedies there are for such a disparity in
profits, but, under some conditions, this disparity can only
be remedied in part. ,

In the cases in point, the most essential cause of the
difference in profits in the two herds is the difference in
price, which depends upon circumstances. The owner of
herd No. 100 was near enough to the city of Cleveland to
retail his milk for over 6 cents a quart, whereas the product
of herd No. 12 was sold for less than 2 cents to a creamery.

In this comparison, there are, however, other points to
consider : the fact that the cows in herd No. 100 gave over
twice the quantity of milk yielded by the cows in herd
No. 12 is an important matter. This may have partly
I1I2 CLEAN MILK

depended upon the care of the cows and feeding, but was:
very probably chiefly due to the character of the cows
themselves. While it would be impossible for any one to
make much profit in milk at less than 2 cents a quart, yet it
may be accepted that, unless a cow comes up to a certain
standard in regard to quantity and quality of milk, it is
unprofitable to keep her, and the sooner that cow and her
owner are parted the better. Just what that standard
should be will depend somewhat on local conditions, and
prices of food, and milk; but, in a general way, the cow
that will not average about 10 quarts daily during 10 months
of the year (6,000 Ibs. annually), and whose milk falls much
below 4 per cent. on the average (unless the quantity is
very large), will not pay to keep. In this region, there are
many herds of grade Holsteins, containing as many as
80 to 120 heads, which average 16 quarts and over per cow
during the summer months—on pasture alone—in the rich
valley lands. In order to determine whether individual
cows are profitable, the farmer must weigh the daily amount
and test the butter fat of each cow’s (see p. 176) milk at
frequent intervals. Each cow’s milk should be weighed
separately, directly the cow is milked, by hanging the milk
pail on a balance scale and recording the weight on a record
sheet which is gotten up for this purpose (see Appendix,
p. 176). The record sheet should be kept near the weighing
balance in a room devoted to this purpose in the barn. To
determine the percentage of fat in the milk, a composite
sample—that is, a sample of a mixture of the same quantity
of night’s and morning’s milk of each cow for several days
—should be examined by the Babcock test at the beginning
and end of each month. The composite sample is obtained
by pouring the fresh milk from one pail to another, and.
PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION 113

from the mixed milk one should remove a gill with a long-
handled dipper at each milking. The gill is placed in a
clean labelled and covered Mason glass jar, which is shaken
each time a newsample isadded. Fifteen drops of formalin
or a corrosive sublimate tablet will preserve the samiples for
days, and two ounces, or half a cup of the composite
sample, is sufficient for the Babcock test. If a Babcock
tester is not at hand, the testing may be done at a creamery
for a small charge. The number of pounds of milk yielded
by each cow monthly should be multiplied by the average
per cent. of fat in her milk. This will give the number of
pounds of fat in the cow’s milk for the month, which should
be the basis for comparing her value. The average per
cent. of fat in her milk for the month will be obtained by
adding together the results of the two fat tests and dividing
the sum by two. Then the general care and feeding
governs to a considerable degree the quantity of milk, and
intelligent study of a good newspaper devoted to the dairy
industry will prove of much value in this respect. As we
have repeatedly emphasized, the cleaner the milk the better
itis for any purpose, and the farmer who devotes himself to
producing a clean milk should receive a larger price for it.
Of course, local conditions will largely determine the advisa-
bility of investing extra money and time in the food, care
and cost of cows, but very rarely will it Jay to keep cows
which do not pay for their keep. It may be necessary to
keep cows for their manure, but this is usually considered
as merely offsetting the cost of their care, and so the cost of
keeping cows is commonly figured in estimating the cost of
their food. The yearly cost of feeding a cow varies from
$17 to $70, averaging perhaps throughout the United
States about $35.. At the experiment stations, with the
114 CLEAN MILK

best selected stock and breeds and the most expert care,
the cost of producing 1 quart of milk varies from 0.7 to
2.9 cents, according to.breed and individual characteristics
of cows. When a farmer receives on the average 2 cents
or less per quart for milk, there can be little profit to
him. Yet two cents is about the price paid for years to
farmers who have shipped ordinary market milk to New
York City.

It has been stated by many authorities that one-third
of the cows in this country is kept at a loss; that one-third
just about pays for its keep, and that one-third pays a profit
to their owners.

The most striking fact which impresses one in this
whole matter of profit in milk production is the folly of
keeping poor cows. A foor cow makes a foor owner.

The production and transportation of clean milk is

attended with much greater expense than that of ordinary
or “market” milk.

The following figures, showing the cost of milk produc-
tion and distribution, must, of course, be considered only
approximate. Local conditions alter circumstances tremen-
dously. Thus in this region (Seattle, Wash.), the climate
is so mild that ice has to be used on the milk during trans-
portation on the railroad and delivery in the city wagon the
year round. Then again, the city is very hilly and the
streets, many of them, very bad, and the milk route is not
concentrated in a thickly settled district.

We may place the average cost of the production
throughout the country of ordinary market milk at 2 to
2% cents per quart as the result of the figures obtained.
from the experiment stations. Perhaps the average figure
paid the farmer for ordinary market milk hereabouts is
PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION 115

3% cents a quart. This does not differ materially from the
price paid in many parts of the country.

The cost of producing clean milk in this region, over
and above that of ordinary milk, may be set down at 2 cents
a quart. This includes the extra care necessitated in the
barn and dairy, the fuel for running the boiler, the ice, etc.
In the milk room, there is the washing and sterilizing of all
the bottles and apparatus, and the bottling of milk and
packing of the bottles in boxes with ice. The farmer must
make aconsiderable outlay for the paraphernalia in his milk
room, but the bottles, in this vicinity, are supplied by the
distributors in the city.

The cost of transporting milk by rail in bottles to the
city, some 30 miles, is 1 cent a quart in this region, and it
costs about the same in other cities. This figure includes
the cost of carriage for the galvanized iron box, holding
one dozen bottles and ice, the whole weighing 68 lIbs., and
also the return of empty bottles and cases to the farm.

The cost of distributing clean milk is much greater than
ordinary milk, when ice is used, owing to the weight of the
ice and cases holding the bottles and the fact that custom-
ers of high priced milk are apt to be scattered about. The
cost of distribution of milk has been set down at two cents
a quart, but three cents a quart would be nearer the mark
in this vicinity for milk sold on ice the year round. The
farmer should then receive at least six cents a quart net for
certified milk as the minimum figure, according to my ex-
perience in this region, or about double what he receives
for ordinary market milk. This is a uniform price for the
year around. For the ordinary milk he gets from nine
cents to sixteen cents per gallon, at different seasons, and it
retails at about seven cents a quart.
116 CLEAN MILK

The distributer of milk, if he pays the farmer six cents.
per quart and one cent per quart freight, should get eleven
cents as a minimum price per quart to make any profit. This
figure is a low estimate when various unavoidable losses are
taken into account, as repairs and deterioration of milk
boxes, harness, sickness and death of horses, loss of accounts,
bottles, etc. I believe that seven to eight cents a quart for
the farmer, and twelve to fifteen cents a quart for the dis-
tributer of clean milk in the city, is a much safer estim-
ate asa basis on which a profitable business for both may
be done.* It isimpossible to keep up the standard of clean
milk unless a reasonable profit is being made at both ends
of the business.

Every step by which the milk is improved costs money
in labor or material, and it has been my experience that it is
useless to expect the farmer to carry out all the necessary
details of cleanliness unless he can really afford to do so.
The actual price at which certified milk retails varies in
various cities from eight to twenty cents per quart. Rich
milk, as milk containing five per cent. fat, should bring a
higher price, though it is not preferable for infant food—
rather the reverse, as we have noted.

In this vicinity there has been an attempt to employ one
farm asa bottling station in which the utensils of all the
farms are washed and sterilized and to which milk, which has
been milked and cooled at neighboring farms, is brought.
When the milk was supplied by the farm doing the bottling,

*In Hoard’s Dairyman of a recent date the proportionate receipts from a.
quart of milk retailing for 8 cents in New York City, are given as follows:

: Cents
Producer reC€l ves 22 wise ci eecedoe els need ane dd edad SUR S Ew ea eis 2.75

Railroad for transporting, receives ....... ieee cece ee 0.5
Dealers handling, bottling and distributing the same, receive.. 4.75

8.00
PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION 117

and one other about a mile away, the result was very good.
The highest number of bacteria in the milk bottled from
these two farms was 17,000 per cubic centimeter during six
months. Pressure being brought to bear to increase the
milk supply, two more farms were taken into the combination
with disastrous results. This unfortunate outcome was
largely due to the fact that the owners of the two farms
which were taken into the combination last had not time
given them to arrange their barns and milk-rooms properly,
-and had not got into the routine necessary to produce clean
milk. Whether an arrangement of this kind for producing
-certified milk is wholly practicable is somewhat doubtful.
There are so many more opportunities for contamination of
the milk with dirt and germs. Ifa like attempt is elsewhere
undertaken, the milk from each farm should be examined
once a week before bottling it and mixing it with milk from
the other farms, to ascertain the number of bacteria and
the amount of fat inthe milk. The plan has the advantage
of bringing several farmers to a higher standard than would
otherwise be possible, and enables the farmer who supplies
all the dairy apparatus to make a more economical use of
his plant.

When an individual wishes to begin to sell clean milk in
a neighborhood in which certified milk is unknown, it is well
for him first to interest the local medical profession in the
‘project. The local medical society, or individual physicians,
should form a committee with laboratory facilities. The work
-can be done under the committee’s direction by an intelligent
druggist. Any dairy, supplying clean milk, may receive a cer-
tificate from the medical commission, if the milk fulfils the
required standard, as the result of weekly examinations.
Providing, however, that the milk has fulfilled all the re-
118 CLEAN MILK

quirements of the milk commission for a probationary
period of at least two months prior to the granting of a

certificate.

Estimation of the Value of Milk and Cream for
Ordinary Purposes.

The value of milk and cream throughout the country is
generally determined by the price of butter. And the butter
maker pays for milk or cream according to the pounds of
butter fat each contains. Clean milk or cream of the purity
of the certified milk or cream, however, bring a price greatly
above that fixed by a butter-fat valuation.

In churning a pound of butter fat (in milk or cream)
into butter there is a gain; that is, a pound of butter fat will
produce more than a pound of butter. The weight of the
butter fat subtracted from the weight of the butter (made
from it) is the overrun.* The reason for this gain in churn-
ing butter fat into butter is that there are ingredients in the
milk or cream, and also the salt contributed by the butter:
maker, which add to the fat inthe butter. Thus butter con-
tains on the average about 84 per cent. of fat, and the remain-.
ing 16 per cent. consists of water (12 per cent.), and curd.
(1 per cent.), salts (2.5 per cent.), and milk sugar (0.5 per
cent.). This is the average composition of butter, but the:
water may vary in amount from 8 to 16 per cent. and the
fat proportionately. The overrun, then, does not depend

*For detailed information concerning overrun, see Bull. 129, Some Creamery
Problems, E. H. Farrington, Univ. Wis. Agric. Exper. Sta., to which the authoris.
greatly indebted. ‘ :

{Since the U. S. Pure Food Act of 1906 requires that butter shall contain 82.5.
per cent. of butter fat as a minimum, it follows that creamery butter will not in
future exceed this requirement. This, therefore, may be regarded as the present.
average content of fat in butter.
PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION 119

upon nor refer to the percentage of fat in butter. It is al-
ways estimated by determining the fat in the milk or cream |
by the Babcock test; and then subtracting the weight of the
fat from the weight of the resulting butter.

The amount of butter which can be made from a given
weight of cream depends upon the amount of fat it contains.
The richer in fat it is, the less the loss of fat in the butter-
milk in churning. Thus buttermilk contains about 0.3 per
cent. of fat, and cream containing 15 per cent. of fat would
yield almost four times as much buttermilk as cream con-_
taining 40 per cent. fat. Moreover, the buttermilk from rich
cream contains absolutely less fat (less than 0.3 per cent. fat)
than that derived from churning thin cream.. Then there
are mechanical losses of fat from cream and butter sticking
to various utensils used in the course of making and hand-
ling butter. This naturally influences the amount of butter
which can be made from a given quantity of fat in milk or

cream. ‘Two to five pounds of butter-fat may thus be wasted _

for every hundred pounds handled...

The Overrun.—As an example we will, estimate the
overrun in making 116 pounds of butter from 2,500 pounds —
of 4 per cent. milk. We first determine the weight of fat
in the milk : 2,500 pounds multiplied by .o4 equals 100 pounds
of fat. Subtracting this from 116 pounds of butter made
from it gives us the overrun as 16 pounds, or 16. per cent.,
because it is 16 per cent. of the 100 pounds of fat in the milk. |

The overrun is usually less on account of various losses. _,
Thus in skimming the milk in the separator there is a loss of

about o.1 per cent. of fat contained in the skim milk; after
churning there is the loss in the buttermilk we have noted
equal to 0.3 per cent. fat in the buttermilk; and there are
the mechanical losses we have referred to, equivalent to about
120 CLEAN MILK

2 to 5 per cent. of the total fat in the milk. So of the 100
pounds of fat in the 2,500 pounds of 4 per cent. milk there
may be only 93.13 pounds of fat available, which would
make 110.86 pounds of butter containing 84 per cent. of fat.
Subtracting from this 110.86 pounds of butter the 100 pounds
of fat contained in the 2,500 pounds of milk gives 10.86
pounds, or 10.86 per cent. as the amount of the overrun.
The overrun varies, not only owing to the conditions noted,
but also as the churning leaves more or less water in the
butter, and according to the accuracy of testing the milk or
cream for fat, and in weighing the same. The normal range
in overrun for milk varies from 10 to 15 percent. An over-
run above or below these figures demands an investigation.
The overrun from cream is somewhat higher than these
figures, since there is no loss from skimming, as from milk.
The cream overrun varies from 16 to 20 per cent.

Estimation of the overrun is not in any way essential
in calculating the money due patrons of a creamery for milk
or cream. The simplest, fairest, and generally most satis-
factory way is to weigh and test each sample of milk or cream
of the patron's for butterfat and subtracting the cost of
making the butter from its selling price, to give the balance
of the returns to the patrons in proportion to the butterfat
they supplied. Thus, if 232 pounds of butter were made
during a given time from 200 pounds of butterfat, and the
butter sold at 25 cents a pound, the butter fetched $58.00.
Subtracting from this 4 cents a pound for making gives
$48.75 to be divided among the patrons according to the
amount of butterfat each supplied. 48.70 divided by 200
gives us 24.35 cents as the price to be paid each patron for
each pound of fat supplied in his milk or cream. The fol-
lowing correction should, however, be made:
PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION 121

The milk patron is paid for all the butterfat in his milk
‘brought to the creamery while the cream patron is not, as
part of the butterfat in his milk remains at the farm in the
skim milk. Besides, he saves the creamery the expense of
skimming the milk. Therefore, in calculating the amount of
fat supplied the creamery by its patrons the cream patron
should be credited not only with the fat actually present in
his cream, but to it is added 3 per cent. of its total to put
him on the same basis as the milk patron. (The 0.12 fat
lost in the skim milk from hand separators equals about 3
per cent of total fat in the whole milk.)

Thus, supposing four patrons supplied the 200 pounds
of fat, as follows:

Corrected Weight
Fat. of Fat.

Milk patron.... 32.5 lbs. 32.5 Ibs.
ss (Oya. 45-5 Ibs. 45.5 lbs.
Cream ‘ .... 62 X .03=63.8 63.8
ee yee 60 X .03=61.8 61.8
200 Ibs. 203.6 Ibs.

We correct the weight of fat supplied by the cream
patrons, as above, and divide the price the butterfat brought
($48.70) by the corrected weight of the fat (203.6 Ibs.),
which gives 23.92 cents. This is the price per pound of
butterfat to pay the patron of the creamery according to
the corrected weights of fat in the last column above.

To consider this matter more in detail, especially in
regard to the price a given quantity of milk will bring if
‘sold in different forms, suppose we take, for example, 290
gallons of milk. A gallon of milk weighs 8.66 pounds, 290
gallons of milk will then weigh 2,500 pounds, and, containing
4 per cent. of fat, will give us 100 pounds of fat. In con-
verting this into butter the first process will be to skim the
milk in a separator, which will give us a loss at the creamery
122 CLEAN MILK

of 0.1 percent. fat inthe skim milk. The skim milk may be
assumed to be 85 per cent. of the whole milk; 85 per cent.
of 2,500 pounds equals 2,125 pounds skim milk ; 2,125 mul-
tiplied by 0.001 equals 2.12 pounds of fat in the skim milk.
Subtracting this from the 100 pounds of fat in the 290 gal-
lons of milk gives us 97.88 pounds of fat inthe cream arising
from this amount of milk; 326 pounds of 30 percent. cream
will contain just about this amount of fat, that is, 97.8 pounds.
In churning this into butter there will be a loss of 0.3 per
cent. of the total fat in the buttermilk. The amount of
buttermilk is the difference between the weight of the cream
and the fat in the cream, or, roughly, 10 per cent. of the whole
milk. In 326 pounds of 30 per cent. cream there are 97.8
pounds of fat; subtracting this from the weight of the cream
gives us the weight of the buttermilk, 228 pounds; mul-
tiplying this by 0.003 equals .684 pounds, or the loss of ' fat.
in buttermilk; subtracting this loss of fat in buttermilk from
the fat in the 30 per cent. cream gives us 97.12 pounds of fat.
for butter. This would make 117 pounds of butter contain-
ing 83 per cent. of fat. (To arrive at this result we divide
97.12 by 0.83, equals 117.) Then, to get the (theoretical)
overrun, we subtract the 100 pounds of fat in the original
milk from the 100 pounds of butter made from it (117),
which gives us 17 as the percentage of overrun. We will,
however, have mechanical losses equal to 2 of 3 pounds, so |
we will consider that we shall actually get 114 pounds of
butter from 290 gallons of 4 per cent. milk.* With butter:
wholesale at 22 cents a pound, and subtracting 4 cents for

* The cost of making a pound of butter varies from four cents to a fraction:
less than two cents in the largest creameries. In calculating the amount of butter-
which can be made from a given amount of butterfat we add one-sixth for butterfat.
in milk and one-seventh for butterfat in cream.
PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION 123

making, the butter would net the farmer only $20.05 for his
290 gallons of milk.

Cream is often bought in cities by ice cream and cream
dealers at a rate of 2 cents (more or less) above the value
of the cream for butter; that is, if butter was 22 cents the
cream would be bought at a valuation of butter at 24 cents;
326 pounds of 30 per cent. cream equals about 4o gallons.
(a gallon of 30 per cent. cream weighs nearly 8 pounds |
actually; if free from much air or gas, 8.3 pounds); this,
making 114 pounds of butter valued at 24 cents, 2 cents
above current butter price, would give $27.36 as price for
290 gallons of milk in form of cream. In either case the
farmer has the skim milk to feed, which may be roughly
valued at 35 cents per 100 pounds for feeding,-and 11 cents
additional (in passing through the calves) for ‘fertilizer;
21.25 pounds of skim milk at'46‘cents per 100 pounds equals
$9.77 ; 290 gallons of 4 percent. milk may bring the farmer 12
cents a gallon net if sold for city consumption, equals $34.80.

For clean, pure 30 per cent. cream, bottled at the farm,
as much as $1.20 per gallon should be gotten. If the cream
is shipped in cans on ice or in special ice-containing cans
(see p. 87), it should bring $1.00 per gallon for a clean arti-
cle. If the milk were sold in bottles from the farm as cer-
tified milk it should bring 7 cents a quart, at least, which
amounts to $81.20 for the 290 gallons.

The returns from 290 gallons of 4 per cent. milk, sold
as follows, are:

As 114 pounds of butter, at 22 cts. per Ib. with

value added of skim milk to farmer............ $30 29
As ordinary milk in cans at 12 cents per gallon.... 34 80
As cream, with value of skim milk added........ 37 13
Clean, cooled cream shipped on ice in cans, with

value of skim milk added.................0.08- 49 77
Clean, cooled bottled cream, with value of skim

Milkeadded oc ciccrscewesgesdaw temarees aie oiaeresccee 57 77
124 CLEAN MILK

These figures, of course, can not be taken as applying
precisely to conditions in any given locality. They are only —
given to show how to figure approximately relative returns
from milk products, and it will be found that the returns for
ordinary market milk are about the same as can be gotten
froma creamery for butter. Moreover, the higher returns
received from the sale of bottled certified milk must not be
taken as necessarily indicating that the maximum profit
accrues from selling milk in this form. It may well be that
the extra cost of labor, fuel, ice and plant, required for its
production, will amount to 2 or 3 cents a quart.

It is impossible to fix the value of skim milk for feeding

and fertilizer, as it depends upon such variable factors as the
value of veal and pork, the price of other food stuffs, the

value of milk in the locality and the knowledge of the person
using it as to the best way to feed it. Skim milk is said to
be worth $1.00 a hundredweight in midwinter to feed to
hens with corn meal, while for feeding calves it is valued
from 20 to 4o cents a hundredweight, according as the price
of veal varies from $3 to $5 per 100 pounds. To be fed
with most economy to calves it should be given in propor-
tion of two to three pounds of skim milk to every pound of
meal, I have known skim milk to be used with excellent
result when poured on the soil as a fertilizer in the cultiva-
tion of cauliflowers. H. B. Gurler claims that for feeding
pigs skim milk is worth one-half as much per 100 pounds as
corn is worth per bushel.
CHAPTER. VIII.

SOME HINTS CONCERNING MILK
DISTRIBUTION

NE of the chief difficulties to contend with in retailing
() milk is the almost instinctive desire of.the public to
get their milk in the early morning hours. Custom-

ers apparently labor under the false impression that milk
left in the early morning hours isa product of the night, like
the dew, or early morning paper on the doorstep. Asa
matter of fact, milk which is delivered before 8 a. m. at the
customer’s door is usually twenty-four to thirty-six hours old.
This happens because milk trains do not often arrive before
8 a. M., and the milk on these trains represents that milked
the night before and in the early morning of the day of
arrivalin the city. This milk is often delivered in the early
morning of the day following that of its arrival in the city.
Although we have seen that clean milk may be kept
sweet on ice for several weeks (see p. 14), yet we have also
learned that germs will develop in milk at a temperature of
40 degrees Fahrenheit, or lower, and that they may increase
tremendously at low temperatures in time (see pp. 6, 14).
It is safer, therefore, that clean milk be not sold when
it is twenty-four hours old; and the requirements of some

medical societies certifying milk forbids its sale after it is
twenty-four hours old.

The milk arriving in the city on any morning will re-
present the night’s milk of the previous day and the milk.
126 CLEAN MILK

which has been milked very early on the morning of its
arrival. Or, as in the writer's experience, the milk arrives
very early in the morning, before 7 a.M., representing the
milk of the previous night, while the morning’s milk arrives
at noon and the delivery of the milk is continued from 7
A.M, to 6 P. M.

In some: localities—where night’s milk can not be kept

 

Milk Wagon.

-cool—only the morning’s milk is sent to the city, the night’s
milk going to the creamery.

We have found it possible by instructing the customers
concerning the folly of demanding delivery of milk to their
doors in the early morning hours to, in a measure, ignore
this desire, and so distribute milk during the whole of
the day, with an intermission of an hour for the men and
horses at noon.

The nature of local conditions will determine to acon-
HINTS CONCERNING DISTRIBUTION 127

siderable extent the cost of delivery and also many of the
practical details as to the kind of wagon, bottle boxes, use
of ice in wagons,etc. To obviate overhauling of the boxes
in the wagons they should not be piled in layers one over
the other. This may be accomplished by means of a special
arrangement in the wagon shown in Fig. 33. I have per-
sonally had no experience with this wagon, but have consid-

 

Milk Wagon.

ered that simplicity is one of the chief aims in any scheme,
and by making the wagon wide and long enough one can
carry about all the boxes of bottles proper on the floor.
Thus the wagon body may hold fifteen boxes on the floor and
five or more placed directly on top of the first tier without any
inconveniencein handling them. These twenty boxes weigh,
when filled with milk, bottles, and ice, about 1400 pounds
and constitute a load in a hilly city for two horses. In the
wagons built under our direction there is a round hole cut
128 CLEAN MILK

in each side of the top, a few inches above the floor, about:
fourteen inches in diameter and just back of the driver’s
seat. This permits of bottles being taken out of the boxes
in the wagon without requiring the driver to mount the front
of the wagon. A wide step is affixed to the wagon behind
on which the driver stands when getting bottles at the rear
of the wagon. The floor is of sheet iron with an open slit
at either side running the whole length to permit water
draining through the bottom of the wagon. There isa high
tail-board, and the upper part of the top of the wagon at.

Fic. 35.

 

Delivery Basket.

the back is closed in for perhaps two feet from the top to-
keep out the sun. Each of the boxes contains twelve quart
milk bottles and the load consists of 240 quarts. The capac-.
ity of the wagon arranged for sliding bottle-cases is a maxi-
mum of 204 quarts, but special arrangements might allow of
greater capacity. A wagon similar to that seen in Fig. 34
may be used for bottles alone and will havea capacity of 256
quarts. The wooden cases slide and may be easily reached
from the seat as well as rear. Ice can not, however, be used
on the bottles in this wagon. Such wagons have been used
with an ice chamber overhead to secure cooling of the whole
HINTS CONCERNING DISTRIBUTION 129

wagon, but with the doors continually open the result in hot
weather is far from satisfactory.*

Three sets of bottles are necessary in distributing
milk, one remaining at the customer’s house, one on the
way to and from the farm, and the other at the farm.
Two whole sets of bottle boxes are required, one at the farm
and the other passing two and fro each day. The delivery
baskets (Fig. 35) are convenient in carrying bottles from the
wagon to the customer’s house.

The matter of bottles is an important one. The loss
from the customers not returning empty bottles has wrecked
many enterprises. The men on the delivery wagons should
be required to charge patrons for bottles each day and
credit them with returned bottles. Those bottles not
returned at the end of the month are charged with the
milk on the bill. Some loss of this kind and from break-
age is unavoidable until the paper milk bottle comes into
general use. The surest way of escaping loss of milk
bottles, which is one of the most serious causes of disaster,

and also loss in collection, is through the use of tickets.¢
If milk sells for ten cents a quart and a customer begins to
take one quart of milk daily he may be sold a package of
ten tickets for one dollar. Then the first day two tickets
are withheld, one paying for the milk and the other for the
bottle. If the bottle is returned the following day and
another bottle of milk is delivered, then the customer gives
but one ticket to the milkman. But if the first bottle is not
returned, then the milkman takes two tickets the second day
and so on. Every returned bottle by a customer means that
he receives a ticket or credit for a ticket for each bottle re

* These milk wagons are made by the Sycamore Wagon Works, Sycamore,
Illinois.

+ Patrons must be instructed not to place milk tickets in empty milk bottles,
as they otherwise will invariably do. The tickets stick to the bottom of the wet
bottle and can not be readily removed by the driver of the delivery wagon.
130 CLEAN MILK

turned. And an empty bottle is regarded of the same value
as one quart of milk. If for any reason a responsible cus-
tomer is out of tickets and can not pay for more at the mo-
ment of arrival of the milkman, the latter gives the customer
a package of tickets and requests the customer to sign a
regular receipt for same. Ai bill for the tickets is then sent
at once through the mail to formally notify the customer of
his indebtedness.

Another method which has been employed consists in
the use of the time-book,* made to fit in the pocket, and
which the man on the delivery wagon carries. This book
is ruled so that when the book is opened there are columns
on each two pages, facing one another, for all the days of the
month. The customers’ names are written down in a col-
umn on the left-hand edge of the page and his account kept
on a horizontal line extending across the two open pages.
Two such books are used, the delivery man having one on
one day and the other book the following day, so that each’
day one book may be turned into the office for inspection.
On each day two of the perpendicular columns are used for
each customer. In the first column is entered the amount
of milk or cream taken and in the second column the
number of bottles returned. This method is not so good
as the preceding.t

If the milk is to be marketed in the best possible man-
ner, especially if sold for infants’ use, there should be placed
a parchment paper bottle cap over the ordinary cardboard
cap. The object of this extra paper cap, which is water-
proof, isto prevent dust, dirt, and water (from melting ice)
containing germs from soiling the cap which directly covers
the milk. In removing the latter any material on the cap
might easily fall into the milk. The parchment paper caps

* The names of customers in the account book should follow the same order
as that observed in visiting them on the milk route.

+ See page 195 for forms used in keeping accounts,
HIINTS CONCERNING DISTRIBUTION 131

are held in place by a rubber band about the neck of the
milk bottle and cost less than one-tenth of a cent when bought
in quantity. On them may be printed the day and month
the milk is produced, the name of the farm and the fact that
the milk is certified by a certain commission. The tinfoil
caps, while presenting an elegant appearance, are very ex-
pensive, costing five to ten times more than the parchment
bottle caps.

The appearance of the men on the delivery wagon is of
importance. In this region the use of uniforms of khakiin
summer and corduroy in winter has proved satisfactory.

Clean milk is of special value in feeding babies. For
this reason endeavor should be made to inform the public
of the existence of the opportunity to obtain clean milk by
those selling this article, and its use for infant feeding should
be made as easy as possible.

The following circular has been used for distribution
among the physicians of a city and embodies matter which
they may pass on to their patients :

:
CERTIFIED MILK For INFANT FEEDING.

The Dairy desires to call the attention of physicians to the opportunity
offered them for not only feeding pure milk to infants, but, by means of analyses
of this milk and cream, to prescribe an infant food of known composition.

A dipper isfurnished by which the top-milk may beremoved from the bottle.
The upper 9 ounces of the milk contains approximately 13 per cent. of fat when
thus removed. One part of this top-milk with 5 parts of water gives Fat, 2.1 per
cent.; Proteids, 0.6, suitable for feeding infants from 3rd to 14th day of age.
Diluted with 4 parts of water, gives Fat 2.6 per cent.; Proteids 0.8 per cent.; suit-
able for feeding from 2nd to 6th week of age. Diluted with 3 parts of water, gives
Fat 3.2 per cent.; Proteids 1.opercent.; suitable for feeding from 6th to 11th week.
For feeding from 11th week to 5th month, the upper pint is removed with dipper
from the bottle, and diluted with 13/ parts of water, gives Fat 3.4 per cent.; Pro-
teids 1.45 per cent. The milk for feeding from the fifth to 10th month is obtained
by pouring off the upper pint from the bottle and diluting it with an equal quan-
tity of water. This gives Fat 4.0 per cent.; Proteids 2.0 per cent.

Instead of water, barley watér, lime water or dextrinized gruels may of
course be used as adiluent. Milk sugar may be added in proportion of 1 ounce

‘to 20 of the milk mixture.
132 CLEAN MILK °

The milk is obtained from tested cows and under the most cleanly condi-
tions pertaining to the animals, stables and paraphernalia. The milk is drawn
into covered pails, through a small.aperture in the top,. and falls through sterile-
cheesecloth into the bottom of the pail. It is immediately aerated and cooled, is
put into bottles at the farm, and kept on ice until'it reaches the consumer. The
milk contains nearly 5 per cent. butter fat and averages but 8,000 to 10,000 bac-
teria to.the c.c., :

It will not be necessary to sterilize this milk, and the modified milk mixtures.
above. recommended will be found much superior to dirty milk which has been
sterilized and modified. The top-milk should be removed from the’ bottles on
their arrival,.and. kept on ice, to give good results... This milk is subject. to fre~
quent bacteriological and chemical tests by Dr. and Mr. at the
County Medical Society Laboratory. The formulae are taken from. Holt, as re-
commended by him for healthy infants, and the following table is also from his.
book :

SCHEDULE FOR FEEDING A HEALTHY CHILD DurRING THE FIRST
Nine Montus.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

a No. of Inter- Ne of itt

3 feed- val be- ht Quantity | Quantity
. 8 . Age. ings tween fee ings | for one for 24

S in feedings | (10P.M. | feeding. | “hours.
- hours. by day. to7T A, M.). |. :
-.I.] 2to 14 days...........-. 10 2 hours 2 1-2¥% oz | 10-25 0z

II | 2 weeks to 5 weeks...... Io 2. % 2 2-34 ** | 20-32 ‘*
III | 5 weeks to 10 weeks..... 8 aig“ I 34% “1 24-36
IV .| 10.weeks to 4months... 7 ‘ I 4-6 28-42 “*
£V | 4 months to 9 months.... 6. aes ° 5-8 ‘* | 80-48 *

 

One of the chief difficulties physicians have in prescribing
milk mixtures for babies is their ignorance of the exact com-
position of the milk and cream which their patients will use.
The milk from the same herds will be of very uniform compo-
sition; varying somewhat with the season, but hardly enough
to make. any: material difference in calculations for infant
feeding. — The dipper used for removing the cream is shown
in Plate D; and i is two and one-fourth inches long and three-
fourths of an inch i in diameter. It holds a tablespoonful or
one-half an ounce of milk, and'is used to remove any part of
the top milk without mixing the milk with the cream. A
siphon (Plate D) is also furnished customers to remove the
skim milk from the milk bottle. ~ This we find is generally
employed and liked by families who use cream on the table,
PLATE D

 

Showing Dipper and Siphon for Removing Cream and Milk respectively.
(See page 132.)

 
vy ot :
Sey as

4 on
bey i

HINTS CONCERNING DISTRIBUTION 133

and at ten cents a bottle for milk containing five per cent. of
fat the customers get as much, or more, cream than could
be bought for this sum and have the skim milk to use in
cooking. The siphon, of glass tubing, three-eighths of
an inch outside diameter, has a short arm, just long
enough (9% in.) to reach to the very bottom of the milk
bottle, and a long arm five inches longer. The siphon
is filled with clean water by holding the shorter arm under
a water faucet, and when the water appears at the end of
the longer arm this end is closed by the thumb and the

-shorter arm is inserted to the bottom of the bottle and the

thumb released, allowing the tube to rest in the bottle.
First the water flows out and then the milk. The cream

gradually settles in the bottle until the lower border of cream
touches the bottom of the bottle, when the siphon is at once
‘removed.
CHAPTER IX.

MILK INSPECTION.*

The duties and tests of the milk inspector are divided’
into those performed in and out of the laboratory. Out of
the laboratory, the tests are mainly those of the senses. A
temperature test is, however, required by the most enlight-
ened cities, and when the milk is found to have a tempera-
ture above 502 F. it iscondemned. The inspector, in taking
samples of milk for the laboratory, should thoroughly stir:
the milk. This is best accomplished by ‘‘stirrers,” made
like the dasher of the old-fashioned dasher churn. The two
chief reasons for agitating the, milk are to thoroughly mix
the cream for determining the fat, and, again, to estimate
by a bacteriological test the number of germs. In the latter:
case it is especially important, as ninety-nine per cent. of the
germs in milk become entangled in the cream. Two ounces.
of milk are sufficient for a fat or bacteriological test, and
four ounces for a test for preservatives. The inspector seals
the corks of the bottle, and, also, should place some sealing
- wax on the edge of the label, as the labels are often soaked
off and placed on a similar sealed bottle. This happens
where the inspector is required to give a duplicate sealed
sample to the milkman; and the milkman, when he knows
his sample is adulterated, may get a sealed bottle given to
another milkman (which contains pure milk) and take the

The author is indebted to Mr. A. G. Smith, city chemist, Seattle, for much,
aid in the preparation of this chapter.
134
MILK INSPECTION 135

label from the aaulterated sample and place it on the pure |
simple. He then brings the pure sample into court with
the label number the inspector placed on his adulterated
sample and in a bottle with an unbroken official seal on
the cork.

Milk may be condemned on account of visible dirt.
This is ascertained by straining milk from one can to another
through cheesecloth, or by straining only the bottom por-
tions of several cans. The taste may be bad, as from the odor
of manure, or from improper feeding, or disease (mastitis)
of the cows, and may suffice to condemn the milk. The
color may be unusual, as when the cream is highly colored
on milk which has been obtained from cows recently calved.
Curdling of the milk on boiling will occur if the sample is
colostrum. The brilliantly colored milks, caused by special
bacteria, are seldom seen in this country. The odor of milk
may be bad from various causes, as from improper feeding
of the cows, manure in the milk, or from the milk remaining
a long while in dirty barns. Sour milk may be condemned.
Stringy milk is not uncommon, but is generally only notice-
able several hours after milking, and so usually escapes
attention until in the consumer’s hands. The existence of
garget in cows may produce stringy milk; also it occurs in
the milk of cows which have been milked late in the period of
lactation; certain herbs are said to cause it. It is somewhat
doubtful whether the condition is always due to special germs
or whether it is caused, at times, by chemical substances
(ferments) which occur in certain plants. Fishy milk is caused
by rusty cans, and cows inhabiting pastures containing stag-
nant pools of water may yield milk with this odor or taste.

Milk which is to be examined to estimate the number
of germs it contains should only be placed in bottles which
136 CLEAN MILK

n

have been boiled for twenty minutes or sterilized in a regular
sterilizer. The corks should be sterilized in the same manner,
The bottle must be filled to the cork and be packed ina
vessel with enough ice to last until the examination is made.

Milk Preservatives—The most commonly used pre-
servatives are formaldehyde, borax and boric acid. Occa-
sionally salicylic acid and sodium carbonate are employed.
Formaldehyde may be detected, during the process of deter-
mining fat by the Babcock test, by observing the color of
the line of contact of the acid with the milk. When pure
milk is used for the Babcock test, the color of this line is
dirty brown, but, when formaldehyde is present in the milk,
a distinct purple hue will appear at the junction of the acid
and milk.

This test may be applied in other ways by using a
separate sample of milk. Place about 20 cubic centimeters*
of milk in a small glass vessel, dilute with an equal volume
of water, and add commercial sulphuric acid, allowing it to
flow slowly down the inside of the vessel. If formaldehyde
is present the purple color will appear at the junction of
the acid and milk.

Boric acid or borax are detected by adding to a few
drops of milk, contained in a white dish, a drop or two of
hydrochloric acid, and then several drops‘of a saturated al-
coholic solution of turmeric. Heat the dish gently for a
few minutes and, if boric acid or borax are present, a pink
or dark red color will appear. Cool, and add a drop of am-
monia, when a dark blue-green should be seen.

*A cubic centimeter (metric system) is a volume of fluid equal to 16 drops of
water, Any apothecary can prepare the substances required to make the above
tests and at the same time could perform the tests with the assistance of the des-
cription given above and show the farmer or dairyman how to perform them him-
self.
MILK INSPECTION 137

Sodium carbonate is detected by adding to the sus-
pected sample of milk an equal volume of alcohol and then
two drops of a one per cent. solution of rosolic acid. If
sodium carbonate is present a red-rose color will appear.
The test may be performed with more certainty if a com-
parison test is made with a sample of milk known to be
pure. .

Salicylic acid is rarely used but may be detected by add-
ing afew drops of sulphuric acid to asmall quantity of milk
-and then shaking gently with a mixture of ether and petrolic
‘ether. The mixture is made of equal parts of ether and
petrolic ether and equal volumes of acidulated milk and ether
mixture are taken. Then, after standing for several hours,
the upper ethereal solution is poured off and the remaining
liquid is evaporated in a porcelain evaporating dish. Add,
‘to the residue on the white evaporating dish, a few drops of
water and, if salicylic acid is present, a drop of ferric chlor-
ide solution will produce a violent or purple color on being
-added to the solution.

It sometimes happens that it is desirable to determine
‘whether milk has been heated above the proper temperature
-of pasteurization. To test this, add to a few cubic centi-
meters of milk a few drops of a freshly prepared solution of
‘diamido-benzene (1 part of latter to 4 of water), and then a
‘few drops of hydrogen peroxide. Unheated milk gives a
blue color when thus treated, but milk heated over 174.2°
F. gives no color.

The simplest test for preservatives is to place some
milk in a warm place (at temperature of 80° to 90°F) ina
corked, clean bottle for 24 hours. If it does not sour or
‘curdle the addition of a preservative may properly be sus-
pected, unless the milk has been pasteurized. The tests
238 CLEAN MILK

described on pp. 136-7 may then be tried to determine posi-
tively the presence or absence of preservatives.

For testing the acidity of milk, an alkali and phenolphth-
alein are commonly employed. The basis of this test rests
on the fact that phenolphthalein turns pink in the presence
of an alkali and is colorless in the presence of acid. There-
fore in the tests, by adding a known quantity of alkali to a
known quantity of milk and phenolphthalein, we may know
just how much acidity is present in the milk. For when
enough alkali has been added to the milk and phenolphthal-.
ein te turn the mixture pink, we know that all the acid in
the milk has been neutralized and the mixture is becoming
alkaline.

Roughly speaking, increased acidity in milk means
increase in number of lactic acid bacilli. The degree of
acidity is commonly tested by health boards in cities to de-
termine the fitness of milk for food. But, as has been
recently shown by Bergey, the acid test will not apply to
pasteurized milk. There may be hundreds of millions of
germs in pasteurized milk without marked acidity. This
happens because the germs are not of the acid forming type
but belong chiefly to the hay bacillus group (B. subtilis).

These are not usually rated as disease germs, but they
make the milk less digestible and nutritious and may pro.
duce substances in the milk which cause severe vomiting
and diarrhcea in infants.

By far the easiest and most convenient method of test-
ing milk or cream for acidity, for those not versed in chem.
istry, is by means of (Farrington’s) alkaline tablets, which may
be had of any wholesale dairy supply company. Milk which
contains more than 0.2 per cent. of acid (lactic acid) is not
considered sweet, and the acidity of sweet cream varies from.
MILK INSPECTION 139

0.15 to 0.2 per cent. The Farrington tablet contains an
alkali and phenolphthalein. Two tablets are dissolved in 1
ounce of water and this is added to an ounce of milk. If
the mixture remains pink, then the milk contains less than
0.2 per cent of acid, but if the pink coloration fades and
disappears it shows that the mixture contains more than
this amount of acid and is unfit for retailing, for pasteuriz-.
ing, or for cheese or butter making. A more exact method
of using the tablets for testing the acidity of cream may be
done. This is very useful for the butter maker in informing
him of the progress of the ripening of cream, and also.
in showing whether or no two lots of cream may be mixed
safely, and again it may be used to test the acidity of whey.
When cream contains 0.5 to 0.6 per cent. acidity, it is as
sour as it should be for butter making. Full directions for
use of the Farrington alkaline tablets are supplied with the
tablets.

A test by which the percentage of acidity of milk may
be more accurately determined than is necessary by the
dairyman, is that in which the alkali is lime water.

To make lime water, used in testing the acidity of milk,
we may get from a grocery store an ounce or so of lime;
add a pint of water, and stir thoroughly. Allow the undis-
solved lime to settle, and pour off the clean lime water,
which will contain any potassium or sodium that may have
been present in the lime. Do this several times. Now
pour on a quantity of distilled water depending on the sized
bottle the lime water is kept in, and cork; when the lime
has settled so the water is clear, it is ready to be used and
may be removed as wanted with a pipette, as will be des-
cribed presently. Always have some undissolved lime at
the bottom of the jar, as by this means the lime water is
140 CLEAN MILK

readily kept saturated. As fast as the lime water is used,
add distilled water to take its place. It is well to use a
fresh lump of lime every two or three months, as in time the
sediment may consist of carbonate of lime, owing to absorp-
tion of carbonic acid from the air.

An easy way to test the acidity of milk* is: (1) First
mix the milk thoroughly, and (2) with a graduated 1 cc.
pipette (such as is shown in Fig. 41) place 1 c.c. of the milk
in a small evaporating dish or test-tube. (3) To this add one
drop of an alcoholic solution of phenolphthalein (1 gm. to
30 c.c. alcohol). (4) With another 1 c.c. pipette add drop
by drop clear lime-water, and shake the tube to mix thor-
oughly, until the milk is colored a faint pink. Nownote how

many c.c. of Jime-water were used.

1 c.c. milk and phenolphthalein colored by o.1 c.c. lime-water .045 p. c. acid.
¢

a * 06 “ 6c 2 ‘ .09 “
1 & “ “ “ 3 “cr & +135 “
I uP “cc “cc “ 4 se ce 180 “
r «§ ““c “ “cc 5 “ “ +225 be
¥ & ‘6 “ “ 6 “cc sc 270 ity
7 “cc rT] o 7 “cc “cc 315 4“
I° “ “ “ 38 oe “cc 360 6b
1“ “cc 6c 6é 9 “cc “ 405 “cc
ir3 “ “ sé “cc 6c“ “a
I 1.0 +450
y « “ “ “ rr ¢§ “ -495 “
7 “ “ 6c “ “ “
I I.2 +540
I 6é ce ac “ce 1.3 oe “ce +585 c
r “cc “ “ 1.4 “ “ 630 “
1“ 6 “6 “c 1,5 “ce “c 675 “c

A simple rule is: Multiply 0.0045, the weight in grams
of lactic acid neutralized by 1 c.c. lime-water, by the number
of cubic centimeters of lime-water used,’and divide by 100,
which gives the percentage of acidity.

Cream Thickeners.—Viscogen, a solution of sugar,
lime and water, is commonly used to thicken cream. This

* This test is taken from Chapin’s Theory and Practice of Infant Feeding.
MILK INSPECTION 141

adulteration can only be determined by a chemist, making
an exact analysis for sugar and estimating the percentage of
lime. Gelatine is sometimes employed as a thickening
agent. This can be detected by adding, to about Io or 15
cubic centimeters of milk, twice the volume of water and 10
cubic centimeters of acid mercuric nitrate solution (10 per
cent). Shake the mixture vigorously and allow it to stand
a few minutes and filter. If much gelatin is present it is
impossible to filter a clear fluid. To verify a suspicion of
gelatine, add toa small amount of the filtered fluid an equal
volume of a saturated aqueous solution of picric acid. If any
gelatin is present, a yellow cloudiness will appear in the fluid.

Milk which has been either watered or skimmed, or
both watered and skimmed, is considered according to law
to be adulterated and is the commonest form of adultera-
tion. Another form of adulteration consists in the adding
of preservatives to milk. The preservatives most frequently
used are formaldehyde (sold under the name of Freezine,
etc.) and boric acid, sold under various trade names. These
are added to keep milk from souring. To determine
whether milk has been watered or skimmed three determina-
tions are necessary: viz., the determination of the total
solids in milk; fat; and the specific gravity. For the
determination of the specific gravity and approximate
determination of milk solids, see page 147. The deter-
mination of the fat alone is usually sufficient to estimate
the quantity of milk for the farmer who does not adulterate
his milk.

The methods for determining the amount of fat in
milk are based upon centrifugal separation of milk. The

 
142 CLEAN i7/LE

theory of these methods depends upon the fact that when
milk is whirled at a rapid rate—s veral thousand revolutions
per minute—the heavier portiv., of the milk are thrown
outward, leaving the lighter or ‘atty portions nearer the
center of the whirling body. The method of Dr. S. M.
Babcock is the one in general use.

The milk is measured in a suitable bottle and an equal
volume of sulphuric acid is added which dissolves the casein
or curd of milk and liberates the fat. The bottle is then
whirled at a high speed, allowing the fat to come to the top of

 

Small Babcock machine, with other necessary paraphernalia.

the bottle—that is, as the bottle is nearly horizontal when
whirled, the fat approaches nearest the center of the whirling
body. Hot water is addedand the bottle whirled again and
the percentage of fat is read off in the neck of the bottle,

The Babcock centrifugal machines are obtainable in
sizes ranging from those holding two bottles (Fig. 36) to
those holding 24 (Figs. 37 and 38), and the smaller are run by
hand while the larger are often run by power (see Fig. 38).
The smaller sizes may be clamped or screwed to a table, re-
quire but little space and are easy to operate. The Babcock
MILK INSPECTION 143

bottle for milk-testing (Fig. 39) holds about 4o cubic centi-
meters, the neck is graduated from o to 10 with sub-divis-

 

Eight-bottle Babcock machine.
ions of 0.2 per cent.—2 cubic centimeters being the exact
volume of the space between o and 10—or 10’ per cent. of

Fic. 38

 

Power Babcock machine.

20 cubic centimeters, which volume of milk would be used
had milk and melted fat the same specific gravity as water,
144

CLEAN MILK

It happens, however, that 2 cubic centimeters of melted fat

weighs 1.8 grams, so in working with the test, 17.6 cubic

centimeters of milk (the average volume of 18 grams of milk)

are used.

Fic. 39.

 

 

Pipette for
making the
Babcock test

It is apparent then that the subdivisions on the
stem of the bottle read per cent. direct. To
illustrate: Suppose a given sample reads 5 on
the neck, the volume occupied by this fat would
be just one cubic centimeter and that would
weigh o.9 grams, and 0.9 grams equal 5 per
cent. of 18 grams, or the per cent. of fat by
weight in the milk.

To make the test: The milk should be
well mixed, and both it and the acid should be
at a temperature between 60° and 702 F. The
pipette, graduated to 17.6 cubic centimeters,
should be filled precisely to this point, by suck-
ing up the milk into it. The milk bottle is to
be held in a slanting position and the point
of the pipette just introduced into the neck of
the bottle (see Figs. go and 41). By gradually
raising the finger from the end cf the pipette,
the milk is permitted to flow into the bottle, the
last drop being expelled by gently blowing
through the pipette. To the milk in the test
bottle, 17.6 cubic centimeters of commercial sul-.
phuric acid (specific gravity 1.82) are added in
the same manner with the pipette, and, by

gently rotating the bottle, the acid and milk are mixed.

The acid and milk become very hot and care must be

taken to mix gradually, and to allow no lumps to collect in

the neck.

It is well to then let the bottles stand for a few-

minutes, and mix again by rotating the bottles.
MILK INSPECTION 145

The bottles are now placed in the machine (it is
wise to have duplicates of each sample of milk) and the
machine is rotated at full speed for five minutes. Then the
machine is stopped and boiling soft water is added to the
contents of each bottle, by means of the pipette or other-
wise, till the contents of the bottle rise to the lower end of

Fic. 4o.

 

Shows method of introducing milk into Babcock bottle with pipette
in making the fat test.
the neck of the bottle. The machine is whirled at full
speed again for two minutes. More boiling water is then
added to the contents of each bottle by pipette until the fat
rises in the neck to the 8 org mark. The machine is once
more turned one minute and the percentage of fat is read
off in the neck of the bottle by measuring with calipers
146 CLEAN MILK

from the lower to the upper border of the fat in the neck.
The reading must be done before the contents or the bottle
cool off. The addition of the hot water may be accom-
plished without removing the bottles from the machine.

Estimation of Solids in Milk by Quevenne’s
Lactometer.

Since most cities require that market milk shall contain
a standard percentage of milk solids, it is of advantage that
the farmer be able to determine this matter for himself.

Quevenne’s lactometer is an instrument by which the
solids can be roughly estimated. It consists of a glass bulb
weighted with mercury and terminating in a stem like a
thermometer, and marked by lines on the stem from 15 to
40. It should also carry a thermometer.

The principle upon which the lactometer is based
depends upon the fact that, when it is placed in milk, in
floating it displaces a bulk of milk equal in weight to the
weight of the lactometer. The milk must be thoroughly
mixed—but free from bubbles of air—-and the reading is
taken at the actual level of the milk; not at the point of the
stem to which it is drawn by capillary attraction.

The lactometer is then used to determine the weight
of milk (or in other words, the specific gravity) as com-
pared with the weight of an equal bulk of water when both
are at the same temperature. ,

If 1,000 is taken as the weight of a certain quantity of
water, the weight of the same quantity of milk, at the same
temperature, is about 1,030 to 1,034. This is shown in
practice by floating the lactometer in milk, placed in a
cylindrical glass tube, when it will sink in the milk toa
mark on the stem corresponding to the specific gravity of
MILK INSPECTION 147

the milk. The greater weight of milk (as compared with
water), or its specific gravity, is due to the solids-not-fat it
contains, z. é., the casein, albumin and milk sugar. While
the lactometer may be used to determine the solids in
unaltered milk as it comes from the cow, it will not deter-
mine the solids in milk which has been watered and
skimmed.* Milk fat weighs less than water, and, of course,
less than milk. Removing cream raises the specific gravity
of milk. Then if water were added the specific gravity
might be lowered again to the normal for untampered
and unadulterated milk.

To estimate the solids in milk by the lactometer, the
temperature of the milk should theoretically be 60 deg. F.
But the milk may be at any temperature between 50 deg.
and 70 deg. F. providing a correction is made for the tem-
perature of milk above or below 60 deg. F. Thus, if the
milk is above 60 deg. F.; one must add to the lactometer
reading o.1 for each degree of temperature above this point ;
if the temperature of the milk is below 60 deg. F., one
should subtract 0.1 from the lactometer reading for each
degree of temperature below this point.

For example, if a sample of milk at a temperature of
65 deg. F. shows a lactometer reading of 29, then one should
add to this reading:—5 0.1 0.5, which gives the cor-
rected reading as 29.5.

If, on the other hand, the lactometer should float in
milk to a mark on its stem indicating 29, and the tempera-
ture of the milk was 55 deg. F., then one should subtract
o.1 for each degree of temperature below 60 deg. F. from
this lactometer reading, which gives us 28.5 as the corrected
reading.

Now, to estimate the solids in milk we must have prev-

 

*In conjunction with the fat test and the determination of solids it will
show either watering or skimming of milk,
148 CLEAN MILK

iously determined the percentage of fat in the milk by-
means of the Babcock machine. To find the total solids in
milk we divide the lactometer reading by 4, and, to the
result, add the per cent. of fat multiplied by 1.2, For
example, we have a milk containing 4 per cent. of fat and a
lactometer reading of 32, to find the total solids:

32> 4=8
4 per cent. X 1.2 = 4.8

 

12.8 per cent. of total solids.

To find the solids-not-fat, divide the lactometer reading
by 4, and, to the result, add the per cent. of fat multiplied
by 0.2, Thus, in the same milk as in the last example :—

32 4=8
4 per cent. X 0.2 = 0.8

 

8.8 per cent. of solids-not-fat.

The percentage of casein and albumin increases—
though not in a proportionate degree—with the increase of
fat, as shown in the following table from Woll’s Handbook,.
summarizing the analyses of 2,400 samples of milk:

Fat Casein and Total
per cent, albumin, solids.
3-07 2.92 ‘II.00
3-29 3.0 II.50
3-50 3-07 12.00
3-75 , 3-19 12.50
3-99 3-30 13.00
4.34 3-44 13-50
4.68 3-57 14.00
4-92 3-79 14.50
5-38 ; 4.00 15-00
5-69 4-15 15-50

6.00 4.30 16.00.
MIIK INSPECTION 149

Quantitative Analysis of the Bacteria in Milk*

Glassware.—At the outset there should be carefully washed a

FIG. 41
m

z=

 

 

 

 

 

 

~YU !
‘ZI ¢.c. pip-
~ettes — in-
-closed in
tubes for
sterilizing.

number of test-tubes, liter flasks, petri dishes (Fig. 44),
cubic centimeter pipettes (Fig. 41), a mumber of small
flasks which are marked to hold 99 cc. (Fig. 42), to-
gether with a considerable number of small vials, like
homeopathic vials, marked to hold 19 c.c. (Fig. 42). These
various pieces of glass plugged with cotton, are placed in
a sterilizing oven and heated for about an hour to a
temperature approximating 180° C. It is well to sterilize
a considerable number of them at the outset, so as to
have them on hand. Some of the cubic centimeter pipettes
should be graduated to one-tenth of a c.c., and it is best
to place them in a larger glass tube whose ends are plugged
with cotton, as shown in Fig. 41, in which the pipettes can
be kept after being sterilized. After this apparatus has been
sterilized it should be set aside where it can be kept free
from dust until needed.

(Sterilized agar culture medium may be made as below
—a somewhat difficult process—or bought of Park, Davis
& Co., Detroit, Mich., or other such makers of laboratory
products.—K. W.)

Preparation of Culture Media—Any of the methods of
preparation of culture media used in bacteriological labora-
tories are satisfactory for the purpose of milk analysis. ‘The
method of making a satisfactory medium for quantitative
analysis is as follows :

PEPTONE-AGAR CULTURE MEDIUM.

A. In a large porcelain cooking dish place the fol-
lowing ingredients :

 
 
 

Water......... see. 500 C.C,
Peptone, dry... .. 10 grams
Common salt............. weed oe
Liebig’s Extract of Beef............ 5
Milk sugar .......ccececeeceecereece 30 «=

 

* Taken from Conn’s Bacteria in Milk and its Products,
150 CLEAN MILK

These materials are to be mixed together aud heated to a tempera-
ture not above 150° F., which will bring the materials into solution.
There should then be added to the mixture a sufficient amount of
water to make up for that which is evaporated in the heating. This
may best be determined by weight rather than by measure, weighing
the dish with its contents before heating, and then weighing again
after the solution is complete, adding water to make the weight equal
to the original weight.

B. Cut into fine pieces 15 grams of agar and dissolve it in 500.
c.c. of water. ‘This will require considerable heat. After the agar is.

Fic. 42.

 

Flasks and vials for quantitative bacteriological analysis.

dissolved, cool to 150° C., add water to restore evaporation, and mix
with solution A. The mixture must then be neutralized carefully.
This neutralization is the most important step in the whole preparation.
A satisfactory method of neutralization is as follows:

Remove 5 c.c. of the mixture by a pipette and place in an evaporat-
ing dish. Add 45 c.c. of distilled water, boil for 3 minutes, and add
1c.c. of phenolphthalein solution (5 gm. of phenolphthalein powder in
100 c.c. of 50 per cent. alcohol). Place in a burette having a rubber
pinch-cock (Fig. 43), a quantity of one-tenth normal solution of sodium
\

MILK INSPECTION 151 |

hydroxid.* Add this solution, drop by drop, to the material in the
evaporating dish until it turns to a very faint pink color. This indi-
cates the neutral point. ‘Treat two other samples in the same way,
and if the amount of the sodium hydroxid added is the same in each
case it indicates the amount necessary to neutralize 5 cc. of the cul-
ture medium. ‘The average of the three tests should be taken. By
calculation, determine the amount necessary to neutralize the whole
liter, and add sufficient amount to the whole for neutralization.

* To make strictly accurate normal solution of NaOH and HCI requires fami-
liarity with quantitative chemistry. perine accurate enough for bacteriologi-
cal work may be made as follows:

Normal NaOH.—Dissolve 40 grams of fresh, dry NaOH in one liter of
distilled water. This will not be a strictly accurate normal solution, but very
nearly so. The solution should not be kept in a glass-stoppered bottle. It loses
its strength and it is best to use solutions which are fresh, To make a one-tenth
normal solution dilute any quantity of the normal solution with ten times its bulk
of distilled water. This should be made fresh from a normal solution af the time
of using. :

Normal HCl.—To 700 c.c. distilled water add 100 c.c. of concentrated c.p.
HCI, which, assuming that the HCl is 30 per cent. acid, would give 30 grams of
HCl in 800 c.c. of the solution. This gives about the right strength (7. ¢., 36.5
c.c. per liter), but since the HCI variesin strength, the solution must be standard-
ized with « normal NaOH prepared as described above. To do this proceed as
follows: Place 10 c.c. of the HCl solution in an evaporating dish. Add 40 c.c.
of distilled water and I c.c. of phenolphthalein solution, Fill a burette (see Fig.
39) with some freshly prepared normal NaOH, and allow the NaOH to flow from
the burette into the evaporating dish, drop by drop, until the faintest pink color
appears in the acid solution and remains. This indicates the neutral point.
Read from the burette the amount of NaOH which was required to neutralize the
roc.c. of acid. Ifthe HCl solution were exactly normal, 10 c.c. would. require
exactly 10¢ c. of NaOH solution for neutralization, The solution prepared as

above described (100 c.c. of HClin 700 c.c. of water) is usually too strong and
requires more than toc.c. of normal NaOH for neutralization. It must, there-
_fore, be diluted with water. The amount of water that must be added can be
calculated as follows: Suppose there were required 11 c.c. of the NaOH to neu-
tralize 10 c.c. of the HCI solution. This would indicate that the HCl was eleven-
tenths of its proper strength. ‘To make it normal there should be added to it one
part of water to every-ten parts of solution. The solution prepared now contains
790 c.c., and 790 X #5 = 79 c.c. Hence 79 c.c. of distilled water should be
added to the 790 c.c. of HC] to give a normal HCI solution, Add 79 c.c. of water
and test again to correct any error. If the original HC1 solution should prove to
be too weak it is easier to make another solution a little stronger than to calcu-
late the amount of acid necessary to bring the solution to a normal strength.

The normal HC1 solution once made will keep a long time without deteriora-
tion if kept in a stoppered bottle. A one-tenth normal HCI solution may be made
by diluting the normal solution with ten times its bulk of water at the time of
using.
152 CLEAN MILK

Instead, however, of adding to the mixture the one-tenth normal
NaOH, add a xormal solution, which is ten times as strong, and of
which, therefore, only one-tenth as much should be added as would be
required of the one-tenth normal. The whole of the medium is thus
to be neutralized, It is well to test the accuracy of the neutralization
by adding a few drops of phenolphtha-

Fic. 43.

lein to a little of the neutralized me-
dium. This should give the faint
pinkish tinge ; if it does not, it means
that the neutralization has not been

properly effected.

|. MoNornal

After neutralization, boil for five Na OF

minutes and restore to the original
weight, after which the reaction
should be tested again and corrected
if necessary.

The material thus neutralized is
too strongly alkaline for the proper
growth of bacteria and must be ren-
dered less alkaline by adding HCl.
The amount to be added should be
such as to bring the reaction to 1.5
percent. acid. To produce this acidity
add to the neutralized medium 15 c.c.
of normal HCl for each liter. The

acidity thus obtained is found to be J SS

that at which common milk bacteria

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

grow most readily.

After adding HCl in proportion
of 15 c.c. to each liter of solution,
pour into the mixture slowly the white of an egg mixed in a little
water. Boil vigorously for a few minutes to coagulate the albumen,
and then filter through absorbent cotton or through filter paper
moistened with hot water. ‘The material filters rather more easily
through absorbent cotton, and if the directions above given are fol-
lowed closely it will filter perfectly clear. After filtering the material
is to be collected in a sterilized flask.

Two burettes arranged for neutral-
izing culture media,
MILK INSPECTION 153

Fill a considerable number of test tubes with the material from
‘the flask, placing in each test tube about 10 c.c. of the medium, care-
fully replace the cotton stoppers after the test tubes have been filled
with the medium, and the whole quantity—both that in the test
tubes and the flask—should be sterilized in a steam sterilizer for 20
minutes, ,

To produce complete sterilization it is necessary to repeat the
steaming on three successive days. The second and third sterilization
require a longer time than the first, inasmuch as it requires some time
‘to melt the agar, and, until the agar is thoroughly melted, the steril-
‘ization is not effective. Upon the second and third days, therefore, the
-material should be steamed at least one-half hour. If an autoclave is
.at hand, sterilization at 120° C. for 20 minutes is sufficient.

Fic. 44.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Petri Dishes.

Method of Making Quantitative Analysis of Milk.—In order to
‘make an analysis of the bacteria in milk it is necessary to have an
approximate idea of the number of bacteria which are to be expected.
‘The reason for this is that the bacteria are commonly so numerous that
it is necessary to dilute the milk highly with sterilized water in order
that reliable results may be obtained. In the quantitative analysis of
ordinary market milk it is commonly satisfactory to dilute the milk
-one hundred times with sterilized water, provided the medium to be
used is the agar culture medium above described. If the milk is old
and contains large numbers of bacteria, a much higher dilution than
this is desirable (see p. 157), but for the kind of milk usually found
in milk-distributing carts a dilution of one hundred times is usually
‘satisfactory for the purpose here considered.
154 CLEAN MILK

Several of the small flasks marked to hold 99 c.c. are filled to this
mark with water and placed in an autoclave for sterilization. If it is
desired to dilute the milk more than one hundred times there should,
at the same time, be placed in the autoclave a number of the smaller
vials filled with water to the 19 c.c. mark and others to the 5 c.c.
mark (Fig. 42). All of these vessels of water are to be sterilized for
an hour at a temperature of 120° (a steam pressure of ten pounds will
do), after which they are to be removed. If an autoclave is not at
hand the water may be sterilized by steaming for two hours.

There is now taken from the milk to be tested a single cubic
centimeter in one of the sterilized pipettes. Taking of the sample of
milk is the most important point in the analysis and most liable to
introduce errors. The number of bacteria found in different parts of
acan of milk is by no means uniform, the surface layers containing
different numbers from the deep layers of the milk. To avoid this
irregularity it is necessary to give the milk a very thorough stirring or
shaking immediately before the sample is taken, so as to distribute the
bacteria as uniformly as possible.

A cubic centimeter of milk is transferred by a sterilized pipette
into one of the 100 c.c. flasks of sterilized water. The mixture is then
to be very thoroughly shaken, so as to distribute the milk uniformly
through the water. This thorough shaking is extremely important to
break up the clumps of bacteria.

Meantime six test-tubes of the agar culture medium have been
melted by placing them in water over a gas flame. ‘The tube should
be kept in warm water at a temperature just sufficient to keep its con-
tents from solidifying. A single cubic centimeter of the mixture of
milk and water is removed with a second sterilized pipette and placed
in each of the test-tubes of melted culture medium. The test-tubes
are then to be gently but thoroughly shaken, so as to distribute the
inoculated material uniformly. It is necessary to avoid shaking too
vigorously, or otherwise bubbles will make their appearance, which ©
will interfere with the accuracy of the test. The shaking should be
thorough but not violent.

Six sterilized petri dishes (Fig. 44) should have been placed upon
a plate of glass which is held in as nearly a level position as possible
MILK INSPECTION 155.

and cooled artificially. This can be accomplished by taking a large,
flat dish, filling it with water and ice then laying a large plate of glass
upon the top. The ice will rapidly cool the glass plate, and the petri
dishes placed upon the plate will also rapidly become cooled. The
contents of each of the test-tubes inoculated with the diluted milk are
now to be poured each into a petri dish and the cover quickly replaced.
The culture medium will distribute itself in a thin layer over the bot-
tom of the petri dish and soon harden. ‘he dishes are to be labelled
and then set aside in a proper place for growth. If desired to hasten
the analysis the dishes may be placed in a eulture oven kept at a tem-
perature of 98° F. For ordinary study of milk bacteria it is usually
most satisfactory to leave the petri dishes at a room temperature of
70° F., allowing them to remain for three or four days before the final
study is made.

The Study of the Plates.—The solidified culture medium fixes
each bacterium at a single point. As the bacteria feed upon the cul-
ture medium they grow and multiply, but, unable to move through the
solidified medium, the descendants of each bacterium remain together
in a mass and, in the course of two days, become abundant enough to
produce a spot which can be seen with the naked eye. The plate,
therefore, becomes dotted over with little points of various size and
shapes known as bacteria colonies. It is only necessary, therefore, to.
count the number of colonies on one of these plates and we know
approximately the number of bacteria that were present in one one-
hundredth of a cubic centimeter of the original milk ; and multiplying
the number by one hundred we get the number of bacteria per cubic.
centimeter of the milk. (See Plate T.) In counting these bacteria.
on the plate it is sometimes necessary to use various devices for
dividing the plate into areas. If the number is small they can be
counted without difficulty, but if the number of colonies on the plate is
large it is more convenient to place underneath the plate a piece of
black paper with white lines ruled upon it, dividing the plate into a
series of sections of equal size. Such cards for aiding the counting
can be obtained from dealers in bacteriological material, and a
quantity of them should be at hand in every laboratory to assist in
the counting. If the numbers are not very great the counting may -
156 CLEAN MILK

"be done without the aid of these slips, by simply marking the under
side of the petri dishes with a waxed pencil, and thus dividing the
plate into a series of sections which may be counted individually.
The actual determination of the number of bacteria on these plates
is not difficult, though it requires a little practice (see Plate ‘T).

The number thus obtained represents approximately the number
of bacteria in a cubic centimeter of the original milk, but the number
is only an approximate one. Different tests of the sample of milk will
show considerable irregularities, and it is for this reason that six petri.
dishes have been made. Each of the six should be counted and the
average result of the six regarded as the average number of bacteria:
per one one-hundredth cubic centimeter. But, apart from this irregu-
larity in the samples, there are at least three other facts which make
the analysis only approximate. First, if in the diluted milk there chance °
to be several bacteria clinging together, as is quite probable even after
thorough shaking, these, when placed within petri dishes, would’
develop into a single colony and would be counted as one.. This will
naturally give a number in the analysis somewhat too low. A second
and more serious difficulty is the fact that not all bacteria present in
the milk will grow in the culture medium as above prepared. While

-a large proportion of the bacteria will develop on plates and make their
appearance in analysis, there are some that do not grow at all, and,
therefore, do not appear in the analysis. ‘Third, it is impossible to
pour out all of the contents of the tube into the petri dish, for some
will inevitably stick to the tube. To obtain the absolute number of
living bacteria present in a cubic centimeter of milk is quite impossible

“by any means at our command.

The number obtained by the method described will always be an

“underestimate. But while it must always be recognized as approxi-
mate, the results in different cases may be compared with each other.
If two samples of milk show, one ten thousand and the other ten mil-
lion, it is quite certain that these numbers express approximately the
relative number of bacteria in two samples, though neither expresses

‘the number accurately.
PLATE T.

Petri dish containing 1 cubic centimeter of a mixture of milk (1 c.c.) diluted
with 499 c.c. of sterilized water and mixed with sterilized agar culture medium,
The white spots in the plate are colonies or collections of germs,

Each colony is supposed to represent a single germ at the time the milk
was examined, The dish rests on a glass plate lined in white with a black
background to facilitate counting the colonies. When the colonies are small
and numerous, only those in every other sector of the circle need be counted
and the result multiplied by two. In the above plate there are only about 80
plainly visible, but witha common magnifying glass—and one is generally used
for counting—about 125 colonies may be seen. :

In the dish photographed,272 colonies were counted, and, multiplied by 500
(the 1 c.c, of milk was diluted 500 times) gave 135,000, germs in 1c.c, of milk,

 
MILK INSPECTION 157

The following report,* describing the method of count-
ing bacteria in Boston’s milk supply, gives the most:
improved details of technique. The reporters are well
recognized experts and have worked out some very ingeni-.
ous improvements which will be found of much practical
value.

The method decided upon after consideration of those employed .
in about 15 laboratories throughout this country was as follows: For
media, one and one-half per cent. nutrient agar (B.C.), to c.c. to a.
tube, reaction pluso.7. The collection outfit was devised anew and
consists of a case for carrying the samples made of copper with double
walls interlaid with one-half inch felting. This case is divided into
three compartments ; the central one for samples, the other two for
ice, When iced and closed, a constant temperature of 34° F. is main-
tained. The samples are carried in sterilized test tubes, the compart-
ment holding eight racks of four tubes each. A smaller case was also...
made holding but three racks. These racks are made from copper
tubing as suggested by one of us. (H. W.H.) Holes in the parti-
tions of the case allow the ice water to circulate around the bottoms of~
the tubes. The use of the test tubes for carrying samples was sug-
gested by S. C. Keith. For collecting, glass pipettes are used. These
are carried in a detachable copper case, adapted for sterilizing, divided
into two compartments, the upper for fresh sterile pipettes, the lower
for the pipettes after use.

For plating the samples, the agar, after being melted, is kept in a
water bath between 40° and 45° C. until needed. In order to bring
down the actual number of colonies in a plate to a countable figure, a
standard dilution of 1 to 10,oo0 is used. For dilution water, square
eight-ounce bottles, marked at 100c.c., are used. This water is steril-
ized in the autoclave under 15 pounds steam pressure for 20 minutes
at a temperature of about 250° F. ‘Two bottles are used for each sam-
ple, giving a dilution of 1 to 10,000, with 1c.c. of milk. Each dilu-

* Herbert Winslow Hill, M.D., Director, and Francis Hervey Slack, M.D.,.
2d Asst: Bacteriologist, Boston Board of Health Bacteriological Laboratory. In
American Journal of Public Hygiene, November, 1904.

Q
158 ‘ CLEAN MILK

tion is shaken 25 times for thorough mixing, as is also the sample. A
sterile pipette marked to contain 1 c.c. and calibrated in the laboratory
is used at each stage, three being required for each sample. After
expelling the milk into the first bottle, the pipette is rinsed to the 1
c.c. mark in the dilution water; 1 c.c. from the first dilution bottle is
transferred to the second dilution bottle; then 1 ¢.c. from the second
dilution bottle is transferred to the petri dish. The agar is then care-
fully added, mixed with the diluted milk in the plate and allowed to
harden.

The plates are incubated in a saturated atmosphere at 37° C.
(98.6° F.) for 24 hours, The colonies in a saturated atmosphere are
not only more numerous, as shown by Whipple, than in a dry atmo-
sphere, but also larger and therefore more easily counted ; 37° C. is
used in preference to room temperature because the latter requires
more time for satisfactory development of the colonies, and is also so
variable as to give no standard for the comparison of results. The
24-hour incubation is used in preference to the 48-hour because,
though the latter shows a slightly higher average count, the counts
are not sufficiently higher to materially change the repert. One
thousand consecutive plates incubated at 37° C. and counted at 24
and 48 hours gave the following results :

679 or 68 per cent. showed an increase in the number of colonies
at the 48-hour count.

In 195, or 19.5 per cent., the count remained the same; 126 or
12.6 per cent. showed a decrease.

799 or 80 per cent. of these plates had counts below roo.

The average 24-hour count on these plates was 1514 ; the average
48-hour count 184.

193, or 19 per cent., had between 100 and 1,000 colonies averaging
at the 24-hour count 275, and at the 48-hour count 283.

Eight plates, about 1 per cent., had over 1,000 colonies each,
averaging 1,287 at the 24-hour and 1,334 at the 48-hour count.

Only 13 plates changed their relation to the legal limit, nine going
from below to above 500,000 and four decreasing.

In many plates, the count is lower with the 48-hour incubation on
account of small colonies becoming obscured in the growth of larger
ones. ‘There are also more spreaders.
MILK INSPECTION 159

This annoying difficulty with spreaders, frequently met with even
in the 24-hour plates, we now overcome by the use of earthenware
petri covers suggested by one of us. (H. W. H.)*

Spreading seems to be caused principally by water condensing on
the petri covers and agar. ‘The dry porous earthenware covers absorb
this condensation water, still leaving the atmosphere saturated, as
proven by the large size of the colonies. Organisms having an inher-
ent tendency to spread from unusual motility are not prevented from
spreading by this method.

in Counting.—A box, a child’s slate, a reading glass and a ‘‘lum-
ber counter’’ are used.

The box is 6x6x5 inches, with open bottom, glass front, and a
four-inch circular opening in the top, painted black within and with-
out, except the glass front.

The slate has a circle cut in the surface, 434 inches in diameter,
divided into 10 equal segments, the lines filled with red lead.

The reading glass is a common four-inch lens magnifying about
two diameters.

The petri dish is placed over the circle on the slate and uncovered.
‘The box fits over the circle, the reading glass over the box, thus pro-
tecting the plate, keeping a constant focus and setting both hands of
the operator free.

A slight pressure of the thumb for each colony seen on the lum-
ber counter accurately adds and records the count. As the dilution is
1 to 10,000, the actual count must be multiplicd by 10,000 to obtain
the number of bacteria in 1 c.c. of the milk.

In addition to simply counting the bacteria it is essen-
tial to examine for pus and streptococci which enter milk
from an inflamed udder (garget) and may cause sore throat,
digestive disorders, tonsilitis and what closely resembles
scarlet fever and diphtheria in man (see p. 20). To dis-
cover in milk the pus (or matter, such as comes from an
abscess), and the germs which cause the inflammation of
the cow’s udder, Dr. Slack writes me as follows:

 

*Journal Medical Research, Nov., 1904.
160 CLEAN MILK

“We centrifugalize the milk in small glass tubes (about
2.c. each, the ends being closed with rubber stoppers).
Our apparatus carries 20 tubes and we centrifugalize for
ten minutes at a speed of 2000-3000 revolutions a minute.

“The sediment obtained on the rubber stopper is.
smeared evenly with a drop of sterile water over a space 4
sq.cm. By examining this sediment with a 1-12 oil immer-.
sion lens, we determine the presence of pus or streptococci
and are also able to make a microscopic estimate of the num-
ber of bacteria present.”

Since it is impossible to differentiate between dead leu-
cocytes and pus, and since a certain number of leucocytes.
are normal (3 or 4 in a 1-12 immersion lens field) in milk,
it is necessary to fix an arbitrary standard not to be ex-
ceeded by these cells. The standard, observed by the
Boston Board of Health, is 50 cells to the field of a 1-12
oil immersion lens (spreading the sediment from 2 c.c. of
milk over asurface of 4 sq. cm.). If this number is exceeded
the milk is condemned. After the milk is centrifuged in
small glass tubes (see above), the sediment is placed on
spaced, glass slides, dried with gentle heat and stained with
methylene blue. During the course of the microscopic
examination for pus, the number of bacteria can be deter-.
mined with a very fair degree of accuracy without plating
the milk if the milk contains more than 100,000 bacteria
Mik €c;

Milk is condemned by the Boston Board of Health for
streptococci when 3 tests are positive: 1. When the centri-
fuged sediment shows streptococci, cocci or diplococci. 2.
When the plate from the same sample shows colonies.
resembling streptococci colonies, in excess of 100,000 to I
c.c. 3. When such colonies transferred to broth and grown
MILK INSPECTION 161

for 24 hours at 37° C. show streptococci alone or in great
excess of the other bacteria present.

In an excellent article by Slack* the methods pursued
by this Board of Health are described in detail, showing the
system perfected by their own experience modified by the
study of that pursued in 15 other prominent milk labora-
tories in the bacteriological examination of milk.

CIRCULARS.
Ist. “Certified Milk.”

CIRCULAR OF INFORMATION CONCERNING THE REQUIREMENTS OF
"HR MILK COMMISSION OF THE MEDICAL, SOCIETY OF THE
County of NEw YorE FoR ‘‘ CERTIFIED’’ MILK.

The Commission appointed by the Medical Society of the County
of New York to aid in improving the milk supply of New York City
invites the co-operation of the milk dealers and farmers in attaining
that end. ‘The sale of pure milk is of advantage to those furnishing
it, as well as to those who use it. The Commission has undertaken to
assist both consumer and producer by fixing a standard of cleanliness
and quality to which it can certify, and by giving information concern-
ing the measures needful for obtaining that degree of purity.

The most practicable standard for the estimation of cleanliness in
the handling and care of milk is its relative freedom from bacteria.
The Commission has tentatively fixed upon a maxium of 30,000 germs
of all kinds per cubic centimeter of milk, which must not be exceeded
in order to obtain the indorsement of the Commission. This standard
must be attained solely by measures directed toward scrupulous clean-
liness, proper cooling, and prompt delivery. The milk certified by the
Commission must contain not less than four per cent. of butter fat, on
the average, and have all other characteristics of pure, wholesome
milk.

In order that dealers who incur the expense and take the precau-
tions necessary to furnish a truly clean and wholesome milk may have
some suitable means of bringing these facts before the public, the Com-
mission offers them the right to use caps on their milk jars stamped
with the words, ‘‘ Certified by the Commission of the Medical Society

* Journal of Infectious Diseases, Supplement No. 2, Feb, 1906, pp, 214-222.
162 CLEAN MILK

of the County of New York.’’ ‘The dealers are given the right to use
these certificates when their milk is obtained under the conditions
required by the Commission and conforms to its standards.

The required conditions are as follows:

I. The Barnyard.—The barnyard should be free from manure
and well drained, so that it may not harbor stagnant water. ‘The
manure which collects each day should not be piled close to the barn,
but should be taken several hundred feet away. If these rules are
observed not only will the barnyard be free from objectionable smell,
which is always an injury to the milk, but the number of flies in sum-
mer will be considerably diminished. ‘These flies in themselves are an
element of danger, for they are fond of both filth and milk, and are
liable to get into the milk after having soiled their bodies and legs in
recently visited filth, thus carrying it into the milk. Fliesalso irritate
cows, and by making them nervous reduce the amount of their milk.

2. The Stable.--In the stable the principles of cleanliness must
be strictly observed. The room in which the cows are milked should
have no storage loft above it; where this is not feasible, the floor of
the loft should be tight, to prevent the sifting of dust into the stable
beneath. ‘The stables should be well ventilated, lighted, and drained,
and should have tight floors, preferably of cement. ‘They should be
whitewashed inside at least twice a year, and the air should always be
fresh and without bad odor. A sufficient number of lanterns should
be provided to enable the necessary work to be properly done. during
dark hours. ‘There should be an adequate water supply and the neces-
sary wash-basins, soap, and towels. ‘The manure should be removed
from the stalls twice daily, except when the cows are outside in the
fields the entire time between the morning and afternoon milkings.
The manure gutter must be kept in asanitary condition, and all sweep-
ing and cleaning must be finished at least twenty minutes before milk-
ing, so that at that time the air may be free from dust.

3. Water Supply.—The whole premises used for dairy purposes,
as well as the barn, must have a supply of water absolutely free from
any danger of pollution with animal matter, and sufficiently abundant
for all purposes and easy of access.

4. The Cows.—The cows should be examined at least twice a
year by a skilled veterinarian. Any animal suspected of being in bad
health must be promptly removed from the herd and her milk rejected.
Never add an animal to the herd until it has been tested with tubercu-
lin and it is certain that it is free from disease. Do not allow the cows
to be excited by hard driving, abuse, loud talking, or any unnecessary
MILK INSPECTION 163

disturbance. Do not allow any strongly flavored food, like garlic,
which will affect the flavor of the milk, to be eaten by the cows.

Groom the entire body of the cow daily. Before each milking
wipe the udder with a clean damp cloth, and when necessary wash it
with soap and clean water and wipe it dry with a clean towel. Never
leave the udder wet, and be sure the water and towel used are clean.
If the hair in the region of the udder is long and not easily kept clean,
it should be clipped. The cows must not be allowed to lie down after
being cleaned for milking until the milking is finished. A chain or
rope must be stretched under the neck to prevent this.

All milk from cows sixty days before and ten days after calving
must be rejected.

5. The Milkers—The milker should be personally clean. He
should neither have nor come in contact with any contagious disease
while employed in milking or handling milk. In case of any illness
in the person or family of any employee in the dairy, such employee
must absent himself from the dairy until a physician certifies that it is
safe for him to return.

Before milking, the hands should be thoroughly washed in warm
water with soap and a nail brush and well dried with a clean towel.
On no account should the hands be wet during the milking.

The milking should be done regularly at the same hour morning
and evening, and ina quiet, thorough manner. Light-colored wash-
able outer garments should be worn during milking. ‘They should be
clean and dry, and when not in use for this purpose should be kept in
a clean place protected from du&t. Milking stools must be kept clean.
Iron stools, painted white, are recommended.

6. Helpers Other Thanx Milkers.—All persons engaged in the
stable and dairy should be reliable and intelligent. Children under
twelve years should not be allowed in the stable during milking, since
in their ignorance they may do harm, and from their liability to con-
tagious diseases they are more apt than older persons to transmit them
through the milk. *

7. Small Animals.—Cats and dogs must be excluded from the
stables during the time of milking.

&. The Milk.—The first few streams from each teat should be
discarded, in order to free the milk ducts from milk that has remained
in them for some time and in which bacteria are sure to have multi-
plied greatly. If in any milking a part of the milk is bloody or stringy
or unnatural in appearance, the whole quantity of milk yielded by that
164 CLEAN MILK

animal must be rejected. If any accident occurs by which the milk in:
a pail becomes dirty, do not try to remove the dirt by straining, but.
reject all the milk and cleanse the pail. The milk pails used should.

have an opening not exceeding eight inches in diameter.
Remove the milk of each cow from the stable immediately after it
is obtained to a clean room and strain it through a sterilized strainer.
The rapid cooling of milk isa matter of great importance. The
milk should be cooled to 45° within one hour. Aeration of pure milk
beyond that obtained in milking is unnecessary.

All dairy utensils, including bottles, must be thoroughly cleansed’
and sterilized. This can be done by first thoroughly rinsing in warm.

water, then washing with a brush and soap or other alkaline cleansing
material and hot water, and thoroughly rinsing, After this cleansing,
they should be sterilized with boiling water or steam and then kept:
inverted in a place free from dust.

9. The Dairy.—The room or rooms where the bottles, milk pails, |

strainers, and other utensils are cleaned and sterilized should be separ-
ated somewhat from the house, or when this is impossible have at least
a separate entrance, and be used only for dairy purposes, so as to les-
sen the danger of transmitting through the milk contagious diseases
which may occur in the home. .

Bottles, after filling, must be closed with sterilized discs, and
capped so as to keep all dirt and dust from the inner surface of the
neck and the mouth of the bottle.

zo. Examination of the Milk and Dairy Inspection.—In order
that the dealers and the Commission may be kept informed of the-

character of the milk, specimens taken at random from the day’s sup-
ply must be sent weekly to the Research Laboratory of the Health
Department, where examinations will be made by experts for the Com-
mission ; the Health Department having given the use of its labora-
tories for this purpose.

The Commission reserves to itself the right to make inspections of
certified farms at any time and to take specimens of milk for examina-

tion. It also reserves the right to change its standards in any reason-

able manner upon due notice being given to the dealers.

After January 1, 1902, the expenses incurred in making the-

regular milk examinations and inspections will be borne by the dealers.
In fixing the charges each farm or group of farms will be considered a

unit. ‘The Secretary of the County Medical Society will send the bills
to the dealers about the middle of each month. Prompt payment is.

requested.

t
MILK INSPECTION 165

The monthly charges, which are intended to cover all expenses,
will be as follows :

For each group of farms sending daily less than 100 quarts $8.00
“cc ce

100 to 200 “ 10.00
ee “ 200 to 500 et 12.00
oe fe over 500 a 15.00

2d.—“ Inspected Milk.”

CIRCULAR OF INFORMATION CONCERNING THE REQUIREMENTS OF
THE MiLK COMMISSION OF THE MEDICAL SOCIETY OF THE
County oF NEW YorK FOR ‘“‘ INSPECTED’’ MILK.

The Commission appointed by the Medical Society of the County
of New York to aid in improving the milk supply of New York City
has formulated the following requirements, affecting the farms inspected
‘by it and the handling of the milk obtained at these farms. The Com-
mission offers those dealers complying with these requirements the
right to use caps on their milk bottles, stamped: ‘‘Inspected. Milk
Commission Medical Society, County of New York.”’

The requirements are as follows :

Zz. The Barnyard.
(a) It must contain no manure in summer and none in contact with
the stable in winter.
(b) It must be well drained and kept reasonably clean.

2. The Stables.

(a) The ventilation and light must be sufficient for the number of
cows stabled, so that the barn shall be light and the air
never close.

(b) ‘The floor shall be wood or cement.

(c) The ceiling shall be tight, if a loft above is used.

(d) Basins, hand brushes, clean water, soap and clean towels shall
be provided in the barn or adjacent dairy room.

(e) ‘The stable shall be whitewashed in the fall, and in the spring
if necessary.

(f) A sufficient number of lanterns shall be provided to allow the
milking to be carried on properly.

(g) Clean the ceiling and sidings once a month. *

(h) The bedding shall be shavings, sawdust, dried leaves. cut
straw, or other material that meets the approval of the
Commission.

(i) The soiled bedding must be removed daily.
166 CLEAN MILK

(j) The manure must be removed daily from the stalls and open
manure-gutter. If a covered manure-gutter is used, it
must be kept in a sanitary condition.

(k) The application of land-plaster or lime on the floor daily is
recommended.

(1) Sweep the entire floor outside the stalls daily at least an hour
before milking is begun.

3. Water Supply.
Pure water must be used for all purposes. It must be
accessible and abundant.

4g. The Cows.

(a) Discard milk containing mucus or blood and that from any
diseased cow.

(b) Reject milk from any animal forty-five days before and six
days after calving.

(c) The food given must be suitable both in amount and kind and
must not give a disagreeable flavor to the milk.

(d) Keep the cows clean on flanks, belly, udder and tail.

(e) Clip long hairs about udders and clip the tail sufficiently to
clear the ground.

(f) The cows must be kept from lying down between the cleaning.
and milking. The best means of accomplishing this is by
throat latches.

(g) Clean the udder thoroughly before milking.

5. The Milkers,

(a) No milker or assistant shall have any connection with the milk
at any stage of its production if he has any communicable.
disease, or if he has been exposed to scarlet fever, diphtheria,
typhoid fever, or small-pox.

(b) After having everything prepared for milking, thoroughly
wash the hands with soap, water, and brush, so that they
may be clean when milking is begun.

(c) The hands and teats must be kept dry during milking. If
they become moistened with milk, they must be wiped dry
with a clean towel.

(d) Suitable clean outer garments, such as overalls and jumpers,
must be put on before milking.

6. Utensils.
(a) Strainers, whether metal, gauze, or cotton, must be absolutely-
clean when used for straining milk.
(b) All dairy utensils must be absolutely clean and free from dust.
MILK INSPECTION 167

THE MILK.

1. The milk must not be adulterated in any way.

2. It must average 3.6 per cent. of butterfat.

3. Cooling must begin at once. The temperature of the milk
must be reduced to 50° F. within two hours and kept below that tem-
perature until delivered to the consumer.

4. When delivered to the consumer the milk must not average
over 100,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter from May ist to September
30th, and not over 60,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter from October
1st to April 30th. If the Commission’s requirements are fulfilled, the
bacteria will not be in excess of the number permitted.

INSPECTIONS.

1. The farms which furnish inspected milk must always be open
to inspection by the Commission.

2. Samples of milk must be regularly submitted for bacteriologi-
cal examination once a month.

Feser’s Lactoscope.

This consists of a large, hollow, graduated glass
cylinder, into the centre of the base of which is inserted
a smaller white glass cylinder marked with horizontal black
lines. The test with the lactoscope depends upon the
amount of dilution of milk required in order that the lines
on the inner cylinder be seen when diluted milk is placed
in the outer cylinder. The richer in fat, the more opaque
is the specimen and the greater the dilution required.

Thus 4 c.c. of milk are dropped from a pipette through
the aperture in the top of the larger cylinder, and water is
added in small amounts and thoroughly mixed with the
milk by inverting the lactoscope with the finger over
the top. When the milk is diluted sufficiently for the
black lines on the inner white cylinder to be read, then the
percentage of fat corresponds with the figures at the level
168 CLEAN MILK

of the mixture on the larger graduated cylinder (in an
upright position).

As has been stated, the lactometer is unreliable when
used alone, but, when employed in conjunction with the
lactoscope, quite accurate results may be obtained. While
milk which has been skimmed and watered may show a
normal specific gravity by the lactometer reading, so milk
which is exceptionally rich in fat may be only watered so
as to still be within the legal.requirements as shown by the
lactoscope. By the use of both instruments, either skim-
ming or watering, or both skimming and watering, may be
detected-—unless the milk is still of average richness.

Harrington (Practical Hygiene, p. 3) says: ‘“‘A normal
specific gravity with a low percentage of fat will indicate
skimming and watering; low specific gravity with normal
or low fat, watering; and high specific gravity and low fat, °
skimming. Low specific gravity with a high fat will indi-
cate unusual richness; thus cream has a very low specific
gravity, due to its preponderance of fat. As a test of the
accuracy of this process. of examination, the author caused
to be analyzed under his supervision 1,714 specimens, which
appeared by those tests to be of good quality, and of this
number but eight were found to have deviated materially
from the statute requirement of 13 per cent. of total
solids.” .

In case inspection by lactoscope and lactometer showed
a specimen of milk below the legal requirements, this result
should be corroborated by the exact methods of the
laboratory before it would be wise to institute legal pro-
ceedings.
APPENDIX.

Dairy Cows

HE writer has not said anything about the best kind of cow for
producing clean milk, because it is as impossible to affirm posi-
tively which is the best breed of dairy cows as it would be to

state which is the best race of human beings. Each breed has its own
valuable characteristics which are in accord or otherwise with the
views of different cattle owners, depending on the experience, tempera-
ment or characteristics of the owner.

The ‘dairy breeds of chief importance are four: The Jerseys,
Guernseys, Holsteins and Ayrshires. The Brown Swiss and Short
Horn are called dual purpose cows; that is, useful for milk and beef.
For dairy purposes alone they are inferior to the first four breeds men-
tioned, however.

The milk of the Jerseys and Guernseys is rich in fat, but moder-
ate in amount (the Guernsey milk of especially déep yellow color) ;
the Holsteins ‘are large milkers, but the percentage of fat in their milk
is low; while the Ayrshires occupy an intermediate position—in
respect to quantity and richness of their milk—as compared with the
Jerseys and Holsteins. The milk of Jerseys and Guernseys is not
‘quite so digestible for infants on account of its large fat globules.
‘The milk is said to vary more in composition, in case of the pure bred
Jerseys (on account of their excitable temperaments), and these
animals are possibly more prone to tuberculosis. Clean Jersey or
Guernsey milk is, however, infinitely preferable to the ordinary dirty
market milk of any other breed of cows, and the writer has found
that ‘clean milk from grade Jersey cows (containing 5 per cent. fat)
will agree perfectly with infants, providing that it is diluted properly

in accordance with its fat content, see p.131. The average consumer
169
170 CLEAN MILK

of milk places much more importance on the richness of milk than
any other quality. He can easily see and appreciate this quality, and
the cleanliness of the milk he can not judge of—except to notice that
it keeps well. Moreover, the average consumer buys the milk largely
for the cream, which is commonly used for the breakfast cereal and
coffee. For this reason a rich milk should bring the largest price,.
providing that it is clean.

A Holstein or Ayrshire milk—or a clean milk obtained from cows:
of various breeds—may be sold for infants, and a 5 per cent. Jersey or
Guernsey milk may be sold for general consumption at a little higher
figure.

If the whole milk is drunk by adults its richness is considered its:
most, valuable quality. In Boston a milk containing 6 per cent. of
fat—which may be obtained from some Jerseys and Guernseys—is.
sold for 16 cents a quart, and is especially intended for invalids. It
is not unusual to separate the milk from different breeds on the farm
and charge different prices for their milk. Milk intended for babies
may appropriately contain about 4 per cent. of fat, and must be of
special cleanliness and freshness. Rapid delivery of it is therefore
necessary, which may require a special express rate on train and
special wagon in the city. The bottles should be thoroughly pro-
tected from dust by an outer cap of parchment, or tinfoil, over the
ordinary paper cap. A milk for infants should constantly contain
nearly the same quantity of fat, so as to give rise to a cream of uni-
form composition. This is essential for the physician to calculate the
fat in the different layers of cream (see p. 131), and such milk may be
supplied if it is obtained from one breed of cows. For all these rea-
sons the price of milk for infant feeding must be considerable—gener-
ally 15 cents a quart retail. A five per cent. milk from Jerseys.
or Guernseys (not quite up to the certified standard for babies)
may be sold for general household use for from 10 to 12 cents a.
quart.

To give the reader an idea of representative cows of the dairy
breeds we have included an account of a Guernsey, which heads the
list of officially tested cows (taken from Hoard’s Dairyman), and also.
tables showing the records of a trial—at the St. Louis Fair of 1905—
of Brown Swiss, Holsteins, Jerseys and Short Horns. The accom-
PLATE I (Fig. 45.—Yeksa Sunbeam (Guernsey), No. 15,439, Adv. Reg. 331.

 

 

~- Ilelendale Stock Farm, Athens, Wis. (Fred. Riethock, Milwaukee, Wis )

PLATE IT (Fig. 46).—Shadybrook Gerben (Holstein),

 

 

 

 

 

In 120 days produced 8101.7 lbs. milk; test 3.5 per cent. fat ; butter fat 282.6 :
butter, 330.36 lbs.; weight, 1319 lbs,
DAIRY COWS 171

panying illustrations are of the best Jersey (Loretta D.) and the best
Holstein (Shadybrook Gerben), at the Exposition, and of Yeksa Sun-
beam (Guernsey), and Pansy of Woodroffe (Ayrshire).

A Wisconsin Guernsey.—Mr. Rietbrock’s Yeksa Sunbeam (Plate
I, Fig. 45) heads the list of officially tested cows. Her record for
twelve consecutive months is 14,920. '8 Ibs. milk, and 857.15 lbs. fat,.
and is as follows :

Per cent.
Month, Milk. fat. Lbs. fat, Total fat,

October ..........006 1428.2 5.69 81.26 _

November...... ..... 1322.5 5.62 74.32 155.58
December ........... 1294.4 6.08 78.70 234.28
January ’05 ......... 1217.0 6.04 73.51 307.79
February ..........9- 1060.8 5-75 61.00 368.79
March..3:.saseswcness 1185.1 6.05 71.70 440.49
Aprils ci oceceees ‘Ye. 1089.6 5-79 63.09 503.58
May i ssicesececacaeas 1127.5 5-75 64.83 568.41
JUNE: veisiccee acces es 1158.4 5.25 60.82 629.23
July ....cacseccceence 1266.0 5.88 74.44 703.67
August .............. 1463.8 5.42 79.34 783.01
September........... 1307-5 5.67 74-14 857.15

Veksa Sunbeam, having given 14920.8 Ibs. of milk, containing-
857.15 lbs. fat, it follows that the average per cent. of fat in her milk
was 5.744. Applying the Farrington scale to this quality of milk,
we find that roo Ibs. of fat should yield 118% lbs. of butter,
and consequently the 857.15 lbs. of fat would make 1013.56 lbs. of
butter.

Veksa Sunbeam was 9% years old at the commencement of the
test. She was bred and reared by the late W. D. Richardson, at.
Garden City, Minn., and sold when a heifer to a milkman near Minne-
apolis, from whom she was purchased by Mr. Rietbrock. Her sire
was Yeksa’s Prince, a son of the cow, Yeksa, formerly owned by Mr.
I. J. Clapp, Kenosha, Wis., and her dam was The Sunbeam, also.
formerly owned in Wisconsin by Prof. Haecker, before he went to.
Minnesota. ‘There is, therefore, some poetic justice in her return to
Wisconsin to make her phenomenal record.

In respect of feeding, I would say that during grazing season, the:
pastures of clover and blue grass were very good. We supplemented,
172 CLEAN MILK

this, during the fore part of last summer, with some clover hay fed in

the barn, since the grass was very washy in the early part of the sea-

son on account of so much rain. During July and August we added:
to the pasturage a soiling ration of peas and oats, the peas being in a

green state, the kernel formed in the pod, but not yet ripened, and fed

it up to the time whea the pea was quite hard, but will say that it was

mostly during the period that we would call peas good to eat on the

table as green peas.

In August and September, we also fed some green corn stalks. I
cannot call it green corn, because there were no ears formed on it.
It was from a planting made about the 20th of June and close
together.

During the late fall and winter of 1904, we also fed Yeksa Sun-
beam, and some other cows, from 5 to 10 pounds of rutabagas. The
roughage during the winter season was mostly clover hay. We fed
also some alfalfa. I had 16 tons, and this was consumed by the
calves, 10 to 12 in number, the 16 cows in the test and about the same
number of other cows not being tested (the test cows got a larger
allowance of alfalfa than the others).

During the winter, we also fed Yeksa Sunbeam from 25 to 30
pounds of silage. This silage had very little grain in it, since our
corn did not mature very well last year, but it was succulent, good

- feed.

Now, as regards grain ration, we made a grain mixture composed -
of four parts wheat bran, two parts ground oats, two parts Buffalo
gluten feed, one part Old Process oil meal. During part of the year
we fed this oil meal in pea size—little kernels big as a pea. During
the months of January, February and March, we added to this grain
mixture one part of corn meal.

Of the above grain mixture, we fed Yeksa Sunbeam, during the
months of October, November and December, 15 pounds a day. We
reduced this by about 1 lb., feeding 14 lbs. a day, during January,
February, March and April. For the month of May, we reduced. her
feed to 12 lbs. of the mixture and, as we got her on to the grass, and
the grass improved in June, I think we reduced it still more. I find
that a report has been made that she was fed only 6 lbs. of grain a day
during June. I think 9 or ro lbs. would be more nearly corvect.
PLATE III (Fig. 47).—Pansy of Woodroffe (Ayrshire), No. 18,915.

 

 

 

 

Champion at National Dairy Show, Chicago. (Property of Geo. Wm. Ballou,
Middleton, N. Y.)

PLATE IV (Fig. 48).—Loretta D. (Jersey).

 

 
DAIRY COWS

173.

During July, August and September of this year, she was fed daily a

grain ration of the above mixture of 9 to 10 lbs.

All these grain

tations were fed in three meals, morning, noon and night.

RECORD OF THE BEST, POOREST AND AVERAGE COW IN EACH HERD FOR THE.
120 DAYS AT ST. LOUIS FAIR, I905.*

Brown Swiss,

Milk per day, Ibs,.—

Best cow....... No. 1-51.0

Poorest cow.... No. 3-38.5

Average cow... 44.2
Test of Milk—

Best cow...... : 3-4

Poorest cow.... 3.8

Average cow... 3.62
Butter fat per day, lbs.—

Best cow....... 1.748

Poorest cow.... 1.477

Average cow... 1.596
Butter per day, Ibs.—

Best cow...... . 2.042

Poorest cow.... 1.731

Average cow... 1.870

Solids-not-fat per day, Ibs.—

Best cow....... 4.363

Poorest cow.... 3.585

Average cow... 3-919
Feed cost of milk, per qt.t—

Best cow....... .O109

Poorest cow.... -O139

Average cow... -OL24

Feed cost of butter, per Ib.—

Best cow....... +136
Poorest cow.... -155
Average cow... -147
No. of cows in

herd ....... 5

Holstein.

No. 20-67.5
No. 7-47.1
53-4

3-5
3-2
43

Ge

wv

+355
507
-832

HoH

wv

+753

»
“I
n
An

«0090
.O122
-O107

+110
-164
135

15

Jersey.

No. 37-48.4
No. 36-38.8

41.5

4.8
4.1
4-7

2.334
1.615

1.936

2.750
1.898
2.28

4-357
3-441
3-634

-O110
,OIZ0
-O1L6

097
132
105

25

Shorthorn.

No. 63-43.4
No. 62-21.4
34.6

4.0
3-9
3:8

i

*737>
843.
1.277

°

2.037
0.988 .

1.495

3-720
1.902
-980

is)

-O109 .
-0215
«0132

-1I7
+234
153

28

* Illustrations and tables of records and rations from Daity Cow Demonstration, at.
Louisiana Purchase Exposition, 1905, Edited by Prof, E. H, Fusvington,

+ Assuming two pounds to the quart.
174 CLEAN MILK

ONE DAY'S RATION OF ONE COW IN EACH HERD AT ST. LOUIS FAIR, I905.

Brown

Feed in Pounds. Swiss. Holstein. Jersey, Shorthorn.
Alfalfa hayi.cscidec cece veces 7 — 18 9
Cut alfalfa hay................ — 15 6 -
Corn silage ........c eee eee ener _ - 16 24
Green cut corn............565- 40 15 _ _
Green COW peaS......-....00 : —_ 35 _ _—
Wheat bran.............. 0c eee —_ 2 3 4
Linseed (oil meal)............ — _ 2 2
Ground Oats.........eeeeeeeee _ _- 2.5 2
Hominy feed..........00e.000e 8 5 2.5 3
Gluten feed..............0000 _ _ 5.0 2
Corn meal..........e eee ee eee _ _ 1.5 -
Corn hearts.............00000- _ _ 2.5 2
Cottonseed meal.............. I I _- 2
Distiller’s grains.........-...4- _ — _— 4
Union grains..........eeeeeeee 15 14 _— —

Totalé coess Seneeceeae a1 87 59 54
Including grain ........... wae 24 22 19 21

Such records as these are probably a revelation to many a man
who has fed and milked cows for years. It is not customary to give
more than: five to ten pounds of grain per day to cows on the home
farms, and the majority of them probably get less than five pounds.
A capacity for assimilating large rations is necessary for producing
large quantities of milk.and butter, and most of these World’s Fair
cows were fed to their limit of endurance. A daily feeding per cow
of near twenty pounds of grain, together with thirty to sixty pounds
of green feed, was not uncommon, although there were some varia-
tions in the total amount during the 120 days of the test.

Dehorning Calves

It is now generally recognized that all milch cows should be
dehorned, to prevent injury to themselves (in tearing off a horn, etc.),
to other animals, to stables and to persons. As the operation of
removing the horns from grown animals is unpleasant, and detri-
mental for the time to the patient, the following simple method,
MANAGEMENT OF HAND SEPARATORS De

recommended by the English Board of Agriculture and found success-
ful in practice, should be followed in the treatment of calves:

‘*Clip the hair from the top of the horn, when the calf is from
two to five days old; slightly moisten the end of a stick of caustic
potash and rub the tip of each horn firmly for about one-quarter of a
minute, or until a slight impression has been made on the centre of
the horn. Repeat this two to four times at intervals of five minutes.
If a little blood appears in the centre of the horn, after one or more
applications, only one more slight rubbing with the potash will be
necessary.

‘The operation should not be performed on a calf over nine days
old. Caustic potash can be obtained from any druggist in the form of
a white stick (about as large as a pencil), and when not in use should
be kept in a glass stoppered bottle ina dry place. One man should
hold the calf while another uses the caustic. Roll a piece of tinfoil or
paper about the end of the stick of caustic to protect the fingers of the
operator from contact with it. Do not moisten the stick too much or
the caustic will spread around the horn and destroy the flesh. For
the same reason prevent the calf from wetting its head for several
days after the operation. Be careful to rub the caustic on the centre
of the horn and not around it. Caustic potash is a poison and must
be kept in a safe place.”

Management cf Hand Separators

There is no higher authority on dairy matters than Prof. E. H.
Farrington, of the University of Wisconsin Experiment Station, to
whom we have had the pleasure of referring on several occasions in
the previous pages. I can not do better than to quote the rules laid
down by him for the management of hand separators.

1. Place the separator on a firm foundation ina clean, well-ventilated room
where it is free from all offensive odors.

2. Thoroughly clean the separator after each skimming ; the bowl should be
taken apart and washed, together with all the tinware, every time the separator
is used; if allowed to stand for even one hour without cleaning there is danger
of contaminating the next lot of cream from the sour bowl. This applies to all
kinds of cream separators.

3. Wash the separator bow! and all tinware with cold water and then with
warm water, using a brush to polish the surface and clean out the seams and
176 CLEAN MILK

cracks ; finally scald with boiling water, leaving the parts of the bowl and tinware
to dry in some place where they will be protected from dust. Do not wipe the
bowl and tinware with a cloth or drying towel; heat them so hot with steam or
boiling water that wiping is unnecessary.

4. Rinse the milk receiving can and separator bowl with a quart or two of
hot water just before running milk into the separator.

5. Cool the cream as it comes from the separator, or immediately after, to a
temperature near 50° F. and keep it cold until delivered.

6. Never mix warm and cold cream or sweet and slightly tainted cream.

7. Provide a covered and clean water tank for holding the cream cans and
change the water frequently in the tank so that the temperature does not rise
above 60° F. A satisfactory arrangement may be made by allowing running
water to flow through the cream tank to the stock watering tank.

8. Skim the milk immediately after each milking, as it is more work to save
the milk and separate once a day, and less satisfactory, than skimming while the
milk is warm, since the milk must be heated again when saved until another
milking. o

g. Arich cream, testing 35 per cent. fat or more, is the most satisfactory to
both farmer and factory. The best separators willskim a rich cream as efficiently
as a thin cream and more skim milk is left on the farm when a rich cream is sold.

to. Cream should be perfectly sweet, containing no lumps or clots when
sampled and delivered to the haulers or parties buying it.

There is a good demand for sweet cream and a perfectly clean, sweet and
satisfactory cream can easily be supplied either to a retailer, an ice cream maker,
or a creamery by keeping clean the separator, tinware, strainer-cloth and water
tank, and the cream cold.

To Keep Records of Individual Cows.

Printed forms for making records* should be used. These con-
sist of single sheets of stiff paper which are ruled so as to permit of
keeping a record of the night’s and morning’s milk in pounds and
ounces for one month, and also supply space to note the average per
cent. of butter fat, if taken once or twice a month. One sheet may
be used for 10 or 20 to 30 cows according to the size ordered.

Each cow must be named or numbered to use these sheets. The
metal tags for insertion in the cow’s ear are most suitable for num-
bering. As soon as each cow is milked the milk is poured in a special
weighing pail and the weight is then recorded on the milk sheet. A
spring scale sold for the pnrpose is most convenient. This is arranged
so as to allow for the weight of the weighing pail in order that it will
not have to be subtracted from the total weight of pail and milk at
each weighing.

* Printed forms for keeping cow records are sold very cheaply by Hoard’s Dairyman, .
Fort Atkinson, Wis.
VALUE OF COWS 177

The milk is poured back from the weighing pail into the milk
pail, to mix it thoroughly, and a tablespoonful of the mixed milk is
poured into a half pint bottle containing one corrosive sublimate tablet
for preserving milk (to be had of any dairy supply company). The
bottle should be corked and a similar sample of night’s and morning’s
milk should be added to the bottle for three days to one week, the bottle
being shaken each time new samples of milk are poured into it. The
bottle is to be labelled with the cow’s name supplying the milk. The
milk in the bottle then represents that from a number of milkings
from the same cow and is called a composite sample. The composite
sample is tested for fat by the Babcock machine (see p. 144). The
night and morning milk of each cow ought to be weighed and
recorded at least once a week during the year and a fat test made from
a composite sample twice a month, in order to determine thoroughly
the value of a cow.

Value of Cows

I may be permitted to submit the following quotation in regard
to the value of a cow:

‘The basis of valuation as set forth by Prof. S. F. Cooley, of Vt.,.
is that a cow is worth, above what her carcass will fetch, the sum on
which her annual profit will pay six per cent. interest, two per cent.
taxes and insurance, twenty-five per cent. depreciation, or thirty-three
per cent. total.

‘‘ Twenty-five per cent. depreciation means a sinking fund which
will pay for the animal in four years, and presupposes the average
period of usefulness to be four years. On this basis, we get the fol-
lowing results in regard to the values of cows of different grades:

Annual pro- Value of

ductlbs, milk at $1.50 Cost of Value of
Kind of Cow, milk, per cwt. feed, Profit, cow.
Average........... 3,000 $45 $45 foo foo
Fait. icsaw seus cess 5,000 75 50 25 75
Good......5.2. 000 7,000 105 60 44 135
Choice ..........0. 10,000 150 75 75 225
Pietertje II......... 30,000 450 100 350 1,050

‘‘Asa business proposition, the difference in value here repre-
sented appears correct. But the market does not-so rate them. A
1 e Eee MILK ‘

she sunk: $5 more than she had brought. An’ avérage ‘cow is worth
what her carcass will fetch, and no more. A fair cow costs $35 to $4o
and leaves her “buyer $50 to the’ good, in four | years. A-good cow
costs $50, and you double on investment the first year. “A choice cow
costs $75,'and° co is the amount of her annual profit. '-Piétertje II
is worth $1,000.’ ee Toast

Plans of Barns and Milk Rooms

_ In the following pages will be found illustrated and described the
stables and milk rooms of two farms supplying clean milk to Seattle,
Washington.

The first farm is owned by J. D. Farrell, Esq., and is not con-
ducted solely for profit or the support of its owner and may be regarded
as one type of plant. The otheris owned by W. H. Paulhamus, Esq.,
of Sumner, Wash. Mr. Paulhamus was. the. first to attempt to supply
Seattle with clean milk and is shipping s some’ thousand quarts a day
from his own and three neighboring farms... “His ‘arrangements for
handling the milk are therefore adap a to earing: for:a a
quantity. ‘ :

Mr. Farrell’sstable for 40 cows has a floor, manure trench and feed-
ing gutter of concrete with cement finish. The cows face toward a
central feeding aisle.- Behind the manure trench there is a walk five feet
wide to the side of the building. The manure trench is. eighteen
inches wide. ‘The léngth of ‘the stalls is—from.the front edge‘of the
manure trench to that of- the feeding gutter—six and: oné-half feet.
The width of the stalls is thirty-nine inches for some, and‘ forty-three
inches for others, to accommodate. Jerseys aid -Holsteitis... The feed-
ing aisle in front of the cattle is nine feét wide. "The feeding gutter
is also used for watering” each time before feeding, when the water is
let out. The height of the stable, on. ene sides, is seven feet four

ig SRI

white. The gutters for manure slope Mcp six to ten inches deep at
Cbs ‘Tlss2e,g ‘q *[) ‘alqeys Sarmogg

 

 

“A ALVIG
PLANS OF BARNS AND MILK ROOMS 179

the lower end, and drain into pipes carried a considerable distance to 2
lower level than the stable.

Stalls.—The rear portion of each side of each stall is a gate. This
gate is hinged and fastened as shown in plate. The dimensions of the
gate are twenty-eight inches from top to bottom, and forty-four inches
wide, and the lower edge is sixteen inches from the floor. The sta-
tionary front part of the side of each stall is thirty-four inches wide
and fifty inches high, from top to floor. Its lower edge is ten inches
from the floor, in the rear part, and two inches above the gutter for
feeding in front. The feeding and watering gutter, of cement, is

Fig. 45.

|) ML __—§ EEL LETELEEZ LLEILEZ

Boiler. 19° is 10°
©) N ~ Office.

[séerivser| |
re Milk Room:

Wash G| Wash foom. \
Bowls. © & eS ‘ Shipping! 7

: R :
Lavatory (ga¢) = ee
Tub.

 

 

 

 

YA
y
7}
Oz

 

Sketch Showing Ground Plan of Milk House Owned by J. D. FARRELL, Esq.,
Renton, Washington.

eight inches deep and one foot wide. The gates forming the front of
each stall are forty-two inches in their perpendicular measurement.
They are adjustable and affixed to the top and sides of the stall by
small chains with hooks on the end.

For the larger cows, the upper part of the gate may be tipped
forward and fastened to an extension of the top rod forming the side
of the stall (see Plate V). In the case of the smaller cows, the top of
the gate is tipped backward toward the manure trench, crowding the
cow back so as to make her stand on the edge of the manure trench
(see Plate V).

The milk from the stable is brought into the wash room and is
hoisted onto a raised platform and poured into a strainer marked (i),
1

¥

180 CLEAN MILK

‘from which elevation it flows into a funnel and conducting tube through:

the wall into the collecting tank for the Star cooler (2) and cream
cooler (3). From this collecting tank a tube also supplies the separa-
tor (4), see Plate . The raised platform shown in Plate VI was a
mistake, as it should have been lowered so far as would permit a man
standing.on it to pour the milk into the strainer shown. It is much
too high, and the platform—instead of requiring a ladder—would have
only required a few steps leading up to it. The tank under the plat-
form was intended to hold cracked ice, on which water was to be
sprayed for supplying the ice water section of the Star cooler in sum-
mer. But this was found unnecessary, asa cask could be placed on
the floor containing a coil of pipe to cool the water as described on
p. 82. The numbers (5) and (6 in the milk room are supposed to.
represent the bottle filling apparatus for milk and cream shown in
plate. The bottles, when filled, are kept over night in a series of”
tanks, one over the other (7), as water is had from a neighboring
spring at a temperature of 46 deg. F. to fill the tanks. The bottles.
ate shipped on ice in galvanized iron cases. The empty bottles.
are delivered on the elevated piazza platform,-in front of the wash
room, and the bottles and all the milk utensils are washed, put in
the sterilizer and taken out through the other door in the milk room
when it is desired to use them. The milk room is only connected
(with one door) with the shipping room and is ventilated by a system
similar to that recommended for barns. The floors of all the rooms in
the milk house are of cement, and the walls of cement-plaster, covered
with many coats of white enamel paint. The cement-plaster is laid on
wooden laths and the construction of the building is of wood. It is
steam heated in the lavatory and wash room. ‘The climate is very
mild hereabouts and rarely gets much below freezing.

Sketches of the barn and milk house owned by W. H. Paulhamus,
Esq., are reproduced here with the hope that they may prove of prac-
tical value to those intending to handle clean milk on a considerable.
scale for profit.

The barn (Plate IX) is built of wood and ceiled within with.
smooth, matched boards (shiplap) painted with cold water white
paint. ‘The space between the outer and inner boarding of the walls:
is filled in with sawdust. The inside of the barn is eleven feet high,
Cbs ‘T1971e, ‘a “f) ‘e1qeIS ZuLMOAS

 

 

‘IA BLVIg
(bs ‘[lesret ‘q ‘f[) ‘woosqsemy, Surmoyg

 

 
 

 
 

 

 

 

 

 

‘UA Siva
*Cbsyq ‘Tre218,I ‘q “[) mooy ATW Sarmoyg

 

 

 

 

 

‘IIIA SL Ig
‘ogi ‘d vas ‘nordiosap 10,J "poo uo Zurd4] SMOd ay} ‘[[B}S MOD 9} JO JOOY aq} UO seyOUT g A[UO
PollTed st JueM|d sy, “PIVMJNO SuToey sod ayy} ‘s][e}s Mod aq} JO Ivar oy} WIIMJoq S19}jnS pue Ad[[e JUsMIED smoys Ydessoj0yd ony,

 

 

‘uieYy snueq[ned aq} Jo JolIajuU[— "XJ ALWId
PLANS OF BARNS AND MILK ROOMS 181

which is higher than is generally permissible with the King system of
ventilation to prevent loss of animal heat.
The climate is, however, extremely mild, the temperature seldom

dropping much below freezing in winter hereabouts. ‘The King system

is nevertheless followed; there being ten inlets, between ten windows

Fig. 46.

,OOr <——

2

10--

 

“Rough Sketch of Ground Plan of Barn for Forty Cows, W. H. PAuLHaAmus, Esq.,

Sumner, Washington.

(10) on each side of the barn, near the ceiling. These openings are

_six by six inches, and bring the air in shafts between the layers of the

walls of the building from a point outside near the ground. The.

-windows in the sides of the barn are three and one-half feet square,
-and between them in the sketch may be seen lines (No. 8) showing
‘the point of entrance of the inlets for fresh air.

_ The shafts for outlet of air are in the opposite corners of the
182 : CLEAN MILK

building (7) and are two feet square with openings at the floor of
the same dimensions.

One special feature is the arrangement of the cement which covers
the whole floor, except as noted. The entire floor slopes about one
foot from.one end of the building, so, while the gutters are the same
depth, this permits of a flow for drainage. The cows face the outside
of the building and the floor of their stalls is of two inch matched,
planed Oregon pine, except for a strip of cement eight inches wide on
the side of the gutter (6) on which the hind feet of the animal rest.
All the rest of the floor back of the cows is of concrete with cement
finish, while the side aisles in front of the cattle are of wood, like the
floor of the stalls. ‘The cows do not have the slippery, cold, cement
floor to lie (or fall) upon, which Mr. Paulhamus believes an improve-
ment over an entire cement floor. The stalls are shown in Plate IX.
There are so many kinds of stalls that it is impossible to say which is
the best, but these are simple, inexpensive and satisfactory, as soon as.
the cows get used to them.

At one end of the barn are several rooms. One (1) is intended
for keeping supplies, as baled hay, roots and grain in sacks, etc. One
on the opposite side is a wash room with sink and hot and cold water:
(B), and a sheet iron stove (A) for wood with a coil of pipe inside to.
heat water (see p. 85). ‘There is also a closet (¢d) for keeping the
milking clothes. ‘The next room (3) is a rather novel arrangement of
the owner and assuredly deserves attention.

This room has no connection with the inside of the barn, except
by a tube for conveying milk at C. Here may be found a pair of
steps which each milker ascends the moment he fills the pail. The
milk is poured into a sterile tin funnel which carries it onto a Star
cooler*, from which it falls, immediately cooled, into a can. The
can, when full, is taken to the milk house (Fig. 47) some 200 feet
away.

The room (3) is reached from outside the barn and—with screened,
door and window, and smooth, clean, painted walls and ceiling, and

*The milk flows from the funnel (which is in the open central aisle of the
barn) through the wall, which separates it from room 3, and in that room falls on

the cooler.
“bgi ‘d aas ‘uondriosap J0.J ‘Moor 311} jnoge pazazquos Sutaq mo.y ‘s31130q aq} Jo apIs}zno at} Surserds
‘r07eM oq} S}uaaod syuey aq} Jo doy uo pooy [ejour ay ‘aanjord ox} UT ees se ‘sUIYORU ay} JO FSI au9sj]X9 OY} Je Jno Suym0o pure yyaz
dW121}Xa 94} UO SuLIeqUe “yoeI} w UO YSnory} peysnd are sej}j0q AI ey, “arey snmeq[neg 34} 38 sulyORM SuIyseM-a]}}0q Sulmoyg

 

 

 

 

‘'X ALWIg
PLANS OF BARNS AND MILK ROOMS 183

cement floor—makes a good place for immediate cooling of the milk.
The horizontal ceiling of the barn leaves much space in the roof, in
which grain is stored. The grain is brought down in spouts to the
bins at (2) and hay could be delivered from the loft above in the
room (1) without causing any dust in the barn. The ceiling of the
barn is absolutely dust tight with double floor and paper between.
The barn is one hundred by thirty-five feet inside; the centre

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 47.
lie a Be OE
A Iceffouse. Mille Room.
EX ==") 10 J lazt bs
Milk r
18 [gceimne el

4E ©) CO Wash Room.

ve |

4
Lo Nl

Rough Sketch of Ground Plan of Milk House. W. H. Pautuamus, Esq.,
Sumner, Washington.

 

— 26" ‘Sy

—_— /6°-

=.22%

 

 

 

 

 

aisle eight feet, and gutters eighteen inches wide. ‘The side aisles are
five and one-half feet wide.

Box stalls for sick cows, or cows about to calve, are in another
building.

The buildings used for the milk rooms (Fig. 47) proper were
altered for their present purpose and were situated farther from the
barn than is necessary or desirable.

A sketch of the ground plan of the milk house is shown
in Fig. 47.

The floors of the milk room and wash room are of concrete with
184 CLEAN MILK

cement finish, boarded inside with planed, matched boards (walls and
ceiling), painted white and ventilated after the King system. ‘The
space between the inner and outer layer of the walls is stuffed with
sawdust and the rooms are very high-studded (fourteen feet). The
sterilizer (8) is wholly of concrete, which is described on p. 91, and,
if the buildings had not been already built before they were put to
their present use, it is probable that the most convenient place for the
sterilizer would have been in the wall between the wash and milk
rooms, as in Mr. Farrell’s (Plates VII, VIII). The sterilizer is supplied
with steam from the 20-horse power boiler (6) in the wash room.

This sterilizer is an original feature introduced by Mr. Paulhamus
and works beautifully. It is of enormous size (see p. g1 and Plate XI)
and very inexpensive, costing some $80. Incoldclimates it would have
to beinside the building as suggested above. Another novel feature is
the washing machine shown as (No. 12) in the sketch in the wash room.
This was patented after its introduction at Mr. Paulhamus’s farm and
now sold by The Chas. H. Lilly Co., of Seattle. The machine con-
sists of four tanks, a, 6, andc,dande. Ina, is held warm water, in
5 and «¢, is contained alkali and warm water, and in d, is plain warm
water. ‘The three lines (g) running lengthwise in the sketch, through
the middle of the machine, represent three pipes running over the top
of the tanks. These pipes are perforated with holes which are placed
so as to correspond with the opening in each milk bottle when the
bottles are inverted on wooden trays. Each wooden tray is made of
slats which, in crossing, leave holes fitting the neck of an inverted milk
bottle. The trays holds twenty-four bottles in three rows, so that
when the tray is slid in place on top of the machine, each row of bot-
tles is over one of the three pipes in the centre of the machine, and
each bottle is inverted over one of the perforations in the pipes. On
one side of the machine are three rotary pumps (/) worked by the
engine at (7). These continually pump water from the tanks into the
the pipes, from which it is forced out in jets into the interior of each
inverted milk bottle. ‘The water then runs out of the bottles back
into the tank over which the bottles are resting. The pipe shown on
either side of the top of the machine at (%) is perforated with holes
from which water is thrown over and cieans the outside of the bottles
as they are pushed through the machine.
Prate XI.

* eee)

Mn)

 

 

This photograph shows the interior of the large all-concrete and cement
sterilizer at the Paulhamus farm. The door is of iron. All the dairy utensils
which come in contact with milk in any way are put in this chamber and kept
at 212° F for one hour daily. For description, see p, 91,
PLANS OF BARNS AND MILK ROOMS ‘185

The method of working is as follows: A tray holding twenty-
four inverted bottles is placed on the top of the machine over the tank
(a). The warm water in the central pipes is pumped up through the
holes in the pipes into each bottle, thus rinsing it out. Another tray
being pushed into the machine shoves the first tray over tank (6).
Here the interior of the bottles is sprayed with lye and water. The
introduction of another tray moves the first tray over the tank (¢).
The tank (¢) is really one with (4), the bottles here merely draining
back into the tank again, no water being pumped into them. Another
tray being placed in the machine pushes the first tray to (¢). Here
the bottles are rinsed with plain warm water to remove the lye, and,
at (e), boiling water is injected instead of water to sterilize (for one
minute) the bottles. About 1,500 bottles may be washed in one hour by
this labor-saving device. The bottles must, however, be washed by hand.
if they contain old milk and have not been previously rinsed by the
milk consumer. Also, one minute sterilization* is not sufficient and
they must go for one hour’s sterilization in the large sterilizer, when
certified milk is desired. The water is heated by steam from the
boiler (6) which runs the engine. A metal hood covers the whole top
of the washing machine to prevent the escape of the water which is
thrown from the pipes on each side over the exterior of the bottles,
The machine with pumps costs about $200, and is sixteen feet long
_and twenty-six inches wide (see Plate X).

The platform (13) and floor of the milk-receiving room are some
fifty inches from the ground. In the milk-receiving room at (9) is a
raised platform three feet from the floor on which are scales holding a
large milk-receiving tank in which is a Star trap strainer. After the
milk is weighed it is run from a faucet into a funnel, conducting the
milk through the wall, into a tank (10) holding some one hundred
gallons, and from thence is drawn off into the Star bottle filling tank
(11). The milk is cooled, as described, at the barn (p. 182), and the
water supplying the Star cooler is cooled in summer by running it
through a coil of pipe in a cask of ice water (see p. 82).

 

* It is perfectly possible to sterilize milk bottles absolutely, if boiling water is
pumped into the bottles for a longer time, as shown by bacteriological examina-
tions of bottles washed by similar machines. The exhaust steam from the engine
may he used to heat water to boiling point.
186 CLEAN MILK

A sketch of the cow stall used by Mr. Paulhamus is shown in
Fig. 48.

The floor has been described (p. 182) as consisting of cement for
eight inches in front of the gutter and (forward of this point) of two.
inches kiln-dried, planed, tongued and grooved Oregon pine. ‘The:
dimensions are marked in the sketch, but the length of the stalls vary

Fig. 48.

 

 

 

 

Side and Rear View of Stall in Cow Stable of W. H. PautHamus, Esq.,
Sumner, Washington.

from four and one-half feet to five feet long, from the gutter to the
manger, to accommodate cows (Jerseys) of different sizes. The floorof
the stall slopes some three inches from front to rear. ‘The stalls begin
four and one-half feet long at one end of the stable and gradually
lengthen till they are five feet long at the other end. Each side of
stall is really a gate opening toward the right, to give more room to
the milker and groomer, when open. They could of course be hung
om hinges so as to swing in either direction.
Prate XII.—The improved ‘'Drown” Stall.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

View shows cement mangers and floors fitted with iron stalls having two-way
movable partitions, ,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The Drown Stall is one of the best made and is an improvement over either
stall shown in that the side gates give more room to the attendant and open in
either direction sideways and also upward. The raised feeding trench and hay
rack are good features.

The stall is patented and sold by M. L. Drown, of Madison, Wis. It is in
use by some of the agricultural experiment stations and leading dairy farmers
of this country.
PASTEURIZED MILK 187

The gates are fastened with a wooden sliding bolt (not shown).
The bottom of the rear posts may (for the lower eighteen inches)
consist of galvanized iron pipe set below in the cement and above in
the wooden scantling, for the sake of cleanliness. At the rear of the
stall is seen a chain which is attached to rings in the post, on either
side of the stall, by means of snap hooks. The manger has two com-
partments, the lower for grain, and the upper or forward being for
hay—with a sliding rack between the two which may be removed or
lifted a little to clean out the floor of the manger. (Sometimes the
whole manger, arranged with sides reaching to the floor of the stable,
is made movable so that it may be adjusted to the length of the cow
and locked by pegs fitting in the side posts.) The cross-piece at (C) is
necessary to keep the cows from pressing forward and climbing over
the manger. It must be adjusted somewhat to the height of the cow.
This stall is convenient and inexpensive as compared to the iron stalls
(Plates V and VI). There is nothing on the floor of the stable to col-
lect dirt, as the manger does not touch the floor, but is eight inches.
above it.

Pasteurized Milk.

Milk is now thought to be truly a living fluid for some time after
leaving the cow—unless it is killed by pasteurization. Pasteurized or
dead milk is known to be less digestible and nutritious than clean,
raw milk. ‘The basis of this statement is as follows: Babies fed con-
tinuously on pasteurized milk are very apt to develop anemia, mal-
nutrition, scurvy or rickets—the latter serious disorders dependent
upon improper nutrition. Obstinate constipation is likewise generally
seen in infants reared upon pasteurized milk. ‘The same conditions are
observed in calves which are fed exclusively upon pasteurized milk.
They fail to gain properly in weight and suffer from under-development.

Heating milk coagulates to some extent its albumin, renders the
milk less coaguable by rennet in the stomach, and destroys the enzymes.
or ferments of milk. All these results account for its lessened digesti-
bility.

It has been shown that the poisonous waste-products, developed
in the growth of germs in dirty milk, are not destroyed by pasteuriza-
tion. As, for example, the special poisons arising from those types of
188 CLEAN MILK

germs (colon bacilli) conveyed to milk in cow manure. Moreover,
while the milk may. appear by examination to be apparently free from
germs after thorough pasteurization, what of the myriads of dead bodies
of germs killed by the process which may remain in the milk! A
milk contractor in Boston sent out a laboratory report on his milk to
show that before pasteurization it contained seven million germs to the
quarter teaspoonful of milk and only a thousand after the process.

Another serious objection to the use of pasteurized milk is the
fact that its condition can not readily be discovered by ordinary tests.
The lactic acid bacilli, being easily killed by heat, pasteurized milk
may not show acidity or change in taste or appearance and yet be
wholly unfit for food owing to the existence of millions of germs which
do not éause the milk to change but are prejudicial to health.

The following method promises better than any yet known for the
safe sterilization of milk.

Budde’s Process for Sterilizing Milk.—Fifteen c.c. (or one table-
spoonful) of three per cent. solution of hydrogen peroxide are added
to each quart of milk in bulk, as soon after milking as possible, and
the milk is then heated to 51 deg. to 52 deg. C. (123.8 deg. to 125.6
deg. F.) for three hours. By this method the oxygen in the hydrogen
peroxide is liberated by an enzyme in the milk (catalase), with the aid
of the heat, and the nascent oxygen acts as an efficient germicide.
All the non-spore bearing micro-organisms are killed—including all
disease germs—except those of anthrax. In fact, 99.9 per cent. of the
germs in milk are destroyed by this method and nothing is left in the
milk but a little water which is too small in quantity to alter the com-
position of milk appreciably.

The milk is unaltered in odor, taste or appearance, and the
cream rises as usual while no trace of peroxide remains. Milk thus
treated will, moreover, keep unchanged in warm weather for eight to
ten days.

This process seems to solve the question of treating dirty milk
when clean milk can not be procured, and would appear to be of inesti-
mable benefit in the preparation of infant’s milk when of uncertain
quality, and for keeping such milk to be used by an infant during a

considerable journey.
Prate XIII. — The Burrell-Lawrence-Kennedy Cow Milker.

 

 

The plate shows the main iron piping above the stanchions connected by
rubber tubing with the pulsators placed on top of each milk pail between each
two cows. *

 

PLATE XIV.— The Pulsator.
MILKING MACHINES 189:.

Milking Machines.

The milking machine, together with the single service paper milk
bottle, bid fair to practically revolutionize the methods of producing
clean milk,

If these two inventicns prove as valuable as they promise, the
whole question of clean milk production will be solved. The milk
will be obtained nearly sterile and be immediately cooled and run into
sterile bottles. The status of the milking machine seems stilla matter
of some uncertainty with every indication of a successful future. The
machine we will describe appears to be one of the most efficient
and has been in operation for some years. At present it is being used
by the leaders in the dairy industry, as by the Walker-Gordon people
and H. B. Gurler.

The Burrell-Lawrence-Kennedy Cow Milker comprises the
following :

1. A vacuum pump operated by power, steam, electric motor, |
gas engine, tread mill (bull), a head of water over thirty feet, etc.

2. One inch iron piping connecting the vacuum pump with a
vacuum tank, supplied with guage and safety valve, and thence
about the barn for attachment to the milkers.

3. Lhe Milkers.—A milker consists of a milk pail (heavy enough
to withstand a vacuum), on which is placed a pulsator, which in its
turn is connected with one-half inch rubber tubing to four teat cups
fitted on the teats of the cow.

The vacuum is about equal to one-half an atmosphere, fifteen
to seventeen inches, and the vacuum tank is connected with the
system to insure a uniform, safe and known suction. ‘The pulsator
(Plate XIV) is the salient feature of this machine. It rests on top.
of the milk pail, to which it fits tightly as soon as the exhaust is turned
on, because of atmospheric pressure and because it rests on a rubber -
gasket. The pulsator is connected with the iron pipes which run
along over the stanchions (Plate XIII) by one-half inch rubber tubing
fitted to the nipple at its base. The two stop-cocks, seen in the plate
of the pulsator, are each connected with rubber tubes, one taking the -
190 CLEAN MILK

milk from the four teats of a cow on one side, and the other from the
cow to the other side of the pulsator.

When the machine is in operation the cow’s udder is cleaned, the
teat cups (of five sizes) are adjusted, and a milk pail—placed between
each two cows—is surmounted by a pulsator attached by rubber tub-
ing, both to the iron piping above, and to the teats of the cows on
each side (Plate X11). That is, each milker (milk pail, pulsator, rubber
connections and teat cups) is capable of milking two cows at the same
time.

A stop-cock is turned and the suction applied by the pulsator to
the cow’s teats. By this mechanism there is exerted intermittently
not only suction but also compression on the outside of the teat, simu-
lating the action produced in hand milking. Glass windows in the
tubing leading from the teats inform the operator as to the flow of
milk. Most cows do not object to the use of the machine.

This machine will practically prevent the initial contamination of
milk, and will render the production of clean milk more simple and
easy than by any method heretofore known: ‘The rubber tubing,
through which the milk passes, can be sterilized and made free of
germs by boiling or by steam and is kept in brine. The pulsator and
milk pail can be cleaned readily by the use of boiling water or
steam.

As a labor-saver the device enables one man to do four men’s
work. One man can operate three or four milkers at once, each milk-
ing two cows at the same time, which means that he can milk thirty
to forty cows an hour. With hand-milking this number of cows
would require the work of four men for one hour.

Moreover, the results are much more uniform, and daily variations
in milk-yield, depending on the persoxality of the milker, are
eliminated.

The difficulties in keeping milkers and the disastrous results from
frequent change of milkers are also removed by the machine.

Cost.—The expensive parts of the milking machine are the
imilkers and the vacuum pump, each of these costing $75 apiece. This
pump is capable of operating five milkers. The entire cost of the
installation, power and milking machines is estimated by the sellers
MILKING MACHINES Igl-

to amount to about $12.00 per cow for a herd of forty cows, and $8.50
per cow for a herd of seventy-five.*

With accumulating experience, the results obtained by the use of
the Burrell-Lawrence-Kennedy milking machine appear to be gener-
-ally favorable.

The more common doubts as to the amenability of cows to the
milking machine, and the danger of drying up cows from incomplete
emptying of the udder, have been dispelled. Cows hitherto unruly to
hand milking, and heifers never milked before, have taken most
kindly to the machine, and, on the whole, cows like machine milking
better than hand milking.

Hand stripping—after the removal of the teat cups—is done,
generally, into the teat cups themselves. Cows which are milked by
the machine have a longer period of lactation than when milked by
hand.

What appeared a serious objection to the milking machine was
the complaint that the milk of single cows could not be separated from
that of the herd—in case it was contaminated with blood or pus and
germs from an inflamed udder; or the milk was needed for feeding a
calf; or for making a periodical test for quantity and fat. Gurler
has obviated this defect by having the pail of one machine divided
into two compartments, one for each cow, and provided with corres-
ponding outlets from which the milk from each cow can be drawn.
Garget, and all troubles with the udder, are less frequent with the
milking machine—probably because the teats are not so subject to
abrasions and infection from other cows by the hands of the milker.

Mr. H. B. Gurler, of Illinois, one of the most noted dairymen of
this country—writing in Hoard’s Dairyman—says that in thirty com-
parative tests between hand and machine milking, the number of
bacteria was reduced one-half by the machine—irom 5,000 to 2,500
perc.c. After fourteen months’ use of the Burrell-Lawrence-Kennedy
machine with two hundred cows he found but two or three cows
which could not be milked by it; he gives it his unqualified approba-
tion and affirms that it has come to stay.

* For details consult D. H. Burrell & Co., Little Falls, N. Y., and Brock-
ville, Ont.
“192 CLEAN MILK

Gurler states that one man with the machine is equal to three:
hand milkers ; that no difficulty was experienced in keeping the appara-
tus clean by the use of rinsing in cold water, a solution of lye, and.
boiling water; and that great care should be taken in accurately
fitting each teat cup to each individual teat. He warns against com-
pletely filling the milk pails, lest milk be drawn into the vacuum
pipes, and emphasizes the necessity of a uniform vacuum. If a teat
cup pulls off or any accident occurs which reduces the vacuum, the
machines should be shut off till the proper vacuum is secured.
And when one of a pair of cows attached to a machine is milked
before the other, the vacuum should be shut off from that cow, at
the machine, and the machine kept running until the other cow is.

milked.

The Hegelund Method.—Extensive experiments with this method.
of manipulating the udder at the close of milking have been conducted
by Woll at the University of Wisconsin Agricultural Station,* on one:
hundred and fifty cows during a summer and fall, and have proved its.
advantages to be as follows:

A daily gain of one pound of milk, and one-tenth pound of fat
per cow was obtained. This is equivalent toa gain of about thirty-
five pounds of butter per cow per annum.

Most cows do not object to the manipulation ; less than a dozen.
out of the number tested did so.

The gain in quantity of milk and fat is not a temporary iucrease ;
not only is the gain persistent, but the method tends to maintain a
large flow of milk during the lactation period.

The method taking the place of stripping, there is no loss of time -
in performing it.

The use of the method develops the milk-yield of heifers, and has
even doubled that of cows which have been supposed to have reached
their maximum flow of milk. It increases the fat in the milk so that.
the yield from this method contains ten per cent. of fat. It is of great.
value in preventing mastitis during the early period of lactation.

* Univ. Wis. Agric. Sta, Bull, No. 96.
Prate XY. (Illustrating the Hegelund method of milking.)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fic. 1.—First manipulation of udder,
right quarters,

 

 

 

Fic. 2.—First manipulation, left quarters.

 

 

 

 

 

Fic 4.—Second manipulation,
right hind quarter.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

%
a ee rede

 

 

 

Fic. 5.—Second manipulation, ‘
right hind quarter, rear view. hi

Fic, 6,—Third manipulation,
MILKING MACHINES 193

As the method has been adopted by some of the most progressive
farmers in Denmark, and this country it is well worthy of trial and is
herewith described.

DESCRIPTION OF THE MANIPULATIONS IN THE HEGELUND METHOD
OF MILKING.

Férst Manipulation.— The right quarters of the udder are pressed
against each other (if the udder is very large, only one-quarter at a
time is taken) with the left hand on the hind quarter and the right
hand in front on the fore quarter, the thumbs being placed on the out-
side of the udder and the four fingers in the division between the two
halves of the udder. The hands are now pressed toward each other
and at the same time lifted toward the body of the cow. ‘This press-
ing and lifting is repeated three times, the milk collected in the milk
cistern is then milked out, and the manipulation repeated until no
more milk is obtained in this way, when the left quarters are treated
in the same manner. (See Plate XV, Figs. 1 and 2.)

Second Manipulation.—The glands are pressed together from the
side. ‘The fore quarters are milked each by itself by placing one hand,
with fingers spread, on the outside of the quarter and the other hand
in the division between the right and left fore quarters: the hands
are pressed against each other and the teat then milked. When no
more milk is obtained by this manipulation, the hind quarters are
milked by placing a hand on the outside of each quarter, likewise with
fingers spread and turned upward, but with the thumb just in front
of the hind quarter, ‘The hands are lifted and ‘grasp into the gland
from behind and from the side, after which they are lowered to draw
the milk. The manipulation is repeated until no more milk is obtained.
(See Plate XV, Figs. 3-5.) .

Third Manipulation.—The fore teats are grasped with partly closed
hands and lifted with a push toward the body of the cow, both at the
same time, by which method the glands are pressed between the hands
and the body ; the milk is drawn after each three pushes. When the
fore teats are emptied, the hind teats are milked in the same manner,
(See Plate XV, Fig. 6.)

+
194 CLEAN MILF

Standardizing Milk

It may be desirable to produce a milk standardized to contain a
fixed and constant percentage of fat. This is particularly important
for infant feeding. Or one may wish to supply a milk of unusual and
definite richness ; or again one may want to combine two lots of cream
of different fat percentages to obtain a cream of definite percentage.

A very simple method of determining what amount of any given
two lots of milk or cream, varying in richness, is required for combina-
tion to obtain a milk or cream of definite fat percentage is given
below. ‘This method of standardizing milk was devised by Prof.
R. A. Pearson, of Cornell University.

One should construct a figure like the accompanying cut, and in the

47, b

4
BY of

‘

two left hand corners write the percentages of fat in the two lots of
milk (or cream and milk, or two lots of cream, as the case may be).

In the centre, place the percentage of fat required. At the right
hand corners write numbers which will be the differences between two
numbers with which they stand in line.

Thus: If 4.7 and 3.4 are the percentages of fat in two lots of
milk—and it is desired to make a mixture containing four per cent. of
fat—subtract 4 from 4.7 and place the result (.7) at the lower right
hand corner. Subtract 3.4 from 4 and place the result (.6) at the
upper right hand corner.

The result shows that it will take six parts of 4.7 per cent. milk,
and seven parts of 3.4 per cent, milk, to make a standard four per
cent. milk,
STABLE VENTILATION 198

A New Method of Stable Ventilation.

Quite recently there has come into existence a new system of
ventilating barns by means of windows covered with cheap cotton
cloth. No method could be simpler or less expensive and the results
thus far reported have been very favorable.

Thus Ellis M. Santee, of the Dairy Department of Washington,
D. C., writing in Hoard’s Dairyman of May 17th, 1907, records some
conclusions from exhaustive experiments with cloth ventilation as
compared with the King system. He affirms that even with the
thermometer registering 43 degrees below (zero, presumably), water
never froze in the barn with cloth-covered windows. Also that the
difference in temperature in barns with cloth-covered windows and in
those with all glass windows was but 1 to 3 degrees. Moreover, in the
stables ventilated with cloth-covered windows, the humidity was 7 to
to per cent. lower than in the barns ventilated by the King system.
Finally he records the fact that many good dairymen have closed the
outlets and inlcts of their King system to give place to the cloth
curtain method. Glass windows should be alternated with cloth-
covered openings, the proportion being 3 sq. ft. of glass and 2 sq. ft.
of cloth-covered openings for each 1,000 Ibs. of animal. ‘The cloth
should be muslin of the first grade better than cheesecloth, costing 5
to 6 cents par yard. ,

Method of Keeping Accounts of the Pure
Milk Dairy

(See the following three forms.)

I

MAPLEWOOD FARM
Daily Milk Report
eeecosesccvcsces te slQO7
Empty cases received last train. .........-
Bottles short last train . 1 6 0 eee eeeeee
Bottles broken when received . ......-60-
Bottles broken at farm. 2 6 0) saceuveeee
Cases milk shipped to-day, 0 0 terrrrreesBtGeeeeveres Qts,
196

CLEAN MILE

™~.

Explanation.—The foregoing report is signed by the manager at

the farm.

It shows the number of empty cases (holding 12 quart

bottles) received from the city and the number of bottles broken and

missing in them,

Also the number of full cases shipped to the city,

 

 

 

  

II
DFVEE isiochuinswseebvsedd anae esas ens
Route No. .....eeeee
MILK RECEIVED CASH ACCOUNT
Received from..... Siaeniass Ry | Parp on Account
Milk Cream eee e eee ree ser ees $ soe seen °
Quarts Gals. Pints K Pints OOo ee ees e nen en eens see eneee
DELIVERED Prem ee ewer cere nee cee sseee
Mik fn ene eee cee ee
Quarts.ccccccee | ttt ttt tee tenons spank se
Cream ii tn eee wists 7
Pints........ hese. || seetwesedeeeed has sachets
V6 Pints wise ccssines PAID FOR TICKETS
Seenes | aero DS iave ae
Mal Ai Milt pee eer reat ca nt AS
Quarteicnriecee | sees le Qultislamasnar garsuuete
Cream: hints! Saten' lataan etal tits
Pints...... iz
KPintg | ttt et teste eee eee eees s
Bottles Delivered ............ Cash Receipts. .$....... P
Bottles Returned........0.. T Ota ever Baccas ee

 

4

This blank is filled out daily by the driver of each delivery wagon.

and represents, first, the amount of milk and cream received from.....
railway; second, the amount of milk and cream delivered to customers ;
third, the amount of the same brought back to the store; fourth, the
bottles delivered to and returned by customers; and fifth, the cash
paid for accounts due or tickets,
METHOD OF KEEPING ACCOUNTS 197

III.

   
    
  
  

Pa.

Total

Bal.

. Pts. %Pt. Total |

r23483 678 FONNBHDSBENBINNNARBwMBBWBDWM HA

14 CEDAR STREET

JOHN SMITH

3
a

This form represents a loose card, one of which is devoted to each
customer for a year. The day’s sales of the drivers of the milk
wagons are copied off their books each day and kept in the office of
the city, dairy in this form,
198 CLEAN MILK

A General Outline of a Schere for the Control,
Supervision and Inspection of a
City Milk Supply

The legal control of a city milk supply is in the hands of the
City Board of Health. The State Board of Health should, however,
work in cooperation with the City Board through its jurisdiction over
the territory from which the milk is obtained. When the milk is
drawn from several states this is, of course, of but slight value.
Moreover, state supervision is not essential, since the city authorities
can enforce sufficient influence over the producer of unsanitary milk
in the following ways: By condemning such when it arrives in the
city ; by warning or fines; by revoking the license of the dealer in
the same in the city ; and by requiring that the premises on which the
milk is produced be inspected before the milk can be sold in the city.

Supervision of a milk supply must begin at the barn and be
continued until the milk reaches the consumer. ‘Thus milk must be
inspected at the following points :

1. At the farm.

During transportation from the farm to the R.R. or creamery.
At the creamery, when this is the shipping point.

On the cars during transportation to the city.

At the city R.R. or receiving station.

AREY DP

On the wagon in the city.

7. At the city dairy, hotel, restaurant, retail store and home of
the consumer. |

The country furnishing milk must be mapped, the farms and
creameries from which milk is shipped must be plotted, and the
territory divided into districts, each under the supervision of an
inspector living in the region. It has been recommended that there
be one inspector to each 100 farms. At present New Vork City has
about 100 inspectors (1907) to supervise some thirty to forty thousand
farms in six states and shipping milk into the city from points four
hundred miles distant. No milk should be permitted to enter a city
until the seal of inspection has been first placed upon it by an
inspector in the country,
GENERAL OUTLINE 199

When milk is shipped from creameries or country receiving
stations these form convenient points for inspection and also serve as
a base for investigation of the farms supplying the creameries. At
the creameries the following demand looking into: (1) The cleaning
and sterilization of all utensils; (2) the water supply and drainage ;
(3) the temperature at which milk and cream are kept; (4) general
cleanliness, requiring the absence of flies and dust.

The farms need inspection in regard to the ensuing matters:
Cleanliness of the cows, milkers and other employees ; of the barn,
milk house, utensils and surroundings; the health of the employees
and cows, with especial attention to infectious diseases in the former,
and to tuberculosis and udder disease (garget) in the latter; the kind
of food given to cows (avoidance of swill, fermented brewers’ grains
and distillery slops, etc.) and time of feeding; the purity of water
and ice supply, ventilation of barns, removal of manure, drainage of
premises, and methods of milking and handling and cooling milk.
Also the method of storing and caring for milk and hauling it to the
R.R. or creamery; and the care of the milk room, especially with
regard to the absence of dust and flies.

Inspections of creameries and farms should be made once a month
at least, and reports should be rendered in quadruplicate, one of which
should be sent to the city office, one to the farmer, one to the retail
dealer selling the milk, and one to be retained on file in the local
office in the country. This suggestion was made by Dr. Goler, of
Rochester, N. Y., who also recommends, in case the territory supply-
ing a city is large, the establishment of one or more laboratories in
the country as sub-stations for the work of milk inspection. This
might be conveniently carried out in connection with creameries.

Country inspectors should not only perform their police duties,
but should act as teachers and should talk and distribute printed
matter concerning everything which relates to the production and
care of sanitary milk.

The plan adopted by the Massachusetts Board of Health, in
publishing a monthly list of well conducted and cleanly farms, is to be
commended. Goler urges the establishment of model dairy farms by
the state in connection with the laboratory substations in the country,
200 CLEAN MILK

the scheme comprising the remodeling of some old and run-down
farm, so that in its upbuilding the farmer could apply the same
measures to his own premises.

In regard to the carriage of milk on the railroad, railways
carrying milk to the large cities of the country now supply refrigerator
cars for milk, with adequate icing facilities to cool milk below 50° F.,
in most cases. When such refrigerating arrangements are not obtain-
able, milk and cream should be shipped as advised on p. 87.

Inspection on the: cars is limited to taking the temperature of
milk. At the receiving station in the city there must be daily
inspection with reference to the temperature of milk, to the care
of cans and bottles of milk while ex route, and to the condition of
empty bottles and cans which are being returned. The inspector shall
here examine milk by sight, smell and taste, and by lactometer and
lactoscope (if such be the custom), and take samples for laboratory
examination. According to the writer’s views, the only accurate

testing which should be done by the collectors of samples is that
of temperature taking. Testing for the solids and fat and for adul-
teration and bacterial content can be done much more accurately
at the laboratory.

During distribution of milk by wagon in the city, inspection is
desirable to ascertain that the milk is properly iced in warm weather,
that the temperature of the milk is kept below 50° F., that bottling of
milk is not done on the wagon, and that general cleanliness of utensils
and wagon is observed. Samples of milk should be taken from each
wagon at least once a month for laboratory examination.

A sample of milk should be taken from each retail store every
month. Milk in the various stages of transportation from cow to
consumer becomes more germ-laden through age and handling, espe-
clally when poured from one utensil to another, and the case of
the retail shop is the worst. This has been strikingly shown by
Prof. J. O. Jordan, of Boston. The legal limit for bacterial content
in Boston is 500,000 germs to the cc. The milk during 1906, in
respect to this standard, was found to be distributed as follows:
On the cars, on arrival, 90 per cent. under germ standard (z.¢., con-
taining not less than 500,000 bacteria); on the wagons, 50 per cent.
GENERAL OUTLINE 0t

under germ standard; in the retail stores, 18 per cent. below germ
standard. Such a difference between the quality of milk on arrival
and subsequently does not occur in milk bottled at the farm, cooled
immediately below 50° F. and kept at that point all the time until it
reaches the store customer. Only bottled milk should be sold in
stores, and the bottling should be done at the farm or, less favorably,
at the creamery or city dairy. Inspection at stores must enforce
requirements for a proper refrigerator and cooling of the milk, and
also that the store be apart from dwelling rooms.

In the inspection of city dairies, stores, hotels and restaurants,
the proper cleaning of empty cans and bottles should receive special
attention. In many cities an ordinance requires that milk cans and
bottles must be thoroughly cleaned or sterilized before their return to
the farm or creamery. Also an ordinance should forbid using utensils
employed for transporting milk and cream as receptacles for any other
material whatsoever. Jordan notes that broken eggs, coffee, oil,
chocolate, molasses, blood, and, above all, kerosene, are not infre-
quently discovered in milk cans.

At each city dairy the cleanliness of premises and milk utensils,
the purity of the water supply, and the facilities and method of
cooling milk and cream should be the subjects of inspection. Samples
of milk should be taken from the city dairy at least once monthly.

Inspection of milk at hotels and restaurants should be directed
toward enforcing the ordinances as regards teniperature of milk,
‘cleanliness of utensils and the sale of skim milk. Samples should be
taken once a month from hotels and restaurants.

The proper care of milk after it has reached the consumer is
the most difficult matter of control and can only be managed by
general education of the public. The Board of Health, through its
monthly bulletins, and those selling clean milk may supply the public
with information on the subject, and consumers should be fined for
not returning empty milk bottles or cans properly cleaned.

Jordan points out another objection to the popular desire for
the early arrival of milk we have noticed (p. 125): that milk left
on the doorstep in the early morning hours of summer may be heated
by the sun to an injurious degree, At this place it may not be out of
202 CLEAN MILK

order to note that the forms furnished by the City Board of Health to
physicians for compulsory reports of infectious diseases should require
the name of the milkman supplying each infectious case reported.
In Boston the wholesale milk dealers are exceptionally progressive.
They assist the health authorities by taking the temperature of milk
consigned to them, by straining milk to discover dirt, by cleaning
empty cans; while six dealers (1907) have actually installed bac-
teriological laboratories for their own use (Jordan).

A sufficient number of inspectors or collectors of samples in cities
may require one to each 50,000 of population. In addition to the
duties described above, the city inspector should examine the premises
of applicants for a city license to sell milk, before one may be issued.

The City Board of Health should publish in a monthly report the
names of each dairyman, dividing them into four categories: those
selling Certified, Inspected, Ordinary Market and Pasteurized milk ;
and should report the number of bacteria in each. Also notice of any
dairyman who has been found guilty of infractions of any of the
ordinances pertaining to milk should be thus publicly announced.

A. D. Melvin, Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, suggests
that the following division be made of the milk composing a city
supply: 1. Certified milk. 2. Inspected milk from tuberculin-tested
cows housed, fed and milked under good conditions with a maximum
content of 100,000 germs per c.c. the year round, and shipped in
sterilized containers at the farm at a temperature below 50° F. 3. All
other milk should be pasteurized (as soon as practicable after milking
at 154° F. for twenty minutes), cooled immediately and sold in
sterilized containers at a temperature below 50° F.
,

INDEX

Page

Acidity of milk, test for ......... 138

of pasteurized milk... ...... 138

Air space in barn................ 58
Analysis, quantitative, of bacteria

149, 161

Anthrax affecting milk .......... 20

Albumin of milk..............-- 24

Ayrshire cows........... 2-0-5 169

Babcock test for fat in milk...141, 146
Bacteria, see Germs.

analysis of milk for....... 149, 161
Balanced rations, selection of.... 49
specimens of ..............5 5
Barn dusts eiccvds eves canescens 66
HOOTS rteeeiitc ok cea gee dawes 58
plans Of... wee ceese ones 178-187
ventilation of ............. 59; 195
Barns siuiseoeis eeea tes sstlghredS aie a 57
Beastings: ¢sccc sc icssceacave cas 30
Bedding .......... eawawne Bake 67
Bitter:milks wcswecccvGw deen ees 18
Blueimilk) jcscdse cc eacsacaede ds "18
Bookkeeping, city milk route.... 195
Borax in milk........... arenes ee 136
Boric acid in milk............... 136
Bottle boxes ..............0.008 127
brushessacas cs 6ys esavewsawe.s 93
HOP iivcccdceie ve Vea cenineaetes 89
WaAShETisisicd saeco aiieviewavas 95
Bottled milk, cooling............ 84
Bottles, milk................. 104, 105
to prevent loss of............ 129
Bottling milk............eee scene 96
utensils for..........0....00% 87
Brown milk. ........ 500. e see eee 18
Brushes for cleaning milk uten-
SUIS: sicdarsiedadsekie seaWeNeevies 6 87, 94

Burrell-Lawrence milking ma-
CHING reve ineveereeneerennees 189

 

Page
Butter, action of germs on....... 2
composition of,........... 43, 118

fat, how to pay creamery pa-
trons fOr sieves cveees esau 120
Havorisssiesek eee sen ekdoha 37
from fresh cream........... 38, 41
skim milk.......... 0.0.0... 43
making, losses in......... II9Q-122
making, overrun in .........,. 119
milk, composition of........ 43
Budde’s process of sterilizing milk 188
Bye-products of milk............ 44
Caps for milk bottles............ 130
Carriers for milk bottles......... 102
Cars for milk............0.c0c00 103
Certified milk, circular describing 131
COSE OF: Fw date alts ete keaiee 114
how to begin sa'e of......... 117
PIICE Of swieercisewmewwses 116
New York requirements..... 161
standard and origin of....... 16
Cheese, action of germs on...... 2
composition of............. 43
hard. se ncauwiinacactenn ds he 4l
MAKING. sccsicada esas ga sacs 4I
ripening ............cee sean 4
SOltvaedvimwekd dei. caae ouveds 4t
Cholera, infecting milk.......... al
Cleaning Cows............00.00. 70
UtensllS!sshscsiiers eas dass 85
Cloth ventilation of barns........ 195
Clothing for milk room.......... 98
Colostrum.................00. 30, 135
as source of disease......... 3t
Commercial starters, Harrington’s 39
Composite samples of milk...... 177
Composition of butter........... 43

butttermilk .....cccceeeeeeee 26
CHEESE, eccnrrenretvane etee 4
 

204
Page
Conposition of colostrum. ....... 31
GOAN 36 e kiss bo eens es 36
Nl Kiek ccc kee eens 23, 26
affected by excitement... 29
exposure...........- 29
1000) esc caysaceces x 29
fri Shite ei eesss eadinesaies 29
milking............. 29
period of heat....... 29
period of lactation... 29
surroundings........ 29
S€ASON.... 66... eee » 29
treatment.........+. 29 |.
skim milk.... ..........6. 26, 36
WhEY Aesiecse ead ssawea eats 43
Concentrates. ...........0.. sees 51
Condensed milk, action of germs
OMasseedoa:v es cee ecouna ere neers 2
Coolers, milk..............005. 71-83
Stats saeweuis sarin wate, wesiew 80
tubular occsssncesedwesgayecs 80
Cooling bottled milk............ 84
Oh MIKE ocaerk serene sevmens 77
Cost of certified milk............ II4
Cow, annual cost of..... Siiane eas 113
Ayrtshiresagecswscgr ees evaak 169
CALE: Ofte ss i.s ssnciaceiere hed ehades 69
CENSUS: ss aieccreea seins oes IIo, III
for Milkicsigs ce cws temecesee 169
dairy, characteristics of...... 169
dehorning ...............008- 174
grooming.............000 00s 70
Guermsey....... ccs cieeseee 169
Holstein svsinccavesvecs sees 169
Jersey cs stiosdsae tiie ee we 169
number ofin barn........... 59
pox, affecting milk.......... 20
PLOfitss <2 ses ceive aes asa avis IIo
TAtlONS s.cen sed isielecheedn sce 174
FECOTS. 15... ccc se veces eane 173
how to keep............ 176
returns from................ 110
standard for................. 112
Stallinis.s Gia dnrseis cadagaiants 177
Vall@Ofin cae seiagiasiecgtesican 177
Cream, acidity of for butter...... 139
bottling sce: saved ia sacacoees 108
conditions favoring rising.... 33
dipper for removing......... 132
set, germs in...... terveeeeee 37d

INDEX

Page
Cream per cent. of solids in..... 36
ripening Of..............008- 37
separation of............0005 107
starters........ pore ee en eeenee 39
thickeners.............05 108, 140
whipping.........0...2eeeee 109
Culture media for bacteriological
ANALYSISi. anccac veto weeny sees 149
Curdling of milk ............ 0008 25
Dairy, arrangement of......... 99-102
COWS is sos sks cuttin va ewieic ens 169
LOULINGsecax esa x xa Rees ta en 96
utensils, washing of. ........ 93
Dehorning cows............6-6+- 174
Diarrhea of infants from milk.... 22
Diphtheria infecting milk........ 21
Drivers’ uniform ............000- 131
Dust in barn.............. eee eee 66
milk room......... cece eee 76
Dysentery infecting milk ........ 2I
Ensilage affecting milk,......... 54
Farrington’s acidity test......... 158
Farrington on starters ........... 39
Fat of milk css dcacseaeuasaitens 25
Fat in milk and cream, test for, 141-146

Feeding, balanced ration for..... 49
concentrateS ..............6. 5.
Haecker’s rules for.......... 50
for milk......... eee eee eee 46
Ol Silay rs ccwenuete as 64.c8u 54
in relation to milking....... - 54
roughage ... ............08- 51
specimen ration for.......... 51

Fishy milk. scceecisisicetizgs vee y 85, 135

Flies in barn i. .cccessesesavaces 66
spray for on cows............ 66

Food, influence on lactation period 47
imparting flavor to milk..... 56
imparting taste to milk...... 54

Foot and mouth disease affecting

Milk o.c cesseuueiad oc seawaae 20

Formaldehyde in milk........... 136

Freezine..........005 5. Vieretietnadis 10

Gelatine in milk....... pease ies 141

Garget affecting milk..,..... sais 20

Germs, acidsandalkaliesaffecting
INDEX

Page

Germs, action on butter, cream,
cheese, milk, condensed milk.. 2
action of temperature on.... 6

causing flavor of butter...... 38
characters of...............- 3
conditions of growth..... 5, 17-18
ID Dar Moiie33 siais'sieasceachoasueas 67
in filtered milk.... ......... 35
in cheese ripening,.......... 42
-in market milk.............. 17
in separated cream.......... 35
influence onmilkandproducts 12
lactic acids. cw. avinievan es 13
action onman........... 13
‘flavoring butter & cheese 13
miscellaneous. ............+4 15
flavoring butter......... 38
moisture affecting growth of. 6
multiplication of............. 4
number present in clean milk 11
of butyric acid.............-. 18
of disease in milk............ 15
of tuberculosis in milk....... 19
putrefactive...............006 15
significance of, in milk ...... II
numbers inmilk......... 15
quantity and variety in
Milkcsccssewiswen wes 15
sunlight affecting............ 6

standard for water supply.... 53
temperature affecting growth 5

CESt OP 2 sc cAndeeaotune i as 149-161
Green milk ................2-2.- 18
Grooming COWS......ee.seeseeee 70
Guernsey COWS.........ecseeceee 169
Gutters for manure.............. 59
Haecker’s rules for feeding...... 50
Heating water........ Hinkew ames 95

for Galryesicieeic cost es eaeens 85
Hegelund method of stripping

COWS... 2.600086 eT er Ig2
Holstein COWS.......-.ese cece 169
TOON Gece ad saeisesaeree een weds 10
Infant mortality ................. 22
Inspected milk, New York require-

MENS hice sie sirans ees Keradeds 165
Inspection of milk........0...065 134

Jersey COWS. ...sseeenes seeateee 169

 

205
Page

Keeping qualities of milk ... ... 14
King system, ventilation......... 59
Lactation period of cows ........ 29
increased by feeding....... te OAT
Lactic acid germs............... 13
action on man..........eeeee 13

in fermentation of milk...... 24
flavoring butter and cheese, 13, 38
killing other germs.......... 13
Lactometer .......-.e.eeeescceee 146
Machine, milking................ 189
Manure, removal of from barn... 66
trench) oxidise eure ants oa 59
Market milk, germs in........... 17
Miscellaneous germs ............ 15
Modified milk, for infants........ 137
Milk acidity, testfor............. 137
action of temperature on..... 14
adulterated with borax...... 136
adulteration, boric acid...... 136
formaldehyde, or freezine 136
salicylic acid..... ...... 137

sodium carbonate....... 137

as a source of infant mortality 22

as a source of diarrhea....... 22

as asourceofcholerainfantum 22
bacteria, analysis of...... 149-161
bad odor of..............0.. 135
bad taste of............00085 135
Bitten siesceceds cdacs cdegem 18
DWE sepnk wiastowscesacudas 18
bookkeeping for city route... 195
Dottlesc. sss sewsvweeweer vs es 104
CAPS si iew: Ss siete ec 4 Faas Sos 130
CATTELS. «vo. ccaea aes ee 102

Cats®. evcsGadacankis nas os 103
shipping cases........... 103,

to prevent loss of........ 129
bottling of .................. 96
utensils for.............. 87

boxes, for bottles............ 127
DOWN sek ste aee ies cceeaeds 18
bye products in manufactures 44
Certified cs coe eased 16
certified, cost of....... aiacarsiae II4

N. Y. requirements for .. 161

Price Of;:. scnves cavnqaies 116

composite samples of........ 177
 

206 INDEX
Page Page
Milk, composition of............. 23 | Milk soapy.........cesseeeeeeeee 18
COOlerShiesiieeesanGis stiweucias 78 solids, estimation of..... .... 146
cooling Of. ............0c0 eee 77 souring of. 1. ....... cea eee 24
condensed, actionofgermson 2 standard for cow.........+.. 112
curdling Of.........c.ee eee 25 standardizing ............465 194
GATE sid caxeieise eae Geo Fa ates 135 sterilizing, Budde’s process.. 188
dirty, a source o ftyrotoxicon 22 sterilizers for utensils. ....... 89
during tuberculin test:....... 56 SUPTEr 622005. secaceie stereo 97
LAG o6.shaisicie cedca winters 5 a orele aaa tials 25 StPaiNeP ss sais scvowan cc eens 84
test for........ceeeeee 141-146 SUNOS sees cceas caminewe’s © 18, 135
feeding affecting composition strippings..............00 00 27
Olin dieatadaidat te ae euare ties 46 SUP ANS Se4 as ceaedaie weds enti 24
feeding for...........e00000. 46 SWECE caress ceSiaiccneewetiaes 10
fever, affecting milk.......... 20 time of delivery............. 126
treatment of............. 69 utensils, washing............ 93
fishy sos ncsarie Sede 53, 85, 135 WAQONS ats sccasied ee tes eens 127
from silage..........eeseeeee 54 watered, test for............ I4I
formation in udder.......... 46 yellow... sce cece cece eee eee 18
STCEN is su Beaeeetw stad oes ve 18 | Milkers, cleanliness of........... 71
hints in delivery............. 129° | Milkingac. 2s 024 edevtavaie eeceak 71
house, arrangements of...... 99 as affecting composition of
plans of........... ++ «178-187 MILK, suee coskee sewers 28
IN ANthraK ois vselsae cee ees 20 in relation to feeding.... ... 54
IN COW POX... .. cece eee evens 20 machine.........ceee ee ee eee 189
foot and mouth disease.. 20
Parpetinne ses caeedacsrans 20) | ‘OVERTURN s2gant ic csacetear yy 118
milk fever............... 20 how to estimate............. 11g
pleuropneumonia....... 20
inspected, N. Y. requirements 165 | Pails, milk..............0ccueee 73-74
inspection,.........-.eee.ee 134 | Paper milk bottle....... ....... 105
keeping qualities of.......... 14 | Pasteurized milk............ 7-10, 187
modified for infants.......... 131 acidityof..... Saeueaduns xe eaves 138
PallSivesviscecs wecsieew ieee 73-74 teStfOtiasisves ccecekavcness 137
pasteurized ............. 7-10, 187 | Plans ofbarns................ 178-187
preservatives.......... ree to | Pleuropneumoniaaffectingmilk.. 20
tests for....... cesses 136,137 | Preservatives...............00008 10
proteids,...........cce cece 24 POSES FOP ey Scassisck maiden sce 136
pus in, test for............... 160 | Price of certified milk ........... 116
TECOPdS ....... ee areeceeee 112,176 | Proteids in milk................. 24
red...... os avevananeleiei Stars Waldo or 18 | Putrefactive germs ............. - 15
returns from selling in various
fOFMS's ass ancsee: Hees ewes ae 123 | Records of cows......... sseeees 176
POON o4h6 Ane ceeueaienna accu 75 Ofmilkie. Aaicwevcleaiawd 112, 176
utensils for.............. 96 | Red milki.scevadevecks sai veeenes 18
samples...............4 135, 136 | Room, milk, ...-..... cece eee eee 75
siphon for removing from Roughage .......ccseeeeeeeeeeee 15
bottle ssc sede ae 132 | -
skim, food value of.......... 43 | Salicylicacid.......s.c.eeeeeeees 137
testfOfiicis: aesiawciees cay 141 | Scarlet fever infecting milk...... 21
SiMY ...eeecyeceveveseeerees 18 | Separation of cream...........0. 107
INDEX

Page

Separation, removing germs..... 35
removing dirt............... 35
Separator cream................ 34
slime ............0. Sass “3d.
Separators, management of...... 175
Shipping cases............... 103-104
Skim milk, food value of ........ 43
TESt SONS siecle, Yechwe cas es 141
Value Of ici cdssceccadiewess 124

_ Slimy milk... 0... cece eee eae 18
Smallpox infecting milk ......... 21
Soapy milk ...........0......88. 18
Sodium carbonate in milk ....... 137
Solids in milk...............00.. 146
Souring of milk........... 0.2... ‘24
Stallssa.ceueen suk cos aeneeenes 65, 58
Stanchions...............00eeee. 65
Standardizing milk.............. 194
Star COOlGR visions sakisee eras 80
Startolene ......... 0. ccc cece ee 40
Starters, natural and commercial. 39
Sterilizers..............006 aan 89
Straining......... ccc cece eee ees 84
Stringy milk..............02., 135, 18
Stripping cows, Hegelund method 192
Strippings of milk............... 27
Sugar of milk...............006. 24
Temperature affecting milk...... 14
Test, acidity of milk..... ....... 137

for gelatine ................. 141

 

207°

Page

Test for preservatives in milk ...136-7
for pusin milk... .......... 160

for viscogen in milk......... 140
Tie-UPSs cis ssawiidanide veces 3aRn 65
Tuberculin test............. 20, 56, 69
Tuberculosis. germs of in milk .. 19
Tubular coolers............+.00. 80
Typhoid fever infecting milk..... 2
Tyrotoxicon in milk............. 22
Utensils, cleaning ............... 85
in milk room................ 76
Ventilation of barns........... 59, 195
King system of.............. 59
Viscogen in milk............. 108, 140
Wagons, milk............ 0.0000 271
Washing dairy utensils .......... 98
milk utensils.............6+ 93
SINK sisciscle ss cs snwewewewa's é 94
Water, germ standard for........ 53
for dairy use ............0005 21
heating novices se ene teas 85, 95
Watered milk, test for........... 141
Water supply. ...........0000e0 53
Water, stagnant, in pastures. ... 53
Whey, composition of........... 43
Whipping cream..............6- 109
Yellow milk .......... sce ee enone 18
BITTING. ‘Cadiot’s Exercises in Equine Surgery.”
See ‘‘Cadiot.”

BRADLEY. ‘¢Qutlines of Yeterinary Anatomy.’’
By O. Charnock Bradley, Member of the Royal Col-
lege of Veterinary Surgeons; Professor of Anatomy
in the New Veterinary College, Edinburgh.

The author presents the most important facts of
veterinary anatomy in as condensed a form as possible,
consistent with lucidity. 12mo.

Complete in three parts.

Part I.: The Limba (cloth)...........ceeeeeees 1 25-
Part II.: The Trunk (paper) ..........scceeees 1 25
Part IIl.: The Head and Neck (paper).......... 1 26
THE SET COMPLETE ..........cceeeeseeenceneees 3 25

CADIOT, “Exercises in Equine Surgery.” By P. J.
Cadiot. Translated by Prof. A. W. Bitting, D.V.M.
Edited by Prof. A. Liautard, M.D.V.M. Size,6x 9%.
cloth, illustrated..............cceeeeeneeeees 2 50

— ‘**Roaring in Horses.’? Its Pathology and Treatment.
This work represents the latest development in oper-
ative methods for the alleviation of roaring. Each
step is most clearly defined by excellent full-page
illustrations. By P. J. Cadiot, Professor at the
Veterinary School, Alfort. Translated by Thos. J.
Watt Dollar, M.R.C.V.S., etc. Cloth, size 51-4x7 i

77 pages, illustrated.:......... cece cee e eee renee

— ‘Studies in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Surgery.”
By P. J. Cadiot. Translated, edited, and supplemented
with 49 new articles and 34 illustrations by Jno. A. W.
Dollar, M.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size 7 x 9 3-4, 619 pages,
94 black and white illustrations,................- 5 25

—(*)** A Treatise on Surgical Therapeutics of the Domestic
Animals.” By P. J. Cadiot and J. Almy. Translated
by Prof. A. Liautard, M.D.,V.M.

I. General Surgery.—Means of restraint of animals,
general anesthesia, local anethesia, surgical anti-
sepsis and asepsis, hematosis, cauterization, firing,

II. Diseases Common to all Tissues.—Inflammation,
abscess, gangrene, ulcers, fistula, foreign bodies,
traumatic lesions, complications of traumatic les-
ions, granulations, cicatrices, mycosis, virulent
diseases, tumors.

III. Diseases Special to all Tissues and Affections of
the Extremities.—Diseases of skin and cellular tise
sue, of serous bursae, of muscles, of tendons, of
tendinous synovial sacs, of aponeurosis, of arteries,
of veins. of lymphatics, of nerves, of bones, of
articulations.

Cloth, size 6 x 9, 580 pages, 118 illustrations.....4 50

CHAPMAN. ‘Manual of the Pathological Treatment
of Lameness in the Horse,’ treated solely by
mechanical means. By George T. Chapman. Cloth,
size 6 x 9, 124 pages with portrait........ 002... 2 00
CLARKE. “Chart of the Feet and Teeth of Fossil
Horses.”? By W. H. Clarke. Card, size 91-2 x12.. 25

—‘* Horses’ Teeth.”? Fourth edition, re-revised, with second
appendix. Cloth, size 5 1-4 x 7 1-2, 322 pp., illus..2 50

CLEAVELAND. ce Fronounelng Medical Lexicon.”
Pocket edition. By C H. Cleveland, M.D. Cloth,
Size 3 1-4 x 4 1-2, 302 pages,.......... cece eee eee 75

CLEMENT. ‘Veterinary Post. Mortem Examina-
tions.”? By A. W. Clement, V.S. ‘The absence in the
English language of any guide in making autopsies
upon the lower animals, induced Dr. Clement to
write this book, trusting that it would prove of prac-
tical value to the profession. Cloth, size 5 x7 1-2, 64
pages, illustrated............ 0. cece eee eee eee nee 75

COURTENAY, (t+) ‘‘Manual of the Practice of Veterinary
Medicine.” By Edward Courtenay, V.S. Revised by
Frederick T. G. Hobday, F.R.C.V.8. Second edition.
Cloth, size 5 1-4 x 7 1-2, 573 pages .............. 275

cox, “Horses: In Accident and Disease.” The
sketches introduced embrace various attitudes which
have heen observed, such as in choking; the disorders
and accidents occurring to the stomach and intestines ;
affection of the brain ; and some special forms of lame-
ness, etc. By J. Roalfe Cox, F.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size
6 x 9, 28 full page illustrations........ 02.00.00 ee 1 50

DALRYMPLE.,. (*)“Veterinary Obstetrics.” A compen-
dium for the use of advanced students and Practi-
tioners. By W. H. Dalrymple, M.R.C.V.S.,
principal of the Department of Veterinary Science in
the Louisiana State University and A. & M. College;
Veterinarian to the Louisiana State Bureau of
Agriculture, and Agricultural Experiment Stations.
Second edition revised. Cloth, size 6x9 1-4, 162 pages,
61 illustrations. ........... cc cece ee eee e eens 2 50

DALZIEL, “Breaking and Training Dogs.” Part I, by
Pathfinder. Part II, by Hugh Dalziel. Cloth,
illustrated............. ie Sata bieue sr eaS ASD wales S 2 50

— “The Collie.” By Hugh Dalziel. Paper, illustrated.... 50

— “The Diseases of Dogs.” Causes, symptoms and treatment.
By Hugh Dalziel. Illustrated. Paper, 50c. Cloth,.1 60

— “Diseases of Horses.” Paper ........0.eccccccceeee cues 50
— “The Fox Terrier.” By Hugh Dalziel. Paper, 50; clo.1 00
— “The Greyhound.” Cloth, illus..... ......-....-....65 1 00

— “he St. Bernard.” Cloth, illuetrated.........,.cee0-4 00
DANA, “Tables in Comparative Physiology.” By Prof.
C.L. Dana, M.D. Chart, 17x17......... eects 26

DANCE. “Veterinary Tablet.” By A. A. Dance. Chart,
17 x 24, mounted on linen, folded in a cloth case for
the pocket, size 3 3-4x 61-2. Shows ata glance the
eynopsis of the diseases of horses, cattle and dogs;
with their cause, symptoms and cure......... eoeee 15

DE BRUIN. (*)* Bovine Obstetrics.”” By M. G. De Bruin
Instructor of Obstetrics at the State Veterinary
School in Utrecht. Translated by W. E. A. Wyman,
formerly Professor of Veterinary Science at Clemson
A. & M. College, and Veterinarian to the South
Carolina Experiment Station. Cloth, size 6 x 9, 382
pages, 77 illustrations......... tds etdabisie sists iarsisiaye 5 00

Synopsis of the Essential Features of the Work
1. Authorized translation.
2. The only obstetrical work which is up to date.
3. Written by Europe's leading authority on the pEbiect
4, Written by a man who has practiced the art a lifetime.
5. Written by a man who, on account of his eminence as
bovine practitioner and teacher of obstetrics, was selected
by Prof. Dr. Frdhner and Prof. Dr. Bayer (Berlin and
jenna), to discuss bovine obstetrics both practically and
eolenitioally:
6. The only work containing a thorough differential diag-
nosis of ante and post partum diseases.
7. The only work doing justice to modern obstetrical
surgery and therapeutics. :

: ritten by a man whose practical suggestions revolu-
tionized the teaching of veterinary obstetrics even in the
great schools of Europe. :

9. The only work dealing fully with the now no longer
obscure contagious and infectious diseases of calves.

10. Absolutely original and no compilation.

ll. The only work dealing fully with the difficult problem
of teaching obstetrics in the colleges.

12. The only work where the practical part is not over-
shadowed by theory.

. . . Aveterinarian, particularly if his location brings him in
contact with obstetrical practice, who makes any pretence toward
being scientific and in possession of modern knowledge upon this
subject, will not be without this exce)lent work, as it is really a very
ween treatise.—Prof. Roscoe R. Bell, in the American Ve

e i

In translating into English Professor De Bruin’s excellent text-
book on Bovine Obstetrics, Dr. Wyman has laid British and American
veterinary surgeons and students under a debt of gratitude. The
works represents the happy medium between the booklets which are
adapted for cramming purposes by the student, and the ponderous
tomes which, although useful to the teacher, are not exactly suited to
the requirements of theeveryday practitioner . . . Wecan strongly
recommend the work to veterinary students and practitioners.—-The
Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics.

DOLLAR.  (*\** Diseases of Cattle, Sheep, Goats and
Swine.” By G. Moussu and Jno. A. W. Dollar,
ME.C VS. Size 6 x 9 1-2, 785 pages, 329 illustrations
in the text and 4 full page plates.......... veceee eB 75

— (#)“A Hand-book of Horse-Shoeing,”? with introductory
chapters on the anatomy and physiology of the
horse’s foot. By Jno. A. W. Dollar, M.R.C v.S.,
with the collaboration of Albert Wheatley, F.R.O.V.S.
Cloth, size 6 x 8 1-2, 433 pages, 406 illustrations ..4 76
DOLLUAB (continued)
— (t)**Operative Technique.” Volume 1 of ‘‘The Practice of

Veterinary Surgery.” Cloth, size 6 3-4 x 10, 264 pages,
272 illustrations. ...... 0 ..... cece eee ee cece ee 3 75

**General Surgery.”? Volume 2 of ‘The Practice of Veter-
inary Surgery.” In preparation.

(+) Regional Veterinary Surgery.” Volume 3 of ‘The
Practice of Veterinary Surgery.” By Drs. Jno. A.
W. Dollar and H. Mdller. Cloth, size 6 1-2 x10 853

and xvi pages, 316 illustrations................. 6 25
**Cadiot’s Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Surgery.”
See ** Cadiot.”

** Cadiot’s Roaring in Horses.’ See ‘+ Cadiot.”

DUN. ‘Veterinary. Medicines, their Actiops and Uses.”

By Finlay Dun, V.S., late lecturer on Materia
Medica and Dietetics at the Edinburgh Veterinary
College, and Examiner in Chemistry to the Royal
College of Veterinary Surgeons. Edited by James
Macqueen, F.R.C.V.S. Tenth revised English edition.
Cloth, size 6 X 9... .. cece cece ee cece eens 3°75

FLEMING. ‘The Contagious Diseases of Animals.” Their

influence on the wealth and health of nations and how
they are to be combated. Paper, size 5 x 71-2,
30 PALOS 6 8 os Sec seue dena tten ow Reus. Keema eds 25

‘“ Human and Animal Variolm.” A Study in Comparative
Pathology. Paper, size 5 1-2 x 8 1-2, 61 pages... 25

— ‘Parasites aud Parasitic Diseases of the Domesticated

Animals.” By L. G. Neumann. Translated by
Dr. Fleming. See ‘‘ Neumann.”

‘¢Qperative Veterinary Surgery.” Vol. I, by Dr. Geo.
Fleming, M.R.C.V.S, This valuable work, one of the
most practical treatises yet issued on the subject in
the English language,is devoted to the common opera-
a of Veterinary Surgery; and the concise descrip-
fions and directions of the text are illustrated with
numerous wood engravings. Cloth, size 6 x 9 1-4, 285
and xviii pages, 343 illustrations........-...... -2 76
(*)Vol. II, edited and passed through the press by
W. Owen Williams, F.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size 6 x 9 1-4,
430 and xxxvii pages, 344 illustrations...... reese 3 25

“Roaring in Horses.” By Dr. George Fleming,
F.RO.V.S. Its history, nature, causes, prevention
and treatment. Cloth, size 5 1-2 x 8 3-4, 160 pages, 21
engravings, 1 colored plate.............06...00ee 1 50

— “Veterinary Obstetrics.” Including the Accidents and Dis-

eases incidenttv Pregnancy, Parturition, and the Early
Age in Domesticated Animals. By Geo. Fleming,
F.R.C.V.8. Cloth, size 6 x 8 3-4, 758 pages, illus.6 25
GOTTHIEL, (*)**A Manual of General Gistology.
By Wm. 8. Gottheil, M.D., Professor of Pathology in
the American Veterinary College, New York; etc., etc.

Histology isthe basis of the physician’s art, ae
Anatomy is the foundation of the surgeon’s science.
Only by knowing the processes of life can we under-
stand the changes of disease and the action of
remedies; as the architect must know his building
materials, so must the practitioner of medicine know
the intimate structure ot the body. To present this
knowledge in an accessible and simple form has
been the author's task. Second edition revised.
Cloth, size 5 1-2 x 8, 152 pages, 68 illustrations. ..1 00

GRESSWELL. ‘The Bovine Prescriber.” For the use
of Veterinarians and Veterinary Students. Second
edition revised and enlarged, by James B. and Albert
Gresswell, M.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size, 5 x 71-2, 102
PAR OSs 6 ving ainda cola otinsiaioanin ae og! s 40d esi ete eels isl einlaas 75

— “The Equine Hospital Prescriber.” For the use of Veter-
inary Practitioners and Students. Third edition re-
vised and enlarged, by Drs. James B. and Albert
Gresswell, M.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size 5 x 71-2, 165
PALO: f cicia aida fa cere viad Bais eden eae bieaa aU ROS 76

— ‘Diseases and Disorders of the Horse.” A Treatise on
Equine Medicine and Surgery, being a contribution to
the science of comparative pathology. By Albert,
Jas. B. and Geo. Gresswell. Cloth, size 5 3-4 x 8 3.4,
227 pages, illustrated......... 0.0... cee eee ee vee 1 76

— Manual of “The Theory and Practice of Equine Medicine.”
By James B. Gresswell, F.R.C.V.8., and Albert
Gresswell, M.R.C.V.S. Second edition revised.
Cloth, size 5 1-4 x 7 1-2, 539 pages................ 2 75

— ({) “Veterinary Pharmacopzia and Manual of Comparative
Therapy.” By George and Charles Gresswell, with
descriptions and physiological actions of medicines,
by Albert Gresswell. Second edition revised and
enlarged. Cloth, 6 x 8 3-4, 457 pages............ 3 60

HASSLOCH. ‘A Compend of Veterinary Materia Medica
and Therapeutics.” | By A. C.  Hassloch, V.S.,
Lecturer on Materia Medica and Therapeutics, and
Professor of Veterinary Dentistry at. the New York
College of Veterinary Surgeons and School of Compa-
rative Medivine, N. Y. Cloth, size 51-4 x 71-2, 225

DAR OSS 5.5: ie, Astehaieess Sesto umeainamiad deade moawsceun 150

HEATLEY, “The Stock Owner’s Guide.” A handy Medi-
cal Treatise for every man who owns an ox or cow,
By George 8S. Heatley, M.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size
5 1-4 x 8, 172 pages....... a hbted harmed aks seveccevel M6
HILL. ge The Diseases of the Cat.” By J. Woodroffe
ill, F.R.C.V.S, Cloth, size 6 1-4.x 7 1-2, 128 pages,
MMustr ated seca ocraaunirdawnmaendedGerdalalee s66 1 26

Written from the experience of many years’ prac-
tice and close pathological research into the maladies
to which our domesticated feline friends are liable—a
subject which it must be admitted has not found the
prominence in veterinary literature to which it is
undoubtedly entitled.

— “The Management and Diseases of the Dog.” By J.
Woodroffe Hill, F.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size 5 x 7 1-2,
extra fully illustrated.

HINEBAUCGH. ‘Veterinary Dental Surgery.” By T. D.
Hinebauch, M.S.V.S. For the use of Students, Prac.
titioners and Stockmen. Cloth, size 51-4 x 8, 256
pages, illustrated, ............ ccs ee eee e cee nereee 2 00

HOARE. (*)‘‘A Manual of Veterinary Therapeutics and
Pharmacology.” By E. Wallis Hoare, F.R.C.V.b.
Cloth, size 5 1-4 x 7 1-4, xxvi plus 786 pages......4 75

HOBDAY. (+)“The Castration of Cryptorchid. Horses and
the Ovariotomy of Troublesome Mares.” By
Frederick T. G. Hobday, F.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size
563-4x 83-4, 106 pages, 34 illustrations,..... wees 76

HUNTING. (t) The Art of Horse-shoeing. A manual
for Horseshoers. By William Hunting, F.R.C.V.8.,
ex-President of the Royal College of Veterinary Sur-
geons. One of the most up-to-date, concise books of
its kind in the English language. Cloth, size6 x9 1-4.
126 pages, 96 illustrations............eceeseeeees 1 00

JENKINS. (*)** Anatomical and Physiological Model of
the Cow.’”? Half life size. Composed of superposed
plates, colored to nature, showing internal organs,
muscles, skeleton, etc., mounted on strong boards,
with explanatory text. Size of Model opened,

10 ft. x 3 ft., closed 3 ft. x 1} ft................. 2 00
— ** Anatomical and Physiological Model of the Horse.’
Half life size. Size of Model 38 x 41 in........ 12 00

These models may also be obtained in smaller
sizes together with Models of the Dog, Sheep and

Pig.

JONES. (*)**The Surgical Anatomy of the Horse.”
By Jno. T. Share Jones, M.R.C.V.S. Part I. To be
completed in four parts. Each part—paper, $4.25;
cloth, $5.00. Subscriptions for the four parts, pay-
able in advance, paper, $15.00; cloth, $17.50,
KOBERT. ‘Practical Toxicology for Physicians and
Students ” By Professor Dr. Rudolph Kobert,
Medical Director of Dr. Brehmer’s Sanitarium for
Pulmonary Diseases at Goerbersderf in Silesia (Prus-
sia), late Director of the Pharmacological Institute,
Dorpat, Kussia. Translated and edited’ by L. H.
Friedburg, Ph.D. Authorized Edition. Practical
knowledge by means of tables which occupy little
space, but show at a glahceisimilarities and differ-
ences between poisons of the same group. Also rules
for the Spelling and Pronunciation of Chemical Terms,
as adopted by the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science. Cloth, 6 1-2 x 10, 201 pp..2 50

KOCH. “ Btiology of Tuberculosis.” By Dr. R. Koch.
Trauslated by T. Saure. Ctoth, size 6 x 91-4, 97
PALO eae esd pestsch ce eeGe eye gids eleaeedieeoees 1 00

LAMBERT. ‘The Germ Theory of Disease.’
Bearing upon the health and welfare of man and the
domesticated animals. By James Lambert, F.R.C.V.8.
Paper, size 5 1-4 x 8 1-4, 26 pages, illustrated..... 25

LAW. ‘*Farmers’ Veterinary. Adviser,” .A Guide to the
Prevention and Treatment of Disease in Domestic
Animals. By Prof. James Law. Cloth, size
5 1-4 x 7 1-2, illustrated........ s dhsas de bsanahas Sve or wee aves 3 00

LIAUTARD. (t)** Animal Castration.” A concise and
practical Treatise on the Castration of the Domestic

Animals. The only work on the subject in the

English language. By Alexander Liautard, M.D.,V.S.

Having a fine portrait of the author. Tenth edition

revised and enlarged. _ Sloth, size 6 1-4 x 7 1-2, 165

pages, 45 illustrations,..... LiSGnG seeek dada melas 2 00

- ,The most complete and comprehensive work on the

subject in English veterinary literature.—American Agri-
culturist.

— **Cadiot’s Exercises in Equine by Bre ” Translated by
Prof. Bitting and edited’ by Dr. Liautard.
See “ Cadiot.”

— ‘A Treatise on Surgical Therapeutics of the Domestic
Animals,” By Prof.:Dr. P. J. Cadiot and J. Almy.
Translated by Prof. Liautard. See ‘* Cadiot.”

— *How nw Tell the Age of the Domestic Animal.” By
Dr. A. Liautard, M.D.,’V.S. Standard work upon

this subject, concise, helpful and containing many
illustrations. Cloth, size 5 x 71-2, 35 pages, 42
illustrations..... aiieiret inn leile sarees psieeialeg as dvs aie 50

— **Lameness of Horses and Diseases of the Locomotory
Apparatus.”’ By A. Liautard, M.D.,V.S. This work
is the resnlt of Dr. Liautard’s many years of experi-
ence. Cloth, size 5 1-4 x 7 1-2, 314 pages

Cr ee
LIAUTARD (continued).

— (*)**Manual of Operative Veterinary Surgery.” By A.
Liautard, M.D., V.M. Engaged for years in the work
of teaching this special department of veterinary
medicine, and having abundant opportunities of
realizing the difficulties which the student who
earnestly strives to perfect himself in his calling is
obliged to encounter, the author formed the deter-
mination to facilitate his acquisition of knowledge,
and began the accumulation of material by the com-
pilation of data and arrangement of memorandum,
with the recorded notes of his own experience, the
fruit of a long and extended practice and a careful
study of the various authorities who have illustrated
and organized veterinary literature. Revised edition,
with complete index. Cloth, size 6 1-4 x 9, xxx and 803
pages, 563 illustrations.................05--200ee 5 00

— *Pellerin’s Median Neurotomy in the Treatment of
Chronic Tendinitis and Periostosis of the Fetlock.”
Translated by Dr. A. Liautard. See ‘‘ Pellerin.”

— *Vade cue of Equine Anatomy.”’ By A. Liautard,
D.V.S. For the use of advanced students and

priicam surgeons. Third edition. Cloth, size

5 x 7 1-2, 30 pages and 10 full page illustrations of

LHC -ALLOLieS ss sack eceeie sassisla aerate snare we ruisiarnen 2 00

— Zundel’s ** The Horse’s Foot and Its Diseases.”
See ** Zundel.”

LONG. ‘Book of the Pig.” Its selection, Breeding,
Feeding andManagement. Cloth.,............ 4.00

LOWE. (})** Breeding Racehorses by the Figure
System.’? Compiled by the late C. Bruce Lowe.
Euited by William Allison, ‘‘ The Special Commis-
sioner,” London Sportsman, Hon. Secretary Sporting
League, and Manager of the International Horse
Agency and Exchange. With numerous fine illustra-
tions of celebrated horses. Cloth, size 8 x 10, 262
pages...... Plat chaatanesd S clanheele joie eareieooensaienin tei leinte 7 60

LUDLOW. “Science in the Stable”; or How a Horse
can be Kept in Perfect Health and be Used Without
Shoes, in Harness or under the Saddle. With the
Reason Why. Second Edition. By Jacob R. Ludlow,
M.D. Late Staff Surgeon, U. S. Army. Paper, size
41-2x 53-4, 166 pages........... cece cece ee eee 50

LUPTON. ‘©Horses: Sound and Unsound,” with
Law relating to Sales and Warranty. By J. Irvine
Lupton, F.R.C.V 8. Cloth, size 6 3-4 x 71-2, 217
pages, 28 illustrations................ Shani wae: 1 25
MW’FADYEAN. (t+) ** Anatomy of the Horse.” Second

edition completely revised. A Dissection Guide.

By John M’Fadyean, M.B., B.So., F.R.S.E. Cloth,

size 6 x 83 4, 388 pages, illustrated.............. 68 50

This book is intended for Veterinary students, and

offers to them in its 48 full-page colored plates,

54 illustrations and excellent text, a valuable and

practical aid in the study of Veterinary Anatomy,
especially in the dissecting room.

— ** Comparative Anatomy of the Domesticated Animals.”
By J. M’Fadyean, Profusely illustrated, and to be
issued in two parts.

Part I—Osteology, ready. Size 51-2 x 81-2, 166
pages, 132 illustrations. Paper, 2 50; cloth..... 2 76
(Part II in preparation.)

MAGNER. ‘Standard Horse and Stock Book.” By
D. Magner. Comprising over 1,000 pages, illustrated
with 1756 engravings. Leather binding. ........6 60

MILLS. “How to Keep a Dog in the City.’’ By
Wesley Mills, M.D., D.V.8. It tells how to choose,
manage, house, feed, educate the pup, how to keep him
clean and teach kim cleanliness. Paper, size 5x 71-2,
AY PA BOB silks seed owaieeiuiea woe er seeie Gee steer ecient. 25

MOHLER. ‘Handbook of Meat Inspection.”? By Robert
Ostertag, M.D. ~Translated by Earley Vernon
Wilcox, A.M., Ph.D. With an introduction by
John R. Mohler, V.M.D., AM. See ‘* Ostertag.”

MOLLER — DOLLAR. _ (t+) *‘ Regional Veterinary
Surgery.”? See ‘* Dollar.”

MOSSELMAN-LIENAUX. ‘Manual of Veterinary
Microbiology.”> By Professors Mosselman and
Liénaux, Nat. Veterinary College, Cureghem, Belgium.
Translated and edited by R. R. Dinwiddie, Professor
of Veterinary Science, College of Agriculture, Arkansas
State University. Cloth, size 612 x 8, 342 pages,
UMlustrated ...:...)c4ss dinieeancccimentencineawe ee eee 2 00

MOUSSU._ (*) ‘Diseases of Cattle, Sheep, Goats and
Swine.” See ‘* Dollar.”

NEUMANN. (*)*A Treatise on Parasites and Parasitic
Diseases of the Domesticated Animals.” A work
to which the students of human or veterinary medi-
cine, the sanitarian, agriculturist or breeder or rearer
of animals, may refer for full information regarding
‘the external and internal Parasites—vegetable and
animal—which attack various species of Domestic
Animals. A Treatise by L. G. Neumann, Professor
at the National Veterinary School of Toulouse,
Translated and edited by Geo. Fleming, C.B., LL.D..
F.RO.V.S. Second edition, revised and edited by
James Macqueen, F.R.C.V.S., Professor at the Royal
Veterinary College, London. Cloth, size 6 3.4 x 10,
xvi + 698 pages, 365 illustrations ...............6 76
NOCARD. ‘The Animal Tuberculoses, and their Relation
to Human Tuberculosis.” By Ed. Nocard, Prof. of the
Alfort Veterinary College. Translated by i. Scurfield,
M.D. Ed., Ph. Camb. Cloth, 5x 7 1-2, 143 pages..1 00
Perhaps the chief interest to doctors of human
medicine in Professor Nocard’s book lies in the
demonstration of the small part played by heredity,
and the great part played by contagion in the propa-

gation of bovine tuberculosis.

N UNN. ee acerinary Toxicology.” By Joshua A. Nunn,
F,.R.C.V.S. The study of toxicology is intimately

“blended with other biological sciences, particularly
physiology and chemistry, both of which it on many
occasions overlaps. A carefully arranged and com-

plete index is given in the front of the volume.

Cloth, size 6 x 83.4, vii + 191 pages.............- 1 76

OSTERTAG. (*) Handbook of Meat Inspection.”» By
Robert Ostertag,M D. Authorized Translation by
Earley Vernon Wilcox, A.M., Ph.D. With an intro-
duction by John R. Mohler, V.M.D., A.M. The work
is exhaustive and authorative and has at once become
the standard authority upon the subject Second
edition, revised. Cloth, size 6 3-4 x 9 3-4, 920 pages,
260 illustrations and 1 colored plate. 7 60

PALCEIN, (*)*A Treatise on Eye colle Lymphangitis.” By
Capt. W. A. Pallin, F.R.C.V.S. In this work the

author has endeavored to combine his own experience

with that of other writers and so attempts to give a

clear and complete account of a subject about which

there is little at present in English veterinary liteza-

ture. Cloth, size 5 3-4 x 81-2, 90 pages, with 17 fine

full page illustrations....................- ee eeee 1 26

PEGLER. ‘ Goat Keeping for Amateurs.” Paper, a
77 pages, illustrated ......... ccc cece eee eee eee

PELLERIN, ‘Median Neurotomy in the Treatment
of Chronic Tendinitis and Periostosis of the Fetlock.””
By C. Pellerin, late repetitor of Clinic and Surgery to
the Alfort Veterinary School. Translated, with Addi-
tional Facts Relating to It, by Prof. A. Liautard, M.D.,
V.M. Having rendered good results when performed
by himself, the author believes the operation, which
consists in dividing the cubito-plantar nerve and in
excising a portion of the peripherical end, the means
of improving the conditions, and- consequently the
values of many apparently doomed animals. Agricul-
ture in particular will be benefited.

The work is divided into two parts. The first covers
the study of Median Neurotomy itself; the second,
the exact relations of the facts as observed by the
author, Boards, 6x9 1-2, 61 pages, illustrated. 7 00
PETERS. ‘A Tuberculous Herd—Test with TYuber-
: culin.” By Austin Peters, M.R.O0. V.S., Chief
Inspector of Cattle for the New York State Board of
Health during the winter of 1592-93. Pamphlet... .25

REYNOLDS. ‘An Essay on the Breeding and Manage-
ment of Draught Horses.” By R, 8. Reynolds,
M.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size 6 1-2 x 8 3-4, 104 pages..1 40

ROBERGE. ‘The Foot of the Horse,’?? or Lameness
and all Diseases of the Feet traced to an Unbalanced
Foot Bone, prevented or cured by balancing the foot.
By David Roberge. Cloth, size 6x 91-4, 308 pages,
Hilvstrated : 2245 s1o25c8 hes se Geeks eeeals Vass ob bas 6 00

SESSIONS. (*)* Cattle Tuberculosis,” a Practical Guide to
the Agriculturist and Inspector. By Harold Sessions,
F.R.C.V.S., etc. Second edition. Size 5x 71-4, vi +
V20 PAWS. cacaradee.acercvesa does 4 Giviwterprspctopsiernitts wrtseioten 1 00

The subject can be understood by those who: have
to deal particularly with it, yet who, perhaps, have
not had the necessary training to appreciate technical
phruseology.

SEWELL. ‘The Examination of Horses as to Sound-
ness and Selection as to Purchase.” By Edward
Sewell, M.R.C.V.S8. Paper, size 5 1-2 x 8 1-2, 86 pages,
illustrated with 8 plates in color.............64 1 60
.... It is a great advantage to the business man to
know something of the elements of law, and nobody
ought either to buy or own a horse who does not know
something about the animal. That something this book

gives, and gives in a thoroughly excellent way....
SMITH. (*)‘‘ A Manual of Veterinary Physiology.” By
Vet. Capt. F. Smith, C.M.S., M R.C.V 8., Examiner in
Physiology, Royal Gollege of Veterinary Surgeons,
author of ‘‘A Manual of Veterinary Hygiene.” A
completely revised and enlarged edition just pub-
lished. Cloth, 6 x 8 3-4, 720 pp, 1U2 illust’ns..... 4 25

The whole book has been carefully revised and
brought up to date. All the important advances of the
last few years have been embodied. The chapter on
the nervous system has been pee revised by Prof,
Sherrington, whose remarkable work on the ‘‘spinal
dog” has been introduced. A special point is made
of the bearing of physiology on pathology, and the
utilization of physiology to the better understanding of
every-day practice. The book is written by a veterin-
ary surgeon for veterinary practitioners and students,
and is the only work in the English language which
can claim to be purely veterinary.

— (*)§* Manual of Veterinary Hygiene.” Third edition revised.
Cloth, size 5 1-4 x 7 1-2, xx + 1036 pages, with 255
illustrations ......... iaiaiaidvqurdlinacunapslemaserare Nes 4 75

Recognizing the rapid advance and extended field
of the subject since the previous issue, the author
has entirely re-written the work and enlarged its
scope, whieh is brought thoroughly up to date. Con-
tains over 600 more pages than the second edition,
STRANGEWAY. _(+)Veterinary Anatomy.” Edited by
I. Vaughan, F.L.8., M.R.C V.8. New edition revised.
Cloth, size 6 1-4 x 9 1-2, 625 pages, 224 illus...... 5 0U

SUSSDORF. “Six Large Colored Wall Diagrams.” By
Prof. Sussdorf, M.D. (of Géttingen). Text translated
by Prof. W. Owen Williams, of the New Veterinary
College, Edinburgh. Size, 44 inches by 30 inches.

1.—Horse. 4.—Ox.
2. - Mare. 5.—Boar and Sow.
3.—Cow. 6.—Dog and Bitch.

The above are printed in eight or nine colors.

Showing the position of the viscera in the large

cavities of the body.

Price, unmounted........... cece cee eens 1 75 each
‘mounted on linen, with roller... ....3 50 ‘

THOMPSON. ‘+)‘*Elementary Lectures on Veterinary
Science.” For agricultural students, farmers and
stock keepers. By Henry Thompson, M.R.C.V.S.,
lecturer on Veterinary Science at the Aspatria Agri-
cultural College. England. It is complete yet concise
and an up-to-date book. Cloth, 397 pp., 51 illus..3 75

VAN MATER. “A Text Book of Veterinary Oph-
thalmology.”?> By George G. Van Mater, M.D.,

D.V.8., Professor of Ophthalmology in the American
Veterinary College; Oculist and Aurist to St. Martha’s
Sanitarium and Dispensary; Consulting Eye and Ear
Surgeon.to the Twenty-sixth Ward Dispensary; Eye

and Ear Surgeon, Brooklyn Eastern District Dispen-

sary, etc. Illustrated by one chromo lithograph plate

and 71 engravings. Cloth, 6 x 9 1-4, 151 pages...3 00

._ We intend to adopt this valuable work as a text

book.—E. J. Creely, D.V.S., Dean of the San Francisco
Veterinary College.

VETERINARY DIAGRAMS in Tabular Form.
Size, 284 in. x 22 inches. Price per set of five... .4 00
Mounted and folded in case ............6. 0008. 7 60

No.1. ‘The External Form and Elementary Ana-
tomy of the Horse.” Eight colored illustrations—
1. External! regions; 2. Skeleton; 3. Muscles (Superior
Layer); 4: Muscles (Deep Layer); 5. Respiratory Ap-
paratus; 6. Digestive Apparatus; 7. Circulatory Ap-
paratus ; 8. Nerve Apparatus; with description....1 25
Mounted on roller and varnished................ 2 25

No. 2. ‘*The Age of Domestic Animals.” Forty-two
figures illustrating the structure of the teeth, indicat-
ing the Age of the Horse, Ox, Sheep, and Dog, with
full description ...........0 cee cece e eee ceeeeee: 75
Mounted on roller and varnished............000% 200
VETERINARY DIAGRAMS (continued).

No. 3. ‘‘The Unsoundness.and Defects of the Horse.”
Fifty figures illustrating—I. The Defects of Confor-
mation; 2. Defects of Position; 3. Infirmities or Signs
of Disease ; 4. Unsoundnesses ; 5. Defects of the Foot;
with full description............. 0... ccc eee e eee 75
Mounted on roller and varnished................ 2 00

No. 4. ‘The Shoeing of the Horse, Mule and Ox.”
Fifty figures descriptive of the Anatomy and Physio-
logy of the Foot and of Horse-shoeing............. 76
Mounted on roller and varnished.......... asic erete 2 00

No.5. ‘The Elementary Anatomy, Points, and But-
cher’s Joints of the Ox.” Ten colored illustrations
—l. Skeleton; 2. Nervous System; 3. Digestive
System (Right Side); 4. Respiratory System ; 5. Points
of a Fat Ox; 6. Muscular System ; 7. Vascular System;
8. Digestive System (Left Side); 9. Butcher's Sections
of a Calf; 10. Butcher's Sections of an Ox; with full
deserlption s.ccccccsisesisisiesceneiss piywiseesrace ss 1 25
Mounted on roller and varnished................ 2 25

WALLEY. ‘‘A Practical Guide te Meat Inspection.” By
Thomas Walley, M.R.C.V.S8., late principal of the
Edinburgh Royal (Dick) Veterinary College; Pro-
fessor of Veterinary Medicine and Surgery, etc,
Fourth Edition, thoroughly revised and enlarged
hy Stewart Stockman, M.R.C.V.8., Professor of
Pathology, Lecturer on Hygiene and Meat Inspection
at Dick Veterinary College, Edinburgh. Cloth, size
5 1-2 x 8 1-4, with 45 colored illus., 295 pages.....3 00

An experience of over 30 years in his profession
and a long official connection (some sixteen years)
with Edinburgh Abattoirs have enabled the author to
gather a large store of information on the subject,
which he has embodied in his book.

While Dr. Stockman is indeed indebted to the
old for much useful information, this up-to-
date work will hardly be recognized as the old
‘« Walley’s Meat Inspection.”

WICCOX. (*)* Handbook of Meat Inspection.» By Robert
Ostertag, M.D. See ‘‘ Ostertag.”

WILLIAMS. “Principles and Practice of Veterinary
Medicine.” Author's edition, entirely revised and
illustrated with numerous plain and colored plates.
By W. Williams, M.R.C.V.8. Cloth, size 53-4 x 8 8-4,
BES PALES ss esipiscee sie cisieensaiaee soewsiewdee ed aea'e ses 7 50

— ** Principles and Practice of Veterinary Surgery.’?
Author’s edition, entirely revised and illustrated
with numerous plain and colored plates. By W.
Williams, M.R.O.V.S. Cloth, size 61-2 x 91-4, 756
PAGES... eee eens Sas breleteh ouene%e a. aiel oe Sideare socesceseed 50
THE MOST COMPLETE, PROGRESSIVE AND
SCIENTIFIC BOOK ON THE SUBJECT IN
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

(*) WINSLOW, “Veterinary Materia Medica and Therapeu-
ties.’ By Kenelm Winslow. B.A.S., M.D.V., M.D.,
(Harv.); formerly Assistant Professor of Therapeutics
in the Veterinary School of Harvard University ;
Fellow of the Massachusetts Medical Society ; Surgeon
to the Newton Hospital, eto.

Fifth Edition, Revised and Enlarged
Cloth, size 6 1-4 x 9 1-4, x + 804 pages........-... 6 00

In accordance with the hitherto expressed desire of the author and
publishers to keep this work at its highest point of efficiency, it has
been deemed incumbent upon them to again present a new and revised
edition—the fourth edition of 1906 being exhausted. | x

In the present revision the most notable feature is the substitution
of a section on Condensed Treatment of Diseases of the Domestic
Animals for the Index of Diseases and Remedial Measures, at the end
of the book. Inthe Preparation of this matter, very considerable time
and pains have been taken to render this section a reflection and epi-
come of all that is most modern and progressive in veterinary thera-
peutics.

Special indications for treatment, including drugs and therapeutic
agents other than drugs, in the different phases and stages of all the

+ important diseases of the domestic animals are to be found. These dis-
eases embrace not only medical and surgical disorders, but those of the ,
EYE, SKIN and EAR. If the attempt has beenin any degree successful,
this new edition to the book should prove one of its most valuable
features both to practitioners and students. _

Moreover, many changes have been. made in the text in consonance
with recent advances in our knowledge of the action of drugs.

WYMAN. (*)** Bovine Obstetrics.? By M. G. De Bruin.
Translated by W. E. A. Wyman, M.D.V.,V.S.
See also ‘‘ De Bruin.”

— (*)** Catechism of the Principles of Veterinary Surgery.”
By W. E. A. Wyman, M.D.V.,V.S8. Cloth, size 6 x 9,
B21 pages ....... cee ee cee e eee isk siocehatecavaravece seeveeed 50

Concerning this new work attention is called to the
following points:

1.—It discusses the subject upon the basis of veterinary investigations.

2.—It does away with works on human pathology, histology, etc.

3.—It explains each question thoroughly both from a scientific as well
as a practical point of view.

4.—It is writen by one knowing the needs of the student.

5.—It deals exhaustively witha chapter on tumors, heretofore utterly
neglected in voverinary pathology.

6.—The only work in English specializing the subject. _

7.—The only work thoroughly taking into consideration American as
well as European investigations.

8.—Offering practical hints which have not appeared in print, the

result of large city and country practice.
WYMAN (Continued)

— Uh" a Clinical Diagnosis of Lameness in the Horse.”
By W. E. A. Wyman, D.V.S8., formerly Professor of
Veterinary Science, Clemson’ A. & M. College, and
Veterinarian to the South Carolina Experiment

Station. Cloth, size 6 x 9 1-2, 182 pp., 32 illus....2 50

— ()** Tibio-peroneal Neurectomy for the Relief of Spavin
Lameness.” By W. E. A. Wyman, M.D.V., V.8.
Buards, size 6 x 9, 30 pages, illustrated........... 50

Anyone wanting to perform this operation should procure
this little treatise; he will find it of considerable help.—The
Veterinary Journal.

ZUILL. ‘Typhoid Herers - Contagious Influenza
in the Horse.” By Prof. W. L. Zuill, M.D.,D.V. 5.
Pamphlet, size 6 x 9 1-4, 29 pages..............065

ZUNDEL. ‘The Horse’s Fovt and Its Diseases.” By
A. Zundel, Principal Veterinarian of Alsace Lorraine.
Translated by Dr. A. Liautard, V.S. Cloth, size
5x 7 3-4, 248 pages, illustrated...............6.. 2 00

Any book sent prepaid for the price

WILLIAM R. JENKINS CO.

851 and 853 Sixth Avenue, NEW YORK.
\\ \

—
AN \ ~
A

YY
ee

NY

Gy

tj