ALBERT R. MANN LIBRAR\ AT CORNELL UNIVER..TY Wain 241 Production Note Cornell University Library produced this volume to replace the irreparably deteriorated original. It was scanned using Xerox software and equipment at 600 dots per inch resolution and compressed prior to storage using CCITT Group 4 compression. The digital data were used to create Cornell's replacement volume on paper that meets the ANSI Standard Z239.48-1992. The production of this volume was supported by the National Endowment for the Humanities. Digital file copyright by Cornell University Library 1995. Scanned as part of the A. R. Mann Library project to preserve and enhance access to the Core Historical Literature of the Agricultural Sciences. Titles included in this collection are listed in the volumes published by the Cornell University Press in the series THE LITERATURE OF THE AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES, 1991-1995, Wallace C. Olsen, series editor. FOLDOUT #1 (after page 274) scanned at original dimensions: 7.8" height by 9.7" width. FOLDOUT #2 (after page 362) original dimensions:. 7.8" height by 18.5" width; scanned at 100% with page dimensions:7.8" height by 11.5" width. New York State Gullege of Agriculture At Gornell University Bthaca, N. J. Library *$1}8010,J YA SuyuUrsaq sit pey saqeys paywug sy} UI JUIUIZAOUL UOT}VAIISUOD pRoI IYL ‘asn jusuvutied ysaq Ifay} 0} ynd aq plnoys s}saioy pue ‘s[BIOUTU ‘19}VAM ‘TIOS ‘s90INOSaI ]vIN}JVU sy} JO [TV ‘NOOTUO ‘ISAYOT IVNOLLVN JAVOSVD AHL NI VNVYONVG — ‘2202¢SIUOLy Elements of Forestry BY FREDERICK FRANKLIN MOON, B.A., M.F. PROFESSOR OF FOREST ENGINEERING New York STaTE COLLEGE OF FORESTRY AT SYRACUSE AND NELSON COURTLANDT BROWN, B.A., M.F PROFESSOR OF ForEsST UTILIZATION New York StaTE COLLEGE or ForESTRY AT SYRACUSE TOTAL ISSUE SIX THOUSAND NEW YORK JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc. Lonpon: CHAPMAN & HALL, LimiTED - Copyricst, 1914 BY FREDERICK FRANKLIN MOON AND NELSON COURTLANDT BROWN Stanbope Press F. H.GILSON COMPANY BOSTON, U.S.A. 1-22 TO Chendore Runsevelt WHO AS PRESIDENT OF .THE UNITED STATES AROUSED THE AMERICAN PEOPLE TO THE IMPORTANCE OF FORESTRY AS A NATIONAL ISSUE AND HELPED TO MAKE POSSIBLE ITS RAPID PROGRESS IN THIS COUNTRY PREFACE. The development of the American forest policy within the last two decades has been no less than remarkable. When it is realized that the first forest reserves were set aside barely twenty years ago and that the present gross area of the Na- tional Forests is 186,000,000 acres, some conception of the material strides may be obtained. The most striking change, however, has taken place in the improvement in public sentiment. Twenty years ago, scarcely one man in a hundred knew what forestry meant, while it now constitutes an important part of the nation’s news. The associations and organizations in the United States now concerned with forestry comprise the following: 31 states with forestry departments; 17 states having conservation or kindred commissions; 2 national conservation organizations; 1 national forestry association; 23 state and local forestry organizations; 42 associations for the protection of timber land, etc. In addition, there are 23 institutions giving degrees in forestry, 11 schools with forestry courses of at least one year’s duration, and 42 schools giving short courses in forestry. Realizing the educational awakening that is taking place along forestry lines, it was felt that an: up-to-date textbook was needed, broad in its scope and containing general infor- mation on all phases of the subject. In the state agricultural schools and colleges, forestry viii PREFACE should be taught to every student of agriculture. The land problem will soon be pressing and, in some regions, the ulti- mate forest area is very large in comparison with the arable soil. With the rapid increase in the tilled areas, the farm woodlots will become of greater importance, and scientific handling should then be assured. Appreciating the fact that forestry will be complementary to agriculture, an especial effort has been made to suit these conditions. The bibliography will be of particular advan- tage to teachers without a forestry degree, and with its help any one with a scientific education should be able to give an effective synoptical course. The forest regions are covered in a suggestive fashion only, and no doubt many details can be supplied by the individual instructors from the references given. No chapter has been in- cluded on dendrology, as it is too large a subject to be touched upon in a general textbook. There is plenty of material dealing with the identification and silvical qualities of the forest trees, published privately or by the U. S. Forest Service, available in practically any college library. It has been the chief object of the authors to gather data from sources not readily available and to present them in a form easily grasped by the average student. Much of the material and data have been compiled from other sources, Federal and State bulletins, etc., but the presentation is entirely original. Most of the illustrations were obtained from the Forest Service; to its members and to the friends who have aided with criticisms and suggestions, the Authors extend grateful acknowledgment. FREDERICK FRANKLIN Moon. NELSON COURTLANDT BROWN. Syracuse, New Yorx, August, 1914. CONTENTS. PART I. Pace CHAPTER [;==:INTRODUCTIONS: «4 gseice'e bes to 444 eee ee daa Rew I Forestry Defined and Explained................. 2.0 c cece eee eee I DV CHO T ocdeiate cu itenscnhenararcis b4.aha et Send Ala MARES as aie I Forestry: Means US... cccsscicspaes sok este doe tend basin ree we ence epee I Forestry versus Lumbering............... 0.0002 c cece e eee 2 Forestry versus Arboriculture... ........ 0.0.0 cece eee eee ee 4 Need of Forestry in the United States.....................00.. ts 5 Development of Forestry... 1.0.2.0... 0.22 eee eee cece ences 6 Ge TAG RAL 25 is. sc cri ed phcvsrenaveiie 08 2S ib eo estas Sait nsoual 9 oa SaeRR Ade dpdeto de 6 Growth in Germany as Typifying Movement................. 6 State Regulation x. c.sesccnkee siti caeaeivae eapawe wie aw anderen 8 Rorestry Abroad iiiscc cineca oe earn omen Hard maple | Beech Red gum Hemlock Sugar pine Black locust | Birch Tamarack Chestnut Spruce Rock elm Black gum White elm | Yellow poplar | Redwood Persimmon | Longleaf pine! Cottonwood} Cypress Basswood Osageorange| Ash | ........... Cedar Willow Cleavability. — The resistance of wood to cleavage along the grain is important when it is desirable to split timbers. The line of least resistance in cleavage is along the radius because the medullary rays are in that direction. Wood splits much easier when wet because moisture softens the fibers and reduces adhesion across the grain. Straightness in the grain, however, determines to a large degree the ease with which wood splits. The following list shows the relative splitting qualities of some of our woods: Altogether most of our woods are comparatively easy to split. Difficult to split. Medium. Easy to split. Elm Birch Chestnut Black gum Maple All pines Beech Hickory Redwood Sycamore Oak Cedars Dogwood Ash Fir Red gum Cottonwood Western larch 226 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY Miscellaneous. — Other mechanical properties that may be mentioned are flexibility and toughness. For example, hickory and ash are flexible, whereas hemlock and pine are brittle. Moisture content influences flexibility to a consid- erable degree. Toughness refers to the combined strength and pliability of a wood. Good examples of tough woods are elm and hickory which. offer high resistance to both tension and shearing. Chemical Properties. General. — As expressed before, wood is very complex in its structure and each species varies both in its physical and chemical characteristics. The field of chemical utilization of our forest products has scarcely been touched, in so far as the possibilities are con- cerned. Wood dried at 300 degrees Fahrenheit is made up of about 99 per cent of organic matter and about 1 per cent of inor- ganic matter. The inorganic elements make up the ash when wood is burned. At the above temperature, according to Roth, wood is made up of the following: Per cent. Carbon wcanescesavnysyseecee semen 49 Hydrogens.: waned san shery be oad 6 ONY PED? eos se eens ge ad aaae baa cas 44 99 Among the other elements found to a small extent are nitrogen, potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium. Ordinary seasoned wood or lumber contains, in weight, about 25 per cent of water, 74 per cent of wood substance and 1 per cent of ash. The wood itself consists of a skeleton of cellulose which contains in the different species varying degrees of lignin, WOOD TECHNOLOGY 227 tannin, resins, gums, etc. Cellulose and lignin are readily converted into starch and also sugar. Although an expensive method, sawdust is now being converted into sugar for ani- mal food and it is already an important source of vinegar. In the chapter on Utilization, the wood distillation industry is briefly described. Durability. — As applied to wood, durability means the ability to resist decay or simply the length of life of a certain timber under given conditions. Durability is important in connection with those lines of usage where wood is especially susceptible to decay, such as railroad ties, poles, posts, mine timbers and piling. Durability may also include the influ- ence of mechanical wear but this is relatively unimportant except in the case of ties. The durability of the different species is very often the determinant factor in their value for several lines of utiliza- tion, especially in the case of timbers in contact with the soil, weather and water when used untreated. Contrary to popular opinion, wood does not naturally de- cay. All decay in wood is caused by the work of fungi and bacteria which live on the starch and other material in the wood cells and cause the wood structure to break down, leav- ing the common dry rot, punk, blueing and rottenness in our timbers. The fungi are spread about by minute seed-like bodies, called spores, which are scattered about readily by the wind. Fungi live and propagate and therefore decay is possible only whenever the following necessary conditions are present: Sufficient heat. Moisture in proper amount. Oxygen. Spores of proper fungi or bacteria. Pw NH 228 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY Whenever any or all of these are removed, decay is not possible and, therefore, wood will last indefinitely. For ex- ample, some old piling that Caesar used in crossing certain rivers of France about two thousand years ago has recently been exposed and found to be in splendid condition. Irish bog oak is still sound because of the presence of acids in the logs and because air has been absent as it lay for centu- ries underneath the soil. Furniture seldom decays because moisture is absent and the wood finish prevents the entrance of fungi. For the same reason, we paint our houses and arti- ficially inject poisonous antiseptic fluids into the wood fibers of ties, posts, poles, etc., to prevent the destructive work of the wood decaying fungi. A post rots at the surface of the ground first because at that point there are the greatest changes of moisture and heat. Sapwood is more susceptible to decay than heartwood because of its greater percentage of moisture and food for fungi and bacteria. In the living tree the bark acts as a protective covering against decay, but whenever a fissure or crack is exposed or a limb is broken off, a splendid opportunity is offered for the entrance of the fungi. There does not apparently seem to be any direct relation between the physical and mechanical properties of wood and its durability. As an illustration, weight, strength, stiffness, hardness or toughness do not seem to have any influence on the durability of any of our woods. Some of these properties, however, aid in the prevention of injurious effects of abrasion or mechanical wear. Two of our heaviest woods, hickory and hard maple, are not durable, whereas some of our lightest woods in weight, such as redwood, white cedar and catalpa, are very durable. Red cedar, a soft wood, is highly durable, whereas beech, a hard wood, is distinctly perishable. There is, however, usually a definite relation between the WOOD TECHNOLOGY 229 color of the heartwood and the durability of many of our woods. The darker the heart, the more durable is the wood, especially in the case of ebony, lignum vite, catalpa, red cedar, black locust, osage orange and several others. Many of our species with light colored heartwood, such as bass- wood, maple, hickory, spruce and tupelo, are very perishable. The durability of any species depends, therefore, on certain chemical constituents, such as resins, gums, tannin and other decay resisting materials. These happen to give a dark dis- coloration to the heartwood of several of our species so that this explains the relation of color to durability. Rapidity of growth, within a species, is an important factor in its durability, but as between species, there is no direct inference. As an example, rapid growing species, such as black locust, chestnut and catalpa, are durable as well as such slow growing species as cypress, longleaf pine, western larch and the cedars. The following table shows the relative durability of some of our more common species: Very durable. Durable. Intermediate. Perishable. | Very perishable. Black locust White oak White pine White elm Black gum Red cedar Black ash Norway pine Beech Basswood Live oak Cherry Shortleaf pine | Hickory Buckeye Black walnut Red elm Red oak Hard maple Paper birch Cypress Persimmon Red ash Red gum Aspen Western red cedar | Longleaf pine Yellow poplar White ash Willow Redwood Western larch Butternut Loblolly pine | Sycamore White cedar Eastern larch Sugar pine Hemlock Lodgepole pine Lawson cypress Cuban pines [| .... eee eee Spruce Balsam fir esse cc biserarere aie asa Ironwood seseeeeeseeseee | Yellow birch | Jack pine BIBLIOGRAPHY. Brown, Netson C. An Analysis of Durability. Hardwood Record, March 25, 1913. Curing, McGarvey. Strength Values for Structural Timbers. U. S. Forest Service Circular 189. 230 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY Fernow, B. E. Timber Physics. Parts I and II, U.S. Forest Service, Bulle- tin 8. Forest SERVICE CIRCULAR 15, Summary of Mechanical Tests on Thirty-two American Woods. Recorp, S. J. Economic Woods of the United States. John Wiley and Sons. Recorp, $. J. Grain and Texture in Wood. Forestry Quarterly No. 1, Vol. IX, rg11. REcorD, S. J. The Mechanical Properties of Wood. John Wiley and Sons, 1914. Rots, Frrrsert and B. E. Fernow. Timber: An Elementary Discussion, etc. Division of Forestry, Bulletin 10. CHAPTER XII. WOOD PRESERVATION. History and Importance. Ever since ancient Roman times, various methods of arti- ficially treating wood to prolong its life have been used. At first charring timbers to prevent decay in the ground was used. Painting the surface of the wood was also frequently resorted to. The idea of injecting chemical preservatives into the wood fibres dates back to 1657 when Glauber, a German chemist of Carlstadt, carried on the first successful experiments. Since that time, the industry has taken wonderful strides and many methods are now in use to prolong the life of timbers most subject to decay, such as ties, posts, poles, piling, mine timbers and construction timbers, wood blocks for paving, etc. In this country, the first successful timber treating plant was established at Lowell, Mass., in 1848, and it is still in operation. Wood preservation is really a means of more intensely uti- lizing the products of the forest, because if we can increase the life of certain timbers by artificial and reasonably cheap methods, it will decrease the demands for wood supplies and therefore play an important part in our forest economy. The annual loss of wood supplies due to decay amounts to over seven billion board feet or over 70 per cent of all the causes of wood destruction. Another pertinent fact is that 231 232 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY our more durable species, such as white oak, cedar, black locust, and cypress, are rapidly disappearing and we are being forced to use inferior species which, in many cases, by a cheap preservative treatment, can be made to last longer than the more durable species in their natural condition. In 1885 there were only three pressure plants in this country. The importance of the industry can be at once seen from the following amounts, conservatively estimated, that are now being treated annually: Class. Amount. AGS view caaneaee caroueace 33,000,000 pieces Paving blocks......... 2,800,000 square yards PG a) tars eraiern Bigs Senisists 2,000,000 lineal feet Parlin iran ert eueele meters II,000,000 lineal feet Besides this, large quantities of fence posts, mine timbers, cross arms and construction timbers are treated every year. Ninety per cent, however, of treated timbers is composed of railroad ties, expressed in volume of wood. This industry obviously, then, consumes enormous amounts of chemical preservatives. The favorite all around chemical is creosote oil, a product of the distillation of either coal or wood tars. In 1912, 83,000,000 gallons of creosote were used in this industry besides about 20,000,000 gallons of zinc chlo- ride and 3,000,000 gallons of other preservatives among which may be mentioned crude petroleum, copper sulphate, mercuric chloride, several patent chemicals and others of less impor- tance. The measure of good preservative may be summed up as follows: 1. It must be available and reasonably cheap. WOOD PRESERVATION 233 2. It must be antiseptic and poisonous to wood decaying fungi. 3. It must not readily evaporate or leach out of the wood fibers. Principal Methods. The methods pursued in wood preservation may be classi- fied as follows: . 1. Pressure or cylinder processes. 2. Open tank process. 3. Brush treatment. The impregnation of wood by injecting chemical preserva- tives into the wood under pressure in large cylinders is the method used with ties, paving blocks and to some extent with other forms of timbers. It is, therefore, by far the most important. The open tank treatment is used with poles and posts usually for treating that portion most subject and liable to decay. The brush treatment is largely applied to shingles, posts, poles and farm timbers and is relatively of little im- portance. Pressure or Cylinder Process. — There are a great many variations of the pressure process, depending largely on the preservative used, its adaptability to the species treated, the penetration desired, etc. Many of them have been patented and are known by trade names. The principal and most common method followed, however, is the Bethell or Burnettizing process. When used with creosote, it is called the Bethell process, and with zinc chlo- ride, it is called the Burnettizing process. The following is a brief description of the method. The timber to be treated, usually ties, is first seasoned for from three to ten months. It is placed on iron trucks, 234 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY called ‘‘ cylinder buggies,”’ and pushed on the tracks from the yards directly into huge horizontal cylinders about six to eight feet in diameter and up to one hundred and fifty feet in length. These cylinders are constructed to withstand high pressure and the heavy doors are hermetically sealed. At first live steam is introduced into the cylinder and a pressure of about Fic. 43. — HIGH-PRESSURE CYLINDERS USED IN TREATING Ties, Oak- LAND, CALIFORNIA. Ties are run into the cylinders on trucks and impregnated with creosote or other preservatives to increase their durability. twenty pounds per square inch maintained for several hours, depending on the species, their size and moisture content. This steaming softens the wood fibers and opens up the pores in the wood. The steam is then led off and a vacuum applied. This exhausts the air in both the cylinder and the wood structure itself and prepares the way for the penetra- tion of the preservative fluid. The vacuum is maintained WOOD PRESERVATION 235 for about one-half hour, after which, without reducing the vacuum pressure, the preservative, either creosote or zinc chloride, is run into the cylinder at a temperature of from 170 to 190 degrees Fahrenheit and pressure pumps exerted to force the fluid into the wood fibers. The amount of fluid injected depends upon the species and the amount desired in the tie. The pressure is then released and, in some cases, a vacuum is again applied to draw out the excess fluid and hasten the drying process. The ties are then drawn out of the cylinder on the trucks and piled in the yards to dry out until wanted in the tracks. The Rueping, Card, Lowry and other more or less impor- tant processes are in common use but they are all variations of the same pressure treatment. The following table published by the Forest Service illus- trates to best advantage the results of the treatment of rail- way ties as compared with untreated service. EstTIMATED LiFE oF UNTREATED AND TREATED TIES. Treated with | Treated with Untreated | 10 pounds of 0.5 pound of Species. life in creosote per zinc chloride years. cubic foot, per cubic foot, years. years. Longleaf pine..........0:..20.0055 7 20 (not used) Chestnuts sso22eeccia we hes ee ens an 7 14 Ir DOU gas Pir asec cise casi vag he bernied So 6 15 II SPRUCE i... es ci aa rd senda ai cnmadadns 6 14 II Western pine...................-.. 5 17 12 White pine..................0-05. 5 I4 10 Lodgepole pine..................-. 5 16 II Tamarack and hemlock........... 5 15 Il Red oaks and beech............... 4 20 12 Maple iiss a.sa.2 meena eee ke ee4 Fae 4 18 12 GUI 6 sacs fc aca geetieee See SoS 3 16 II Loblolly pine..................... 3 15 Io Such naturally durable woods as black locust, redwood, cedar, cypress and white oaks are not shown in the above 236 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY table because they will last under average conditions for from eight to twenty years and are therefore seldom treated. All the above estimates are based on the use of tie plates in the maintenance of the railway track. The cost of treating ties varies with the method used, the species, character of heart and sapwood and degree of pene- tration. With some species both heart and sapwood are easily saturated with a full penetration; with others, only the sap can be successfully treated. The cost of treating with creosote is usually about twice that with zinc chloride but the extra cost is evidently justified in the extra service rendered by creosoted ties in the long run. For instance with maple, using the above tabulated figures, the cost of creosote treatment is 37 cents per tie and of zinc chloride only 17 cents, but the annual saving over untreated ties is 0.136 cent per tie with creosote as against 0.126 cent for zinc chloride, taking into consideration thé original cost, as well as the cost of treating the ties. Zinc chloride, however, is highly successful in dry regions where this preservative does not leach out. Open Tank Process. — The open tank treatment is used mostly with posts and poles. Farmers and users of electric light and telephone poles are finding that the prices of the more durable species are advancing so rapidly that they are turning to the use of perishable or inferior species and get- ting very satisfactory returns by a simple and cheap pre- servative treatment. The open tank process is used almost entirely with creo- sote and the following method is usually pursued. The bark is first removed and the wood thoroughly seasoned. This seasoning process replaces to a considerable extent the mois- ture in the wood cells with air. The posts or poles or that portion to be treated (usually a distance slightly in excess of WOOD PRESERVATION 237 Fic. 44.— A Post Treatinc PLant, Montcomery Co., MaryLanp. 500 million new fence posts are required on our farms every year. Creosote treatment costing from 6 to ro cents per post will often double the life of posts in the ground. 238 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY its depth in the ground) is immersed in a hot bath of creo- sote up to a temperature not exceeding 215 degrees Fahren- heit. This heating process lasts for from two to six hours, depending on the species and their size. During the heating the moisture and air in the wood expand and a good portion of them pass out, appearing as steam or little air bubbles at the surface. The posts or poles are then hurriedly removed to a cold bath of creosote and the contraction of the air and moisture in the wood, due to the cold, creates a partial vacuum, which is destroyed by the entrance of the preserv- ative fluid. In this way atmospheric pressure, due to change in tem- perature, accomplishes the impregnation which is secured to a much greater degree in the large cylinders by artificial pressure. Inasmuch as sapwood is more readily subject to treatment than heartwood, due to its peculiar structural and chemi- cal properties, species with a large percentage of sap and timbers in the round are treated much more easily than when split. The open tank treatment is usually carried out in a very simple and cheap way. It is especially adapted for use by farmers or a group of them who can use one centrally located plant. It usually consists of a galvanized iron tank or con- tainer over a bricked-up oven. A fire is built in the oven for heating purposes and a smokestack is erected to carry off the smoke and create a draft. About 500,000,000 new fence posts and 3,500,000 poles are used every year in this country so’ that it is becoming an important matter to prolong the life of these timbers. The cost of treatment per post is from 4 to 12 cents apiece, including cost of equipment. The cost of treating poles is about $1.50 apiece for the average pole. The results from WOOD PRESERVATION 230 this treatment are certainly more than justified. The aver- age increased life of the treated post is fourteen years and of the pole about ten years. Many of the most durable species are not treated, especially when used for posts. Among these may be mentioned osage, 2 1 Fic. 45.— A Smat_ BoucuHerieE TREATING PLANT IN A CALIFORNIA NaTIONAL Forest. The Boucherie process is used to impregnate telephone and telegraph poles. orange, red cedar, black locust, mulberry, catalpa and occa- sionally white oak and white cedar. The following tables, partly taken from the Forest Ser- vice, illustrate the estimated increased life, in years, to be expected from treated posts and poles of a few typical species: 240 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY Posts. * apd Increased life Species. ae life cae a an as result of : Ss treatment. Longleaf pine.................. 8 20 12 Douglas: fire 2 cccsyale onsen yt ste 7 20 13 Red oak.. aa 5 20 15 Tamarack a4. 4 visitas hk 2454 5 20 15 Chestnut: vsicocsasaienenrn sy 6: IO 20 10 But perhaps the greatest economy can be effected with the use of such perishable and cheap post material as cottonwood, elm, maple, birch, beech, willow and poplar which can be made to last from fifteen to eighteen years instead of from three to five years. PoLes. Speci Untreated life | Treated life in ines oy pecies.. in years. years. treatment. Chestntits neem saw eet oe poe 8-10 20 Io-12 Lodgepole pine................. 5 20 15 Western pine.................. 6 25 19 White oak..............0..00.. 8 20 12 Douglas fir................0.0.. 8 20 12 Brush Treatment. — The brush treatment is a very cheap, but less efficient method of prolonging the life of certain timbers, especially those exposed to the weather or even in the case of poles and posts when the open tank treatment cannot be used. There are several patent preservatives on the market which are very good. Any of these, or creosote applied hot and with at least two coats, often give fairly satisfactory results. The ordinary paint brush is used to apply the preservative. Al- though only a superficial treatment, the object should be to thoroughly fill and cover with the fluid all cracks, checks, knot holes or similar defects which offer the best opening for WOOD PRESERVATION 241 the wood-destroying fungi to work in. All wood should be thoroughly air-dried before applying the liquid. Dipping is really a form of the brush treatment and gives excellent results with shingles, posts, sills and other timbers. Results of Wood Preservative Treatment. The following table presents a summary of the results that may be expected from wood preservation as applied to the principal timbers by the most effective method in each case. Class. trusted, | treated, | Average cost of treat- | Tffessed years. years. years. TICS hs utentSialucarcnt sees 7 17 $0.35 Io POLES) a xeaimacare oe 13 23% 1.50 to} POSES feiss wrntiete duc 8 22 0.10 14 PileS in 5 gcd dayencvetein ss 33 21} 0.25 18 (per cu. ft.) Mine props........ 3 13 o.11 Io Lumber........... 18 32 10.00 I4 (per 1000 board ft.) Shingles........... 8 Bom | aasincasts 12 BIBLIOGRAPHY. Kemprer, W.H. The Preservative Treatment of Poles. U.S. Forest Service Bulletin 84. Peters, E. W. The Preservation of Mine Timbers. U. S. Forest Service Bulletin 107. SHERFESEE, W. F. A Primer of Wood Preservation. U.S. Forest Service Circular 139. SHERFESEE, W. F. Wood Preservation in the United States. U.S. Forest Service Bulletin 78. Smira, C. S. Preservation of Piling against Marine Borers. U. S. Forest Service Circular 128. Weiss, H. F. The Preservative Treatment of Fence Posts. U. S. Forest Service Circular 117. Weiss, H. F. Prolonging the Life of Cross Ties. U.S. Forest Service Bulle- tin 118. Wituts, C. P. The Preservative Treatment of Farm Timbers. U.S. Dept. of Agric. Farmer’s Bulletin 387. CHAPTER XIII. FOREST ECONOMICS. Owing largely to the superb forests of virgin timber awaiting the axe of the first settlers, the civilization of North America has been founded, to a remarkable degree, on wood. The primeval forest contained, approximately, 850,000,000 acres, and to the marvelous richness of the original forest is due the prodigal extravagance of the American nation. As stated in Chapter I, the annual per capita consumption of timber in the United States, 250 cubic feet, is more than six times that of Germany and more than twenty times that of Great Britain. Economic Value of Forests. Next to food in human economy, shelter is most impor- tant and, according to Fernow, over half our population live in wooden houses and two-thirds of the population use wood for fuel. The same author estimates that fully 95 per cent of all the timber consumed is for necessities. In spite of the advances in the structural arts, timber is increasing in demand, the per capita consumption being twice what it was fifty years ago. Steel, concrete and brick may be substituted in some cases, but even the manufacture of these substitutes requires considerable wood and, in addition, only 25 per cent of the lumber output may be considered as structural timber. The attempt to use concrete ties in Ger- many, where trains must be run at high speed, has met with poor success. Where heavy traffic at slow speed is the rule, concrete ties may serve, but the rigidity and lack of elasticity detract greatly from the comfort of the traveler and from the 242 FOREST ECONOMICS 243 durability of the rolling stock. Viewed from every side, it is extremely difficult to find any material natural or artificial which can take the place of wood. Minor products, like shoe pegs, spools, musical instruments, etc., consume an astonishing amount of timber. New York State alone consumes over 8,000,000 board feet per annum in the manufacture of wooden novelties, and over 6,000,000 board feet are required annually by the manufacturers of clocks and toys. Houses, furniture, ship yards, railroads, newspapers and books all require wood. A shortage in the timber supply would be felt almost as keenly as a famine in foodstuffs. Aside from furnishing wood, forests may serve other pur- poses. In certain parts of the West, the function of the forest in controlling run-off, thus gradually releasing the water for irrigation purposes, may be paramount to furnishing local tim- ber. The retarding of surface waters to prevent erosion, the checking of drying winds in the prairie regions, the influence of forests on climate, are all indirect influences of great impor- tance. Indeed, a country without at least twenty per cent of its land area covered with forest, is at a decided disadvantage from an economic and climatic standpoint. Forest versus Agricultural Soils. As explained in previous chapters, Forestry is concerned primarily with lands unsuited to agriculture, but nevertheless, capable and sincere men may disagree on what constitutes true forest soil. In eastern Texas, for example, efforts are being made to colonize land from which the longleaf pine has just been cleared. Agriculture or horticulture are doomed to failure on such sites, because of the sterility and excessive drainage, yet the promoters are absolutely sincere. By ex- perience alone’can the exact worth of the land be proven, and the proper adjustment of soils to transportation facilities and 244 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY economic conditions will only be reached after years of trial. Future Use of Land. — The total area of the United States is 3,026,789 square miles or, approximately, 1,900,000,000 acres. Of this, about 550,000,000 acres are now covered with forest (65 per cent of the original forest area*), and 415,000,000 acres are devoted to agriculture. E ae % Fic. 46. Forest Fire Burninc IN THE DEBRIS OF A PREVIOUS FIRE. : Unless the fire-killed timber can be sold and removed within a short time, it is not only a total loss financially, but may feed a second fire of even greater severity. Within the next fifty years, the land, suitable for growing forests, will decrease to about 360,000,000 acres, or less than twenty per cent of the area of the United States. About 90,000,000 acres will be held as farm woodlots, bringing the total area devoted to timber production up to 450,000,000 acres. Of this acreage, 63 per cent will be in the West and 37 per cent in the East, and from this diminished area, it will be necessary to supply the timber needs of a population, conser- * See Appendix for table. FOREST ECONOMICS 245 vatively estimated at 150,000,000. Any hope of obtaining timber, from any of the nations now exporting timber, is futile, as the surplus of such countries as Russia, Finland, and Sweden will be quickly absorbed by continental countries to supply the local demand. With a population rapidly gaining and a fixed area, the only solution is to put each acre of land to its best permanent use. The Federal Government has made a start with the National Forests and this example should be extensively followed if the future American citizen is to enjoy many of life’s necessities. Ownership of Forest Land. — Before a rational forest policy can be started under a free government, the owners must be convinced that management in perpetuity is financially profitable. In certain of the German states, the cutting of timber on private lands is regulated by the central govern- ment. In spite of advanced legislation passed by certain states, it is doubtful if state regulation will ever be enforced to that degree in the United States. The rights of the in- dividual are too strongly entrenched; it is contrary to the principles of democracy. The problem then resolves itself into educating or persuading the individual owner to handle the forest land for present profit without endangering the future timber supply. According to the U.S. Bureau of Corporations, the present status of timber ownership in the United States is as follows: PRVAtC Ho niins on Gea S HeRO ATE lyon 75.0 per cent National Forests:...ess-sjacie 0 nee ee pone ee 21.5 per cent Other, Federal and State............-...-..0-. 3.5 per cent 100.0 per cent The same bureau reports some interesting discoveries con- cerning the ownership of land in general; forest land consti- tutes a large portion of the corporate holdings investigated. To quote from its findings: 246 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY “The control of our standing timber in a comparatively few enormous holdings, speculatively held far in advance of any use thereof, and the great increase in value of timber, resulting in part from such speculative holding, are under- lying facts that will become more and more important elements in determining the price of lumber as the supply of timber diminishes,” says the report. “The main fact shown is that 1694 timber owners hold in fee over one-twentieth of the land area of the entire United States from the Canadian to the Mexican border. In many states these 1694 own no lands at all. In the goo timbered counties investigated they own one-seventh of the area. “These 1694 holders own 105,600,000 acres. This is an area four-fifths the size of France, or greater than the entire state of California, or more than two and one-half times the land area of the New England states. Sixteen holders own 47,800,000 acres, or nearly ten times the land area of New Jersey. Three land grant railroads own enough to give fifteen acres to every male of voting age in the nine western states where almost all their holdings lie.” Further comment is made to the effect that such marked concentration has a decided effect on the future supply of timber, ore, gas, water powers, etc., and that future distribu- tion of these holdings is by no means probable. Out of 7,400,000 acres originally granted to railroad, wagon road and canal corporations, only 15 per cent are now distributed in small holdings. In 1910, three western railroads still held 40 per cent of the 82,000,000 acres granted them in 1865-1870. Such control of land and forest resources makes monopoly easy of accomplishment, and the Federal ownership of one-fifth the standing timber is the best protection against future exorbi- tant prices. As described in Chapter I, the Forest Service is annually selling over $1,500,000 of stumpage, but this amount FOREST ECONOMICS 247 represents a fraction of the total stand; it is merely the mature timber that is accessible which is now marketed, and with the development of better transportation facilities, the more remote portions of the forest will become available and the supply of timber owned by all the people of the United States will be a potent factor in controlling excessive prices. Forest Resources of the United States. The forests of the United States have been estimated by the Forest Service to contain 2,500,000,000,0c00 board feet, a reduction of 2,700,000 000,000 from the original forest. Of this, 75 per cent is privately owned, the distribution of which is as follows: Pacific Northwest... ............. eee e eee 46.0 per cent Southern Pine region...............-220005 29.1 per cent Leake States’ «sco .sac dtahiianisiad 2 eeu wee ae 4.5 per cent QEHEF TE IONS |: geo b srtsacgiadvorogisl Rae we Ae 20.4 per cent Ioo.o per cent By species, the following estimate of the standing timber has been compiled by the Forest Service: Species. Billion board feet. DOUgIAS G62 oe setseiseteuneenelstdas ads 525 Southern yellow pine............... 350 Western yellow pine................ 275 REA WOO sicisscied Geis qiek Konnection 100 Western cedar...........-20..0000. 100 Western hemlock. ................- 100 Lodgepole pine..................0. go White and Norway pine............ 75 Eastern hemlock................... 75 Western spruce.........-..--+2006- 60 Eastern spruce.............-.--.+-- 50 Western Ars... sasrovsien dedwarnaniento 50 Sugar Pine sessed en eweeceswqee ees 30 CY PresSiia'-s causes’: sa seas dakueaie: 20 Other conifers. ..............20005- 100 Hardwoods: :iuccc2 sb sseememene ks _500 Total sacnsagece (fos 4aehewi ad 2500 248 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY This stand of timber, enormous as it may seem, can by no means be considered inexhaustible, for since colonial times, it is estimated that timber exceeding the present stand by two billion board feet has been used, wasted or consumed by forest fires. In view of the low growth rate and the excessive annual drain, the present forest capital is none too large. Rate of Consumption. — In the chapter on Utilization, the annual production of lumber was stated to be 40,000,000,000 board feet. This amount, together with the timber used for ties, poles, posts, firewood, etc., makes the total annual con- sumption of forest products amount to 20,000,000,000 cubic feet of wood. On the basis of saw timber alone, the present supply should last about sixty years without taking growth into consideration. (The average annual increment per acre of forest land, as a whole, in the United States is about one- fourth that obtained in German forests and, in addition, 200,000,000 acres are estimated to be in over-mature or virgin forests where growth is offset by decay.) Unfortunately, how- ever, there is not an equal demand for all kinds of timber, and there is no doubt but that certain species will command very high prices within the next thirty or forty years. There will be no real timber famine, however, in the ordinary sense; timber of some kind will be available, but the quality may be much inferior to the average grade now used and the prices will range considerably higher. In order to prevent any hardships resulting from a diminishing timber supply, some readjust- ments will be necessary. The excessive per capita consump- tion of forest products every year (250 cubic feet) must be greatly reduced; closer utilization at the mills and factories must be practiced, so that more than 4o per cent of the tree is actually used and, finally, better forestry methods must be put in force to triple or quadruple the present per acre yield of the non-agricultural land. Before the demand can be levelled FOREST ECONOMICS 249 down to the reduced supply, the pinch of timber poverty may be keenly felt. Methods of Providing Future Supply. In view of the ownership of forest resources in the United States, the several agencies must co-operate to provide the coming generations with forest products. The Federal and State Governments own only a fourth of the present stand, but by husbanding their resources and regulating its use, the publicly owned timber supply may exercise an influence far greater than its amount would indicate. State versus Federal Control. — To secure ideal manage- ment of forest land, certain conditions are quite essential. 1. There should be a large area managed as a producing unit. This will permit better regulation of yield, closer utilization (specialization) and reduction of overhead charges. 2. The plan of management should be made with regard to future conditions and should not be subjected to radical changes at frequent intervals. The above conditions can best be met by having the land owned by an organization with perpetual existence like the state, government, or a corporation, for forestry at best is a long-time investment. No private corporation is likely to forego present profits in order to reap future returns, so the future welfare of the country can best be served by having as much timber land as possible owned by the government. Either the State or National government can dispense with present revenues to assure the future generations an adequate timber supply and, in the final analysis, a good government is responsible for the welfare of its citizens, both present and future. Which method of controlling natural resources, State or Federal, will best serve to promote their best use, is still 250 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY a mooted question and one which has provoked much dis- cussion. Since the first National Forests were withdrawn from the public domain, there has been a continuous attack on the Federal forest policy in certain parts of the West. These attacks may generally be traced to one of two sources; either to corporations interested in mining, lumbering, or water-power development, or to zealous partisans of the doctrine of states’ rights, who believe the state should control all the resources within its boundaries, and refuse to admit the possibility of better control or regulation by the central government. Such well meaning citizens are often used to advantage by corporate interests, and at the last Conservation Congress in Washing- ton, men, whose sincerity and integrity were above suspicion, supported the demand of individuals with ulterior motives, that the present National policy should be reversed, and that all natural resources should be turned over to the separate states. The fact that public ownership of forest land is extremely important to the welfare of future citizens has been previously brought out; but why should not State ownership prove successful? Federal ownership has the following advantages: 1. While congressional action is slower and harder to secure, when once favorable laws are enacted, their repeal is much more difficult than with state legislation. 2. A Federal organization, while slightly hampered by its size, can, nevertheless, develop a corps of specialists impossible in a state service. 3- Interstate questions can be settled to advantage by the central government. The states should be encouraged to acquire land for state forests, but, on the whole, Federal regulation of all natural 251 FOREST ECONOMICS ‘poog 4q pasned jaavad jo ysodap Aavoy pu satyjn3 07 Surao ssaesh Mou st 3198 gad Sz1g YOM ApoUTIOJ puel SUT, ‘a81ey ATOA st Yo-uns Surpreyad Ul s}sa1oj Jo anyea oy} ‘Jaquiy Supnpoid ut sueyodut Wey} wor apisy ‘VNIIOUVD HLION ‘0D TISMOQGO ‘NoravJ[— Gooly Ad GANINY GNVT TveALTAorIoy LY OL 252 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY ‘ resources including forests, is best calculated to achieve the ends of a government for the people. The arguments that are most often used by the opponents of the present forest policy are that the state is abundantly able to look after its own welfare, and, since the eastern states were not hampered in the disposition of their natural resources, the same privilege should be accorded the younger states. The ease with which practically any state legislature re- verses itself, is a sufficient argument against the first conten- tion. Many instances are available where states have bartered their rights and resources for a song. Of all the states given land for school purposes, very few have handled these pos- sessions with much foresight. In one of the western states, where opposition to the Forest Service has been especially keen, the legislature sold state land containing billions of board feet of virgin white pine to a syndicate at 13 cents per thousand board feet. The Federal government is now selling the identical timber in the same region for a price ranging from $4 to $5 per thousand board feet. Concerning the propriety of demanding equal privileges with the older states, little need be said. Because one region has squandered its patrimony, is no reason why the same license should be granted to another, especially when much of the Public Domain was purchased from funds supplied by the original states. Under present conditions, Government ownership is no bar or hindrance to legitimate development; agricultural land can be acquired in compliance with the Act of June 11, 1906, mining claims can be entered, timber bought and water powers developed. The officials in charge insist, however, that the rules be observed, and that the property of the nation be used without impairment. Free and proper use is encouraged, but the monopolistic acquisition or control of resources for specu- FOREST ECONOMICS 253 lation is opposed. This attitude has aroused strong hostility in certain parts of the West. State Forest Work.* — At present, thirteen states have a commission or bureau concerned with forestry alone; fifteen additional states have a joint conservation, or forest and game commission and in three states, there is a single commissioner, making thirty-one states with a clear-cut forest policy and proper machinery for the enforcement of their statutes. Twenty of these states have one or more technically trained foresters in charge of their work. The above states own 142 State forests, containing 3,426,832 acres; they operate 30 forest nurseries, comprising 150 acres with a yearly output of nearly ten million seedlings. Sixty- three forest experiment stations are operated by eleven states, and already over 12,000 acres of forest plantations have been started. In such states as Minnesota, Michigan, Maine, New York and Pennsylvania, there is abundant room for further development of a vigorous forestry policy. New York, for instance, owns 1,800,000 acres of wild land, lying in the Adirondacks and Catskills, containing 25 per cent of the standing timber of the state. With one-tenth of the popu- lation of the United States living within its boundaries, provision for future supplies of timber must be made. Other states are in a like situation, and where there are vast areas of unseated land, due to lumbering, fire, etc., the creation of state reserves from such lands serves to restore equilibrium to the land situation. Practically every state which has pur- chased wild land to any extent has found it a splendid in- vestment on account of the increase in value and, in addition, the values of adjoining properties show a decided price appre- ciation. The primary object of establishing future forests and recreation grounds is gained and a situation which * For tabular statement see Appendix. 254 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY has been extremely serious in some states is vastly im- proved. Private Practice of Forestry. — The adoption of intensive private forest management on any scale has not gained much headway in the United States, although statistics compiled by the Forest Service indicate that over 3,500,000 acres can be considered as receiving some extensive form of treatment. The absence of law of entail has a tendency toward the parti- tion of landed estates so that the bulk of large original grants is now held in small parcels. Certain exceptions to this may be found in different regions; the heirs of an early Maine settler now control and lumber 230,000 acres; several tracts of 60,000 to 100,000 acres are found in the Adirondacks and the Biltmore forest of 120,000 acres, situated near Asheville, North Carolina, are instances of successfully managed private forests. The latter estate is especially interesting since it has been in charge of technically trained foresters for the past twenty years, and its recent purchase by the Government will secure for all time the benefits of some very instructive experiments. Forestry, as a rule, does not appeal to the individual on account of the time element in securing returns. In Great Britain and on the continent, where large estates have been in possession of the same family for generations, the forest land may furnish a considerable revenue. In the United States, individuals prefer an investment which is quicker to mature and is more negotiable than forest land. However, if forest capital in the form of mature timber can be purchased at a reasonable figure, conservative lumbering with an eye to future crops will prove highly profitable. The type of land owner most advantageously situated con- cerning the practice of forestry, is the farmer owning wood- land in connection with farms, because the tillable land yields an annual return and no forced cuttings are necessary. The FOREST ECONOMICS 255 woodlot furnishes domestic timber and fuel, thinnings can be made during the winter when other work is slack and, on the whole, a farm with a good woodlot is much more attractive and desirable as a home and as an investment. The practice of intensive forestry by the farmer is of prime importance, and the education of and co-operation with this type of owner should be heartily encouraged. The most discouraging feature of woodlot forestry in the past has been the extremely low returns received for stumpage, cordwood, etc. By assisting the small owner to market his forest products at a profit, treatment accorded the 190,000,000 acres composing the nation’s woodlot will be much better in the future than in the past. Communal Forestry. — In a nation as young as the United States, the ownership and management of any land for the benefit of the community, as a whole, is hardly to be expected, especially when forest resources have been so abundant. Solidarity can only be acquired after years of leisurely and harmonious community existence. Most of the American towns are still too busy growing to think of developing re- sources for the future citizens, consequently, examples of com- munal forestry are still quite unique. European countries furnish countless examples of non- agricultural land owned and operated for the benefit of all the citizens. The returns from some of those forests are strikingly large. The Sihlwald, the City Forest of Zurich, Switzerland, has been owned by the city for upward of 1000 years. In spite of spending about $4.50 per acre per year in tending the forest, the annual net revenue per acre amounts to approximately $7.50. Gaulsheim, a small village in the Black Forest, pays the operating expenses of the village out of the revenues obtained from the forest of 2000 acres. In favorable years, it has paid 256 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY a dividend of $4 to each of the 800 inhabitants. Such high returns are hardly possible in view of the lower timber values and higher labor prices that obtain in the United States. If communities would realize the possibilities that non-agricul- tural land offer in the way of revenue production, many of the unattractive waste areas lying close to our towns and villages would be purchased and planted to the esthetic and economic improvement of the community. Reforestation of city water sheds has great possibilities in this connection. Grazing, or tilling and fertilizing the soil are impossible on account of contaminating the water supply. A crop of trees, on the other hand, improves the water holding capacity of the soil; "the roots, on entering the ground, form basins in which the water may collect during a heavy rain and, in many ways, the presence of forest cover on a water shed, is most desirable. It is the one profitable and hygienic use to which such land may be put. Up to the present time, there are 97 municipal forests in 13 states, Massachusetts leading with 56. Such forests, for the most part, may be used for recreation grounds as much as for timber production. The start has been made, however, and the extension of municipal forestry will prove an important phase of the general forestry development of the next twenty or thirty years. ? #sthetic Forestry.— As defined in the first chapter, forestry, strictly speaking, is the raising of trees in forests for timber purposes, while arboriculture is concerned with the growing of trees singly or in groups for any purpose whatever. Thus, xsthetic forestry is a rather contradictory expression which, nevertheless, has gained more or less sanction through use. esthetic forestry really divides itself into what might be called park forestry, and shade tree work. In the former line FOREST ECONOMICS 257 of work, forestry and landscape engineering are combined; in the latter, specialized silviculture is most important. In both, an intimate knowledge of the habits and resistance of trees, their form and growth rate, their peculiar qualities, rendering them suitable for one location and unfitted for another, is necessary. The importance of so-called esthetic or city forestry has been, to a large degree, overlooked by many technical foresters. In a country where public opinion has such an important bearing on the enactment and enforcement of laws, any line of activity, awakening interest in single trees, will have its effect in stimulating a greater interest in trees in general. Thus, the psychological importance of shade tree work and esthetic forestry is extremely great. Interest a citizen in the shade tree before his house or on his lawn, and a long step has been taken toward awakening intelligent interest in and support of economic forestry. Favorable public opinion ard interest are necessary to secure appropriations for economic forestry and, as an entering wedge, esthetic forestry has enormous possibilities. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Fernow, B. E. Economics of Forestry. Kettocc, R. S. The Timber Supply of the United States. U. S. Forest Service, Circular 166. Keriocc, R. S. Lumber and its Uses. Van Hise, Cuartes R. The Conservation of National Resources in the United States. Zon, RapHarL. The Future Use of Land in the United States. U.S. Forest Service, Bulletin 159. Sunpry ArTIcLES. Report of National Conservation Commission, Volume II, pages 178-196. CHAPTER XIV. FOREST FINANCE. Definition and Discussion. Aside from furnishing material which is indispensable to our modern civilization, controlling the run-off of precipita- tion, etc., economic forestry demands that forests shall also yield a cash revenue, for unless forestry proves attractive financially, its practice will be confined to the government or other agencies which can afford to supply timber at a loss because of indirect benefits. Forest finance deals with the question of determining the profitableness of growing timber and in the final analysis, therefore, is of importance both to the state and individual. The principles involved in forest finance, are the same as those employed by insurance companies and bankers, except that the foresters of the United States have not a good set of “‘yield tables” available. The reactions of capital and interest are easily computed, but without such tables, the future volume yield can only be approximated. However, the results obtained in other countries where forestry has long been established are of great assistance and give some conception of the outlook in the United States. The valuc of forest finance as a check in regulating the relative inten- siveness of forestry operations can hardly be overestimated. General Considerations. Capital and Interest.— The needs of the nation create various demands and capital furnishes the means of satisfy- ing them. While labor or a certain kind of material may 258 FOREST FINANCE 259 satisfy a given demand, money is the usual standard of material values. Interest is the earning power of capital, the rent paid for the use of the principle. The interest rate asked will largely depend on the demand for money, negotiability and safety of the investment. The general laws affecting capital which have the most bearing on forest finance are as follows: 1. The value of any natural resource tends to rise as the population increases. Timber values are much higher now than twenty-five years ago; as a rule they may be said to have increased at the rate of twenty per cent a decade, during the past forty years. 2. The ready negotiability of capital adds to its value. At present forest land is not readily sold nor can money be bor- rowed upon it as easily as on government bonds for instance. But with the rapid depletion of the stands of virgin timber, not only will the cash value of timber vastly increase, but also the ease with which it may be sold or used as collateral. Interest is of two kinds, simple and compound. Compound interest is used chiefly in forest finance, since the forest crop is not harvested annually, as in farming, but at the end of a long rotation. In addition, capital and interest are hard to separate since the growth-ring (interest) is annually laid on top of the capital and previous interest, represented by the tree. The laws governing compound interest overlook any possible loss of the entire capital, since the total returns compounded assumes the safe delivery of the original investment and interest. Neither is there supposed to be any change in the interest rate during the rotation. Thus, since any accidents, like loss from fire or windfall, or decrease in the growth rate, 260 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY owing to insect attacks, etc., are not considered in the com- putations, additional allowance must be made. Forests as Investments. — Only within the last two or three decades has the idea of holding forests as investments gained any standing in the United States. Timber land for the most part had been regarded as a natural resource, in- capable of growth or renewal; it contained a certain amount of raw material and like a gold mine, the quicker these assets could be converted into cash, the better for the owner or stock holders. Of late years, however, the fact that forests are increasing in value and that, if properly handled, they will regenerate themselves naturally and grow at a profitable rate, is becoming appreciated, and large tracts of immature forests are being bought up for speculation purposes. Stumpage is bound to rise, not only because of the decrease in supply but the better transportation facilities, the greater safety, owing to improved fire protection, and the increased negotiability of woodlands, will greatly stimulate the demand for forest land and forest products. Aside from the speculative value, forest land will prove decidedly attractive to certain groups of corporations and individuals. Entailed estates, water and power companies, paper concerns, towns and communities will all turn to forests aS a conservative investment, yielding a fair return, but the rate will not compare favorably, of course, with that earned by industrial stocks of a speculative character. In the United States, as in all young countries where devel- opment is rapid, money is at a premium, owing to the strong demand. Consequently, interest rates must be paid that seem extremely high compared with the yields of Old World investments for instance. Whereas, continental investors are content with a return of from 2% to 33 per cent with FOREST FINANCE 261 absolute safety, the American investor demands 33 to 53 per cent on the same kind of securities. As stated in Chapter VI, it has been clearly proven that a pine plantation, economically started, will yield 5 per cent compound interest, based on present stumpage values. Nevertheless, an interest rate from Fic. 48.—SampLe PLot oF WHITE PINE 28 YEARS OLD Wuica HAS BEEN GROWING AT THE RATE OF 122 CUBIC FEET PER ACRE PER YEAR. Where initial cost of land and planting is not exorbitant this species will yield 5 per cent compound interest on the investment. 3 to 4 per cent is safer to count on; and the increase in stump- age value that will inevitably occur during the rotation will be an additional profit. To summarize, under. present conditions, forests are a fairly conservative investment, yielding an average return. The legislation favorable to the taxation of forest land that is being enacted by many states, and increased fire pro- 262 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY tection, are adding to their safety, and natural laws are favor- able to appreciation in value. Forestry really offers a unique opportunity to the capitalist, since it constitutes a real estate investment in which the soil receives more protection and less actual labor. Contrary to agriculture, it can be effectively managed by a non-resident owner on account of the extensive character of the work. The crop is not perishable and con- sequently can be harvested by the owner when market condi- tions are most desirable. The small farmer owning a few acres of woodlot also finds his forest land a good investment. The 190,000,000 acres of farm woodlots yielded their owners in 1909, $195,000,000. In addition to their cash value, they supply domestic fuel, building material, furnish labor during the winter season and in many cases, make the farm much more attractive and habitable. From every standpoint, to practically every type of owner from the Federal. Government to the small farmer, forest land is a highly desirable investment, one that yields high returns, both direct and indirect. Methods of Determining Forest Values. The assessments of any real values is ordinarily quite diffi- cult on account of the many elements that enter into the question. A piece of property may be valued according to its selling value, its cost value (selling value plus interest and expense) or its value may be based on what it is expected to bring at some future time (expectation value) or on its returns (rental value). Sentimental value also must be considered but this is almost impossible to determine by mathematics. Concerning the first two, little need be said, although there may be wide variation in sale values, due to fictitious condi- tions or unsound judgment on the part of the vendor. Expectation value is based entirely on the future sale value FOREST FINANCE 263 which may have to be predicted or estimated; in forest finance it deals with the forest crop. Accurately stated, the expectation value is the exact present net value of a future Fic. 49. — RESULT of REPEATED FiRES IN A Farm WOoDLOT. Light ground fires which apparently do no harm beyond burning the dry leaves in reality inflict far-reaching damage which may not appear until the trees are cut. assumed sale value. In the case of the forest crop, the expec- tation value is apt to be rather blind because: 1. Exact knowledge of the future stumpage value is lacking. 2. No accurate knowledge of expenses that will be incurred in carrying the crop until time for sale is available. How- ever, it serves to give an idea of the present value when the forest crop is injured or destroyed before maturity. Rental value is concerned not with the forest crop but con- siders the forest soil as a revenue producing investment, a 264 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY capital value which can produce a given return (rental) either annually or periodically. Thus rental value is not concerned with the sale value but rather on the annual or periodic return of the forest; this return (rental) by definition must recur at regular intervals. In brief the rental value of forest land is its financial value for growing forest crops and in portions of Germany is the value often used for assessment. Formule Used. —In computing the various values and assessing damages, the following symbols are used: P = per cent, as 3 per cent. .oP = multiple, as .03. 1.0P = capital and interest for one year. nm = number of years in rotation. m = number of years to end of rotation. C =cost of establishing a forest (e.g., planting cost, material and labor). S = cost of the land. é = annual per acre expense, taxes, fire protec- tion, etc. E = capitalized annual per acre expense. Concerning cost of the land at the end of a rotation of years, the total expense for land amounts to S xX 1.0P", but the land still will be on hand and is capable of raising another crop. Consequently its value at that time must be deducted in order to give the correct expense charge incurred in holding the land. If the land can be sold at the end of the rotation for its original price, SX 10P" = 8 or S Gor" — 1) represents the land expense; if the land has changed in value SX roP* — Sy FOREST FINANCE 265 is the formula which is universally used, where S, equals the value of the land at the end of the rotation. Thus, if the land appreciates in value during the rotation, the total land expense will be less than original price plus interest; if it should de- preciate, the total land charge will equal original cost plus interest, plus amount of depreciation; if it remains the same original cost plus interest will be the land expense. In computing the cost of the annual expense (e), it is much simpler to use the capitalized value (EZ) in compound interest equations. For instance, if taxes, fire protection and super- vision total twenty-four cents per acre per annum with a four per cent interest rate, it will require a capital of $6 (£) per acre to provide for this annual expense. The total annual expense charge on the rotation (m years) is computed by the formula E (1.0P" — 1). The term —1 is used since the capital sum has never been expended at all, only its interest being used to defray the annual expense. From the foregoing, the complete cost of raising a crop of timber can be computed by the following formula: Cost of crop at the end of years =(C+S-+ £) 1.0Ff" — (S,4+ £), ‘Si being the land value at the end of the rotation. Example. What will it cost to raise a crop of Norway spruce to forty years of age with land costing $6 per acre, planting cost $12 per acre, taxes and other annual expenses twenty- four cents per acre; money at 4 per cent, land worth $10 per acre forty years hence. Substituting in the cost formula: 266 ‘ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY Cost of crop at forty years = (C+S5+ E) 1.0P* — (S|+E) = ($12 + $6 + $6) 4.801 — (10 + 6) = $99.22. If the stumpage is worth $100 per acre at forty years, the investment will have been yielding a trifle more than four per cent since the return is slightly more than the interest charged up against the original investment. Any surplus is spoken of as a profit, being the excess over the interest rate charged against the original investment, but the plantation would have been earning 4 per cent had the stumpage yield exactly equalled the cost and no more. In case a thinning is made previous to the final harvest, the capital plus interest of the financial yield of the thinning is deducted from the cost. The reason for this is that the money received can be put out at interest during the remainder of the rotation and consequently that sum should be a credit charge. In the above case, if the spruce stand had been thinned at twenty years, the cost would be computed, Cost = (C+S+4+ £) 1.0P"— (S,+E+T% 1.0P”) at 40 years, T being the net proceeds derived from the thinning. Assessment of Damages. Aside from the difficulty in marketing forest products, one of the most discouraging features in the United States has been the slight value placed upon damage to forest lands and standing timber, by the public and by the legal profession. As a result the potential value of immature forest land has depreciated in the eyes of the owners; much of the mis- management of timberland can be traced to this sentiment. FOREST FINANCE 267 At the present time the growth of forests has but little standing in the courts and the average judge or jury considers it entirely just and equitable to pay an owner cordwood prices for a burned forest that in a few years would have produced saw timber or at least railroad ties, telephone poles, etc. A woodland owner deprived of future profit is fully entitled to the present value of that profit. . The kinds of damage to forests requiring especial assess- ment are due as a rule to either fire or trespass, and the dam- age may consist of the following: 1. Destruction of the merchantable timber. 2. Destruction of future sale value of crop. (Immature crop now unmerchantable.) 3. Injury to producing capacity of forest land or to future forest crops not yet started. The valuation of these damages may be based on either sale, rental, or expectation value, but there is a wide differ- ence between valuing land for sale and estimating damage to forest property. If the property remains in the original condition as far as productivity is concerned (trespass case with all timber removed), the stumpage value of the mature timber plus the expectation value of the immature timber will be the measure of damages. , The formula for obtaining the expectation value of the forest crop is: py. -2e (S + E) (1.0P" — 1) | 1.0P™ Y being the cash yield at the-end of the rotation; S and E having the same values as before; m being the number of years from the time the damage was inflicted until the end of the normal rotation. 268 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY In simplest terms, the expectation value is the final net yield less the future expenses discounted to the present. The original costs including C are not used since they would not represent the value of the crop destroyed except in the case of very young timber. The future expenditures are deducted because they have not been spent and not to deduct them would be equivalent to giving the owner double payment (the full price of his crop which is not yet mature, and in addition the money for expenses not yet incurred). Example. The spruce plantation in the previous problem is cut over by a trespasser at thirty years. It would have produced 40,000 board feet worth $8 per thousand board feet of lumber per acre at sixty years. What is the measure of damages ? The damage being confined to the timber, the expectation value at thirty years will give the amount of damages. _ Y -([(S +) (1.0P" — 1)] Ze 1.0P” _ $320 ~ [(86 + $6) (x.4® - 1)] a 1.43 __ $320 — $12 (2.243) 3-243 = $80.44. In case of partial destruction of a forest crop, the difference between the two yields (normal and actual) Y + Y; discounted from the end of the rotation to the time of the damage, will give the present value of the loss. Y — (S + E) (1.0P" — Tt) r.0P™ V1 — (S + E) (1.0P" — ry I.oP™ E. V. of the original crop = E. V. of the remainder of crop = FOREST FINANCE 269 The difference between the two is the proper amount of damage or Y-—Y r.0P™ If the bearing power of the forest land is impaired (land badly burned), its future returns will be smaller and the rental value will be reduced. The rental value of forest soil, as previously explained, is the capital value based on its regular returns. By the formula for rental value RV.- Y —[(C X 1.0P*) + E (1.0P" — 1)] 1oP —1 =f EAC RK 7OP*) _E. 1.0P” —1 The capitalized value of a series of future net yields is obtained; that is the expenses, C + E with interest to the end of the rotation are deducted from the yield and are divided by 1.0P" — 1 to get the capital value. The cost value of the land (S plus interest) is not deducted because that would be begging the question. It is the value of the land ona crop-producing basis that is sought. Example. The spruce plantation, previously quoted, is entirely burned the first year. Not only trees but all the ground cover was consumed and subsequent rains have washed the soil away. The site is absolutely ruined for timber production. How much damage shall be sued for? The soil being impaired, rental value will be the proper assessment, yield Y being secured from yield tables for the same quality of site. 270 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY Y—[(C x 1.0P") + E (1.0P® — 1)] 1roP —1 $320 — [12 X 10.5196 + 6 (9.5196) ] 9.5196 R.V. = = $26.35. If the present crop is destroyed and the bearing power of land is also impaired, the usual result of a crown fire, for instance, the rental value of the soil and the expectation value of the crop constitute the two measures of damages. Presentation of Damages. The computation of the loss suffered by a forest owner when his young timber is destroyed is comparatively easy; the presentation to a court or jury is extremely difficult as the layman is apt to regard the present sale value as the proper basis for settlement. The difficulties that lie in the way of convincing the average man of the justice of demanding more than the present sale value are: 1. The growth of the forest is not recognized, the present status of timber being the same as real estate. When the courts are convinced that timber should be considered a: growing crop, then it will be possible to substitute expectation for sale value. 2. In the case of damage to young timber, no clear-cut investment is apparent except the purchase of what is usually termed “brush land.” If a plantation has been destroyed, it is usually easier to convince the court, as an actual invest- ment for land, planting material and labor has been made. The following principles should be borne in mind in assess- ing damages to forest property and in presenting them: FOREST FINANCE 271 1. Damage must be actual, present or certain to occur. 2. The purpose and use of the owner is considered. 3. The difference in value of the property is the real basis of settlement. As a rule the simplest way to present an abstruse damage case is to insist that the land of the plaintiff be restored to its original condition. This, of course, is impossible where the soil has been impaired, but by valuing the seedlings that have been injured at ? cent each when four years old (a plantation of 1200 trees per acre can be easily started for $9) and com- pounding this initial investment up to the time of the damage, the fact that the present sale value is far too low can gener- ally be established. Forest Taxation. A former Chief Forester has said that the two agencies responsible for the greatest amount of forest destruction are forest fires and unjust taxation. Legislation has been passed in some states to improve the situation but where the annual taxes on timberland amount to 6 to 8 per cent of the actual velve 2 corporation or individual owner is forced to denude : in order to prevent taxes from con- Jt 1s undouptealy true that exorbitant taxation has been responsible for much of the forest destruction in the Lake and Pacific Coast States and even now taxes levied upon non- resident timberland owners give them no option but to cut immediately. Practically all of our states tax forests on the general prop- erty basis, and this form of taxation is especially harmful to an investment that does not produce an annual income or one that is either increasing or decreasing in value. Fairchild 272 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY has shown that a 2 per cent annual tax levied on a plantation of white pine, with land costing $10 and planting $7, would mount up to 78 per cent of the profit at the end of the rotation. That forest taxation in its present status has not caused more forest destruction is due to the ordinary practice of greatly undervaluing forest land. Where the county officials “cruise” the timber to ascertain the exact contents and then levy an annual tax of 6 to 8 per cent of the value of the stump- age, there can be but one result. One large syndicate of land owners is paying annual taxes amounting to $1,000,000, on forest lands in the state of Washington alone. The equitable taxation of forest resources is a broad eco- nomic problem on the solution of which depends the forest policy of practically four-fifths of the standing timber of the United States. With just taxation many owners can be in- duced to handle their holdings for a perpetual supply; if the non-agricultural acres containing a splendid stand of timber are taxed exorbitantly, a policy of wasteful exploitation will be put in force, the woodland will be stripped and thrown back upon the state, the counties will be deprived of their revenue and the local inhabitants of their occupation. The remedy for such a situation is to lighten the burden of forest taxation, to abandon the general property tax now in force in thirty-four states and to substitute a tax on the basis of yield. Moreover, this tax should be collected at the time the owner is best able to meet his obligations; viz., when the crop is harvested. Fourteen states have enacted special legislation dealing with forest taxation. For the most part, the underlying idea is that of tax exemption or rebates. Five states have enacted laws permitting the taxation of forest land, according to yield or income. This is the ideal condition, and when every state will permit its non-agricul- FOREST FINANCE 273 tural acres to pay but one tax, instead of one for each year of the rotation, which tax will be graded according to the producing power of the forest and levied when the owner is in funds, the forest resources of the United States, as a whole, will be handled in a much more rational manner. BIBLIOGRAPHY. CHITTENDEN, ALFRED K., and Intron, Harry. The Taxation of Forest Lands in Wisconsin. FarrcHILD, FRED R. Taxation of Timber Lands. Report of National Con- servation Commission, Vol. II, page 581. : Fernow, B. E. Taxation of Woodlands. Forestry Quarterly, Vol. V, No. 4, page 373- . GaSKILL, ALFRED. How Shall Forests be Taxed? Proceedings of Society of American Foresters, Vol. I, No. 3, 1905. Scuiicu, Str Witt1am. Manual of Forestry, Vol. ITI. Report or Forestry Committee. Fifth National Conservation Congress on Taxation. CHAPTER XV. REGIONAL STUDIES. Forest Regions. This country was originally endowed with greater and more varied forests than are found in any other country, from a commercial viewpoint. When the earliest settlers came to our eastern coast, there was an unbroken forest stretching from the Atlantic Ocean to the treeless plains of the prairies in the central West. ‘It is estimated that our original forests covered about 850,000,000 acres. Through clearance for agricultural devel- opment, and as a result of logging and forest fires, this amount has been reduced until at the present time there are about 545,000,000 acres classified as forests. It is believed that the present acreage will not be greatly reduced for agricul- tural purposes, except in certain limited regions, for the reason that the potential possibilities of the soils formerly covered by forests have been nearly reached in agricultural expansion. In many of our states at least one half of the total area is better suited to forests than to any other crop from the soil. In portions of the East soils that should be permanently devoted to forests have in some cases been cleared in the early development of this country and are now reverting back to woodlands and forests. The demarkation line between the adaptability of all soils to forestry or agriculture will soon be closely drawn in the United States as it has been in European countries, where 274 ok of 008 986 YOIMMBOID 006 Wy 66 SAM OO aPNILUOT SOT OTT o Gil o08T eM . T > T T T T “A'N'00 9.DNS SILVOOT"T qgar0j ywBOD OYlOTT ysaroy urayNOS = ~or qsaroy lo qeouog [aldo pas qwordos-qng = ayeyumo] £4903 qsar0g [esqUE_ qIaloy UABTVON = rT RR SS | SSK an3937 : “st VOIMANAV HLUON 40 a 4 SNOIDUU LSAUOA TVYALVN 08 lo 9 \S On ‘ -_ wm =\ 3 o cal ce, oN Ve ° = < { ols SPAR SYS ee ! < me ev fT Als 9s = < ian in 8 - ®d >) iy ipso — SEWN 8 2 LS jf aw S ey SAY 18 a) ° a eA if : vi . A er 9 At i rot ia. hen ° 36 Ly eae ON = yO Aa S) Kei ty £ o\l i 5 & 8 ; i 4 Ye Os. pOA . x 3 Wy toa HOSS ofa | X 7 EM, ale 8 ° f SS at AWS at OY AY etee BY Bi af y PK a : a fo BP,” CSRS ese = ” A Be j Pas’ 3 < i se RS 2: 4 5, hy SPS. = ‘ NESE st 7 S 5a 3 x AX t $ . ; oF : x : S ve : fe s" a! ° Rey a. 8 0 ; a A\o a 6! 4 og rf. \ és 4 3 7 a os PYA Z ae oD jog fi é tS Ste < a o. 3 ¢ §} @ t B'S | 0 — “! 5 : o Se & rT | l 2 . DE a iS > < 8 a f . : os 99 ie \ : Pl as GSI é 0 ss ear 1S & i oe : S : < Pied ohhh “a ApAL SS 5 r 2 E \ t \ Z b aN ; 2 3 we) La i i \ ef oo \ i ; IM = : 4; sy ‘ é oy, i < 6 x hy ; 4 8 put a 1 pe .' we a 3 i < Ros Se \. | x eo 7 6 2 Ad ; o " ORS eg 4 Ps a qc) 00h oft, 008 298 98 208 lb OL 7) MOPII}eA yy ‘sayddns syoarasaz pediorunuz pure ‘samod Jaye ‘uoryeStI1 10¥ aye[nda1 0} ears pue SulzeiZ pur roquimy jo Ayddns yo a01nos queyiodut ue yjoq Ys] sjsaI0J [eUOIeN oy, “ISAM, AHL NI ISduOy IVNOILVN V YFAO MAIA TVOIdAT WY — ‘0S ‘org (275) 276 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY every parcel of land is put to its highest economic and pro- ductive use. Our oldest lumber producing state, Maine, has the largest percentage of area devoted to forests of any state in the union and there is every likelihood of the perma- nent continuance of this situation. The original forests in the East were characterized by the following features: 1. A continuous forest cover, unbroken by treeless plains prairies or deserts. 2. Mixed hardwood and coniferous growth. There are very few pure forests in the East with the exception of the longleaf pine of the South. 3. A great variety of species. There are over 400 species, both hardwoods and conifers, found in the East. 4. Fairly uniform size of trees and stands per acre. On the other hand the forests of the West are characterized by the following features: 1. Practically pure coniferous forests throughout. 2. The forest cover is usually limited to the mountainous regions and is broken up by treeless plains and valleys and by open parks in the timber. 3. There is great diversity in size, depending on climatic conditions. The large size of the Douglas. fir on the Pacific slope is due to the warm, equable, rainy weather, whereas the same tree in the Rocky Mountains is comparatively short, tapered and of small size, due to the low rainfall, short growing season and low mean temperature. 4. There are fewer species than in the East. There are only about eight important lumber trees in the West. The principal species, from a commercial standpoint, found in the East are white pine, longleaf pine, white and red oaks, hard maple, shortleaf pine, cypress, red spruce, hemlock, 277 REGIONAL STUDIES ‘arrysduiepyy MAN JO SUTeJUNOTT SYA oUF pue surejunoyy uerppryeddy ussyynos ay ur asodind sty} Joy paareses Sulaq a1v saidev 000'000'T qnoqy ‘}s@q oy} Ul sjsoIo.y [eUONeN jo aseyoind ay} 10y paplacid sey quIMUIIAOS aT, “‘VNITOUVD HINON “OD ADONVA ‘SNVIHOVIVddy NUSHINOS AHL NI VNVEONVd —'1S ‘org 278 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY loblolly pine, red gum and yellow poplar. Besides these is a great variety of species, such as the chestnut, red pine, elm, hickory, eastern larch, white and red cedar, black gum, ash, walnut, cherry, basswood, etc. The principal species in the West are Douglas fir, western yellow pine, redwood, western red cedar, sugar pine, lodge- pole pine, western hemlock, Sitka spruce and western white pine. Others of less importance are western larch, incense cedar, red fir, Port Orford cedar, amabilis fir, Engelmann spruce and a few other conifers. The few hardwoods on the Pacific slope, among which may be mentioned the California live oak, the tan-bark oak and the Oregon maple are of relatively little importance. About 50 separate species enter into our timber trade in an important way. About 150 others are used to some extent but chiefly for local purposes. In keeping with our rapidly increasing population, and the gradual western de- velopment, the supply of white pine, our best all around timber tree, has rapidly diminished. Southern yellow pine, embracing four species (longleaf, shortleaf, loblolly and Cuban pines in order of importance) was next exploited and at the present time, Douglas fir on the Pacific coast is rapidly coming to the front to supply our lumber and timber for the various wood-using industries. The result of this situation is that the eastern forests have been culled over for the best material and the remaining supply is being cut from the more inaccessible portions of the virgin forest. This means that forest management will un- doubtedly be practiced first in those portions that have been longest settled and therefore have suffered most from the result of the axe, forest fires and clearing land for agricultural development. For example, New England has taken the leadership in the practice of forestry for the reason that it REGIONAL STUDIES 279 is one of the oldest as well as most densely populated sections of the country. In this region both the needs and possibil- ities of forestry are closely comparable to those of Germany and France. In the Northeast the most direct reason for the great interest in forestry is the question of utilization. In other words, forest products bring such attractive prices that intensive forest management is possible and practicable. For the purpose of briefly describing the forestry situation in the various parts of this country, the forests have been divided up into several regions. In the ensuing chapters the following regions are described in a general way: (x) Northern Forest, (2) Southern Pines, (3) Central Hardwoods, (4) Prairie or Fringe Forest, (5) Northern Rocky Mountain Forest, (6) Southern Rocky Mountain Forest, (7) Pacific Coast Forest. These regions are divided according to differences in species and prevailing types of timber which serve to distinguish them. A’ brief description of the most important phases of the forestry situation in each region is taken up. For the pur- pose of brevity, these regions have been subdivided along broad lines. For example, in the central hardwood region there are included the following local regions; the Piedmont Plateau, the eastern sprout hardwoods, the central woodlot region, etc. In some cases, as in the northern and southern Rockies, similar types of timber occur in two different re- gions so that the lines of demarkation between the regions are very broad and general. 280 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY BIBLIOGRAPHY. CLEVELAND, TREADWELL, Jz. — The Status for Forestry in the United States. Forest Service, Circular 167. Forest Service. — Circular 171. Forests of the United States: Their Use. Zox, RAPHAEL. — The Future Use of Land in the United States. U.S. Forest Service, Circular 159. Zon, RapHAEL.— Forest Resources of the World. U.S. Forest Service, Bulletin 83. CHAPTER XVI. NORTHERN FOREST. Location and Boundary.— The portion of the timbered area of the United States considered as the Northern Forest comprises the northern portion of Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan, and ranges from there south along the Appalachian Mountains as far as northern Georgia. In the Northeast the bulk of Pennsylvania and New York and all of Vermont, New Hampshire and Maine are included within this region. The total area of land surface, as included within these limits, will approximate 240,000,000 acres, gross. The net area, or the portion within this region actually covered with forest, would be extremely difficult to estimate. Maine, for instance, is very heavily wooded, having approximately two- thirds of its surface heavily covered with forest, while other ‘281 282 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY states, like Massachusetts, have a comparatively small portion covered with forest, and still others, like Michigan and Min- nesota, which were primarily lumber states and possessed at one time splendid areas, now have their timbered areas badly broken by vast stretches of waste land, which are the results of careless cuttings and forest fires. The territory which is here described in reality contains a wide variety of forest types and conditions. The changes in Fic. 52. — OUTLOOK FROM FIRE STATION IN THE ADIRONDACKS. The view is typical of the cut-over spruce regions in northern New York. If forest fires follow lumbering, the litter may be consumed and nothing left but bare rock. forest cover are largely due to topography and climate, and so a word or two concerning the physiography of the region is necessary. Practically all of the northern portion was covered by the ice pack during the glacial epoch, and as a consequence, the soil, topography and drainage are decidedly irregular. Vast NORTHERN FOREST 283 outwash plains of nearly pure sand may alternate with heavier clays; drumlins in great number are found, and countless lakes, swamps and slow streams are also found, especially in northern Maine and New York. The southern part, including the Appalachian Mountains, has never been glaciated, consequently the drainage is more regular and the numerous swamps are lacking. The soils, however, are quite variable, ranging from the barren sand to heavy clay loams. The sandy soils, however, are much more frequent. The topography presents many striking variations from the sandy flats of the Lake States to the rugged mountain slopes of the White Mountains and the Appalachians. While there are considerable stretches of fertile’ agricultural land, especially in New York and Pennsylvania, rugged topography is the rule. The maximum elevation is reached in North Carolina (Mt. Mitchell, 6711 feet), with Mt. Washington (New Hampshire), 6290 feet, a close rival. The majority of this region lies above 500 feet, and most of the southern extension above 2000 feet. The average annual precipitation ranges from twenty to seventy inches, the latter being the maximum in the southern Appalachian region. Forest Characteristics. — Within this region several sub- types or subregions might be differentiated, viz., the spruce region of the Northeast, the pine region of the Lake States, and the hardwood region of New York, Pennsylvania and the Appalachian Mountains. The characteristics of each of these will be briefly described. The spruce forest of New England and northern New York is confined principally to the higher slopes of the moun- tains. It is composed in the main of tolerant species which form a mixed forest of uneven ages. The chief species are red, white and black spruce, red and white pine, balsam fir, 284 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY hemlock, tamarack, white cedar, hard maple, beech and birch (yellow and paper) and aspens are found in considerable quantity. The optimum region for red spruce occurs within the area. On the headwaters of the Androscoggin River and upon the upper slopes of the White Mountains the heaviest stands of pure spruce are found. The spruce stands of the Adirondacks, on account of the gentler slopes and deeper soils, are apt to have hardwoods intermixed to the extent of fifty to sixty per cent. The hardwood part of this region contains two distinct subdivisions, the so-called northern hardwoods, and the Appalachian hardwoods. The former is found in the New England states and in New York at a lower elevation than the spruce type; it is composed of the same shade-bearing hardwoods found mixed with the spruce, viz., beech, yellow and paper birches, and hard maple in the virgin forest, while the aspens are found to a large degree taking possession of the burns. The southern portion of this subtype is found at higher elevations than the former; the species are quite different, being intolerant for the most part, and the conifers present are found only at the highest elevations. The abundant rainfall, the long growing season and the soils, for the most part entirely adequate, make this an ideal region for tree growth. Out of the soo tree species indigenous to the United States, approximately 135 are found in the Southern Appalachians. Chestnut, basswood, chestnut oak and yellow poplar find here the optimum region for their development, while such species as black, white and red oak are found of splendid size and development, but not in their optimum region. Perhaps the best example of a true forest region may be found in the Lake States portion of the northern forest. With extremely light soils the rule, with fairly high precipitation NORTHERN FOREST 285 ranging from twenty to forty inches per annum, with vast areas of swamps, muskegs and barrens, a large portion of this subdivision is better suited to raising timber than to agri- culture. Here the forest is largely coniferous, and occurs for the most part in even aged stands. White pine is found at its optimum, with unusually favorable conditions for Norway and Jack pine. Of the hardwoods found, yellow birch, hard maple and beech are the most important. Elm, basswood and paper birch are found mixed with the other hardwoods on the heavier soils, but only in light stands. White pine is found on the lighter soils and may be intermixed with aspen and paper birch on moist sites, and with Norway pine on the drier ones. ; The lightest and driest soils are generally occupied by Jack pine, a species which shows a remarkable power to occupy areas laid waste by fire. Considering the forest as a whole, we find lumbering the oldest industry in the northern forest. The first sawmill in the New World was erected at Berwick, Maine, in 1631. While sadly diminished by reckless cutting followed by forest fires of which the Lake States pineries can furnish many mournful examples, this region is still sup- plying considerable timber and pulpwood. With proper management it will continue to do so for some time to come. Silvicultural Treatment.— On account of the variety of conditions found within this region no single method of forest management can be prescribed. In the spruce region selection cuttings are generally prac- ticed, although on shallow soils and steep slopes clear cuttings may be necessary. When mixed forests are handled, the hardwoods are generally cut to as small a diameter limit as the market will permit, in order to favor the faster growing and more desirable spruce. 286 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY The recent increase in the value of the northern hardwoods has made more intensive forestry practice possible. One of the largest paper concerns of the Northeast has been thinning its hardwood land quite heavily, and underplanting with 300 to 500 Norway spruce seedlings per acre. Within the pine forests in the Lakes States and to a less degree in New York and Pennsylvania, a clear cutting system must be used as their light requirements will not per- mit the use of the selection system. The ground may be cut entirely clear, leaving three to five seed trees per acre, or young thrifty trees may be left in groups, twenty to thirty per acre, which will eventually cover the area with young seedlings. Leaving seed trees in groups is. to be preferred in regions where high winds prevail, or where the trees to be left are not especially windfirm. In the northern hardwood portion, extensive management will be practiced for some time, in spite of the fact that the forest occurs largely in connection with agricultural land. The trees being tolerant, they, for the most part, can be handled according to the selection system, and the undesirable trees removed to favor such species as maple, birch, ash and bass- wood. In the case of the two latter species, more light may be needed than the selection system will give, and the group stand method or shelterwood system may then be used. The Appalachian hardwoods present a rather difficult prob- lem in management, on account of the extreme complexity of the forest. Such species as cucumber, white ash, yellow poplar and white oak should be favored, but, as a rule, they have been largely removed from the stand during previous lumbering operations. The problem consists of perpetuat- ing the trees of greatest market value; those which it is the greatest temptation to cut. Clear cutting with proper seed trees is the best system to employ, and in some cases mer- NORTHERN FOREST 287 chantable trees must be left in order to provide for seed. Undesirable species should be cut clear if a market is avail- able; if not, ‘ girdling ”’ may be practiced, which will prevent them from reproducing or shading out more desirable repro- duction. Protection. — Throughout the coniferous portion of the Northern Forest, fires by all odds inflict the greatest damage. Vast areas have been laid waste in the pineries of the Lake States, and the steep slopes of the White Mountains and Adirondacks have been heavily cut and badly burned. Where the thin soils of mountainous regions are burned over and then exposed to the wash of melting snows, the destruc- tion is seen at its worst. Practically nothing but rock is left, and it will take centuries of weathering to produce enough soil to grow a merchantable crop of timber. The responsibility for fires may be divided among railroads, sportsmen, farmers and ignorant foreigners from the manu- facturing towns. Legislation controlling the railroads has been passed in practically all of the northern states. Spark arresters are required, ash pans must be kept in repair, and in New York state, the Public Service Commission has forced the Adirondack railroads to burn oil in their locomotives during the danger period. Controlling a responsible corporation is a comparatively easy task when the aid of a State Commission is invoked. ..In addition the transportation companies are beginning to realize that attractive green forests are an asset both from an esthetic and a commercial standpoint. The irrespon- sible individual, who sets the woods on fire with a pipe, camp fire, or when burning fallow, is much more difficult to reach. Education of the public, commencing with the school children and carried on for years, is the ultimate solu- tion. This method is being pursued by the State Foresters 288 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY and educational institutions within this region. Protective machinery to prevent and combat fires, forest rangers, look- out stations, etc., are very necessary, but in the final analysis, it is a matter of educating the people. Certain precautions to prevent fires are possible, and brush in extremely danger- ous localities should be gathered in piles or burned. The New York Conservation Commission has recently reinforced the top- lopping law, after a successful trial extending over three years. Other injurious agencies that might be mentioned are windthrow and windbreak, occurring quite frequently in stands of spruce and balsam. If light thinnings are made on ordinary sites, and if clear cuttings are made on exposed localities, serious damage may be avoided. Insects are occasionally troublesome. The spruce bark beetle has killed considerable timber at different times, espe- cially in the Androscoggin drainage. The white pine weevil attacks the leaders of young, open-grown pines in various sections, and the larch sawfly has on several occasions badly damaged the northern forests. By cutting and soaking the infected spruce timber after August, the beetles may be disposed of; the weevil can be checked by removing and burning the infested tops during June and July; the sawfly practically defies attack, but since 1882 the amount of damage inflicted has been quite restricted. In the parts of this region where the northern hardwoods prevail, fire damage is much less serious on account of the less inflammable nature of the stand. The leaves of the hardwoods decompose more readily and the forest floor as a consequence is less inflammable. In addition, the broken nature of the woodlot renders extensive fires impossible. Grazing, however, is particularly harmful in northern hardwood forests. Cattle are especially fond of browsing on NORTHERN FOREST 289 the seedlings of sugar maple, and, as a consequence, are apt to interfere with the natural regeneration of this desirable species. No woodlot which contains young reproduction or which is to be regenerated by natural means should ever be grazed. Seedlings will be bitten and trampled, and the soil rendered too compact for a tiny seedling to take root. In the Appalachian country grazing is still worse than in the North. The cattle browse upon all the succulent hardwood seedlings and are especially fond of tulip poplar; the hogs with their keen appetite for acorns practically pre- vent the seedling regeneration of the oak. The most im- portant feature of grazing, however, is its bearing upon forest fires. The inhabitants of this region believe that frequent forest fires improve the pasturage and unless stock laws can be passed which will restrict cattle and hogs, annual forest fires will continue. Watershed protection is a phase of forest management that here assumes enormous importance. With the steep slopes and compact soil that prevail and the heavy rainfall descending in frequent thunder storms, erosion and flood inflict a heavy toll. ,Steep slopes have been cleared which should have remained in forest. Heavy grazing and forest fires have added to the predisposing influences. The damage is not only inflicted where the slopes have been denuded by the flood waters, but they submerge fertile bottom lands in the Piedmont region and often render them useless by cover- ing them with layers of sand and gravel. Extensive re- forestation of the steeper slopes as a reinforcement to a series of dams and reservoirs, is the only practicable solution of this problem. The Federal Government, acting under the Weeks Act, has already acquired about 1,000,000 acres in this region confined entirely to the headwaters of navigable streams, 290 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY Utilization. — The manufacturing and marketing of the products of the northern forest is a problem comparatively easy to solve on account of the dense population of the region, thereby creating a strong demand and a stable market. The transportation facilities also are entirely adequate to a proper distribution of both raw and manufactured material. Within the spruce region the situation is relatively satisfac- tory. The countless streams permit economical transporta- tion of logs to the manufacturing centers and the fact that there is hardly a point in the region more than 300 miles from a city of the first or second class makes for profitable marketing of forest products. Wood pulp is the principal product, and two states, New York and Maine, together consume about 2,000,000 cords per annum. This has proved to be such a profitable form in which to market the soft woods that some of the largest stumpage owners have discontinued the manufacture of lumber and are putting all of their material into pulp. The northern hardwoods are at present rapidly appreciating in value, and their uses are increasing in number. Aside from furniture, flooring, etc., minor industries, like last blocks, basket veneers, slack cooperage, whip butts, etc., are examples of the forms in which the hardwoods finally appear upon the market. Paper birch has especial value for shoe pegs and spools, which are turned out in large quantities. The pine lumber of the East is largely manufactured into box and barn boards, bucket stock and interior trim. On account of the variation in sizes needed, very close utiliza- tion is possible. In fact, in certain parts of Massachusetts, white pine may be cut to a three-inch top. The Lake States pine is cut and manufactured on a far more extensive scale and markets may be a considerable distance from the raw material. Lumber of all dimensions is the product, and the utilization is by no means as close as in the East. NORTHERN FOREST 291 Fic. 53. — VircGIN Forest or WHITE PINE, MINNESOTA NATIONAL Forest, MINNESOTA. First growth of white pine may become 6 feet in diameter and 160 feet high. Such specimens take from 250 to 300 years to attain this size. 292 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY The hardwoods of the Appalachian region have had a rising market for the last two decades, but the end of virgin timber is already in sight. The most important local industry has been lumbering, with railroad ties as a very important phase. Within the last few years the number of portable sawmills has greatly increased and this fact, in connection with the opening of new areas of soft coal, will permit of more local manufacture, and a closer utilization of hardwoods for mine props, logging, etc. Minor industries, like the manufacture of cooperage stock, and the gathering of tan bark, etc., are quite common. Chestnut extract has been of great impor- tance on account of the larger percentage of tannin in south- ern than in northern hardwoods. With the spread of the chestnut blight this region may be forced to utilize enormous quantities of chestnut wood in this fashion. Special Problems. — From the standpoint of Federal im- portance, the Appalachian Acquisition in compliance with the Weeks Act is doubtless the largest problem in the region. For years the farmers in the lowlands have had their lands submerged by disastrous floods, due primarily to the combina- tion of overcutting and forest fires on the steep slopes of the headwaters. Owing to the fact that these headwaters were often in other states, Federal aid was necessary, and in 1910 the Weeks Act was passed by Cengress to permit the government to acquire land upon the watersheds of navigable streams. Already, over 1,000,000 acres have been purchased, largely in the southern Appalachian Mountains. It is planned to create National Forests in these regions and to so manage this land as to improve its water-holding capacity, thereby greatly reducing the damage formerly occasioned by erosion and floods. In the Lake States planting the enormous stretches of NORTHERN FOREST 293 barrens and forest land laid waste by fire is a problem of great importance, with taxation and fire risk as limiting factors. In addition, a mistaken conception of the value of some of these lands for agriculture has checked the proper develop- ment of a forest planting policy. In the Northeast, notably in Maine and New York, the proper development of water powers is of increasing impor- tance. With discoveries permitting long-distance transmis- sion of electric power the value of mountain streams and lakes is rapidly appreciating and the importance of forests in con- trolling run-off in some cases equals their value as sources of timber. Future of Forestry in this Region. — It is safe to say that no forest region in the United States has a brighter outlook for the practice of intensive forestry during the next two or three decades than the northern forest. With the center of population but a few hundred miles west of its margin, with splendid markets and transportation facilities already devel- oped, with vast areas better suited to timber production than to agriculture, the conditions necessary for extensive forest management are even now satisfied. First to be exploited by the colonists, the recuperative power of the northern forest has proved remarkable. The Lake States, considered exhausted twenty years ago, are still yielding splendid harvests of timber; Maine cut over first for pine masts is now yielding her third and fourth crop of timber. With proper protection and intelligent use, the forest soils of this region will supply its inhabitants with timber, build- ing materials, etc., for centuries to come. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Bowman, IsArau. Forest Physiography. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Cary, Austin. Practical Forestry on a Spruce Tract in Maine, U. S. Forest Service, Circular 131. 294 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY Graves, Henry S. Practical Forestry in the Adirondacks. U. S. Forest Service Bulletin 26. HAwLey and Hawes. Forestry in New England. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Pincuot, Girrorp. The Adirondack Spruce. Rots, Fitrnert. Timber Conditions in Minnesota, Twenty-first annual report, United States Geological Survey, page 6. Zon, RAPHAEL. Result of Cuttings on the Minnesota National Forest. Pro- ceedings of Society of American Foresters. Vol. VII, No. rt. CHAPTER XVII. SOUTHERN PINES. Location and Boundary. — The southern pine region in- cludes the portion of the country along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts from southern New Jersey to eastern Texas. For the greater part it is a belt of forest stretching from 150 to 250 miles in from the coast, although it begins as a narrow point at the extreme north and gradually widens to its greatest extent in the lower Mississippi River valley. For the most part it covers the coastal plain of the South. The region is largely bounded on the north by the central hardwood region. On the west it touches the prairie or fringe forest. It includes all of Louisiana, which is the prin- 295 296 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY cipal center of yellow pine production, and most of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Missis- sippi, Arkansas and eastern Texas. For the past decade the southern pineries have been the producing center of our lumber supply and at the present time, the four southern yellow pines, longleaf, shortleaf, loblolly and Cuban, comprise over one third of the total annual lumber cut of the United States. This region also produces all of the turpentine, rosin and other naval stores. The topography is generally flat or gently rolling. Along the foothills of the Piedmont Plateau, however, some of the land included within the southern pineries is distinctly hilly, as in Alabama. Throughout the region the broad plains or flats are broken by low lying stream courses which are often estuaries for several miles from the coast. The climate may be characterized as warm and humid with abundant rainfall, all of which are very conducive to tree growth. The growing season is the longest of any region excepting in California. The soils are largely sandy, especially in Georgia, Florida, Texas and South Carolina, giving rise to the name “sand barrens.” These are largely responsible for the slow growth of the pines. The southern portion of the Florida peninsula contains a distinctly tropical vegetation and is therefore not included in this region. It is characterized by a heavy precipitation, 60 to 70 inches, and the presence of a great variety of spe- cies, about 75 of which are not found in other parts of the country. The principal species are the mangroves, Jamaica dogwood, mahogany, lignum vite, corkwood and the mastic. The most valuable trees are the mangroves, on account of their soil-forming qualities along the sea coast and the fact that they contain a high per cent of tannin. SOUTHERN PINES 207 Forest Characteristics. — This region is largely coniferous as opposed to the other eastern regions and the forests cover about 75 per cent of the total land surface. It is estimated that between 40 and 50 per cent of the area will always be retained in forest growth, on account of the sterility of the sandy pine barrens for agricultural purposes. Fic. 54. — TURPENTINE ORCHARD, SANTA Rosa Co., FLORIDA. The new system of collecting the resin in cups is less wasteful than the old box system. This is the home of the longleaf pine, the most important tree of the region, and which, together with Douglas fir, pro- duces a good share of the country’s timber supply. The forest in the Southeast may be characterized as follows: (1) Preponderance of coniferous growth. (2) The present producing center of the country’s lumber supply and therefore a very active logging region. (3) The forest is severely affected and injured by surface fires. (4) The forest is being severely injured by the old methods of turpentining. 298 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY The principal conifers in order are: longleaf pine, shortleaf pine, loblolly pine, cypress, Cuban pine and red cedar. All of these, excepting cypress, grow on the drier uplands and sand barrens. Loblolly pine and Cuban pine also require some moisture. The hardwoods grow along the streams and in the bottom- lands and swamps in association with the cypress. Most of the latter is limited to the swamps bordering the coast and the lower Mississippi Valley. The principal hardwoods are tupelo, cottonwood, red gum, ash, yellow poplar, sycamore, elm, several oaks, hickories and hackberry. The forest may therefore be divided into two broad types based on site factors, that is, the presence of moisture, char- acter of soils, etc. In the coniferous type there are several variations, ranging from the pine longleaf or pure shortleaf type to the mixed conifers and hardwoods and the loblolly pine type. The Cuban pine requires the most moisture of any of the pines; loblolly pine requires at least a moist, deep soil; but longleaf seems to flourish on dry sandy barrens where no other trees seem to grow. ‘The latter is rarely found on moist soils. The average coniferous forest will cut about 5000 board feet to the acre although many stands will average from 10,000 to 20,000 board feet in restricted localities. The hardwood and cypress type changes with the relative amounts of moisture present. In the bottomlands, over- flowed a portion of the year, cypress sometimes grows in pure stands. Usually, however, water gums, water hickory and red bay are associated with it. Along most of the streams, hardwoods predominate to the exclusion of the cypress. Altogether in this lowland type, stands running up to 50,000 board feet to the acre are common. The average merchant- able stand will cut from 8000 to 12,000 board feet to the acre. SOUTHERN . PINES 299 Silvicultural Treatment.— No systematic plans for forest management have been adopted for any length of time in this region so that it has had very little silvicultural treatment of any kind. Practically all of the forest is in the hands of large owners instead of at least partial state or Federal gov- ernment control as in other regions. The forest is being rapidly cut off and on account of the prevalence of fires, re- production has a poor chance to get started. The longleaf pine grows in unevenaged stands or groups and will be handled either by a rough adaptation of the shelterwood system or a clear cutting and leaving seed trees. It grows exceedingly slow and therefore the more rapid grow- ing loblolly and shortleaf pines should be encouraged in its place wherever possible. Because of its slow growth, long- leaf pine as well as cypress, for the same reason, will probably not be important trees in the future. They are certainly too slow growing for forestry purposes. The most hopeful tree from the viewpoint of the future is the loblolly pine. It seeds abundantly, reproduces thriftily and vigorously and is one of the most rapid growing trees in the country under normal conditions. Its wood is not of such high technical qualities as the longleaf or shortleaf pine but it yields a wood that is very good for general lumber and boxboard purposes. The hardwood type will be handled on some adaptation of the selection system. Most of the trees grow fairly rapidly and many of them will flourish under shade so that the larger specimens can be cut out from time to time as they reach or approach maturity. The best trees to favor in the bottom- lands and along the streams are ash, oaks, yellow poplar, cottonwood, red gum and hickory on account of their high commercial value and comparatively rapid growth. Very little planting has been resorted to in this region. The lumbered areas have either been cleared for farming or ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY 300 CypRESS SWAMP ALONG THE LOWER MIsSIssIPpPr RIVER. Fic. 55. — A ’ Owing to the difficulty tself, it will not be an important tree of the future. Cypress is one of our most valuable timber trees on account of its durability soft, even texture, and excellent seasoning qualities. in reproducing i SOUTHERN PINES 301 left to burn over annually. The best trees for planting are loblolly pine, red oak, yellow poplar, ash and cottonwood. The latter is easily reproduced from cuttings. Protection. — ‘The South undoubtedly suffers as much from forest fires as any other region. They are limited, however, to grass fires. But these burn over the forest practically every year and great damage results not only in the preven- tion of satisfactory reproduction but in the burning of mer- chantable timber and the destruction of the turpentine boxes. The open character of the timber growth permits of a loose, grassy undergrowth. In the spring and fall the dried grass is usually fired by the natives to provide better forage for the cattle and hogs in the summer season. This has been such a deep-rooted custom that it is very difficult to advocate any protective measures. Fires are especially disastrous to the turpentine industry. Fires get into the boxes and the base of the trunk and the tree is eaten away or is easily blown over by the wind. Fires can be easily stopped by plowing in the porous sand; by beating them out; or by stopping them at roads, trails, fences, etc. Insect depredations have been spasmodic in the South. The southern pine beetle has broken out in several recurrent attacks, doing enormous damage to standing trees. Fungi are most abundant on account of the humid, moist climate, and much of the standing timber is heart rotten. “ Bluing,”’ a stain on the sap of freshly sawed lumber, is also a common result of fungous action in this region. Utilization. — As mentioned before, this is the producing center of both the lumber and naval stores industries and the vast pine stands have been so abundant that little attention has been paid to a close and economic utilization of the raw products. However, with the rapid logging of the forests, 302 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY improvements in the tapping of the longleaf pine for tur- pentine and rosin have been introduced by Dr. Herty (see Chapter X on the naval stores industry) and others with a considerable saving. Within recent years great improve- ments have been made in the utilization of the refuse of the large sawmills chiefly through pine distillation. Most of the lumber from this region is consumed in the North and al- together the opportunities for close utilization outside of wood distillation and the naval stores industry are somewhat limited. Some of the large sawmills are now utilizing their waste in the manufacture of paper. At the present rate of cutting the South will soon be de- pleted of her virgin timber supplies unless proper measures are adopted to perpetuate the forests. The lumber industry is one of the greatest assets of the South and it could be placed on the same basis in respect to its forests as the other regions if a better public spirit in regard to its natural resources were aroused. Special Problems. — The special problems peculiar to this region may be summed up as follows: (1) The prevention of grass fires. The solution of this problem will materially result in perpetuating both the timber supply and the naval stores industry. Fires are not_necessary for good forage for the cattle and hogs and the lumbermen are rapidly becoming converted to the opinion that fires are very detrimental to their interests. (2) The awakening of the public opinion on the forestry situation. The South has been the most backward in regard to both state and private activity in conserving its forest resources. Public concern in regard to the prevalent forest fires is still to be aroused. With the further economic devel- opment of the South and the rapid cutting of the yellow pine and cypress stands, the public is sure to take the same interest in forestry as in New England and the Middle Atlantic States. SOUTHERN PINES 303 Future of Forestry in Region. — As stated before about 40 to 50 per cent of the southern pine region will probably always be devoted to some form of forest growth. Sooner or later fire protection must be maintained on this area, which will be the first step in the progress of forestry in this section. With fire protection assured, the forests will probably adapt themselves to the various forms of forestry practice. Longleaf pine and cypress will probably be eliminated in the future forests and other rapid growing trees will take their places. The future of forestry is assured in this region wherever the fire problem is solved for the following reasons: (t) Rapid growth, caused by the warm climate. (2) Easy reproduction, providing fires are kept out. (3) Easy logging and log transportation conditions. (4) There are large areas unsuited to agriculture that must be devoted to forest culture. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Cuapman, C. S. A Working Plan for Forest Lands in Berkeley Co., South Carolina. U.S. Forest Service, Bulletin 56. Foster, J. H. Forest Conditions in Louisiana. U. S. Forest Service, Bul- letin 174. Mour, Cuas. Timber Pines of the United States. U. S. Forest Service, Bulletin 13. Reep, F. W. A Working Plan for Forest Lands in Central Alabama. U. S. Forest Service, Bulletin 68. Scuwartz, G. F. The Longleaf Pine in Virgin Forest. Zon, RapHaELt. The Loblolly Pine in Eastern Texas. U. S. Forest Service, Bulletin 64. CHAPTER XVIII. CENTRAL HARDWOODS. Location of Boundary. — The forest area that is described as the central hardwoods region extends from Massachusetts on the north, south along the Piedmont plateau between the Appalachian Mountains and the Coastal Plain to northern Georgia and Alabama; northwest through central Illinois to western Minnesota. Its area contains approximately 250,000,000 acres. The topography is comparatively low and rolling, the eleva- tion ranging from sea level to one thousand feet. The soils are deep, and often rich enough for agriculture. The small amount of swamp land present can often be drained, so that there is little true forest soil within‘the region. 304 CENTRAL HARDWOODS 305 The annual precipitation ranges from thirty to forty-two inches, and is well divided between the dormant and growing seasons. With soils of agricultural character prevailing, and with abundant precipitation, this region is destined for agricultural development, and will never produce timber enough for export. However, fencing, fuel, and domestic building material must be raised, and in some portions the dual purpose windbreak is of great importance. Small holdings are the rule in the central hardwoods region, although in the southern parts some good-sized timber tracts may be found. The bulk of the timber, however, is in the form of farm woodlots, or more precisely stated, is owned in connection with agricultural] land. Forest Characteristics. — The forest is characterized by the following distinctive features: 1. The predominance of hardwoods. The old field pine type of the Piedmont regions is not to be overlooked, but its importance is relatively small in comparison with the hardwood type. A large portion of the hardwood timber supply in this country, constituting about one-fifth of the total annual lumber cut, comes from this region. 2. Large number of trees found in mixture. Within these boundaries are found the regions of optimum development of such species as white, red, black and pin oaks, yellow poplar, and beech, while hickory, white ash, black walnut, cottonwood, maples and cedar are also present in considerable quantities. In Illinois alone, there are found one hundred native tree species out of the five hundred common to the United States. 3. Broken distribution of the woodland. This condition obtains to such a marked degree, especially in the western central part of the region, that the management of the forest 306 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY is, to a large degree, affected by the absence of continuity. Wherever rough topography or low lands along rivers are found, the timber may occur in large bodies. The stand, as a whole, may be characterized as second growth hardwoods, containing a considerable number of veterans, singly or in groups, left over from the first cutting. The present condition of the woodland proves conclusively that a forest region may deteriorate as much when poorly managed as when wilfully abused, for the chief trouble has been the wrong point of view. There has been no extensive lumbering followed by forest fires which laid bare enormous areas as in the lake states, but the forests have not been re- garded as an asset. For the most part, they have been con- sidered an encumbrance to be removed with all speed, and, in some cases, timber has been piled and burned to clear the ground for tilling. In many cases, slopes have been clear cut that should have remained under forest cover, and now, rap- idly eroding hillsides and gravel-covered bottom lands prove conclusively that such areas should have been kept in forest. Where clear cutting has not been practiced, the forest, for the most part, has been extensively culled. The largest and best trees have been removed, leaving the less desirable specimens and forest weeds in possession of the soil. Thus, each suc- cessive tree generation has become less valuable than the previous one. Fires have inflicted the worst damage along the foothills of the Appalachians, but throughout the bulk of the region they can be quite easily controlled on account of the broken character of the woodland. Grazing is responsible for much deterioration of the forest in states like Ohio and Indiana. There, the woodlot is largely considered a part of the pasture with the result that it serves neither purpose well. ‘The trees shade out the grass to a large CENTRAL HARDWOODS 307 Fic. 56. — SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN Harpwoons. Chestnut, oak, ash, and yellow poplar in western North Carolina. 308 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY extent, and the open forest floor, windswept and sunbeaten, is not sufficient to grow timber at a profitable rate. Silvicultural Treatment.— The most important step in improving forest conditions within this region is to change the point of view. As soon as the value of forests and wood products is realized, the owners themselves will take better care of their non-agricultural areas, and will endeavor to make them profitable. Much propagandist work has already been done by the Federal and State Forest officers that will eventu- ally show results. The actual plan of management in this region will vary considerably, depending on the type of forest, nearness to market, and relative intensiveness of management. In the Northeast, where sprout hardwoods prevail, the coppice system of management will doubtless be employed, with chestnut badly handicapped on account of the fungous disease (Endothea parasitica). The mixed forest should be the ideal, on account of its greater productiveness, and the reduced danger from fungous and moth attacks. Along the Piedmont area, wherever the shortleaf and loblolly pines form any part of the stand, their growth should be encouraged. The less desirable hardwoods should be dis- criminated against by heavy cutting, and the soil may, in some cases, be prepared by running hogs through the woods just before the fall of seed. Their sharp hoofs will break up the earth, and make a good catch more probable. In Ohio and Indiana, artificial regeneration must be re- sorted to on a large scale. The woodlots, for the most part, are open groves with very compact soil. The leaves have blown away for so many years that there is very little humus in the soil; the remaining trees are generally of the inferior varieties, or diseased specimens of the desired species. On the whole, better results will be obtained if such woodlots are clear cut CENTRAL HARDWOODS 309 and replanted, thereby obtaining the desired mixture and Spacing at once. In bottom lands, where only a light culling has been made, natural regeneration is possible, but this, as a rule, requires a good broad market that will take care of all sizes and kinds of lumber. As before stated, planting in the open for windbreaks which furnish both fuel and protection is highly desirable wherever drying winds prevail. The species to favor where natural regeneration is employed, would be as follows: In the Northeast: White and red pines, red oak, ash, tulip, poplar and basswood. In the Piedmont area: Ash and tulip, red and white oak, hickory, loblolly and shortleaf pines. In Ohio and Illinois: Ash, yellow poplar, cucumber, black locust, red and white oaks, black cherry and hickory. In the latter region, white pine, white cedar, elm, red maple, ash, willow and the Russian wild olive are desirable for wind- break purposes, while catalpa and European larch may be planted for fence posts in addition to the timber trees men- tioned above. Protection. — The forest throughout this section is badly in need of protection against stock, fire, wind, etc., but grazing is, perhaps, the most difficult problem to handle, owing to lax custom in the past. Stock laws are more or less uncommon; cattle can roam at will, and it is necessary for owners to fence off their crops instead of confining their cattle. Grazing should be absolutely prohibited in the woodlands, unless the timber is practically mature and reproduction is not desired. It is impossible to use land advantageously for both grazing and timber production, for the cattle injure the seedlings, pack the soil and prevent reproduction. The trees 310 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY Fic. 57. — CLump oF CHESTNUT IN MARYLAND. Before the outbreak of the chestnut bark disease (Endothea parasitica) the chestnut was one of the most highly prized sprout hardwoods. It grows fast, reproduces readily by sprouting and its wood is very durable. CENTRAL HARDWOODS 311 shade out considerable grass so that these two uses are not compatible. If more grass land is required, it would be far better to clear cut some of the poorest forest land to increase the pasturage, rather than to try to serve both purposes on the same piece of ground. Efficient fire protection is comparatively easy of accom- plishment on account of the small size of the average holding and the settled nature of the country. Insect and fungous diseases inflict comparatively little damage, and when present can be controlled by the usual methods. Utilization. — The question of marketing and utilizing the products of ‘this region, like the management, varies in different parts of the region. Throughout New Jersey, Massachusetts, etc., the markets are unusually stable, and transportation facilities numerous. Here, intensive manage- ment and close utilization may be practiced. Thinnings may be made, and the material removed ordinarily finds ready sale as poles, posts, cordwood, etc. In the Piedmont area, the outlook is not so favorable, on account of the absence of such broad markets. There is no typical forest industry in the region, the larger portion of the lumber being sawed by small mills, many of which are of the portable variety. In the southern Appalachians, however, there are several large hardwood operations cutting largely yellow poplar, oak, hickory, maple, beech, ash, birch and basswood. Arkansas is also an important hardwood center, especially for red gum, oak and hickory. In the agricultural states like Indiana and [IIlinois, the possibilities for intensive management and close utilization are excellent. On account of the lack of true forest soil, local forest production will be on a comparatively small scale; intensive forestry will be the rule, and high prices should be obtained. Fence posts and farm timbers find a ready sale, 312 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY and timber for building and construction purposes can be readily disposed of. Already, plantations established on soils of agricultural richness have shown a net revenue of over five dollars per acre per year. While not as profitable as tilled crops, domestic timber may be produced for the owner’s use, with practically no labor outside of getting the plantation started, and a fair profit be obtained beside. in Pi is * % mae a ee .S Fic. 58.— YELLow PopLar AND WHITE AND RED Oaks. The central hardwood region is the great source of our hardwood supply. Special Problems. — A good share of the woodlot holdings, comprising nearly two-fifths of our total remaining forested area in this country, lies in this region, and, consequently, the forestry situation is largely in the hands of the individual. There are no large areas of unseated land to be acquired by the State; there are no areas abandoned by previous owners as in Pennsylvania and Michigan; there are few if any exten- sive water-sheds within the region which should be covered CENTRAL HARDWOODS 313 for the purpose of controlling run-off. It is true, however, that certain districts within the boundaries outlined are sub- ject to overflow at times, but the trouble, for the most part, lies outside this region, and the proper measures must be applied in other districts. The methods of building up the conditions of the run-down woodlot have been described previously in this chapter. For woodlot production fairly good returns can be assured, provided proper species are used, on account of the character of the soil, its depth, and the precipitation. As far as shelter- belts are concerned, the use of ten to fifteen per cent of the total area in a region subject to hot, drying winds will result in an increase in the agricultural crops, due to the checking of these winds, and to the increased relative humidity supplied by the alternate strips of forest cover. Future of Forestry in Region.— As has been stated previously, scarcely any region in the United States offers the opportunities for the practice of intensive forestry that the central hardwood region affords. The large cities in the Northeast mean a steady demand for material of all sizes, making close utilization possible; the excellent transportation facilities provide a means of getting the material to the con- sumer; the comparatively small holdings render intensive management feasible, as soon as the owners become convinced of the financial possibilities of forestry. The Federal Govern- ment and various State Forestry organizations are endeavor- ing to educate the private owners and assist them in every way possible, so that proper forest management, within the central hardwoods region, is a consummation that will doubtless be realized by the coming generation. 314 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY BIBLIOGRAPHY. Baker, OLIver. The Forest Problem in a Rich Agricultural County of Ohio. Forestry Quarterly, Volume VI, page 138. Bryant, R.C. Railroad Forest Plantation. Forestry Quarterly, Volume V, page 20. FrotaincHam, Eart H. Second Growth Hardwoods in Connecticut. U. S. Forest Service, Bulletin 96. Hawtey, R.C. Treatment of Hardwood Lands in Southwestern Connecticut. Forestry Quarterly, Volume V, p. 283. Kettoce,R.S. Forest Planting in Illinois. U.S. Forest Service, Circular 81. ReEcorpD, SamMuet J. Suggestions to Woodlot Owners in the Ohio Valley Region. U. S. Forest Service, Circular 138. Sprinc, S. N. Forest Planting in Coal Lands in Western Pennsylvania. U.S. Forest Service, Circular 41. CHAPTER XIX. PRAIRIE OR FRINGE FOREST. Location and Boundary.— The prairie or fringe forest represents largely the transitional zone from the central hardwood forest to the treeless plains of the prairies. In the extreme north, it is the western continuation of the northern forest and on the south it is the western extension of the southern pine forest. It extends from north to south through the eastern portions of North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma and Texas. It in- cludes all of Iowa, southwestern Minnesota, northwestern Illinois and northwestern Missouri. It is very difficult, however, to draw a sharp borderline either on the eastern or western limits of this region. 315 316 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY The topography is uniformly flat or gently rolling, broken by bluffs and gullies along the rivers and stream courses. The forested areas are almost wholly restricted to the bluffs, hillsides and stream banks. The whole region is essentially an agricultural one; the population is large; and although intensive agriculture is easily the principal occupation, manufacturing is on the rapid increase. The climate is not generally conducive to a heavy forest growth, excepting along the eastern border of the region, because of the hot dry summers and long severe winters. There are unusually rapid fluctuations in temperature at all seasons and high drying winds are common. The latter features render windbreak and shelterbelt planting of con- siderable importance. The annual rainfall is comparatively low, especially in the western portion of the fringe forest. The amount of rainfall gradually diminishes from east to west. This fact has an important bearing on the forest cover. Forest Characteristics. — As the rainfall diminishes from east to west, so the forest, in the same relative proportion, decreases both in extent and variety of species from east to west. Along the eastern fringe there is a considerable por- tion of the land surface devoted to forest, whereas along the western border of the region, the forest is limited to the stream bottoms and contains very few species. In all of the portions of the states included within this region, the area devoted to forest is only from about two to fifteen per cent of the total land surface. Due to frequent fires, pasturage and severe cutting for fuel and farm timbers, the native forest has been heavily culled and injured, so that the remaining timber growth is largely scrubby and of an ‘inferior nature. The character of the forest varies greatly from north to ® PRAIRIE OR FRINGE FOREST 317 south but the change consists largely of a substitution of species in the same genera. For example, in the north the forest is characterized by open bur oak growth. In the south there is an increasigg amount of southern oaks, osage orange, hackberry, southern elm, etc. Fic. 59. — PRatrig SCENE, Hatt Co., NEBRASKA. The treeless condition of the prairies has been variously ascribed to deficient precipitation, repeated grass fires, too compact soils, tramping of buffaloes, etc., with the question still undecided. Altogether the principal species of the region are the oaks, among which the most common are the white, bur, red, black and scarlet. There is a great variety of associated species, such as the hickories, walnuts, maples, ash, elm, cottonwood, sycamore, black willow, box elder and bass- wood. Along the stream courses one finds only the cotton- wood, box elder, green ash and willow. The cottonwood 318 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY extends along the main rivers all the way to the Rocky Moun- tains. In the central west the oaks and red cedar are the typical trees of the upper bluffs and uplands. Between these two extremes of soil and moisture conditions are found many other species. Even on a bluff 25 to 100 feet in height this variation in species is marked. A few species like the white elm and the ironwood (Ostrya virginiana) are found to the extreme west of the prairies and even to the Black Hills. Others like the cottonwood, aspen and box elder occur as far west as the Rockies. Since practically the only products of the region are fuel- wood, posts and a few other farm timbers, the forest is usually estimated in terms of cords or number of posts. Very little material for saw logs is available except in restricted localities where portable mills can be operated at a profit. The densely settled region and the development of agricul- ture render the native and planted timber of the highest importance in the economic life of this section of the country. Most of the land surface has apparently been treeless for a long period of time. This proportion of treelessness increases as one goes west and many attempts have been made to explain this situation. The following are the most important theories and expla- nations offered for the treelessness of the prairies: — 1. Insufficient moisture. 2. Constant grazing by the buffaloes and game animals. 3. Soils too compact and heavy. 4. Repeated grass fires. Most of the evidence seems to support the last-named theory. Silvicultural Treatment.— A large portion of the present native timber is of sprout origin, especially the oaks, maples, ash, basswood and hickories. The sprout method of regener- PRAIRIE OR FRINGE FOREST 319 ation, invigorated from time to time by seedlings, will un- doubtedly continue to be the principal means of reproducing the forest. Thinnings for fuel and fence posts can be profit- ably undertaken from time to time on account of the intensive management possible. Wood products bring attractive prices Fic. 60. — A WINDBREAK IN THE MIDDLE WEST. Windbreaks on the north and west sides of fields and homesteads are of great importance on prairies. Cottonwood, willow, catalpa, Norway spruce, white pine, red maple, and white spruce are commonly used. and make possible very careful and complete silvicultural treatment. The best species to favor in forest management are the oaks, locust, cottonwood, soft maples, ash and hickories. But the most important phase of silviculture will be devoted to plantations, not only for windbreaks and shelterbelts, but for the commercial growing of fence posts, fuel-wood and general farm timbers. The timber culture act, repealed in 1891 by Congress, was responsible for most of the earlier plantations. Windbreaks were planted on the north and 320 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY west sides of the homesteads and have proven to furnish efficient protection from the severe winds and snows, not only for the inhabitants but for the cattle and crops. In many cases fertile ground has been planted to catalpa, cottonwood, red maple, white pine and others and annual returns of from $4 to $10 per acre net have been commonly obtained. In the central portion of the fringe forest the trees recom- mended for general planting are cottonwood, red and Norway maples, European larch, Norway spruce, white pine, hardy catalpa, honey locust and green ash. In the northern portion the trees that seem to do best are the green ash, Russian olive, white willow, silver maple, white elm, Norway spruce and European larch. In the southern portion the best trees for planting are the catalpa, osage orange, green ash, Russian mulberry, honey locust, cottonwood, willows, hackberry, black walnut, red cedar and Kentucky coffee tree. For windbreak and shelterbelt planting, conifers are pfe- ferred because the leaves are absent from the hardwoods during the winter when they are most needed. A triple row of conifers preferably white pine, white cedar, and Norway spruce planted closely together give excellent results. Protection. — Since most of the holdings are in small woodlots along the bluffs and streams and in plantations, very few phases of protection are of any serious importance. Owing to the lack of continuous forests, the fire problem is reduced to a minimum. A few grass fires occasionally do some damage but they are easily put out. Owing to the intense cultivation of the soil, the formerly large grass fires have been eliminated. The question of permitting grazing in woodlots and in growing plantations is the most serious phase of forest protec- tion. As in the central hardwood region, particularly in the PRAIRIE OR FRINGE FOREST 321 Ohio valley, the pasturing of the open timbered areas is very common and has interfered considerably with the proper development and growth of the trees. The forested areas should be devoted exclusively to either pasturage purposes or for the growing of timber. The two are incompatible with each other on the same area for the best results. Utilization. — Owing to the rapid development of this great agricultural belt, it has been a great consumer of forest prod- ucts, especially of building lumber and timbers. This is the meeting ground in the consumption of vast quantities of lumber produced in the West, the South and the Lake States. Forest products bring excellent prices here. Fence posts and fuel-wood will always be in demand. They have, in fact, increased in value to such an extent that the farmers have taken up both the planting of post timbers and the preser- vative treatment of fence posts. The latter will assume large importance because cheap woods can readily be made to last as long as the cedars, catalpa, locust, white oak and other posts that have largely been brought in from other regions. Utilization of the raw products of the forest is as complete here as in any region and therefore forest management can be practiced on an intensive basis. Although very few saw logs are produced in these scattered prairie forests, many splendid specimens of walnut logs for furniture, veneers and gunstocks are produced as well as ash, hickory and osage orange stock for vehicle and implement material. Special Problems. — The two important special problems in forestry in the prairie region will be as follows: 1. Planting of sufficient areas both to raise a supply of fence posts, fuel-wood, etc., to meet the local demand and to furnish efficient shelter to the home and the crops. In fur- therance of the fence post supply, wood preservation will be 322 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY adopted in direct ratio with the increase in value of this val- uable commodity. 2. The elimination of the cattle and sheep from the wood- lot. All of the pastured timber holdings are not reproducing satisfactorily and grazing must be eliminated if proper forest conditions are to be established. Future of Forestry in Region. — Forestry never has nor will reach the importance of agriculture or manufacturing in this region. It is primarily a farming section and practi- cally all of the soils are suited to agricultural development. However, on the steep gullies and bluffs, forests will always have their proper place and should receive adequate care and protection. Forestry is of least importance here of all the regions and is largely a farm woodlot and planting proposition. There is plenty of room for improvement, however, and the good work initiated by many of the state agricultural colleges to promote better care of the forestry interests should be further promoted and encouraged. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Baker, H. P. Native and Planted Timber of Iowa. U. S. Forest Service, Circular 154. Baxer, H. P., and A. T. Erwiy. Evergreens for the Iowa Planter. Iowa State College, Bulletin go. Ciotuter, G. L. Advice to Forest Planters in Oklahoma, etc. U.S. Forest Service, Bulletin 65. FETHEROLF, J. M. Forest Planting on the Northern Prairies. U. S. Forest Service, Circular 145. Kettoce, R. S. Forest Planting in Western Kansas. U. S. Forest Service, Circular 171. Kettoce, R.S. Forest Planting in Ilinois. U.S. Forest Service, Circular 81. Miter, F.G. Forest Planting in the North Platte and South Platte Valleys. U.S. Forest Service, Circular rog. Miter, F. G. Forest Planting in Eastern Nebraska. U. S. Forest Service, Circular 45. Watpron, C. B. Windbreaks and Hedges. North Dakota Agricultural College, Bulletin 88. CHAPTER XX. NORTHERN ROCKY MOUNTAIN FOREST. Location and Boundary. — The northern Rocky Mountain forest lies along the northern half of the main continental divide and its outlying ranges and foothills. It includes central Montana, southern Idaho, eastern Oregon, most of Wyoming, northern Colorado, northeastern Utah and small portions in western South Dakota and Nebraska. It is separated from the prairie or fringe forest by a narrow belt of plains which are treeless except along the immediate banks of the rivers and large streams. This forest region for the most part occupies the mountain slopes above 4000 to 5000 feet in elevation and running up 323 324 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY to timber line at gooo to 11,000 feet above sea level. The lower elevations included in the inter-mountain valleys and plains are treeless, and only require irrigation to make them very fertile agricultural lands. The topography is uniformly rugged and steep. Most of the principal rivers of the West, flowing both to the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, have some of their sources in this region. Stream protection to prevent floods and furnish an equal flow for irrigation purposes is therefore of the utmost importance. The precipitation varies from about 12 to 20 inches per annum. The climate may be characterized as severe, giving a short growing season to the tree growth. High elevations, together with a small amount of rainfall and severe winds, render this region rather unfavorable for the best forest con- ditions. A large portion of the forested area has been set aside by the government in National Forests, so that the dual purpose of stream protection and timber production is being well taken care of. Private timber holdings are rather small in extent and have little influence on the national timber supply. The chief industries of this region are stock raising and mining which are largely developed in connection with the National Forests. In fact many of the National Forests in this region are largely ‘‘ Grazing Forests.” Forest Characteristics. — The forest is largely composed of yellow pine and lodgepole pine, together with a small amount of Douglas fir, Engelmann spruce and a few minor species, such as alpine fir, limber pine and white bark pine at the high elevations and Colorado blue spruce, aspen, etc. Probably 90 per cent of the timber is composed of western yellow pine and lodgepole pine, each growing usually in pure stands, the former at the lower elevations and the latter at the higher elevations. In central Montana, Wyoming, 325 NORTHERN ROCKY MOUNTAIN FOREST E PINE. E LODGEPOL — TypiIcaL STAND OF PuR Or. Fic This species seldom grows over 2 feet in diameter or 80 feet in height but ] tree of the northern rincipa. Itis the p averages about 8,000 board feet per acre. Rocky Mountains. 326 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY eastern Idaho and northern Colorado there are vast pure stands of lodgepole pine ranging from 6000 to gooo feet above sea level. The stands average about 8000 board feet per acre and seldom run over 16,000 feet. This pine never grows over 26 inches in diameter and about 70 to 1oo feet in height but the trees stand closely together and acres containing 200 mer- chantable trees are common. It grows in even-aged stands and reproduces especially well on burns. The cones require considerable heat for opening but when once started by a fire a dense reproduction follows, stands of 50,000 young seedlings per acre being common. Yellow pine grows in open park-like stands and is usually found along the lower elevations and southerly aspects. Stands of pure yellow pine are characteristic of the Black Hills of South Dakota, southern Idaho and along the eastern slopes of the Rockies in Colorado and Montana. This tree usually occurs in even-aged groups and good merchantable stands run from 5000 to 15,000 feet per acre. The Douglas fir is occasionally mixed in with both the lodgepole pine and the yellow pine. The occurrence of spruce is governed wholly by the presence of moisture, therefore it is found along streams, seepage flows and even at high eleva- tions where sufficient moisture is afforded. Alpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) and limber pine (Pinus flexilis) are the typical alpine species found at timber line and just below timber limits. Altogether the forest in this region may be characterized by unusually slow growth, due to the severe climate, relatively small size and variety of tree growth, abundant natural re- production of the lodgepole pine, and the broken nature of the forest due to areas above timber line, open parks at high elevations and sage brush valleys and plains between moun- tain ranges. NORTHERN ROCKY MOUNTAIN FOREST 327 Silvicultural Treatment. — Although not of great impor- tance in contributing to the nation’s timber supply, the forests of this region are of considerable local importance in supplying mine timbers, railway ties and timbers for local consumption in small town and homestead development. Fairly intensive methods of silvicultural treatment are therefore justified. Although the lodgepole pine is an intol- erant tree growing in even-aged stands and consequently is adapted to management by one of the clear cutting methods, it was found that on account of the windthrow of seed trees left after clear cutting and the lack of demand for the smaller trees, the selection system was best suited to these pure lodgepole pine stands. It was found that by piling and burning the brush on timber sales, and by cutting it down to an elastic diameter limit, satisfactory reproduction is established. On the Deerlodge National Forest in Montana practically every system of management was experimented with and the selec- tion system has recently proven to give the best results. On small timber sales, the government usually allows the logger to cut down to a minimum diameter limit of about ten to twelve inches. The spruce and alpine fir stands are ideally adapted to management under the selection system because they are tolerant trees and grow in all-aged stands. In addition, the forest cover is best maintained for protection purposes under the selection system. Douglas fir in this region is also cut under the selection system. On account of its more rapid growth and the excelient character of its wood, it is favored wherever possible as against lodgepole pine and other asso- ciates. Western yellow pine is handled under the selection system. In the Black Hills a rough adaptation of the shel- terwood system has been used. Owing to the large amount and size of the burns in this region, planting must be resorted to in order to fully stock 328 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY the available areas. Best success is being obtained with western yellow pine, western white pine and Douglas fir. Under ordinary conditions the Forest Service is securing satisfactory natural reproduction on the timber sale cuttings on the National Forests. Practically all forestry work is being done by the government. Protection. — The whole northern Rocky Mountains have suffered very severely from forest fires in the past. Indians and the railroads have been the most serious causes of fires and on some of the National Forests as much as 60 per cent of the total area has been burned over. Crown fires are most common. When once started, the fire burns everything in its path, due to the dense coniferous stands, steep slopes and hot dry summers. Lodgepole pine has suffered especially in this respect. In the yellow pine types, grass fires are more common and consequently not so disastrous in their effects. The Forest Service is gradually securing most efficient pro- tection through proper brush disposal on logging operations, and by means of look-out points, telephones, trails, and special equipment for preventing and controlling fires. Windfall is very prevalent in the lodgepole pine forest. Owing to its dense habit of growth and shallow root system it is readily blown over by the wind. In marking trees for felling care is taken not to leave trees alone or improperly protected on exposed sites. The western pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosa) has done enormous damage to the western yellow pine, especially in the Black Hills of South Dakota where large areas have had to be cut to prevent the further spread of this insect. The whole system of management in fact has been moulded around this attack and active measures are being adopted to pre- vent its spread to other forests and suppress the present outbreak. NORTHERN ROCKY MOUNTAIN FOREST 329 Utilization. — As mentioned before, most of the forest products are demanded for local consumption. The mines and railroads require considerable amounts of mine timbers and cross-ties. The Butte mining district requires the output of timber of most of its surrounding forested area. The lodgepole pine, except for its non-durability, makes an excellent mine and tie timber because of its natural size, for these purposes. The whole region contains large numbers of portable saw- mills, cutting lumber and timbers for local consumption. Very little lumber is shipped to outside territory. Lodgepole pine is used principally for mine props, stulls, lagging, cross-ties and rough lumber. Western yellow pine makes an excellent all around lumber for finishing and general purposes. Douglas fir is used for ties, poles, posts, construc- tion timbers and general lumber. Stumpage prices are still relatively low but with the in- creased development of the region, especially in population, the timber resources will be in great demand. The average stumpage prices received at the present time on the National Forests in this region are about as follows: For western yellow pine, $2 to $3; for lodgepole pine, $1.50 to $2.50; for Douglas fir, $2.50; for Engelmann spruce, $3. Much of the open timbered areas are grazed by cattle and sheep; in fact much of the government revenue is obtained from grazing fees at present from many of the National Forests, especially in Wyoming, central Montana and south- ern Idaho. Special Problems. — The forestry problems of this region may be summarized as follows: 1. The regulation of the stream flow for irrigation, reser- voir and hydro-electric purposes, as well as to prevent erosion and floods, is of prime importance, especially at the sources of the principal streams flowing out of this section. 330 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY The prevention of forest fires, together with the reforest- ation of the burned areas, are of great immediate importance and are gradually being solved. Future of Forestry in Region. — Although not one of the most important forest regions in the country, the northern Rockies will always serve an important purpose in supplying timber for the mines, railroads, ranches and the rapidly in- creasing building in the towns and cities. The forests are already under excellent management by the Forest Service and there is every reason to believe that this region will assume greater importance in fulfilling its part of the forestry program of the country. Due to the northerly climate, low rainfall, short growing season and high altitudes, the growth of the trees is slow. The rotation for the management of lodgepole pine will be from 80 to 140 years; Douglas fir is somewhat more rapid in its growth and can be handled on a rotation of about 70 to 120 years. It does not grow here nearly as rapidly as on the Pacific slope. Western yellow pine usually does not attain the size here that it does on the Pacific coast or even in the Southwest and will require a rotation of about 80 to 130 years. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Bates, C. G. Silvicultural Systems of Management for Central Rocky Mts. Forests. Proc. Soc. Amer. Foresters. Vol. 7, No. 1, 1912. Bates, C. G., F. B. Noteste1n, and PETER KrEptincer. Climatic Charac- teristics of Forest Types in the Central Rocky Mts. Proc. Soc. Amer. Foresters. Vol. IX, No. 1, 1914. Biumer, J. C. Rocky Mt. Seedling Growth. Forestry Quarterly, No. 2. Vol. IV, 1906. Brown, Netson C. Reproduction of Lodgepole Pine in Relation to its Man- agement. Forestry Quarterly, No. 1. Vol. X, 1912. Cuare, E. H. Silvicultural Systems for Western Yellow Pine. Proc. Soc. Amer. Foresters. Vol. VII, No. 2, 1912. NORTHERN ROCKY MOUNTAIN FOREST 331 Crements, F. E. The Life History of Lodgepole Burn Forests. U. S. Forest Service, Bulletin 79. Hopson, E. R. Silvical Notes on Lodgepole Pine. Proc. Soc. Amer. Forest- ers. Vol. III, No. 1, 1908. Hopson, E. R., and J. H. Foster. Englemann Spruce in the Rocky Mts. U.S. Forest Service, Circular 170. LErBERG, J.B. Forest Conditions in the Absaroka Division of the Yellowstone Reserve. U.S. Geological Survey. Prof. Paper 29. CHAPTER XXI. SOUTHERN ROCKY MOUNTAIN FOREST. Location and Boundary. — The forest region designated as the Southern Rocky Mountain forest occupies the southern portion of the continental divide, together with its associated high plateaus and ranges. It is bordered on the south by Mexico and extends north to central Colorado and southern Idaho. It includes the forested portions of Arizona, New Mexico, southern Colorado, most of Utah, northeastern Nevada and a small strip in southern Idaho. There is no distinct line of demarkation between this region and the northern Rocky Mountain forest but it is separated 332 SOUTHERN ROCKY MOUNTAIN FOREST 333 from it because of the preponderance of the western yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa —also called yellow pine and bull pine) which comprises about go per cent of all the merchant- able timber of this region. The largest pure pinery in the world is said to exist in New Mexico and Arizona. The region is characterized by relatively high elevations, broad desert plateaus between the mountain ranges, hot dry climate and rainfall exceedingly low (from 5 to 20 inches per annum). The principal industry of the region is grazing. Lumbering, however, is on the rapid increase and copper and coal mining are somewhat important in certain centers. Agriculture has been of little consequence in the past, but with several irri- gation projects initiated, fruit farming and general ranching are assuming greater importance, especially in Arizona and portions of New Mexico, Utah and southern Colorado. Most of the forested areas are in the National Forests, as is the case in all the western regions. The government is therefore paying special attention to stream protection and to the permanent upkeep of the sheep and cattle ranges, as well as to timber production. Forestry is therefore closely allied to the principal industries of the region, including grazing, mining, agriculture and lum- bering. Forest Characteristics. — The commercial stands of timber lie higher in the mountains in this region than in any other region. There is practically ‘no forest growth below elevations of about sooo eet. At this altitude a few desert plants and trees are first noted. The yellow pine stands occupy the mountain slopes between elevations of about 6000 and 8500 feet. Above this are found the transitional and alpine growths in which many species are present. Timber limits are found higher here than anywhere else in the country, the 334 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY extreme being an elevation of about 12,400 feet. The forest growth is therefore largely determined by altitudinal and meteorological qualifications. The forest may be best described by subdividing it into the following distinct types that are typical throughout Arizona and New Mexico especially: 1. Woodland or pinon pine type. This occurs just above the sage brush deserts, usually at elevations of from 5000 to 6000 feet. It is not commercially important and acts as a fringe between the open deserts and the merchantable stands of yellow pine at higher elevations. The principal growth is composed of groups of juniper and pinon pine (Pinus edulis and pinus monophylla) together with some mesquite, (Prosopis juliflora) greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus) and others, among which are Gambel oak, cedar and cypress. 2. Yellow pine type. This occurs usually at elevations of 6000 to 8500 feet and embraces the bulk of the merchantable timber of the region. The stands are characterized by open park-like growth as in the southern pine stands. Occasion- ally aspen and Engelmann spruce are intermixed at the higher altitudes. Stands of merchantable timber will aver- age from 3000 to 5000 board feet per acre. Yellow pine here averages about 18 inches in diameter and about 7o feet in height. Occasional stands up to 30,000 board feet per acre are found. 3. Transitional or fir type. This is a comparatively nar- row belt occurring at elevations of 8500 to 9500 feet and composed largely of a mixture of Douglas fir, white fir, Engelmann spruce, a few yellow pine and limber pine. 4. Alpine type. This is found at the highest limits of timber growth, from about 9,500 up to 12,400 feet in eleva- tion. It is important chiefly for protection purposes. The chief trees are white fir, Arizona fir, bristle-cone pine, limber SOUTHERN ROCKY MOUNTAIN FOREST 335 pine, aspen and Engelmann spruce. Pure stands of the last- named species are common. Altogether the southern Rocky Mountain forest is charac- terized by exceedingly slow growth, dominance of yellow pine, difficulty of securing reproduction and the fact that the principal forest growth is limited to the higher elevations and northerly aspects. Fic. 62. — OPEN GRAZING LAND AND ALPINE FOREST. Taken at elevation of 10,000 feet. Holy Cross National Forest, Colorado. Silvicultural Treatment.— The important question in silvicultural management is the securing of a satisfactory reproduction when the forest is cut over in the government timber sales. The hot dry summers and the comparatively low annual rainfall render reproduction exceedingly difficult. In handling the yellow pine, the selection system is used. 336 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY This tree, however, usually grows in this region, in even-aged groups, so that the group selection system is employed. The tops and brush are lopped and scattered on the ground to assist in shading the soil and therefore in aiding the germina- tion and initial growth of the desired reproduction. The other types are not of much importance from the stand- point of timber production and therefore receive little silvi- cultural attention. The pinon type supplies a little fuel and post material and whenever the transitional or fir zone is cut, it is handled on the single selection system, cutting down to a minimum diameter limit of about 10 to 13 inches. There is considerable over-mature timber in the Southwest and large timber sales are being conducted to remove the over-ripe trees and organize the forests on a definite system of regulating the annual cut according to the annual growth. A rotation of between 160 and 200 years is necessary to pro- duce yellow pine trees of good saw timber size. Measurements show that the average tree of 20 inches in diameter is about 200 years of age. Protection. — The two important phases of forest protec- tion in this region are stream protection and forest fires. Stream protection has been briefly mentioned already and its importance to irrigation, municipal reservoirs, hydro- electric power plants, as well as to prevent erosion and floods, is at once obvious. Cloudbursts are common in this section, and streams which are dry the greater part of the year are often suddenly turned into raging torrents so that this matter is of especial moment. Forest fires are usually ground fires burning in the grass on the forest floor. They are rather easily controlled. In the fir and alpine types, however, considerable damage has been done to the forests by crown fires which in places have left thousands of acres a barren waste. In a recent year SOUTHERN ROCKY MOUNTAIN FOREST 337 over 100,000 acres were burned over. Campers and light- ning are the most serious causes of fires. Comparatively little damage is suffered from insects and fungi. Utilization. — The chief forest product is yellow pine lumber. More than enough is furnished to supply the local demands so that it is shipped to the East and to Southern California. Yellow pine lumber is of excellent quality for all around purposes and is used for a great variety of uses. A great deal of box lumber is cut for the fruit trade. Altogether utilization is quite complete because the for- ests are somewhat scattered and broken and the small materials can be successfully utilized for fuel, fence posts, box boards, ranch timbers, mine timbers, etc. Most of the lumber is cut on large logging operations, as opposed to the situation in the northern Rockies. Experiments have shown that yellow pine may be an im- portant source of our turpentine, rosin and other naval stores in the future when our southern pineries are exhausted. Special Problems. The greatest single problem in for- estry is to secure a satisfactory natural reproduction of the forests when cut over and to establish new forests on burns by planting and seeding. The maintenance of proper grazing conditions is also of the highest importance to insure the stable continuance of this large industry. Stream protection and the control of fires also receives proper attention by the officers of the Forest Service. Future of Forestry in the Region. — The Southwest will never be an important and great forest region in the sense of being a large producing center and source of the nation’s timber supply. But locally forestry will always be important because of its close association with the grazing, mining and 338 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY agriculture of this region. Several of the National Forests are already on a self-supporting basis and an excellent policy has been inaugurated by the Forest Service for the future care of the forestry problems incident to this region. BIBLIOGRAPHY. LeIBERG, J. B., Rixon and DopWELL. Forest Conditions in the San Francisco Mts. Reserve. U.S. Geological Survey. Prof. Paper 22. Moore, BARRINGTON. Management of Western Yellow Pine in the South- west. Forestry Quarterly No. I. Vol. 10, 1912. Pearson, G. A. Reproduction of Western Yellow Pine in the Southwest. U.S. Forest Service, Circular 174. Priummer, F. G.andM.G.Gowse1z. Forest Conditions in the Lincoln Forest Reserve, New Mexico. U.S. Geological Survey. Prof. Paper 33. Wootsry, T.S., Jr. Western Yellow Pine in Arizona and New Mexico. U.S. Forest Service, Bulletin ror. Wootsey, T. S., Jr. Preliminary Forest Management in the Southwest. Proc. Soc. Amer. Foresters. Vol. IV, No. 1, 1909. CHAPTER XXII. PACIFIC COAST FOREST. Location and Boundary. — The Pacific coast forest is the most heavily wooded and produces trees of the largest size in the world. It lies chiefly west of the Cascade and Sierra Nevada Mountains in Washington, Oregon and California and also includes northern Idaho and western Montana. The heavy, dense stands are explained by the favorable climatic influences, such as an equably warm temperature, a heavy precipitation, uniformly distributed, and a long grow- ing season. The precipitation varies from only a few inches in southern California to nearly too inches on the Olympic peninsula of the north coast. Elevations run up to over 339 340 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY 14,000 feet at several peaks on the main ranges. The soils and slopes are generally very conducive to the best forest growth. This region contains practically one half of the remaining stand of timber in this country. Approximately 1200 bil- lion board feet of timber are still to be cut in the Pacific coast forests. Oregon contains more of this timber than any other state. Washington is now the leading state in the country in amount of timber cut. Douglas fir, the principal tree, is only exceeded in yearly output by the southern yellow pines. Although the largest portion of the timbered area. is in the National Forests, much of the most valuable stands, including practically all the redwood and the best of the Douglas fir, are in the hands of the private interests and the railroads. The Southern Pacific Railroad Co. is the largest single owner of timber in the country. Its holdings were acquired through the early railroad land grant acts. All of the states included in this region have taken an active interest in forestry work, especially in the work of fire protection. Even private lumbermen have been very active in this work. Instruction in forestry is also offered in state educational institutions in every state. Lumbering is by far the most important industry although fruit ranching and the stock industry are of considerable im- portance as well. Forest Characteristics.— The forest may be generally characterized as follows: 1. It is almost entirely coniferous. 2. There is a great variety of species, the principal ones being Douglas fir, western yellow pine, redwood, sugar pine, western red cedar, western white pine, hemlock and Sitka spruce. PACIFIC COAST FOREST 341 3. The largest stands in the world are found here. The redwood occurs up to 35 feet in diameter and 350 feet in Fic. 63. — A Heavy Stanp or Douctas Fir IN WESTERN WASHINGTON. Trees are frequently found up to r2 feet in diameter and 250 feet in height. It is adapted to management by the clear-cutting system. height; the Douglas fir is found up to 12 feet in diameter and 250 feet in height, and the sugar and yellow pines, cedars, spruces and others attain a large size. The average 342 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY merchantable stand runs from 40,000 to 60,000 board feet per acre in Washington. Many stands are found that run sev- eral hundred thousand board feet per acre. 4. Growth is unusually rapid and natural reproduction is readily secured. There are three distinct subdivisions of the Pacific coast forest, as follows: The northern Douglas fir region, the California sugar pine, yellow pine region and the northern Idaho western white pine region. They are sufficiently im- portant to justify a brief description of each, as follows: 1. Northern Douglas fir region. This is the most impor- tant and heavily wooded subdivision. There are several distinct types prevailing in this section which includes for the most part western Washington and western Oregon. On the lower slopes and moist bottomlands is found the best timber, composed largely of Douglas fir. Sitka spruce and western red cedar (giant arborvite) occur on the moist situ- ations and swamps, and hemlock and amabilis fir on the better drained soils in association with the Douglas fir. On the upper slopes are found the white, grand and noble firs and hemlock and in some localities, the western white pine, Lawson cypress (Port Orford cedar) Engelmann spruce and others. There are many variations of these types and sub- types in the different parts of this region. 2. The California sugar pine-yellow pine region. This is found largely in California and southern Oregon. It reaches its best development on the western slopes of the Sierras. The climate is warmer, the growing season longer and there is much less rainfall than in western Washington. There are several types in this sub-region. Along the California coast above San Francisco Bay and along the western slopes of the coast range occur the heavy stands of redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) together with some sugar 343 PACIFIC COAST FOREST “wiaysAs UONIaIIS OY} JapuN 4nd Bulaq SIq][ ‘SIAL VAICIS 9} Jo Sodojs us9}saa\ ay} UO quouidojaaap ysaq Si saydver }[ = *}S9A4 OY} Ul JaJTUOD paynquysIp AjapIM soul Yq SI SIT, ‘VINSOdIIVD NJ ANIQ MOTIAA NATLISTA\ — ‘FO “OTA 344 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY pine, incense cedar, Sitka spruce, Douglas fir and grand fir. Most of this is in the hands of the lumbermen. Throughout the remainder of the region is found a foothill type at elevations up to about 1500 feet. It is of little im- portance from a commercial viewpoint. The principal species are live oak, digger pine, scrubby yellow pine and much chaparral growing in open poor stands. Above this type occurs the yellow pine-sugar pine stands embracing the bulk of the commercial timber of California and southern Oregon, outside of the redwood. It runs up to about gooo feet in elevation. The stands average from about 10,000 to 50,000 board feet to the acre. There are some incense cedar, Douglas fir and white fir intermixed and on the upper slopes and higher elevations there are also white fir, lodgepole pine and red fir. Within this type are 27 iso- lated bodies of redwood (Sequoia washingtonia). The alpine type is composed of short scrubby specimens of lodgepole, limber and white bark pines and hemlock up to timber line. 3. The northern Idaho-western white pine region. This is found largely in northern Idaho, with extensions in north- western Montana and northeastern Washington. The prin- cipal tree is western white pine with a great variety of others, principal among which are western larch, western red cedar, Douglas fir, yellow pine, Engelmann spruce, etc. The trees do not grow to such a large size as on the Pacific slope, but the mild, moist climate causes a dense heavy growth and stands running up to 150,000 board feet per acre are found. The principal type is a mixed bottomland growth dominated by the white pine (Pinus monticola). Other common types are the-larch type, the yellow pine type and the alpine type, con- taining alpine fir and limber pine. Silvicultural Treatment. — Very little silviculture has been practiced on the Pacific coast forest for the reason that com- PACIFIC COAST FOREST 348 paratively few sales have been made on the National Forests. This is so because the private operators are cutting so heavily that up to the present time there has been little demand for the government timber which lies usually in rather inaccessi- ble locations. Fic. 65. — WESTERN WHITE PINE — WESTERN LarcH TyPE IN NORTHERN IpanHo. Stands up to 150,000 board feet per acre are common on the moist bottom- lands and lower slopes. In the foreground is a squared log, hewed by hand for export. However, the Douglas fir types are best handled on some clear-cutting system. Seed trees are left singly or in groups and reproduction is readily secured because of the favorable conditions for germination and the thrifty seeding capacity of the Douglas fir. The brush is burned broadcast or in piles. The immense size of the trees and the breakage in felling 346 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY would not permit of the use of any other system even if it were better adapted to the habits of the tree. The western yellow pine and sugar pine are best handled under the selection system. The brush is generally piled and burned although lopping and scattering are also resorted to. The western white pine has been handled in the past by clear cutting and leaving seed trees in groups on high eleva- tions. Owing to its excellent reproductive ability, rapid growth and ability of its seed to germinate on a humous soil, it is also being handled under the selection system. This whole region is remarkable for the rapid growth and splendid reproductive capacity of its principal trees, thus rendering the practice of forestry a comparatively simple problem. The climatic and soil conditions are highly con- ducive to forest growth, especially in the northern part of this region. The whole question of forest management seems to depend upon an efficient system of fire protection. That is, if fires are excluded, the forests will reproduce them- selves to splendid advantage. In Washington and Oregon, planting will have to be resorted to less than in any other region. Douglas fir exhibits remarkably rapid growth in second growth stands. In unusual cases, trees have been found to be forty inches in diameter at forty years of age. This tree can be successfully managed on a rotation of from forty to seventy years. Yellow pine grows to a larger size in California than in any other region. It can be managed along with sugar pine on a rotation of from 60 to 100 years. Second growth redwoods also exhibit a fairly rapid growth. Redwood sprouts to some degree and there is a possibility of using the coppice system to some extent with this tree. Red cedar, hemlock and spruce, the other most important trees of this region, are com- PACIFIC COAST FOREST 347 paratively slow growers but they are all tolerant trees and can therefore fit in nicely in forest management, often as a second story to Douglas fir which is fairly light demanding in its requirements. Protection. — As mentioned before fire protection assumes the greatest importance in this region because, with it assured, forest management is a comparatively simple problem. Al- though characterized by a heavy rainfall, in unusually dry seasons, the fire risk is great, especially in Oregon, Washing- ton and northern Idaho, because of the heavy coniferous stands, dense underbrush and the leaf mould on the forest floor. Crown fires are therefore very disastrous when once started. In California the yellow pine stands are more open in their growth so that grass fires are the more common kind. The lumbermen of this region have formed several protec- tive associations and are very much alive to the installation of proper protective measures. They have codperated with the Forest Service, and the region is now being handled most efficiently by means of fire patrol, lookout stations and towers, fire trails and telephones. All of the states have good fire laws on their statutes and altogether this region is better administered from the standpoint of fire protection than any other region. Trametes pini and other fungi have done a lot of damage to the Douglas fir, western yellow pine and other trees. The black rot attacks the hemlock very seriously. Owing to the moist conditions here, the work of the fungi is more serious than in any other region. Insects have done considerable damage in California but the Forest Service is combatting them with success. The regulation of the stream flow for irrigation, reservoir and electric power plants is of prime importance here, owing to the population and the number of relatively large towns 348 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY and cities. Irrigation for the fruit districts of California, Washington and Oregon is of especial interest. Utilization. — This region is really the great “‘ storehouse ” of the nation’s timber supply, owing to the fact that nearly one half of the remaining timber supply of the country is to be found here. Up to the present time very rough and extensive utilization has characterized the lumber operations in this section. Lumber has been cheap and plentiful, with the natural result that most trees are cut down to a diameter of only 12 inches or more in the tops and only the best material is utilized. Some of the largest logging operations in the country are located here. Steam logging is typical throughout the forests because horses are not able to move the enormously large logs. The logging operations are characterized by waste- fulness in high stumps, large and broken tops and the damage to the young growth. The principal lumber trees at present are Douglas fir, western yellow pine, redwood, sugar pine, spruce, red cedar, hemlock, incense cedar, yellow cypress, fir and white pine. Owing to their relative abundance, lumber of all species is cheap and therefore close utilization is impossible. How- ever, several paper plants, wood distillation plants and box- board factories are being installed in connection with the larger plants to utilize the waste. The chief forms of waste are the large slabs, sawdust and the tops and broken material in the woods. Douglas fir is largely cut into lumber, construction timbers and railroad ties. Its wood is strong, durable and of high technical value. Cedar is the great shingle wood, producing about 75 per cent of all the shingles used in this country. Western yellow pine and sugar pine produce high-grade lum- ber. Redwood lumber is the most fire resistant of any wood PACIFIC COAST FOREST 349 and therefore furnishes excellent house construction lumber. It is also used for grape stakes, boxboards and railroad ties. To summarize, the situation in utilization is characterized as follows: (1) This is a great lumber production center. (2) It produces a large number of high-grade timber trees. (3) It produces the largest size construction timbers avail- able anywhere. — (4) Utilization is not complete because of the great supply of lumber and therefore its cheapness. Special Problems. — The special problems are as follows: (1) The establishment of an efficient fire protection. The high value of the large timbered areas renders the expenditure of a few cents per acre every year a cheap form of fire insur- ance. (2) The closer utilization of forest products. This will be solved with the increased value of lumber and the introduc- tion of means of more completely utilizing the wood for paper, chemical distillates and products, boxboards, fruit packages, veneers, cooperage and the manufacture of small wooden articles. Future of Forestry in Region. — The future of this region is unusually good because of its abundant timber supply, rapid growth of its principal species, rapidly growing population, large percentage of true forest soils and a general public interest in the welfare of lumbering, the chief industry which depends upon the permanence of the forest for its existence. The manifestation of this interest through the passing of good forest and fire laws, the establishment of forestry courses in the state educational institutions and the formation of the fire protective associations, together with the work of the Forest Service, all assure a most hopeful future for the most impor- tant single forest region in the country. 350 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY BIBLIOGRAPHY. Berry, Swirt. Notes on Management of Redwood Lands. Vol. VI, No. 1. Proc. Soc. Amer. Foresters, 1911. Burns, FINDLEY. The Olympic National Forest; Its Resources and Their Management. U. S. Forest Service, Bulletin 89. Burns, Frnprey. The Crater National Forest; Its Resources and Their Conservation. U.S. Forest Service, Bulletin too. Cooper, A. W. Sugar Pine and Western Yellow Pine in California. U. S. Forest Service, Bulletin 69. Frotuincuam, E.H. Douglas Fir; A Study of the Pacific Coast and Rocky Mt. Forms. U.S. Forest Service, Circular 150. GreELEy, W. B. A Rough System of Management for Reserve Lands in the Western Sierras. Proc. Soc. Amer. Foresters. Vol. II, No. 1, 1907. Krrxianp, B. P. Working Plans for National Forests in the Pacific North- west. Proc. Soc. Amer. Foresters. Vol. VI, No. 1, ror. LErBERG, J. B. Forest Conditions in the Northern Sierra Nevada, California. U.S. Geological Survey. Prof. Paper 8. Mason, D. T. Management of Western White Pine. Proc. Soc. Amer. Foresters. Vol. EX, No. 1, 1914. Moncer, T. T. The Growth and Management of Douglas Fir in the Pacific Northwest. U.S. Forest Service, Circular 175. Mouncer, T.T. Natural vs. Artificial Regeneration in the Douglas Fir Region of the Pacific Coast. Proc. Soc. Amer. Foresters. Vol. VII, No. z, 1912. SupwortH, G. B. Forest Trees of the Pacific Slope. U.S. Forest Service, Unnumbered Bulletin. APPENDIX. ORIGINAL AND PRESENT ForREST AREAS IN THE UNITED STATES. Original forest. Present forest. Regi Ce a N | “ ~ ceIOn Per cent Per cent Area, | Stand,| Area. | Stand. | of original | of original area. stand. Million | Billion | Million | Billion acres. |ft.B.M.] acres. |ft. B. M. Per cent. | Per cent. Northern............... 150 | 1000 90 | 300 60 30 Southern............... 220 | 1000 | 150] 500 68 50 Central. oon eis casas 280 | 1400 | 130] 300 46 ar Rocky Mt.............. I1o0 | 400] 100] 300 QL 75 Pacific Slope............ go | 1400 80 | 1100 89 79 850 | 5200 | 550 | 2500 65 48 Forest Service Circular 166. The Timber Supply of the United States by R. S. Kellogg. 355 352 APPENDIX Usrs or THE PRINCIPAL AMERICAN SPECIES. Showing also the common and scientific names, distribution and maximum sizes. Maxi- . mum Common sad seo: diam- Distribution. Qualities and uses. eC MAMEs: eter and height.* Conifers. White or Weymouth | 6X250 } Maine to Minnesota and | Light, soft and easily worked. pine (Pinus sirobus). along Appalachians to Most useful American wood. Georgia. Not specialized in its uses. Longleaf, Georgia or-| 3X120 | Virginia to Texas along | Hard, heavy, strong, durable, hard pine (Pinus pa- coastal plain. and resinous. Used in con- lustris). struction, ties, flooring, and general lumber. Source of our naval stores. Shortleaf or yellow pine | 4120 | New York south to | Fairly hard, heavy, and strong. (Pinus echinataz.) Texas. Also in Mis- Used with longleaf pine for sissippi Valley up to the same purposes. Missouri and Illinois. Cuban or slash pine | 3X115 | South Carolina to Loui- | Same qualities and uses as long- (Pinus heterophylla). siana along the coast. leaf pine. Loblolly or old field | 5xXz150 | From New Jersey along | Fairly heavy, coarse-grained, pine (Pinus taeda). coast to Texas and fairly durable. Used for gen- Arkansas. eral lumber and box boards. Western yellow or bull | 7200 | Found in every western | Fairly heavy, close-grained, pine (Pinus ponderosa). mountain state. easily worked. Used for lum- ber, construction timbers, ties and mine timbers. Red or Norway pine | 3X120 | Maine to Minnesota and | Medium between white and yel- (Pinus resinosa). south to Pennsylva- low pines in qualities. Used nia. for lumber. Sugar pine (Pinus lam- |12X250 | South Oregon and along | Same qualities and uses as bertiana). Sierras in California. white pine. Western white pine | 8X220| British Columbia to | Same qualities and uses as (Pinus monticola). California. Chiefly in white pine. North Idaho and western Montana. Lodgepole pine (Pinus |2} X100| Alaska to California and | Light, soft, weak, brittle, not murrvayana) Colorado. durable wood. Used locally for ties, mine timbers, and general lumber. Red ‘spruce (Picea ru- | 3100 | From valley of St. Law- | Light, soft, close-grained, not bens). rence south along Ap- durable. Used mostly for palachians to North paper pulp, sounding boards Carolina. and dimension timbers. Sitka spruce (Picea sil-|16X200 | Alaska to North Cali- | Light, soft, close and straight chensis). fornia on Pacific coast. grained. Used for lumber, cooperage, boats, pulp, and woodenware. Engelmann spruce | 5X1s0 | Through Rocky Moun- | Light, soft wood. Used for (Picea engelmanni). tains from Arizona to general lumber for local pur- British Columbia. poses. Douglas fir (Pseudo- |12X250 | Found in all western | Heavy, hard, durable, strong tsuga taxifolia). mountain states. wood. Used for lumber, con- struction, ties, shipbuilding. Hemlock (Tsuga cana- | 4X125 | Maine to Minnesota and | Soft, weak, brittle wood. Used densis). south on Appalachi- for coarse lumber and small ans to Georgia. dimension timbers. * Measurements are given in feet unless otherwise noted. APPENDIX 353 Users OF THE PRINCIPAL AMERICAN SPECIES. (Continued) Maxi- Common and scien- | 7U™ ata oeuna ae ‘ diam- Distribution. Qualities and uses. tific names. etecand height. Conifers. Western hemlock | 8X2so | Alaska to Californiaand | Light, hard, tough, not durable (Tsuga heterophylla). Montana. wood. Used for rough lum- ber and construction timbers. Tamarack or larch | zoin. | Newfoundland to_Min- Hard, heavy, strong and dur- (Larix laricina). X 60 ft. nesota, south to Penn- able. Used for ties, posts, sylvania. poles: ships, and rough lum- r. Western larch (Larix | 8X250 | British Columbia to | Very hard, heavy, strong, dur- occidentalis). Oregon and Montana. able and close-grained. Used for ties, construction timbers, and lumber. Balsam fir (Abies bal- | 30in. | Newfoundland to Min- | Light, soft, weak, perishable, samea). X 80 ft.| nesota, south to Vir- coarse-grained. Used for ginia. pulp, boxes and generally sold as spruce. Amabilis or white fir | 6Xz50 | On Pacific Coast. Ore- | Light, rather soft and weak. (Abies amabilis). gon to British Colum- Used for rough lumber, pack- 7 bia. ing cases, etc. Noble fir or larch | 8250 | On Pacific Coast, Wash- | Light, hard, strong wood. (Abies nobilis). ington to California. Used for lumber, construc- tion and cases. Red fir (Abies magni- |10X200 | Western slopes of the | Light, soft, rather weak. Used Sica.) Sierras. for rough lumber, construc- tion, and cases. Bald cypress (Taxodium |12X150 | Delaware to Texas along | Light, soft, durable, very work- distichum). coast and up to Illi- able. Used for ties, posts, nois and Indiana. cooperage, doors, shingles and inside trim. Big tree or redwood |35X320 | Western slopes of the | Light, soft, durable, weak (Sequoia washington- Sierras in California. wood. Used for shingles, tana). grape stakes, ties, and general lumber. Redwood (Sequoia sem- |20X350 | Northern California | Same qualities and uses as the pervirens). coast region. big-tree. Western red cedar or |15X200 | Alaska to Californiaand | Light, soft, very durable and giant arbor-vitz Montana. brittle. Used for shingles, (Thuja plicaia). posts, poles, cooperage and / lumber. Arbor-vite or white | 18in. | Nova Scotia to Minne- | Light, soft, brittle, very dur- cedar. (Thuja occi-| X Goft.| sota, south to North able. Used for shingles, dentalis) . Carolina. poles, posts. Incense cedar or white | 8X200 | Southern Oregon and | Soft, light, weak, brittle, but cedar (Libocedrus California. very durable. Used for shin- decurrens). gles, and general lumber. Port Orford cedar or |12X200 | Along Pacific Coast, | Light, hard, strong, and dur- Lawson's cypress Oregon and California. able. Used for flooring, ties, (Chamaecyparis law- ships, matches and lumber. soniana). Red cedar (Juniperus | 4X100 | Found everywhere east | Light, soft, and close-grained. virginiana). of the Rocky Moun- tains. Used for pencils, cabinets, posts and chests. 354 USES OF THE PRINCIPAL AMERICAN SPECIES. APPENDIX (Continued.) Maxi- . mum cor ee a diam- Distribution. Qualities and uses. ‘i eter and height. Hardwoods. 4X100 | Maine to Minnesota, | Hard, strong, durable, and sea- White oak (Quercus alba). south to the Gulf. sons well. Used for ships, furniture, ties, cooperage, veneers, flooring and cabinet work. Other oaks classed as white oaks and used for the same purposes are post, bur, rock, swamp these are found in the East white, cow and live oaks. All of Red oak (Quercus | 4X150 rubra). Nova Scotia to Minne- sota and south to Georgia and Kansas. Similar to white oak, but not as hard, strong or as durable. Used for furniture, ties, inte- tior finish and general hard- wood lumber. Other oaks classed as found in the East. red oaks and used for the same purposes are scarlet, pin, black, Spanish and water oaks. All are Sugar or hard maple | 5xX125 (Acer saccharum). White ash (Fraxinus | 5X100 americana). Shagbark hickory (Hi- | 4X125 coria ovata). Found everywhere east of the prairies. Newfoundland to Min- nesota, south to Gulf. Maine to Minnesota, south to Gulf. Hard, heavy, strong, tough, but not durable. Used for furniture, cabinets, tools, im- plements, instruments and flooring. Heavy, hard, tough, seasons well. Used for all kinds of implements, furniture, ball- bats, handles, yehicles, etc. Very heavy, hard, tough, and strong. Used for axe and tool handles, implements, vehi- cles, etc. Three other hickories (Hicoria alba, glabra, and minima) are also commonly used as hickory and, in general, exhibit the same qualities as the shagbark. All grow in the East. Yellow or red birch | 4100 (Betula lutea). Yellow poplar or tulip |10X200 (Liriodendron tulipi- Sera). Red gum or sweet gum |5} X150 (Liguidambar styraci- lua). Newfoundland to Min- nesota, south to North Carolina. Vermont to Florida, west to Michigan and Ar- kansas. Connecticut to Florida, west to Missouri and Texas. Heavy, very strong and hard and close-grained. Used for furniture, hubs, handles, flooring, veneers and interior finish. Light, soft, even texture, sea- sons well, not very durable. Used for interior finish, boats, woodenware and gen- eral hardwood lumber. Fairly heavy, satiny, difficult to season, cross-grained. Used mostly for veneers, cooperage, furniture, interior finish. APPENDIX 355 UsES OF THE PRINCIPAL AMERICAN SPECIES. (Concluded.) Maxi- é mum Gonmion ane scien- | diam- Distribution Qualities and uses. cone Mes: eter and height. Hardwoods. Black walnut (Juglans | 6X150 | New Brunswick to Min- | Light, soft, even-grained, sea- nigra). nesota and south to sons well, yields a beautiful the Gulf. polish. Used for furniture, veneers, cabinets, gun-stocks, and fancy hardwood articles. Butternut or white | 4125 | New Brunswick to Min- | Light, soft, coarse-grained. walnut (Juglans cin- nesota and south to | Used as substitute for black erea). Georgia and Arkansas walnut. Chestnut (Castanea den- \12X100 | Maine to Michigan, | Light, soft, coarse-grained, dur- tata). south to Mississippi able. Used for ties, poles, and Georgia. posts, mine props and gen- erallumber. Also for tannin. Beech (Fagus atropu- |4}X120 | Nova Scotia to Wiscon- | Very hard, heavy, strong and nicea). sin south to Florida tough, not durable, difficult and Texas. to season. Used for chairs, handles, woodenware, coop- erage, flooring, shoe lasts, etc. White elm (Ulmus |11X120 | Newfoundland to Rocky | Very heavy, hard, tough, cross- americana). Mountains, south to grained. sed for imple- the Gulf. ments, hubs, wagon parts, cooperage, handles, etc. Basswood or linden |4}X140 | New Brunswick to Min- | Light, soft, seasons excellently, (Tilia americana). nesota, south to Texas even-grained, tough. Use and Georgia. for woodenware, excelsior, cooperage, veneer backing, trunks and general lumber. Black or yellow locust. [33X90 | Pennsylvania to Geor- | Very hard, heavy, strong and gia, west to Minne- durable. Used for ships, in- sota and Oklahoma. sulator pins, wagon stock, posts and certain specialized uses. Sycamore or plane |12X170 | Found in every state | Heavy, hard, not durable, (Platanus occidentalis). east of the central cross-grained. Used for fur- prairies. niture, butcher’s blocks and small wooden articles and woodenware. Black or red cherry | 5X110| Same distribution as | Strong, hard, close-grained, sat- (Prunus serotina). sycamore. iny, very durable. Excellent cabinet wood. Used for fine furniture, interior finish, in- struments, cases, clocks, etc. Cottonwood (Populus | 8X100 | Found in every state | Soft, light, weak, cross-grained. deltoides). east of the Rocky Used for crates and boxes, Mountains. cooperage and cheap lumber. Swamp cottonwood or | 3X130 | Connecticut to Georgia, | Soft, light, even, straight- cottonwood (Populus west to Arkansas. grained. Seasons well. Used heterophylla). Found mostly in for general lumber purposes, South. boxes and crating, veneers and cooperage. ¢ 350 APPENDIX LOG RULES TABLE I. — SCRIBNER LOG RULE. (Decimal ‘‘ C.”’) Showing contents in board feet for the various log lengths. Diameter. 8 Io 12 14 16 Inches. Bd. ft. Bd. ft. Bd. ft. Bd. ft. Bad. ft. 6 0.5 I I I 2 7 I I 2 2 3 8 I 2 2 2 3 9 2 3 3 3 4 10 3 3 3 4 6 II 3 4 4 5 7 12 4 5 6 7 8 13 5 6 7 8& 10 14 6 7 9° Io IL 15 7 9 11 12 14 16 8 10 12 14 16 17 9 12 14 16 18 18 Ir 13 16 19 at 19 12 15 18 21 24 20 14 17 21 24 28 ey 15 19 23 27 30 22 17 2 25 29 33 23 19 23 28 33 38 24 21 25 3° 35 4° 25 23 29 34 4o 46 26 25 31 37 44 5° 27 27 34 41 48 55 28 29 36 44 5I 58 29 31 38 46 53 61 30 33 41 49 57 66 31 36 44 53 62 71 32 37 46 55 64 74 33 39 49 59 69 78 34 40 50 60 7O 80 35 44 55 66 77 88 From Forest Service Bulletin 36, Woodsman’s Handbook. The total scale is obtained by multiplying che figures in this table by ro. Thus, the contents of a 6-inch 8-foot log are given as 0.5, so the total scale is 5 board feet. A 30-inch 16-foot log is given as 66, or a total scale of 660 board feet. APPENDIX 357 TaBLe II. — Doyte Loc RULE. Showing contents in board feet for the various log lengths. Length in feet. Diameter in inches. 8 Io 12 14 16 Contents in board feet. 6 2.0 2.5 3.0 3:5 4 7 4.5 5.6 6.8 7-9 9 8 8 10 I2 14 16 9 12 16 19 22 25 Io 18 23 27 32 36 II 24 31 37 43 49 12 32 4o 48 56 64 13 40 50 61 71 81 14 50 62 75 88 100 15 60 75 QI 106 r2r 16 72 go 108 126 144 17 84 106 127 148 169 18 98 122 147 171 196 19 112 I4t 169 107 225 20 128 160 192 224 256 21 144 181 217 253 289 22 162 202 243 283 324 23 180 226 271 313 359 24 200 250 300 350 400 25 220 276 331 386 441 26 242 302 363 423 484 27 264 330 397 463 530 28 288 360 432 504 576 29 312 301 469 547 625 30 338 422 507 591 676 31 364 456 547 638 729 32 392 49° 588 686 784 33 420 526 631 736 841 34 450 562 675 787 goo 35 480 601 721 841 961 36 512 640 768 896 1024 : 358 APPENDIX TaBLeE III. — THE CHAMPLAIN LoG RULE. Showing contents in board feet for the various log lengths. : 8 Io 12 14 16 Diameter, inches. Contents in board feet. 4 4 5 6 7 8 5 7 9 10 12 I4 6 Il 14 17 19 22 7 16 20 24 28 32 8 2 27 32 38 43 9 28 35 42 49 56 10 35 44 53 62 70 Ir 43 54 65 76 87 12 52 65 78 92 105 13 62 78 93 10g 124 14 73 91 109 127 146 15 84 105 126 147 168 16 97 r2z 145 169 193 I7 IIo 137 165 192 219 18 124 155 186 217 247 19 130 173, 208 242 277 20 154 193 231 270 308 2r I7 213 256 299 341 22 188 235 282 320 376 23 206 258 309 361 412 24 225 282 338 394 450 25 245 306 368 429 490 26 266 332 399 465 532 27 287 359 431 503 575 28 310 387 465 542 620 29 333 416 499 583 666 30 357 446 535 625 714 31 382 477 573 668 764 32 407 509 611 qT2 814 33 434 543 651 760 868 34 462 577 692 808 923 35 490 612 735 857 980 From Bulletin 102, Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station. By Professor A. L. Daniels. APPENDIX 359 Sample Tally Sheet Used in Timber Estimating. Locality Type Date _______ No. Diam- ‘ Sale eter, ite] Re ‘em- ae pine. | oak. | lock. Beech.| Ash. igh. Inches. Io Ir 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 30 31 32 APPENDIX 9° ‘oO 9 ‘des quao Jag ‘yreq quad Jag “Iau quad Jag “4 Pq ‘AW “spo ‘A ‘JAL “ueys "A ‘A “ay “no “A ‘W qq “no ‘pa “A “ayno “A ‘1OJOV] WIOF “47 UID ay "SO ‘WH “37 "Y38I TD ey 43y JO] “sBulr ‘deg “ur ‘deg “ur ‘q:o'*"q “ur . | ‘ay t9as eS ‘qyauaT "sea A ‘aay oof 062 oge olz ogz osz ove ote Ooze NM+?TAMO HO AO a 2 n og 3 a *BUII 0} Ja}U89 WOI] SNIPeI VBeIaA UO SaYUI UT sDUeySICT SSOIQ ooz | 061 | ogr | OLT ogi ost orl ofl ozI orl 06 08 oL 99 os ov AMANO ™O AO a yey n or "99S (*-yno ainseaur ‘ut yUNO-:)) “BULL 0} 40]Ua2 WOI] SHIPeI BBUIIAG UO SaYOUT UT sour ISIC] SSOIQ ‘oN sav9adS ‘KULSAUO, JO ADATIOD ALVIS AUOA MAN ‘ada SSDIQ aad ad& I aj0q €114090T ‘saad {0 ylmosy fo ajvy ay] aumusajacy 07 SiSkjDUP mais ut sjuamadnsDayy 994] FuLpLoIay Ut pas— 1204S ajquvgy APPENDIX 361 TABLE IV.— VoLUME TABLE, IN BOARD FEET, FOR WHITE PINE IN MASSACHUSETTS. Scaled from rules made by mill tallies. Volume to 4-inch top and 3-foot stump. Diameter, Total height (feet). breast- _high (inches). 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Bd. ft. | Bd. ft. | Bd. ft. | Bd. ft. | Bd. ft.| Bd.ft. |° Bd. ft. Bd. ft. 5 Io eicesse ‘Il seein || wesc bo wete | eeeenné | ign ie: | aganey 6 I5 20 30. case || ace ||| ree | ekceagte! I) eee 7 20 3° 40 50 G5) seeei | pee eae. || ikemaets 8 25 35 50 65 Ge h sietetnn: | oe 2 ocak 9 Pak edcpeseenl 9 30 45 60 80 105 ELS, Il igcuadaitan | agaesnins Io 40 55 15 95 125 TAS it sisccascas? |) reussteestaaye It seed 65 go | 115 145 170 200 230 12 Sou 75 105 135 165 200 230 260 13 digi 85 120 155 Igo 235 260 205 14 me we || TOO 140 175 215 265 300 335 15 Sere: | SEES 160 200 245 300 340 375 16 sae. || Baws 180 230 275 335 380 420 17 seared M acess) tec 260 | 310 37° 425 470 18 sdskow Ut oe sace || Sees 295 | 350 410 475 530 19 baie dl areeeee | pate 335 390 455 530 600 20 hactege ath: Gpuisdbien” Ie ettcass 380 | 435 505 580 660 21 ois chets fa tested, |), seetases |S oats 480 550 635 720 22 rea hese ill Ueece ate hdoeente ly Kec 520 595 680 780 23 egies Ah Sete ee fly eeewnete lh ap caes 565 640 730 835 24 actate alt ale atah, Wt) desea Ie aan 600 690 780 890 25 imonbece All cesleiee i daitedal Peta Sat 645 740 830 940 26 gree d seee leet mies |) ise]! aes 885 995 27 Sdecrte ft Balte Peekeee Pe aNece Wl ead [tees des O40: | ek oe From ‘‘ The White Pine in Massachusetts.’’ By permission of the Mass. State Forester. TasLe V.— YIELD TABLE FOR WHITE PINE. Quality I. Quality II. Quality III. Age (years). A . . : 3 t-inch Cubic |} 1-inch Cubic || 1-inch Cubic boards. Cords. | ‘feet. || boards. Cords. feet. || boards. Cords. feet. 2080 6,750/ 16. 3750 || 12,500] 31. 5420 || 24,400] 49. 6590 || 32,800] 58. 7420 || 40,600} 64. 8035 || 46,500] 70. 8575 || 50,550] 74. 9975 || 53,200] 79. 9550 || 56,600] 83. 1300 || 3,975] 10.8 | 750 2740 7,500} 18.2 | 1400 4375 || 16,950) 35.8 | 3035 5300 |} 25,200! 46.2 | 4080 6075 || 32,100] 51.8 | 4785 6725 |) 37,550] 56.6 | 5475 7200 || 42,100] 60.8 | 6bo15 7655 || 44,550} 64.6 | 6340 8050 || 46,150| 68.4 | 6550 25 10,825] 25. 30 | 19,900] 44. 35 31,150] 60. 40 40,650! 70. 45 | 49,350] 78. 50 55,150] 84. 55 | 59,650) 89. 60 63,600] 93. 65 | 67,050] 97. KPH WODAAOH On wOMmOdn-. From “‘ The White Pine in Massachusetts."" By permission of the Mass. State Forester. APPENDIX 362 4 *1o}$2IOg 97wIG “SseY 94} JO UOISSIUNIAT Ag ,,"S}jasNYoesse Ul sug aNYM S4L,, Wo of 19t]) #loL*o&g of1'gb ||oo'g9S oo ZI < e09'9S |jo$- og ° oo Ips oSo'lo S9 of Sth 3 00° z0g 4 oSS‘ty |loo'zes 2 00° 901 8 ooz'€$ jloz: fod g oo'zlz1 4 009'£9 og e . 0g‘ gff og'Z4S4 |} ©) oor'zh |loS-SoS}} 8] co'o16 OSS'o$ |lo$g6S 2 oo" £611 oSg‘6S | S$ ov‘ oof Borer 8 OSStLe |loo: Sor 00° L£g 2 ooS'gb |1o$-18S | 8 ol 266 es oS1'Ss | of og*gSz 8 og LLS oor'ze jlog bz og ofL 9 ocog‘ob jjog'v6e of 9gg 6 oSf'6b Sy og" Loz oz for o0z'Sz |lov*zgz Le ob 06S o0gizl jjoz' Sze. of 164 8 oSg‘or ob , 6 oL* Tor oz‘ iL #) of6'g1 |loz* S61 oz OEP oot'bz |loz 6rz ob 36h oS1‘1f se # = # 2 00'St 00" 021 8 | 0084 jloo'S4 |] | 00-002 . OoS'zr |joh'611/) «| 6r-gré . 006'61 of Sg: fzg : 09° fog SL6‘E |loS ‘obg 8 00° gorg 8 oSL'g — jloo Soy 8 oz lig 7 Szg‘o1 Sz ll “| aepa tied “| capa ___ |cuPa wsattg| [ats | | eeren | ciel He] ay | gE | come [als] Ie] a [ae] emma |, aay TIT Aven “IT Avyend "T Arend ‘aNIQ GLIHAA UOT AAV], ATHIA ATNOWT— ‘IA FEV ‘sonjea a8edumys pue pemmyoemueyy Last annual appropriation for forestry a. States having forest ie departments. Tee ae Purchase Total. publica- { Fire pro-| and re- enema mee tne | teens | ey | ae ciate eae tion work, forests. tions. | o $500 | ose. ee | eee eeee | ene eeee = 31,900 21,900 $e.000 Michigan..... Minnesota. Montana... New Hampshire. New Jersey... New York...... North Carolina. . North Dakota. Ohio......... Oregon..... Pennsylvania. . Rhode Island. . South Daketa. Tennessee... . Vermont... $1,340,300 $308,350 $537,150 $70,750 $424,050 a Exclusive of appropriations for educational institutions. 6 Fire protective system only. 2 ¢ Authorized by law in Delaware and Louisiana, but not yet organized. t From the Report on St Saucon, Note. — The diameter given is 4.5 feet from the ground. ission Rate of Forest Growth, by E. A. Zeigler, page 205. * These species were undoubtedly suppressed for some years. From Report of the National Conservation Comm: 363 Tue STraTuS OF STATE, MUNICIPAL, AND PRIVATE FoRESTRY. State forestry. Municipal and private forestry. Last annual appropriation for forestry a. State forests. State forest nurseries. . BEEP 7 States where oes Timber- Associa: States having forest Adminis- 5 vie eee ea Planting stock per 1000 trees in ae Munici-| Approximate area of | of private | land own- | tions for departments. ; N ies| Purchase wey DPTON- 1912. : al rivate forest lands land ‘fi he ad- tration, urseries| - nd ma’ be levied Are te ar periment | , P P es ani ers’ fire thea Stat Total publica- | Fire pro-| and re- arene chiefly on No oe eae No. | Ate: ———— | Fe tions | forests under some form of planted | protective | vancement alee ora’ | tions, in- | tection. | foresta- | oF State | yield, or in- ; . ts date "| acres. | Grown| p,,. |Distrib-| Selling] “(No.). (No.). management. with forest | associations] of forestry VeStge tion work.) ‘forests, come. Cress. (out- | pased,| uted to} price to ee i (No.). (No.). ions. E i put). *Icitizens.|citizens. eas. Alabamiacien occa sa corse $5007 |! nchisic'ain. |) eoweeaueey | paetratay || Rees see | was oc coer $ 260 | saree ot te. | Gee eee Ala. California . 21,900 I 3,800 OIQUOARHa AY 20,000 2 2 Cal. Colorado. 4.750 | .....-.. neepans cee vias oegceageess 8,000 = Colo. Connecticu 4 2,120 I << 28 ogudo5s8 j 3,000 z Gonn. TARR ee | aetna seats]. 2 taBtonor [iba em apgat nn ah atadenade Gheetannlll nite asl betBlaxeic as obsess BS 5 tooo |g | wee Idaho. f oe ~NON SBA wEe j 2,000 I Ind. : 3 se sbcegees | Sionse ‘| Bi : wSaon aSea Jj +450 ans. ’ he Ba wag ome me pd pose i debesszsaed | jr'ho Me, Maryland 4 1,950 nie oq PSEC ESE & 5,000 Md. Uineenchiueeyts 5 15,000 2 Mous B23 a ey f j 24,000 Mass. Minnesota s obs : ‘BSE Bone Bw Ss 3d eres DB @ ates a Montana.. soe [Mavsheaitee ue geass es ag ead 500 Nee ae 4 6,900 ag ue ga ag Boos j 1,800 ew Jersey. 13,720 es Bea 58 ASSgs 7'500 New York. . 2 6 Seva. Fuge Bl 76,500 North Carolina.. Sseme ill Speeedesicg he csas: oaks Sapo ;2384 bg ce j 1,000 North Dakota ht POON ons was SE BSe2 Eee OHS] 7 56,000 Ohio 5 | 10.0 375 3S 85282595285] 73,000 Oregon.... baka savas creators | ea oe. Berg Pe ge eas 1,500 Pennsylvania. .... 50 3 35.0 2500 ga ss pe coo Rg B 4,350 Rhode Island. . - ne gists | aoe | saa Ges CesT ee Segeks 300 South Dakota 2 BQPOmF GSE ess] 122,000 Tennessee aie 39 pasa > See 8 1200 Vermont... 7 aha Bead oo? Og j 1,600 Washington. . ee Segre sane be "500 West Virginia ne ee ite yegeacsge 400 : Wisconsin. ... 200 2 S38 BERS s Be Sw GOO! | Sywnrercan eee | a Rete Wis. Other States ¢ jaaeas on ‘onl coe cP eoisticests ore mamas} anew 5 megea Uwe ees) dee ze ee eae ee Oegseassess 286,350 k6 Other States. Total .scciwewessis sess $1,340,300] $308,350 | $537,150 | $70,750 | $424,050 142 | 3,426,832 | 12,177 | 30 9933 | 1081 4897 63 97 1,216,150 28 Total. a Exclusive of appropriations for educational institutions. d Care of State forests also. h Established in 1913. b Fire protective system only. ¢ Authorized by law in Delaware and Louisiana, but not yet organized, e Special appropriation for fire lanes and trails in the San Bernardino Mountains. f Tax on timberlands; available until expended. g In addition the yearly revenue from the State forests is about $75,000, from which the expendi- ture for fire protection is approximately $35,000. From the Report on State Forest Organization by J. Girvin Peters. Published by Fifth National Conservation Congress, Washington, D. C. + From report of National Conservation Commission, 1909. j As reported by State forest departments. k Georgia, Louisiana, Nebraska, Northeastern States, Northwestern States, and South- eastern States. Taste VI.—Money YieELD TABLE FOR WHITE PINE. TE Ee state forestry. es States where |__| Timber- Associa- the tax on for- land own- | tions for est land may ers’ fire the ad- Stat be levied protective | vancement ee chiefly on Ni associations] of forestry |¥ yield, or in- (No.). (No.). come. Ps onasntas, Y. dotimchacmeas Ala. 2 2 Cal. es | acclle Bioeantins I eo arientichanaarcs I nn. eommecHeuty ili Ao iNbeceegt ad, Idaho. I Ind. ca I Towa. Be eos aesce cascana tl ad SO PPRIREEE HT ticle daha Kans. Sep Tee AAs eres meas oe, Ky. ee eee alent es ae ie Mes Pan aes Me. pe RETESET THN ners ce ate Md. s, |i aye A I ec 3 Michigan § qi Minn. Pp a < vemanat is. Other States. Total. tes See d Care of State fo: e Special epecn Tega thees: Northwestern States, and South- ure for fire protectir ate Forest Orga: tT 363 APPENDIX *Soz aBed ‘133107 “YW "A Aq ‘YYMOIL) 4S0I0,7 JO BEY UOTSSIUIWIOD UOTZeAIOSUOD [BUOTJEN ayy Jo ylodey Woy “sea aUOS Joy passaiddns A]payqnopun ose setoeds asey], ¢ “punoi3 ay} Wor; 4a0J S*Y ST U9AIS JOJUILIP BY, — ‘30NT SL jo1rl99 [gL jz9 |6°9 oS |S" |ze |6-z “dureas *e{OSOUUT “eUulle] xe] *YORIEUIE, “Jog jo°6 |9h Jog |1h l6°h jez Ez] pent “dueng “BJOSOUUTTT *sIsSUapeUed BATT saps ‘sonidg at Sede bb iz‘ joe J€°S l1z Ihez sadojs sanaidg ouUIey, *BIqnI eadIg “per ‘aonidg gz |I°v loz jo'€ JAI lg'z [6 Jr'z jp “dweasg “ejOSeuUl “BUBIIEUL BITG “yoelQ ‘eonidg 16 j€'gr|Sg jg rrjzg joe€1|r4 |z°6 |gh [es ‘auld por pue 9314. “BjOSOUUIYL .