iin iin
3/1924 082 990 304
STEPS IN ENGLISH
Book ‘Two
BY
A. C. McLEAN, A.M.
Principat or Lucxgy ScHoots, PitTsspurc, Pa.
-
THOS. C. BLAISDELL, Ph.D.
Prorgssor OF ENGLISH IN THE FirTH AVENUE Normat HicGH Scuoor,
Pittspurc, Pa. ©
AND
JOHN MORROW, MS.
SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ALLEGHENY, Pa.
NEW YORK .:- CINCINNATI .:. CHICAGO
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
CopyRIGHT, 1903, BY
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY.
\
Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London,
STEPS IN ENGLISH. TWO.
W. P. 20
PLAN AND PURPOSE.
Tus book is intended to provide a practical teaching
manual of English for the three years preceding the high
school.
It consists of two parts, a Grammar and a Composition,
which should be studied together. While each part is
complete in itself, constant inter-reference welds the two
into a unit. In many instances the same subjects, are
treated in both parts, in the one rather from the side of
theory, in the other more directly from the side of practice.
It is believed that this dual arrangement makes each part
more logical, more practical, and more pedagogical.
The lessons both in the Grammar and in the Composi-
tion are largely inductive. From usage as seen in sen-
tences and in selections the pupil is led to develop the
principles of correct speaking and effective writing. Rules
and definitions are made clear before they are stated.
As valuable knowledge comes only from doing, many
examples and illustrative exercises are provided. Where
practicable these examples are given in contrast, that the
pupil by comparison may discover principles and make dis-
tinctions which, otherwise presented, might not be clear.
As adequate expression in language can be acquired only
by talking and writing, under proper guidance, about that
which is familiar, all composition work is based on the
child’s experiences, —on the things he himself has done or
has seen done. In dwelling’on these experiences the fact
also has been emphasized that real appreciation of litera-
3
4 PLAN AND PURPOSE
ture depends largely upon a vivid remembrance of details
and of acts seen and performed ; without such remembrance
the suggestions in literature can not be understood.
The practical value of grammar is emphasized in the
Composition. Its use and importance are constantly kept.
before the pupil by the application of its principles in oral
and written work. In other words, the fact that a book
on English must help to make fluent, correct, and effective
speakers and writers has been the guiding principle in the
preparation of this work.
The Grammar is divided into three parts, and the same
is true of the Composition. The time given to the book
in each week should be divided about equally between
grammar and composition. The importance of the subjects
seems to call for at least a daily lesson in each, —an ideal
that some schools may be unable to attain.
For the courtesy of permitting the use of copyrighted
selections the authors wish to express their appreciation to
Charles Scribner’s Sons for selections from F. Hopkinson
Smith, Paul du Chaillu, and Robert Louis Stevenson; to
the Century Company for selections from Jacob A. Riis
and General Grant; to Houghton, Mifflin and Company
for the selections and passages from Thomas Bailey Aldrich,
Charles Dudley Warner, Lucy Larcom, Emerson, Longfel-
low, Whittier, Holmes, Hawthorne, and Bronson Alcott,
which are used by permission of and by special arrange-
ment with this firm, the authorized publishers of the writ-
ings of these authors; to Harper and Brothers for the
poem by Kate Putnam Osgood and the letters by Macaulay
and Lowell; and to the other publishers and authors who
are mentioned in connection with the selections.
CONTENTS.
I. GRAMMAR,
Part I, THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. WORDS AND
THEIR USES IN THE SENTENCE,
PAGES
The Sentence (Classified by Dee) a8 ye 3 8 MY @ % + 7-Ie
Subject and Predicate . . foo a ae bw Ose BE
Independent Elements. . . . . 2... 1 2. ee ee 1S, 19
Words in Apposition . . . ... 2... ee ee ee 20
The Partsof Speech . . 2... 1 1. we ee ee ee 25-48
Modifiers. . .....4...- Ss he ae Do ALAM ae stole Qe BB
Phrase Modifiers. . 2. 2... 2 1 1 ew ee ee eet 8
Part II, THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS (Continued).
COMPLEMENTS, PHRASES, AND CLAUSES.
Complements . . ets sek ei ee oe Gols ee a ae ESS
The Indirect Object | ob Sia Ja Bt Se cad Ge alae aes, tm Bee MgO
Infinitives and Participles . ...... 2 Goda se SS BSOF"
Phrases and Clauses... . f Me GAS ee ay a 68 E9O
The Simple Sentence . . ....... SS: Giese 80
The Complex Sentence . . ..... +... . sss + 8
The Compound Sentence. . . . 2... . 2. 1 1 + es 84-88
Summary of the Sentence gnc a ew es a @ 88-03
Part III. THe Parts OF SPEECH. THEIR CLASSIFICATION,
INFLECTIONS, AND RELATIONS.
The: Noun 2. 8 es ORS Fe ee ae 94-126
The Pronoun ..... ee ae a ee . . «126-144
The Verb) 2s a ae ew es ‘ 7S Ce)
The Adjective. 2. 2. 2 se ee as Bier 28 so=6 193-205, 209
The Adverb . . 2... . oteirs : 205-210
The Preposition . . . bis cat Mere tas so. 8) QTIH2T4
The Conjunction . . Se SS ofa. cans Be ‘ . 214-217
Words Variously Used. - ge Sow Se ee BSe28
II. COMPOSITION.
ParT I. NARRATIVES AND LETTERS. ACTS THAT SHOW
CHARACTER. PUNCTUATION.
“Howto Write”. 2. 2 6 6 eee eee . dae, 1223
Letters . Sig 4 val Be ic gh ey #2275 232, 234, 244, 250, 252
Words to Watch ee eee . «230, 239, 247, 253, 262
6 CONTENTS
PAGES
Punctuation. . . .°. . . eo Rs ae Me 233s 235, 243; 2451 251, 256
Suggestion in Literature. 0 2. oe, » . 240
Delegrams: 2 ge GO ees we am a Gn ge Gk ae, “2GO
Part II. AcTs THAT SHOW FEELING. PUNCTUATION.
aaa n of ici a ak woe we eo a © « w 265-268, 1202
Postal Cards . . i ROLES thie Shep aye ed ee 9272)278
Words to Watch... . . . L272, 281, 297, 302, 303
Punctuation. . . sce S 275-277, 284-288, aor 295, 302, 305
Description . . ee is fe he 3209)
The Note of Invitation»... 6. eee ee ee 304
Part III, DETAILS THAT PICTURE. MISCELLANY.
Practical Descriptions . iG a a a og ee . 308
Billsand Receipts « « « © « 4 2 © # & % @ we ww H @ BIZ
Words to Watch. . . ie Be ie eee + 314, 325
The Pronoun: Some Dangers . dee ei te ee Be RS ee 3)
The Letter of Introduction . . . . 2... 1 ee ee ee 319
Advertisements .. . Ao age aS Gera e A, casper cD BBA GAO
Suggestive Words . 2. 1 1 eee ee ee we ee 6 326-332
Persuasive Writing . . 2 fy, Mare) Cio B82
Organization and Conduct ‘ofa Society. or Meeting Bi eae 337
Principles of Composition . .. . . eros ge a oak B43.
SELECTIONS FROM LITERATURE.
A Kind Act (School Work) . . 226 A Lady’s Mistake (Warner) . . 293
The Whistle (Franklin) . . . 226 The Mountain and the Squirrel
Letter (Lowell) . . + 228 (Emerson) . s 297
A Sudden Brave: (Riley) - - . 230 A Pleasant Room (Alcott) * é 298, 299
Letter (Macaulay) . - » 232 Grant’s Bargain (U.S. Grant) . 304
Letter (Stevenson) . 234 The Other Fellow aie Haw-
Three Boys and a Dog (School ley Smith) . . « 306
Work). 238 The Eel Trap. i - 308
Oliver Horn (F. Hopkinson Smith) 241 Leaving the Old Home “Lucy
A Gentleman (Lucy Larcom) 250 Larcom) . . + 309
The Foreign Gentleman (Alcott) 255 Joyous Days... . . . . 314
A Boy’s Song (James Hogg) . . 258 The Den (Alcott) . . . . . 317
Christmas Morning (Alcott) . . 263 Snaring Fish (Warner) . 318
Heavy Hearts (Alcott). . . . 265 as,
They made the boy
This made him
In these two groups of words we have subject, verb,
and complement ; yet they are not complete sentences.
Additional words are required to complete the predicate :
They made the boy captive.
This made him unhappy.
COMPLEMENTS 55
The use of these complementary words captive and un-
happy may be seen in the following diagrams :
made / captive
They the boy
= captured
made /unhappy
This him
= disheartened
Captive, you observe, completes the action expressed by
the verb made, and is an attribute of doy, resulting from
that action, Or, we may say, capf7ve completes the predi-
cate and at the same time describes the object.
DEFINITION. A word or group of words used to complete the
predicate and to describe the object is called a Factitive Comple-
ment!
The word factitive comes from a Latin word meaning make. AS
arule the factitive complement follows a verb for which make can be
substituted. Why, then, is factitive complement a suitable name?
How does a factitive complement differ from an attribute complement?
Exercise.
Point out the factitive complements in the following
sentences, show that they belong to both the verb and the
object, see whether the verb make can be substituted, and
diagram according to this model: ,
They \ made/ captive | boy
[#he
They proclaimed Al honsoKing.
. They considered hi ore S-
They named the city Rome,” | / Y
A fell6w-feeling makes orie wondrous kind.
We"’pumped the well dry.
Peeps
1 The factitive complement is sometimes called the Objective Complement, be-
cause it describes the object.
56 GRAMMAR
6. The carpenter planed the board smooth,
7. He sawed the board square.
« 8, He painted the board red.
“sg. He kept the board painted.
ro. He made the board useful.
11. Haste can make you slipshod.
12, It can never make you graceful.
13. We can make our lives sublime.
14. Shafts of sunshine from the west
Paint the dusky windows red.
34. THE INDIRECT OBJECT.
They made the boy a coat.
Note that this sentence resembles somewhat the sen-
tence given to illustrate the factitive complement : “ They
made the boy captive.”
The word coat, however, does not stand in the same re-
lation to the verb made as does the word capizve.
They _\\_made | coat
(for)) boy |a
the
Coat is the object complement, and doy, instead of being a factitive
complement used to describe the coat, merely tells for whom the
coat is intended.
The janitor gave the blackboard a coat of paint.
In this sentence point out the word that tells for what the coat of
paint is intended.
DEFINITION. A noun or pronoun that tells for whom or what
the object complement is intended, is called an Indirect Object.
When a verb takes an indirect object, the odject complement may
be called the direct object to distinguish it from the zzdirect.
The nature of the indirect object may be seen by placing the direct
object before the indirect; as,
INDIRECT OBJECT SF
1. Owen wrote his mother a 1. Owen wrote a letter to his
letter. mother.
2, She bought him a present. 2. She bought a present for him.
3. Ske gave him a book. 3. She gave a book to him.
She \__gave | book
\@2) [him je.
From these sentences it is seen that the indirect object
is practically a phrase modifier of the predicate, having the
preposition zo or for omitted. In analyzing, call the in-
direct object a modifier of the predicate, and place it as
such in the diagram.
Exercise.
Diagram the following sentences, mention the object of
each, and tell for whom or what the object is intended:
Edith made her del aa a ee
Will you Sa do me a favor?
The child t d him truth.
Forgive pos debts, “
Sidney gave the dying soldier a drink,
The secretary sent Dr. Noss an invitation,
Mr. Rhinehart teaches us music.
You can’t teach an old dog new tricks.
David sold the deacon a horse.
I wish you good luck.
Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul.
—
SO SPY AN AWD 4H
-
~
35. REVIEW.
Exercise. Select the complements in the following and
tell the kind of each; also point out the indirect objects:
1. The camel is a native of Arabia.
2. Camels are patient animals and carry heavy burdens.
58 GRAMMAR
3. The merchant gave the boy a chance.
4. He made the boy his secretary.
5. By industry he became a prosperous man.
6. Idleness is the mother of all the vices.
7. Poverty wants few things, avarice everything.
“8. Nothing is profitable that is dishonest.
4. Faithfulness to duty brought him his reward.
10. Enthusiasm makes men happy, keeps them hopeful.
11. Living is not breathing; it is acting.
1g. Hunger makes coarse meats delicate.
. A good cause makes a stout heart and a strong arm.
14. Work wields the weapons of power, wins the palm of success,
and wears the crown of victory.
15. Each moment's use is an investment made for profit or loss in
the future.
TEST QUESTIONS. 1. What is meant bya verb of complete predi-
cation? 2. What is a copulative verb? 3. Does a copulative verb
ever have an object? 4. Why are some complements called attri-
butes? 5. How many kinds of complements are there? 6. What
parts of speech may be used as complements? 7. What is an indi-
rect object? 8. How does a factitive complement differ from an
attribute complement? 9. From an object complement? 10. Write,
or select from your reader, five sentences to illustrate the use of the
object and five to show the use of the attribute. 11. Write or select
two sentences to show the use of the factitive complement, and two
sentences to show the.use of the indirect object.
36. INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES.
From the foregoing lessons you have become familiar
with the nine different parts of speech, and have learned
their uses as the simple elements, or parts, of the sentence ;
namely, Subject, Predicate, Complement, Modifier, and
Connective. ;
Besides these nine parts of speech there are two other
kinds of words which, although xot separate parts of speech,'
THE INFINITIVE 59
have been given individual names. They belong to the
verb, and are classified as forms of the verb; but both
‘may be used ¢o do the work of some other part of speech in
the sentence. The one is called the Infinitive and the other
the Participle.
37. THE INFINITIVE.
Using the proper form of the verb study, fill the blanks
in the following sentences :
1. The boy ______ grammar.
2. Both boys _____ grammar.
3. The teacher expects the boy to ______ grammar,
4. The teacher expects both boys to ________ grammar.
How many boys are spoken of in sentence 1? In sentence 2?
How does the form of the verb in 1 differ from the form used in 2?
Why is it necessary to use a different form in 2? Is the form you
inserted in 3 the same as the form you inserted in 4? How many
boys are spoken of in 3? How many in 4?
The forms inserted in the first and second sentences are predicate
verbs. Those inserted in the third and fourth sentences are infini-
tives. So far as form is concerned, what is true of predicate verbs -
that is not true of infinitives?
The predicate verb often changes its form, showing
‘whether the subject denotes one or more than one. In
other words, it is limited in form by its subject. Because
of this limitation, predicate verbs are known as Finite, or
Limited, verbs. The zzfinztive, however, never changes its
form because of its subject.
All forms of the verb except the infinitive and participle
are finite. Infinitive means not finite, or not limited.
Examine the following :
.60 GRAMMAR
1. boy \ studies | grammar.
| The ;
boy| \ to study | grammar.
2. teacher) expects [ee
The
In the diagram of sentence 1, what is the predicate, or finite, verb?
What is its subject? In the diagram of sentence 2, what is the predi-
cate, or finite, verb? What is its subject? What does the teacher
expect? Does she expect the boy? Does she herself expect to
study? What then is the object complement? How many parts has
the object complement? Why is Zo study not a real predicate verb?
A predicate verb tells or asserts something about its subject.
Does ¢o study tell or assert anything about its subject doy, or does
it merely name the action that the teacher expects of him?
In what way does the diagram of the boy to study grammar differ
from the diagram of Zhe boy studies grammar? This difference
indicates that the infinitive zo study is not areal predicate. It merely
names the action to be performed by the subject and assumes the
doing of it.
DEFINITION. An Infinitive is an unlimited verb form commonly
preceded by to and used to name an action or state without asserting
it of a subject.
The zo is omitted when the infinitive follows the verbs bid, JSeel,
hear, let, make, and see, sometimes also after dare, help, need,
please, and a few others; also in a few special idiomatic construc-
tions.
Write sentences using these verbs in such manner that they are
followed by the infinitive without Zo.
An infinitive may be used in a sentence as an assumed
predicate, or it may fill the office of a noun, an adjective,
or an adverb.
Exercise.
Analyze or diagram the following numbered sentences,
and tell how each infinitive is used:
THE INFINITIVE 61
t. The teacher wanted the boy to go to school.
The whole phrase Joy fo go to school is the
Soy | \ to go object of wanted. To go is an infinitive
the \toschool used as an assumed predicate. To school is
an adverbial phrase modifier of zo go. Note
| Zee that the subject and predicate lines do not
connect the infinitive with its subject, there
being no predication.
teacher\ wanted
REMARK. The word Zo used before the infinitive verb go, is called
the Sign of the Infinitive, and so go taken as a whole is called the
Infinitive. When the infinitive is used> as an adjective or as an
adverb the sign of the infinitive shows a relation between the modify-
ing phrase and the word it modifies (see Sentences 4 and 5).
2. To study zs to improve.
To study |. ( to improve To study and to improve are infinitives
es hes ——— used as nouns; zo stedy being the subject
of the sentence and ¢o improve the attribute.
3. The dog loves to follow his master.
To follow is an infinitive used as a noun;
z like a noun it is the object of the verb doves ;
_dog \loves [25, and like a verb it takes the complement
The master.
to follow | master
Seay
4. Every attempt to capture the wolf failed.
The infinitive zo capture is used as an adjective
modifier; like an adjective it modifies the meaning
attempt _\_failed of the noun a¢temfi, and like a verb it takes the
[Every complement wolf. The infinitive sign ¢o is here
to capture | wolf used like a preposition to indicate a relation between
|the the phrase capture the wolf and the noun attempt ;
but in the diagram, to preserve the form of the in-
finitive, this function of ¢o is not indicated.
3. Lucy went to visit her cousin.
Lucy \ went The infinitive ¢o visit is here used like an adverb
+ |2o visit | cousin to modify the verb wet. The infinitive sign is
er used as in the fourth sentence.
6. They expect Tom to win the prize.
7. Tom expects to win the prize.
8. Tom is anxious to win the prize.
62 : GRAMMAR
g. To win the prize is an honor.
10. The captain ordered the troops to advance.
11. Lucy was anxious to see her cousin.
12. Henry went to see the fire, (Went why?)
13. The farmer has apples to sell.
14. To shoot at crows is powder thrown away. — Gay.
15. To converse with historians is to keep good company.
— Bolingbroke.
16. To throw perfume on the violet is wasteful excess,
17. Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast. — Congreve.
18. lt was his duty to obey promptly.
s
to obey The infinitive zo odey is used as a noun,
|erompily - it being in apposition with the subject iz,
i= was dus which introduces the sentence.
[fas
19.. For him to obey prompily ts a duty.
Por The entire phrase for him to obey promptly
him| \to obey is the subject of the sentence. The phrase
— ~ (promptly ‘ him to obey is introduced by for, following
i —— | | is\ duty
an idiom of the language. The infinitive zo
|e. obey is an assumed predicate,
20. It is not all of life to live.
21. It was his aim to settle the strike.
22, For man to bear his fate is to conquer.
23. For a man to die rich is a disgrace.
24. Perseverance will help to conquer our difficulties.
38. THE PARTICIPLE.
The boy studying his lesson will improve.
boy A will improve
The
studying | lesson
a
Note the use of the word studying in this sentence. Like an infin-
itive, studying expresses action without asserting it of a subject.
THE PARTICIPLE 63
Like a transitive verb it takes an object complement; and like
an adjective it is used to modify the meaning of anoun. Oi what
noun does it modify the meaning? Point out its object comple-
ment.
From its twofold nature of verb and adjective, studying
is called a Participle, a term that means /o share or to par-
ticipate in.
A participle may partake of the nature of a noun ; as,
Studying one’s lesson is profitable.
Studying | lesson
one’s
is\ profitable
Here the word studying is a participle used as a noun,! it being the
subject of the sentence. Like a verb it has an object complement,
lesson.
DEFINITION. A Participle is a form of the verb (not preceded
by to) that partakes of the nature of an adjective or of a noun.
Participles, when modified by adjectives, ]ose their power to gov-
ern as verbs, and become abstract nouns.
PARTICIPLE: Breaking she wheel
ABSTRACT Noun: Zhe breaking of the wheel i ane
PARTICIPLE: Eating cg , : :
ABSTRACT Noun: Rapid eating brie ke avoided,
1 Participles used as nouns are similar in construction to infinitives used as
nouns. Thus,
To study
is profitable.
Studying
The infinitive and participle used in this construction are sometimes classed
as Verbal Nouns. When thus classified, the term Gerund is used by some gramma-
rians to designate the izg form of the verbal. Others prefer to consider both Zo
study and studying infinitives, and designate the latter as the Infinitive in ing.
The classification above has the advantage of being more easily comprehended
by the pupil.
64 GRAMMAR
Participles when used immediately before nouns whose meaning
they modify become adjectives ; thus,
A roaring sound was heard.
Whispering tongues can poison truth.
The speaker was received with ringing cheers.
Exercises.
Ex. 1. ln the following sentences classify the indicated
words and tell how each ts used in the sentence:
1. Rowing a boat is healthful exercise.
z. The rowing of a boat is healthful exercise.
3. Constant smoking is injurious,
4. He was pleased at winning a prize.
5. Reading steadily affects the eyes,
6. Keep your working power at its maximum.
7. See! there is Jackson, standing like a stone wall.
8. The soldier was promoted for doing his duty.
9. Toiling, rejoicing, sorrowing, onward through life he goes.
1o, Where boasting ends, there dignity begins. — Young.
11, It is thinking makes what weread ours. — Locke.
12, There is no great achievement that is not the result of patient
working and waiting. —/. G. Holland.
Ex. I. Analyze or diagram the following sentences and
explain the use of cach participle :
1. A stream, winding through the meadow, flows into a spar-
kling lake.
stream _\\_flows Winding is a participle used as an
A * |into.| lake adjective” to modify the meaning of
[einai : Sparkling stream.
through | meadow |a Note. Sparkling is an adjective modi-
|the fying Jake.
2. Doing right ts obeying God’s law.
obeying | law
Doing | right : .
ae oe | is God's
THE PARTICIPLE 65
3. By doing nothing we learn to do ill.
we | learn jean ime
By doing nothing
Praising all alike is praising none. .
And seeing the multitudes, he went up into a mountain.
By praising a man we sometimes injure him.
Mounting his horse, the general rode away.
The boy was punished for running away.
The squirrels playing about the Capitol are very tame.
He heard his daughter's voice singing in the village choir.
SP Pas
I
PUNCTUATION. See Composition 53, pp. 284-286, for the use of
the comma with non-restrictive expressions, and then account for the
commas used in sentences 1 and 7.:
Note. Whena participle with its modifiers is used to do the work
of a noun, the whole expression may be modified as a noun; as,
11. Good reading aloud is an accomplishment.
reading
\ | aloud
Good
ace
12. Your writing the letter so neatly secured you the position.
writing | letter
[neatly y | [the
|s0. ‘Your modifies the meaning of the
Your whole phrase.
ecured | position
\¢ for) | you |the
13. Much depends on your going now. °
14. They were sure of winning a prize.
15. Tom’s running away displeased his parents.
r child \\ came \ running
16, The child came running. — ae
Aloud is an adverb modifying the
meaning of the participle reading.
Good is .an adjective modifying the
is\ accomplishment whole expression reading aloud.
an
Running is a participle used to complete the predicate and modify the subject
noun child.
1 Some grammarians, however, say runing is used as an adverb to modify
came ; others call it an “adverbial predicate adjective.”
STEPS ENG. TWO.— 5.
66 GRAMMAR
17. They kept him waiting.
ais : Waiting is a participle used as a fac-
Th kept ti h
A et as Sal titive complement, and modifies Aim.
18, The little stream ran rippling through the meadow.
19. I can feel my heart beating,
zo. Life again knocked laughing at the door.
21. The prisoners advanced, weeping, praying, and singing hymns.
— Butterworth,
39. FORMS OF THE PARTICIPLE.
How do the participles in the preceding lesson end ?
The Present Participle. A participle ending in ing is
called the Present Participle, because it denotes action or
being as still in progress ; as, playing, riding.
The present participle is frequently used both as an adjective and
as a noun,
The Past Participle. When a participle denotes action
or being as finished, it is called a Past Participle; as,
played, ridden.
The past participle generally ends in d, ed, ¢, x, or ex. Its chief
use is in forming the passive voice and the secondary ténses of the
verb (Gr. 96, 110, pp. 156, 181). It is sometimes used as an adjective,
but never as a noun.
The Perfect Participle. When a participle denotes
action or being as completed just before the time repre-
sented by the predicate of the sentence, it is called a Per-
fect Participle; as, having played, having been playing,
having been played.
The perfect participle may be used either as an adjective or asa
noun.
THE PARTICIPLE 67
Present PARTICIPLE, Past Parriciece. PerrsecT PARTICcIPLeE.
Having played
Playing . Played {Having been playing
Having been played
Having ridden
Riding Ridden { Having been riding
Having been ridden
Exercise. ~
Tell the different kinds of participles in the following
sentences ; then analyze or diagram the sentences to show
the use of each participle : :
. John, driving through the park, met his uncle.
. John, driven through the park, met his uncle.
. John, having driven through the park, met his uncle.
There came a thoughtful man,
Searching nature’s secrets, far and wide.
5. The ground-pine curled its pretty wreath,
Running over the club-moss burrs. — Emerson.
6. Plunged in the battery smoke
Right through the lines they broke. — Zexnyson.
7. Genius is an immense capacity for taking trouble. — Cardyde.
8 But winter lingering chills the lap of May. — Goldsmith.
9. Winds came whispering lightly from the west
Kissing, not ruffling, the blue deep’s serene. — Byron.
10, I shall cheerfully bear the reproach of having descended below
the dignity of history.— Macaulay.
11. Slow rises worth, by poverty depress’d. —-.S. Johnson.
Ped
40. REVIEW.
TEST QUESTIONS, 1. What two forms of the verb have individual.
names? 2, Why are predicate verbs known as finite verbs? 3. What
forms of the verb are not finite? 4. In the sentence ‘“ They ordered.
him to go,” why is zo go not a real predicate? 5. How many uses.
may the infinitive have ina sentence? 6, Write or select sentences.
68 GRAMMAR
to illustrate each of the different uses of the infinitive. 7. Define a
participle. 8. In what respect do participles differ from infinitives?
9. In what respect are participles like verbs? 10, What uses may
participles have in the sentence? 11. Select sentences from your
reader to show the different uses of the participle. 12. How many
forms has the participle? 13. Name and describe each. 14. Com-
pose or select ten sentences, five containing present participles and
five containing past participles, and tell howeach is used. 15. Select
or compose five sentences containing perfect participles.
‘,
41. PHRASES AND CLAUSES.
4
Expanded Parts of Speech. The elements of a sentence
consist of the parts of speech of which the sentence is
composed. Two or more different parts of speech, how-
ever, may be taken together as a single element and used
to do the work of: one part of speech.
Observe the following sentences and note that the single
adjective Zovest ig expanded into groups of two or more
parts of speech which, taken together, do the work of the
single adjective :
1. Ax honest man speaks the truth.
2. A man of honesty speaks the truth.
3. A man that is honest speaks the truth.
Observe also that the group of words in the second sen-
tence, of honesty, does not contain a finite verb, or predicate,
and that the group of words in the third sentence, shat is
honest, does contain a predicate.
The group of words in the second sentence is called
a Phrase. The group -in the third sentence is called
a Clause.
In what respect are they alike? How do they differ?
PHRASES AND CLAUSES 69
DEFINITIONS. A Phrase is a group of words that does not con-
tain a predicate and that is used to do the work of a single part of
speech.! ;
A Clause is a group of words that contains a predicate and that is
used to do the work of a single part of speech.
¢
Exercise.
‘
Tell which of the following groups of words are phrases
and which are clauses:
1. In the White House. 11. Where the gray birches
2. Where the President lives. wave.
3. Standing in the doorway. 12, In front of the train.
4. Busied with public affairs. 13. Before the train started.
5. Before leaving the city.. 14. When the train started.
6. Before he left the city. 15. As soon as the train started.
7. To enjoy his vacation. 16. To ring the bell.
8. At the seashore. 17. Ringing the bell.
g. Among the Thousand Is- 18, If the bell rings.
lands. 19. Because the bell rings.
10, Of the St. Lawrence. zo. He having rung the bell.
42. KINDS ,OF PHRASES AND CLAUSES.
Note the indicated phrases and clauses in the sentences
at the top of the next page, and tell for what part of speech
each does the work :
1 A distinction should be made between a literary phrase and a grammatical
phrase.
A grammatical phrase is made up of two or more different parts of speech,
exclusive of the finite verb, that can be parsed separately, and that taken together
do the work of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.
A literary phrase is any group of related words that convey an idea without
making a predication; as, Narrow walls of rock, From bowlder to bowlder.
(Comp. 88, p. 328.)
fo : GRAMMAR
. An earnest man finds a way.
. A man in earnest finds a way.
. A man that is in earnest finds a way.
. A tree grows there.
. A tree grows in that place.
. A tree grows where it is planted.
7. Labor brings neward.
8. To labor brings reward.
9. Whoever labors deserves reward.
Aun hw ns
A phrase or a clause'takes its particular name from the
part of speech whose work it performs.
In earnest is called an Adjective Phrase because it is
used as an adjective to modify, or make more definite, the
meaning of the noun saz in the second sentence.
DEFINITION. An Adjective Phrase is one that does the work of
an adjective.
In that place is an Adverbial Phrase, used to modify the
meaning of the verb grows in the fifth sentence.
DEFINITION. An Adverbial Phrase is one that does the work of
an adverb.
To labor is a Noun Phrase, used as the subject of the
eighth sentence.
DEFINITION. A Noun Phrase is one that does the work of a
noun,
Point out the Adjective Clause in the above sentences.
What is an adjective clause? (Make your own definition.)
Point out the Adverbial Clause in the above sentences.
Define an adverbial clause. .
Point out the Noun Clause in the above sentences.
What is a noun clause ?
REMARK, Phrases are sometimes named from the part of speech
‘that introduces them; thus, zz earnest may be called a Prepositional
Phrase, it being introduced by the preposition zz. This, however,
PHRASES AND CLAUSES 71
gives undue prominence to the structure of the phrase, rather than to
its use, and gives prepositional phrases, owing to their frequent occur-
rence, special prominence over others.
It is the use, or office, of a part of speech that determines its im-
portance in the sentence, and since a phrase is used to do the work of
a part of speech, it is better that it take its name from the part of
speech whose work it performs. This is true also of clauses.
, Exercise.
Turn to p. 308 and select from the description of “ The
Eel Trap” five adjective phrases and ten adverbial phrases,
and tell what part of speech each modifies.
43. NOUN PHRASES.
Note how the phrases are diagrammed in the following,
tell how each is used in the sentence, and for what part of
speech it stands:
1. Zo ask him a question was to wind up a spring in his
memory.
to wind up | spring
To ask | question | iz | memory ja
Tepe Te N ee\ (aE
2. The child wanted to ask him a question.
to ask | question
| (of) | him
child \ wanted
The
3. The child had no idea of asking him a question.
child A had | idea
[70
[The
4. Lt 7s hard to ask him a question.
asking | ashing | question
(of) | him if | Seite Te
__ to ask | question
It [lary hime he \ hard
72 GRAMMAR
The subject of the first sentence is the phrase /o ash
him a question, and the attribute complement is the phrase
to wind up a spring in his memory.
In the second sentence the phrase zo ask him a question
is used as the object complement ; and in the third sen-
tence the phrase asking him a question is used as the
object of the preposition of. ,
Thus it is clear that a noun phrase may be used as
subject, as object complement, as attribute complement,
as object of a preposition, and in apposition.
Exercise.
Diagram the following sentences according to examples
given above:
. To work industriously is to gain promotion.
. The child hopes to win the prize.
. The child is capable of winning the prize.
His winning the prize depends on his effort.
. Over the fence is out.
All shouted, “‘ Over the fence!”
. In the field is over the fence.
Politeness is to do and say the kindest: things in the kindest
ON ANAW WH
way.
g. To improve the golden moment of opportunity is the great art
of life.
10.» To labor rightly and earnestly is to walk in the golden path -
of contentment.
44. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES.
Analyze each of the following sentences ; note how the
clauses are connected, and how the connecting words are
indicated in the diagram :
PHRASES AND CLAUSES 73
He \_Zeves | poor
1. He who ordained the [the
Sabbath loves the poor. who \\ ordained | Sabbath
[ze
OrAL ANALysIs. The main part of the sentence as already given
(page 38). Who ordained the Sabbath is an adjective clause used
to modify the pronoun fe. The connective is who.
ge Cy This ts \ artist
2. This ts the artist whose ; A \
you\admired | work | the ‘
work you admired,
3. The freeman ts he whom
the truth makes free.
the
to-days
4. Our to-days and yester- md \_are \ blocks
days are the blocks with yesterdays / the
which we build. Our |. we A build
meh wees
man fis \ Happy
5. Happy ts the man that the
jindeth wisdom. that_f. jindeth | wisdom
Observe that the words used to connect the adjective clauses in
the preceding exercise are pronouns: who, whose, whom, which,
and ¢hat.
What pronoun is used as a connective in the first sentence? To
what word in the main part of the sentence does it directly relate as
its antecedent? What pronoun is the connective in each of the other
four sentences, and to what antecedent does each relate? Why are
these pronouns placed on a dotted line (.......... )in thediagram? Since
they fill the office of both a conjunction and a pronoun, they may be
properly called Conjunctive Pronouns, but
They are commonly called Relative Pronouns.
Tell why they are so called.
74 GRAMMAR
Exercise.
Expand the adjectives in the following sentences to
adjective clauses:
1. Health and plenty cheer the industrious man.
z. Regular exercise is the secret of health.
3. A wounded soldier lay on the field of battle.
4. A wise son maketh a glad father.
5. A narrow mind begets obstinacy.
+45. THE CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB.
Notice in the following that the connective when is
equivalent, to the adjective phrase on which:
x
L remember the day when (on which) they sailed.
Lf remember | day _ I \__remember |, day
I. the * : the
when = they _\\_ sailed ‘
. he OP eee | [em | which
ee EN \
The use of wen in this sentence is the same as that of the phrase
on which; that is, it connects the clause and as an adverb it modifies
the verb saz/ed. A connective that does the work of both a conjunc-
tion and an adverb is called a Conjunctive Adverb, and if desired its
use both as a connective and as a modifier may be shown in the dia-
gram (see diagram 2, page 76).
Exercise.
Analyze or diagram the following sentences and tell the
kind of connective used in each:
1. This is the house that Jack built.
%,. They have rights who dare (to) maintain them.
3. We visited Titusville, where the first oil well was sunk.
PHRASES AND CLAUSES 75
4. No one is useless in this world who lightens the burden of it
for another. he. woulda dh aodecle)
. There are parts of Califorstawhere roses are always in bloom.
é Smiles, which are the soul’s sunshine, cost little or nothing.
_7. Longfellow, who wrote beautiful poems, lived in Cambridge.
§. Many of the poems that he wrote were written for children.
g. Children celebrate the day when he was born.
1o. He lived in a house where Washington had lived.
(1. He lives most who thinks most.
12, Those who bring sunshine to the lives of others can not keep it
from themselves.
13. He that would thrive must rise at five)
14. He whose house is made of glass must not throw stones at
another. :
15. He only is exempt from failure who makes no effort.
©. Know ye the land where the cypress and myrtle are emblems of
deeds that are done in their clime ?)
PUNCTUATION. Give a reason for the use of the commas in sen-
tences 3, 6, 7. Why are-the clauses in the other sentences not set off
by commas? (See Comp. 53, pp. 284-286, for punctuation.)
46. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES.
1. Since an adverbial clause does the work of an ad-
verb, it may be used to modify the meaning of a verb, an
adjective, or an adverb.
Note the adverbial clauses in the following sentences,
determine what part of speech each modifies, and point
out the words used as connectives :
1. Wo one despises him because _one \ despises him
he is poor. [2g || Pecause..
he j is \ poor
2. What is worse than dishon- What)is\ worse
esty 2 [an a.
dishonesty (és) \ (bad)
76 GRAMMAR
3. He is so dishonest that no one He \is\ dishonest
trusts him. ; 2e
that
one \trusts | him
[no
In these sentences the connectives because, than, and
that are neither pronouns nor adverbs. They are used
merely to introduce clauses and to connect them with the
elements they modify. Connectives of this kind are called
Subordinate Conjunctions.
Can you tell why they are so called?
2. When a subordinate conjunction denotes time, place,
manner, or degree, it is usually classified as a Conjunctive
Adverb. If desired, its use both as a conjunction and as
an adverb may be shown in the diagram by placing it ona
dotted line as in diagram 2 below. Sometimes it is desir-
able to show this double use.
Go where duty calls thee,
A (You) \ Go 2 (You) A Go
| where cease duty h. calls | thee
duty \\ calls | thee SS
oe where
To THE TEACHER. The classification of the conjunctive adverb is of slight
grammatical importance, and its distinction in the diagram may be omitted if de-
sired. :
Care should be taken that such distinctions do not take rank over more impor-
tant ideas, and thus destroy the simplicity and value of the subject.
* The diagram has no equal as a device for saving time in the recitation and for
prompting pupils to make a careful study of the use and meaning of each element
in the sentence, but it should never lead to distinctions that bear no importance to
the interpretation of thought or to its correct expression.
Exercise.
Determine the adverbial clauses in the following sen-
tences, tell what part of speech each modifies, point out
the connectives, and diagram the sentences:
PHRASES AND CLAUSES 77
¥ 1. He succeeds because he is industrious.
2. What is better than success (is) ?}
_3. He is so industrious that he succeeds. \
% 4. The rain is falling where they lie.
5.1 Tobacco is an American plant, as Raleigh found it here.
*%6. Heaven’s blue is larger than its clouds (are).
7. Childhood shows the man as morning shows the day.
( 8. If you fear difficulties you will fail.
|. When school commenced, Henry was in his seat.
1o. He remained in his seat, though he was quite ill.
tr, Where the heart is well guarded, temptation can not enter.
12, Before men made us‘citizens,Jgreat Nature made us men.
13. No nation can be destroyed while it possesses a good home
e
C 14. Man can be great when great occasions call.
5. Laziness travels so slowly that poverty soon overtakes him.
16. Wagner, when he composed “ Siegfried,” arrayed himself in
medieval garb.
47. THE ABSOLUTE PHRASE.
An Absolute Phrase has for its principal word a noun or
a pronoun that is the subject only of a participle. An
absolute phrase is an abridged clause, and is usually
adverbial in office. Thus,
Because our time was occupied we could attend
i not
(adverbial clause), we could not eeriten
attend. time _}\ was occupied
our
Our time being occupied (abso- we__\_could attend
lute phrase), we could not attend. not | nn.
1 In sentence 5 and some others the clauses may be said to modify the princi-
pal member as a whole. In diagramming such sentences the clause is treated as
though it modified the verb.
78
GRAMMAR
The use of the absolute phrase should not be confused
with the use of a participial phrase as‘ the subject of a
sentence,
comma.
AxssoLuTe PHRASE.
(Set off by comma.)
1, He (not his) having
arrived, the meeting was
disorganized.
meeting \\_was disorganized
| the ae
He | \ having arrived
2. They having returned,
all rejoiced.
3. L refusing to comply,
they withdrew.
An absolute phrase is always set off by a
A participial phrase used as a subject is never
set off by a comma (Comp. 53, pp. 284-286).
Thus:
PartTiciPiAL PHRASE AS SUBJECT.
(Not set off by comma.)
1. His (not he) having
arrived disorganized the
meeting,
having arrived \ disorg’d | meeting
| His | the
2. Their having returned
caused all to rejoice.
3: My refusing to comply
made them withdraw.
48. NOUN CLAUSES.
Examine the following sentences and note how the
clauses are used:
1. Where the violets bloom is a secret.
violets \ bloom
A [en
2.
This _\_is \
| Where
This 7s where the violets bloom,
| the
\ is \ secret
Le
violets \ bloom
where
PHRASES AND CLAUSES 79
) 3. f know where the violets bloom.
violets A ‘bloom
the | where
4. Thave no knowledge of where the violets bloom.
Th know
I i\_Aave | knowledge
no
violets \\ bloom
| the | where
of
5. The secret, where the violets bloom, was discovered by Helen,
VE olets\ bloom
ead | where
secret= fe discovered
The by | Helen
These sentences show the use of a noun clause, (1) as
subject; (2) as attribute complement; (3) as object com-
plement; (4) as object of a preposition; (5) as an apposi-
tive.
Note in the fifth sentence that the clause denotes the same thing
as does the noun secre¢, which it explains.
A clause placed after a noun or pronoun to denote the
same person or thing, and to explain or show more clearly
what is meant by the noun or pronoun, is called an Apposi-
tive Noun Clause. (See page 20 for meaning of apposztion.)
Exercise.
In the following sentences tell how the noun clauses are
used. Diagram each’ sentence, observing the examples
given above:
1. How he escaped is still a mystery.
z. Reputation is what! we seem.
1 What is an attribute complement of seem.
80 GRAMMAR
3. Trouble teaches how much there? is in manhood.
4. The good is always the road to what is true.
5. The fact that lightning is electricity was discovered by Frank-
lin,
6. Whatever makes men good Christians,? makes them good citi-
zens.2-— Webster.
7. Poor Richard’s saying, “Lost time is never found again,”
should be remembered by all.
8. Who never tries will never win.
9. What is done wisely is done well.
10, Who keeps one end in view makes all things serve.
' 49. THE STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE.
‘We have learned in Part I. that sentences are classified
according to their form and use into declarative, interroga-
tive, imperative, and exclamatory. We are now prepared
to study the sentence according to its structure, or build.
50. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
sun A rises
1. The sun rises. The
2. The sun rises and sets. sun \_/ and
ihe Naas.
SUN
3. The sunand moonrise. frm
4. The sun and moon rise and set. =>
1 There is an expletive.
2 Christians and citizens are factitive complements.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 81
Each of these sentences consists of but one combination
of subject and predicate.
In the second sentence the predicate is compound. What is a
compound predicate? Which sentence contains a compound subject?
Which contains both a compound subject and a compound predicate?
These sentences are called Simple Sentences.
DEFINITION. A Simple Sentence is one that contains but one
subject and one predicate. Either or both of these may be
compound.
It should be remembered that this classification depends wholly
upon the structure of the sentence, and not upon the simplicity or
complexity of thought. A sentence may be long and involved,
having both the subject and the predicate modified by words and
phrases; yet it is simple as long as it contains but one subject and
one predicate.
Exercise.
The following are simple sentences ; analyze or diagram
each:
1. The sun and moon rise in the east and set in the west.
sun a rise
| feast
ae the
sp ices EE | NG err
The | in | west
| the
2. The Dutch mansion was usually built of brick.
3. Its gable-end, receding in regular steps from the base of the
roof to the summit, faced the street.
.4. The front door was decorated with a huge brass knocker, bur-
nished daily.
5. The Connecticut mistress spun, wove, and stored her household
linens in crowded chests.
6. The Dutch matron scrubbed and scoured her polished floor and
woodwork.
STEPS ENG, TWO. —6.
82 : GRAMMAR
7. The happy burghers breakfasted at dawn, dined at eleven, and
retired at sunset.
8. Along the Hudson the great patroons, supported by their
immense estates and crowds of tenants, kept up the customs of the
best European society of the day.
51. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE.
1. Where law ends, tyranny begins.
tyranny \\_begins
Where
law_\\_ends
2. Whoso diggeth a pit shall fall therein.
Whoso_\_diggeth | pit
[a shall fall
| therein
Each of these sentences contains two combinations of
subject and predicate.
What are these combinations in the first sentence? In the second
sentence?
In the first sentence the part tyranny begins contains
the principal subject and predicate of the sentence and is
called the main part, or Principal Member, of the sentence.
The clause Where /aw ends also contains a subject and
predicate, but they are of lower rank than the subject and
predicate of the principal member. In use, a clause is
always subordinate, that is, of lower rank, since it does the
work of a single part of speech. It usually depends on
some other part of the sentence for its meaning.
In the second sentence the principal member is the
entire sentence, and the clause forms a part of it—the
subject.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 83
To THE TEACHER. The term clause is loosely used in many text-books on
Rhetoric and Grammar to name any part of a sentence containing a subject and
predicate. In this book the use of the term is restricted to subordinate proposi-
tions, and the term member is used to name the principal, or coordinate, parts of
a sentence.
A sentence containing one principal member and one or
more clauses, used either as a part of the principal mem-
ber or as a modifier in the sentence, is called a Complex
Sentence. More briefly,
DEFINITION. A Complex Sentence is one that contains one prin-
cipal member and one or more clauses.
Exercise.
Tell which of the following sentences are simple and
which are complex. Give reason for your classpfication :
1. Perseverance is the road to success.
2. They conquer who believe they can.
3. Demosthenes was a noted man of antiquity.
4. Conduct and courage lead to honor.
5. Smooth runs the water where the brook runs deep.
Knowledge is, in every country, the surest basis of public
happinese. — Washington.
7. God has made America the schoolhouse of the world.
8. Those who make the worst use of their time complain most
of its shortness.
g. A fault which humbles a man is of more use to him than a
good action which puffs him up with pride.— 7homas Wilson.
to. At the workingman’s house, hunger looks in but dares not
enter. — Franklin.
11. To be happy at home is the ultimate result of ail ambition.
— Johnson.
12. These wintry nights, against my window pane, Nature, with
busy pencil, draws designs of leaves and blossoms, ferns and vines,
which she will make when summer comes again,
13. The world is all gates, all opportunities, strings of tension
waiting to be struck. — Emerson.
Lay
84 GRAMMAR
52. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.
1. A lot was cleared.
2. A fence was built.
3. The future president split the rails.
Notice that these sentences are closely related in
meaning, the second and the third being a continuation
of the thought expressed by the first.
When two or more sentences are closely related in
thought they may be united as Members of one sentence ;
as,
A lot was cleared, a fence was built, and the future president
split the rails, ;
‘lot \ wes cleared fence \ was built president \\ split | rails
[Mee |Z and (future [ze
the :
No one of these members depends on another for its
meaning ; each retains its own subject and predicate ; and
all are equally important. Hence they are principal mem-
bers, and are called coordinate because they are of equal
“order” or rank. Codrdinate means equal in rank.
A sentence made up of codrdinate members is called a
Compound Sentence.
Any or all the members of a compound sentence may contain one
or more clauses, thus making the member, or members, complex
but the sentence is still compound.
Refer to the illustrative sentence above, and note that each member
is a simple sentence.
Sentences 1 and 2 on the next page are compound.
Note that in 1 one member is simple and the other complex.
1 If all the members of’ a compound sentence can not be diagrammed on
one line, the connection may be indicated as follows: fence \ was built
aaa president \ split | rails
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 85
Which member is simple, and which complex? How many mem-
bers has the second sentence? Are these members simple or
complex?
1. A cruel story runs on wheels, and every hand oils the wheels
as they run.
story \\ runs hand oils | wheels
cruel [oz | wheels jane | every “| the
A
2. I slept and dreamed that life is beauty;
L woke and found that life ts duty.
slept that
L and life \ is\ beauty
dreamed eh Sey
DEFINITION. A Compound Sentence is one that is composed of
codrdinate members. Each of these may be simple or complex.
Exercises.
Ex. I. Select from Composition 50, 80 (pp. 278, 270,
318), five simple sentences, five complex sentences, and five
compound sentences.
Ex. II. Classify the following sentences as to structure
(simple, complex, or compound), and give reasons for your
classification:
. Raindrops and rills have their work to do.
We have met the enemy, and they are ours.
He who praises everybody praises nobody. — Johnson.
My father would not go abroad, nor would he allow me to go.
. Slow are the steps of freedom, but her feet turn never back-
wards. — Lowel.
6. Asingle grateful thought towards heaven is the most complete
prayer. — Lessing.
preys
86 GRAMMAR
7. IfI can’t pray, I will not make believe. — Longfellow.
8. There is always room for a man of force, and he makes room
for many. — Emerson.
g. Capital is not what a man has, but what a man is,
10. No fountain is so small that heaven may not be imaged on its
bosom. — Hawthorne.
11, Even those who do nothing which a reasonable man would call
labor imagine themselves to be doing something, and there is no one
who would willingly be: thought quite an idler in the world.
; — Humboldt.
12. ‘Honesty is the best policy,” but he who acts on that prin-
ciple is not an honest man. — Archbishop Whately.
13. He is not worthy of the honey-comb who shuns the hive be-
cause the bees have stings. — Shakespeare.
14. The busy world shoves angrily aside
The man who stands with arms akimbo set,
Until the occasion tells him what to do;
And he who waits to have his task marked out
Shall die and leave his errand unfulfilled.
15. The noblest men that live on earth,
Are men whose hands are brown with toil;
Who, backed by no ancestral graves,
Hew down the woods, and till the soil;
And win thereby a prouder name
Than follows king’s or warrior’s fame.
53. COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS.
The members of compound sentences being coordinate
(equal in rank), the conjunctions (Gr. 26, p. 43) used to
unite them are called Codrdinate Conjunctions. The co-
érdinate conjunctions in most common use are and, or, nor,
and but.
Many words usually and naturally adverbs are sometimes used to
join grammatical structures of equal rank, and therefore become co-
6rdinate conjunctions. The most common ones are also, accordingly,
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 87
besides, consequently, else, furthermore, hence, however, likewise, more-
over, nevertheless, only, otherwise, still, then, therefore, so, and yet.
When these words are used as conjunctions, avd, or, nor, or but
can be substituted for them or supplied before them without materially
changing the meaning ; as,
1. The day is warm, nevertheless (codrd. conj.) zt zs pleasant,
may be changed to
The day is warm, but nevertheless (adverb) z¢ zs pleasant.
2. Be obedient, else (codrd. conj.) 7 wéll punish you, may be
changed to
Be obedient or else (adverb) J w7ll punish you.
3. He was determined, yet (codrd. conj.) ke was guiet, may be
changed to
He was determined, and yet (adverb) he was guiet.
54. MEMBERS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES RELATED
IN THOUGHT.
Care should be taken not to unite unrelated thoughts
in forming compound sentences, as has been done in the
following :
A lot was cleared, a fence was built, and Lincoln addressed the
people from the steps of the Capitol.
The fact stated in the last member of this sentence
bears no relation to the part that precedes, and should be
stated separately. (Comp. 50, pp. 280, 281.) Other ex-
amples of improper sentences are :
1. We went to cooking school on Friday, and Dewey captured
Manila.
2. Grandfather lives on a farm, the train went very fast, and
the day was pleasant, and Grandfather met us at the station.
— From a School Exercise.
88 GRAMMAR
Exercise.
From the following sets of simple sentences form complex
sentences, and then change each to a compound sentence.
Tell the kind of connective used with each sentence formed.
Exampie, The Coast Plain has many rivers. They afford good
water power.
Complex: Zhe Coast Plain has many rivers, which afford
good water power. The connective which is a relative pronoun.
Compound: Zhe Coast Plain has many rivers, and they afford
good water power. The connective azd is acoérdinate conjunction.
1. All these rivers are navigable. They run almost parallel with
one another.
2. We visited the great cathedral. There we saw the famous pic-
tures by Rubens.
-3. We stood in front of the tomb. The old guide told about the
last resting place of the Washingtons. ‘
4. We were in the steel works. We saw sheets of armor plate for
the battleship “ Pennsylvania.”
5. The work is perplexing and difficult. The workmen wear
thick leather gloves.
6. The cat’s away. The mice will play.
To THE TEACHER. Pupils should be given additional exercises in the analy-
sis and synthesis of sentences, as the need of the class requires. Numbers 13, 29,
and 52 of the Composition, pp. 238, 255, 282, and 283, will furnish good material for
such drill. The sentences should be analyzed, and the complex and compound
sentences resolved into simple sentences. “The teacher may select simple sentences
for the pupils to combine into complex or compound sentences.
55. SUMMARY OF THE SENTENCE,
STRUCTURE AND USE.
1. A Sentence is a thought completely expressed in words.
In writing, a sentence is marked at its close by a period,
an interrogation point, or an exclamation point.
SUMMARY OF THE SENTENCE 89
v
2. The Elements of the sentence are Subject, Predt-
cate, Complement, Modifier, and Connective.
Excepting the predicate and the connective, each of
these five elements may consist of a word, a phrase, or a
clause.
3. A Phrase is a group of words that does not contain
a predicate and that is used to do the work of a single part
of speech. (Gr. 41, p. 69.)
4. A Clause is a group of words that contains a predi-
cate and is used to do the work of a single part of speech.
(Gr. 41.)
5. According to its use or form, a sentence is Declara-
tive, Imperative, or [nterrogative ; also, it may or may not
be Exclamatory.
6. According to its structure, a sentence is Simple,
Complex, or Compound.
7. ASimple Sentence is one that contains but ove sub-
ject and ove predicate. Either or both of these may be.
compound. (Gr. 50, p. 81.)
8. A Complex Sentence is one that contains one prin-
cipal member and one or more clauses. (Gr. 51.)
9. A Compound Sentence is one that is made up of
coordinate members. (Gr. 52.) The members, being
equal in rank, are connected by codrdinate conjunctions,
expressed or understood.
10. A Coérdinate Conjunction connects words or groups
of words that are equal in rank, or are in the same gram-
matical construction.
11. A Subordinate Conjunction is one which, placed be-
fore a sentence, changes it into a clause, and, if the clause
is a modifier, joins it to whatever is modified.
go GRAMMAR
PUNCTUATION.
12. A sentence is punctuated according to its structure
and use.
13. A Simple Declarative Sentence states or declares
something, and, if not exclamatory, should be marked at
its close by a period ; if exclamatory, it should be marked
by an exclamation point. Thus,
1. Man is a wonderful piece of work.
z. He seems to enjoy himself very much.
3. What a wonderful piece of work ts man!
4. How he does enjoy himself!
14. A Simple Interrogative Sentence is one used to ask
a question, and, if not exclamatory, should be marked at
its close by an interrogation point. Thus,
* §. Wasn't that music grand?
6. Doesn't he enjoy himself!
15. A Simple Imperative Sentence is used to express a
command or an entreaty, and, if not exclamatory, should be
marked at its close by a pertod. Thus,
Cling to thy home.
Cling to thy home!
9. Close the door.
10. Close the door quick /
11. Lead us to some far-off sunny isle.
12, Lead us to victory or to death!
13. Send for a physician.
14. Send for a physician at once!
16. A Complex Declarative Sentence states or declares
something. It should be marked at its close by a period,
by an exclamation point, or by the terminal mark of a
direct quotation closing the sentence. Thus,
es
15. The man asked whether your son was at home.
16. The man asked, ‘Is your son at home?”
® SUMMARY OF THE SENTENCE gI
17. “Ls your son at home?” asked the gentleman.
18. The answer was,‘ Why do you ask?”
19. ‘ WVho ts who?” ts the question.
20. The guery ts, “ Who is who?”
21. We shall soon see who is who.
22. The reply came, “It’s hard to tell.”
23. “ Charge for the batteries!” shouted the captain.
24. The captain shouted, *“ Charge for the batteries!”
25. “Come to see me often,” said Col. Smith.
26. Mr. Jones replied, *‘ Come back soon, Colonel.”
27. “I Vhatare we?” and“ Whither do we tend?” are disputed
questions.
28. The lecturer attempted to answer the questions, “ What are
we?” and “ Whither do we tend?”
29. What we are and whither we tend are disputed questions.
30. How he does enjoy himself when he ts at home /
17. A Complex Interrogative Sentence is used to ask a
question. It should be marked at its close by an interro-
gation point, by an exclamation point, or by the terminal
mark of a quoted question closing the sentence. Thus,
31. Did the teacher say, “ Your answer is wrong, John” ?
32. IVhy do you ask, “ Where are you going, John?”
33. Who wrote, “ [ would not live alway” ?
34. Who asked,‘ Would you like to live always?”
35. Does not the Bible command, “ Swear not at all” ?
36. Did the teacher ask, “ Did any one hear him swear?”
37. Who exclaimed, “ Charge for the batteries” ?
38. Why do you ask, “ Did he charge for the batteries ?”
39. Did the teacher tell you your answer was wrong, John ?
40. Who wrote that he didn’t want to live always ?
41. Why do you ask where I am going?
42. Did the teacher ask whether any one heard him swear ?
43. Doesn't he enjoy himself when he is at home!
Note. In 31, 33, 35, and 37, the interrogation points belong to the
sentences ; hence they follow the quotation marks. In 32, 34, 36, and
38, the interrogation points belong to the clauses; hence they are fol-
lowed by the quotation marks. In 39, 40, 41, and 42, the clauses are
indirect quotations; hence no difficulties arise.
92 GRAMMAR
18. A Complex Imperative Sentence is used to express a
command or an entreaty. It should be marked at its close
by a period, by an exclamation point, or by the terminal
mark of a direct quotation closing the sentence. Thus,
44. Ask yourself often whether your action ts right.
45. Stand where you are!
46. Ask yourself often, “Is my action right?”
47. Read more slowly, “ He giveth his beloved sleep.”
48. Read more forcibly, “ Charge for the batteries /”
19. Only the members of Compound Sentences are dis-
tinguished as to their wse, and not the sentence as a
whole. Thus,
49. Where are you? and who ave you? (A compound sentence,
each of whose members, when standing alone, is a simple interroga-
tive sentence.)
50. A gaudy verbosity is always eloquence in the opinion of him
who writes it; but what ts the effect upon the reader? (A compound
sentence, the first of whose members, when standing alone, is a com-
plex declarative sentence; and the second, a simple interrogative
sentence.)
31. Live as though life were earnest, and life will be so. (A.com-
pound sentence, of which the first member, when standing alone, is
a complex imperative sentence; and the second member, a simple
declarative sentence.)
56. REVIEW.
Exercise. from dictation write and punctuate the fifty-
one sentences given in 55, and be able to assign a reason for
each mark of punctuation used.
TEST QUESTIONS. 1. What are the elements of a sentence? 2.
What is a phrase? 3. How does a phrase differ from a clause?
SUMMARY OF THE SENTENCE 93
4. How can you change the sentence “The boy studies” into
a clause? 5. What is a subordinate conjunction? 6. Name the
different kinds of phrases and clauses according to their use in the
sentence. 7. How are adjective clauses connected? 8. What con-
nectives are used with adverbial clauses? 9. Select or compose five
sentences that contain subordinate conjunctions, and tell the class
of each sentence. 10. Select or compose sentences to show five dif-
ferent uses of the noun clause. 11. According to structure, how are
sentences classified? 12. What is the difference between a complex
sentence and a compound sentence? 13. Select from Composition
13 and 58 (pp. 238, 293, 294) sentences to illustrate as many of the
different kinds of sentences as you can,
PART III.
THE PARTS OF SPEECH. THEIR CLASSIFICA-
TION, INFLECTIONS, AND RELATIONS.
57. NOUNS: THEIR CLASSIFICATION.
Point out the nouns in the following:
When Governor Andros asked the people of Hartford, Connecti-
cut, to surrender their charter, a patriot, Captain Wadsworth, seized
the document and cleverly hid it in a hollow tree. This tree was
afterwards known as the Charter Oak, and the spot where it once
stood is now marked by a monument.
Note that some of the nouns in the above differ from
the others by beginning with capitals. This is because
they are special names given to individual persons, places,
or things to distinguish them from others of the same
kind. Is the name Charter Oak given to all oak trees?
Is the name ¢vee given to all oak trees? Is the name
Hartjord common to all cities? Is the name city common
to all cities? The names Charter Oak and Hartford are
given to a particular tree and city to distinguish them
from all other trees and cities ; or we may say that the
names Charter Oak and Hartford are special names given
to individual objects, while the names ¢vee and c7ty are
general names given to any or all objects of their class
or kind. :
94
THE NOUN , 95
A special name given to an object to distinguish that
object from all others of its kind, is called a Proper Noun.
DEFINITION. A Proper Noun is a special name belonging to an
individual person, people, place, or thing.
All other nouns are Common Nouns.
DEFINITION. A Common Noun is a general name belonging to
each object of its class.
58. CAPITAL LETTERS.
The classification of nouns into common and proper is
important because it involves the correct use of capital
letters, as is shown in the following parallel sentences:
PROPER.
All proper names and the chief
words of such names, whether of
animate or inanimate existence,
‘begin with capital letters ; as, too,
do all words that name the Deity.
I. Tue Derry.
1. “The Lord is a great God
and a great King above all gods.”
2. The Governor of all.
3. Forgive them, Father.
II. Pzgrsons.
4. Yes, Daniel, come hither.
5. We called on President
Roosevelt.
CoMMON.
Common nouns begin with
small letters; except that per-
sonal names, even when used to
denote a class, retain their capital
letters (see 4 and 6 below).!
1. (a) I am the lord of this
mansion. (b) His god is money.
(c) He is king? of Spain.
2. The governor * of Ohio.
3. Must I stay, father ?
4. A Daniel has come to judg-
ment.
5. We called on Theodore
Roosevelt, the president.
1 Another exception is that words are sometimes capitalized to give them prom-
inence, especially in treatises ; but this use of capitals should not be encouraged in
literature.
2 Words thus used are sometimes begun with capitals.
96 "GRAMMAR
6. I have heard that Aunt
Mary admires Cicero.
III. Gbuminans; PLacgs, ETC.
7. That man belongs to the
East.
8. She located the Gulf of
Mexico, the District of Columbia,
and the Tropic of Cancer.
IV. FEstTIvAts,
g. Will you go on New Year’s
Day, Good Friday, Easter, Thanks-
giving Day, or Memorial Day?
V. MontHs AND Days oF THE WEEK.
10. He was present every Sat-
urday and Sunday during Janu-
ary, February, and November.
VI. Prominent Osjects AND Events.
_ 11. We visited the Capitol in
Washington during the Civil War,
which occurred long after the
Reformation.
VII. Reticious DENOMINATIONS AND
Po.LiTIcAL PARTIES.
12. In England, the Presbyte-
rians, Methodists, Baptists, and
Unitarians are called Dissenters.
13. The Democrats twice
elected Cleveland president.
VIII. Names or Books, CHAPTERS,
CoMPANIES, ETC.
14. Henry Van Dyke wrote
+The Blue Flower.”
15. The Crucible Steel Com-
pany makes fine grades of steel.
6. My aunt admires the Cic-
eros and the Shakespeares of
every land.
my London is situated east of
Windsor.
8. He defined gulf, district,
tropic, cancer, and bounded the
state of Pennsylvania.
9. Mary began the work of
the new year by misspelling
thanksgiving and memorial.
10. In spring and summer we
live in the North; in fall and
winter we live in the South.
11, Any reformation that will
prevent civil war will be welcomed
by the people of Washington, the
capital of the United States.
12, The dissenters in our church
are not numerous.
13. The democrats of Russia
have little influence in political
affairs.
14. He plucked a blue flower.
15. This company makes cru-
cible steel.
THE NOUN 97
Exercise.
Use in a sentence each of the following words (1) so that
tt shall begin with a capital letter (do not use the word to
begin the sentence); (2) so that it shall begin with a small
letter:
Governor; captain, uncle, king, west, bay, revolution, college, park,
republican.
59. GENDER.
Note the indicated nouns in the following sentences :
1. Mr. Smith said that the lion zs the king of beasts.
2, Mrs. Smith said that the lioness 7s the queen of the forest.
Which of these nouns denote males? Which denote females?
Which denotes neither a male nor a female? Which denotes either a
male or a female?
The physical difference between the individuals them-
selves is called Sex. The power in their names to make
known this difference is called Gender.
DEFINITION. Gender is the power of a noun or pronoun to
denote the sex of the person or thing represented.
Nouns denoting males are of the Masculine Gender.
Nouns denoting females are of the Feminine Gender.
Nouns denoting neither males nor females are genderless or
Neuter Nouns, and are said to be of the Neuter Gender. Veter means
neither.
Nouns that may denote either a male or a female are masculine or
feminine according to the sex of the particular individual mentioned.
When the sex of the individual is unknown or can not be inferred
from the context, the noun is said to be in the Indeterminate or Com-
mon Gender.
STEPS ENG: TWO.—7-
98 GRAMMAR
By referring to the two illustrative sentences, it will be
seen that the gender of nouns is shown in three ways:
Mascutine. Feminine.
i. By using different prefixes; as, Mr. Smith Mrs. Smith
Other examples are: manservant maidservant
he-goat | she-goat
2. By using different suffixes; as, lion lioness
Other examples are: duke duchess
testator testatrix
3. By using different words; as, king queen
Other examples are: moak nun
father mother
Exercise.
Arrange the following nouns under three different heads
as given above:
Mr. Jones, Miss Jones; husband, wife; administrator, administra-
trix; emperor, empress; lord, lady; tiger, tigress ; tutor, governess;
signor, signora; czar, czarina; don, donna or dofia; hero, heroine;
heir, heiress ; beau, belle ; nephew, niece; rooster, hen; wizard, witch;
stag, hind.
60. THE VALUE OF GENDER.
A knowledge of the gender of nouns is important (1)
as a matter of orthography; (2) as it involves the cor-
rect use of the pronouns he, she, and it. Pronouns should
be used according to the principles stated below :
Masculine.
1. Nouns that denote males are referred to by the
pronoun fe.
2. Names of animals are often considered as masculine:
THE NOUN 99
without regard to the sex, the writer employing /e, if he
fancies the animal to possess masculine characteristics ; as,
The grizaly bear zs the most savage of his race.
3. Nouns that name something remarkable for strength,
power, size, and sublimity, when personified, are considered
as masculine, and are referred to by #e, as, Death with his
thousand doors.
4. Singular nouns used so as to stand for persons of
both sexes are considered as of the masculine gender, and
are referred to by #e; as, Every person has his faults.
Feminine.
1, Nouns that denote females are referred to by the
pronoun she.
2. Names of animals are often considered as feminine
without regard to the sex, the writer employing se if he
fancies the animal to possess feminine characteristics ; as,
The cat steals upon her prey.
3. Names of objects remarkable for gentleness, beauty,
grace, and peace, when personified, are considered as fem-
inine, and are referred to by the pronoun she; as, The
moon unveiled her peerless light.
Neuter.
1. Nouns that denote objects without sex are referred
to by the pronoun 7¢,
2. Names of animals or objects whose sex is disregarded
are referred to by the pronoun 7¢,; as, (1) The grizely
bear zs the most savage of its race. (2) The cat steals upon
its prey.
3. Collective nouns of unity (Gr. 67, p. 112) are neuter ;
as, The class is large ; it must be divided.
100 GRAMMAR
Common.
1. Singular nouns that may be applied to persons or
objects of either sex, such as parent, pupil, cousin, friend,
etc., may be said to be of the common gender; but, since
there is xo pronoun of the common gender, 3d person, sin-
gular, to represent such nouns, the term common gender is
practically valueless. Hence, —
2. A singular noun whose gender may be indeterminate
is of the masculine gender when known to denote a male ;
as, My friend (John) drought his book with him.
3. A singular noun whose gender may be indeterminate
is of the feminine gender when known to denote a female ;
as, J/y friend (Mary) drought her books with her.
4. A singular noun whose gender may be indeterminate
is of the masculine gender when so used that the con-
text does not denote the sex of the object ; as, Wy friend
brought his books with him. (See “ Masculine,’ 4th para-
graph.)
Exercise.
Full the blanks in the following sentences with appropri-
ate pronouns, and tell which of the above principles applies
to each:
1. Grandfather sits in _______ easy chair. ef
«. The savage beast from ________ cavern sprang.
3. Every one has _____ troubles.
4. The doe lifted _______ head with a quick motion.
5. A person’s manner not infrequently indicates_______ moral.
6. Everybody should think for —__self.
7. The elephant is distinguished for ____ strength and
sagacity.
8. The child was unconscious of ______ danger.
9. Despair extends _______ raven wings.
THE NOUN Iol
1o. Truth is fearless, yet _____ is meek and modest.
11. War leaves _______ victims on the field, and homes desolated
by —__-____ mourn over _______ cruelty.
12, Nobody did —_______ work better than I.
13. The catamount lies in the boughs to watch _______ prey.
14. The mocking-bird shook from ______ little throat floods of
delightful music.
15. The bat is nocturnal in _______ habits.
16. The dog is faithful to _______ master.
17. The woman fell off _______ horse.
18. The fox is noted for _______ cunning.
19. Each member of the class brought —_____. books. with
20. Summer clothes _______self in green, and decks _______self
with flowers. i
21. Belgium’s capital had gathered then _____ beauty and
chivalry.
22. Spring hangs ________ infant blossoms on the trees.
23. The administratrix filed _______ account with the court.
24. How does the hen protect _______ brood from the cold?
61. PERSON.
We girls ave going to the library.
Will you go with us, Martha ?
Yes, thank you, zf Helen wil/ go.
Which words in the above sentences are used to denote the persons
speaking? Which denote the person spoken to? Which denote a
person or a thing spoken of? What part of speech is each of these
words?
This distinction of the noun or the pronoun as denoting
the speaker, the one spoken to, or the person or thing
spoken of, is called Person.
DEFINITION. Person is the power of a pronoun by its form, and
of a noun or pronoun by its context, to distinguish the speaker, the
one spoken to, and the person or thing spoken of.
102 GRAMMAR
Grammarians have not devised descriptive names for the
different distinctions of person, as they have for those of
gender. They have. simply numbered them First Person,
Second Person, and Third Person.
First Person. A noun is said to be in the first person
when it is the name of the person or persons speaking, and
is in apposition with a pronoun of the first person ; as, J,
John, w2// go. (A propernoun in the first person is always
set off by the comma.) We girls will not go. (A com-
mon noun, first person, is not set off unless limited ; as,
We, the girls of No. 10, will not go.) (Comp. 53-)
Second Person. A noun is said to be in the second
person when it is used in a term of address or in apposi-
tion with a pronoun of the second person; as, (1) When
‘are you going, my friends? (2) William, come here. (3)
Yes, sir, 7 shall. (4) Will you men please leave the room?
Third Person. All other nouns are said to be in the
third person. A noun is in the third person if used as a
subject, attribute complement, or object, although it is used
by the speaker about himself or in addressing another ; as,
(1) Yhe subscriber gzves notice. (2) Your Excellency zs
very gracious. (3) Is this my boy? (4) lama student.
(5) Lam grateful to your Excellency. (6) Please notify
che undersigned.
REMARK, The distinction of person has importance only in con-
nection with pronouns and verbs. Nouns do not change in form to
denote person, but the context makes it known, and for convenience
they are said to have person.
62. REVIEW.
TEsT QuEsTions. 1. Which is the largest class of nouns? Why?
2. In what two ways may proper nouns be distinguished? 3. Of
THE NOUN 103
what importance is the classification of nouns as common and proper?
4. What is the difference in the meaning of the terms sex and gender ?
5. What does the word zeuter mean? 6, How is the word zndetermi-
nate applied to gender? 7. In what three ways is the gender of
nouns and pronouns denoted? 8. Why is it important to know the
gender of nouns and pronouns? 9g. What is person? 10. Of what
importance is a knowledge of person? 11. How is the person of
nouns and of pronouns made known? :
63. INFLECTION.
Note the difference in form between each indicated
word in the first column and the corresponding word in
the second-column, below.
(1) Point out in each word what letters are added or
substituted. .
(2) Tell what change in the use or meaning of each word
is denoted by the change or variation in its form.
1. One boy. Two boys.
2. The boys rifn. The boy runs,
3. John has a ball. John’s dad/.
4. He hit the ball, The ball hit him.
5. The lion. The lioness.
6. The high duclding. The highest buzlding.
7. The birds sing. The birds sang.
These variations in form do not change the general meaning of the
word. The only difference in the medning of doy and 4oys is in the
number of objects designated, — doy denotes one, Joys more than one.
In the second example s is added to the verb rzz to denote its use
or agreement with the subject doy, not doys.
When the form of a word is varied to denote some
change in the use or meaning, the word is said to be
inflected. Jnfiect means to turn from a direct course, to
vary.
104 GRAMMAR
DEFINITION, Inflection is a variation in the form of a word to
denote a change in its use or meaning.
The zxflection of nouns and pronouns is called Declension
(with the exception of the few inflections of nouns that are
made to show gender). The zujffection of verbs is called
Conjugation. The zuflection of adjectives and adverbs is
called Comparison.
Prepositions, conjunctions, interjections, and expletives are not
inflected,
64. NUMBER.
The most common inflection of the noun is that by
which we denote Number.
With a few exceptions nouns have two number forms,
the Singular and the Plural.
DEFINITIONS. The Singular Number denotes only one.
The Plural Number denotes more than one.
FORMATION OF PLURAL NUMBER,
GENERAL RULE. Nearly all nouns are made plural by adding s
or es to the singular form.
We add es when the noun ends in s, x, 2, sh, or ch soft (as in
crutch). This is because these letters sound so much like s that
when one of them ends a word we can not pronounce the plural with-
out giving to the word an additional syllable; as, drush, brushes;
b0x, boxes; witch, witches.
Exercise.
Pronounce in the plural number the following nouns ;
then write thetr plural forms, observing that they end with
es whenever an additional syllable is required:
THE NOUN 105
Stamp, chair, tray, peach, tax, wharf, fife, flame, guess, breeze,
fez, key, watch, buoy, chief, Indian, gulf, arch, patriarch, ark, topaz,
wish, bridge, oak, cuckoo, cameo, cuff, casino, roof, couch, essay,
blush, path, hoof, turf.
EXCEPTIONS TO RULE FOR FORMING THE PLURAL OF Nouns.
The following exceptions to the general rule are impor-
tant :
I. Eleven rouns form their plurals wz¢hout s or es.
These eleven nouns are the only surviving examples of old Eng-
lish inflections forming the plural by the use of en (ox, oxen) or by a
vowel change ( foo/, fee¢). Their plurals are:
Oxen, children, brethren (of a society), kine (pl. of cow, used in
poetry), feet, teeth, geese, lice, mice, men, women.
Write their singular forms.
II. Eleven nouns ending in f and three in fe change f
or fe into ves ; as, beef, deeves.
Write the plural of each of the following:
Beef, elf, leaf, self, shelf, wolf, calf, half, loaf, sheaf, thief, knife,
wife, life. ‘
The plurals of all other nouns ending in f or fe are
formed regularly by the addition of s.
III. All common nouns ending in y preceded by a con-
sonant, change y into z and add es, as, daisy, daisies.
This exception includes nouns ending in quy, in which w
is strictly a consonant : as, colloguy, colloquies.
All other nouns ending in y are regular, adding only s.
To prevent confusion, she names of persons usually add only s in
the plural; as, the two Carys, the Moodys.
Write the plurals of the following nouns:
Ally, alley, glory, journey, city, Henry, liberty, money, joy,
soliloquy.
106 GRAMMAR
IV. Many nouns taken without change from other
languages retain their native plurals. In words from.
Latin and Greek the ending is becomes es in the plural ;
the ending um or on becomes a; ex or ix becomes ices;
us becomes i}; as,
analysis, analyses phenomenon, phenomena
basis, bases appendix, appendices
Crisis, crises vertex, vertices
oasis, oases alumnus, alumni
aquarium, aquaria radius, radii
After foreign nouns come to be looked upon as
thoroughly English, they often form their plurals in the
English way ; as,
beau, beaux ov beaus bandit, banditti ov bandits
seraph, seraphim ov seraphs stamen, stamina ov stamens
cherub, cherubim ov cherubs radius, radii ov radiuses
When the English form is authorized it is preferable.
V. Nouns ending in 0 preceded by a vowel form the
plural regularly by adding an s ; as, cameos, embryos, trios,
When the final 0 is preceded by a consonant, some
nouns add ¢s and others s only. These must be learned
by observation.
The first eighteen of the following nouns add es to form the plural,
and the rest add s only. Write their plurals and note that many of
those adding s only are terms used in music:
1. broncho 9. hero 17. veto 23. domino
2. buffalo Io. motto 18. volcano 24. halo
3. calico 11, mulatto 25. lasso
4. cargo 12, negro 26. memento
5. echo 13. potato 19. alto 27. piano
6. embargo 14. tomato 20. banjo 2& solo
7. flamingo 15. tornado 21, canto 29. Soprano
8. grotto 16, torpedo 22. contralto 30. zero
THE NOUN 107
Test Questions.
1. What is number in grammar? 2. Give the general rule for
forming the plural of nouns. 3. How many nouns are included in
the first exception to the general rule? 4. Howdo these form the
plural? 5. What nouns does the second exception include? 6. Why
do we add es to Jerry and only s to turkey in forming the plural?
7. Tell clearly why we add es to Aero and s only to Vero to form the
plural. 8. How do nouns from a foreign language usually form
their plurals? 9. When two plurals are given which is preferable?
ro, In forming the plural of nouns ending in 0 how do we determine
whether to add s or es ?
Exercise.
Write the plurals of the following nouns and point out
those that form their plurals regularly. If irregularly,
point out in what way they are exceptions to the general
rule:
1. arm Ir. cargo 21. lily 31. puppy
2. arch 12. canto 22. leaf 32. pulley
3. axis 13. echo 23. joy 33. radius
4. attorney 14. fairy 24. motto 34. ratio
5. beau 15. folio 25. memento 35. studio
6. beef 16. fife 26. majority 36. survey
7. belief 17. knife 27. Mary 37. stamen
8. chief 18. hero 28. negro 38. tooth
g. charity 19. halo 29. OX 39. vortex
1o. chimney 20. half 30. oasis 40. zero
65, SPECIAL RULES OF NUMBER.
I. Proper Names preceded by titles, as Mr. Brown, Miss
Brown, may be made plural in two different ways: (1) By
making the title plural; as, Mr. Brown, Messrs. Brown;
Miss Brown, Misses Brown. (2) By making the name
plural ; as, che two Mr. Browns; the three Miss Browns.
108 GRAMMAR
II. Compound Nouns usually form the plural by adding
the sign of the plural to the most important part of the
compound, that is, to the part which is described by the
rest of the word: as, father-in-law, fathers-in-law ; ox-cari,
ox-carts; Knight-templar, Knights-templar. When the
compound is regarded as a whole, the last part is plural-
ized ; as, forget-me-nots, spoonfuls, Englishmen, runaways.
A few compounds add the plural sign to both parts; as,
manservant, Menservants.
CAUTION. German, talisman, Brahman, Ottoman, Mussulman
are not compounds of sanz ; they form their plurals with s.
III. Figures, Letters, Signs, etc., are made plural by
adding ’s; as, Cross your t’s. Cancel the 9’s. Make the
+7’s and —’s larger. His Vs and my’s and me’s, and his
‘I told you so’s”? were wearisome.
Numbers written in words form their plurals regularly ;
as, Count by twos, fives, tens.
IV. Plurals without Inflection. Some nouns are sin-
gular or plural without change of form according to their
use; as, ove sheep, ¢wo sheep; a brace of ducks, two brace
of ducks ; he sold a hundredweight of sugar; ‘wo hundred-
weight of sugar. Similar words are: pair (of ‘shoes), head
(of cattle), cod, deer, grouse, salmon, swine, trout. (V.,p.200.)
V. Plurals of Different Meaning. Some nouns have
two plurals, which differ in meaning. The more important
are as follows:
SiIncuLAR. PLurRAL.
Brothers (of a family)
ae RRO Brethren (of a society)
2. Cloth Cloths (pieces or kinds of cloth)
Clothes (garments)
THE NOUN 109
5. Die dies (coining stamps)
dice - (for playing games)
: fishes (number)
. Fish
4 fish (quantity)
ey Genius geniuses (human beings)
genii (imaginary beings)
heads (belonging to the bod
6. Head ging y)
on head (of cattle)
=: tnaex fadies (tables of contents)
. indices (algebraic signs)
Bo nies peas” (number or quantity)
. pease (quantity)
go Peany pennies (number of coins)
pence (quantity, i.e. value)
hots (number of discharges)
» Sh : 8
the not thot (number of balls)
¥ ils (pieces of canvas)
. Sail a P
erie: = (number of vessels)
staffs ov staves (sticks or canes)
12, Staff ere (military term)
«
Exercises.
Ex. I. Tell how the meaning of the first sentence in
each group differs from the meaning of the second:
He assists his brethren.
2 The tailor showed some new cloths.
* (The tailor showed some new clothes.
Teddy’s bank contains six pennies.
. traits bank contains six pence.
He assists his brothers.
The milkman gave her two cupfuls of milk.
4 The milkman gave her two cups full of milk.
The prisoner had two dice in his pocket.
6 How many shot were there?
How mdny shots were there?
A story of two genii.
A story of two geniuses,
.
ie prisoner had two dies in his pocket.
110 GRAMMAR
“
Ex. II. Write the plurals of the following :
Mr. Andrews Miss Henry +
Knight-templar Major McDowell $
hanger-on commander in chief sheep
four-per-cent son-in-law 4
countryman woman-servant Oh, my
Norman major-general why
66. NOUNS THAT DO NOT? CHANGE THEIR NUMBER.
Always Singular. Somenouns, from the nature of what
they represent, are always singular both in form and
in meaning; as, wisdom, music, courage, pride, patience,
gold, platinum. Others are usually singular ; as, rhetoric,
lead, copper, wheat, rye, Sugar, wine.
When used in the plural, wixes, sugars, etc., mean different kinds of
wine, of sugar, etc.; coppers are things made of copper.
Always Plural. Some nouns from the nature of what
they represent are always or usually plural, both in form
and in meaning. The following are examples:
1, ashes 7. pincers 13. tongs
2. annals 8. proceeds 14. thanks
3. bitters g. riches 15. trousers
4. dregs Io. scissors 16. victuals
5. eaves 11. suds 17. vitals
6. goods 12. tidings 18, mumps
Plural in Form, Singular in Meaning. Some nouns are
always plural in form, but are generally singular in mean-
ing; as, amends, gallows, measles, news, pains (meaning
cave), mathematics, and other nouns ending in zcs, except
athletics, which is generally plural.
In the use of some of these nouns custom is divided. When in
doubt consult an unabridged dictionary,
THE NOUN rir
Exercise.
Write the plural, tf any, of each given singular, and the
singular, if any, of cach given plural; note those having no
singular and those having no plural:
1. dozen 5. series g. flax 13. politics
2. pairs 6. pride Io. rye 14. mathematics
3. million 7. news II. oats 15. athletics
4. trout 8. mumps 12. goods 16. thanks
67. COLLECTIVE NOUNS.
Some nouns in the singular form denote several objects
of the same kind taken together ; as, flock, crowd, group,
committee. .
What does each of the following nouns represent ?
flock audience choir army
crowd committee jury mob
fleet regiment class tribe
group convention school herd
Each of these nouns represents a collection of objects of a certain
kind; as, flock represents a collection of animals; crowd, a collection
of people; group, a collection of objects. Can the name flock be
given to any one animal? Can the name crowd or group be given to
any one person or object?
DEFINITION. A name that represents a collection of. objects, but
does not apply to any one of the objects, is called a Collective Noun.
Collective Nouns: Singular or Plural. The collective
noun at times conveys a singular idea, and at other times
a plural idea.
When a collective noun names a number of persons or
112
GRAMMAR
things considered as oxe whole, it is called a Collective Noun
of Unity, and its verb and pronoun are singular in form.
When a collective noun stands for a number of persons
or things regarded as separate individuals, it is called a
Collective Noun of Plurality, and its verb and pronoun are
plural in form."
Compare the following parallel sentences :
CoLLecTiveE Nouns oF UNITY.
1. The committee (as a body)
reports favorably.
2. The jury will be confined
initsroom. (That is, in a room
belonging to the jury as a dody,
not as individuals.)
3. A herd of cattle was in the
field.
When a collective noun is
tive character and becomes
Coriecrive Nouns or Piura.ity.
1. The committee (as individ-
uals) differ on that question.
2. The jury will be confined
until they agree. (That is, until
the individuals agree.)
3. A herd of cattle were graz-
ing in the field.
pluralized it loses its collec-
simply a common noun; as,
Many erds of cattle were grazing on the plain.
The noun Herds in this sentence refers to a number of collections,
or groups, and may be applied to any one of the groups, hence it is
not a collective noun.
Exercise.
Select appropriate pronouns and verbs, giving your reason
Sor each selection:
1. The army (invades, invade) the country.
2. The army eagerly (pursues, pursue) pleasure as (its, their) chief
good.
3. The congregation (attends, attend) to (its, their) duties well.
4. The congregation at Irving Chapel (was, were) large.
1 A collective noun of unity may name either animate or inanimate objects, but
a collective noun of plurality usually names living beings only,
THE NOUN 113
Z ‘
The congregations of Brooklyn (is, are) large.
The regiment (consists, consist) of 1000 men.
The regiment took off (its, their) knapsacks.
The society (meets, meet) in (its, their) hall this evening.
The society (differs, differ) on that question.
to, The jury (has, have) been discharged.
11, The jury will be kept together until (it, they) agree.
12,¢The lowing herd (wind, winds) slowly down the hill.
Cos Ou
©
68. RELATION OF NOUNS.
You have learned that words must be related in order
to convey a meaning or form a sentence. Do the following
words form a sentence ?
Letters the Bruce Grant to gave.
If we form these words into a sentence, as, Bruce gave
the letters to Grant, by a change of order we bring them
into Relation to one another.
The different relations of the nouns in this sentence
are shown by their position or order. The noun Bruce
occupies the position of subject and has the subject rela-
tion; /etters is used as the object complement, and has
the object relation; Grant is used as the object of a
preposition, and also has the object relation.
Exercise.
Analyze or diagram the following sentences, and give the
use and relation of each noun:
Our thoughts are heard in heaven. — Young.
Politeness costs nothing and wins everything. — Montagu.
Money, says the proverb, makes money. — Adam Smith.
Men shut their doors against a setting sun. — Shakespeare.
ey Ee ans
STEPS ENG. TWO. — 8.
114 GRAMMAR
* .
5. Our words have wings but fly not where we would.
— George Eliot.
6. Never make a defense or apology before you be accused.
— Charles I.
7. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean — roll!
Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain;
Man marks the earth with ruin, — his control
Stops with the shore. — Byvoz.
69. INFLECTION TO SHOW RELATION.
Let us again examine this sentence:
Bruce gave the letters to Grant.
Does this sentence tell to whom the letters belonged ?
' If we wish to say that Bruce gave to Grant the letters
of Lincoln, or the letters belonging to Lincoln, we may
express the thought more briefly by using the apostrophe
ands (’s). Thus,
Bruce gave Lincoln's letters to Grant.
The sign apostrophe and s (’s) added to the noun
Lincoln shows the same relation that is denoted by the
word of or the words belonging to.
This is the only use of nouns in which the relation is
shown by an inflection, or a change in the form of the
word.! In all other uses it is shown by the position of the
word in the sentence, or by the use of a preposition.
If we write the above sentence and omit the possessive.
sign (’s) from the noun Lizcoln, a different meaning will
be conveyed; as,
Bruce gave Lincoln letters to Grant.
1 Pronouns are inflected to show three different relations,
THE NOUN 115
This means, Bruce gave to Lincoln letters addressed to
Grant.
The inflection apostrophe and s (’s) is added to Lincoln
to show its possessive relation to the noun /e¢¢ers, and is
an example of Case Inflection, or Case.
DEFINITION. Case is a variation in the use or form of a noun or
pronoun to express its relation to other words.
The Latin language has more than twenty different inflections, or
case endings, to show relation; as, @, ae, us, u, avumt, orum, tbus,
ubus, etc. Nouns in our language once had four inflections, but the
ordinary naming form of the noun has taken the place of two of
these earlier forms so that nouns now have but two case forms:
1. The Nominative, or naming form.
2, The Possessive, or form used to express possession.t
We speak of a noun, however, as having a third case, the Objective
Case, to designate its objective use, or relation.
This is because pronouns have an objective form to show the
objective relation, and it is, therefore, convenient to use the term
objective case in parsing nouns.
Note in the following that the noun zzaz has the same form in both
the nominative and the objective relation:
Man és zo man, fhe sorest, surest tll.— Young.
Man_j_ is \ ill
surest
sorest
the t
to | man
If we use the pronoun He instead of maz in the above sentence we
must change its form to show the objective relation; as, He zs zo him,
not He zs Zo he.
He \_ is \ ill
surest
sorest
the
{to | him
1 For other uses of the possessive case see pp. 122, 12%
116 GRAMMAR
70. OUTLINE OF CASE RELATIONS.
According to its use a noun or pronoun may have dif-
ferent relations to other words in sentences. For conven-
ience these relations are grouped in ¢hree cases, as is shown
in the following summary, which may be used for reference :
RELATION.
: Bruce met the postman.
1. As subject of a fi-
I. nite verb (Gr. 37).
Nominative
Case. 2. As attribute com-
plement, except as in
6 below (Gr. 31).
Bruce \ met | postman
[ee
T. he secretary is Bruce.
_secretary \\ is \ Bruce _
The
.
[ a. Object ( The postman met Bruce.
3. AS a ee postman \_met | Bruce
comple- 31). The
ment of b. Facti- es named the boy Bruce.
a transi- | tive com-
tiveverb. | plement } —7#¢2 \ zamed / Bruce | boy
(Gr. 33). [ee
lt was a picture of Bruce.
Lt \ was was \ pic pitare
II ‘
: 4. As object of a prep-
doce +S B
Objective + osition, expressed or | Bruce
Case. understood (Gr. 34). He gave Bruce a letter.
He_\\_gave | letter _
(to) | Bruce |Z
[ee expects Bruce to go.
5. As subject of an
infinitive (Gr. 37). tn b expects | Bre | \t0.g0
6. As attribute of an (/ 4ctieve him to be Bruce.
expressed subject of .
to be* (Gt. 31). 1) saeve| Him | tote Brae
1 See note on the next page at end of summary.
‘
THE NOUN 117
He received Bruce's (etter,
II. 3
As a_ possessive
Possessive . : He \ received | letter
Gace. modifier (Gr. 20.) "| | Brae Si
Note. An attribute noun or pronoun is in the nominative case unless attribu-
tive to the expressed subject of an infinitive, when it is in the objective case; as,
It is he. They believe me to be him.
It seems to be he. For me to desire to be him is
iis being he made no difference. foolish.
SPECIAL CASE RELATIONS.
1. When a noun or pronoun is used as an appositive it is in the
same case as the noun whose meaning it explains ; as,
NOMINATIVE CASE: The secretary, Bruce, will write.
POSSESSIVE CASE: ffe went to Bruce the secretary's desk.
OBJECTIVE CASE: We saw the secretary, Bruce.
2. When a noun or pronoun is used without relation to any other
part of speech it is said to be in the Nominative Case, Independent.
1. By direct address: Come into the garden, Maud.
2. By exclamation: Alas, poor Yorick!
3. By pleonasm (use of unnecessary words): Zhe boy,
oh, where was he! (Oh, where was the boy!)
4. By specification (titles of books, names of compa-
nies, etc., when used alone): Steps in English ; Brown
& Bole.
3. A noun or pronoun used absolutely is in the Nominative Case,
He being a foreigner, his family was protected.
(See Absolute Phrase, Gr. 47, p. 77.)
4- When a noun is used to express measure of some kind and at
the same time is an adverbial modifier it is called an Adverbial
Objective, and may be said to be in the Objective Case ; as,
1. We waited an hour. 1. We \ waited
2. The book is worth a dollar.1 hour
3. We walked two miles.) an
1 In such sentences some prefer to supply a word or words; as,
1. We waited (for) an hour.
z. The book is (of the) worth (of) a dollar.
3. We walked (through) two miles.
118 GRAMMAR
By a study of the foregoing the relation and case of nouns and
pronouns may be determined,
71. PARSING.
Examine the outline under Grammar 7o and find the different uses
of the noun. In what relation is each noun used? In what case?
We are now prepared to parse the noun.
To parse means, (1) to classify the word as a part of
speech ; (2) to point out its inflection, if it has any; and
(3) to tell its syntax, or its relation to other words in the
sentence.
DEFINITION. Syntax treats of the arrangement, relation, and
agreement of words in sentences. a
72. PARSING THE NOUN.
’ .
To parse a noun, give its —
1. Class, 3. Number,
2. Gender, 4. Case,
5. Syntax, or use in the sentence.
Examples. The groves were God’s frst temples.
Groves is a common noun— the name of a class; in the neuter
gender —it denotes things without sex; 3d person—spoken of; in
the plural number —it denotes more than one; in the nominative case
—it is the subject of the verb were.
God's is a proper noun, masculine gender, 3d person, singular num-
ber, possessive case, modifying temples.
Temples is a noun, common, neuter, 3d, plural, nominative — the
attribute complement of were.
To THE TEACHER. As the pupil becomes familiar with the several distinc-
tions and can readily give the reasons, the shorter forms may be used. After the
THE NOUN 11g
distinctions are well understood, all the particulars that do not affect the structure
of the word may be omitted; as, Temf/es is a noun, attribute of the verb were.
Parsing should never be made a mere mouthing of words, without thought.
This may be avoided by having the pupil parse in writing.
MODELS FOR WRITTEN PARSING.
groves \ were \ temples
The i first
; } Goa’s
CN, C.N, P.N.
Neut. Neut. Mase.
3: 3: 3;
Plur, Plur. Sing.
Nom. Nom. Poss,
Sub. of were. Att.Comp. modifies
were. temples.
“mee Cuass, GENDER. =e NaN Case. | S¥NnTAXx oR Uss.
In Prep.
this Adj.
place Com. noun | Neut. | 3 | Sing.| Obj. | Obj. of Prep. zz
ran Verb
Cassius’ | Prop. noun| Masc.| 3 | Sing. | Poss.| modifies dagger
dagger Com. noun | Neut. | 3 | Sing.| Nom.| Subj. of raz.
through | Adv. ,
Exercises.
Ex. I. Analyze the sentences in the following para-
graphs, and then parse orally the nouns in each sentence :
But all my dreams were soon put to flight by an order from the
office to trim the yards, as the wind was getting ahead. I could
plainly see, by the looks the sailors occasionally cast to windward and
by the dark clouds that were fast coming up, that we had bad weather
to prepare for, and had heard the captain say that he expected to be
in the Gulf Stream by twelve o’clock. In a few minutes “eight bells”
was struck, the watch called, and we went below.
120 GRAMMAR
I now began to feel the first discomforts of a sailor’s life. The
steerage in which I lived was filled with coils of rigging, spare sails,
old junk, and ship stores, which had not been stowed away. More-
over, there had been no berths built for us to sleep in, and we were
not allowed to drive nails to hang our clothes upon.
Ex. II. Diagram the following sentences, and parse the
nouns according to the model for written parsing :
The South is the land of cotton.
Heap high the farmer’s wintry hoard.
No man’s a faithful judge in his own cause.
No capital earns such interest as personal culture.
Ye mariners, the night is gone!
. Spenser, the author of the “ Faerie Queene,” lived in the time
of Queen Elizabeth.
7. His friend remained a week.
8. Their work having been finished, the pupils were dismissed.
9. We, the members of the club, have elected Robert president.
1o. They believed him to be their friend.
11. The smith, a mighty man was he.
DAKE YP
Ex. III. Select the proper case, giving veason; then
diagram the sentences and parse each noun:
1. The (man, man’s) being poor should not make him miser-
able. :
The (man, man’s) being poor, the boys treat him kindly.
The (man, man’s), being poor, knew not what to do.
We could not prevent (John, John’s) going.
5. (Brown, Brown’s) being a politician, we were unable to prevent
his election. :
6. (Brown, Brown’s) being a politician aided him very much.
7. No one ever dreamed of that (man, man’s) running for office.
8 The (writer, writer's) being a scholar, his conclusions were not
doubted.
9. I never thought of (it, its) being (she, her).
10. Much depends on (you, your) studying the foregoing care-
fully.
eos
THE NOUN 121
Ex. IV. Punctuate and diagram the following, telling
the case of each appositive (for punctuation, see Appositive
Expressions, Gr. 10 and 61, pp. 20, 102 ; also Comp. 53,
pp. 284-286) :
1. The wisest of the Jewish kings Solomon became a fool.
2. Mr. McKinley the president sent his message to Congress.
3. A Greek philosopher Diogenes lived in a tub.
4. The Greek philosopher Diogenes lived in a tub,
5. Cotton a fiber is woven into cloth.
6. Have you read the history of Pizarro the conqueror of Peru?
7. The diamond pure carbon is a brilliant gem.
8 The creator of “Robinson Crusoe” Daniel Defoe was the
author of more than two hundred works.
g. We the people of the United States do ordain and establish
this Constitution. ,
10. I John was a witness,
11, We girls object.
12, We the older boys protest.
73. THE FORMATION OF THE POSSESSIVE CASE.
NoTeE. Case, as applied to nouns, has importance only in con-
nection with the use of the possessive sign. The nominative and ob-
jective cases of nouns, being alike in form and not inflected, might be
disregarded if it were not for the inflection of pronouns and the con-
venience of parsing.
Observe the inflection of the nouns in the second col-
umn to show the relation denoted by prepositions used
with the corresponding noun in the first column:
1, The work of the pupil is ex- 1. The pupil’s work is excel-
cellent. lent.
2. The work of the pupils is 2. The pupils’ work is excel-
excellent. lent.
3. The work of the children is 3. The children’s work is ex-
“excellent. cellent.
122 GRAMMAR ‘
4. The novels by Dickens are 4. Dickens’s novels are popu:
popular. lar.
5. The coat for Jamesis new. | 5. James’s coat is new.
With which of the nouns is the s of the possessive sign omitted ?
In the second sentence is the noun pzPz/s singular or plural ?
In the third sentence is the noun cAz/dren singular or plural?
In the fifth sentence is the noun /ames singular or plural?
It is seen that the possessive case of all the nouns in
the above exercise is formed by the addition of the apos-
trophe and s (’s) except the noun pzpzls, which is a plural
noun that ends ins.
RuLE. Nouns form the possessive case by the addition of an
apostrophe and s (’s), except plural nouns ending in s, to which the
apostrophe alone is added. (Comp. 11, p. 235.)
REMARKS ON THE POSSESSIVE FORM.
1. A few singular nouns that end with an s sound are usually
written in the possessive by adding the apostrophe alone: especially
in the phrases for appearance’ sake, for conscience sake, and for good-
ness’ sake. But the tendency is to add apostrophe and s (’s) even if
the singular noun does end with an s sound; as, Charies’s book, the
princess's carriage, her mistress’s wishes.
2. When a compound noun or a group of words treated as one
name (a firm-name) denotes possession, the sign of the possess-
ive is added to the last noun only. (See 4 and 9g in the next
exercise.)
3. The possessive relation may be expressed by a prepositional
objective; as, a friend of Charles's wife, instead of Charles's wife's
Sriend.,
4. The sign of possession should be used with the word imme-
diately preceding the substantive naming the thing possessed ; as,
John's book ; Johnand Mary's book; John the student's book; John's
books as well as Mary’s (books).
Occasionally the word naming the thing possessed may be omitted
(see last example). -
case,
THE NOUN
123
5. As a rule, neuter nouns should not be used in the possessive
beauty.
Pw
an
~
oe aS
12.
13.
14.
Exercises.
The beauty of the flower is better English than Zhe flower’s
Ex. I. Justify the use of each possessive sign in the
Sollowing :
PREPOSITIONAL OBJECTIVES.
. Ahouse belonging to the man.
. Adictionary made by Webster.
. Shoes designed for misses.
. The father of both Henry and
John.
The father of Henry and the
father of John.
4. Sather
& Wn ew
Possgssives.
. The man’s house,
. Webster’s dictionary.
. Misses’ shoes.
. Henry and John’s father.
. Henry’s father and John’s.
Henry and John’s
Sather
. The administration of Mayor
Hays.
Books belonging to Alice.
The tub owned by Diogenes.
The store of Little & Co.
At the home.of Mr. Smith.
At the store of Weldon the
hatter. :
The reign of Victoria, queen
of England.
The work of one day for the
wages of three days.
The fault of somebody else.
NoTES: 1.
on
9.
10,
II.
12.
13.
14.
words treated as one name, a firm-name.
. Mayor Hays’s administra-
tion.
. Alice’s books.
. Diogenes’s tub.
Little & Co.’s store.
At Mr. Smith’s.
At Weldon the hatter’s store.
Victoria queen of England’s
reign.
One day’s work for three
days’ wages.
Somebody else’s fault.
In the qth example Henry and John is a group of
So also Lette & Co. in the
124 GRAMMAR
gth example. 2. In the sth example father is understood after
John’s because every possessive case is immediately followed by
the substantive, expressed or understood, to which it has the possess-
ive relation. This principle also applies to the roth. 3. As to the
14th, since the adjective e/se always follows the substantive which
it limits, and since the possessive must be next to the name of the
thing possessed, the sign is, according to idiom (pp. 130, 131), annexed
to else.
Ex. II. Change from the prepositional objective to the
possessive :
. A history of Moses,
. The barking of the dogs,
. A picture of William,
A picture owned by William.
The works of Dickens,
The greetings of the Friends.
. The family of Governor Hastings.
. Clothing for men and for boys.
. The home of both Mary and Ann.-
. The home of Mary and that of Ann.
. The crew of Yale or Harvard.
. The record of the ball players.
. The home of his son-in-law.
. The execution of Mary, Queen of Scots. |
. By the silvery light of the Queen of Night.
. The death of Grant and of Sheridan.
. The fault of some one else.
. The work of five years.
. The wages of one month.
. The wishes of the princess.
OV ANDY bw
-
ow
ttt tte
90 CON DAN PW WD
Ex. II]. Change from the possessive to the prepositional
objective, thereby deciding whether or not each is correctly
written :
1. John and Henry’s boat.
2. John’s boat and Henry’s,
3. John and Henry’s boats.
4. John’s boats and Henry’s.
THE NOUN 125
Mason and Dixon's line.
Hayes and Wheeler’s administration.
Hayes’s administration and Grant’s.
Men’s and boys’ clothing.
Men’s and boy’s clothing.
1o. Ned the bootblack’s box,
11. Infant’s and children’s cloaks.
12. Infants’ and children’s cloaks,
13. A and B’s money.
14. A’s money and B’s.
15. Grant’s army and Lee’s,
16, Grant’s and Lee’s armies.
17. Orr and Co.’s store.
SO
©
Ex. IV. Jnsert the apostrophe in its proper place, giving
your reason:
That boys hats.
Those boys hats.
Ciceros oration.
The childs illness.
My only daughters husbands sister.
My two daughters husbands sister.
These witnesses statements are very long.
This witnesss.statements are long.
The suns and the fires heat differ,
1o. The suns rays are quite warm to-day.
11. The ladys bonnets.
12. Those ladies bonnets.
13. That pupils books.
14. Two years interest.
15. My daughters going need not prevent Anns calling.
16. My daughters friend is going to the city this morning.
17. An honest mans work is noble.
18. A mans foes are often those of his own household.
rg. Peters wifes aunt.
SHEVA EY D
Ex. V. Decide which is the better form, the possessive
or the prepositional objective, and change where desirable:
126 GRAMMAR
. Peter’s wife’s mother.
. John’s brother’s wife’s sister is sick.
. This is my brother’s father-in-law’s opinion.
. France’s and England’s interests differ widely.
. My brother’s wife’s sister’s drawings have been much admired,
. The drawings of the sister of the wife of my brother have been
much admired.
7. The severity of the sickness of the son of the King caused alarm,
8, Essex’s death seemed to haunt Elizabeth’s mind.
g. The “Iliad ”-is Homer the great poet’s work.
10, Howard the philanthropist’s life was a noble one.
An BW NH H
74. REVIEW.
TEST QUESTIONS. 1. What is the difference between a proper
noun and acommon noun? 2. Of what importance is this classifica-
tion of nouns? 3. When does a common noun begin with a capital
letter? 4. How do the terms gender and sex differ in meaning?
5. In what three ways is the gender of nouns shown? 6. What is
person in grammar? 7. Do nouns have special forms to distinguish
person? 8. How should a proper noun in the first person be punctu-
ated? 9. How are common nouns in the first person punctuated ?
10. What is meant by inflection? 11. Illustrate by example.
12. Howdo nouns generally form the plural? 13. Why should the
plural of exemy and that of chimney be differently formed? 14. What
is a collective noun? 15. How are nouns inflected to show relation?
16. How many cases have nouns? 17. How many case forms?
18. Give the rule for forming the possessive case of nouns. 19. How
is joint ownership shown by the possessive sign? 20. What substi-
tute for the possessive may be used? 21. How many different uses
may anoun have in a sentence? 22, Name them. 23. Write sen-
tences using the noun /ames in eight different constructions.
75. THE PRONOUN.
What is a pronoun? Whatis the antecedent of a pronoun? What
is a relative pronoun? What is person? When is a pronoun in
the first person? In the second person? In the third person?
THE PRONOUN 127
About sixty words in the English language designate
persons or objects without mentioning their names. As
they are generally used instead of nouns, they are called
Pronouns. From the various ways in which they are used
pronouns may be divided into four classes,— Personal,
Relative, Interrogative, and Adjective.
76. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
Five pronouns, 4 you, he, she, and zt, are used, in
their various forms, to distinguish, first, the speaker, I;
second, the one spoken to, you; and third, the person or
thing spoken of, he, she, and it. Because these pronouns
always show their grammatical person by different forms
or words (not because they stand for persons), they are
called Personal Pronouns.
DEFINITION. A Personal Pronoun is one whose form indicates
the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of.
77, THE INFLECTION OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS,
Personal pronouns change their forms by inflection more
than do any other words in our language, the different
forms of the pronouns /, you, he, she, and 7 numbering
twenty-eight. Some of these changes are so great that
different cases of the same pronoun are entirely different
words; note the different cases of the personal pronouns
J, she, and he in the following:
First Person: I,smy, mine, me, we, our, ours, us.
SECOND PERSON: you, your, yours.
128 GRAMMAR
Mase. he, his, him,
fem. she, her, hers.
Neuter, it, its.
they, their, theirs, them,
THIRD PERSON:
Some of these changes in form or word, as we have seen, indicate
person; as, /, you, he: while others indicate gender; as, he, she, and
zt. In what person and number do the variations to show gender
occur? (See declension in Gr. 78.)
Tell the case, or relation, of the pronouns in the following:
laid | him
down
He laid him do-vn and closed his He \\
eyes. “closed | eyes
[ae
Note in this sentence three different forms of the same
pronoun to distinguish the xominative, possessive, and
objective cases.
The number of inflections that pronouns have, causes
their frequent misuse. To assist in using them properly
their inflection is given in tabular form for reference, and
rules are added which should be learned and applied.
78. THE DECLENSION OF THE PRONOUN.
Pronouns of the First Person.
SincuLar. Piura.
Nominative. 1 we
Possessive. my or mine our o7 ours
Objective. me us
Pronouns of the Second Person.
Common Form. Grave Style.
Sinc. anv Puiu, Sine. ¢ Priv.
Nominative. you thou ye or you
Possessive. your o7 yours thy or thine your or yours
Objective. you thee you
THE PRONOUN 129
Pronouns of the Third Person.
SincuLar. Piura.
Mase. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fem, Neut.
Nominative. he she it they
Possessive, his her ov hers its their ov theirs
Objective. him her it them
Compound Personal Pronouns are formed by annexing
self and its plural se/ves to certain forms of the personal
pronouns. They are:
. Singular. myself thyself, yourself himself, herself, itself.
Plural. ourselves yourselves themselves
They have the same form for both nominative and objec-
tive, and have no possessive. The place of the possessive
is supplied by using for emphasis the definitive adjec-
tive (Gr. 117, p. 193) ow with the ordinary possessive
form ; as,
[ have my own seat.
Take your own seats.
He has a home of his own.
In the last sentence the emphatic form of the pronoun
his own, is used substantively as the object of the preposi-
tion of. (See page 130, This book of mine.)
79. USES OF PRONOUNS.
RULE 1. A pronoun used as the subject of a fizzte verb or as a
nominative absolute, is in the nominative case and should have the
nominative form.
RuLE z. A pronoun used as the subject of an infinitive or as the
object of a verb or preposition, is in the objective case and shouldt
have the objective form.
RULE 3. A pronoun used as an attribute is in the nominative case
STEPS ENG. TWO. 9.
130 GRAMMAR
unless attributive to the expressed subject of an infinitive, when it is
in the objective case.
Why did we not need these rules when learning about the noun?
What rule have you learned for writing the possessive case of nouns?
How do we form the possessive case of pronouns? Give the possess-
ive case singular and plural of the personal pronouns. Is there an
apostrophe (’) used with these forms?
Caution. Never use an apostrophe with the words ours, yours,
his, hers, its, theirs.
Two Forms of the Possessive. The possessive form
of the pronoun has the power of an,adjective and modifies
a noun expressed or understood. When it adjoins the
noun, the first of the two possessive forms is used ; when
the noun is not present or the possessive is used as a com-
plement, the second is used. For example:
1. Your book ts new but mine ts old.
Mine may be parsed as a personal pronoun, possessive form, but used in the
subject relation; the subject of the verb is.
book \ is \ new mine \ is \ old
| Your | but |
2. The book is yours. 3. This book af mine zs old.
book \ és \ yours book |\ is \ old
pee | This
of | mine
Some grammarians would dispose of these passessive forms by
substituting a word modified by the possessive, as,
This book of my books zs old,
and then parse the pronoun as in the possessive case, modifying the
noun. But one may properly speak of his book of mine even if there
is but the one book. Also, the explanation involves ambiguity in such
expressions as He is a friend of mine. A friend of mine might not
be a friend of my friends. We may either parse zéve as possessive
in form, but used idiomatically in the objective relation, as the object
of the preposition of, or we may say it is an idiomatic expression;
THE PRONOUN 131
ie., an expression established by usage, but not governed by the
narrow confines of any grammatical principle. The expressions
meseems and methinks are idiomatic and are equivalent to zt seems
to me.
REMARK, The longer forms mne and ¢hine were once the only
forms, and were used until the seventeenth century, when they
dropped the z sound before nouns beginning with a consonant, and
became my and zhy; as,
1. Look upon my son for he is mine only child. — Luke ix. 38..
2. Lend thy hand. Wipe thou thine eyes. — Shakespeare.
These forms are now used only when they are not followed by the
nouns they modify.
Uses of Compound Personal Pronouns. The compound
personal pronouns are used for the most part reflexively
in the objective case, or they are added for emphasis in
either the nominative or the objective to the nouns or
pronouns which they represent ; as,
1. L hurt myself. fj _furt | myself
UsEn RE | o. A house divided house \ divided 5
FLEXIVELY. ‘ s = “
against itself. a | agaist | dtself
3a. He himself is He = himself \_is\ sick
sick,
30. He is sick him- He = himself \_is\ sick
USED FOR self. ee
EMPHASIS. .
4. They saw the They \\ saw | president — himself
president him- | the
self. ;
Grave Style. The grave style of the pronoun of the second per-
son, — including the singular forms Zhou, thy, thine, and shee, and the
plural nominative form ye, —is used now by the Friends, or Quakers,
and also in poetry and in sacred services. The common forms you,
1 A pronoun is called reflexive when it is the object in a sentence and refers
back (reflects) to the subject as its antecedent. Formerly the reflexive pronoun
was often used without the se/f or selves; as, 1 do repent me.— Shakespeare.
Now I lay me down to sleep. — Child’s Prayer.
132 GRAMMAR
your, and yours are used in all other cases. Remember, however, that
you singular is followed by the same form of the verb as yow plural,
and use this form of the verb with it, as, you were, you are, etc., even
when speaking to only one person.
Exercises.
Ex. I. Axalyze and diagram the following numbered
sentences ; parse the personal pronouns, and explain why
each case form is used. Thus:
They expect him to come. ORAL. 7hey is a personal pro-
p noun, third person, common gen-
They \ expect (ae eee der, plural number; it is in the
BE 7 PP. nominative case as the subject of
2 oe oe as the finite verb expect (Rule 1).
Plur. Sing. : Him isa personal pronoun; it
Nom. Ob}. is in the objective case, being
Sub. of Sub. of used as the subject of the infini-
expect. 20 come. tive Zo come (Rule 2).
They knew it was she. ORAL, She is a personal pro-
noun, third person, feminine gen-
They \ fogs | eee AS der, singular number ; it is in the
PP, nominative form, because it is
= used as an attribute referring to
em. . . : .
Sing, the pronoun zt, which is in the
Nani nominative case as the subject of
Attrib. ree _ the finite verb was (Rule 3).
ferring to
the Sub. zz.
We expect him to do his part,
You know he will do right,
3. They thought it was she.
4. Second thoughts, they say, are best.— Dryden.
5. At last they steal us from ourselves away. — Pope.
6. A dream itself is but the shadow. — Shakespeare.
7 Then like fire he meets the foe,
And strikes him dead for thine and thee. — Zexnyson.
8. Nature designed us to be of good cheer. — Jerrold.
oom
so
THE PRONOUN 133
9. Methinks, with his heavy heart and weary brain, Time should
himself be glad to die.
10. Pilgrim, I greet thee; silver and gold have I none, but such
as I have, give I unto thee. 3
11, The sun veils himself in his own rays to blind the gaze of
the too curious starer. — Alcott.
12. Give me! the erect and manly foe
That I may return blow for blow.
13. He cast off his friends, as a huntsman his pack,
For he knew, when he chose, he could whistle them back.
— Goldsmith.
14. You hear that boy laughing? You think he’s all fun ;
But the angels laugh, too, at the good he has done;
The children laugh loud as they troop to his call,
And the poor man who knows him laughs loudest of all.
— 0. W. Holmes.
15. Chancing to raise her eyes as the elder lady was regarding her,
she playfully put back her hair, which was simply braided upon her
forehead, and threw into her beaming look such an expression of
affection and artless loveliness, that blessed spirits might have smiled
to look upon her. — Charles Dickens.
Ex, II.. Select two personal pronouns that may be used
tn each of the following blanks, and justify their case
forms:
1. William and _______ shall take a walk to-day.
2, Shall ______ go with ____?
3. shall walk through the meadow near where
grandfather lives,
4. Geta book at the library for Elizabeth and fj
5. They awarded the prize to ___—— who wrote the composi-
tion entitled “ Bird Life.”
6. Noone expected ________to win the prize offered by
great-uncle.
1 In expressions like Give me the book, Write me an excuse, etc., the pronouns
are in the old dative case; that is, they are in a case which is no longer used, but
which, in the early history of our language, was used and recognized. Modern
writers, however, prefer to say that such words are in the objective case, being
indirect objects or being governed by prepositions understood.
1.
GRAMMAR
He is a better writer than ‘,
are younger than either Harry or _.____,
Neither you nor ______. can perform the task.
. I fear that it is
. I know it to be :
. If I were ______I should go to school.
girls are happy.
He would not believe ______ girls,
It was _______ whom you thought to be
. I respect you more than
This book is _______ not
80. PERSONAL PRONOUNS: CAUTIONS.
The simple personal pronoun and its antecedent
should not be used as subjects of the same predicate.
Ex. I. Determine which of the following forms ts correct:
I.
2.
3.
4
5
race.
2.
Papa he (ov Papa) bought me a sled.
George and Thomas (07 George and Thomas they) went home.
And the ball it (07 And the ball) rolled into the sewer.
. The clock it (ev The clock) was twenty minutes fast.
The mouse and the cat they (ov The mouse and the cat) ran a
Seldom use myself as a substitute for the simple
personal pronoun.
Ex. II. Determine which of the following is correct:
Peeps
3.
She invited Sarah and (myself o7 me) to go with her.
James and (I ov myself) are in the same society.
. That is between you and (I, ov myself, ov me).
He told you and (myself, ov I, ov me) to bring the ferns.
The invitation is for you and (myself o7 me).
Never use the personal pronoun them when the
adjective ¢ose is required.
THE PRONOUN 135
Ex. III. Determine which of the following is correct:
VR oS Noe
4.
-your'n (your own), her'n, or his’n.
(Them or Those) are mine; the others are yours.
Will you lend me (them ov those) books?
He told (them or those) to be there at g o’clock.
Give me a peck of (those ory them) potatoes.
(Those ov Them) boys are old enough to have more judgment. '
Never use the forms kisself, theirself, theirselves,
1
Ex. IV. Jn the blanks insert the proper emphatic com:
pound personal pronoun or the proper emphatic form of the
possessive (My Own, etc.) : ,
5.
SP SM AA w Sm
. The victim ________ declared that he was not the criminal.
The books on that shelf are
Preachers _______. do not always practi ce what they preach.
Do it :
We —_____ will look after her. a
It belongs to me . :
My father gave it to us to ine ‘ ; sd
The teacher _______ could _ have done no better. ia
I know that it is ________ even though you do claim it.
The boys ________ paid for the broken glass.
The common and the grave forms of the pronouns of
the second person should not occur in the same sentence.
Ex. V. Correct the following :
ERI
6.
Thou art sad; have you heard bad news?
Bestow thou upon us your blessing.
You can’t always have thy wish realized.
Love thyself last, and others will love you.
Thy smile is a benediction and your words a delight.
Do not use he, zt, they, or any other pronoun when
its reference to an antecedent is not clear. Avoid ambiguity
136
GRAMMAR
‘by repeating the antecedent or by changing indirect dis-
course to direct discourse.
AmBiGuous.
The boy can not leave his
father, for if he should leave him
he would die. (Not clear which
would die.)
Harry promised his ‘ father
never to abandon his friends (said
to his father that he would never
abandon his friends). (Whose
friends?)
CLEAR.
The boy can not leave his
father, for if he should leave him
his father would die. (Antece-
dent repeated.)
Harry gave his father this
promise (said to his father): “I
will never abandon my friends.”
Or “JT will never abandon your
friends.” (Direct discourse.)
Ex. VI. Change the following, making each express a
clear meaning :
1. Arthur tried to see Ben in the crowd, but could not because he
was so short.
z. The girl asked her mother how old she was.
3. He said to his friend that, if he did not get better soon, he
thought he'd better go home.
(Give four different meanings.)
4. The man told the boy that his dog had killed his chickens, and
that it was but fair that he should pay him for his loss.
5. This farmer went to his neighbor and told him that his cattle
were in his fields.
81. RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
(Review Gr. 44, pp. 72, 73-)
1. We know not what lies
beyond.
i
z. We know not that which
lies beyond.
what \ lies
beyond
We A know
not
We \_know | that
| beyond
Notice that in the first sentence the pronoun wha¢ introduces the
noun clause what ies beyond, but in the second sentence the pronoun
THE PRONOUN 137
which relates to its antecedent az, to which it connects the adjective
clause which lies beyond.
These pronouns are called Relative Pronouns.
DEFINITION. A Relative Pronoun is one which introduces an
adjective clause or a noun clause that is not directly interrogative.1
The chief relative pronouns are who, which, that, and
what. Who is thus declined, the singular and the plural
being the same:
Nominative . . . who
Possessivé. . . . whose
Objective . . . . whom
The other relative pronouns are not declined, except that
whose is sometimes used as the possessive form of which,
a usage that many writers feel is seldom warranted.
Exercise.
Tell whether each of the relative pronouns in the follow-
ing sentences introduces a noun clause or connects an adjec-
tive clause with an antecedent: :
Who steals my purse steals trash.
He that getteth wisdom loveth his own soul.
Cherish patriotism, which is each citizen’s birthright.
I have learned what true liberty is.
He that plods will reach the goal.
The service of a friend is to make us do what we can.
. Who seeks for aid must faithful be to friend.
Truth is the highest thing that man may keep.
Men who are ennobled by study are more numerous than they
who are ennobled by nature.
PHEW ARAWD #
1 In such expressions as / know who went, the word who, because it intro-
duces an indirect question, is considered by some grammarians an interrogative
pronoun (Gr. 84, pp. 141,142). The treatment here given seems simpler.
138 GRAMMAR
82. USES OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
Who (whose, whom) should Senay have an antecedent
that designates persons.
Which should have as its antecedent a word designating
animals or things.
Who and which are known as the Codrdinate Relatives.
Ordinarily they should be used only to introduce a clause
that adds a new idea. This clause is not necessary in
order to make known the author’s primary thought ; its
relative always has the force of a connective and a personal
pronoun. For example, in the sentence “Cherish patriot-
ism, which is each citizen’s birthright,” the relative clause
adds a new thought ; the author’s primary thought is Cher
ish patriotism, and the relative which is equal to the con-
nective and pronoun because it, or for tt,
RULE OF PUNCTUATION. Clauses containing who or which
used coordinately should be set off by a comma or by commas.
(Comp. 53, pp. 284-286.)
That may have as its antecedent a word deine
persons, animals, or things. It should be used whenever
the antecedent includes both persons and things. (See
sentence 16 in next exercise.)
That is known as the Restrictive Relative. It should be
used whenever a relative clause is necessary in order to
make clear the author’s primary meaning, unless the use of
who or which adds decidedly to the pleasing sound of the
sentence. For example, in the sentence “He that plods
will reach the goal” the clause that plods is necessary in
order to make clear the author’s primary meaning; and
the relative chat is not equal to a connective and a personal
pronoun.
THE PRONOUN 139
RULE OF PUNCTUATION. Clauses containing the restrictive
relative that should not be set off by a comma or by commas.
(Comp. 53-)
This rule applies also to clauses introduced by who or which used
restrictively.
What (relative pronoun) seldom refers to persons. It
always introduces a substantive clause, and always carries
its antecedent within itself ; that is, it is equivalent to the
adjective pronoun /a¢ plus the relative pronoun which.
For example, He receives what he asks for, is equivalent
to He receives that for which he asks. |
Note. Asisa relative pronoun when used after such, same, se
much, so great, etc.; as, He ts sach a man as I admire.
But 1s sometimes a relative pronoun after a negative, being equal
to who not, as, There ts no boy but will help his mother.
Note. To the relative pronouns wko, which, and what the suffixes
-ever, -S0, or -soever may be added, forming the Compound Relative
Pronouns; as, whoever, whoso, whosoever.
Exercise.
Insert the proper relative pronoun and the necessary
punctuation, if any (Comp. 53) :
1. I know the man ———— you met last night.
2. Mr. Williams ________ is the general’s secretary has moved
to the city.
3. He claimed to hate music _______ is merely popular in its
nature.
4. Pittsburg _________ is a very busy city is known everywhere
for its wealth of manufactures.
5. He asked me a question _______ I could not answer.
6. The smile ________ lit up her face was a revelation to me.
7. A smile _______ I am sure was infrequent with her lit up
her face.
8. He says that the horse ________ you rode is unable to go
farther. (Why wich instead of that?)
140 GRAMMAR
9. He says my horse ______. is a Kentucky thoroughbred is
worth $800. »
10. Stop at the house _____ is next to the mill.
11. My house —_ is near the river stands in a large yard.
12, Her hair ______ was dark and glossy hung in ringlets.
13. People ________ live in glass houses should not throw stones.
14. I _______ am your friend tell you this.
15. Gen. Warren ______- fell at Bunker Hill was a hero.
16. My memory clings to the dear friends and country
I left.
17. Our only dog ______ was called Fido went mad.
18. She was the finest actress ________ I ever saw.
19. The settlers of Plymouth ———— are known as the “ Pilgrim
Fathers ” laid the foundations of religious liberty in America.
zo. She is the same person ________ I met at your home.
21. He is a man in ______ I have little faith.
22. Columbus ________ was a Genoese discovered America.
23. The wisest man _______ lives is liable to err.
24. The earth is enveloped by an ocean of air ————— is com-
posed chiefly of oxygen and nitrogen.
25. Itis the book ________ I had yesterday.
26. The men and the tools ______ you sent for have arrived.
27. The lady and her dog ________ just passed, walk out together
every day.
28. Cotton _______is a fiber is woven into cloth.
29. She is the lady to _______. you _ wrote.
30. This is a task ________ is without end.
31. You —_______ know _ better are most at fault.
32. Washington was the man _______ the colonies needed.
33. No beast so fierce ______. knows some touch of pity.
83. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN: CAUTIONS,
1. To avoid ambiguity place the relative clause as near
as possible to the word that it limits.
Ex. I. Make a relative clause of the second sentence of
each of the following pairs of sentences, placing it as near
THE PRONOUN 14!
as possible to the modified word, and punctuating correctly
(Comp. 53):
A dog was found in the street. It wore a brass collar.
The figs were in small wooden boxes. We ate these figs.
A purse was picked up by a boy. It was made of leather.
. I will tell my father. He is waiting at the gate,
. I will tell the lady. I mean the lady waiting at the gate.
. The love of money.causes untold suffering. It is the root of
all evil.
7. A poor child was found in the street by a wealthy and benevo-
lent gemleman. The child was suffering from cold and hunger.
8. A mad dog bit a horse on the leg. The dog has since died.
g. A gentleman going abroad for the summer will rent his house
to a small family. It contains all modern improvements.
10. The picture represents a dark little maid. It hangs on the
wall.
ay Py y x
2. Several connected relative clauses relating to the
same antecedent require the same relative pronoun.
Ex. II. Jnsert the proper relatives, and diagram :
A seal _______. was carried by Washington and ________ was
probably shot from his watch-chain, was found in a field after a lapse
of eighty years.
84. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
DEFINITION. An Interrogative pronoun is one that is used to
ask a question.
Its so-called antecedent is the important word in the expected
answer.
The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what.
The old interrogative whether is not now in use.
Who is declined just as the relative pronoun who is
declined (Gr. 81). Which and what have the same form
in the objective as in the nominative.
142 GRAMMAR
USES OF INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
Who refers to persons only ; as, Who zs president? Tp
whom was the property given? Whose property do you mean?
Which asks for one out of a number and may apply to
aither persons or things ; as, Which zs your book? Which
zs your cousin ?
What refers to animals and things ; as, What zs that on
the table? What moves so rapidly over the floor?
Note. Which and what are often interrogative adjectives (see
Gr. 117, p. 194); as, Which mando you mean? What manner of man
ts this ?
85. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.
An Adjective Pronoun is a word that is usually a defini-
tive adjective (Gr. 117, p. 193), but that does not modify
any expressed noun; as, The first shall be the last. None
know tt better than I. Ts this your book ?
Of the adjective pronouns, one is the best example. It refers ina
g.neral way to any person, and is preferable to you used in a similar
way. Say, As one enters, one sees, rather than As you enter, you see.
One has a possessive form, one’s, and a plural form, ones; as, One
prefers the largest for one’s private collection. The smaller ones are
less interesting.
None has no possessive and no plural form, but is sometimes used
with a plural verb; as, None of ws were there.
Other adjective pronouns are this, that, these, those, former,
latter, few, many, some, other, any, all, and such.
86. WHAT AND THAT: CAUTION.
Use but that as a conjunction to introduce a noun clause ;
do not use but what: as, Who knows but that (not what)
he will go?
- THE PRONOUN 143
but that
Who } knows | eh ge
The pronoun wat is correctly used after the preposi-
tion dv¢ (meaning except) as an element in an objective
clause, the clause being the object of the preposition ; as,
He took nothing but what J gave.
_ He \ took | nothing _
|Z h gave) what
but
Exercise.
Insert what or that:
1. I can not believe but _____ I shall see him.
2. He knows nothing but _________ you told him.
3. I did not know but _________ it might be done.
4. I believe all but ________ John told me.
87. REVIEW. —
Ex. I. Jnsert the proper pronoun:
do you think J met in Paris?
1
2. Let you and ________ go fishing.
3. The jury rendered _____ verdict.
4. Itjs hard to fight those ________ you know are right.
5. Itis the same book ______ I lent her.
6. People ________ know him respect him.
7. Boys _______. study hard and _________ study wisely make
progress.
8. I met a lady ________ all agree is handsome.
9. He is no better than ‘
10. Between you and _______., that man did not deserve it.
Ex. II. Analyze or diagram the following sentences, and
parse all the pronouns :
144 GRAMMAR
1, One can not always have one’s choice,
2. Do you know who that is?
3. I do not care for either of them.
4. The fault is yours, not mine,
5. Who he is can not be ascertained.
6. Weshould have a care for others’ comfort.
7. This medicine is what you need.
8. What strange contrasts this world of ours presents!
g. We shall soon see who is going.
10. We think we know what they will do.
11, This watch of mine runs too fast.
12. Ask for whatever you want.
13. Theirs have increased, ours have decreased.
14. Give it to whoever wants it.
TEST QUESTIONS. 1. Which pronouns change their forms to de-
note person? 2, Whatisareflexive pronoun? 3. In what relation,
or case, is it used? 4. In what cases may compound personal pro-
nouns be used? 5. Name four pronouns that have three case forms.
6. When or in what constructions must the nominative case form
be used? 7. What two uses have relative pronouns? 8. How does
the relative what differ from other relatives? 9. When are as and
but used as relative pronouns? 10, When does a singular pronoun
represent a collective noun? 11. With what kind of clauses is the
relative pronoun ‘shat, and not who or which, used? 12, What is
an adjective pronoun? 13. What is an interrogative pronoun?
14. Do interrogative pronouns have case forms? 15. Which relative
pronoun has case forms?
88. THE VERB.
What part of speech must every sentence contain? Why? Of
what use is the verb in a sentence? What is meant by a verb of
complete predication? How does a finite verb differ from an infini-
tive? In what respect are infinitives and participles alike?
We have learned that the verb is the most important
part of speech in the sentence. It is the word, or the part
of the sentence by. which an assertion is made, and no
THE -VERB — 145
sentence can be formed without it. It is therefore impor-
tant that we study its various forms, in order that we may
use them correctly. We shall first consider the various
Classes of Verbs.
89. TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS.
1. The boy hit the ball.
2. The ball was hit by the boy.
Observe that the verb in each of these sentences expresses action.
What word in the first sentence names the object that receives the
action or is affected by it?
Notice that the subject of thought doy performs an act, and that
the verb Az¢ asserts that act as going over from the subject to the
object dad/.
Has the second sentence an object? What part of the sentence
represents the receiver of the action expressed by the verb?
A verb that expresses action which goes over to a re-
ceiver of the act is called a Transitive Verb. Transitive
means going over.
DEFINITION. A Transitive Verb is one whose action goes over
to a receiver.
Note. Some verbs, like have, own, inherit, etc.,do not express
action, yet take an object to denote that which is possessed or
affected by them, and hence are transitive. Any verb that has an
object is transitive.
All verbs that are of transitive are Intransitive.
DEFINITION. An Intransitive Verb is one that does not involve
the receiver of an action.
An intransitive verb may have an attribute complement, but it
never has an object complement.
STEPS ENG. TWO. — 10.
146 : GRAMMAR
Exercises.
Ex. I. Study the following sentences, and tell why the
verbs in the first group ave intransitive and those in the
'
second group are transitive :
INTRANSITIVE. TRANSITIVE,
The children play. They play games.
The children are playing. Games are played by them.
The pupils are singing. They are singing “ America.”
The pupils sang well. “ America” was sung well.
The book lies there. She lays the book there.
The gentleman spoke to me. He speaks German.
He can not see well. He did not see me there.
Strike while the iron is hot. Strike the hot iron.
The farmer plows around the field. The farmer plows the field.
Millet was a great artist. He painted the “ Angelus,”
Turn to the lessons on Complements, Gr. 31 and 35, pp.
51, 52, 57, 58, and determine whether the verbs in the ex-
ercises ave transitive or intransitive.
Point out the verbs in “Oliver Horn,” pp. 241, 242, and
tell whether they ave transitive or intransitive.
Ex. II. Make short sentences using each of the follow-
‘ing verbs first transitively and then intransitively :
Awake, blew, dissolve, fly, grind, hear, keep, pay, survive, shake,
sounds, follow, read, shoot, spell, struck, wear, writes, tasted.
90. ERRORS IN THE USE OF TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSI-
TIVE VERBS.
1. Verbs are either transitive or intransitive, according
to their use. A few, however, are always transitive, and a
few are always intransitive. Of these, the verbs Ze and
THE VERB 147
fay, vise and raise, in their various forms, are frequently
misused, as are also the verbs sz¢ and set.
The following forms are:
INTRANSITIVE. TRANSITIVE,
Have no object. Must have an object.
Lie, lying, lain. Laying, laid.
(Reclining.) (Placing something.)
Rise, rose, rising, risen. Raise, raised, raising.
(Getting up.) (Lifting something.)
Sit, sat, sitting.2 Set, setting.
(Taking a seat, or remaining seated.) (Placing something.)
2. The form /ay is used either transitively or- intransi-
tively according to its meaning. When it means /o vest,
fay is intransitive, and is used to denote action zx the past;
as, We lay down yesterday. (Not We laid down yester
day.) When éay means ¢o place something, it is transitive,
and is used to denote action zz the present; as, We lay the
book down now.
The forms set and se¢ting are used intransitively when
they mean going below the horizon or beginning a journey.
Exercises.
Ex. I. Write ten sentences showing how lay, set, and
Setting may be used either transitively or intransttively.
Ex. II. Use the proper forms of lie and lay:
1, [| ________ in bed till 7 o’clock every morning.
2. He always —____. his books just where he shouldn’t
them.
.3. I _______on the lounge last night a long time.
4. She generally _______. abe until she is called. 5
1 The forms of s¢ may be used transitively, as in the sentence, They sat them
down to weep. — Milton.
148 GRAMMAR
5. Mary has not —____. the paper where I told her to
it.
6. This morning I ________ in bed till 9 o’clock.
‘ 7. That book has ________ on the desk too long.
8. Fred _____ on the sofa most of his time.
9. “ Now I _______ me down to sleep.”
10. Harry, _______ down and take a nap.
11, Harry _______. down and took a nap.
12. When we are weary, we _______ down.
13. James, _______ your ruler on the desk.
14. He could not _______ on. his. right side.
15. Have you________ my books away ?
16. John, have you______- there long?
17. He told me to ________ down, and I _____ down.
18. Samuel was _______ on the floor, and Willie was
bricks in rows.
19. He ________ it there yesterday.
zo. She told me to ______ the slate down, and I it
down.
Ex. Ill. Use the proper forms of rise and raise :
Po
I] ________ at 6: 20 every morning.
The balloon had ________ before I came.
The curtain will _____ at 8 to-night.
The sii. —___—..at 7.
. Freddie, ______ the window, please.
The moon ______ an hour before I
. Uncle was just ________ from dinner as I came in.
. When you saw us, we were ______ the boat.
I _______ earlier this morning than I had_______ for a
long time.
10,
11.
12.
13.
14.
155
16.
17.
18,
19.
The boy ________ and read,
The boy ________ and reads.
She —_____ more money than I.
The allies ____ the blockade.
Do you like to see a balloon ____?
Mother put the bread by the stove to
They entered just as the curtain was
The river is ________ very rapidly.
The river _______ two feet last night.
Shall I ________ or lower the picture?
THE VERB 149
Ex. IV. Use the proper forms of sit and set:
I ________ alone all day yesterday.
The sun ______ in the west.
. Harry ________ down and talked to me.
Harry, —_____. down and talk to me.
They ______ out for New York yesterday.
Kate, your dress _____well.
The bird is ________ on her eggs.
The little girl is _____ the table.
g. She and I usually______ together.
1o. John ________ there and reads.
11. John, ______ there and read.
12. Go and _______. down somewhere !
13. She told me to ______. there, and I ______ down.
14. —____ the lamp on the table, and ________ by the
window.
15. Has she _________ on those steps long?
16.° She has _______ there for at least an hour.
17. The boy had been out ________ traps for quail, but was now
quietly ___.___ by the fireside.
18. The table has been ______ for some time.
tg. I laid my book away, and _______ by the window.
SU AMA YP
Ex. V. Use the proper forms of lie, lay, rise, raise,
sit, or set:
. The shower has _______ the dust.
. My watch ________ on the bureau all day yesterday.
It was reported that the boy had ________ four dollars.
I am so weary that I must _______ down.
Why have you _________ here so long?
You have ________ your coat on my new hat.
Shall I _______ down for a little while?
] ______ late this morning.
You may —_______ here.
Shall we now —_____?
. It was reported that the river had _______ four feet.
A good man should and must
rather down with loss, than ________ unjust.
‘
ONO OS ONE Ee BUN
ht
7
-
»
150 GRAMMAR
91. PRINCIPAL VERBS AND AUXILIARY VERBS.
Note the uses of the verbs Zas and J/os¢ in the following
sentence:
The boy has lost his ball.
Which verb may be omitted with but slight change of meaning in
the sentence?
If we omit the word Jost the sentence would convey an
entirely different meaning :
The boy has his ball.
It will be seen that Jost is the principal verb-used in
making the predication, and that as is merely combined
with it as an Auxiliary,or as a help in expressing its mean-
ing. ,
DEFINITION. A verb that is used to help express the meaning
of another verb is called an Auxiliary Verb.
The auxiliaries are do (does), did; be (with all its different forms);
have (has), had; shall, should; will, would; may, might; can, could;
and must, :
Exercise.
Turn to Composition 52, pp. 282, 283, and point out
the auxiliary and the principal verbs.
92. VERBAL INFLECTIONS.
Like nouns and pronouns, verbs have different forms
(made partly by inflection and partly by auxiliaries) to,
show their different uses in the sentence.
THE VERB 151
93. VOICE.
Let us observe again the two sentences :
1. The boy hit the ball. boy \_hit | bali
| The the
2. The ball was hit by the boy. ball \ was hit
The | by | boy
[ee
Do these sentences express the same thought? Wherein do they
differ? In the first sentence what word is the subject? How is this
same word used in the second sentence? What receives the action
expressed by the verb in the second sentence?
Notice that the object of the first sentence becomes the
subject of the second, and the simple verb /7¢ is changed
to was hit. This change in the form of a transitive verb
helps to give variety of expression, and is called Voice.
DEFINITIONS. Voice is the variation in the use and form of a
transitive verb that shows whether the subject is the doer or the
receiver of the action. ,
The Active Voice represents the subject as the doer of the action.
The Passive Voice represents the subject as the receiver of the
action. Passive means receiving or enduring.
The Active Voice is used when 1, Mr. Logan sent the mes-
we wish to direct attention to senger.
the actor. 2, Who stole the goods ?
The Passive Voice is used (1)
when we wish éo direct attention 1. The messenger was sent by
to the act, (2) when we wish Mr. Logan.
to conceal the actor (see 2); 2. The messenger has been
(3) in speaking of she act sent.
when the actor is unknown 3. The goods were stolen.
(sée 3).
Only transitive verbs have voice. Some intransitive verbs followed
by an attribute resemble the passive form; as, He zs gone. They are
152 GRAMMAR
come. Gone and come are here used as attribute complements to
denote a condition of the subject, and are not verbs in the passive
voice expressing an action received by the subject. These forms are
generally used when speaking of.inanimate objects; as, Zhe melan-
choly days are come. The flowers are gone. But they should not, as
a rule, be used to predicate anything of sentient beings, when their
own volition is to be expressed ; as,-Our friends. have (not ave) come.
Robert has (not zs) gone 4a school,
94. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE FORMS.
When a verb in a sentence is changed from the active
to the passive voice, the object of the sentence becomes
the subject, and the subject: becomes the object: of a prep-
Osition ; as,
Active Voice. Passive Voice.
1. The children loved Long- 2. Longfellow was loved by the
Fellow. children.
If the verb has both a direct and an indirect object, the
indirect object remains unchanged ; as,
1. The children gave him a 2. A chair was given him by the
chair. children.
_children_\ gave | chair_ chair_\ was given
| 24. The | (20) | him iz . (to) | him
| dy | children
lhe
Sometimes the indirect object is made the ‘subject of the
passive verb ; as,
3. He was given a chair by the children.
He \ was given JL chair—
[491 children a” |2
[fe
THE VERB 153
In this construction the direct object remains unchanged, and for
convenience may be called a Retained Object. The broken line of
the diagram shows that it is not a real object.
A factitive complement of a verb in the active voice be-
comes an attribute in the passive voice ; as,
1. They named the city Rome. 2. The city was named Rome
by them.
They | named / Rome | city city \ was named\ Rome
the The | by| them
[a2 [he [Britiem
Since an intransitive verb never has an object, it can not be used in
the passive voice. However, an intransitive verb and a preposition
may sometimes assume the office of a transitive verb. In this case
the object becomes the subject, and the preposition becomes a part
of the verb; as,
1. My uncle laughed at him. 2. He was laughed at by my uncle.
¢
(ridiculed) He \_was laughed at
uncle \ laughed at\him pears
[eae my
Exercise.
Determine the voice of each verb in the following sen-
tences ; rewrite each sentence, changing the verbs in the
active voice to the passive and those in the passive to the
active:
: Autumn leaves were gathered by the girls.
They gave the teacher the leaves.
The dog drew the cart.
The child was bitten by the dog.
We saw a wild duck.
Does the farmer sell corn?
ane px
1 Another way of disposing of the active form is the following:
uncle _j laughed
| My | at\him
154 GRAMMAR
7. The Southern States export cotton.
8. The book was read by the teacher.
9. We were taught French by Miss Stone.
10. French was taught by Miss Stone.
11, The man does his work well.
12, Rip Van Winkle entered the house.
13. Did the servant break the vase?
14. The way across the mountains was known by the travelers.
15. The travelers saw the snow-capped Alps in the distance.
16. The American flag was raised by the captain.
17. We informed our friends of our arrival.
18. William Penn founded Philadelphia.
19. This composition was written by James.
zo. Helen set the dish on the first shelf.
21. Did she lay the letter on the desk?
22. The Pilgrims settled Boston.
23. The English called these people Puritans.
24. We were elected officers by the society.
25. Whittier wrote many poems against slavery.
26. A breeze sets every leaf in motion.
95. MODE.
We use verbs in different ways and give them several
forms, in order to show the manner, or mode, in which a
thought is asserted.
In the following, note the different forms, or modes, of
the verb de used to assert our thoughts about James:
1. James is here.
2. I wish that James were here!
3. James may be here.
4. James, be here to-morrow.
The verbs in these sentences show by their forms four different
manners of asserting thought. /s asserts it as a fact; weve asserts it
as contrary to fact (James is zo¢ here); may be asserts it as possible ;
and de expresses it as a command.
.
THE VERB 155
Not only the form of a verb, but also its use, which is
sometimes shown by its position in the sentence, may
make known the manner of assertion.
We study diligently. Study diligently. The dropping of the sub-
ject changes the assertion of a fact into a commaxd.
DEFINITION. Mode is that form or use of a verb that shows the
manner of assertion.
Exercise.
Study the following sentences and tell whether each verb
asserts a thought —(1) as a fact; (2) as a wish or condition
implying the contrary to be true; (3) as possible; (4) as a
command :
Emma studies her lesson.
Emma, study your lesson.
If Emma be sick (I don’t believe she is) she need not study.
If Emma is sick (she may be sick) she should not study.
Emma can study.
Dare to do right.
If the earth is round men can sail around it.
If the earth be flat men can not sail around it.
If he have not a friend he may quit the stage. — Bacon.
Great truths are portions of the soul of man. — Lowel/,
OP SPOON ON en Ga NS es
96. TENSE.
f come ow.
7 came yesterday.
f shall come fo-morrow.
Observe that the different forms of the verb come in the above
sentences denote an action as taking place at three different times.
Which denotes present time? Which denotes past time? Which,
future time?
156 GRAMMAR
This variation in the form of the verb to denote the time
of the action is called Tense. Zemse is an old French word
for time.
DEFINITION. Tense is a variation in the form of a verb to denote
the time of an action or event.
A verb denoting present action is in the Present Tense; as,
They go.
A verb denoting past action is in the Past Tense; as, 7hey went.
A verb denoting future action is in the Future Tense; as, They shall
go, or will go.
These three tenses mark the three great divisions of time, and are
called Primary Tenses. The indicative mode has three additional
tense forms called Secondary Tenses to denote completed or per-
fected action. They are the present perfect, the past perfect, and the
future perfect.
The Present Perfect Tense is formed by putting Aave (as) before
the past participle (Gr. 39, p. 66); as, Zzey have gone.
The Past Perfect Tense is formed by putting Aad before the past
participle; as, 7ey had gone.
The Future Perfect Tense is formed by putting shall have or will
have before the past participle; as, 7zey will have gone.
Exercise. ‘<
The following verbs are in the past tense. Write each
in the future tense with the subject I or we, and also with
some other subject. Use the auxiliary shall with I or we,
and will with any other subject ; as, “I (or we) shall go;”
“You (or he, they, the boy, etc.) will go.”
began blew brought caught
chose crept cut drank
drove bid found froze
went hit hid laid
said sold shone wrote
struck threw wore won
hoped lived stopped tried
THE VERB 157
97. NUMBER AND PERSON OF THE SUBJECT, AND
THE S-FORM OF THE VERB.
We have learned that stmple word subjects are either
nouns or pronouns, and that these two parts of speech may
be inflected (changed in form) to indicate difference in
number.
Number, therefore, is a property of nouns and pronouns,
and is that form or use by which they denote one or more
than one.
Although verbs do not possess the “property of num-
ber,” they regularly change some forms because of the
number of the subject. Note the following verbs used in
the present tense and in the present perfect :
PRESENT.
fl walk. fe walks.
You walk. The man walks.
We walk. A dog walks.
' They walk.
Present Perrect.
L have walked. She has walked.
You have walked. The girl has walked,
We have walked. . Lhe cat has walked.
The people have walked.
In what person is each of the subjects in the first column? In
what number?
In what person and number is each of the subjects in the second
column?
‘In the present tense how do the verbs-in the first column differ
from the verbs in the second ?
In the present perfect tense how do the auxiliary verbs in the first
column differ from those in the second ?
These sentences suggest the following principle:
All subjects in the third person, singular number, when used
with verbs in the present tense, are followed by the s-form of the
158
GRAMMAR
‘verb, and when used with verbs in the present perfect tense, are
followed by the s-form of the auxiliary.
In making the s-form of verbs the same rules generally apply as in
adding s to nouns to form the plural; thus,
Catch, catches ; lie, lies; marry, marries ; journey, journeys.
98. USE OF THE VERB WITH SINGULAR AND WITH
PLURAL SUBJECTS.
In determining whether to use or to reject the s-form of
the verb, everything depends-upon the number of its sub-
ject.
To decide whether a subject is in the singular or in
the plural number, one must look beyond the mere form
of the word to the character of the thought expressed
by it.
Sincurar Susjects.
1. The secretary has arrived.
3. . The secretary and treasurer
was seen.
The article! z#e not being re-
peated, secretary and treasurer is
the name or title of but one person.
5. A redand white flag /.as been
sent.
The article @ not being re-
peated, the adjectives ved and
white refer tc the same flag.
7. My friend and neighbor (one
person) has just died,
9. The Pleasures of Memory”
was published in 1792.
“ Pleasures of Memory” is a
noun, the name or title of a book.
1 The adjectives a, am, and the are called Articles.
The following examples may prove helpful :
Piura Svusjects.
2. The secretaries have arrived.
4. The secretary and the treas-
urer were seen. :
The article ¢he being repeated,
secretary and treasurer refer to
different persons.
6. A red and a white flag have
been sent.
The article @ being repeated,
the adjectives ved and white refer
to different flags, the noun flag
being understood after ved.
8. My friend and my neighbor
(different persons) have just died.
10. The pleasures of memory
are delightful.
Pleasures is the subject; a plural
noun.
See Gr. 117, p. 194.
THE VERB
SiIncGuLaR Susyects.
11. John and Wills sled is
broken,
The meaning of this sentence
is that the two boys own a sled to-
gether, and therefore the verb is
.singular. Note also that the pos-
sessive sign comes at the end of
the firm-name. .
15. Bread and milk is whole-
some food.
Bread and milk is a noun, the
name of a kind of food.
17. Mine tenths of the soil ts
sand.
159
Piura Susjects.
12. John and IWUll’s sleds are
broken.
The “firm” John and Will has
more than one sled.
13. John's sled and Will's are
broken. ,
Each boy owns one sled, the
noun s/ed being understood after
Will's.
14. John’s sleds and Will's
are broken.
Each owns more than one sled.
16. Bread and milk are plen-
tiful.
Bread and milk are spoken of
as different objects, not “ consid-
ered as a whole.”
18. Vine tenths of the words
are misspelled,
When the subject is a partitive word (a word meaning a part), and
is followed by g/, its number is determined by the number of the noun
or pronoun following af In 17 the noun soz? is singular; in 18 the
noun words is plural.
-19. A variety of music charms
the ear.
20. A variety of beautiful ob-
jects please the eye.
Nouns like variety, abundance, plenty, etc., which are not plural,
nor strictly collective nouns, are treated as partitive words and must
be regarded as plural in effect when they are followed by a plural
modifier to which the verb makes direct reference; as, Plenty of
oranges are brought from Florida.
This is true, however, only in
sentences similar to 17 to 20 inclusive.
21. The choir sings its selec-
tions well.
The chotr, as a body, as one
whole, sings. Therefore, chozr is
a collective noun of unity; that
is, singular number.
22. The choir respect their
leader.
Thechozr,notasawhole butas
individuals, respect their leader.
In this sentence, chozr is a col-
lective noun of plurality. :
160
Sincurar Supjects.
23. Three times one ts three.
In this sentence the meaning
is “ One (unit or thing) taken three
times is three.” The subject one
is an adjective pronoun, singular
number.
25. The number of deserters
arrested was small.
The word sxmber when pre-
ceded by Zhe, is singular.
GRAMMAR
PLuRAL Susjects.
24. Three times two are six.
In this sentence the meaning
is “ Two (units or things) taken
three times are six.” The subject
two is an adjective pronoun,
plural number.
26. A number of deserters were
arrested,
(See 19 and 20, and the remark
following them.)
Great care must be taken not to mistake an apparent subject for
the true one. Thus,
27. An examination of his af-
Sairs shows him to be a bankrupt.
The real subject being examz-
nation, the form shows is cor-
tect. By mistaking effairs for
the real subject, one is liable to
say show.
29. This is the only one of the
books that 1s valuable.
Oxe, and not books, is the ante-
cedent of the relative pronoun
that. That is, therefore, in the
singular number.
28. There are more than one
error in his work. a
This sentence being introduced
by the expletive ¢herve, the sub-
ject follows its verb. The real
subject is sore (meaning more
errors), hence ave is correct. By
mistaking error for the real sub-
ject, zs would be the verb. A
better form, however, is, ‘‘ There
are more errors than one in his
work.”
30. This ds one of the best books
that have been published.
Books, and not one, is the ante-
cedent. The relative pronoun
that is, therefore, plural.
In negative expressions great care must be taken to
avoid the very general error of rejecting the s-form of
the verb with singular subjects.
the contraction z’¢ for zot:
He doesn't (not He don’t).
(not /¢ don’t).
She doesn’t (not She don’t).
(Comp. 20, pp. 247, 248.)
This is often true before
Lt doesn’t
THE VERB 161
He (She or [t) zsn’t (not “azn 2”).
He (She or [t) hasn't (not “hain't”),
L’m not, You aren't, or You've not; We aren't, or We're not (not
“ ain't”).
I (You or We) haven't (not “ hain’¢”). (Comp. 51, p. 281.)
Exercise.
Decide which of the verbs in parentheses, in the following
sentences, ts the correct one, and give your reason for your
decision:
. Books (is, are) a noun,
. A ball and socket (forms, form) a universal joint.
. The committee (is, are) at variance on some points.
. What sounds (has, have) each of the vowels ?
. Three fourths of the men (was, were) discharged.
. Each of the three (brings, bring) a different excuse.
7. John, when (was, were) you in the city?
8. The end and aim of his life (is, are) to get money.
g. Part of the crop (was, were) injured.
10. He (doesn’t, don’t) like it.
11. The power and influence of his work (is, are) well known.
12. To relieve the wretched (was, were) his pride.
13. One of you (is, are) mistaken.
14. Nine tenths of our happiness (depends, depend) on this.
15. The able scholar and critic (has, have) a fine library.
16. Why (is, are) dust and ashes proud ?
17. Young’s “ Night Thoughts” (is, are) his greatest poetical
work. .
18. There (comes, come) the boys.
19. There (is, are) several reasons for this.
zo, A number of boys (was, were) present.
21. The number of pupils absent (was, were) small.
22. His hope and ambition (was, were) to be a lawyer.
23. The story of his adventures, which (was, were) recently pub-
lished, (is, are) probably truthful.
24. A new class of words (is, are) explained in this lesson.
25. (Was, were) either of these men considered honest?
26. Hence (arises, arise) the six forms for expressing time.
An pW DN
STEPS ENG. TWO.—IlI.
162 GRAMMAR
27. There (is, are) no data by which it can be estimated.
28. There (seems, seem) to be no others included.
29. In piety and virtue (consists, consist) man’s happiness.
30. Ambition is one of those passions that (is, are) never satisfied.
31. There (was, were) no memoranda kept.
32. In the savage mind, there (seems, seem) to be hardly any ideas
but those which enter by the senses.
33. With him, to will and to do (is, are) the same.
34. Neither of the letters (was, were) received.
35- In all her movements there (is, are) grace and dignity.
36. One of the cities which (was, were) built still (remains, remain).
37. One regiment (is, are) waiting for the order to march.
38. A black and white horse (was, were) sold for $100.
39. To profess regard and to act differently (marks, mark) a base
mind.
4o, Enough of his original energy and power (was, were) left to
render his enemies uneasy.
41, The Society of Friends (was, were) founded by George Fox,
99. USE OF THE VERB WITH SINGULAR AND WITH
PLURAL SUBJECTS (Continued).
1, Two or more singular subjects connected by ov, zor,
and also, and too, and not, but not, if not, or as well as,
may be said to form a compound subject whose meaning is
singular ; as,
. John or James attends.
. Neither John nor James attends.
. John, and also James, attends.
. John, and James too, attends.
. John, and not James, attends,
. John, but not James, attends.
. John, tf not James, attends.
. John, as well as James, attends.
Notice the commas.
Although these subjects are, for convenience, called “compound,”
the fact is that they are simple subjects belonging to different propo-
sitions, or statements. Thus,
Ons anh wW N
THE VERB 163
1. John _\\ (attends) James _}\ attends
| or
The verb attends in the 1st and 2d sentences, agrees with Jamies,
and is understood with Jokx. In the 3d to 8th inclusive, the verb
attends agrees with JoAx, and is understood with James.
The thoughts in 3, 4, 7, and 8, however, should usually be ex-
pressed in some less confusing form.
2. When two or more singular subjects connected by
and are preceded by each, every, or no, they are said to
form a compound subject whose meaning is singular, and
which requires a singular verb; as,
1. Each book and paper was in its place.
2, Every leaf and every twig teems with life.
3. Vo oppressor and no tyrant triumphs here.
These so-called compound subjects are really simple subjects be-
longing to different propositions. That is to say, the verbs agree
with the subjects next them and are understood with the other
subjects. Thus,
1. book \ (was, etc.) paper \__was
Each | | and | (each)| in | place
tts
3. When two or more subjects requiring different num-
ber forms are connected by or or zor, the verb should agree
with the one nearest it; as,
1. Either you or I am expected at the meeting.
(You are expected at the meeting, or I am.)
2. Neither you nor he ts allowed to go in.
(You are not allowed to go in, nor is he.)
3. Either the captain or the sailors are to blame.
(Either the captain is to blame, or the sailors are.)
4. Etther the sailors or the captain ts to blame.
(Either the sailors are to blame, or the captain is.)
Each of these four sentences is an example of a contracted sentence,
one verb being omitted. This construction should not, as a rule, be
164 GRAMMAR
used unless the subjects require the same number form. Either the
predicate should be completed with the first subject, or the form of the
sentence should be changed. (See sentences in parentheses.)
1. sige
ou \ ‘are, etc. I \ am expected
- dor \—A |e | a
the
4. A singular nominative followed by wzth and an ob-
ject should have a verb in the singular ; as,
The museum, with all its treasures, was burned.
It is better, generally, to use avd, if the sense allows, and to put
the verb in the plural number; as, 7he museum and all its treasures
were burned.
Exercise.
Select the proper form of the verbs, and give the reason for
your selection :
Neither John nor James (is, are) there.
Every boy and girl (was, were) invited.
The pupils, as well as the teacher, (was, were) pleased.
The teacher, but not the pupils, (was, were) pleased.
The teacher, as well as the pupils, (were, was) pleased.
. Neither he nor I (is, am) going.
. One or more lives (was, were) lost.
8. The Carnegie Institute, with all its wonders, (is, are) free to the
public. ;
9. Question after question (was, were) asked by the child.
1o. The population of Pittsburg and Allegheny, with their sur-
rounding boroughs, (was, were) almost half a million in 1900.
a
100. REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS.
Most of the verbs of our language regularly form the
past tense and the past participle (Gr. 39, p. 66) by adding
ed (or @) to the simplest form of the verb ; thus :
THE VERB 165
REGULAR VERBS,
Simptest Form. Past Tens. Past PAaRTICIPLE.
Play Played Played
Glide Glided Glided
Wish Wished Wished
Love Loved Loved
Cry Cried Cried
Some verbs, however, form their past tense and past
participle irregularly ; thus:
IRREGULAR VERBS.
Simriest Form. Past TENSE. Past ParTICIPLEe.
Slay Slew Slain
Ride Rode Ridden
Wear Wore Worn
Go Went Gone
DEFINITIONS. A verb that forms its past tense and past participle
by adding dor ed to its simplest form, is called a Regular Verb.
A verb that forms its past tense and past participle in any other
way than by adding d or ed to its simplest form, is called an Irregu-
dar Verb.
The simplest form of the verb is the present infinitive (Gr. 105,
p. 172), without Zo. In all verbs except de the present indicative (Gr.
ror), the form without s, is the same as the present infinitive (if any).
Principal Parts of the Verb. The present indicative
(without s), the past tense, and the past participle are
the Principal Parts of the verb, because from them we can
make all the other forms or parts.
The present participle is sometimes given as one of the principal
parts. To give it seems unnecessary, however, as it is always formed
by adding zzg to the present infinitive.
1 By some grammarians another classification is made, dividing verbs into
strong and weak verbs. Those which form the past tense by a change of the
vowel are called Strong Verbs; as, drive, drove. All others, whether regular
or irregular, are called Weak Verbs.
166 GRAMMAR
Notes. A verb having more than one form for either the past
tense or the past participle, or for both, is called a Redundant Verb;
as, present, dare, past tense, dared or durst,; present, show ; past
participle, showed or shown.
If any one of the principal parts of a verb is wanting, the verb is
called Defective. For example, Jeware has only the present tense.
Can, may, must, shall, and ought have no past participle.
Therefore the expression ad ought is incorrect, and should
never be used.
A few verbs take as their subject the pronoun z¢ without a definite
antecedent: as, /t rains; It is cold, etc. Verbs thus used are called
Impersonal Verbs.
Exercise.
Tell of each of these verbs whether it ts regular, trregu-
lar, defective, or redundant ; then use some form of each to
fill the following blanks (if the verb is transitive, use the
pronoun it or some other appropriate object after the verb):
1... now: “I yesterday. I have
l eat the apple now. TI ate the apple yesterday. I have caten the
apple.
Present. Past. Past Participie.
Am Was Been
Begin Began Begun
Cleave (40 split) Cleft Cleft, cloven, cleaved
Cleave (to adhere) Cleaved Cleaved
Do- Did Done
Dare (fo venture) Durst, dared Dared
Dare (to challenge) Dared Dared
Eat Ate Eaten
Fly (0 take wing) Flew Flown
Flee (to run away) Fled Fled
Flow, overflow Flowed, over- Flowed, over-
Go Went Gone
Hang (¢0 suspend) Hung Hung
Hang (40 take life) Hanged Hanged
Have Had Had
Lose Lost Lost
PRESENT.
Loose
Lay (to place)
Lie (¢o recline)
Lie (2o decezve)
Rise (¢o get up)
Raise (zo lift up)
Sit (to be seated)
Set (Zo place, etc.)
Dream
Drink
Ring
Run
See
Sing
Spring
Sink
Shrink
Dive
Beware
Ought
Shall
Can
May
Will
Must
To THE TEACHER.
THE VERB
Past.
Loosed
Laid
Lay
Lied
Rose
Raised
Sat
Set
Dreamed, dreamt
Drank
Rang, rung
Ran
Saw
Sang, sung
Sprang, sprung
Sunk, sank
Shrank, shrunk
Dived
Ought
Should
Could
Might
Would
Must
Quoth?
167
Past PARTICIPLE.
Dreamed, dreamt
Drunk, drank
Rung
Run
Seen
Pupils should have practice in using the above forms
in sentences untii they can use them correctly. For a complete list of irregular
verbs see Gr.116, pp. 190-192.
101. THE INDICATIVE MODE AND ITS TENSES.
DEFINITION. The Indicative Mode is that form of the verb used
to assert something as a fact.
suppositions thought of as facts.
It is also used to state conditions or
It is used:
1. To make an affirmation: The earth is round. The boy's coaé
was made of szlk. /f rains.
1 Rarely used.
“ Quoth the raven, ‘ Nevermore.’ ”
168 GRAMMAR
2. To ask a guestion - Is the earth round? Was the coat made of
silk? Will z¢ rain to-day ?
3. In clauses when the supposition is not necessarily contrary to
the fact: Lf the earth is round (it is), men can satl around tt. Though
the boy's coat was made of silk (it was), zt did not look well. Lf it
rains 0-day (it may or may not), J shall not go to the picnic. (See
Subjunctive Mode, Gr. 102.)
The tenses of the indicative mode are the present, the
past, the future, the present perfect, the past perfect, and the
future perfect.
ae Present Indicative is used to express:
. What is actually present; as, That customis quite popular now.
2. What is true at all times; as, Zhe sum gives light. They proved
that the earth is round (not was round).
3. What occurs frequently or habitually; as, He writes for the
press.
4. What is to occurin the future; as, 177. Jones lectures next week.
The Past Indicative denotes time wholly past, having no relation to
any other past time and not including present time; as,
1. That custom was quite popular formerly.
2. She visited the place often last year.
The Future Indicative expresses indefinite future action or being; as,
1. That custom will be quite popular.
2. She will visit the place while recovering.
The Present Perfect Indicative expresses action or being as com-
pleted in a period of time—an hour, a year, etc.—of which’ the
present is a part; as,
1. That custom has been guzte popular this year.
2. She has visited the place often this summer.
The Past Perfect Indicative expresses action or being as completed
at or before some definite’ past time; as,
1. That custom had been guzte popular, but it ceased at once when
John died.
2. She never went to Gowanda after her son's death, though she
had visited the place often before that.
THE VERB 169
The Future Perfect Indicative expresses action or being that will
have been completed at or before some definite future time; as,
1. Charles will have been captain just two years next Christmas.
2. She will have visited the place three times if she goes there to-
morrow.
102. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE AND ITS TENSES.
DEFINITION. The Subjunctive Mode is that form of the verb used
in a clause to imply that the contrary is true; as,
Lf the earth were fiat (it is not), men could not sail around it.
Lf Twere you (1 am not), J should try to understand the subjunc-
live mode.
This mode may also express a wish, implying either the
contrary to be true, or an intention unfulfilled ; as,
O that I were a child again!
The sentence ts, that you be hanged.
The subjunctive is so called because it is usually subjoined, or
added, to another statement. When so used it is generally preceded
by a subordinate conjunction, — zf, est, though, etc. The conjunction
is omitted when the verb stands before the subject; as,
Were / iz your place, I should not go.
Lf I were in your place, [ should not go.
The forms peculiar to the subjunctive mode are found in the present
tense of active verbs, and in the present and past tenses of the verb de.
Thus:
1. Subjunctive Form (without s). /f water run up hill, two threes
are seven.
Notice that the supposition “If water run up hill” is contrary
to fact. 3
2. Indicative Form (with s). Jf water runs down hill, two threes
are Stx.
Notice that the supposition “If water runs down hill” is not
contrary to fact.
170 GRAMMAR
Notice further illustrations :
PRESENT TENSE (expressing presen. or future time).
Subjunctive Form (no s). Jf he be honest (he is not), ke will
pay me.
Indicative Form (s). Jf He is honest (he may or may not be),
he will pay me.
Past TENSE.
Subjunctive Form (no s), expressing present time. Jf he were
honest (he is not), he would pay me.
Indicative Form (s), expressing past time. fhe was honest (which
you admit), why was he discharged?
Exercise.
Choose the correct form:
If he (was, were) near enough, I should speak to him.
I wish I (was, were) wealthy.
If I (was, were) he, I should accept.
O that he (was, were) my brother!
Though he (was, were) very industrious, he continued very poor.
Though he (was, were) an angel, I should not believe him.
If he (is, be) there, ask him to come in.
If it (snows, snow) next week, I can’t leave.
If your father (comes, come), let me know.
If your father (was, were) here, you would act differently.
Unless some sweetness at the bottom (lies, lie),
Who cares for all the crinkling of the pie?
~
PAINS: “O08 NU ea
-
103. THE POTENTIAL MODE AND ITS TENSES.
DEFINITION. The Potential Mode is that form- of the verb used
‘to assert permission, power, necessity, determination, or obligation,
by means of the auxiliaries may, can, must, might, could, would, and
should.
DECLARATIVE, INTERROGATIVE.
1. °TG express. 2er- } ffe may or might go. May or might he go?
mission ; as,
THE VERB 171
DECLARATIVE. INTERROGATIVE.
2. Toexpress ower, as, He can or could go. Can or could he go ?
3. To express xeces-
His 28, \ fle must go. Must he go?
4. To express ob/i-
Paes, i He should go. Should he go?
5. Toexpress willing-
ness or aetermt- ffe would go. Would he go?
nation, as,
The Potential Mode makes the assertion chiefly with the auxliany
verb; as, He can go.
The Indicative Mode makes the assertion chiefly with the principal
verb; as, He has gone.
The Tenses of the Potential Mode are the present, the
present perfect, the past, and the past perfect. These
“tenses,” however, in no way denote the time indicated
by their names.
The Present Potential may denote either present or future time.
Its auxiliaries are may, can, and must. As,
/ can sing (present).
J may go to-morrow (future). ,
The Present Perfect Potential denotes Zas¢ time. Its auxiliaries are
may have, can have, must have. As,
Ll must have read the book.
The Past Potential may denote present or future time. Its auxil-
iaries are might, could, would, should. As, ,
I should go to-day (present).
We hoped that she would sing (future to time of hoping).
Note. As the last example shows, the time of the past potential
in a subordinate clause is either the same as the time of the principal
verb or subsequent (future) to it,
The Past Perfect Potential denotes fast time. Its auxiliaries are
might have, could haye, would have, should have. As,
This poem should have appeared yesterday.
‘NoTeE. As the last example shows, the past perfect potential im-
plies that the act referred to dd not take place.
172 GRAMMAR
104. THE IMPERATIVE MODE AND ITS TENSE.
DEFINITION. The Imperative Mode is that form of the verb
used to express a command or a request; as,
1. Come hither, my little daughter.
z. “Leave me not thus, sir,” she said.
3. John, lend me your knife, please.
4. Hear me for my cause, and be silent.
The subject of a verb in this mode being always shou,
you, or ye (generally understood), the verb can be used
only in the second person.
The imperative mode has but one tense, the present.
The command is present, but implies a future act.
105. THE INFINITIVE AND ITS TENSES.
DEFINITION. The Infinitive is the form of the verb (usually
preceded by to) which assumes or expresses in a general way
some action or state, but does not directly assert it of a subject.
The infinitive can not be used as the predicate of a
sentence, as its predication is merely assumed or implied.
The infinitive is usually preceded by the sign zo. In
some cases fo is omitted; as,
I saw him do the work (1 saw him to do the work).
The infinitive has two tenses,— the present and the
present perfect.
The Present Infinitive may denote present, past, or future time; as,
He ought to go now.
fle was obliged to g0 yesterday.
1 asked him to go to-morrow.
The Present Perfect Infinitive denotes past time only; as,
He ought to have gone yesterday. (Every present perfect infinitive
begins with zo have.)
THE VERB 173
The time expressed by the infinitive may be:
1. After that expressed by the finite verb; as,
Finite. INFINITIVE.
ffe intended _to see you.
(The seeing follows the intending.)
z. The same as that expressed by the finite verb; as,
FInits. INFINITIVE.
He appeared to enjoy Azmself.
(The enjoying is at the same time as the appearing.)
3. Before that expressed by the finite verb ; as,
, Finite, INFINITIVE.
J was proud to have been born zz France.
(Time of being born is before time of being proud.)
The Present Infinitive should be used:
1. In order to make known an action occurring after that made
known by the finite verb.
2. In order to make known an action occurring at the same time as
that made known by the finite verb.
The two uses are shown in the following sentences:
1. This poem ought to appear (not fo have appeared) to-day or to-
morrow.
2. [should have liked to see (not to have seen) him. .(The seeing
is after the liking.)
3. I should not have let you eat (not have eaten) tt. (The eating is
after the letting.) 3
4. He seemed to enjoy (not fo have enjoyed) it. (The enjoying is at
the same time as the seeming.) .
The Present Perfect Infinitive should be used in order
to make known an action occurring before that made
known by the finite verb ; as,
1. This poem ought to have appeared (not 4o appear) yesterday.
2. He ts reported to have rescued (not fo rescue) the man from
drowning. (The rescuing was before the reporting.)
3. le believed the box to have been opened (not fo be opened) by the
wrong person. (The opening was before the believing.)
174 GRAMMAR
4. He appeared to have seen (not fo see) better days. (The seeing
was before the appearing.)
Caution. Avoid the use of avd instead of to; as,
1. Come to see me often (not Come and see me often).
2. Try to come early (not Try and come carly).
106. THE PARTICIPLE AND ITS TENSES.
DEFINITION. The Participle is an inflected form of the verb
which, like the infinitive, assumes or expresses in a general way
some action or state, but does not directly assert it of a subject.
The participle, therefore, can not be used as a predicate. It merely
assumes its predication.
Any combination of a participle with its modifiers and comple-
ments is called a Participial Phrase.
A substantive used only as the subject of a participle is the prin-
cipal word of an absolute phrase. (See Gr. 47, p. 77.)
The participle has three tenses, — the present, the past,
and the past perfect.
The Present Participle denotes action or being continuing at the
time indicated by the finite verb; as,
John, driving through the park, met his uncle.
The Past Participle denotes action or being completed at the time
indicated by the finite verb; as,
John, driven through the park, met his uncle.
The Past Perfect Participle denotes action or being completed be-
fore the time indicated by the finite verb; as,
John, having driven through the park, met his uncle.
107. CONJUGATION.
The orderly arrangement of all the different forms of
the verb for the purpose of showing voice, mode, tense,
person, and number is called Conjugation.
THE VERB 175
108. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE.
PReSENT. Past. Past PArRTIcIPLs.
Am Was Been.
Indicative Mode.
PRESENT TENSE.
Per-
ae Singular Number. * Plural Number.
1. (J) am (We) are.
z. (You) are, ov (Thou) art. (You ov Ye) are.
3. (He) is. (They) are.
PRESEN® PERFECT TENSE.
(Have, combined with the past participle.)
1. (1) have been. (We) have been.
z. (You) have been, ov (Thou) (You or Ye) have been.
hast been.
3. (He) has been, ov hath been. (They) have been.
Past TENSE.
1. (I) was. (We) were.
2. (You) were, ov (Thou) wast or (You or Ye) were.
wert.
3. (He) was. (They) were.
Past PERFECT TENSE.
(Had, combined with the past participle.)
1. (I) had been. (We) had been.
z. (You) had been, ov (Thou) (You or Ye) had been.
hadst been.
3. (He) had been. (They) had been.
FuTurE TENSE.
(Shall or will, combined with the present infinitive.)
Simple futurity ; expectation,
1. (I) shall be. (We) shall be. .
2. (You) will be, ov (Thou)’ wilt (You ov Ye) will be.
be.
3. (He) will be. (They) will be.
176 GRAMMAR
Determination.
ps Singular Number. Plural Number.
1. (I) will be. (We) will be.
2. (You) shall be, ov (Thou) (You or Ye) shall be.
shalt be.
3. (He) shall be. (They) shall be.
Future PEerrect TENSE.
(Shall or will, combined with the present perfect infinitive have been.)
x. (I) shall have been. (We) shall have been.
2. (You) willhave been,or(Thou) (You oy Ye) will have been.
wilt have been.
3. (He) will have been. (They) will have been.
Subjunctive Mode.!
(Usually follows if, though, lest, etc.)
PRESENT TENSE.
1. (If 1) be. (If we) be.
z. (If you or If thou) be. (If you oy Ir ye) be.
3. (If he) be. (If they) be.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
1, (If I) have been. (If we) have been.
2. (If you or If thou) have been. (If you ov If ye) have been.
3. (If he) have been. (If they) have been.
Past TENSE.
1. (If 1) were. (If we) were.
2. (If you) were, ov (If thou) wert. (If you or If ye) were.
3. (If he) were. (If they) were.
Past PERFECT TENSE.
1, (If 1) had been. (If we) had been.
2. (If you ov If thou) had been. _— (If you oy If ye) had been.
3. (1f he) had been. (If they) had been.
1 The forms of the subjunctive mode different from those of the indicative
in the present and past tenses are shown by full-face type.
THE VERB 177
Potential Mode.
PRESENT TENSE.
(May, can, or must, combined with the present infinitive.)
a Singular Number. Plural Number.
1, (I) may, can, ov must be. (We) may, can, 07 must be.
2. (You) may, can, ov must be, (You ov Ye) may, can, 07 must
or (Thou) mayst, canst, or be.
must be.
3. (He) may, can, ov must be. (They) may, can, ov must be.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
(May, can, or must, combined with the present perfect infinitive have been.)
1. (I)may,can,o7musthave been. (We) may, can, 07 must have been.
. (You) may, can, 97 must have (You o7 Ye) may, can, ov must
been, or (Thou) mayst, have been.
canst, o7 must have been.
3. (He) may, can, 07 must have (They) may, can, ov must have
been. been.
Past TENSE.
(Might, could, would, or should, combined with the present infinitive.)
1. (I) might, could, would, ov (We) might, could, would, or
should be. should be.
2. (You) might, could, would, (You or Ye) might, could, would,
or should be, or (Thou) or should be.
mightst, couldst, wouldst, or
shouldst be.
3. (He) might, could, would, 0» (They) might, could, would, or
should be. should be.
Past PERFECT TENSE.
(Might, could, would, or should, combined with the present perfect infinitive
have been.)
1. (I) might, could, would, ov (We) might, could, would, or
should have been. should have been.
2. (You) might, could, would, 07 (You or ye) might, could, would,
should have been, ov (Thou) or should have been.
mightst, couldst. wouldst, ov
shouldst have been.
3. (He) might, could, would, or (They) might, could, would, or
should have been. should have been.
STEPS ENG. TWO. 12+
178 GRAMMAR
Imperative Mode.
PRESENT TENSE.
Per-
son. Singular Number. Plural Number.
2. Be (you or thou). Be (you o7 ye).
Infinitives.
PRESENT. PRESENT PERFECT.
To be. To have been.
Participles.
PRESENT. Past. PERFECT.
Being. Been. Having been.
109. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB LOVE.
ACTIVE VOICE.
Indicative Mode.
PRESENT TENSE.
Per-
son. Singular Number. Plural Number.
1. (I) love. (We) love.
2. (You) love, ov (Thou) lovest. (You or Ye) love.
3. (He) loves, ov loveth. (They) love.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
1. (I) have loved. (We) have loved.
z. (You) have loved, ov (Thou) (You or Ye) have loved.
hast loved.
3. (He) has loved, ov hath loved. (They) have loved.
Past TENSE.
1. (I) loved. (We) loved.
2. (You) loved, ov(Thou)lovedst. (You or Ye) loved.
3. (He) loved. (They) loved.
Past PERFECT TENSE.
1, (I) had loved. (We) had loved.
z. (You) had loved, ov (Thou) (You or Ye) had loved.
hadst loved.
3. (He) had loved. (They) had loved.
THE VERB 179
Future TENSE.
Simple futurity ; expectation.
z ne Singular Number. Plural Number.
1. (I) shall love. (We) shall love.
2. (You) will love, ov (Thou) wilt (You ov Ye) will love.
love.
3. (He) will love. (They) will love.
Determination.
1, (I) will love. (We) will love.
2. (You) shall love, ov (Thou) (You or Ye) shall love.
shalt love.
3. (He) shall love. (They) shall love.
FuTuRE PERFECT TENSE.
1. (I) shall have loved. (We) shall have loved.
2. (You) will have loved, o7 (Youor Ye) will have loved.
(Thou) wilt have loved.
3. (He) will have loved. (They) will have loved.
Subjunctive Mode.
PRESENT TENSE.
1. (If I) love. (If we) love.
2. (If you ov If thou) love. (If you or If ye) love.
3. (If he) love. (If they) love.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
1. (If I) have loved. (If we) have loved.
2, (If youor If thou) haveloved. (If you or If ye) have loved.
3. (If he) have loved. (If they) have loved.
Past TENSE.
1. (If I) loved. (If we) loved.
2. (If you ov If thou) loved. (If you ov If ye) loved.
3. (If he) loved. (If they) loved.
Past PERFECT TENSE.
1. (If I) had loved. (If we) had loved.
2. (If you or If thou) had loved. = (If you ov If ye) had loved.
3. (If he) had loved. (If they) had loved.
180 GRAMMAR
Potential Mode.
PRESENT TENSE.
= oc Singular Number. Plural Number.
1. (I) may, can, ov must love. (We) may, can, ov must love.
2. (You) may, can, ov must love, (You oy Ye) may, can, oy must
‘ or (Thou) mayst, canst, ov love.
must love..
3. (He) may, can, ov must love. (They) may, can, ov must love,
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
1, (I) may, can, ov must have (We) may, can, ov must have
loved. loved.
2. (You) may, can, ov must have (You ov Ye) may, can, ov must
loved, ov (Thou) mayst, have loved.
canst, ov must have loved.
3. (He) may, can, ov must have (They) may, can, ov must have
loved. loved.
Past TENSE.
1. (I) might, could, would, 07 (We) might, could, would, er
should love. should love.
2. (You) might, could, would, ov (You or Ye) might, could, would,
should love, ov (Thou) or should love.
mightst, couldst, wouldst, o7
shouldst love. :
3- (He) might, could, would, 07 (They) might, could, would, or
should love. should love.
Past PERFECT TENSE.
1. (I) might, could, would, ov (We) might, could, would, or
should have loved. should have loved.
2. (You) might, could, would, ov (You or Ye) might, could, would,
should have loved, ov (Thou) or should have loved.
mightst, couldst, wouldst,
or shouldst have loved.
3. (He) might, could, would, ov (They) might, could, would, ov
should have loved. should have loved.
THE VERB 18r
Imperative Mode.
PRESENT TENSE.
- oo Singular Number. Plural Number.
2. Love (you ov thou). Love (you o7 ye).
Infinitives.
PRESENT. PRESENT PERFECT.
To love. To have loved.
Participles.
PRESENT. PAST. PERFECT.
Loving. Loved. Having loved.
110. PASSIVE VOICE.
The tenses of the passive voice are the same as those of
the active. They are made by adding the past participle
of a transitive verb to the various forms of the verb de; thus,
INDICATIVE, PRESENT.
S Singular Number. Plural Dumber
1. (I) am loved. (We) are loved.
2. (You) are loved, ov (Thou) (You or Ye) are loved.
art loved.
3. (He) is loved. (They) are loved,
Exercises.
Ex. 1. Complete the passive conjugation of the verb
love ix all the modes and tenses.
Ex. Il. Write a synopsis of the verb see tn the third
person, singular number, passive conjugation ; that is, write
the third person singular of the verb see in all the modes
and tenses of the passive voice.
182 GRAMMAR
111. PROGRESSIVE CONJUGATION.
The simplest form of the verb is used to express what
is habitual or customary; as, Se sings. He plays the
violin; but to represent an action as still going on (in
progress), another form, called the Progressive, is used ;
as, She is singing. ffe is playing the violin.
The progressive form in the active voice is made by add-
ing the present participle of any verb to the different forms
of the verb Je, in all the modes and tenses!; thus,
INDICATIVE, PRESENT.
sa
Per-
ssipie Singular Number. Plurai Number.
1. (I) am loving. (We) are loving.
z. (You) are loving, ov (Thou) (You ov Ye) are loving.
art loving.
3. (He) is loving. (They) are loving.
Exercise.
Write a synopsis of the verb call in the first person, singu-
lar, progressive form, active and passive.
112. EMPHATIC CONJUGATION.
The Emphatic Form is made by placing the auxiliary
do, does, or did (dost, doth, or didst), before the present in-
finitive, that is, the simplest form, of the principal verb.
This applies to the present and past tenses of the indic-
ative and of the subjunctive, and to the imperative, all
in the active voice; thus (Indic.), J do love, I did love ;
(Subj.), If 7 do love, If [ did love; (Imp.), Do (you) love.
1 In the passive voice there are progressive forms in the present and past indicative, and
past subjunctive ; thus, / am being loved, I was being loved, If I were being loved.
THE VERB 183
These forms are called the emphatic form, because in
speaking the auxiliary is emphasized ; as, / do know; They
did come.
They are commonly used, however, without emphasis in
negative and interrogative sentences; as, / do not know.
Did they come ?
Do as a principal verb is conjugated regularly ; that is, its conjuga-
tion may be written out by substituting, in Gr. 109, do for dove; did for
the past tense Joved, and done for the participle /oved (see Gr. 100,
Exercise, p. 166).
When do is an auxiliary, parse it and its principal verb together as
one verb. ~
Exercises.
Ex. I. Tell whether the form of 0 in each of the follow-
ing sentences 1s an auxiliary or a principal verb:
. Do noble things.
. Do not envy another.
. Dost thou love life? Then do not squander time.
Alfred did his work well, but Howard did not do anything at all.
. After all, the joy of success does not equal that which attends
the patient working.
na PwW hd
»
Ex. 11. Wyte the following forms of the verbs call and
see:
First person, plural, present, indicative, active.
Second person, singular, present perfect, indicative, passive.
Third person, singular, present, subjunctive, active.
Singular, imperative, active.
First person, plural, future perfect, active.
Third person, plural, past, potential, active.
Third person, singular, past perfect, potential, passive.
The present infinitive, passive.
The present perfect infinitive, active.
The past participle, passive.
DAO 100 ONG rs 1S IS
nl
184 GRAMMAR
113. USE OF SHALL AND WILL.
The auxiliaries sa// and wi// used in forming the future
tense have somewhat different meanings. Which of these
words should be used depends upon the meaning that the
speaker wishes to express ; as,
J shall go. (Speaker expects to go.)
7 will go. (Speaker determines to go.)
You shall go. (Speaker determines that you shall go.)
He will go. (Speaker expects him to go.)
The following sentences convey different meanings ac-
cording to whether sha// or will is used. Try to explain
the difference in meaning between each sentence as it
stands and the same with the other auxiliary substituted :
I shall (will) not see you.
We will (shall) not come.
He shall (will) not go alone.
They shall (will) meet us at the station.
You will (shall) be in Europe then.
They shall (will) be punished.
My friends shall (will) be present.
The estate will (shall) be divided.
The admission shall (will) be free. '
He says that the admission shall (will) be free.
PP SBWAPK EE Ym
ry
The uses of shall and will are summarized in the follow
ing: (Gr. 108, 109, Indic. Fut.)
SimpLe Futurg witH IDEA oF Future wit Ipga oF
EXPECTATION. DETERMINATION.
I (ov we) shall go, I (or we) will go.
You (he, they, ec.) will go. You (he, they, e¢c.) shall go.
RULE. To express simple futurity or expectation on the part of
the speaker, use shall with the subjects I and we, and will with all
other subjects.
To express determination on the part of the speaker, use will with
the subjects I and we, and use shall with all other subjects.
THE VERB 185
In questions sha// is always used with the subjects 7 and we.
With other subjects use the auxiliary that is expected in the reply.
Thus,
Shall 7 meet you to-morrow ?
Will you keep this pledge? (J will.)
Shall you be able to come to-morrow? (J shall.)
Should and would are in origin the past tenses of shall
and we//, and in corresponding uses follow the same rules.
Should, however, has also a special meaning equivalent to
ought, and is used in that sense with all subjects alike.
Exercises.
Ex. I. Justify the use of shall, will, should, azd would
an the following sentences :
1. I think it will rain soon.
2. We shall be disappointed.
3. We will do our duty.
4. Shall I have permission to go?
5. I should be pleased to assist you at any time. '
6. If I did need help, I would not ask for it.
7. “You should see it in Fair week, sir,” said Jackanapes.
8. “And what sort of a figure shall I cut, at the court of King
Pelias!”
g. “You will get a handsomer pair of sandals by and by,” said
the old woman. “Only let King Pelias get a glimpse of that bare
foot, and you shall see him turn pale as ashes, I promise you.”
10. For whosoever will save his life shall lose it: and whosoever
will lose his life for my sake shall find it.
II. You may break, you may shatter
The vase if you will;
But the scent of the roses
Will hang round it still.
12. I would study, I would know, I would admire forever.
— Emerson.
13. And so the active breath of life
Should stir our dull and sluggard wills.
186 GRAMMAR
Ex. II. Fill the following blanks with shall, will, should,
or would.
I. I go or not?
2, I] _______ never see him again! Never!
3. Alas, alas! I _______ never see him again.
4. | ______ be obliged if you ________ do me this favor.
5. If you ________ call, ] ______ accompany you.
6. I think we ________ have rain to-day.
7. Where ______ I meet you?
8. ] _______ suffer if I do not do as I am requested.
9. we be there in time?
1o. Help me, or I ________ drown.
11. you be of age this year?
12. . you go this evening or to-morrow?
13. we go with you to the station?
14. I ________ be pleased to hear from you.
15. When ________ we see you again?
16. In spite of all I could do he ________ not remain.
17. The teacher said we —________ remain.
18, Every boy and girl ______ read “‘ Hiawatha.”
19. At first I didn’t think you _______ enjoy this visit.
20. I _______ think you ————_—_ have known better.
114. HOW TO PARSE VERBS.
A finite verb is parsed by stating :
1. The class as to form, —regular or irregular, giving
its principal parts if irregular.
2. The class as to use, — transitive or intransitive, giv-
ing its voice (active or passive) if it is transitive.
3. The mode, — indicative, subjunctive, potential, or
imperative.
4. The tense.
5. The subject, person, and number.
THE VERB 187
An infinitive or a participle is parsed by stating :
1. Its tense.
2. Whether it is transitive or intransitive, active or passive.
3. How it (or the phrase of which it is a part) is used.
MODELS FOR ORAL PARSING.
As it lies in the earth, tron ore is in veins or pockets, walled
about with rock.
Lies is a verb; the principal parts are Ze, day, lain, hence it is
irregular ; it expresses an action that does not pass to a receiver, and
is therefore intransitive; it asserts a fact, and therefore is in the
indicative mode; it denotes present time, and therefore is in the
present tense. It is in the third person and singular number, to
agree with its subject 77.
Abbreviated form. Js is an irregular, intransitive verb, indicative
mode, present tense, third person, singular number, to agree with its
‘ subject ove.
Walled is a past participle, passive, from the verb wad/, It is used
as an adjective to modify veins or pockets.
WRITTEN PARSING.
beasts | \_fe know | friends.
Nature \_teaches |thecr_
Ir. V. Inf.
Tr. Pres,
Act. Tr.
Ind. Act.
Pres. Assum. Pred.
3. of beasts
Sing.
to agree
with ature.
Exercises.
Ex. I. Parse orally all the verbs in the selection on
pages 293, 294.
188
GRAMMAR
Ex. II. Parse in writing all the verbs in the following,
according to the model given:
An RO Pn
Knowledge wanes, but wisdom lingers. — Texnyson.
. Wealth may seek us, but wisdom must be sought. — Young.
Act well your part; there all the honor lies.
We, by our sufferings, learn to prize our bliss. — Dryden.
Suffer that you may be wise; labor that you may have.
If a man empty his purse into his head, no one can take it from
him. — Franklin.
7.
8.
Never put off till to-morrow what you can do to-day.
The reason I beat the Austrians is, they did not know the value
of five minutes. — Vapoleon.
Qg.
No man’ has learned anything rightly, until he know that
every day is Doomsday. — Emerson.
10.
Men but like visions are, time all doth claim;
He lives, who dies to win a lasting name. — Drummond.
115. REVIEW.
Exercise. Tell which of the forms in parentheses is
correct, and give the reason for your answer:
I.
2.
I (saw, seen) my duty and I (done, did) it.
The land was (overflown, overflowed) after the river had
(raised, risen).
He had (gone, went) home before the storm had (began, begun).
The murderer was (hung, hanged) at daylight.
Our fathers held that all men (were, are) created equal.
I expected he (will, would) come.
It was his intention (to introduce, to have introduced) the bill.
“ (Can, May) I use your knife a moment ?” asked she.
“You (may, can) have it longer, if you wish,” answered he.
(Will, Shall) I put some coal on the fire ?
. I vow I (shall, will) never go there again.
. If I (should, would) say so, I (should, would) be guilty of
falsehood.
13.
“ Eight bells ” (was, were) struck.
THE VERB 189
14. Each day and each hour (brings, bring) (their, its) own trials.
15. If he (were, was) here he could see for (his self, himself).
16. If my friend (was, were) here I (should, would) be happier.
17. Neither you nor I (am, are) to blame.
18. Thou who (are, art) the author of life, (can, canst) restore it.
19. Every one of you (have, has) the wrong answer.
20. Money, as well as provisions, (was, were) needed.
21. He (lived, has lived) there several years before he died.
22. The prisoner says that he (will, shall) try (and, to) keep his
promise. ,
23. And if I (was, were) a fairy, what (should, would) I give to
quiet thine earnest prayer?
TEST QUESTIONS. 1. Into what two great classes are verbs divi-
ded? 2. Define an intransitive verb. 3. Choose a verb that may be
either transitive or intransitive, and illustrate both uses. 4. Select
three verbs used only intransitively. 5. Why are auxiliaries necessary?
6. Make a list of auxiliary verbs. 7. What kind of verbs can not be
used in the passive voice? 8. Why? 9. How is the passive voice
formed? 10. In changing a sentence from the active to the passive
form what does the object complement become? 11. The indirect
object? 12. The factitive complement? 13. What properties of the
verb are shown by inflection? Illustrate.
14. What is mode? 15. What mode is formed by the use of
auxiliaries? 16. Give the mode auxiliaries. 17. What are the
primary tenses of the verb? 18, Thesecondary tenses? 19. Mention
the tense auxiliaries. 20. Which auxiliary is used with the subjects
and we to express simple futurity? 21. Which to express determi-
nation? 22, When is the s-form of the verb used? 23. Upon what
does the use of the s-form of the verb depend? 24. When may a
singular noun or pronoun be used as the subject of were? 25. Why
are some verbs said to be irregular ?
26. What is meant by the conjugation of averb? 27. By the synop-
sis of a verb? 28. How are the tenses of the passive voice formed?
29. How does the progressive form of the verb differ in meaning
from the ordinary form? 30. Whatis aredundant verb? 31. A de-
fective verb? 32. Animpersonal verb? 33. What is the difference
in meaning between May 7 go? and Can J go? 34. When is the
verb se¢ used intransitively? Illustrate. 35. What is the rule for
the use of shal/ and wll?
190 GRAMMAR
116. LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS.
The following list contains most of the irregular verbs in
the language. The forms in italics are now but little used.
An R means that the regular form may also be used;
and when the R is in full-face type it indicates that the
regular form is preferable. The present participle is here
omitted, as it is always formed by adding zzg to the
present infinitive (Gr. 100).
Present. Past. Past P. Present. Past. Past P,
Abide abode abode Burn burnt, R. burnt, R.
Am was been Burst burst burst
Arise arose arisen Buy bought bought
Awake awoke, R. awaked Cast cast cast
Bake baked i po Catch caught, R. caught, R,
aken : é chidden
Chide chid { %
Bear, for- bore. bare} nOnne chig
? . born! Choose chose chosen
beaten Cleave 2 cleft, R.
Beat heat beat (¢o split) j ples i cloven
Begin began begun Cling clung clung
Bend bent, R. bent, R. Clothe clad, R. clad, R.
Bereave bereft, R. bereft, R. Come, ée: came come
Beseech besought besought Cost cost cost
Bet bet, R. bet, R. Creep crept crept
Bid bade, bid bidden, bid Crow crew, R. crowed
Bind bound bound Curse curst, R. curst, R.
Bite bit, bitten, bit Cut cut cut
Bleed bled bled Dare? durst,R. dared
Blend blent, RR. blent, R. Deal dealt dealt
Bless blest, R. blest, R. Dig dug, R. dug, R.
Blow blew blown Dive dove, R. dived
Break broke broken ° Do did done
Breed bred bred Draw drew drawn
Bring brought brought Dream dreamt, R. dreamt, R.
Build built, R. built, rR. Dress drest,R. drest, R.
1 Born is passive only, in sense of 2 Cleave, /o adhere, is regular.
brought forth. § Dare, to challenge. is regular.
THE VERB
Present Past. Pah;
7 drunk
Drink drank i eae
Drive drove driven
Dwell dwelt, Rr. dwelt, R.
Eat ate, gat eaten
Fall, 4e- fell fallen
Feed fed fed
Feel felt felt
Fight fought fought
Find found found
Flee fled fled
Fling flung flung
Fly flew flown
Forsake forsook forsaken
Freeze froze frozen
Get, for- got got, gotten
Gild gilt, R. gilt, R.
Gird girt, R. girt, R.
Give, for- gave given
Go, under- wert gone
Grave! graved graven
Grind ground ground
Grow grew grown
Hang? hung hung
Have had had
Hear heard heard
Heave hove, R. { hove, B
hoven
Hew hewed hewn, R.
Hide hid hidden, hid
Hit hit hit
Hold, 4 held DO
Hurt hurt hurt
Keep kept kept
Kneel knelt, R. knelt, R.
-Knit knit, R. knit, R.
Know knew known
Lade laded laden, R.
1 Engrave is regular.
IQ!
Present. Past. Past P,
Lay laid laid
Lead, mzs- led led
Lean leant, R. leant, R.
Leap leapt, R. leapt, R.
Learn learnt, R. learnt, R.
Leave left left
Lend lent lent
Let let let
Lie(rectine) lay lain
Light lit, R. lit, R.
Lose lost lost
Make made made
Mean meant meant
Meet met met
Mow mowed mown, R.
Pay, re- paid paid
Pen pent, R. pent, R.
Put put put
Quit quit, R. quit, R.
Rap rapt, R. rapt, R.
Read réad réad
Rend rent rent
Rid rid, R. rid, R.
Ride rode, 7i@ ridden
Ring rang, rung rung
Rise rose risen
Rive rived riven, R. ,
Run ran, 7“z = yun
Saw sawed sawn, R.
Say said said
See saw seen
Seek sought sought
Seethe sod, R. sodden, R.
Sell sold sold
Send sent sent
Set set set
Shake shook shaken
Shape —_ shaped shapen, R.
Shave shaved shaven, R.
2 Hang, zo take life, 1s regular.
192 GRAMMAR
Present. Past. Past P. Present. Past. Past P.
Shear shore, R. shorn, R. Stick stuck stuck
Shed shed shed Sting stung stung
Shine shone, R. shone, R. Strew —_ strewed __ strewn, R.
Shoe shod shod ‘ strode stridden
Stride j :
Shoot shot shot strid strid
Show showed shown, R.. 3 struck
Shred shred, R. _ shred, R. Sane. *eHeeR i stricken
2 shrank Strin strun strung
Shrink i shrunk j shrunk cae co striven
Shrive shrove, R. shriven,R. Strow strowed _ strown, R.
Shut shut shut swore
3 Swear | i sworn
Sing sang, sung sung sware
Sink sunk, sank sunk Sweat sweat, R. sweat, R.
Sit sat sat Sweep = swept swept
Slay slew slain Swell swelled swollen, R.
Sleep slept slept Swim { swam \ ae
: oa slidden swum
Slide slid =f 5
slid Swing swung swung
Sting i slung i tune Take took taken
slang Teach taught taught
Slink slunk slunk Tear tore, ave torn
Slit slit slit Tell told told
Smell smelt, R. smelt, R. Think thought thought
Smite smote smitten Thrive throve, rR. thriven, R.
Sow sowed sown, R. Throw threw thrown
Speak = spoke spoken Thrust thrust thrust
Speed sped, R. sped, R. Tread { trod trodden
Spell spelt, R. spelt, R. trode trod
Spend _ spent spent Wake woke, R. woke, R.
Spill spilt, R. spilt, R. Wax waxed waxen, R.
Spin spun, sfaz spun Wear wore worn
Spit spit, spat spit Weave wove woven
Split split split Wed wedded wed, R.
Spoil spoilt, R. spoilt, R. Weep wept wept
Spread spread spread Wet wet, R. wet, R.
‘ sprang Win won won
opring { sprung j eee Wind wound, R. wound
Stand stood stood Work wrought, R. wrought, R.
Stave stove, R. stove, R. Wrap wrapt, R. wrapt, R.
Stay staid, R. staid, R. Wring = wrung wrung
Steal stole stolen Write wrote written
THE ADJECTIVE 193
117. THE ADJECTIVE.
An adjective is a word used to modify the meaning of a
noun or pronoun (Gr. 20 and 21, pp. 33, 34). This modi-
fication may be made in two ways:
1. It may be made by pointing out or describing some
property or quality in the person or thing named by the
substantive ; as,
Unselfish doys become noble men.
A pleasant word on a rainy day ts a ray of golden sunshine.
The best love zs a helping hand.
The adjective uzselfish tells what kind or quality of boys, xoble
tells what kind of men, go/den tells the quality of sunshine.
DEFINITION. An adjective used to describe or tell the kind or
quality of the person or thing named is called a Descriptive Adjec-
tive.
The great majority of adjectives are descriptive. They include,
as asmall part of their number, Proper Adjectives, or those derived
from proper names; as, Zke American flag, Zhe Spanish leet.
2. An adjective may modify the meaning of a substan-
tive by defining or pointing out that which is named; as,
this doy, that word; or by limiting or indicating the
number or quantity of that which is named; as, two doys,
the first word, much sunshine, enough rain.
DEFINITION. An adjective that defines or limits a noun without
describing is called a Definitive Adjective!
As compared with adjectives that describe, there are very few
definitive adjectives. The principal ones are:
one third, e¢c. each this
two, ez. a every that
first an either these
second the neither those
1 Sometimes called a Limiting Adjective.
STEPS ENG. TWO. — 13.
194 GRAMMAR
former other such no more
latter any both many most
last one same few enough
some all another much
Which and what when used as adjectives, either in asking questious
(sometimes called Interrogative Adjectives) or in exclamations, are
definitives ; as,
Which oy played truant ?
What boy would play truant?
What shadows we are, what shadows we pursue /— Burke,
Note. Which asks for ove of a number of persons or things.
What is applied to persons or things indefinitely. .
Which (whichever) and what (whatever) sometimes introduce a
noun clause and modify like an adjective. In such use also they are
definitives ; as,
I know which boy played truant.
Give me whatever information you have.
This, these, that, those, and yonder are definitives used to point out
objects and are called Demonstrative Adjectives ; as,
This! apple zs sweet Those! orapes are sour.
The adjectives a, an, and the are called Articles.
‘A (an) is the Indefinite Article because it denotes any one of a num-
ber of persons or things.
The is the Definite Article because it points out some particular
person or thing.
1 An adject ve may exert its influence over a noun in two ways:
First, it may stand near the word it modifies, either before or after, influencing
it directly; as,
Gentle words were spoken.
His words, gentle and helpful, were often heard wherever trouble was.
Second, it may complete an assertion, following a copulative verb (Gr. 32,
Pp. 52). In this use it modifies the subject, exerting its influence indirectly; as,
His words were gentle and helpful.
Gentle avd helpful was he.
To help others zs pleasant.
Adjectives used in the second way are sometimes called Predicate Adjectives,
THE ADJECTIVE 198
Exercise.
Point out and classify the adjectives in the following sen-
tences :
3:
There is a pleasure in the pathless woods.
Every man is odd.
Then the sea I found calm as a cradled child in dreamless
slumber bound... :
4.
5. Loss of sincerity is.loss of vital power.
6. See yonder maker of the dead man’s bed.
7. Great sins make great sufferers.
8.
9
Io.
Ir.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16,
17.
18.
19.
20.
Much wit he had, but little wisdom.
Each man is the servant of all men, and all men of each.
. Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May.
To some men are given ten talents.
The noblest mind the best contentment has.
He did not know which profession to choose.
The snowy lands are springing, in clover green and soft.
Far in a wild, unknown to public view,
From youth to age a reverend hermit grew.
Delightful is this loneliness.
Constant quiet fills my peaceful breast
With unmixed joy, uninterrupted rest.
Certain winds will make men’s temper bad.
Write it on your heart that every day is the best day in the year.
Considerable genius is shown in a few of his short poems.
The former books were printed in England in the seventeenth
century ; the latter in America in the twentieth.
118. COMPARISON.
Notice the adjectives in the following sentences:
1. George ts tall, Frank is taller, but Luther ts the tallest of the
three.
=. Jane ts studious, Mary is more studious, but Ruth ts the most
studious girl in school.
196 GRAMMAR
3. Apples are good, oranges are better, and peaches best of all,
What quality of the three boys is compared by the adjectives in
the first sentence? How are the different degrees of this quality de-
noted? Notice that Frank possesses the quality of tallness in a greater
degree than George. Which boy possesses it in the greatest degree?
How are these different degrees shown? How is comparison shown
by the adjectives in the second sentence? In the third sentence?
We see, then, that an adjective has the power to make
us know that objects possess a quality in different degrees.
This is done either by an inflection (pp. 103, 104) or by the
use of an additional word, and is called Comparison.
DEFINITION. Comparison of adjectives is the power by which
they make known that objects possess a quality in different degrees.
Three degrees of comparison may be made known by the adjec-
tive, and to the forms making known these three degrees are given
the names Positive, Comparative, and Superlative.
The Positive Form is the ordinary form of the adjective, and merely
indicates the presence of the quality; as, Za//, studious, good, etc.
The Comparative Form indicates that one of two objects contains
more of the given quality than the other; as, aller, more studious,
better (than another).
The Superlative Form indicates that one of three or more objects
contains more of a given quality than any one of the others; as,
tallest, most studious, best (of alt).
Adjectives are compared in three ways:
1. Adjectives of one syllable and many adjectives of two syllables 1
are compared by adding -er to form the comparative and -es¢ to form
the superlative; as, adi, taller, tallest, noble, nobler, noblest; happy,
happier, happiest.
2. Some adjectives of two syllables! and all longer adjectives are
compared by using ove to form the comparative and most to form
1 In the case of a regular adjective of two syllables sonmd ordinarily determines
whether to use the forms in -er and -est or to place more and most before the
positive form. Use whichever seems more euphonious.
THE ADJECTIVE 197
the superlative ; as, sore pleasant, most pleasant, more studious, most
studious.
In Descending Comparison the comparative is formed by using
less, and the superlative by using /east, before the positive; as, ess
happy, least happy.
3. Some adjectives are compared irregularly ; as, good, better, best ;
bad, worse, worst.
119. IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES.
Irregular and partly irregular adjectives, few in number
but of very frequent use, are thus compared :
Pos!TIvE. ComPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE.
bad
ill worse worst
evil
far { farther { farthest
further furthest
foremost
fore former ; fi
rst
eooe } better best
well
hind hinder hindmost
in (infrequent as } ee } inmost
adjective) innermost
late i later { latest
latter last
little less least
many more most
much more most
nether nethermost
A é nighest
nigh - nigher { ent
Id i older i oldest
o elder eldest
out (tafreguent as i outer { outmost, outermost
adjective) utter utmost, uttermost
top ‘topmost
up (infrequent as i upper \ upmost
adjective) uppermost
198 GRAMMAR
120. THE ADJECTIVE: IMPORTANT FACTS.
The adjective is important as involving :
I, PUNCTUATION.
1. “ Two honest young men were chosen.” In this sentence young
tells the kind of sex, honest tells the kind of young men, and two tells
the number of honest young men. Hence these adjectives are of
unequal rank, and are therefore not separated by the comma (Comp.
56, note, p. 291).
2. “A tall, straight, and dignified manentered.” In this sentence
tall, straight, and dignified modify man independently: the man is
éall and straight and dignified; hence these adjectives are of the same
(equal) rank, and are therefore separated by the comma.
II. THE UsE oF OTHER IN COMPARISON.
1. In making comparisons when the adjective used is in the posi-
tive or the comparative degree, neither of the terms compared must
include the other. Thus, :
1. John was as active as any of his companions.
2. John was more active than any of his companions.
3. Jron is harder than dead.
In these sentences notice that Jom is not included in any of his
companions, and that zvon is not a kind of /ead. In such sentences
the word other should never be used.
2. Other should be inserted in making comparisons with adjectives
in the positive or comparative degree when its presence is necessary
to prevent one of the terms compared from including the other. Thus,
1. 1Vo other mezal is so useful as zron.
z. fron is more useful than any other metal.
3. John is taller than any other doy in his class.
In these sentences o¢her is necessary because zvon is a metal, and
John is a boy in his class.
3. Since the superlative denotes an object possessing a quality in
the highest or lowest degree of all that are considered, the term com-
pared must be included in the term with which it is compared; and
as a rule, therefore, other is not used with this degree. Thus,
fron is the most useful of all metals.
THE ADJECTIVE 199
'
III. THE COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES WHOSE MEANING DOES
Not ADMIT OF INCREASE OR DIMINUTION.
Because of their meaning some adjectives do not admit of com-
parison; for example, wooden, horizontal, true, perfect.
It is of course incorrect to compare such adjectives. Say, “ This
line is szore nearly horizontal than that,” etc., when wishing to make
a comparison between two objects approaching perfection.
IV. THE Correct UsE oF A, AN, AND JHE.
1, Aor an is used to limit a noun to one thing of a class — to any
one; as, d man=azy one man. Ax earl=any one earl.
z. A or an is not used to limit a noun denoting the whole of a
class; as, Man (not @ man) is mortal. He received the title of ear
(not az earl).
3. A, when used before few, changes the meaning from zot many
to some. A, when used before /¢¢/e, changes the meaning from xot
much to some. Thus, few men=xot many men; a few men=some
men. Little cause = not much cause; a little cause= some cause.
4. The is used:
(a.) To refer to some particular thing or things already known or
to be described; as, The sun rises. The house shat my brother built
was destroyed.
(6.) Before a noun, in the singular, to particularize the class with-
out designating any individual; as, The horse zs a useful animal.
The oak zs valuable.
5. The article is omitted before names used in such general or
unlimited sense as not to require it; as, Truth (not Zhe truth) is
mighty. Astronomy (not Zhe astronomy) ts a difficult science. He
made some sort of excuse (not am excuse). One third of 6 zs 2 (not
the one third of 6). He was appointed chairman (not the chairman).
He has pneumonia (not she pneumonia).
6. When adjectives of equal yank refer to the same object the
article is used only with the first; as, / have a red, white, and blue flag
(one flag). But,
When adjectives of equal rank refer to different objects the article
is repeated with each adjective; as, J have a red, a white, and a blue
Jlag (three flags). ,
7. When several connected nouns stand for the same object the
article is uséd only with the first; as, Webster the orator and states-
man (one person). But,
200 GRAMMAR
When several connected nouns stand for different objects the
article is repeated with each noun, if necessary to avoid ambiguity;
as, Webster, the orator, and the governor were in the first carriage
(two persons). J/ have just sold a house and a lot (separate property) ;
but, The men, women, and children walked over the bridge (neither
obscure nor ambiguous).
8. When several connected nouns stand for different objects, if the
first takes the article it must be repeated when the same form of the
article is not applicable to all; as, A cow, an ox, and a horse (not A
cow, 0x, and horse),
V. THE AGREEMENT WITH THE NOUN.
_ 1. Adjectives denoting one agree with nouns in the singular; as,
One eye, That basis, This memorandum. Adjectives denoting more
than one agree with nouns in the plural; as, 7wo eyes; Those bases ;
These memoranda.
2. If an adjective is necessarily plural, the noun to agree with it
must be plural; as, /2ve fons (not jive ton); Five pounds (not five
pound). ;
Note. Brace, dozen, score, yoke, hundred, thousand, etc., l.ave the
same form in both numbers when used with numerals.
VI. THe USE oF ErrvzR AND NEITHER.
1. Either and neither are used to designate one of two objects
only. When move than two objects are referred to, use any, any one,
none, no one; as, Neither of these (two) houses is for sale. You may
have any one of those (three or more) which you wish,
2. To express reciprocal relation the terms each other and one an-
other are often used; as, Those two people help each other; Those
three (or more) fersons help one another.
(Each other is used of two only; one another is used of more than
two.)
VII. ERRorS IN COMPARISON AND ARRANGEMENT.
1. Avoid double comparisons; as, move unkinder; most un-
kindest.
2. Place adjectives where there can be no doubt as to what they
are intended to modify; as, 4 dish of fried bacon (not A Sried dish
of bacon). :
THE ADJECTIVE 201
121. REVIEW.
Ex. 1. Rewrite the following, arranging the adjectives in
better order when possible, and punctuate:
. I like little pretty flowers.
. He sold a black blind old horse.
A wooden rickety large building.
An energetic brave restless people.
He was a young agreeable man.
. That noble brave patriotic leader.
Mary found a silk lady’s black glove.
. That poor industrious old blind man.
A Newfoundland handsome large dog.
. That was a mournful sad tale.
. An enlightened civilized nation.
. We erected a marble costly new fountain.
. Red beautiful large apples covered the ground.
wom om
RA OO OY ANDY bP Hw
-
Ww
Ex. II. Correct the errors in the following, giving rea-
SONS:
1. Texas is larger than any state inthe Union. 2. Texas is the
largest of all other states in the Union. 3. No state in the Union is
so large as Texas.
4. Of all the other American cities, New York is the largest.
5. He was the wisest of all his brothers.
6. Eve was the fairest of all her daughters.
7. Grant was greater than any American general. 8. No
American general was so great as General Grant. g. Grant was the
most distinguished of any of his generals. 1o. Grant was more dis-
tinguished than any of his other generals.
11. John was the tallest of his playmates.
12. That form is more preferable.
13. All the metals are less useful than iron.
14. Washington is more beloved than any man that ever lived.
15. A more healthier location can not be found.
16. He was the most active of all his companions.
17. He did more to accomplish this result than any other man that
preceded or followed him.
202 GRAMMAR
18, This opinion is becoming more universal.
19. He was of all others most trustworthy.
20. Joseph’s lesson was more perfect than that of any pupil in his
class.
21. That boy is the brightest of all his playmates.
22. There is no metal so useful as iron. :
23. Nothing delights me so much as a sail on the lakes.
24. Time ought, above all kinds of property, to be free from in-
vasion.
25. This was the most satisfactory of any preceding effort.
26. He was more active than any other of his companions.
27. The most principal point was overlooked.
28. Which was the greatest man, Napoleon or Cesar?
Ex. III. Jusert or omit the, an, or a, zn the following,
giving veasons :
1. What kind of a house do you want?
2. He died of the pleurisy.
3. There are a few pleasant days in March, because it is a stormy
month.
4. Few men live to be a hundred years old, but not many.
5. Where did you get that kind of a hat?
6. This girl has an active and an energetic mind.
7. He carried a large and small basket.
8. The secretary and treasurer were absent.
g. The secretary and the treasurer was absent.
1o. An oak, pine, and ash shade the lawn.
11. What kind of an adjective is happy ?
12. Little can be done, but not much.
13. He saved a little from the fire, as it broke out in the night,
when all were asleep.
14. Jones was the captain of our company.
15. The four fifths of ten equals eight.
16, Congeal contains a long and short vowel sound.
17. The farmer sold the large and small potatoes.
18. We have learned about the definite and indefinite article.
19. I saw a hot and cold spring twenty feet apart.
20. What sort of a man is he who never needs a friend?
21. Charles is suffering from an attack of the rheumatism.
THE ADJECTIVE 203
Ex. IV. Use this, these, that, azd those properly in the
following, giving reason for cach selection:
NOOO SE IONSINY Be aa IN Se
I like _______._ kind of apples.
I have not seen him —________ twenty years.
I dislike _______ sort of berries.
“Thank you for _______ molasses.”
Why should we be annoyed by _____ sort of men?
________. memoranda are correct.
“T have no use for _______ kind of people.”
- phenomenon, the northern lights, is very beautiful,
. I never admired _______- sort of hats.
Ex. V. Correct the errors in the following, and give
reasons :
ON AUAW bd
oO
Lo eS ee |
N42 O00 OI AKON =O
nS
WwW
. Churchill received the title of a duke.
. Both the boy and girl came to see us.
. Neither the man nor woman was seen.
. Distinguish between the nominative and objective.
. I bought a Webster’s and Worcester’s dictionary.
I exchanged two yokes of oxen for five barrel of wine.
. Neither of the three men could swim.
. Of those four books, I don’t want either.
. The boy and girl help one another.
. Those three boys resemble each other.
. It was a blue soft beautiful sky.
. They sang the three last verses of the 23d Psalm.
. I like the sweet and sour grapes.
The woman is the equal of man.
. I never saw a sight so beautiful as this one.
. I never saw any one so well pleased as he.
. Itis a better poem than ever was written.
. Sing the third and fifth verse, please.
. Sing the third and the fifth verses, please.
. What kind of a phrase is 27 town ?
. Those two boys are very kind to one another.
. A noun and pronoun are alike in office.
. He was appointed the secretary.
204 GRAMMAR
24. An eel is a sort of a fish.
25. I know the pond is nine foot deep, for I measured it with a
ten-feet pole.
26. Draw the lines more perpendicular.
27. I expected some kind of a reward for having got the most
correct answer to the problem.
28. Some of the boys are helping each other. |
122. HOW TO PARSE ADJECTIVES.
To parse an adjective give :
1. Its class, — descriptive or definitive.
2. Its degree of comparison, if compared.
3. Its use, — what it modifies.
MODEL FOR ORAL AND WRITTEN PARSING.
That man zs never alone who has noble thoughts.
That points out which man without describing; it is therefore a
definitive adjective, and modifies man.
Alone describes the condition (quality) of the man; it is therefore
a descriptive adjective; it is used to complete the predicate and to
modify the noun #zan, to which it relates.
WVoble describes the quality of thoughts; it is therefore a descrip-
tive adjective; it is in the positive degree, and is used to modify the
noun thoughts.
Abbreviated Form: Noble is a descriptive adjective, positive
degree, and is used to modify the noun ¢houghts.
man} zs \ alone
That never}
, \who \has | thoughts :
| noble
Def. Adj. Des. Adj., Pos. Des. Adj, Pred.
modifies modifies modifies az
man thoughts
THE ADVERB 205
Exercise.
Farse the adjectives in the following :
But if one principal character of Italian landscape is melancholy
another is elevation. We have no simple rusticity of scene, no cow-
slip and buttercup humility of seclusion. Tall mulberry trees, with
festoons of the luxuriant vine, purple with ponderous clusters, trailed
and trellised between and over them, shade the wide fields of stately
Indian corn. . . . In a country of this pomp of natural glory, tempered
with melancholy memory of departed pride, what are we to wish for,
what are we naturally to expect, in the character of her most humble
of edifices; those which are most connected with present life, least
with the past?—/Johkn Ruskin in “ The Poetry of Architecture.”
123. THE ADVERB.
You have already learned that adverbs modify the mean-
ing of verbs, adjectives, or adverbs ; as,
1. He walked rapidly.
2. The rose is very beautiful.
3. He answered very quietly.
Which words in the following sentences both modify verbs and
connect clauses?
1. This is the place where Cesar crossed the Rubicon.
2: We came when we heard you were here.
3. You must start to school before the bell rings.
Adverbs have two different uses. They may merely
modify, or they may both modify and connect. These
classes are known respectively as Simple Adverbs and Con-
junctive Adverbs.
The principal Conjunctive Adverbs are as, after, before, when,
since (meaning time), till, until, where, while, and why.
206 GRAMMAR:
NoTE. When, where, why, and how when used to ask questions
are called Interrogative Adverbs ; as,
When did the general ar?Pive?
Where zs Bunker Hill ?
Jn meaning, adverbs are of several kinds :
1. Adverbs of Time.
He is going soon.
I will see you by and by.
Go now.
Others are yet, lately, ever, then, hereafter, sometimes, and always,
2. Adverbs of Place.
John found it there.
Flames fly upward.
Others are herve, hither, thither, hence, and thence.
3. Adverbs of Manner.
He recited well.
She zs better dressed than her sisters.
He answered thus.
Others are guzckly, pleasantly, worse, ill, and slowly,
4. Adverbs of Degree.
lam almost frozen. -
fe zs nearly done.
She is very studious.
Others are “ttle, quite, all, wholly, so, partly, and enough.
Note. A few adverbs modify a whole sentence, and are some-
times called Modal Adverbs; as,
Perhaps / shall go to-morrow evening.
Others are surely, probably, and possibly.
Note. Yes and no, with like words, are often called adverbs of
assertion. If they are adverbs at all they are 7zoda/in nature. Really,
however, they are sentence equivalents; for example: “ Will you go
with me?” “Yes.” Here Yes is the equivalent of “I will go with
you.”
THE ADVERB 207
Note. Adverbs often modify an adjective or an adverbial phrase,
instead of a single word; as, He went quite to the top. He sailed
nearly around the world.
NoTE. Two or more words taken together may convey a single
adverbial idea. In this case they are called Phrase Adverbs; as,
Aere and there, ever and anon, again and again, etc.
124. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.
Adverbs, like adjectives, admit of comparison. They
are compared in three different ways:
1. Some adverbs are compared by adding -er and -es¢ to the simple
form; as,
Positive. CoMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE.
fast faster fastest
rough rougher roughest
slow slower slowest
soon sooner soonest
early earlier earliest
Note. Poetry often demands the use of the comparative and the ®
superlative in -e7 and -es¢ when they would not be used in prose.
2, Adverbs ending in -Zy are usually compared by prefixing sore
and most, or Jess and Jeast, to the simple forms; as,
Postrivg. ComPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE.
wisely more wisely most wisely
firmly less firmly least firmly
earnestly more earnestly most earnestly
3. Some adverbs are compared irregularly ; as,
Positive. CoMPARATIVE. SuPERLATIVE.
ae i worse worst
1
far farther farthest
forth further furthest
little less least
208 GRAMMAR
Positive. CoMPARATIVE. SuPERLATIVE-
much more most
well better best
NoTE. The forms given above, with the exception of badly and
Jorth, are also used as adjectives.
125. HOW TO PARSE ADVERBS.
To parse an adverb give:
Its class, — simple, conjunctive, interrogative, modal,
If simple, its kind.
Its degree of comparison, if compared.
4. Its use — the word, phrase, or sentence whose mean-
ing it modifies.
ee
EXAMPLES OF PARSING.
He walked rapidly.
Rapidly isa simple adverb of manner. It is in the positive degree,
and modifies walked.
This is the place where Cesar crossed the Rubicon.
Where is a conjunctive adverb; it modifies crossed and connects
the clause Cesar crossed the Rubicon with place.
fe answered very quietly.
Very is a simple adverb of degree; it modifies guze¢ly.
Why did Cesar cross the Rubicon ?
Why is an interrogative adverb, and modifies dd cross.
Exercise.
Analyze the following sentences and parse the adverbs:
1. He was already at the door, but he dared not go out.
2. Raleigh-had spent so much money already that he was forced
to give up the attempt to plant a colony in America.
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 209°
3 To live with them ‘is far less sweet
Than to remémber thee.
To live long it is necessary to live slowly.
When did Washington take command of the Continental army?
When a fool makes up his mind, the market has gone by.
. Where liberty dwells, there is my country.
How are the mighty fallen!
. The noblest principle in education is to teach how to live for
one’s country. — Balch.
10. Nothing is politically right that is morally wrong. — O’Connor.
. The family is practically a little state in itself.
12. Let us have faith that right makes might; and in that faith let
us dare to do our duty as we understand it.— Lzzcolzn.
13. Mont Blanc is the monarch of mountains,
They crowned him long ago
On a throne of rocks, in a robe of clouds,
With a diadem of snow. — Byron.
14. This little rill, that from the springs
Of yonder grove its current brings,
Plays on the slope awhile, and then
Goes prattling into groves again,
Oft to its warbling waters drew
My little feet, when life was new. — Bryani.
°
ey OU p
SO
126. SIMILAR ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS.
Many words are used both as adjectives and as adverbs
without a change of form. Their use determines the part
of speech to which they belong.
Exercises.
Ex. I. Distinguish the adverbs and the adjectives in the
following sentences: °
1. Is he the best scholar who behaves the best?
2. Is he well when he is able to do the work well?
STEPS ENG. TWO.— I4.
&
_
°
AU £
om
HO Se GON
GRAMMAR
. Drink deep or taste not the Pierian spring.
A company of soldiers marched six files deep.
He is entirely wrong in holding out so long.
He was sick, nigh unto death.
The tumult shows the battle nigh.
There’s some ill planet reigns.
How ill this taper burns!
All left the world much as they found it.
Much learning doth make thee mad.
Ex. II. How does the first sentence in each of the fol-
lowing pairs differ in meaning from the second ?
2
3
4.
The moon looks calm and peaceful.
i The river ran smooth.
The engine ran smoothly.
The lady looked cold as she passed by.
The lady looked coldly at me as she passed.
1
The moon looks down calmly and peacefully upon the battle-
field.
The soldiers are careful with their guns.
They load théir guns carefully.
\
Ex. III. Choos the proper adjective or adverb and give
reason for your choice :
om
pe ONO Coss ON eG NO
= = =
Eg s
The sky looks (beautiful, beautifully).
You behaved very (proper, properly).
The man acted (wild, wildly).
The ship sailed (smooth, smoothly).
The dead Indian looked (fierce, fiercely).
The machinery works (good, well).
The bird sang (sweet, sweetly).
. The fire burns (bright, brightly).
(Sure, surely) he is a fine gentleman.
The man writes (plain, plainly). ;
The tone of his language was (decided, decidedly) harsh.
. She is a (remarkable, remarkably) beautiful person.
. He is (remarkable, remarkably) bright.
I stayed at home yesterday because I felt (bad, badly).
THE PREPOSITION 211
127. THE PREPOSITION.
It has been shown (Gr. 25, pp. 39-41) that a preposition
connects a substantive to some other word, and indicates a
relation between them.
The preposition, although having little meaning in itself,
is a very useful word in the sentence, as by it both variety
and precision of statement may be obtained.
To obtain this precision of statement care must be taken
to use the preposition that expresses the exact shade of
meaning desired. This skill in the use of prepositions is
acquired by practice. Certain words, however, having the
prefixes ab (meaning from), ad (meaning Zo or for), and
com (meaning wth), are followed by prepositions having
the meaning of the prefixes; for example:
ab: abduct from; absent from; absorb from; abstain from; ab-
stract from.
ad: adapt to or for; addicted to; address to; adhere to; adjacent
to.
com: combat with; combine with; communicate with; compare
with; comply with. .
Note. The final letter of each of these prefixes sometimes
changes in order to harmonize with the next letter in the word in
which it is used:
ab: aé-duct from; a-vert from.
ad: ad-mit to; a-spire to; a/-lude to; an-nex to; a#-nounce to.
com: com-pound with; con-tract with; co/-laborate with; co-equal
with.
Asa rule, then, after words having these prefixes use a
preposition having the same meaning as the prefix.
Many words, however, require a special preposition after
them, and in a few instances the same word has widely
212 GRAMMAR
differing meanings when followed by different prepositions.
Some of these words are noted in the following list :
Abhorrence for. Correspond /o (a thing).
Accord with. Deliver from, out of, of, to (a
Acquit of. person).
Adapted ¢o (by plan). Deliver a (a place).
Adapted for (by nature). Differ from (in likeness).
Agree wth (a person). Differ wth (in opinion).
Agree Zo (a statement). Involve zn.
Confer ox (to give to). Part from (a person).
Confer with (to talk with). Part with (a thing).
Confide zz (to trust in). Profit dy.
Confide Zo (to intrust to). Prohibit from.
Congenial Zo. Reconcile Zo (a person).
Congratulate oz or upon. Reconcile wzth (a statement).
Convenient fo (a person or Taste of (food).
place). Taste for (art, or something
Convenient for (a purpose). desired).
Correspond wth (a person). Wait on, upon, for, at.
ADDITIONAL RULES. Use iz, on, at, and by as a rule to show rest;
as, He stays in the house; on the porch; at the seaside; by the
spring.
Use to, into, unto, toward, and from as a rule to show motion
together with direction; as, He was going to the store; into the
house.
Use between when speaking of two ; among when speaking of more
than two; as, He divided the apple between the two boys, and the
orange among the three girls.
Use Jy to indicate the actor, and wzth to indicate the instrument;
as, The boy was hit with a stone by his companion.
Use zz when speaking of large cities, af when speaking of villages
and hotels.
Avoid the use of of in such phrases as the capture of the colonel,
the fear of wild animals, the love of God, etc. What two meanings
may each of these phrases have? Such angbiguity may be avoided by
the use of the possessive case or the use of a verb or participle ; as,
God's love, the fear shown by wild animals ; the soldier whom the
colonel captured.
Avoid the use of oto and off of. Although frequently heard,
THE PREPOSITION 213
these expressions are not warranted. Say ‘He got off the car and
stepped o a slowly moving train.” Say “I took it from him,” not
“I took it offef him.”
In Parsing Prepositions we need only to state that the
word is a preposition, and to point out the words between
which it shows relation.
Exercises.
Ex. I. Use correctly in sentences the various prepositions
mentioned on the preceding page.
Ex. I]. 2d the blanks with appropriate prepositions :
1. He poured ink _______ the jug.
2. The wheat was cut _______ a reaper.
3. My book is different _______ yours.
4. He divided his property ________ his four sons.
5. She divided her estate _______ her two daughters.
6. He died ________ thirst.
7. I put the knife _______._ my pocket.
8. The man died _______ smallpox.
g. I differ ________ you on that question.
ro. You may rely _____ what I say, and confide _______ his
honesty.
11. I am tall in comparison —______- you.
12, We remained _______ the South —— a little village.
13. We visited _______. London ________ a. week.
14. The boy was admitted ______ school.
15. He ________ three others was commended.
16. He was absent ______-. school.
\
Ex. III. How does the first sentence of each of the
JSollowing pairs differ in meaning from the second ?
{ The boys jumped into the water.
The dSoys jumped in the water.
{ The children were running in the hall.
. The children were running into the hall.
214 GRAMMAR
They divided the money among them.
They divided the money between them.
i Two boys beside the man.
4 Two boys besides the man.
Ex. IV. Parse all the prepositions in the poem “ Sea-
adrift,” pages. 330, 331.
128. THE CONJUNCTION.
There are four kinds of words that, besides their primary
use in the sentence, serve as connectives ; namely, copuda-
tive verbs, relative pronouns, conjunctive adverbs, and prepo-
Sattons.
In addition to these connective words, there is also
the Conjunction, a word that is used chiefly to connect.
(Gr. 26, pp. 42, 43.)
Conjunctions are used to connect (1) words and phrases
of equal rank, (2) the members of compound sentences,
(3) clauses to the elements they modify.
According to their use, conjunctions are divided into
two classes, — codrdinate and subordinate. (Gr. 53, 46.)
Coordinate Conjunctions connect the parts of a sentence
so that they remain equal in rank ; Subordinate Conjunctions
connect the parts so that one becomes dependent upon the
other. For example, if we connect the two sentences
(1) He ts industrious and (2) He succeeds with the coor-
dinate conjunction azd, we form a compound sentence the
members of which are of equal rank ; thus,
He j ts \ industrious he \_succeeds.
| and [
THE CONJUNCTION 215
But if we connect these sentences with the subordinate
conjunction decawse we change their rank so that one
becomes an adverbial clause dependent upon the other;
thus,
He \ succeeds
because
he j\ ts \ industrious.
The word ¢ha¢ when used to introduce a noun clause is sometimes
classed as a subordinate conjunction. It seems, however, to be used to
give euphony to the sentence rather than to connect its parts, and may
be classed as an Exfletive. Thus,
that
I | know he \ ts \ industrious.
Correlative Conjunctions. Conjunctions often occur in
pairs, the first one preparing the way for the second, and
having no connecting power by itself.
Omit avd from the first of the following sentences and as from the
second, and note the loss of connection and of meaning:
1. He és both! wise and good.
‘ He \_#s\ good
2. He is not s01 good as he is wise. $F.
he_\\_is\ wise
These words ‘taken together are called Correlatives, a
word that means having mutual relation.
1 In the first sentence notice that Jo/h . . . and are codrdinate correlatives,
and that doth may be omitted without changing the meaning, being merely intro-
ductory; but in the second so . . . as are subordinate correlatives, and so is an
adverb and can not be omitted without changing the meaning.
216 GRAMMAR
The most common correlative conjunctions are “both .. . and,”
“either... or,” “neither... nor,” ‘‘ whether... or,’ “as...
as,’”’ ‘so... as,”? and ‘‘not only . . . but also.’
CavuTions. 1. Correlatives should be so placed that they will in-
dicate clearly what expressions the author wishes to connect. Asa
rule the word after the first correlative should be the same part of
speech as the word after the second ; as,
1. He gave both advice and money ;
not He both gave advice and money.
2. He may give the book either to you or to me;
not He may either give the book to you or to me.
3. She dresses not only richly but also tastefully ;
not She not only dresses richly but tastefully.
2. Do not use “ zezther ... or” for “netther... nor.”
4. He was discouraged by neither danger nor misfortune;
not He was discouraged by neither danger or misfortune.
3. “As ...as” is used in making equal comparisons; “so
e . - as” is used in making unequal comparisons.
5. He zs as good as he is wise.
6. He zs not 80 good as he is wise.
Note. Two or more words may be taken together and used as a
single conjunction: as if, as though, as long as, as soon as, as sure as,
except that, in case that, in order that, forasmuch as, provided that.
Parsing Conjunctions. In parsing a conjunction we need
only to tell its kind and its use, or what it connects,
Test Questions.
1. How does a preposition differ from a conjunction? 2. What
prepositions should be used after words having the prefixes ad, ab,
con? 3. How do zz and zxto, among and between, differ in use? (Give
examples.) 4. What five kinds of connective words are there? 5. Il-
lustrate and explain the use of each kind of connective. 6. Explain
the difference in use between a codrdinate and a subordinate conjunc-
tion. 7. What is the meaning of the term correlative? 8. What part
of speech should follow the second term of a correlative conjunction?
WORDS VARIOUSLY USED 217
9. Howdoas...as andso... as differ in use? 10, Write five
sentences to illustrate the correct use of ether... or and neither
oa NOK,
Exercises.
Ex. I. Write or select from your reader five sentences,
using different correlative conjunctions in each sentence.
Ex. II. Potnt out the conjunctions in the selections on
pages 226, 265, 304, and tell the kind and use of each.
129. INTERJECTIONS AND EXPLETIVES.
Interjections, being independent elements, have no syn-
tax. (See Gr. 27, pp. 44, 45.)
The expletives there, for, that, and as are each used in
only one construction, as shown on pp. Ig, 62, 85, 219—
221.
130. WORDS VARIOUSLY USED. .
The part of speech to which a word belongs, is de-
termined solely by its use. If the word 72 is spoken, it is
impossible to tell its part of speech without having the
speaker’s idea. If he is thinking of a small stream or of a
path followed by wild animals, or of any one of several other
things, it is a noun; but if he is thinking of moving swiftly
on the feet, or of any one of more than forty other acts
(see “ Webster’s International Dictionary ”), it is a verb.
Many words may be thus used as several different parts |
218 GRAMMAR
of speech. It is therefore never safe to say that a word
is of any given part of speech until its use, that is, its re-
lation to the other words of a sentence, has been carefully
etudied.
The following list of words variously used is given pri-
marily to emphasize the necessity of careful examination
before stating that a word belongs to any given class,
Occasionally, also, it may be useful for reference.
A... Artiuleor Adj. A wise son maketh a glad father.
Prep. 1 goa-fishing. I set it a-going. This use is now
infrequent in literature. It means Zo or for.
About . Adv. It came about! in this way. About ten were
injured.
Prep. He went about his work. Have you much money
about you?
Above . Adj. The above remarks may be safely quoted.
Adv. O Father that rulest above!
Noun. Every good gift cometh from above.
Prep. Above the clouds is the sun still shining.
After. . Adj. After ages will record his good deeds.
Adv. He went forth soon after.
Conj. Adv. I started after it had become dark.
Prep. After an unselfish deed the heart is light.
Alike. . Adj. They look alike.
Adv. All should be alike anxious to do deeds of
kindness.
All. . . Adj. Pleasant words are all remembered.
Adj. Pronoun. All should determine to succeed.
Adv. A young man should live all for success rather
than all for pleasure.
4Voun. To her country she gave her all, ten noble sons.
Any . . Adj. Will any man forget his mother?
Adj. Pronoun. Any who deserve it, may achieve honor.
Adv. Is he any better? (With comparative adj.; col-
loquial.)
1 As came about means the same as happened, the two words may be taken
together as the verb.
WORDS VARIOUSLY USED 219
Adv, (the first of the correlatives as... as). He will
do the work as well as it can be done.
Cony. (the second of the correlatives ay... as). He is
as honest as you say.
Cony, td. He came as he had promised.
Evpletive (as sign of apposition). He went out as mate.
Booth often appeared as Hamlet.
Relative Pronoun (after such, same, many), As many as
T saw were ready.
Adv, He had been there before.
Cony. tae. Before he crossed the Hellespont, Alexander
had dreamed of conquering the world.
Prep. He stood before the inn.
Adj. Looking forth, he saw the plain below.
Adv. Go below, quickly!
-Vouwn. A frightened voice came from below.
Prep. The spring is a few rods below the old elm.
lady. We heard both sides of the argument.
dy. Proneun. Both helped to win the victory.
Cony. (the first of the correlatives deh . . and). Heis
both famous and honest.
Aaj. Men are but children of a larger growth.
aAd:. If they kill us, we shall but die.
Cony. There is little hope, but I shall try.
Prep. All but the determined fail in the race of life.
Relative Pro. (after negative expressions, with the mean-
ing ¢hat not). There is no lad but honors his mother.
Ad. He walked by?! without speaking.
Prep. He went by rail, not by steamer.
-tdj. The word is pronounced either way.
Adj. Pronoun, Either will prove a good investment.
Cony. (first of correlatives efther ... oer). Every boy
should receive an education either in school or in shop.
Adj. Each warrior drew his battle blade.
Adj. Frenoun, Each took off his hat.
Adj. This is no one else’s? business. No one else can
earn a man’s success for him.
lds. How else can I do it?
Cony. Thou desirest not sacrifice, else would I give it.
1 Perhaps the verb is walk dy.
2 Note that the possessive sign is idiomatically transferred to the adjective.
220 GRAMMAR
Enough . Adj. We have lunch enough for all.
Adj. Pronoun. We have enough for all.
‘Adv. 1 know you well enough
Interjection. Enough!, Say no more!
Except . Conj. Except the Lord build the house, they labor in
vain that build it.
Prep. I will pay for everything except the luxuries.
Verb. We except to the testimony of the first witness,
For . . Conj. Wedid not wait longer, for it was becoming dark.
Expletive. For? boys to forget their honor is fatal.
Prep. He gave up all for honor.
Full . . Adj. The path of life is full of thorns.
Adv. Full many a flower is born to blush unseen.
Voun. The moon'shone at its full.
Verb. Manufacturers sometimes full woolen fabrics.
Hard . . Adj. The lessons are too long and hard.
Adv. The boy worked so hard that he became ill.
However. Cozj. He may not come; however, I shall tell him if he
does.
Adv. However hard he works, he fails to succeed.
Ill. . . Adj. There’s some ill planet reigns.
Adv. Ill fares the land . . . where men decay.
Noun, O’er all the ills of life victorious.
Late . . Adj. Late pupils are usually careless.
Adv. Some girls study early and late.
Like . . Adj. The staff of his spear was like* a weaver’s beam.
Adv. She sings like? a nightingale. (This should not
be confused with the conjunctive adverb as in “She
sings as a nightingale sings.” ze is an adverb* °
modifying sigs. Nightingale is the object of the
preposition zo or unfo, understood, the phrase unto a
nightingale being adverbial and modifying “ke.
When used in comparing objects /ke is an adjective;
when used in comparing acts it is an adverb. Notice
1 This may be called an adjective used for a noun: “You have said enough.”
See page 45.
2 To call for thus used an expletive gives the term a wider meaning than it has
when applied to here introductory (Gr. 9). The word is used thus by idiom; it
is certainly not a preposition, as it shows no relation between words; it is there-
fore perhaps wise to widen the meaning of exf/etive enough to include it.
8 Some authors consider /éke thus used to be equivalent to a preposition.
Like
Low
More .
Near .
Needs.
Only .
So.
That .
The
While
Worth
WORDS VARIOUSLY USED 221
that when the second verb is expressed, as and not
dike should be used: ‘He runs like a deer;’’ but,
“He runs as a deer runs; He runs as a deer does.”)
Noun. Like produces like. We shall not look upon his
like again.
Verb. Employers like punctuality.
Adj. The land lies low. Keep your voice low.
Adv. She speaks low and distinctly.
Adj. Ye are of more value than many sparrows.
Adj. Pronoun. They that would have more and more can
never have enough.
Adv. Honesty is more valuable than brilliancy.
Adj. Thescenes of my childhood are near and dear to me.
Adv. Do not come near.
Prep. The ship passed near the bar. *
Verb. The ships near the shore.
Ady. Hemust needs (necessarily) go through Samaria.
NVoun. A boy must watch his employer’s needs.
Verb. Man daily needs rest.
Adj. Only men of industry succeed.
Adv. One can only try.
Adj. Is that so?
Adv. He was so noble that all admired him.
Conj. He was noble; so they admired him.
Noun. Give me a dollar or so. (An idiom; perhaps it is
more nearly an adverb: — ‘a dollar or about so much
money.”)
Adj. That boy will succeed who is industrious.
Adj. Pronoun. That is the book I prefer.
Conj. They died that we might be free.
Expletive. We know that we are free.
Rel. Pronoun. The boy that is industrious will succeed.
Article or Adj. The boy that thinks first of others is
unselfish.
Adv. The more the better. (An idiom.)
Conj. Adv. Make hay while the sun shines.
Noun. That is worth while (adverbial objective).
Verb. Music whiled away the evening pleasantly.
Adj. Nobility is worth more than money.
Noun. Worth makes the man.
Verb. Woe worth (be to) the day.
222 GRAMMAR
131. GENERAL REVIEW.
TEST QUESTIONS. 1. How do you determine whether a group of
words is a phrase, a clause, or a sentence? z. What punctuation
should not be used to close sentences? 3. When should a declarative
sentence not be marked at its close by a period or an exclamation
point? 4. How are words classified as parts of speech? 5. What
part of speech does the predicate always contain? 6. What part of
speech is used chiefly to connect? 7. What kind of verbs are used
as connective words? 8. What parts of speech are used as modifiers?
g. In the expression 4 zew dress does the word mew increase or
diminish the number of objects to which the word dvess may be
applied? Why? 10. When are two or more adjectives, used with
one noun, not separated by commas?
11. What is the literal meaning of the word infinitive? 12.
Wherein do infinitives and participles agree? 13. How do they
differ in form? 14. Which form of the participle is never used as a
noun? 15. Of what importance is the classification of nouns as con-
crete and abstract? As common and proper? 16. What eight uses
of the noun require a capital letter? Illustrate. 17. How is the case
of nouns determined? 18. In the sentence A// the air a solemn
stillness Zo/ds why is the case of the nouns azy and sdz//ness not clearly
made known? 19. How many different forms of pronouns may be
used to complete the sentence He saw ————? 20. Name the
tenses of the indicative mode, and tell how each is formed. 21. What
is the difference in meaning between / wazted and J was waiting?
Between J waited an hour and [ have waited an hour? Between
l shall wait and J will wait ?
Exercise. Classify the following sentence as to use and
as to structure ; tell the part of speech and give the syntax
of each word, select four phrases, and tell how each ts
used: change the sentence to the declarative form, arrange
the words in their natural order, and then diagram.
O what a glory doth this world put on
For him who with a fervent heart, goes forth
Under the bright and glorious sky, and looks
On duties weli performed, and days well spent!
— Longfellow.
II. COMPOSITION.
PART’ I,
NARRATIVES AND LETTERS. ACTS THAT
SHOW CHARACTER. PUNCTUATION.
1. “HOW TO WRITE.”
In the making of a composition, or essay, success is
possible only when the writer observes a few fundamental
principles. This lesson, which is merely to be read and
talked over in class, is to call attention to these principles.
Whether composition writing is a task or a pleasure
depends primarily upon the pupil’s knowledge of his
subject. Therefore,
Choose a Familiar Subject.
Every young person has both seen and taken part in
unnumbered incidents and experiences. If he writes of
these he will have familiar subjects, for he knows all about
them. He tells of these experiences freely and effectively
when talking to his parents and companions. A little
practice will enable him to write about them no less freely
and effectively.
The subject being chosen, the next step is to deter-
mine what to say about it. The things that made an
223
224 COMPOSITION
experience interesting to you will make it interesting to
others. Study the experience; determine exactly the
incidents, the acts, the motions, the colors, the odors, the
sounds, the things said, that attracted and held your
attention. You will often be surprised to find that little
and seemingly unimportant things had much to do with
the interest. These are the things you should tell of
when you write. Doctor Edward Everett Hale! says:
Know What You Want to Say.
Having determined what you wish to say, your next
duty is,
Say It.
This seems too simple to be stated. Yet every writer
often finds himself tempted to tell of something not
directly connected with his subject. To say all that one
wishes to say, to say it clearly, and to say nothing more, is
to carry out this principle. In saying it,
Use Your Own Language.
This means that you must not try to use “book lan-
guage.” If you make your composition sound like a book,
it will not sound like you. It will not be natural. It is
better to use almost the language you use when talking.
Do not feel that pen and paper require a special vocabu-
lary or sentence construction. The way you tell your
mother of an experience is probably the best possible way
for you to write of it. To write sentences wrong end
first; to use “’tis’’ and “’twas’ and “ne’er’’ and “e’er”;
to say you “retired” when you really “went to bed’? —
1 This principle is taken from “How to Write,” in Doctor Hale’s volume
“How to Do It,” as are the principles that followin the chapter. Teachers will
do well to read and discuss Doctor Hale’s chapter with their classes. The volume
is published by Little, Brown, & Co., Boston.
a
HOW TO WRITE 225
all this weakens your work. You do not talk in this
manner ; why write so? The next principle grows out
of this one:
Leave Out All Fine Passages.
Such passages are not a part of your conversation.
When you find that you have used them, omit them.
Young people often feel, too, that the use of words
with many syllables is a sign of power. This is not
true. Therefore, remember that
A Short Word is Better Than a Long One.
The same principle that demands short words, also
demands few words. To express a thought in twenty
words is better than to express it in thirty, or in twenty-
five, or in twenty-one, for the reason that it requires less
exertion to read and understand twenty words. “Very”
and other modifying words may often be omitted. They
weaken rather than strengthen. The principle is:
The Fewer Words the Better.
The final direction is based on the fact that one’s best
work is never done at the first trial. Write; then go
over your work and omit unnecessary words and expres-
sions, change the location of sentences and paragraphs,
substitute phrases for clauses and clauses for phrases,
make clear the antecedents of pronouns, use words that
are more exact and more suggestive, be sure that your
punctuation marks really add to clearness. Keep your
compositions, and after several months again examine
each one and make the corrections that you failed to
make earlier. Constant writing and continuous wise
revision will result in an ability to write effectively.
This principle Dr. Hale states thus:
Cut It to Pieces.
STEPS ENG. TWO.-~I5-
226 COMPOSITION
2. A KIND ACT.
As I was coming through the Allegheny parks one day I noticed
a large Newfoundland dog standing near a pump, looking longingly
atit, A little girl with some books under her arm stopped near the dog
and pumped him a drink of cool water. When the dog had had
enough he licked her hand, and looking up into her face he seemed
to try his best to thank her. After patting his head for a moment,
she went on her way. — School Work.
Exercises.
Ex. I. What is your feeling toward this little girl? What
has caused that feeling? What in the second sentence helps to make
clear for us a picture of the little girl? Why did she pat the dog’s
head before she started on? How many pictures are given of the
dog? Which one seems most distinct?
Ex. II. You have seen or taken part in some act showing
kindness or cruelty to a dog or to some other domestic animal. Tell
of it, and afterward write an account of it. Or tell and write of any
act of kindness you have seen.
3. THE WHISTLE.
When I was achild of seven years old, my friends, on a holiday,
filled my pocket with coppers. I went directly to a shop where they
sold toys for children, and being charmed with the sound of a whistle
that I met by the way in the hands of another boy, I voluntarily
offered and gave all my money for one. I then came home and went
whistling all over the house, much pleased with my whistle but
disturbing all the family.
My sisters and brothers, understanding the bargain I had made,
told me I had given four times as much for it as it was worth, put
me in mind what good things I might have bought with the rest
of the money, and laughed at me so much for my folly that I cried
with vexation ; and the reflection gave me much more chagrin than
the whistle gave me pleasure.
— Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin.
ACTS THAT SHOW CHARACTER 227
Exercise.!
Tell first, and later write in two or three paragraphs,of an experi-
ence of your own, — you paid too much for an article, bought the
wrong article, forgot what you were to buy, lost, broke, or spilled
what you had bought. Tell of the experience as a whole, — its
beginning, the experience itself, and its results. Use short sentences
and words as simple as Franklin’s.
‘ Write a paragraph about a pet or a toy that you very much
enjoyed during your childhood. Tell how you got it, how you played
with it by yourself or with your companions, and how you lost it,
broke it, or got rid of it.
Write-a paragraph about a childhood experience with a sled or
with skates.
Write two or three paragraphs about any experience of your own
before you were seven or eight years old.
What unnecessary word is there in the first clause of the selection ?
4. THE FRIENDLY LETTER.
The most interesting letters are those full of the little
details that make to-day different from yesterday and that
suggest the whole life of the writer. To tell of many of
these suggestive little acts and incidents is to write a letter
that will be read with delight.
Read the following letter, adapted from one? written by
a lad of eight or nine, a lad who became one of the most
famous authors of our country. James Russell Lowell
wrote “The Vision of Sir Launfal” and many other
beautiful poems, as well as several volumes of delightful
essays.
1 When several subjects are mentioned under an exercise, as a rule it will be
wise to let each boy and girl choose one and write of it only. Different subjects
are suggested in order that every pupil may find one within his own experience
2 From Volume I. of “Letters of James Russell Lowell,” by Charles Eliot
Norton. Copyright, 1893, by Harper and Brothers.
228 COMPOSITION
Noy. z, 1828. |
My dear Brother: —I1 am going to tell you melancholy news. I
have the ague together with a gumbile.. I presume you know that
September has a lame leg, but he grows better every day and now is
very well but still limps a little. We have a new scholar from Round
Hill. His name is Hooper...
I am going to have a new suit of blue broadcloth clothes to wear
every day and to play in. Mother tells me that I may have any sort
of buttons I choose. I have not done anything to the hut, but if
you wish I will. I am now very happy; but I should be more so if
you were here. I hope you will answer my letter. If you do not I
shall write you no more letters.... Mother has given me three
volumes of “ Tales of a Grandfather.” Farewell.
Yours truly,
JaMEs R. LoWELL.
Having read this letter you wish to know the place at
which it was written, but there is nothing to tell you. In
omitting this item the young writer made a mistake. Be-
fore the date of his letter he should have put the name of
the place at which it was written. The “heading” then
would have read thus:
Cambridge, Mass. Nov. 2, 1828.
We always wish to know in what place a letter was
written, when it was written, and by whom it was written.
In all the letters that you write be sure to make known
each of these facts.
Exercise.
Are the sentences in this letter easily understood? Do you think
they are long or short? When talking, do boys and girls-as a rule
use long or short sentences? How many words are in the longest
sentence in the letter? Does the writer mention to his brother the
same things he would mention if he were talking to him? Are they
Said in nearly the same language he would use if talking, or are they
said in different language? What does he mean by gumbile?
What word should he have used? Forms thus corrupted by care-
lessness or ignorance should be avoided.
LETTERS 229
What is the punctuation after AZy dear Brother? What is the
punctuation after each of the words in the heading? What is the
punctuation after Vours truly? In your own letters use exactly
the same punctuation,
5. RULES FOR COMPOSITION.
When talking, both young people and old, as a rule, use
short sentences. In writing, the same principle should
be observed. So, too, in written composition practically
the same language should be used as is used in spoken
composition. This of course makes it necessary for boys
and girls to form the habit of speaking accurately and
clearly.
From the facts suggested above we may draw the fol-
lowing rules:
Write as you speak. This means, of course, to use short sentences
and simple words; zoz to use slang, incorrect expressions, etc.
Seldom write a sentence containing more than thirty words or
more than two statements joined by and.
Avoid corrupt forms of words, as well as inelegant and incorrect
expressions.
Exercises.
Ex. I. Discuss in class a number of words and expressions that
your teacher will tell you are often incorrectly used by you.
Ex. II. Write a letter to a relative or friend, telling of events
that have happened at home and in your vicinity during the past
week. Tell of real events, the ones that have been of especial in-
terest to you. Use the language you would use in talking to the
person to whom you are writing. Avoid long sentences. Punctuate
properly.
Keep all letters and compositions that you write, and occasionally
examine them for undetected errors.
230 COMPOSITION
6. WORDS TO WATCH.
Besides using incorrect forms of words, careless speakers
and writers often use words in meanings not approved by
the majority of educated people. From time to time such
words will be introduced under the above title.
Like means fo enjoy, to be pleased with.
Love means fo vegard with affection, as one’s mother, one’ Ss
country, or one’s God, One does not Jove what one eats.
Exercise.
Insert the proper word in the blanks in the following
Sentences :
Oh, I do ________ olives so much! Don’t you ______. to
see a game of football? I _______ to skate. Do you not
that old gentleman? George Washington —_______ his mother. I
to spend my leisure reading poetry. Every lad should
his country. Thou shalt ________ thy neighbor as thyself,
Golf is a game that many people ;
7. A SUDDEN SHOWER.
Barefooted boys scud up the street
Or scurry under sheltering sheds ;
And schoolgirl faces, pale and sweet,
Gleam from the shawls about their heads.
Doors bang; and mother-voices call
From alien homes; and rusty gates
Are slammed ; and high above it all,
The thunder grim reverberates.
And then, abrupt, — the rain! the rain! —
The earth lies gasping; and the eyes
Behind the streaming window pane
Smile at the trouble of the skies,
NARRATIVES 231
The highway smokes ; sharp echoes ring 3
The cattle bawl and cow-bells clank ;
And into town comes galloping
The farmer’s horse, with steaming flank,
The swallow dips beneath the eaves
And flirts his plumes and folds his wings ;
And under the Catawba leaves
The caterpillar curls and clings.
The bumblebee is pelted down
The wet stem of the hollyhock ;
And sullenly, in spattered brown,
The cricket leaps the garden walk.
Within, the baby claps his hands
And crows with rapture strange and vague;
Without, beneath the rosebush stands
A dripping rooster on one leg.
— James Whitcomb Riley.
Exercises.
Ex. I. What three pictures do you see, with closed eyes, as
the first stanza is read? What idea is in scud that is not in scurry ?
What sounds are mentioned in the second stanza? What does
the second statement in stanza two mean? Why do doors bang?
Why are rusty gates slammed? What pictures are in the third
stanza? What is meant by Zhe earth lies gasping? Whose eyes
are looking from the window? What pictures and what sounds in
stanza four? Explain smokes and steaming. What pictures in five?
Have you ever seen the swallow and the caterpillar thus? What
does Catawba mean? What pjctures in the sixth? What does the
first half of six mean? What pictures in seven?
Because of the pictures and sounds given in the poem, what
experience have we undergone in imagination? Are unusual or usual
pictures and sounds given? Which of the pictures and sounds have
you never seen or heard in reality?
1 From “Rhymes of Childhood,” by James Whitcomb Riley. Used by per-
mission of the Bobbs-Merrill Company.
232 COMPOSITION
Ex. II. Using such simple pictures and sounds as will be sug-
gestive of the whole experience, write four or. five short paragraphs
about the first day of school; about a snowstorm; about a thaw;
about the coming of spring or autumn; about a bright summer
day ; abqut a very cold winter day ; about a thunderstorm ; about a
hailstorm ; about any recent and vivid experience.
8. THE FRIENDLY LETTER.
In preparing for college your older brother or sister
may be reading some of the essays of Thomas Babington
Macaulay, who was a noted English historian and essayist.
You have perhaps read “ Horatius at the Bridge ” or other
of the “ Lays of Ancient Rome.”
The following letter! was written by the boy Macaulay
when thirteen years old, just after he had been sent from
his home to Mr. Preston’s school at Shelford, England :
Shelford, Feb. 22d, 1813.
My dear Papa:—As this is a whole holiday I can not find a
better time for answering your letter... .
In my learning I do Xenophon every day, and twice a week the
“Odyssey,” in which I am classed with Wilberforce, whom all the
boys allow to be very clever, very droll, and very impudent. We do
Latin verses twice a week, and I have not yet been laughed at, as
Wilberforce is the only one who hears them... . We are exercised
also once a week in English composition, and once in Latin compo-
sition. ... We get by heart Greek grammar or Virgil every
evening. ...
My room is a delightful, snug little chamber, which nobody can
enter, as there is a trick about opening the door. I sit like a king,
with my writing desk before me, . . . my books on one side, my box
of papers on the other, with my arm chair and my candie; for every
boy has a candlestick, snuffers, and extinguisher of his own... .
Your affectionate son,
THomAS B. MACAULAY,
1 From Volume I. of Trevelyan’s “ Life and Letters of Lord Macaulay.”
LETTERS 233
Exercise.
Does this letter sound as much like ordinary conversation as the
former one? In length of sentences how does it compare? May this
explain the answer to the first question? Notice that Odyssey is
inclosed in quotation marks (“« ”). What in the letter on page 228
is thus inclosed? Are the two in any way alike? Notice that in
different places four periods are found. The first of these is for
punctuation, while the other three are to indicate that something of
the original letter has been omitted.
9. RULES FOR COMPOSITION.
Inclose in quotation marks (“‘ ’’) the names of books, of papers
and magazines, and of vessels.1
Inclose in quotation marks the exact words of another when
you include them within your own writing.
Exercises.
Ex. I. Considering the following paragraph as your
own composition, insert the necessary quotation marks :
I see by The Pittsburg Times that the author of The Lean Years
has gone abroad on the Philadelphia, accompanied by the editor of
The New World. It is said that they contemplate the purchase of
The London Collegian as well as The Old Century Magazine.
When asked about this just before sailing, Mr. Blank stated that he
could make public only the fact that they expect to return on the
Majestic early in January ; that while in London they hope to meet
the author of The Jungle Book, and the editor of the London
Times, and to see Henry Irving in King Lear.
Ex. II. Write a letter to a friend telling him of your com-
panions, of your work at school, of your room at home, and of the
bright saying or reply of a companion. Use his exact words. Do
not forget quotation marks and other punctuation marks. Write
short sentences. Make known when and where the letter is written.
1 Italics, indicated in writing by underscoring once, are sometimes used instead
of quotation marks.
234 : COMPOSITION
10. THE FRIENDLY LETTER.
This time read a letter! written by Robert Louis Steven-
son when he was a boy about fifteen. Later he became
an English author, who is particularly noted for the beauty
and perfection of his writing. He wrote essays that you
will wish to read when you are older, as well as stories,
poems, and many interesting books for both young and old.
Here is the letter, written from a famous watering place
in southwestern England :
2 Sulyarde Terrace, Torquay,
Thursday, April—, 1866.
Respected paternal Relative: —I write to make a request of the
most moderate nature. Every year I have cost you an enormous,
nay, elephantine, sum of money for drugs and physician’s fees, and
the most expensive time of the twelve months was March.
But this year the biting Oriental blasts, the howling tempests, and
the general ailments of the human race have been successfully
braved by yours truly.
Does not this deserve remuneration ?
I appeal to your charity, I appeal to your generosity, I appeal to
your justice, I appeal to your accounts, I appeal, in fine, to your
purse.
My sense of generosity forbids the receipt of more, my sense of
justice forbids the receipt of less, than half a crown.
Greeting, from, Sir, your most affectionate and needy son,
R. STEVENSON.
Exercise.
To whom is this letter written? Is the language such as the
boy would use if he were asking his father orally for half a
crown (63 cents)? Why does he use the long words and the high-
sounding phrases? Would you call this a serious or a mock-serious
1 From Volume I. of “ Letters of Robert Louis Stevenson,” by Sidney Colvin.
LETTERS 235
style? Why does he insert the plea that he has caused no expense
in the way of physician’s fees? Meaning of Orzextal, of remunera-
tion, and of accounts ?
11. RULE FOR PUNCTUATION.
Notice the apostrophe and s (’s) added to the word physician in
the above exercise. Why is it there? From this we draw the follow-
ing rule:
Add an apostrophe and s(’s) when writing the possessive form
of the noun, except when the noun is plural and ends ins. Then
the apostrophe alone is added (Gr. 73, p. 122); as, Dhysician’s, but
three boys’ hats.
Exercises.
Ex. I. Jusert the necessary apostrophes :
Johns father said that he might go to the mens shop and try to find
the childrens books, after which he might go to the two boys home
for an hour. He must then go to the grocers to ask about his moth-
ers purchases, and to the confectioners to order the bon-bons for his
sisters party. Onhis way home he must stop at Mr. Browns and then
at Mr. Rosss, asking at each place for the owners permission to re-
move the leaves from his lawn.
Ex. II. Write a note to your mother asking for half a dollar,
using the language you would use in talking to her. State the pur-
pose.
Write a note to your father asking for a dollar to go to the county
fair, adopting a mock-serious style and making use of some nonsensi-
cal plea.
Examine these notes and also the letters and compositions previ-
ously written, and see whether you have observed all the rules for
composition and punctuation that have so far been given.
Ex. III, When you get up some morning you find that your
father has already gone to work and that your mother is so ill you
will have to stay at home to help care for the younger children.
Write a note to your teacher, stating these facts. In the note use the
236 COMPOSITION
same language you would use if you were standing at her desk telling
her about it. Strive to be as free and natural.
Never be frightened by-a sheet of paper and a pen or pencil,
Never try to write unless you have something definite in mind about
which to write, and then say it as easily and as freely as you would
say it when talking. An effort is made in this book to give only such
subjects as appeal directly to experiences you have had, and conse-
quenily subjects about which you have definite ideas,
*
12. THE ARTIST.
After the Painting by Von Toussaint.
Ex. I. What is in the lower left corner of the picture? Why
has the boy his cap on? Where did he get the crayon or charcoal
with which he is making his picture? What does the expression of
his face seem to tell about his feelings? Does he know that grand-
ma is behind him? Whose portrait is he drawing? How do you
know? Why has the smaller girl forgotten all about her dolly? What
does her expression seem to suggest? Why is her thumb at her lips?
Assume the position and expression of the larger girl as nearly
as possible, — body, face, hands, fingers. Does your position now
seem to kindle any feeling within you? What feeling does the girl’s
face suggest? If she were wanting grandmother to come would her
fingers be in the position they are in? In what position, then? Does
grandma approve or disapprove of her new portrait? Why your
answer? Does the position of her hands tell anything of her moods
or feelings? Suppose she were in some other mood, how would. she
be holding her hands? Illustrate with your own hands, What has
grandma been doing? 5
Are these people poor, rich, or in moderate circumstances? Is
there anything to tell whether this is a scene in the United States?
Do you think these children are as a rule good or naughty? Why?
Ex. II, Write a story suggested by this picture. Tell, if you
wish, of the events that have just preceded the moment pictured, and
the events that follow soon after; or tell an entirely imaginary story
in which these children are introduced. If you prefer, tell of some
experience of your own in making pictures.
THE ARTIST.
237
238 COMPOSITION
13. THREE BOYS AND A DOG.
One day while I was at the seashore I found my cousin Walter and
his friend Dave playing on the beach. With them was Trixey,
Walter’s dog, who seemed quite tired out, as he had been swimming
in the surf and going after sticks that Dave threw into the water.
Walter was afraid to let him go again, but Dave kept him going
until the poor little animal was fairly trembling with cold and fatigue,
As he came dragging his stick up the sand and laid it at Walter’s feet
the little master hugged him and said, “ There, now; that’s enough. -
You shan’t go any more.”
“Oh, bother! What a silly boy you are! It won’t hurt him any,
What are you afraid of?” scolded Dave.
“Don’t send him again. It’s cruel to urge him when he doesn't
want to go,” said Phil, another boy that now came running up.
“Oh, go on! Don’t you be so wise!” sneered Dave. “There,
Trixey, just once more! Good dog! Go on, now!” and he flung the
stick far out into the surf. Quick as thought the little spaniel was
plunging after it.
“Don’t let him go! He’s too tired, and I’m afraid the surf is too
strong for him,” pleaded Walter.
“Oh, Trixey, come back!” he called, and the faithful little crea-
ture, obedient to his master, turned and started for the shore.
“He shan’t come back! Iam going to make him get that stick.
Go on, there!” shouted Dave, throwing a stone after the dog.
His aim was only tootrue. Thestone hit the struggling creature
on the head, and he disappeared under the water, and the strong cur-
rent from the shore carried him out to sea.— School Work.
Exercises.
Ex. I. With which paragraph does the incident proper begin?
What then is the purpose of the first paragraph? Is the introduction
easy and natural? How are the different speeches separated from
one another? Notice how the quotation marks are used in the third
paragraph and in the fourth. How are they used in the fifth? In the
other paragraphs? Notice the use of of to show feeling. How is it
spelled? What mark of punctuation follows it? What different feel-
ings are here expressed by it? What different expressions are used
to correspond with sazd in the second paragraph? Is the conclusion
NARRATIVES 239
apart of the incident proper or a mere final thought added by the
writer ?
Why did Walter hug the dog? Tell your opinion of each of these
boys.
Ex. II, Write in the form of a conversation an imaginary in-
cident in which these three boys take part. Make each speech a sep-
arate paragraph. Watch the quotation marks. Use another word
than sazd when mentioning the speaker.
Write of an incident you have seen in which several boys or girls
take part. Use conversation. Change what they really said if by
doing so you can make it sound better.
Write the story of an experience of your own playing on the beach
at the seaside, or along a small stream or river.
14. WORDS TO WATCH.
Oh, followed usually by a comma, occasionally by an exclamation
point, should be used in all ordinary cases of emotion, both when the
word precedes a name used in address, and when it is used merely as
an exclamation. ,
0 should be used only in a spirit of solemnity. Then it should
be followed either by a noun in the case of address or by the ex-
pression of a wish. It should never be followed by a mark of
punctuation.
As children are practically never under the solemn spell
calling for O, they should use of.
Write “O grave! where is thy victory!” “O mortal
men! be’ wary how ye judge!” O for that high nobil-
ity!”
But write “ Oh, what a good time we did have!” “Oh,
mother, may I go to the picnic?” “Oh, the roads were
really awful!” ‘Oh, Mary, papa is going to take me with
him to Chicago.” “And when we reached there, oh, we
were almost covered with mud!”
240 COMPOSITION
15 WHAT A BOY DID.
Ex. I. You have seen a boy do something that made you like
him. In as simple and clear a manner as possible tell the teacher and
the class about the act. Try to mention all the details, the little
things, that were helpful in causing you to like him; omit all the
details that were not helpful. If you repeat anything that the boy
said, use his exact words. Remember that the plainest language is
the best. Talk as freely and as frankly as though you were telling
your father or mother.
Ex. II. Write an account of the act told of as directed in the
exercise above, using as nearly as possible the same words. Do not
write until you have told it orally either in class or at home. Be
careful to use capital letters, periods, interrogation points, and quota-
tion marks correctly. ;
After you have finished writing, read aloud what you have written,
either to some one else or to yourself. If any sentences do not sound
well, try to improve them.
16. SUGGESTION IN LITERATURE.
In 2 (p. 226) we learn of a little girl who pumped a
drink for a dog. We like her because of this act. We
feel that she often is kind, both to people and to animals.
In fact, we feel that she always tries to be kind.
In other words, this single act suggests to us the kind of
girl she is; that is, it suggests her character.
So the act of which you have told and written in 15,
made you like the boy who did it by causing you to feel
that if he performed one such act he would perform many
others similar to it. That act suggested the kind of boy
he is ; it suggested his character.
In the same way a single mean, cowardly act has made
SUGGESTION IN LITERATURE 241
you dislike a boy. You feel that he will do other similar
acts. His act suggests the kind of boy he is, suggests a
character very different from that of the little girl told of
in 2 and of the boy written of in the last lesson.
The things people like and the things they do because
they like to do them make us know the kind of people they
are; make us know their characters.
“In life such suggestions, or hints, are almost daily mak-
ing us feef that we like or dislike people. So in literature
authors tell of the acts of their boys and girls, of their men
and women, in order to suggest the kind of people they are
and thus te make us like or dislike them.
Literature is full of suggestions, or hints, of this kind.
Boys and girls, therefore, in order to read to the best
advantage, must learn to understand easily and accurately
the suggestions given by authors.
In the following selection the author makes several
different persons do things that suggest character. Read
the selection, notice whether you like or dislike the various
persons, determine why, and see whether you feed what
kind of people they are:
Oliver Horn.
Suddenly, while he was still resenting the familiarity of the con-
stable, Oliver’s ears were assailed by the cry of adog in pain. Some
street-boy had kicked him.
Oliver sprang forward as the dog crouched at his feet, caught him
up in his arms, and started for the boys, who dodged behind the tree-
trunks, calling ‘‘ Spad, spad,” as they ran. Then came the voice of
the same constable.
“Hi, you can’t bring that dog in here.”
“He is not my dog. Somebody has hurt him,” said Oliver in an
indifferent tone, examining carefully the dog’s legs to see whether
any bones were broken.
“If that ain’t your dog what are you doin’ with him? See here:
STEPS EMG. TWO. — 16
242 COMPOSITION
I’ve been watchin’ you. You've got to move on or I'll run you in.
Do you hear?”
Oliver’s eyes flashed. In all his life no man had ever doubted his
word, nor had any one ever spoken to him in such terms.
“You can do as you please, but I will take care of this dog, no
matter what happens. You ought to be ashamed of yourself to see
him hurt, and not want to protect him. You're a pretty kind of an
officer.” — Adapted from F. Hopkinson Smith's “ The Fortunes of
Oliver Horn” ; used by permission of Charles Scribner's Sons.
Exercises.
Ex. I. What do the street-boys do? What character do these
acts suggest? Whatdoes Oliverdo? What kind of boy is he? What
do you learn about the character of the policeman?
In answering the above questions, make your answers the same as
they would be if you had seen the acts yourself. Have you seen
similar things done? Tell of them inclass. Tell exactly what con-
clusions you reached about the character of the persons doing them.
How do you suppose Oliver treats his father and mother? His
brothers and sisters? His own dog and his sister’s kittens? His
companions? How do you think he acts in school?
Ex. II. With what kind of letter does each sentence in the
narrative begin? Why does Sfad begin with a capital letter? With
what mark of punctuation does each sentence end? Notice that
each of the sentences ending with a period (.) makes a statement,
while each ending with an interrogation point (?) asks a question.
Somebody has hurt himis a statement. Why is it not followed by a
period?
Examine all the quotation marks (“ ”) used. Tell why each pair
is used. Why is there one at the end of the third paragraph? Why
is there not one at the end of the fourth paragraph? Are the punc-
tuation marks within or without the quotation marks?
Notice that in the conversation each separate speech forms a para-
graph. Would it be more easily or less easily understood if all of
the conversation were in one paragraph?, How many words are in
the longest sentence in the narrative?
Ex. III. Do you ever use the form can’t? The form ain't?
Of what words are these contractions? Which of the two is correct
PUNCTUATION 243
when used in conversation? What does the apostrophe (’) stand for
in the words ’ve, dozn’, and watchin’? Even in conversation would it
not be better to say ave? Do not omit the final gin words ending in
ing. Never use the form “ain’t” and never fail to pronounce the
final letter in words that end in “ing.”
17. RULES FOR CAPITALIZATION, PUNCTUATION, AND
COMPOSITION.
Begin every proper noun with a capital letter.
Begin every independent sentence with a capital letter.
Begin every complete exact quotation with a capital letter.
Put a period (.) at the end of a complete declarative (statement-
making) sentence.
Put an interrogation point (?) at the end of an interrogative (ques-
tion-asking) sentence.
Use the apostrophe (’) to indicate the omission of a letter or
letters; as, he’s for he is.
Use the hyphen (-) between the parts of a compound word; as,
street-boy.
Use the hyphen (-) after a syllable at the end of a line, when
part of the word must be written or printed at the beginning of the
next line. Be sure that the hyphen comes at the end of a syllable.
The hyphen is never used between the letters of a word of only one
syllable. The letters of such a word must all be on one line.
Exercises.
Ex. I. Examine the letters and compositions you have written,
and correct any violations of the rules so far given.
Ex. II. Write of an incident seen by yourself somewhat similar
to that told of in the selection under 16.
To THE TEACHER. Have several of these compositions written on the black-
board, including some containing the “exact words” of the person with whom the
composition deals. Have the class examine them for violations of the rules thus.
far given. Opposite a line containing an error place the number indicating the
principle violated (see pages 343-345) and let each pupil discover and correct the
244 COMPOSITION
mistake. Compositions should all be written with a wide margin at the right that
this plan may be followed when indicating errors. The pupil should then make
his corrections in red, and the paper should be examined a second time to learn
whether the corrections have been properly made. Unless it is possible for the
‘teacher to mark all papers the plan of blackboard correction should be used fre-
quently.
18. THE FORM OF LETTERS.
A letter perfect in form contains the following parts :
The Heading.— This includes the complete post-office address
of the writer and the date on which the letter is written.
The Address.— This includes the name and the complete post-
office address of the person to whom the letter is written.
The Salutation. — This is the word or phrase of address used in
beginning the body of the letter. Ina friendly letter the salutation
may be My dear Cousin, My dear Virginia, Dear Uncle John, ete.;
in a business letter to an individual it should be Dear Sir or My
‘dear Sir; in a business letter to a firm or company it should be
Gentlemen.
The Body of the Letter.— This consists of the communication
made to the person to whom the letter is written,
The Closing Phrase. — This is the word or phrase just preceding
the name of the writer. Ina friendly letter it may be Vour loving
cousin, Your sincere friend, Yours affectionately, etc.; in a business
letter it should be Yours respectfully, Yours most respectfully, Very
respectfully yours, or the like.
The Signature.—This is the name of the person writing. In
business letters and in all other letters except those to members of
one’s own family the full name should be used. In family letters it
is permissible to use only the given name or even a nickname. When
writing fo a firm or to a stranger a woman should sign her name thus:
(Miss) Elizabeth Noman (if unmarried),
coe man) | (Write both, if married).
(Mrs.) Elizabeth Noman (if a widow).
LETTERS 245
Exercises.
Ex. I. Jn the following business letter give the proper
name to each of the different parts :
Crafton, Allegheny Co., Pa.,
Oct. 27, 1902.
American Book Co.,
100 Washington Square,
New York, N.Y.
Gentlemen: —Inclosed find money order for
Fifty-six cents ($.56), for which please send me a copy of Rolfe’s edi-
tion of Shakespeare’s “ Hamlet.”
Yours respectfully,
Joun Y. NoMAN,
Ex. II, Notice again the punctuation of each of the different
parts. What punctuation marks follow Co and Pa and why?
What punctuation mark follows the salutation? If the body of the,
letter begins on the line below the salutation, only the colon (:) is
used, the dash (—) being omitted. Write the letter in this form.
19. RULES FOR PUNCTUATION.
Follow every abbreviation with a period.
Use a colon (:) after the salutation in a letter when the body of
the letter begins on the following line. When it begins on the same
line, follow the colon with a dash ( :—).
Exercises.
Ex. 1. Write the abbreviations for each of the months,
for each of the States of the Union, and for the following
phrases, words, and titles :
And so forth; County; Mister; Mistress (usually pronounced
Missis); Honorable; Member of Congress; Master of Arts; Rev-
246 COMPOSITION
erend; Doctor; Doctor of Philosophy ; Doctor of Laws; Professor;
Governor,
Ex. Il. Prepare perfect letter forms, using the fol-
lowing facts :
F. H. Williams, living at 1800 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburg, Pennsyl-
vania, writes on the znd of January, of the present year, to George
F. Thuma, who lives in Kittanning, Armstrong County, Pennsyl-
vania. Use the proper abbreviations, and punctuate and arrange
correctly.
George F. Thuma writes to F. H. Williams thirty days later.
Sarah T. Arond writes to Perry Mason & Co., 201 Columbus
Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts, from her home at 24 White Street,
Station D, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, on the sth of December,
Igor.
Perry Mason and Company write to Sarah T. Arond thirty days
later.
F. J. Smith’s wife, Martha, writes on August 23d, 1902, to J. K.
Maintenon and Company, who do business at 17 Rue de l’Opéra,
Paris, France.
A month later J. K. Maintenon and Company write to Mrs.
Smith.
Ex. III. Cut slips of paper into the form of an envelope (64
by 34 inches) and address each of the above letters in the proper
form, as shown below and on the next page. Near the upper right-
hand corner outline a place for the stamp. Always put the stamp
on this part of the envelope, as the government machines are made
to cancel at this place.
Americaw Book Comizany,
100 Washington square,
Yew Yok,
YW. YY.
LETTERS 247
Meare. © 5. Anderaom ¥ Co.,
B05 Kiamend at.
Chicago,
dU.
Wr. lohan Y. Noman,
Crafton,
Cleghonnp Cas,
Pa.
To Tur TsacHeEr. In correcting these letters and envelopes, keep in mind
the additional rules for punctuation given in 19.
20. WORDS TO WATCH.
Don’t is a contraction ror do rer.
Doesn’t is a contraction for does not.
Exercise.
Insert the proper contraction :
He ___ know the way. We —— wish to go. They
care for heat. You____"__ know where they have gone.
It _______ make any difference to us. She —_______ seem to like
248 COMPOSITION
to go to school. The men _____- stay aiter 4 o’clock. In the
evening she______ go out alone. To love one’s neighbor
mean to hate one’s self. The wheat ——-—-—— seem ready to cut.
WARNING. Say he doesn't, she doesn’t, and z¢ doesn’t, rather than
he don’t, she don't, and it don’t.
21. WORN OUT.
After the Painting by Faed.
Ex. I. Where in the house,is this room? How many rooms are
occupied by this family? What is the relation of the man to the
child? What on the floor behind the man seems to suggest his
trade? Has he probably been working the day before the time here
shown? What time of day isitnow? What shows that it was yet
dark when he went to sleep? Howlong probably did he watch before
he fell asleep? Why has the candle been placed where it is? How
much longer will the candle burn?
What two things in the picture tell that it has béen a cold night?
Why has the father removed his coat? How do you feel toward him
for this? Why is the mouse in the picture? How long has it been
very quiet in the room? Why has the artist put the flowers on the
window-sill and the violin on the wall? What is in the man’s right
hand? What is beside the bowl on the floor? What evidently was
the man doing just before he dropped asleep? What is probably in
the bowl? Was it for the child or the man? Why has it been left
thus on the floor? What is in the pitcher behind the man?
Is there anything that indicates that the child’s mother is dead?
What has been left undone that a mother would probably have
attended to? Why is the child’s right hand where it is? What are
the fingers doing? Why? What one detail in the child’s expression
seems especially to show that he is very ill? But what makes us feel
that he will get well? How long has he been sleeping quietly?
Why has the artist made the bright light, fall just where it does?
Ex. II. Write an imaginary story suggested by this picture.
Write an account of some illness of your own, or of one of your
family or friends.
250 COMPOSITION
22. THE FRIENDLY LETTER.
Friendly and social letters may contain all the parts of
the perfect letter form, but very often the address is
omitted. In case a friendly or social letter is of special
importance, however, the address should be inserted.
The following is the proper form for informal friendly
and social letters:
Lakeville, N.Y., July 17, 1903.
My dear Father: ‘
[Body of Letter.] s
Yours with love,
_ Junior.
Exercise.
Write a letter to your cousin or friend telling of something done
by one of your companions which seems to you to suggest his charac-
ter. Write from your own home. Punctuate all the parts as above.
Write a letter to your father or mother, who is visiting at 258 Thirty-
second Street, Chicago, Illinois, telling that you have recently become
acquainted with Oliver Horn, and explaining why you like him.
Write a letter to your cousin James, whose address is Rural Free
Delivery 27, Mayville, Chautauqua County, New York, telling him
how Oliver defended the dog and asking him how he treats the vari-
ous animals about the farm. Use proper abbreviations. Cut envelope
as in Comp. rg, Ex. III., and address it.
Write a letter to Perry Mason and Company (see Comp. 19), in-
closing a dollar and seventy-five cents for “ The Youth’s Companion”
for one year beginning with next January. Cut and address envelope.
23. A GENTLEMAN.
Read carefully the following selection. What sugges-
tion of character do you find in it?
My grandfather came to see my mother once at about this time
and visited the mills. When he had entered our room and looked
ACTS THAT SHOW CHARACTER 251
around for a moment, he took off his hat and made a low bow to the
girls, first to the right, and then towards the left. . . . We had
never seen anybody bow to aroom full of mill girls in that polite way,
and some one of the family afterwards asked him why he did so.
He looked a little surprised at the question, but answered promptly
and with dignity, ‘I always take off my hat to ladies.”
— Lucy Larcom in“ A New England Girthood.”
Exercises.
Ex. I. ‘Tell the class or a friend of an act performed by an aged
person suggestive of his character. It may show a thoughtful and
lovable nature, or one of a very different kind. Perhaps you can tell
of several incidents suggesting different kinds of character.
Ex. II. Write an account of one of these incidents, using much
the same language as that used when you told of it.
Write a letter to some aged relative or friend, telling of an incident
suggesting the lovable nature of an old lady or gentleman. If possible
tell of an incident that you have seen.
Ex. II]. What mark of punctuation just precedes the quoted
words of the grandfather in the above? What mark of punctuation
precedes or follows the quoted words in the following sentences?
1. Nathan said to David, “Thou art the man.”
2.“ Our antagonist ts our helper,” says Burke.
3. ‘ There are more men ennobled by study,” says Cicero,“ than
by nature.”
How does the punctuation of the last sentence differ from the
punctuation of the others? Notice the quotation marks.
From these illustrations we derive the following rule:
24. RULE FOR PUNCTUATION.
Set off a brief quotation from the rest of the sentence bya comma
or by commas.
252 COMPOSITION
Exercise.
Make sentences using the following quotations. In cach
case put the words you add, first bcfore and then after the
quotation, and when possible put them within the quotation,
as in the third illustrative sentence in Ex. L11.,, p. 251.
1. They never fail who die in a great cause. — Byron.
2. Talkers are not good doers. ,
3. Some temptations come to the industrious, but all temptations
attack the idle. — Spurgeon.
4. Thought takes man out of servitude into freedom. — Emerson.
5. Time wasted is existence, used is life. — Young.
6. Lack of desire is the greatest riches. — Seneca.
7. The only jewel that you can carry beyond the grave is wis-
dom. — Lang ford.
8. A man must either imitate the vicious or hate them.
— Montaigne.
To THE TEACHER. Have several compositions read in class each day, asking
pupils to tell what kind of person is suggested. In the manner already out-
lined (p. 243; see also p. 343), correct as many papers as possible. Often resort
to blackboard corrections, requiring all pupils to write an improved form for each
error pointed out, :
25. BUSINESS LETTERS,
Read carefully the following business letter :
: Maizeville, N.Y., March 1, rgoz.
Robert Durham, Esq.,
105 Fifth St,
New York, N.Y.
Dear Sir:
I have a place that will suit you, I think. It can be bought
at about the figure you name. Come and see it. I shan’t crack it
up, but want you to judge for yourself.
Respectfully yours,
John Jones.
LETTERS 253
Exercise.
What in this letter suggests the character of John Jones? What
kind of man do you think he is? Why have you this idea? What
sort of man will write the last sentence of the letter? Would you
have liked him more or less if he had told of all the advantages and
attractions of the farm he wishes to sell? If he had told of both its
advantages and disadvantages? Does he suggest either? How?
Do you consider crack z¢ up an expression that should be used by
educated people? Give the reason for your answer. Note the use
of the word Z/ace. Do not use it in thismeaning. Say farm or home.
26. RULES FOR COMPOSITION.
From the above exercise we may draw the following
rules:
Avoid the use of slang, both in conversation and in written work.
Use a word only in the meaning in which it is used by the major-
ity of educated writers and speakers.
Exercise.
Write a letter to William Finland, who lives in Sharon,
Mercer County, Pa., telling him of a dog you have for sale. Try to
impress him so fayorably that he will wish to buy the dog. Will you
suggest or declare its good points? Be careful to make the letter
complete in form and perfect in punctuation, capitalization, and
spelling.
Write a letter to Margaret Manning, who lives in Brockwayville,
Jefferson County, Pennsylvania, telling of canary birds you have for
sale.
Write a letter to some person you know, telling of something you
really have for sale.
27. WORDS TO WATCH.
Affect means Zo act upon, to influence.
Effect means fo bring about, to accomplish. °
254 COMPOSITION
Exercise.
Insert the proper word:
The change was ________ after a long struggle. Did the failure
________ your business? Will you be able to ______ your purpose?
How little did his death ______ his family! He undertook to
a consolidation of all the glass manufactories.
28. THE STORY OF A TRIP.
Every boy and girl, after a trip to the woods, to a
friend’s, to grandmother’s, or after any other pleasant out-
ing, wishes, when again at home, to tell of the pleasures
of the day. To give an outline of the trip is not enough.
There is no interest in an account that simply amounts to
“We started, we reached there, we stayed till dusk, and we
came home.” The details — the little events that excited
your delight, your fear, your merriment, that made the
day pleasant or unpleasant — are the points that give inter- |
est. The things you did, the sights you saw, the sounds
you heard, — tell of these and you put life into your story,
you make it real. Contrasts, too, help to give interest:
the gloom of the forest contrasted with the sunshine of
the meadow ; the despair of the person you met contrasted
with your own feeling of delight ; the hovel and the great
farmhouse ; the hot sunshine and the cool shade ; your own
warmth and the cool spring; the dusty road and the rip-
pling stream. In telling such a story the various events
should be given in their proper order.
Exercise.
-First orally, and then in writing, tell the story of a day’s outing,
trying to observe the suggestions given above.
NARRATIVES 255
29. THE FOREIGN GENTLEMAN. }
Read the following selection, watching carefully for
every character suggestion :
“As I went down stairs soon after, I saw something I liked. The
flights are very long in this tall house, and as I stood waiting at the
head of the third for a little servant-girl to climb slowly up, I sawa
gentleman come along behind her, take the heavy hod of coal out of
her hand, carry it all the way up, put itdown at the door near by, and
walk away, saying, witha kind nod and a foreign accent,
“Tt goes better so. The little back is too young for such a
weight.’
““Wasn’t it good of him? I like such things, for, as father says,
trifles show character.
—Adapted from Louisa M. Alcott in Little Women.”
Exercises.
Ex. I. What kind of person employs the little servant-girl,
_judging from the work the child must do? What of the character of
the foreign gentleman? What feeling have you toward Jo, the young
girl who tells of the incident and who is so pleased with it?
Ex. Il. Notice that each of the paragraphs begins with quo-
tation marks. The selection is from a letter written by Jo and quoted
by Miss Alcott in her book. She, quoting it, puts it in quotation
marks. As the letter consists of a number of paragraphs, she puts
the quotation marks at the beginning of each paragraph, but at the
end of only the last. Why, then, are there no quotation marks after
the last paragraph quoted here? :
Notice further that the second paragraph is within single quota-
tion marks (‘’). When Jo wrote the letter what marks did she put
around this paragraph? The rule is that a quotation within a quota-
tion should be inclosed in single quotation marks.
1 This and later selections from Miss Alcott’s “Little Women” are used by
permission of Little, Brown and Company, Boston.
256 COMPOSITION
Why would it be less easy to get the meaning if the comma
following after were omitted? The clause As J went down stairs
soon after is really restrictive, or necessary in order to get the
writer’s full meaning, and as such it should not be separated from
the rest of the sentence bya comma. But to add clearness, to avoid
a possibility of at first giving a wrong idea, the comma is used.
30. RULES FOR PUNCTUATION.
When a passage consisting of several paragraphs is quoted, place
quotation marks at the beginning of each paragraph, but at the end
of none except the last.
A quotation within a quotation should be inclosed within single
quotation marks (‘ °).
Use a comma wherever, by appealing to the eye, it will make
the meaning of a sentence clearer.
Exercise.
Tell in class and then write a paragraph about some act of kind-
ness you have seen a man or a woman do for a boy or girl.
Tell in class and then write a paragraph about some act you have
seen showing a kind of character opposite to that suggested in the
last selection.
In the next letter you write to a friend tell of something showing
character,
31. TELEGRAMS.
When a telegram is to be sent there is no time to stop
to learn how to send it. Therefore boys and girls should
become familiar with the details connected with the send-
ing of telegrams, and should have some practice in con-
densing messages to the rate-limit of ten words. The
meaning, however, must be clear, no matter how many
words may be required.
The telegraph form, which is found lying on the counter
a
TELEGRAMS 257
in the telegraph office, has blanks for the date of the mes-
sage, for the name and address of the person to whom it
is sent, for the message proper, and for the name of the
sender. The lines for the message are generally divided
into five equal parts, the intention being that a single word
shall be written within each division, thus enabling the
operator to count the words with speed and accuracy.
The following is an illustration of a message ready to hand
to the operator :
December 24, 1902.
J. H. Johnson,
133 Ellicott Square,
Buffalo, N.Y.
Unexpected vacation. Will be home
at eleven. Friend with me.
FRED F, JOHNSON,
Exercise.
For each of the following telegrams make a blank like the one
shown, Try to put each message into ten words or fewer. The ad-
dress and signature are not counted in the number of words.
Write a telegram to your father stating that your brother is in
the Bellevue Hospital in New York, having been thrown under a car
and having had his foot crushed. Ask your father to come at
once.
Write a telegram to American Book Company, 1oo Washington
Square, New York, asking them to send you at once by Adams
Express thirty copies of this book and thirty copies of Baldwin's
“Fifty Famous Stories Retold.”
Your best friend has won a prize of $25 in the annual prize essay
contest of the Carnegie Museum, Pittsburg, Pa. Send him a tele-
gram of congratulation, and state that you will pass through Pitts-
burg this evening on the seven o’clock train from Chicago to
New York.
Send a telegram to your uncle, C. M. Miles, Atlanta, Ga, telling
STEPS ENG, ‘rWO.— 17+
258 COMPOSITION
him of the death of F. H. Doyle, and stating that the funeral will be
Thursday afternoon at 2 o’clock.
Telegraph to your grandmother at 9 Sixby Street, Harrisburg, Pa,
that your house burned last night, that you all escaped safe, that
everything was destroyed, and that you will all leave on the ten-
thirty train to-morrow morning to stay with her till other arrange-
ments can be made.
32. HOW TO PLAY A GAME.
EXERCISE. Tell in a paragraph how to play some game with
which you are familiar. Choose a simple one. Connect your account
of the game with a picnic or a party. Tell it so that you will have
to use quotation marks. ‘
Write a letter to a friend, asking for full directions for playing the
game you took part in last Thursday night at her home. Explain
that you are going to a party at your aunt’s in the country, and that
you wish to be able to suggest this game, as you enjoyed it very
much.
Write an answer to this letter.
33. A BOY’S SONG.
Where the pools are bright and deep,
Where the gray trout lies asleep,
Up the river and o’er the lea,
That’s the way for Billy and me.
Where the blackbird sings the latest,
Where the hawthorn blooms the sweetest,
Where the nestlings chirp and flee,
That’s the way for Billy and me.
Where the mowers mow the cleanest,
Where the hay lies thick and greenest;
There to trace the homeward bee,
That’s the way for Billy and me.
NARRATIVES 259
Where the hazel-bank is steepest,
Where the shadow falls the deepest,
Where the clustering nuts fall free,
That’s the way for Billy and me.
But this I know: I love to play,
Through the meadow, among the hay ;
Up the water and o’er the lea,
That’s the way for Billy and me. — James Hogg.
Exercises.
Ex. I. Give the meaning of the following words as used in this
poem: ea, latest, hawthorn, nestlings, trace, homeward, deepest.
What are the four pictures in the first stanza? What pictures are
found in the other stanzas? What sounds are introduced? With
closed eyes try to see the various pictures. Try to hear the various
sounds. Of the various pictures suggested, which do you like best?
Ex. II. In three or four short paragraphs tell of a place that
especially pleases you. It may be in the country, in the city, or in
the suburbs; it may be along the highway or in the deep woods.
Try to present simple, everyday pictures and sounds, as is done in
the poem given.
*
34. RECEPTION OF COLUMBUS AT BARCELONA.
After the Painting by R. Balaca.
\
Ex. I. Where did the event pictured on the next page take place?
Before whom? Who is the man seated on the platform? The
woman? But at which man are most of the people in the picture
looking? Who is this central figure? Why are they looking at him?
Judging from the position of his body and of his hands, what is
Columbus doing? From what place has he recently returned?
What in the picture assures you of this? What else shown in the
picture has he brought back with him? What is on the floor that
has been taken from the chest? At the left is a man on one knee;
what is he doing?
Find all the people in the picture that are not looking at Columbus.
‘VNOTSOUVG LV SAAWNIOD AO NOILdAIAY
NARRATIVES 261
At whom are most of them looking? Why? What are the women at
the left of the picture interested in? At what are the Indians look-
ing? Why? Which one of them is showing the greatest feeling?
How?
How do you sit when you become deeply interested in what some
one is saying? Howis the king sitting? The queen? Which seems
the more interested in the story Columbus is telling? Why your
answer? Why, perhaps, has the artist represented the woman as
leaning forward? What does the position of the king’s head indi-
cate? Where are the officers at the right and left of the dais look-
ing? Are they supposed to look straight forward or to look about in
every direction? In what is the boy at the queen’s right interested ?
What would you be interested in if you were sitting in his chair?
Of what is the floor of this room made? What kind of windows
let light into this room? What is hanging behind the king and
queen? What ison the steps of the platform? What 1s under the
chest and curiosities?
Who is the most commanding figure in this picture? Why has
the artist made him taller and more noble-looking than any of the
other men? How is he dressed? How are the other principal
characters in the picture dressed ?
Take a position similar to that in which Columbus is represented,—
body, head, feet, hands. Similar to that of the queen; to that of the
king; to that of the nearest Indian. Does the change in position
result in any change in feeling? If so, try to state the different
feelings.
Look at this picture in every part; then close your book and with
eyes shut try to see it as clearly as you saw it with the book open.
Do this again and again until you can see ‘the picture clearly with
closed eyes.
Ex. II. Tell an imaginary story about the little boy at the right
of the queen; about one of the Indians. :
Write from memory a story you have read or heard about Colum-
bus. :
Write an account of a visit you have made to a magnificent public
building. :
Write a description of this picture, first from memory and then
with open book.
Tell of the king and queen, of Columbus, of the Indians, of the
curiosities, of the spectators, and finally of the room.
262 COMPOSITION
35. WORDS TO WATCH.
Get means Zo obtain, to come into possession of.
Have means Zo own, to possess.
The word got, a form of get, is often incorrectly used
with /ave to indicate ownership or possession; as, J have
gota new suit instead of 1 have a new suit. This usage
should be avoided.
Get is also often used in such expressions as J must get
my lessons, I got sick, I have got to do tt, etc. This is
using a general word Where a special word will be much
more precise. Say / must learn my lessons, T became sick,
I must do it, etc. Keep the word ge¢ in all its forms for
its precise meaning, Zo obtain, to come into possession of.
Exercises.
Ex. I. State thedifference in meaning between / have a new suit
and / have got a new suit.
Use correctly ge¢ (or got) in at least ten sentences.
Ex. II. Use a more precise word than get or got 1% each
of the following sentences :
I got a new cap. I got adollar for the dog. I have got cold.
Get me a pair of shoes. They are going to get married. When did
you get home? I have got the book you wished. May I get warm?
Why don’t you get him a doctor?
36. CHRISTMAS MORNING.
Christmas morning is a time of keenest interest to all
boys and girls. Here is a little picture of a Christmas
morning scene. Four girls, although without money to
ACTS THAT SHOW CHARACTER 263
give one another presents, determine each to remember
their mother, their father being away with the army.
“ There’s mother. Hide the basket, quick!” cried Jo, as the door
slammed and steps sounded in the hall.
Amy came in hastily, and looked rather abashed when she saw her
sisters all waiting for her.
“Where have you been, and what are you hiding behind you?”
asked Meg, surprised to see, by her hood and cloak, that lazy Amy
had been out so early.
“Don’t laugh at me, Jo! I didn’t mean that any one should know
until the time came. I meant only to change the little bottle [of per-
fumery] for a big one. I gave a// my money to get it, and I’m truly
trying not to be selfish any more.”
As she spoke, Amy showed the handsome flask that replaced the
cheap one, and looked so earnest and humble in her little effort to
forget herself that Meg hugged her on the spot, and Jo pronounced
her “a tramp,” while Beth ran to the window and picked her finest
rose to ornament the stately bottle.
—Adafpied from Loutsa M. Alcott in Little Women.”
Exercises.
Ex. I. What do you conclude Amy had done first? Why? But
what has she done this morning? How do you feel toward her for
doing it? What do you think of Beth’s act told of in the last line?
Notice the passage inclosed within brackets[ ]. When a person
is quoting from another and wishes to insert in the quoted passage an
explanation, the explanation is placed within brackets. Who has
inserted this passage?
Ex. II. Write an account of an unselfish act at Christmas.
Write of any Christmas event that comes definitely to your mind.
Write of an act performed on Christmas that seems to you selfish.
37. WHICH WAY SHALL I GO?
Boys and girls are often stopped on the street and asked
to give directions to reach a certain place. Sometimes,
264 COMPOSITION
even when they know just where the place is and just the
streets to follow in order to reach it, they find it far from
easy to give the desired directions.
A few exercises in writing directions will perhaps make
you more ready and clear when you next have an oppor-
tunity thus to be of service to a stranger.
One principle must be observed in giving directions, and
it may be expressed in two words: Be clear!
be thus stated :
Place a comma after each except the last of a series of words
or expressions in the same construction.
NoTE. When a series of adjectives precedes a noun they are not
separated by commas unless they are in the same construction; that
is, unless each adjective modifies the noun alone. In the following
sentences each adjective modifies the substantive idea that follows;
that is, the idea made up by combining the following adjective or
adjectives and the noun; and so no commas are necessary.
She carried a new white willow basket.
He lives in the old red brick house. :
All children love Andersen’s delightful fairy tales.
See Gr. 120, I., p. 198; p- 32, footnote.
Exercises.
Ex. I. [usert the necessary commas :
. The earth the air and the water teem with life.
John James and Henry were present.
His characteristics were greatness strength and sagacity.
Mary honors obeys loves and serves her Creator.
He was a brave generous and patriotic prince.
Wise cautious and eloquent was Ulysses.
The lecture was clearly forcibly and eloquently delivered.
Meekly truthfully and disintegestedly he trod the path of life.
We sailed down the river along the coast and into a little bay.
10. Seldom is a person at the same time wise in his own eyes wise
In the eyes of the world and wise in the sight of the Creavor.
SPI AKO DH
©
Ex. II. Examine closely the selection “How I Made an Anchor ”
(pp. 278, 279), and give the rule governing each comma used.
292 COMPOSITION
Ex. III. Examine several of your compositions and insert commas
wherever they are needed in order to conform to the rules given,
‘Omit all commas that are not clearly governed by one of the rules.1
Ex. IV. Tell the story of a trip to the woods, of a hunting or
fishing trip, of a day on a farm, 8f a day in the city, of a day on the
ocean, of a day at the zoo, or of a trip to the museum, Before writ-
ing, read again the suggestions in 28 (p. 254).
57. SUGGESTION OF FEELINGS.
Read the two opening stanzas of Gray’s “Elegy Writ-
ten in a Country Churchyard,’ watching for the details
used to make the reader experience the coming on of
evening:
The curfew tolls the knell of parting day,
The lowing herd winds slowly o’er the lea,
The plowman homeward plods his weary way,
And leaves the world to darkness and to me.
Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight,
And all the air a solemn stillness holds,
Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight,
And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds.
Exercises.
Ex.I. In each of the eight lines is one detail typical of the
coming of evening in the country. Four of them appeal to the
hearing. Which four? To wlgt do the others appeal ?
Why does the plowman plod? What does Ane// mean? Parting?
Wind? Lea? Save? Wheels? Lull? Why does the landscape
glimmer ? Why does the author say the way is weary and the tin-
klings are drowsy 2
In each line pick out the words that seem especially to appeal to
1 For the rules given together see pp. 343-345.
SUGGESTION OF FEELINGS 293
the feelings. Do these words make you think of anything more than
their dictionary meaning? For example, does so/7 make you think
of anything except the slow ringing of a bell? Try to determine defi-
nitely what each word szgges¢s in addition to its dictionary meaning.
Ex. II. Write a paragraph or two about early morning in the
country, using eight or ten details typical of that time of day.
The same of early morning in the city. The same of the city
between 8.30 and g o’clock on a morning when school is in session.
The same of a very hot afternoon in the city or country.
Pick out details that are seen only at the time you are trying to
describe. Use if possible words with a wider suggestiveness than the
mere meaning given in the dictionary.
58. A LADY’S MISTAKE.
After reading the following selection carefully, study it
with the questions given below :
Towards evening once, John was coming. . . home with some stalks
of the sweet-flag inhishand.... As he was walking along he meta
carriage, which stopped opposite him; he also stopped and bowed,
as country boys used to bow in John’s day, A lady leaned from the
carriage and said,
“What have you, little boy?” .
“It’s sweet-flag stalk; would you like some? ”
“Indeed, I should like to taste it,” said the lady, with a most wim
ning smile. “I used to be very fond of it when I was a little girl.”
John was delighted. .. . He handed up a large bunch of it. The
lady took two or three stalks, and was about to return the rest, when
John said,
“ Please keep itall, ma’am. Ican getlots more. I know where it
is ever so thick.”
“ Thank you, thank you,” said the lady ; and as the carriage started
she reached out her hand to John. He did not understand the motion
until he saw a cent drop in the road at his feet. Instantly all his...
pleasure vanished. Something like tears were in his eyes as he
shouted,
“JT don’t want your cent. I don’t sell flag!”
294 COMPOSITION
John was intensely mortified. ‘I suppose,” he said, “she thought
I was a sort of beggar-boy. To think of-selling flag!”
At any rate he walked away and left the cent in the road.
— Charles Dudley Warner in“ Being a Boy.”
Exercises.
Ex. I. Why does the author intimate that country boys of John's
day were more thoughtful and polite than boys of to-day? Was the
lady thinking of herself or of the little boy when she stopped and
spoke to him? What suggestion of John’s character in his answer to
her first question? Why the most winning smile? Why did John
hand up a large bunch? What is suggested by John’s asking her to
keep it all? What was the woman's feeling in dropping the penny
for John? Why did his pleasure vanish? Do the tears primarily
suggest feeling or character? Was he polite in what he shouted after
her? Why did he doit? Do you admire him more or less because
he left the cent in the road? Why, did he leave it? Is there more
of feeling or of character suggested by this selection?
Ex. II. What do the three periods in the first line show? Why
are there four at the end of the first sentence? Why are there but
three after the lady's first question? Tell why each comma,
apostrophe, and quotation mark is used, referring to the rule govern-
ing it. If the comma after /ady (paragraph four) is omitted what
change will be made in the meaning?
Ex. III. Tell of an experience of your own in which your feelings
were much hurt by the intended kindness of another, Write an ac-
count of the same in about the language in which you told it.
Suppose you had been at the roadside and had seen the incident
told of in the selection quoted. Write a letter to a friend, telling of
it and expressing your opinion of the lady and of the boy.
Write a letter toa friend telling of an experience of your own in
which your feelings were hurt.
Which part of the perfect letter form may be omitted from a
friendly letter? Which parts must be included? (Comp. 18, p. 244.)
Address an envelope for your letter.
PUNCTUATION 295
59. THE SEMICOLON.
In the last selection are found the following sentences :
As he was walking along he met a carriage, which stopped oppo-
site him; he also stopped and bowed, as country boys used to bow in
John’s day.
“It’s sweet-flag stalk; would you like some?”
“Thank you, thank you,” said the lady; and as the carriage started
she reached out her hand to John.
In each of these sentences will be found a semicolon
(;). In the first two it will be noticed that no connective
follows the semicolon, while in the third the semicolon is
followed by and.
The first two sentences might have been written thus:
As he was walking along he met a carriage, which stopped oppo-
site him. He also stopped and bowed, as country boys used to bow
in John’s day.
“It’s sweet-flag stalk. Would you like some?”
When writing these sentences, however, the author felt
that the meaning of the two parts was a little too closely
related to permit the use of the period, and consequently
he used the semicolon. Many writers would prefer the
period to the semicolon. Boys and girls, under similar
circumstances, should use the period.
The third illustrative sentence reads :
“Thank you, thank you,” said the lady; and as the carriage started
she reached out her hand to John.
The first statement of this sentence contains two com-
mas, and is followed by a semicolon. A sentence mean-
ing the same would be punctuated thus :
The lady thanked John, and as the carriage started she reached
out her hand to him.
The first statement in this sentence contains no commas,
296 COMPOSITION
-and consequently it may without confusion be followed by
a comma instead of a semicolon. When one or both of
two connected statements contain a comma or commas, a
semicolon is sometimes used between the statements in
order to prevent possible misunderstanding.
Boys and girls, however, should as a rule use a period
when they ave tempted to use a semicolon.
From the above discussion we deduce the following rules :
Use the semicolon between two statements united by a connect-
ive, if a comma is found in either or both of the statements and if
a comma at the point of connection might endanger clearness.
Use a semicolon between two statements not united by a connect-
ive when they seem too closely allied in meaning to permit the use
of the period.
Note. The semicolon is sometimes used to separate phrases or
clauses depending upon a common declaration. For illustration see
Composition 60, Ex. II. It is also occasionally used when the state-
ments are long, and when the second statement gives a result of the
first, an explanation of it, or a reason for it; as, /¢ was dark and the
path was stony; so we took a lantern with us.
It is also regularly used before as introducing an example, as is
shown just above,
Exercise.
Determine the rule governing each semicolon used in 38, 39, 46, and
50 (pp. 265, 266, 273, 274, 278, 279). How many do you find? Do
authors make frequent use of the semicolon?
Examine several of your compositions and determine whether pe-
riods could not be substituted for any semicolons you have used.
60. THE MOUNTAIN AND THE SQUIRREL.
The Mountain and the Squirrel
Had a quarrel;
And the former called the latter “ Little Prig.”
WORDS TO WATCH 297
Bun replied:
“You are doubtless very big;
But all sorts of things and weather
Must be taken in together
To make up a year
And a sphere;
And I think it no disgrace
To occupy my place.
If I’m not so large as you,
You are not so small as I,
And not half so spry.
I'll not deny you make
A very pretty squirrel-track ;
‘falents differ; all is well and wisely put;
If I can not carry forests on my back,
Neither can you crack a nut.” — Ralph Waldo Emerson.
Exercises.
Ex. I, Does Emerson wish us to think about the squirrel and the
mountain, or about something else? What? Which statement of two
words seems to sum up the principal thought of the poem?
Ex. I[. Write an imaginary conversation between a robin and an
oak tree, in which each tells what its worth is to the world; between
a boy and a locomotive; between a dog and a horse; between a pin
or a needle and a crowbar. Use quotation marks correctly, and
make each speech a separate paragraph.
61 WORDS TO WATCH.
Either means one of the two.
Both means ¢he one and the other.
Exercises.
Ex. I. Jnsert the proper word:
I will land you on —___ side _ of the river. Trees covered
banks of the stream.
298 COMPOSITION
Ex. II. Determine the meaning of each of the following
sentences ¢
I will give it to both of you. Either of you may have it. He left
his boat for both of them. He said that either of them might use the
boat.
Ex. III. Write five sentences using each of these words correctly.
62. A PLEASANT ROOM.
Read carefully the following selection, watching for
hints, or suggestions, of character and for all ovher sugges-
tions :
It was a comfortable old room, although the carpet was faded and
the furniture was plain; for a good picture or two hung on the wall,
books filled the recesses, chrysanthemums and Christmas roses
bloomed in the windows, and a pleasant atmosphere of home-peace
pervaded it.— Louisa M. Alcott in Little Women.”
Exercises.
Ex. I. What does this description of the room tell about the
character of the inmates? Just what things suggest character? Shut
your eyes and try to see the room. Are you able to see it? Notice
that you are enabled to see it because of the few suggestive details
that are given. Just what details are mentioned? What things were
in the room that are not mentioned? When describing a room will
you mention a large number of things that it contains? If a few
details will do, what must the few be, — those that are common to
every room, or those that give the character, so to speak, of the spe-
cial room? Give a rule governing each punctuation mark in this
selection.
Ex. II, Write a description of a room that you have seen,
Make use of the four or five details that individualize the room, and
if possible suggest by these details the character of the inmates.
Remember that a person tries to have in his room the things he
cares for.
DESCRIPTION 299
63. DESCRIPTION.
The last lesson illustrates the whole theory of successful
literary description, as does Composition 57. In his de-
scriptions an author aims to be suggestive, and in order to
be suggestive he depends primarily on picturing details, or
hints, just as he depends upon character details, or hints,
in making us know his people. When he wishes to make
us know his hero he selects two or three typical acts out
of the hundreds the hero performs and lets us see him do
these. Such typical acts are suggestive details out of the
hero’s life. So when he wishes to make us see a foom, a
person, a landscape, or a city street, he chooses a few sug-
gestive details and presents them to us in a manner as vivid
as possible.
The details, or hints, of character being given, the im-
agination tells much of the character of the man; the few
suggestive details of the picture being given, the imagina-
tion puts in for us the other details, and we see the room,
the person, the landscape, the city street, — whatever it
may be that the author wishes us to see.
Read a further illustration :
Laurie led the way from room to room, letting Jo stop to examine
whatever struck her fancy; and so at last they came to the library,
where she clapped her hands. ... It was lined with books, and
there were pictures, and statues, and ._. little cabinets full of coins
and curiosities, and sleepy-hollow chairs, and queer tables, and
bronzes ; and, best of all, a great open fireplace with quaint tiles all
around it. — Louisa M. Alcott in “ Little Women.”
Exercises.
Ex. I. Shut your eyes and see the room. How does it differ from
the room you saw in 62? What are the suggestive details, or hints,
300 COMPOSITION
that are given? How many are given? Which ones are most effect-
ive in making yousee? An old gentleman lives in this room; what
idea do you form of his character? What gives it to you? Are
these, then, character-revealing details, as well as picturing details?
Ex. II. By means of picturing details that are also character-
revealing details, describe the room of one of your companions.
Use your imagination, if necessary, to describe the room of a girl
that is untidy and unrefined, although she is rich.
Describe the room of a girl that is ladylike, cultured, and neat,
although very poor.
Describe the room of a boy that loves hunting, photography, and
all manner of games.
In all this work draw as much as possible from rooms that you
have actually seen,
64. BREAKING THE HOME TIES.
After the Painting by Thomas Hovenden.
Ex. I. Which figures are most prominent in this picture? Who
is the woman? Who is the boy? What does the title of the picture
mean?
Why has the woman her hands on the boy’s shoulders? Where is
she looking? Why? Why so intently? What are her feelings,
judging from the lines of her mouth? Is she speaking? What do
you think is going on in her mind?
What is the boy looking at? Why not at his mother? If he looks
at her, what do you think may happen? Whatare his feelings, judging
from the way he is holding his head and from the expression on his
face? Is he holding his hat loosely or firmly? Why? Do you think
he wishes to go away? Where do you suppose he is going?
Who is the young woman seated near the dog? What is she look-
ing at?) Why not at the boy? Where is her hand? Why? What
do you think is in the package on her knee? What is leaning against
her knee? What is there that makes us know how she feels?
At whom is the dog looking? To whom does he belong? What
kind of dog is he? What does he seem to be thinking?
Who is the man walking toward the door? What is he carrying?
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302 COMPOSITION
Why has he picked it up and turned his back toward the woman and
boy? Who is the elderly lady sitting near the table? At whom is
she looking? What does her expression seem to tell about her
thoughts? Who is the little girl back of her? At whom is she look-
ing? Why? From the way she holds her head, what can you tell
about her thoughts? Who is the man looking in at the door?
What time of year is it? What time of day? Why is the table
set? Has the boy a long or a short trip before him? Who will go
with him to the station? Does this family live in the city or in the
country? What feeling do you have as you look at this picture?
Ex. II. With book closed describe this picture orally. Then
write a description of it.
Write an account of a trip you have taken. Tell of leaving home,
of your feelings when leaving, and of your feelings when away.
Write an account of this boy’s trip, of an incident in his life in the
city, or of his feelings the first night he is in a boarding house.
65. WORDS TO WATCH.
Beside means dy the side of.
Besides means 7x addition to.
Exercise.
Insert the proper word:
I was in the house and there were three others _____. me. He
is sitting ______ the house. He asked you to walk —_ him.
What will you take —______ your trunk? In the yard was a tall
maple ________ various fruit trees.
66. THE COLON,
The exercise in Composition 65 begins thus:
Insert the proper word:
In like manner many of the lessons containing selections
PUNCTUATION 303
begin with a sentence that closes with a colon (:), just as
the present lesson itself begins. These various sentences
show the real nature of the colon. J/¢ ds a sign of expecta-
tion.
It says to the reader, “Something else is coming; ex-
pect it.” Look at the sentence beginning 39, 41, 42, 57;
etc., and you will see that such is the nature of this mark
of punctuation.
We have learned before that the colon is used after the
salutation in letters. Here, as in the instances already
cited, it says to the reader, “Something else is coming ;
expect it.” An orator begins his address by saying
“Ladies and Gentlemen:’’ and we know from his tones
that we are to expect something, and the reporter in-
dicates that expectation by putting a colon after the
word Gentlemen. We may then formulate this rule of
punctuation :
Use the colon to indicate expectation, — especially before a long
quotation, before a formal enumeration, and after the salutation at
the beginning of letters.
67. WORDS TO WATCH.
In indicates place where.
Into indicates place Zo which, and usually follows verbs of motion.
Exercise.
Insert the proper preposition:
Put the ashes ________ the can; they are now ________ the ash-
pit. We sat down —______ the library, but soon went
the parlor. Throw the paper ____— the basket. He asked him
304 COMPOSITION
tO G0. the house. I wish that, when you are _______ the
city,you would go ________ Davis’s and get me a deed-box
which to keep my manuscripts.
68. GRANT’S BARGAIN.
A Mr. Ralston living within a few miles of the village owned a colt
which I very much wanted. My father had offered twenty dollars
for it, but Ralston wanted twenty-five. I was so anxious to have
the colt that after the owner left I begged to be allowed to take him
the price demanded. My father yielded, but said twenty dollars was
all the horse was worth, and told me to offer that price; if: it was
not accepted I was to offer twenty-two and a half, and if that would
not get him, to give the twenty-five. I at once mounted a horse and
went after the colt. When I got to Mr. Ralston’s house I said to
him: “ Papa says I may offer you twenty dollars for the colt, but if
you will not take that I-am to offer twenty-two and a half, and if you
won't take that to give you twenty-five.” . . . I could not have been
over eight years old at the time. — Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant.
Exercise.
Determine the reason for this foolish act of the boy Grant.
Tell and then write of some foolish act of your own when you were
about eight or ten years old, or of some such act performed by an-
other child. Remember to use short sentences, and to use about the
same words in the written form that you used in the oral form.
69. THE NOTE OF INVITATION.
Read the following formal invitation and reply :
Mrs, Alan T. Gardiner requests the pleasure of Miss Ross’s com-
pany at dinner on Thursday, May twenty-first, at six o’clock.
11 Josephine Street,
May Sixteenth.
THE NOTE OF INVITATION 305
Miss Ross regrets that illness prevents her acceptance of Mrs.
Gardiner’s kind invitation for Thursday evening.
26 Pointvue Avenue,
May Seventeenth.
An affirmative reply would state that “Miss Ross
accepts with pleasure Mrs. Gardiner’s invitation,” etc.
Exercise.
Notice that the invitation is written in the third person. Write a
note to yourself in which Mrs. James Huntley Harper asks you to be
present at a birthday party that she is to give for her daughter, Miss
Harper, on Thursday evening, March 18th, at 180 High Street, Cleve-
land, Ohio. In a third person note write dates in words, not in
figures.
Write an answer to this note, declining. Use the third person
form. :
Write an answer, accepting.
70. THE EXCLAMATION POINT.
Examine the following expressions :
“Jane! Jane! where are you?
“Such fun! Only see! A note of invitation from Mrs. Gardiner
for to-morrow night!”
In these expressions the exclamation point (!) is used
five times. The name _/aze used in the first expression is
a word of address. You have already learned that such
words and expressions are usually set off from the rest
of the sentence by commas. But here the exclamation
point is used. This shows that the exclamation point is.
occasionally used as the equivalent in some respects of
the comma.
STEPS ENG. TWO.— 20.
306 COMPOSITION
In the next three uses it could not be replaced by any
other mark of punctuation, for the sentence clearly shows
strong emotion.
We may then formulate this rule of punctuation :
Use the exclamation point after words, phrases, sentences, or
other expressions that show strong emotion,
Boys and girls, however, should seldom use the exclama-
tion point.
Exercise.
Find other exclamation points in the selections given in this book
or in several selections in your reader, and determine whether each
Jollows an expression of strong emotion.
71. THE OTHER FELLOW.
Read the following brief selection and determine what
is meant by “The Other Fellow.”
Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes says that in every one of us there are
two persons. First, there is yourself, and there is the Other Fellow!
Now one of these is all the time doing things, and the other sits
inside and tells what he thinks about the performance. Thus, I do
so and so, act so and so, seem to the world.so and so; but the Other
Fellow sits in judgment on me all the time.
I may tell a lie, and do it so cleverly that the people may think I
have done or said a great or good thing; and they may shout my
praises far and wide. But the Other Fellow sits inside and says,
“You lie! you lie! you’re a sneak, and you know it!!” ...
Or, again, I may do a really noble deed, but perhaps be misunder-
stood by the public, who may persecute me and say all manner of
evil against me falsely; but the Other Fellow will sit inside and say,
“Never mind, old boy! It’s allright! Stand by!”
— William Hawley Smith in“ The Evolution of ‘Dodd’ ”*
1 Used by permission of Rand, McNally & Company.
PUNCTUATION 307
Exercise.
Write an account of something you have done for which you were
blamed, but at which the Other Fellow said, “It’s all right!”
Write an account of something you have done for which you were
praised, but at which the Other Fellow said, “ You're a sneak!”
You will not be asked to read these themes in class.
Write a paragraph describing an act that made you know a boy or
girl was angry or was delighted.
Write a postal card to J. A. Grim, 1324 Park Building, Cleveland,
O., asking him to call at your office and repair your typewriter. Do
not fail to tell him where your office is.
In a letter to a friend describe two acts of a boy or girl that made
you impatient.
In a letter describe a picture that you have seen so that a friend
can buy you a copy of it. You do not know its name.
In an informal note invite a friend to go boating, driving, or
walking with you.
In a letter tell a friend of a new game you have learned to play.
Explain so fully that he will be able to play it.
PART III.
DETAILS THAT PICTURE. MISCELLANY. ‘
72. PRACTICAL DESCRIPTIONS.
The following selection is a piece of description that is
practical rather than literary. In what order does the
author tell of the various acts of the boys?
.
The Eel Trap.
: The Moodna creek had now become very low, and not more than
half its stony bed was covered with water. ... A holiday was given
to the boys, and they went to work to construct an eel weir and trap.
With trousers well rolled up, they selected a point on one side of the
creek where the water was deepest, and here they left an open
passage-way for the current. On each side of this they began to roll
large stones, and on these placed smaller ones, raising two long
obstructions to the natural flow. These continuous obstructions ran
obliquely up stream, directing the main current to the open passage,
which was only about two feet wide, narrowing it still more. In this
they placed the trap, a long box made of lath, sufficiently open to
let the water run through it, and having a peculiar opening at the
upper end where the current began to rush down the narrow passage-
way. The box rested closely on the gravelly bottom, and was fastened
to posts. Short, close-fitting slats from the bottom and top of the
box, at its upper end, sloped inward, till they made a narrow opening.
All its other parts were eel-tight. The eels coming down with the
current, which had been directed towards the entrance of the box, as
has been explained, passed into it, and there they would remain.
They never had the wit to find the narrow aperture by which *hey
had entered. — Sedected.
308
DESCRIPTION 309
Exercise.
Describe the building of a “shanty”; the making and setting of a
trap of some kind ; the digging of a cave; the building of a dam ‘and
the placing of a infin ebue water-wheel; the planning, grading, and
finishing of a tennis court; the making af a piece of fancy work; the
mania of bread, of cake, of candy. Be sure that you describe some-
thing that is within your own experience, something that you have
made yourself, or done yourself, or in the making or doing of which
you have had part.
73. LEAVING THE OLD HOME,
The description in this lesson has more of a ‘literary
flavor, its purpose being, by the mention of a few details,
to make us feel as though we were really seeing the gar-
ret and the garden.
It was hardest for me to leave the garret.... The rough raft-
ers, the music of the rain on the roof, the worn sea-chests with their
miscellaneous treasures, the blue-roofed cradle, ... the tape-looms
and reels and spinning-wheels, the herby smells, and the delight-
ful dream-corners, these could not be taken with us to the new home.
Wonderful people had looked out upon us from under those garret-
eaves. Sindbad the Sailor and Baron Munchausen had sometimes
strayed in and told us their unbelievable stories; and we had there
made acquaintance with the great Caliph Haroun al Raschid.
To go away from the little garden was almost as bad: Its lilacs
and peonies were beautiful to me, and in the corner of it was dne tiny
-square of earth that I called my own, where I was at liberty to pull
up my pinks and lady’s delights every day, to see whether they had
taken root, and where I could give my lazy morning-glory seeds a
poke, morning after morning, to help them get up and begin their
climb. Oh, I should miss the garden very much indeed !
—Lucy Larcom in“ A New England Girlhood.”
Exercises.
Ex. I. Shut your eyes and try to see this garret. In the same way
try to see the garden. The picture you see is made up of the details
.
310 COMPOSITION
mentioned, and of various other details added by your imagination,
The details added by your imagination have been drawn from your
experience, that is, from the garrets and gardens you have seen and
played in, and the ones of which you have read and heard and ilies
and day-dreamed.
What details are mentioned to make us see the garret? Does -
music of the rain make you see it, or help you to feel as though you
were really there? What other details are given that do not appeal
to the sight? What ones appeal to your experience in a garden?
Ex. II. Describe a grove in which you have played. Use details
appealing to the sight, tothe hearing, and to the smell, What differ-
ent sounds belong particularly to such a place? What odors? What
words may be used to describe the sound made by the brook? By the
birds? By the wind in the tree-tops? By the leaves? In the woods
are all places on the ground ‘reached by an equal amount of light?
Is any sunshine to be seen?
Describe a play-room you have seen, using details that will suggest
it vividly to the reader. What sounds are heard?
Describe a yard fitted up especially as a play-place for a number of
children, taking for the moment of your description a time when the
sittle ones are plainly happy. Use details of all possible kinds.
74. THE RETURN OF THE ‘‘ MAYFLOWER.”
After the Painting by G. H. Boughton,
Ex. I. Does the word vefurn in the name of the picture mean that
the ship is going to England or is coming to the Massachusetts coast? -
, Which are the important figures in the picture? So far as beauty
and attractiveness are concerned, what is the general nature of the
shore where they are standing? What would have been the effect if
the artist had introduced about them a very beautiful landscape?
Granting that the real shore is beautiful, why would it not be wise to
paint it so in this picture? |
Why are the less important figures introduced? Why has the
woman her handkerchief in her hand? What would have been the
effect if the artist had omitted the ship that is suggested at the ex-
treme right?
THE RETURN OF THE MAYFLOWER.
|
i
li
31
312 COMPOSITION
What is the feeling of the man and of the woman? Where is the
‘right hand of the woman? Why? Why is the woman put in a posi-
tion that requires her to turn her head in order to look after the disap-
pearing ship?
Why is the man holding his hat in his hand? Why is he heedless
of the fact that his cloak has fallen from one shoulder? Do the faces
have similar or decidedly different expressions? On which face is
the expression more marked? - ,
Is the sun shining bright? Why has the artist made it such a day?
As you look at the picture do you feel that the day is warm or chilly?
Why has the artist made you feel thus?
Assume the position of each of these figures in every detail. What
effect does the position have on your feelings?
Tell the history lying back of this picture.
Ex. II. Write a story suggested by this picture,— perhaps of a
boy or girl left here by the return of the ‘“ Mayflower,” describing his
various adventures. Make it entirely imaginary. Or tell any story
you please — imaginary, or founded on history.
75. BILLS AND RECEIPTS.
You (George Williams) have been left in charge of your
father’s store. . During the time he is away a gentleman
comes in and lays down ten dollars and a statement, which
you find reads thus:
Joseph A, Williams,
Grocer.
Dubois, Pa., Nov. 1, 1902.
Sold to
H. G. Kane, Dubois, Pa.
Oct. 2. 14]b. Hamatisg . .. . . . . . ffe.t0
“ 7. 20lb.Sugarat6g. . . 2... ww. 20
“10, rocans Tomatoes ati3f . . . . . . 1.30
“ 24. 1 BoxSoap........4. 4... 4.50
9.10
BILLS AND RECEIPTS 313
After receiving the change Mr. Kane will wish some-
thing to show in case he should be asked again to pay the
bill. Taking the bill, you write at the bottom of it
Received payment,
JoserH A. WILLIAMS,
per GEORGE WILLIAMS.
The word ger is written before your own name in order
to show that your father’s name has been written by you.
It is a Latin word meaning ¢hrough or by.
If Mr. Kane pays only: part of the bill, you write a
receipt like this, on a separate sheet of paper :
$2.25 Dubois, Pa., Nov. 6, 1902.
Received of H. G. Kane Two and 25/100 Dollars on account.
JosErH A. WILLIAMS,
per GEORGE WILLIAMS.
Exercises.
Ex.I. On January 11, 1903, J. F. Goodwin, dealer in hardware,
Titusville, Pa., sells to F. K. Linwood one sled for $2.00 and a pair
of skates for $1.75; on January 20 he sells him 20 pounds of nails at
5 cents a pound; on the 24th he sells him a stove for $22.50; on the
28th he sells him a saw for $1.50 and an ax for $1.75.
Make out a bill on February 1st. Receipt the bill. Write a sepa-
rate receipt for the amount of the bill, Write a receipt for money
paid on account.
Ex. II. Make out a bill that a general merchant might send to a
customer; one that a shoe dealer might send; one that a jeweler
might send; one that a physician might send, saying “For Profes-
sional Services from Oct. 1st to date.”
A real estate agent receives a check for $30.00 in payment of rent
for house number 11 Josephine Street, Greensburg, Pa., the check
being sent by John H. Roberts. Write a receipt for the same, show-
ing date received, from whom, amount, rent for what month, and for
what house.
314 : COMPOSITION
76. WORDS TO WATCH.
Expect means to look for (mentally) zz future time. It is often
incorrectly used with reference to past or to present time, in the
sense of think or suppose. It is not possible to expect a person was
ill yesterday.
Exercise.
Insert expect, think, ov suppose:
I ________ you were there last night. We to start to-
morrow. Do you _______ to go to New York soon? [________ it
was aclose game. Where do you______to go next summer?
May is used to ask for permission or to grant it; to make known
that permission has been granted ; and sometimes to make known that
something may possibly be done; as, May J go? You may go. I
may goif I care to. I may (possibly) go if the weather ts pleasant.
Can is used to state that one has power to do a given thing; as, J
can lift fifty pounds, and I can swim twenty yards. I can multiply
but [ can not divide in algebra.
Exercises.
Ex. I. How do these sentences differ in meaning ?
I can swim to the island if I may. I may swim to the island if I
can.
Ex. Il. Jwsert may or can:
I go to the woods with the boys? You ____if you
wear your shoe. Mother says I ________ go _if you
— go with me. He cross the ocean next month. I
think I _______ work that problem. —________ I sharpen my pencil?
77. JOYOUS DAYS.
Dandy and I took another walk this afternoon. We went over the
hill, up the valley, and along the brook, where we found the pussy
willows creeping out on almost every bough. Coming home across
we
DESCRIPTION 315
the fields we saw the robin redbreasts hopping in the furrow behind
the plow, with cye intent for luckless worms. Of course Dandy raced
after them, barking, but the dear fellow would not harm them, even
if they would let him.
Some violets peeped at us from the awakening grass, and the
dandelion show, an array of gold, again and again stopped us. A
thistle finch, who had changed his dull coat for one of yellow, flew
past, assuring us by his mere presence that the warm sun will soon
make all nature happy.
Ten days ago, on a bright southern hillside, we found the fragrant
arbutus nestling under its covers of brown leaves, and now unnum-
bered flocks of young anemones are dancing among the budding
trees, all as joyous as a crowd of laughing girls let out of dull, dry
school for a woodland holiday.
The days of joy have surely come again !— 4 dafted.
Exercises.
Ex. I. What time of the year is the author describing? What
eight items or details does he use to suggest the beauty of this season?
What is the pussy willow? The thistle finch? The anemone?
What cloes the expression pussy willow make you think of besides
the willow with its silky catkins? That is, what associations, entirely
apart from its dictionary meaning, are suggested by it? Does
it recall the place where it grows and its beauty, the delight with
which we see it each spring, etc.? What other pleasant associations
has it? What does the word d7o0k make you think of besides a
small stream of water? What does dehind the plow suggest? Dande-
lion? Young anemones? Budding trees?
What does the author mean when he says the pussy willows are
creeping out on every bough? Do they really creep? Use appear-
ing now instead of creeping out, which is the better expression and
why? Do the thistle birds really change their coa¢s? Usea literally
true expression instead of this one. Which is the better expression ?
Why? Isit correct to speak of a great number of dandelions as a
show ? Use a literal expression. Whatis meant by saying that the
dandelion show has begun in an array of gold? What is the literal
word to use instead of go/d? Which is better?
What two words in the third line of the third paragraph are not lit-
erally true? Substitute literal words. Is the literal word or the figur-
ative word better?
316 COMPOSITION
The words creeping, coats, flame, show, flocks, dancing, awakening,
nestling, and covers are said to be used figuratively. Such uses of
words are called figures of speech. While it is not literally true to say
that focks of young anemones are dancing around the trees, yet there
is a way in which the expression is true. Try to explain its truth.
Ex. II. In a paragraph or two, using six to ten details, describe
one of the seasons. Seek words that will suggest more than their
dictionary meaning, and also try to use two or three figures of speech.
Bring into class a list of five figures of speech used in conversation.
Ex. III. Describe a picnic dinner at which you have been present,
using suggestive details.
Describe the unpacking of the picnic baskets. In doing so use
many suggestive details drawn from color,— the color of the buns,
of the jellies and cakes, of the eggs and of the various fruits, etc. Use
adjectives or descriptive words that will make us see the tablecloth,
the picnic plates, and spoons, knives, forks, etc. ,
Describe your ideal picnic place. Take a real place as the founda-
tion of your description, adding such other details as will make it -
ideal. Use suggestive details to make us see the trees, the brook or
the lake, the flowers, the old log, the vines, the rocks, etc. Remem-
ber that details suggestive to the hearing are helpful.
Ex. IV. Tell the story of a picnic you have recently attended.
Make use of details to picture the various scenes you mention; use
other details to make known your different moods; use other details to
bring out contrasts (see 28, p. 254); use other details to suggest rather
than to tell what you did. Be as vivid, as interesting, and as real as
it is possible for you to be with a free use of suggestive details of
various kinds.
78. THE PRONOUN: SOME DANGERS.
Notice the following sentence:
She annouced that the coffee was ready, and every one settled them-
selves to a hearty meal.
In the above sentence the error is in the use of the pro-
” DESCRIPTION 317
noun themselves, a word meaning more than one, to refer
to-the word ove. The sentence of course should read,
“every one settled Azmse/f to a hearty meal.” From this
we may deduce the following rules for composition :
é
Be sure that a pronoun is in harmony with the word for which it
stands.
When a pronoun refers to persons of both sexes, use the form of
the pronoun that as a rule refers only to men and boys; as, Azmself
above refers to every one, which includes both boys and girls. (See
P. 99.)
(Review pp. 134-136, 140-141.)
79. THE DEN.
The following description not only makes us see the
room, but does much towards making us know the character
of the foreign gentleman (see Comp. 29) that occupies it :
“Did you ever see such aden, my dear? Just come and help me
put these books to rights, for I’ve turned everything upside down try-
ing to discover what he did with the six new handkerchiefs I gave
him [the foreign gentleman] not long ago.’
“T went in, and while we worked I looked about me, for it was ‘a
den’ to be sure. Books and papers everywhere; a broken meer-
schaum, and an old flute over the mantelpiece as if done with; a rag-
ged bird without any tail chirped on one window seat, and a box of
white mice adorned the other; half-finished boats and bits of string
lay among the manuscript; dirty little boots stood drying before
the fire; and traces of the dearly loved boys, for whom the makes a
slave of himself, were to be seen all over the room. After a grand
rummage three of the missing articles were found,—one over the
bird cage, one covered with ink, and a third burnt brown, having been
used as a holder.— Louisa M. Alcott in “ Little Women.”
Exercises.
Ex. I. Whatdo the books and papers suggest about his character?
The flute? The birds and mice? The boats and bits of string?
318 COMPOSITION
The manuscript? The boots by the fire? The location and condition
of the various handkerchiefs that were found? Note that these vari-
ous articles are also suggestive details to make us see the room.
Ex. II. Describe a yard that you know, — one that makes known
the character of its owner. ~
Describe a room of the same nature, trying both to make us see
the room and to make us know the character.
Describe a grocery store that you know, one showing a careless,
negligent owner. Describe one showing a neat and careful owner.
80. SNARING FISH.
Read the following account of a sport familiar to boys:
The boy is armed with a pole and a stout line, and on the end of
it a brass wire bent into a hoop, which is a slip noose and slides to-
gether when-anything is caught in it, The boy approaches the bank
and looks over. There the fish lies, calm as a whale. The boy de-
vours him with his eyes. He is almost too much excited to drop the
snare into the water without making a noise. A puff of wind comes
and ruffles the surface so that he can not see the fish. It is calm again,
and there he still is, moving his fins in peaceful security. The boy
lowers his snare behind the fish and slips it along. He intends to get
it around him just back of the gills, and then to elevate him with a
sudden jerk. It is a delicate operation, for the snare will turn a little,
and if it hits the fish he is off. However, it goes well, the wire is
almostin place, when suddenly the fish . . . moves his tail just a little,
and glides outof the loop, and .. lounges over to the other side of
the pool; and there he reposes just as if he were not spoiling the
boy’s holiday.
This slight change of base on the part of the fish requires the boy
to... get a new position on the bank, a new line of approach, and
patiently wait for the wind and the sun before he can lower his line.
This time cunning and patience are rewarded. The hoop encircles
the unsuspecting fish. The boy’s eyes nearly start from his head as
he gives a tremendous jerk and feels by the dead weight that he has
him fast. Out he comes, up he goes in the air, arid the boy runs to
look at him. — Charles Dudley War.ter in “ Being a Boy.”
LETTERS 319
Exercises.
Ex. I, What is done by the first sentence? Why should a new
paragraph be begun just after the fish moves away? Which details
are mentioned that are absolutely necessary in order to understand
the facts? Which other details are inserted simply for the purpose of
making the incident seem real, of making us feel as though we were
there and were ourselves holding the pole and snaring the fish?
Which details are most necessary to make this story interesting ?
Ex. II. Tell and then write of some fishing experience of your
own. Mention only the really suggestive details. Tell of the events
in their exact order. q
Tell and then write of a hunting experience; of a berrying experi-
ence; of an experience in catching a butterfly; in capturing a pet
bird or animal that has escaped. Whatever subject you write on, let
it be a recent and vivid experience.
81. THE LETTER OF INTRODUCTION.
The letter of introduction is a kind of letter that boys
and girls, as well as men and women, occasionally find
useful. Suppose you (Sarah Ganning) are going to Can-
ton, Ohio, to live. A friend of yours, Martha Jordan,
knows you are going and tells you that she has a very
dear friend there, Margaret Wilson, to whom she will give
you a letter of introduction. A day or two later she stops
at your home and leaves it for you. You find the envelope
addressed thus :
Miss Margaret Wilson,
134 Seelye Ave,,
Introducing Miss Sarah Ganning. Canton, Ohio.
Examining it, you discover that it is not sealed; for it is
not customary to seal such a letter, Opening it, you find
it reads as follows:
320 COMPOSITION
121 Park Ave., Meadville, Pa.,
December 2, 1902.
Miss Margaret Wilson,
134 Seelye Ave.,
Canton, Ohio.
My dear Margaret:— I learned only yesterday that a schoolmate
and special friend of mine is to move to your city next week. She is
Sarah Ganning, and I have asked her to hand you this letter, as I
wish you and her, both so dear to me, to become equally dear to each
other. I am sure that I do not need to ask you to do whatever is
within your power to make Canton a real home for her.
With much love and many hopes that you and Sarah will speedily
become the best of friends, I am,
Ever yours affectionately,
: MARTHA JORDAN.
You at once realize that such a letter will make your
life in Canton more full of sunshine, and of course you are
grateful for it.
Such letters are often given by men to other men, both
for business and for social reasons. The body of sucha
letter might read as follows:
My dear Sir: — The bearer of this letter, Mr. Joseph H. Moore,
will be in your city for some weeks, engaged in the completion of a
large commercial project. Any favors that you may show him in
either a business or a social way will be fully appreciated by him and
will be remembered by me as though granted to myself.
Exercise.
Insert the omitted portions of the above letter,
John Winters is going to Syracuse, N.Y., to live. Give him a letter
of introduction to Frank H. Stacy, a close friend of yours living at
765 North Park Avenue, Address an envelope for the letter. *
J. H. Jones, stationer and bookseller, is going to New York, to try
to complete the purchase of a store on Fifth Avenue. Write for him
a letter of introduction to William F, Adams, who lives at 348 West
gist, Street.
DESCRIPTION 321
Jane Merigan is to spend the winter studying music at Mt. Union
College, Alliance, Ohio. Give her a letter of introduction to Mr. and
Mrs. C.F. McAdams, 395 Aiken Avenue.
Mr. J. W. Stein wishes to ask a favor of L. K. Fitzon, who is a
councilman in Youngstown, Ohio. Give him a letter of introduction,
Jeanette S. Dixon wishes to consult Dr. F. M. Heck, a noted ocu-
list of Cleveland, Ohio, who is an intimate friend of yours, Give her
aletter of introduction.
82. A NIGHT AFIELD.
The selection that follows, attempts by means of descrip-
tion to make the reader feel as though he himself were
spending the night on the prairie, several miles from home:
Once the boys secured permission to camp all night [in the meadow]
beside the wagon, and after the men drove away homeward they
busied themselves eating supper and making up their beds on piles of
hay, with the delicious feeling that they were real campers on the
plains. This feeling of exaltation died out as the light paled in the
western sky. The wind suddenly grew cold, and the sky threatened a
storm. The world became each moment moremenacing. Out of the
darkness came obscure noises. Now it seemed like the slow, sinister
movement of a rattlesnake —now it was the hopping, intermittent
movement of a polecat.
Lincoln was secretly appalled by these sinister changes, but the
feeling-that he was shielding weakness made him strong, and he kept
a cheerful voice. He lay awake long after Owen fell asleep, with
eyes strained toward every moving shadow, his ears intent for every
movement in the grass. He had the primitive man’s sense of warfare
against nature, recalled his bed in the garret with fervent longing, and
resolved never again to tempt the dangers of thenight. He fell asleep
only when the moon rose and morning seemed near.
The coming of the sun rendered the landscape good and cheerful
and friendly again, and he was ashamed to acknowledge how nervous
he had been. When his father returned, and asked with a smile,
“Well, boys, how did you enjoy it?” Lincoln replied, “Oh, ... it
was lots of fun."— Hamlin Garland in “ Boy Life on the Prairie.” 1
1 Used by permission of the Macmillan Company, owners of the copyright.
STEPS ENG, TWO.—2I-
s
322 COMPOSITION
Exercises.
Ex. I. Notice that the boys are happy as long as they are busy.
What is the first fact that brings a change to their feelings? What
similar experience have you had? What senses detect the next de-
tails that bring terror? The appeal in the last sentence of the first
paragraph is to what sense? How does the thought of the rattlesnake
affect you?
What suggestion in the first sentence of the second paragraph?
Why the strained eyes and the intent ears? What is suggested by
the fervent longing and the resolve? Why the change in feelings
brought by the return of the sun?
Ex. II. Tell and then write of an experience of your own in spend-
ing the night out of doors; or of an experience in passing by yourself
along a lonely walk, path, or road, in the darkness; of an experience
in remaining alone in the house all night or till very late; of an expe-
rience upon awakening in the night with the feeling that some intruder
is in your room or in the house, is on the porch roof, or is trying to
unlock the front door.
83. DAVID.
After the Painting by Elizabeth Gardiner.
And David said unto Saul, Thy servant kept his father's sheep,
and there came a lion. ..and took a lamb out of the flock. And I
went out after him, and smote him, and delivered it out of his month.
—TL. Samuel, xvid + 34-35.
Ex. I, Where is this scene located? What is there that perhaps
may suggest the time of day or the condition of the weather? Who-
is the chief figure in the picture? Whathas he just done? What is
he now doing? 7
What is the position of his head? Of hiseyes? Which arm is
raised?) Why? Why is he kneeling? Why has he knelt thus on the
lion? What thoughts are probably in his mind?
In which arm is David holding the lamb? Is there any reason why
he should hold it in this arm? What seems to be the feeling of the
lamb? Why your answer?
324 COMPOSITION
Has David probably slain this lion with his hands alone? What
did a shepherd lad usually carry? Why did he carry it? In a land
infested with wild beasts would it be light or heavy? Why has the
artist not shown it in the picture?
What will David do now?
Ex, II. Write an imaginary account of the contest between David
and the lion. ,
Giving the lamb power to talk, write such an account of its experi-
ence with the lion as it might give to David.
From memory write an account of David’s contest with Goliath,
Then compare what you have written with the story given in
I. Samuel, xvii: 38-54, and revise or rewrite.
Write a description of this picture. |
84. ANSWERING ADVERTISEMENTS.
WANTED. — Boy to answer telephone and door-bell at physician’s office, and to-
send out bills. Address in own writing, giving age and naming references.
X 29, Press Office.
WANTED. — Girl to fold and address circulars. Address in owa handwriting,
giving age and time spent in school. References required. 34, Telegraph Office.
WanTED.-— Boys and girls to address enyelopes at home. For particulars
write F. T. Smith, Dep’t 23, 118 Strand, London, England.
For SALE.— Beautiful summer home on Lake George. 8 rooms; wide
porches; plenty of shade; roo feet from lake. For particulars address Owner,
116 South Oregon Ave., Boston, Mass.
For REentT.— Farm of 160 acres, 7 miles from city. . Address Z. A. Young,
R. F. D. 33, Crafton, Pa.
For Rent.—Brick house, 9 rooms, both gases, all conveniences. {45.00
Particulars from Owner, Room 1728, Frick Building.
Exercise.
Write letters of inquiry or application in reply to four of the above
advertisements. Use the full business form of letter (p. 252). Be
sure to give all particulars required and to ask for each separate item
of information that you wish. Address envelopes for the letters
. WORDS TO WATCH 325
85. WORDS TO WATCH.
Mad means affected in mind, insane.
Angry means 7rritated, annoyed, provoked, enraged, wrathful (fol-
lowed by wz¢h before the name of a person and az before the name of
a thing). °
Exercise.
Insert the proper word:
I'm ——_____ _______ you, and I'll not play with you any
more! That man was _____ because I went into his yard!
An asylum for the insane is sometimes called a ______ house. John
became _______ and soI came home. The officer said that the dog
was ‘
He is angry _______ me for taking his sled. He is angry
what I did. He said that he was not angry _______ John
but was angry ________ his actions.
WarninG. Be careful not to say that a boy “ got mad.”
86. WINTER.
When icicles hang by the wall
And Dick, the shepherd, blows his nail,
And Tom bears logs into the hall,
And milk comes frozen home in pail ;
When blood is nipt, and ways be foul,
Then nightly sings the staring owl
Tuwhoo!
Tuwhit! tuwhoo!