Production Note Cornell University Library pro- duced this volume to replace the irreparably deteriorated original. It was scanned using Xerox soft- ware and equipment at 600 dots per inch resolution and com- pressed prior to storage using CCITT Group 4 compression. The digital data were used to create Cornell's replacement volume on paper that meets the ANSI Stand- ard Z39.48-1984. The production of this volume was supported in part by the Commission on Prés- ervation and Access and the Xerox Corporation. Digital file copy- right by Cornell University Library 1992.ENCITCILOPJEDXA OF COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE AND FÜRNITURE.London : Printed by A. Spottiswoodb, New-Street-Square. AN ENCTCLOPÆDIA OF COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE AND FURNITURE; CONTAINING NUMEROUS DESIGNS FOR BWEEIiINGS, FROM THE COTTAGE TO THE VILLA, INCLUDING FARM HOUSES, FARMERIES, AND OTHER AGRICULTURAL BUILDINGS several designs for COUNTRY INNS, PUBLIC HOUSES, AND PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS; WITH THE REQUISITE FITTINGS-UP, FIXTURES, AND FURNITURE ; AND APPROPRIATE OFFICES, GARDENS, AND GARDEN SCENERY; EACH DESIGN ACC'OMPANIED BY atialptùal ati& Ccitical Kemarfesi, ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE PRINCIPLES OF ARCHITECTURAL SCIENCE AND TASTE ON WHICH IT IS COMPOSED. Bv J. C. LOUDON, F.L.S. H.S. G.S. Z.S. &c. CONDUCTOR OF THE ARCHITECTURAL MAGAZINE, ETC. ILLUSTRATED BY MORE TH AN TWO THOUSAND ENGRAVINGS: The Designs by upwards of fifty different Architects, Surveyors, Builders, Upholsterers, Cabinet-makers Landscape-Gardeners, and others, of whom a List is given. A. NSW EDITION, WITH NUMEROUS CORRECTIONS, AND WITH MANY OF THE PLATES RE-KNGRAVED. LONDON: LONGMAN, ORME, BROWN, GREEN, & LONGMANS, AND SOLD BY JOHN WEALE, AT THE ARCHITECTURAL LIBRARY, HIGH HOLBORN. 1839.PREFACE A.ll the arts of life hâve had their origin in some simple natural want, supplied, in the first instance, by every man for himself ; till, with the progress of civilisation, from tliese wants sprang those desires and wishes, which gave rise to that division of skill and labour in supplying them, which is one of the characteristics of civilised society. Hence the origin of ail the different professions, most of which, in their first existence as such, were practised by distinct associations as mysteries, unknown to, or concealed from, general society. It is in the nature of ail knowledge held as mystery, to remain in a great measure stationary, because the minds which are engaged in it are necessarily few ; and because the great object of such associations is, to keep their peculiar knowledge, and the exercise of their craft, among themselves. Hence the little progress which has been made in Domestic Architecture, the science and rules of which hâve been almost exclusively confined to Architects, from the earliest âges to the présent time. On examining into the actual State of this art, it will be found that the improvements which hâve been made in it in modem times, are chiefly confined to those departments which are open to the understanding, and amenable to the judgment, of mankind generally ; we mean, such as relate to comfort and convenience in the arrangement, warming, lighting, heat- ing, &c., of rooms ; whereas the department of taste in building is little in advance of what it was two thousand years ago. To what can this be owing, but to the circumstance, that the knowledge of Archi- tecture, as a fine art, is much less familiar to the public, than it is as an art of utility ; or, in other words, that the Architect is under the control of public opinion much more in matters of usefulness, than in matters of taste ? This is a State of things by no means peculiar to Architecture. The greater portion of mankind, in even the most civilised countries, has hitherto been kept in the dark with regard to what constitutes truth and excellence in ail arts or professions, the prac- tice of which has been limited to certain associations or corporations of individuals. Hence the sciences of government, law, medicine, theology, éducation, &c., hâve been in ail countries comparative mysteries, and hâve, consequently, like Architecture, remained nearly stationary for âges. The profound and exclusive attention, which is requisite to enable tfye professors of any art to become eminent in it, necessarily precludes them, while engaged in its pursuit, from acquiring a proportionate stock of knowledge upon other subjects. Unless, therefore, this stock of knowledge has been previously laid in by a scientific éducation in early youth, professional nse^ and artists are very apt to assign an undue importance to the facts and views connected with their professions ; and to regard as general truths, those which are, in fact, only particular. Hence, universal principles and extended views are much more likely to be entertained by persons who hâve studied several arts and sciences, tliough perhaps none of them profoundly, than by those who hâve confined their attention to only one. Hence, also, we rarely find great reformations made in any art by its professors. Another cause which has retarded the progress of ail arts and professions is, the prac- tice, common in most of them, of implicitly following precedents ; or of adhering rigidly to rules (made perhaps in a former âge, and consequently adapted to a less advanced State of civilisation), instead of testing those precedents and rules by fundamental prin- ciples, and adapting the latter to the State of society for the time being. No art has had its progress more retarded by these means than Architecture ; whether by the old idea that the whole of its science was included in the knowledge of the five orders ; or by the modem one that Architecture, as an art of taste, is one of imitation, like those of sculp- ture and painting ; and that there is no manner of building worthy of the name of Architecture but the Grecian. According to our views of this subject, ail arts, whether of design and taste, or of utility and convenience, like every thing else relative to man, are progressive, and change with the changing condition of society. In like manner, the knowledge of ail arts, from being exclusive, is calculated, through the spread of éducation, ultimately to become universal : and, the art of printing and the use of the steam-engine being discovered, the time will ultimately arrive, in every country, when ail knowledge will be common to ailvi PREFACE. mankind. No art or profession wili tlien be a mystery; but, each being reduced to the compréhension of youth, forming a part of tliat general éducation which will ultimately be every where established, and being consequently subject to the criticism of the whole of society, the improvement in it will be great, in proportion to the demand which there may be for its exercise and for its productions. Though scarcely any country has arrived at this stage in social progress, even in any one of the arts or pro- fessions, yet ail countries are advancing towards it with different degrees of rapidity, according to the circumstances in which they are placed, geographical and political. In accordance with these views, our intention, in producing the work now submitted to the reader, is, to préparé the way for rendering general, a knowledge of Domestic Architecture ; for the immédiate purpose of increasing the comforts of the great mass of society ; and for the more remote objects of improving the knowledge and the taste of the public in Architecture, and of inducing Architects to study their art on general principles, and on a theory formed on the nature of the human mind, and on the changing condition of society, rather than on the precedents and rules of former âges, or on any hypothesis whatever. The means by which we hâve endeavoured to effect these objects will be found explained at length in our Introduction, to which we refer the reader. We hâve only been enabled to accomplish our purpose by the coopération of a number of Architects, of scientific men, and of men of taste. Several of these we are proud to call our personal friends ; and otliers, who, before we received their contributions to this work, were known to us only by name, hâve proved themselves friends. by their actions. Before proceeding to return our sincere acknowledgments to the various artists and others, whose names will be found in the list, p. xix., it may be advisable to reply to an objection which has been made to us by some Architects, viz. that, by laying their profession open to the world, we were acting so as to injure their pecuniary interests. The same objection was made to Dr. Buchan many years ago, when he first published his Domestic Medicine; and to John Abercrombie, when he wrote his book entitled Every Man his own Gardener. Now, without going into details, we shall only ask, what hâve been the progress of medicine and gardening, and the prosperity of medical men and gardeners, since the time these works appeared, compared to what they were for a similar period previous to their publication ? The answer, undoubtedly, is, that their improvement has been great beyond ail former example. To what can this be owing, but to the more general diffusion of knowledge on these subjects ? The truth is, that public attention can never be turned to any art or science, without benefiting ail its professors. A little knowledge of any given subject makes us desire to know more; and, though we first apply to books to acquire this further knowledge, we must ulti- mately hâve recourse to living professors to carry it into effect. No book can be framed so as to suit the exigencies of every particular case : ail that can be done by any author is, to lay down general principles, and to deduce rules from them. The application of these rules must be learned from expérience; and it is évident that a knowledge of the principles from which they are deduced will enable the amateur more thorouglily to appreciate and profit by the skill of the professor. Among the important uses of this work will be that of pointing out the various capa- cities for improvement in comfort and beauty, of which each class of building, and each kind of furniture, is susceptible. Now, so far from this having a tendency to injure Architects, it wili not only enable those who wish either to build or to furnish, to express more clearly, to the Architect or upholsterer, those wants which they already hâve ; but it will elicit new ones, of which they had previously no idea, and which the Architect, the builder, and the upholsterer will be called upon to supply. In expressing our acknowledgments to our contributors, it was originally our in- tention to thank, in an especial manner, those who, by their early contributions, when the work was commenced in monthly parts, in April, 1832, encouraged us to proceed with it ; but, on due considération, lest we might inadvertently appear partial in our acknowledgments, we think it best to return our sincere thanks generally to the whole of our contributors as enumerated in the list, p. xix. to xx. How much we feel indebted to the Architects and others, whose names are included in that list, can be only understood by those who are duly aware that the value of a work consisting principally of graphie designs, dépends upon those designs being the production of a number of different minds. For the liberality which has been thus shown us, we hâve made the best return in our power, by publishing this work at such an unprecedentedly low price, as must insure, to the names and talents of our contributors, an extensive circulation ; and, for our own labour, we hâve earned the consciousness of having produced a book, which must inevitably hâve an important influence on the rural Architecture of the temperate régions of both hemispheres. Bayswater, Junc l. 1833. J. C. ICONTENTS. Page Préfacé - . . . v I List of Books quoted List of Engravings • . - - xii, List of Contributors Page - xv - xix Introduction - - - - 1 BOOK I. DESIGNS FOR LABOURERS’ AND MECHANICS’ COTTAGES, AND FOR DWELLINGS FOR GARDENERS AND BAILIFFS, AND OTHER UPPER SERVANTS, AND FOR SMALL FARMERS AND CULTIVATORS OF THEIR O WN LAND. Chap. I. Model Designs for Cottages, exhibiting in each Model ail the Accommodations and Ar- rangements for Comfort and Convenience of which the smallest Dwellings of this Class are susceptible - - - - 8 I. A Cottage of One Story ; combining ail the Accommodation and Conyeniences of which human Dwellings of that Description are susceptible - 9 II. A Cottage of One Story; combining the Accommodations and Conveniences of De- sign I., differently arranged, and with the Addition of a Véranda - - - 21 III. A Cottage of Two Stories ; combining the Accommodations and Conveniences of De- sign I., differently arranged, and with an additional Bed-room - - - 23 Chap. II A miscedaneous Collection of Designs for Cot- tage Dwellings, with Critical and Analytical Remarks - - - - - 26 IV. A Dvvelling for a Man and his Wife, with- out Children - - - - 27 V. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with Two or more Children, with a Cow-house and Pigsty - - - 31 VI. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with an Apprentice, Servant, or grown-up Son or Daughter - - - - 35 VII. A Dwelling of Two Rooms, and a Back Kitchen, for a Man and his Wife - - 35 VIII. A Dwelling of Two Rooms, for a Man and his Wife - - - - 44 IX. A Dwelling in the Swiss Style, for a mar- ried Couple and Family, with a Cow-house and Pigsty - - - 44 X. A Dwelling for a married Couple and One . Ch ild, with a Pigsty . - - 48 XI. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, and One or Two Children, with a Cow-house and Pigsty - - .52 XII. A Dwelling of Two Stories, for a Man and his Wife, with a Servant and Two or Three Children, with a Cow-house and Pigsty . 54 XIII. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with Two or more Children - - - 57 XIV. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with One Servant, and a grown.up Son or Daughter - - - 58 XV. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with- out Children - - 63 XVI. 'A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, without Children - - - 65 XVII. A Dwelling with Two Rooms and a ,Bed.closet, for a Man and his Wife, with an Apprentice or Servant - - - 71 XVIII. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, without Children - - - 74 XIX. A Dwelling of Two Rooms, for a Man and his Wife, without Children - - 80 XX. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with Children, and having a Cow-house, Pigsty, &c., attached - - - - 83 XXI. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, without Children - - - 87 XXII. A Dwelling for a Gardener, or other Servant, on a Gentleman’s Estate, who has a Wife, but no Children - - 88 XXIII. A Dwelling of One Story, for a Man and his Wife with a Family of Children ; having a Cow-house and Pigsty attached - 93 XXIV. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, without Children, having Two Rooms, and other Conveniences - - - 94 XXV. A Dwelling for a Working Man, with a Family of Children - - - 97 XXVI. A Cottage Dwelling in the German Swiss Style, for a Man and his Family, with Accommodation for two Horses and a Cow 98 XXVII. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with Children, or a Servant, with the usual Conveniences in a detached Building . 101 XXVm. A Cottage in the Old English Man- ner, containing a Kitchen, Living Room, and Two Bed-rooms .... 102 XXIX. A Cottage Dwelling of Three Rooms, with various Conveniences - - 105 XXX. A Cottage Dwelling with Five Rooms, and various Conveniences - - 107 XXXI. A Dwelling with Five Rooms, with Conveniences, in the Old English Style, where the building Material is chiefly Stone 108 XXXII. A Cottage Dwelling with Two Sitting- Room's, in the Old English Manner, where Timber, Brick, and Slate are the Materials used for the Walls and Roof - - 111 XXXIII. Two Cottage Dwellings, under the same Roof ; each having Two Rooms and other Conveniences ' - - - 135 XXXIV. A Cottage Dwelling of Two Rooms, intended as a Gâte Lodge - - 137 XXXV. A Cottage Dwelling of Three Rooms, with Back Kitchen, Cow-house, and other Conveniences .... 138 XXXVI. A Dwelling with Four Rooms, a Back Kitchen, and other Conveniences - - 141 XXXVII. A Dwelling of Four Rooms, with other Conveniences, intended as a Lodge, or a House for a Bailift* or Head Gardener 141 XXXVIII. A Dvvelling of Three Rooms, with a Back Kitchen, and other Conveniences, intended as a Porter’s Lodge, or Gardener’s House - - 143 XXXIX. Two Dwellings for Country La- bourers, under One Roof, with Two Rooms in each, and other Conveniences - - 144 XL. Two Cottages of Three Rooms each, under the same Roof, with Cow-house, Pigsty, and other Conveniences io each - - 146 XLI. Six Cottages grouped together, with a view to Economy in building them - 147 XLI I. A Cottage of Three Rooms, in the Eliza. bethan Style - - - - 157 XLIII. A Cottage of Three Rooms, with BackCONTENTS vin Page Kitchen, Cow-house, and other Conve- niences - 158 XL1V. A Cottage of Three Rooms and a Back Kitchen on the Ground Floor, with various Conveniences - 163 XLV. A Dwelling of Four Rooms, with Back Kitchen, and other Conveniences - - 163 XLVI. A Cottage Dwelling of Four Rooms, with a Back Kitchen, Cellar, and other Conveniences .... 164 XLVII. Two Cottages for Country Labourers, under One Roof, with Four Rooms in each, Back Kitchen, Pigsty, and other Con- veniences - - 168 XLVIII. A Dwelling of Four Rooms, with a Back Kitchen, and other Conveniences - 175 XLIX. A Dwelling suitable for a Lodge or Toll-Jiouse, having Three Rooms, and other Conveniences - 176 L. A Cottage Dwelling of Four Rooms, with > other Conveniences - - - 176 LI. A Cottage Dwelling of Six Rooms, with other Conveniences - 179 L1I. Ideas for altering the Front of an old Cottage, at présent in a dilapidated State - 181 LUI. A Cottage for a Village Tradesman - 182 LIV. Two Cottage Dwellings for Labourers, under One Roof - 184 LV. A Cottage of One Story, with Four Rooms, a Kitchen, and other Conveniences - 186 LVI. A Dwelling of Four Rooms, with other Conveniences, and a large Rustic Portico - 190 LVII. Two Dwellings under One Roof, Two Stories high, with Four Rooms in each, and other Conveniences - - - 191 LVIII. A Labourer’s Cottage of Two Rooms, with other Conveniences - 192 LIX. Two Cottages of One Room and a Back Kitchen each, under the same Roof - 196 LX. Two Dwellings under One Roof, each containing Four Rooms, with a Back Kitchen and other Conveniences - - 196 LXI. A Dwelling of Three Rooms on the Ground Floor, with a Back Kitchen and other Conveniences - 197 LXII. A Dwelling of Four Rooms on Two Floors, with various Conveniences - 201 LXIII. Two Dwellings of Two Rooms each, under One Roof - • 202 LXIV. Two Dwellings under One Roof, each Three Stories high, and having Three Rooms, and other Conveniences - - 202 LXV. A Dwelling of Three Rooms, with other Conveniences - 205 LXVI. A Cottage Dwelling of Two Rooms, with a Smithy, Shoeing-shed, and Three- stalled Stable - - - - 205 LXV 11. A Cottage Dwelling of Five Rooms, in Two Floors - - - 211 LXVIII. A Dwelling of Four Rooms, with other Conveniences - - - 211 Page LXIX. A Cottage Dwelling, in the Old English Style, with Kitchen, Parlour, Business Room, Three Bedchambers, and other Conveniences - - - - 212 LXX. A Cottage Dwelling of Four Rooms, with other Conveniences - - - 214 LXXI. A Castellated Lodge, as a Dwelling for a Gardener or other Upper Servant, on a Gentleman’s Estate - ,214 LXXII. A Dwelling of Six Rooms, with vari- ous Conveniences - 223 LXXIII. A Dwelling, Three Stories high, with Four Rooms, and various Conveniences - 224 LXXIV. Design for a Cottage Dwelling, in the Old English Style, and of a Construction suitable for having Part of the Walls cover- ed with Weather Tiling - - - 227 LXXV. A Cottage in the Old English Manner, containing on the Ground Floor a Living- Room, Kitchen, and other Conveniences, with Two Bed-rooms over - - 231 LXXVI. A Cottage Dwelling One Story high, containing Six Rooms, a Wasli-house, and other Conveniences - 236 LXXVII. The Model Cottages of the La- bourer’s Friend Society, as erected at Shooter’s Hill, Kent - - - 237 LXXVIII. Six Cottage Dwellings, built at Abersychan, near Pontypool, in South Wales, with One common Wash-house and Bakehouse - - - 1 238 LXXIX. Twelve or more Cottages in a Row, with a Kitchen, Wash-house, and other Conveniences in common ; the whole heat- ed by the Fircs in the Public Kitchen - 241 LXXX. Eighty Dwellings of the humblest Class, placed together, with a view of being . heated by One common Fire, and enjoying other Benefits, on the Cooperative Sys- tem - - - - 244 LXXXI. A portable Cottage for the U$e of Emigrants and others - 251 Chap. III Designs and Directions for Exterior and Inte. rior Finishing, as connected with Furnish- ing, and for the Fittings-up, Fixtures, and Furniture of Cottage Dwellings - - 258 Sect. I. Designs and Directions for the Exterior Finishing of Cottage Dwellings - - 259 Sect. II. Designs and Directions for the Inte- rior Finishing of Cottage Dwellings - 272 Sect. III. Designs and Directions for Internai Fittings-up for Cottage Dwellings - 281 Sect. IV. Designs and Directions for Fixtures for Cottage Dwellings - - - 282 Sect. V. Designs and Directions for Cottage Furniture and Furnishing - -298 BOOK IL DESIGNS FOR FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES, COUNTRY INNS AND PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS. Chap. I. Designs for Farm Houses and Farmeries, ex- hibiting various Degrees of Accommo- dation, from the Farm of 50 to that of 1000 Acres, suitable to different Kinds of Farm- ing, and in different Styles of Architec- ture - - - - 354 Sect. I. General Principles and Model Designs for Farm Houses and Farmeries - - 355 1. General Principles and Model Designs for the Arrangement of a Farm House - 355 2. Fundainental Principles, Directions, and Model Designs, for the Construction and Arrangement of the various Parts which compose a Farmery - - 373 Chap. II. A Collection of miscellaneous Designs for Farm Houses and Farmeries, in different Styles of Architecture, and adapted to different Kinds of Farms j with Specifica- tions, Estimâtes, and accompanying Re- marks ----- 418 Sect. I. Miscellaneous Designs - - 418 I. A Bailiff’s Cottage, in the Old English Style, intended for the Manager of a Farm in the Neighbourhood of London - - 418 II. A Farmery in the Old English Style, chiefly calculated for Dairy Husbandry, and con- ducted by a Bailiff, for the Proprietor of the Land - - 434 III. A Farm House and Farmery suitable for a Farm of 600 Acres ofTurnip Soil, ex- ecuted at Halstone, in Dumfriesshire - 441 IV. A Farm House and Farmery suitable for an extensive Turnip Farm, executed at Gatestack, in Dumfriesshire - - 445 V. A Farm House and Farmery for a Farm of 150 Acres of Arable and Pasture Land in Buckinghamshire - - - 448 VI. A Farm House and Farmery for a Farm of 600 Acres of Turnip Soil, in Ayrshire, under a Rotation of Five Years, and era-CONTENTS. ix Page ployed partly in breeding andpartlv in feed- ing Stock - 452 VII. A Farm House and Farmery for Three Ploughs, erected at Ingliston in Dumfries- sliire - - - - 454 VIII. A Farm House and Farmery for Three Ploughs, erected at Alton, in Dumfries- shire - 457 IX. A Farm House and Farmery for a small Farm for breeding Sheep and Cattle, erected at Holecleugh, in Dumfriesshire - - 457 X. A Farm House and Farmery for a Farm of Two Ploughs, erected on the Grebten Es- tate, in Dumfriesshire - - - 459 XI. A Farm House and Farmery for Four Ploughs, designed, and in Part executed in Dumfriesshire . 460 XII. The Villa Résidence and Farmery of Rid- denwood, in the Parish of Kirkmahoe, Dumfriesshire, in the Occupation of the Proprietor, James Kerr, Esq. - - 462 XIII. A Farm House and Farmery for 100 Acres of Land, to be cultivated on the, Norfolk System, with a Flour Mill driven by Wind - - - - - 471 XIV. A Farm House and Farmery for a Farm of Two Ploughs, in the County of North. umberland - - 475 XV. The Farm House and Offices at Cocklaw East Farm, on the BeaufrontEstate,North- umberland - 476 XVI. A Farm House and Farmery for Seven Ploughs, executed at Newnham Barns, in Northumberland - - - 477 XVII. A Farm House and Farmery for Four, teen Ploughs, suited to the Northumbrian Husbandry - - - 479 XVIII. A Farm House and Farmery for Ten Ploughs, Ten Cows, Twenty Young Cattle, and other Live Stock, adapted to the Hus- bandry of Northumberland - - 482 XIX. - A Farmery of Five Ploughs, with Cows, Cattle, and other Stock in Proportion, suitable for the Northumbrian Husban- dry - - - - - 484 XX. A Farm House and Farmery for Three Ploughs, adapted to the Northumbrian System of Culture - 485 XXI. The Farm House and Offices for a Farm of Six Ploughs, called Hallington New Houses, on the Beaufront Estate, in North- umberland - 486 XXII. The Farmery at Calley, in Kirkcud- brightshire, suitable for a Galloway Crop and Pasture Farm of 400 Acres - - 496 XXIII. A Farmery for a small French Farm, as given by Morel-Vindé - - 497 XXIV. A Farm House and Farmery suitable for a Farm of l'rom 300 to 500 Acres in France - - - - - 499 XXV. For a Court of Feeding-houses, built for the late Thomas Hibbert, Esq., at Chalfont Lodge, Buckinghamsbire - - - 508 XXVI. A Farmery for extensive Ironworks, erected at Abersychan, near Pontypool, in South Wales - - 511 XXVII. A Farmery for a Farm of 250 Acres, in the Valley of Strathmore, where a Rota- tion of Seven Crops is followed, the Grass Division being pastured the Second Year - 512 XXVIII. A Farmery for a particular Situation, suitable for 80 Acres of Arable Land, and 300 Acres of Pasture, in the Carse of Gowrie - 514 XXIX. The Farm House and Farmery of Starston Place, near Harleston, in Norfolk, suitable for a Farm of 350 Acres under the Norfolk System of Culture - 516 XXX. A Farmery for a Farm of 300 Acres of Arable Land, and 500 of Pasture, in the West Highlands - - 519 XXXI. A Farmery for 200 Acres of Arable Land, and 300 of Pasture, in the West of Scotland - 520 XXXII. A Farm House and Farmery for 200 Acres of Arable Land, and 300 of Pasture, in Ross-shire - 522 XXXIII. A Farm House and Farmery for 500 Acres, half Pasture and half Arable, erected at-----, in the Parish of Tarbat, Ross-shire 523 * XXXIV. The Farmery at Greendykes, in Page Haddingtonshire, consisting of 500 Arable Acres under a Six-course Shift - - 528 XXXV. A Farm House and Farmery at Elcho Castle, Perthshire, adapted for a Farm of Six Ploughs, under the Turnip Husbandry 537 XXXVI. A Public House and Farmery j the Publican being, at the same time, a small Farmer and a Butcher - 544 XXXVII. A House and Out-buildings for a Cheese Dairy Farmof fromSOO to 350 Acres, in Cheshire - ... 545 XXXVIII. A Mixed Stock Farm, in a high (hilly) Country, employing only One Pair of Horses - - - 546 XXXIX. A Farmery for a Garden Farm of 200 Acres, situated near a Town, employed wholly in Tillage, where no Stock is kept but Ilorses and Family Cows, and where the whole Produce is sold - - - 549 XL. A Farmery for a Farm of 500 Acres, kept in a Rotation of Corn Crops and Pasture, producing Turnips, and employed partly in breeding and partly in feeding Stock - 551 XLI. A Farmery for a Farm of 500 Acres of Arable Turnip Land, kept under alternate Corn and Pasture, and employed iri breed- ing and in feeding Stock, as well as in sending Corn to Market - 552 XLIf. A Dairy Farm of 500 Acres» kept in a Rotation of Corn Crops and Grass ; One half being supposed tobe in Hay or Pasture 552 XLIII. A Farmery for a Clay Land Arable Farm of 500 Acres, not producing Turnips, and kept chiefly, or wholly, in Tillage . 554 XL1V. A Farmery for a Farm of 150 Acres, kept in a Rotation of Crops and Pasture, producing Turnips and Potatoes ; and em- ployed partly in feeding and partly in breeding Stock - - - - 555 XLV. A Farmery for a Cottage Farm of 25 Acres - 556 XLVI. A Farmery for a Cottage Farm of 30 Acres, with Remarks, showing how it may be extended so as to serve for a Farm of50,80, or 100 Acres - - -557 Sect. II. Examples showing the Manner of dis- playing Architectural Style in Farm Build- ings - - - - 560 Sect. III. On constructing temporary, portable, andambulatoryFarmeries; and on altering Mansions, Monasteries, Manufactories, and other Buildings, so as torender them fit for Agricultural Purposes - 566 Sect. IV. Designs for various Buildings, such as Corn Mills, Kilns, Malt-houses, Cider- houses, &'c., connected with Agriculture and Rural Economy - 568 I. The Construction of a Building for contain. ing the Machinery of a Corn Mill to be impelled by Water, with introductory Ob- servations on Buildings for Mills generally, on Flour Mills, and on the different Kinds of Water-wheels - 568 II. The Construction of a Building for con- taining the Machinery and Apartments belonging to a Vertical Windmill, with Remarks on the different Kinds of Wind- mills .... . 583 III. A Malt Kiln, with the requisite Append- ages, and Directions for their Use - 589 IV. A Hop-oast, or Kiln for dry ing Hop3 - 592 V. A Hop-kiln, or Oast, on an improved Prin- ciple, erected in 1832, at Teston, in Kent - 595 VI. An improved Limekiln - - - 600 VII. A Kiln for burning Bricks or Tiles, or other Earthenware used in the Construc- tion of Buildings ; and which may also be used as a Kiln for burning Lime or Clay for Manure, or coking Coal or Peat, or charring Wood, impregnating Timber with Pyroligneous Acid, Kiln-drying Corn, or drying Corn in the Sheaf in Wet Seasons, and for other Agricultural Purposes - 605 VIII. A Cider-house, Mill, and Press, according to the Plan most generally approved of in the Counties of Hereford and Worcester - 609 IX. A Cider-house, Mill, and Press, with the different Implements connected with Cider- raaking ----- 615 X. A House for breeding and fatteningPoultry on a large Scale, with Remarks on their UX CONTENTS. Page Management, and on the Suitableness of Poultry as Live Stock for the Farm La- nourer ; and Designs for altering or build. ing their Cottages accordingly - -622 Sect. V. Designs for Farmery Dwellings for Ploughmen and other yearly Servants em- ployed on the Farm - - - 627 I. Two Ploughmen’s Cottages, such as are in common Use in the Carse of Goivrie ; with a Notice of the Bothies, or Lodges for single Men, in the same District - - 629 II. Two Country Labourers’ Cottages, built at Showerdown Braes, on the Beaufront Estate, in Northumberland - - 631 III. Two Ploughmen’s Cottages, in a Village near Salisbury, Wiltshire - - 632 IV. A double Cottage for Farm Labourers, qrected in Gloucestershire, on the Estate of William Lawrence, Esq., near Ciren- cester ----- 634 V. A double Cottage, intended for Farm La- bourers, in Gloucestershire - - 635 VI. A Cottage for a Farm Labourer and his Wife, without Children - . - - 639 VU. A Cottage for a Farm Labourer with several Children ; or a Bothy (a Boothie, or little Booth) for three unmarried Plough- ' men ----- 642 VIII. The improved Farm Labourer’s Cottage of France, as given by Morel-Vindê - 643 IX. A double Cottage for Farm Labourers, with Places between the Two Dwellings for hatching and fattening Poultry early in the Season - - - - 64 Sect. VI. Of the Exterior and Interior Finish- ing, and the Fittings-up and Furniture, of Farm Houses and Farmeries - - 650 1. Of the Finishing, Fittings-up, and Furni- ture of the Farm House, and the Offices of the Kitchen Court - - - 650 2. Of the Finishing, Fixtures, Fittings-up, and Furniture of Farmeries - -662 Chap. III. Designs for Country Inns and Public Houses of various Degrees of Accommodation, from the Hedge Alehouse to the Mansion Inn* with its Gardens, Farm, and Park - 675 Sect. I. General Prïliciples for composing Model Designs for Country Inns and Pub- lic Houses - - - 676 Sect. II. Miscellaneous Designs for Country Inns and Public Houses - - -678 I. A Country Inn in the Italian Style ; having, Page .v besides public Rooms, Thirty Bed-rooms, and Stabling for Twenty Horses - - 678 II. A small Country Inn, with Stabling, Skittle-ground, Tea-garden, and Bowling- green - - - - - 680 III. A small Village Inn, or Alehouse, in the Italian Gothic Manner - - - 682 IV. An Inn in the Italian Style - r 685 V. A Suburban Public House in the Old English Style - - - - 686 VI. A Hedge Alehouse of the smallest Size - 690 VII. A Country Public House in the Italian Style - - - - 692 VIII. A small Inn or Public House in the Swiss Style - - - - 693 Sect. III. Of the Finishing, Fittings-up, Fix- tures, and Furniture of Country Inns and Public Houses - - - - 695 1. Of the Finishing, Fittings-up, Fixtures, and Furniture of the Bar of an Inn or Public House ----- 695 2. Of the Finishing, Fittings-up, Fixtures, and Furniture for the other Offices of Inns - 698 3. Of the Finishing, Fittings-up, Fixtures, and Furniture of the Inn generally - - 702 4. Of the Finishing, Fittings-up, Fixtures, and Furniture of the Kitchen and Scullery of Inns and Public Houses - - - 707 Chap. IV. Designs for Parochial Schools - 726 Sect. I. Of the Fundamental Principles, and the Rules derived from these Principles, for designing and fitting up Schools for the Education of Children in Masses - - 727 1. Fundamental Principles, and General Rules deduced from them, for designing Schools for Infant Instruction - 727 2. Fundamental Principles, and Rules deduced from them, for designing Schools for Mutual Instruction - 730 Sect. II. Miscellaneous Designs for Parochial Schools ----- 740 I. A Parochial School, in two Stories, for 400 Children, with a House for the Master and Mistress - - - - - 740 II. A Parochial School, in One Story, for 100 Boys and 80 Girls, including a Résidence for the Master and Mistress - - 751 III. A Country School, in the Italian Style, in- cluding a Dwelling for the Master and • Mistress ----- 757 Sect. III. Of the Finishing, Fittings-up, Fix- tiires, and Furniture of Parochial Schools 758 BOOK III. DESIGNS FOR VILLAS, WITH VARIOUS DEGREES ÔF ACCOMMODATION, AND IN DIFFERENT STYLES OF ARCHITECTURE. Chap. I. The Fundamental Principles of laying out a Villa, including the House and theGrounds 763 Sect. I. Of the Choice of a Situation for a Villa Résidence - - - 763 Sect. II. Of the Position of the House, and the Arrangement of the Grounds of a Villa Résidence - - - - - 767 Sect. III. Ofadapting the Architectural Style and interior Arrangement of the House to the Character of the Situation - - 773 Chap. II. The Beau Idéal of an English Villa - -790 Sect. I. The Beau Idéal of an English Villa described - - - - _ 790 Sect. II. Map of the Demesne and Park, and Ground Plan and Elévations of the House of Beau Idéal Villa - - - 813 Chap. III, Miscellaneous Designs for Villas, with various Degrees of Accommodation, and in differ- ent Styles of Architecture - - 821 I. A Grecian Villa, of a medium Size, for a Gentleman of Fortune - 821 II. The Accommodations of a Villa of moderate Size, exhibited in the Ground Plan of the House and Offices, and their relative Con- nection with the Gardens and Grounds - 823 III. A' Suburban Villa of Two Acres and a . half, the House and Grounds built and laid ,out by an Architect for his own Résidence 826 IV. A Villa in the Anglo-Italian Style, with Three principal Rooms, and with a Stable ‘ and Coach-house - - - 834 V. A Parsonage House for a particular Situ- ation in Somersetshire - - - 841 VI. A Cottage Villa in the Gothic Style - 844 VII. A Villa in the Old English Manner, adapted to a gently elevated Situation, with good Views on three Sides - - 846 VIII. The Villa of Hannayfield, the Résidence of—— Hannay, Esq., in the Neighbourhood ofDumfries - - -850 IX. A small Villa, or Parsonage, in the Italian Style ----- 853 X. A Cottage Villa, showing how Advantage may be taken of a sloping Bank - - 855 XI. A Villa in the Modem Style of Archi- tecture, Fire-proof, and suitable for a Ma- rine Résidence, for the occasional Occu- pation or the permanent Abode of a small Family of Fortune - 859 XII. A double Suburban Villa, adapted for a particular Situation in the Suburbs of Leicester, - .- . - 870LCONTENTS. xi Page XIII. A small Grecian Villa or Casino, to be placed on an Eminence, commanding ex- tensive Prospects in two Directions only - 877 XIV. A Villa in the Old Scotch Style, erected, in 1831, at Springfieid, near Glasgow - 879 XV. A Mansion in the Style of a Scotch Ba- ronial House of the Sixteenth Century, with the Accommodation and Arrange- ments suitable to a Villa of the Nineteënth Century - 885 XVI. A Cottage Villa, built at Chailey, in Sus- sex, for General St. John - - 890 XVII. A Villa in the Old English Style, the Idea taken from the Ruins of Berwick House in Wiltshire - - - 893 XVIII. A Villa Résidence in the Tudor or Old English Style - - - - 897 XIX. A Villa in the Grecian Style, for a large Family, residing chiefly in the Country, with an Income of from 6000/. to 10,000/. a Year ----- 914 XX. A Villa for a small Family, in the cas- tellated Style of Gothic Architecture - 919 XXI. A Villa in the latest Style of pointed Architecture, with an Essay on the Appli- cation of that Style to dome6tiç Purposes - 920 XXII. A Villa in the Gothic Style XXIII. An Italian Villa on a considérable Scale 946 Chap. IV. Designs for Appendages to Villas - - 963 Sect. I. Stable Offices - - 963 Sect. II. Riding-Houses - 966 Sect. III. Dog-Kennels - - - 971 Sect. IV. Ornamental Dairies and Poultry- Houses - - - - 973 Sect. V. Aviaries and Ménageries - - 975 Sect. VI. Architectural Conservatories - 975 Sect. VII. Terrace Parapets and other mural Ornaments - - - 982 Sect. VIII. Ornamental Garden Structures - 985 Sect. IX. Entrance Lodges and Gates - 997 Ciiap. V. Of the Finishing, Fittings-up, and Fixtures of Villas - - - -1007 Sect. I. Of the Exterior Finishing of Villas -1007 Sect. II. Of the Interior Finishing of Villas - 1010 Sect. III. Of the Fixtures and Fittings-up of Villas - - - - 1018 1. Of the Fittings-up and Fixtures of Villa Offices - - - - 1018 2. Of the Fittings-up and Fixtures of the Dwelling-rooms of ViNas - - 1027 Chap. VI. Of the Furniture of Villas - - -1039 Sect. I. Grecian and Modem Furniture for Villas - - 1039 1. Furniture for Villa Offices - -1040 2. Grecian and Modem Furniture for the Porch, Entrance Hall, and Billiard-room 1040 3. Grecian and Modem Furniture for the Par- lour and Dining-rooms - - - 1043 4. Grecian and Modem Furniture for the Library - 1053 5. Grecian and Modem Furniture for the Drawingroom and Music-room - - 1058 6. Grecian and Modem Furniture for Bed- rooms and Dressing-rooms - - 1079 7. Nursery Furniture - 1086 Sect. II. Gothic Furniture for Villas -1088 1. Gothic Furniture for Halls - - 1088 2. Gothic Furniture for Parlours and Dining- rooms - 1089 3. Gothic Furniture for a Library - - 1092 4. Gothic Furniture for a Drawingroom - 1094 5. Gothic Furniture for Bed-rooms - - 1097 Sect. III. Elizabethan and Mixed Aneient Furniture for Villas - - - 1098 BOOK IV THE PRINCIPLES OF CRITICISM IN ARCHITECTURE. Chap. 1. Of the Principle of Fitness as applied to Archi- 1106 tecture - Chap. II. Of the Expression of the End in View, in Architecture - - 1112 Chap. III. Of the Expression of Architectural Style' - 1114 Sect. I. Of the universal and inhérent Beau- ties of Architectural Composition - 1114 Sect. II. Of the different Styles of Architec- ture - - - - U9?j Glossarial Index General Index 1125 1133LIST OF ENGRAVINGS, Model Cottages. Plans. Design I. p. 10 : fig. 3 ; II. p. 22; fig. 21 ; III. p. 24. Elévations. Figs. 6,17,18,19,20,25,26. Sections. Figs. 5,22. 1212, 1218, 1219, 1223, 1225, 1226, 1228, 1229, 1230,1236, 1237. Elévations. Figs. 1206,1209, 1210,1213, 1214, 1215, 1220, 1224,1227, 1232,1235, 1241. Sections. Figs. 1231,1233,1234. Cottages op One Story. Plans. Design IV. p. 29 ; V. p. 30 ; VI. p.33 ; VII. p. 34 ; VIII. p. 45: XI. p.50; XIV. p. 61 ; fig. 99; XV. p. 69; XVI. p.7&; fig. 116 ; XVIII. p. 75 ; XIX. p. 76 ; XX. p. 85 ; fig; 154 ; XXI. p. 86 ; XXII. p. 89 ; XXIIT. p. 90 ; XXIV. p. 95; XXVII. p. 100; XXIX. p. 104; figs. 193, 197, 201 ; XXXIII. p. 103 ; figs. 249, 252, 253, 251, 255 ; XL. p. 140 ; fig. 258 ; XLII. p. 159 ; XLIII. p. 160 ; fig. 297; LI. p.178; fig. 315; LV. p. 187; figs. 338, 339, 340, 341, 342, 346; LXVI. p. 204; figs. 366,377; twelve cottages, 433; college for working men, 440,441,442 ; portable cottages, 445, 477 ; gardener’s house, 1454 : for farm Jabourers’ cottages, see p. jElévations. Design IV. p. 29 ; figs. 29,30 ; V. p. 30 ; figs. 31, 35 ; VI. p. 33 ; VII. p. 34 ; figs. 38, 42, 79; VIII. p. 45; XI. p. 50; fig. 86; XIV. p. 61; figs. 112,113,114,115; XVI. p. 69; XVII. p.70; figs. 117, 125; XVIII. p. 75; XIX. p.76; figs. 133, 135, 144, 145, 157 ; XX. p. 85 ; XXI. p. 86 ; XXII. p. 89; XXIII. p. 90; XXIV. p. 95 ; XXVII. p. 100; XXIX. p.104; fig. 194; XXXIII. p.133 ; XXXIV. p. 134; XXXV. p. 134; XXXVI. p. 134 ; figs. 250, 251 ; XXXVIII. p. 139 : XL. p. 140: XLII. p. 159; XLIII. p.160; XLIV. p. 165; XLV. p. 166; figs. 300,301; LI. p. 178; fig. 316; LV. p. 187; LVIII. p. 194; LIX. p. 194 ; LX. p. 194 ; LXVI. p. 204 ; LXX. p. 215; LXXVI. p. 226 ; twelve cottages, fig. 439 ; col- lege for working men, 444 ; portable cottages, 454, 456 ; gardener’s house, 1455. Sections. Design IV. p. 29 ; V. p. 30; VI.’ p. 33; VII. p. 34; VIII. p. 45; XI. p.50; fig. 136; XX. p. 85 ; XXIIT. p. 90 ; XXIV. p. 95 ; XXIX. p.104; XXXIII. p.133; XL. p. 140; XLII. p. 159; XLIII. p. 160; LV. p. 187; LXVI. p. 204. Cottages of Two Stories. Plans. Design IX. p. 46; X. p. 49; XII. p. 55; XIII. p. 56 ; fig. 95; XV. p.62; figs. 98, 105, 106, 107 ; XXV. p. 96; XXVIII. p. 103: XXX. p. 109 ; XXXI. p. 110 ; XXXII. p. 117 ; figs. 256, 261, 267, 292, 305; XLVI. p. 169;. XLVII. p. 170; XLVII1. p. 173 ; XLIX. p. 174; L. p. 177; figs. 314, 319, 325, 327; LVI. p. 188; ! LVII. p. 193; figs. 336, 345; LXV. p. 203; LXVII. p.209; LXVIII. p. 210; figs. 361, 362, 367 ; LXXII. p. 216 ; fig. 368 ; LXXIII. p. 225 ; figs. 390, 391, 407, 408, 420, 421, 425, 427,429, 433. Elévations. In the Swiss style, Design IX. p. 46; Old English, X. p. 49 ; XII. p. 55; XIII. p. 56; figs. 94, 97 ; XV. p. 62; figs. 102, 108, 109, 138, 139, 140 ; XXV. p. 96 ; Old English, XXVIII. p. 103: fig. 203; XXX. p. 109 ; XXXI. p. 110 ; XXXII. p. 113; XXXVII. p. 139; XXXIX. p. 139: figs. 268, 291, 293; XLVI. p. 169; XLVII. p. 170; XLVIII. p. 173; XLIX. p. 174; L. p. 177 ; figs. 317, 318, 320, 326, 328 ; LVI. p. 188 ; LVII. p. 193 ; fig. 337 ; LXII. p. 199; LXV. p. 203 ; LXVIL p. 209; LXVIII. p. 210 ; LXIX. p.215; castellated.LXXI. p.215; LXXII. p. 216 ; fig. 387. ; LXXIII. p. 225 ; LXXIV. p. 226 ; LXXV. p. 226; figs. 423, 426, 428,458, 459 460. Sections. Swiss, fig. 80; XXXII. p. 113 and 114; XLVI. p. 169 ; figs. 363,364, 365,372, 403, 404, 405, 406, 412. Cottages of Three Stories. Plans. Design XXVI. p. 99; LXIV. p. 200. Elévations. German cottage, Design XXVI. p. 99 ; LXIV. p. 200. Farm Houses and FaRmeries. Plans. Figs. 749, 754, 757, 758 ; of ceiling joists, 759, 847, 848, 849, 899, 900, 901, 902, 906, 916, 918, 920, 922, 924, 925, 927, 931, 932, 936, 937, 948, 949, 952, 954, 956, 960, 963, 967, 971, 973, 987, 997, 999, 1000 to 1002,1008,1009,1034,1045, 1046,1062 to 1064, 1066, 1070, 1071. Elévations, and Perspective and Isometrical Views. Figs. 751, 762, 753, 756, 761, 763; Design I.; 850 to 853, 855, 856; Design III. p.443; IV. p. 444; fig. 944, 917, 919, 921, 923, 926, 928, 929, 930, 933, 934, 935, 938, 939, 940, 943, 955, 961, 962, 966, 970, 972, 988, 996, 998, 1004,1006,1012, 1033; with windmill, XIII. p. 473; XIV. p. 474; XV. p. 474; fig. 1041, 1049, 1051; XXXV. p.535; XXXVI. p. 536; figs. 1065, 1067, 1068, 1069. Sections. Figs. 750,735, 760, 762, 854, 903, 904, 909 to 911, 914, 915, 946, 950, 951, 953, 974, 1003, 1005,1007, 1010,1011, 1013, 1047,1048. Farmeries alone. Plans. Figs. 887, 969,989,990,991,1020,1027,1032, 1041, 1043, 1054, 1055, 1072, 1078, 1079, 1080, 1081,1088, 1089, 1090,1092, 1095. Elévations, and Perspective and Isometrical Views. Figs. 886 to 894, 968, 992, 995, 1018, 1026, 1029, 1031, 1040,1042, 1042, 1053; Design XXXIV. p. 525; figs. 1077,1091,1093, 1094, 1096 to 1098. Sections. Figs. 895 to 897,993, 994, 1019,1021,1022, 1029,1030, 1084. Sheep Houses Plan. Fig. 803. Elévation. Fig. 806. Sections. Figs. 804,805, 807. Barns and GRANARIES; Plans. Figs. 808, 816, 817,1085. Elévations. Figs. 812,820. Sections. Figs. 809, 810,811, 813, 814, 815, 818, 819, 821, 1028,1082, 1083,1086. Piggery and Meal House. Fig. 912. Hoyels. Circular Hovel for Cattle. Figs. 907, 908. Mills. Plans. Figs., Water, 1108 to 1111 ; Wind, 1114 to 1118; Cider, 1170,1173,1176. Elévations. Figs., Water, 1104 to 1106; Wind, 1113, 1120, 1122,1123 ; Cider, 1179, 1181, 1185 ; Portable Corn Mill, 1288. Sections. Figs., Water, 1107, 1112; Wind, 1119, 1121,1124; Cider, 1171, 1172, 1174, 1175, 1176, 1177,1178. Cider Presses. Figs. 1179, 1185. Cider Instruments. Figs. 1182 to 1184, 1186 to 1190. Malt Plough. Fig. 1126. Water Mill Wheels. Figs. 1101 to 1103. Kilns. Plans. Figs., Malt, 1129; Hop, 1136 to 1138,1141, 1142, 1143, 1148, 1152,1153, 1158; Lime, 1161, Brick, 1164, 1168. Elévations. Figs., Hop, 1139,1Î40,1144,1147, 1163. Sections. Figs., Malt, 1134; Hop, 1145, 1149, 1150, < 1151, 1154, 1155, 1156; Lime, 1157, 1159, 1160, 1162 ; Brick, 1165,1166,1167,1169. Poultry Houses. Plans. Figs. 1191,1197, 1198,1199,1200, 1201,1723. Elévations. Figs. 1192,1194,1195,1723. Sections. Fig. 1193,1196, 1198, 1199. Cottages for Farm Labourers. Pians. Figs. 1203, 1204, 1205, 1207, 1208, 1211,LIST OF ENGRAVING& xi il Dairies. Vlan. Figs. 741, 1722. Elévation. Figs. 744, 745,746, 1721. Sections. Figs. 742, 743. 1724. ICEHOUSE. Plan. Fig. 748. Section. Fig. 747. Stables. Plans. Figs. 774, 794 j of flooring, 798,1007, 1008, 1009,1024, 1512, 1583,1700: circular, 1702. Elévations. Figs. 777, 778, 759, 1006, 1012, 1023, 1025, 1584, 1613, 1699 : Circular Italian, 1703 : Gothic, 1704. Sections. Figs. 776, 779, 796, 797, 799, 957 to 959 ; 1010, 1011,1013,1050,1087. Riding-hoüse. Plan of that at Monaco, Fig. 1705. Sections of Roofs. Figs. 1705 to 1717. Illustrations of Gothic Architecture. Figs. 1593 to 1596, 1615 to 1644, 1647 to 1651. Illustrations of Italian Architecture. Figs. 1670 to 1698. CONSERVATORIES Plan. Fig. 1725. Elévations. Figs. 1729,1730,1731,1732,1733 Sections. Figs. 1726, 1727. Cottage Gardens. Gardens. Design XIII. p.56; XIV. p. 61 ; XVT. p. 69 : XVII. p.70; XVIII. p.76; XXI. p.86; XXII. p. 69; XXVII. p. 100 ; figs. 247, 260,289, 290 ; LI. p. 178 ; public house, figs. 1298, 1301. Villa Gardens and Scenery. Villa Scenery. Figs. 1441, 1445, 1480, 1489, 1800; 1543, 1571, 1585, 1653. Gardens. Figs. 1448,‘1452, 1456, 1496, 1652. Architectural Gardens. Figs. 1734, 1735, 1736. Dog Kennels. Plan. 1718. Elévations. 1719, 1720. Temples and Coyered Seats. Figs. 1758, 1759, 1760. Farm Furniture. Threshing-machine. Figs. 1285 to 1287. lîarley.chopper. Fig. 1289. Turnip-cutter. Fig. 1291. Oat-crusher. Fig. 1290. Apparatus for steaming Potatoes. Fig. 1292. Sheep-racks. Figs. 802, 1036, 1037,1038, 1283. Racks and Mangers for Stables. Figs. 770 to 773, 780 to 786, 942, 943, 944, 1014, 1015, 1016, 1035. Draining-grating. Fig. 775. Corn Measure. Fig. 1701. Gruel-manger. Fig. 1272. Pig-troughs. Figs. 801, 913, 1281,1282. Rick-stands. Figs. 825 to 837,1039. Rack for Cattle. Fig. 1279. Tethering Stake. Fig. 1280. Rabbit-trough. Fig. 1284. Cow Trough. Fig. 1273. Cow Ties and Brechin. Figs. 1274 to 1278. Fodder Cribs. Fig. 965. Saddle and Harness Pegs. Figs. 1269 to 1271. Gates. Figs. 359, 360, 841 to 846, 871 to 873, 898, 1076. Cheese-press. Fig. 1261. Weighing-machine. Fig. 1260. Sparrow-pot. Fig. 468. Pumps. Siebe’s, figs. 9,10 ; Cottam’s, 1294. Liquid Manure Tanks. Figs. 840, 1073 to 1075. Posts, &c. for Drying Clothes. Figs. 166 to 171, 1353. Inns and Public Houses. Plans. Figs. 1296,1297,1298,1300,1301,1303, 1304 1310, 1312, 1313, 1314, 1319,1322, 1323, 1324. Elévations. Figs. 1295,1299, 1302,1309,1311, 1318 ; Italian, 1321 ; Swiss, 1326. Section. Fig. 1320. Interior of a Liquor Shop. Figs. 1315,1316. Schools. Plans. Figs. 1374,1375,1376, 1377,1380,1382,1383, 1384, 1385, 1387, 1389, 1395, 1399, 1403. Elévations. Figs. 1386,1390,1391, 1392, 1393, 1394, 1398. Sections. Figs. 1378, 1388, 1396, 1397. School Furniture. Figs. 1379,1381, 1400 to 1411. Villas. Maps and Plans. Figs. 1435, 1439 to 1442, 1444 to 1448, 1450, 1451, 1453, 1456, 1457, 1459 to 1463, 1470,1471,1473, 1474,1480 to 1482, 1488 to 1491, 1496, 1498, 1501, 1504, 1505, .1506, 1509, 1510, 1511, 1538, 1540, 1541, 1543, 1545, 1548 to 1550, 1565, 1567, 1571,-1573, 1580 to 1582, 1585,1590, 1591, 1592, 1597, 1598, 1600, 1601, 1602, 1603, 1606, 1608,1609, 1645, 1652, 1653, 1662. Elévations and Views. Figs. 1412 to 1434, 1436 to 1438, 1443, 1449, 1452, 1458, 1464 to 1467,1469, 1472, 1475, 1479, 1485, 1486, 1487, 1492, 1493, 1497, 1503, 1508, 1513 to 1516, 1539, 1544, 1546, 1547, 1551, 1552, 1566, 1568 to 1570, 1572, 1574, 1586, 1587, 1588, 1589, 1599, 1604, 1605, 1607, 1610, 1611, 1612, 1646, 1658, 1659, 1660, 1661, 1663. Sections. Figs. 1483, 1484, 1494, 1495, 1507, 1553, 1593, 1614. Cascade. Fig. 1761 Fountains. Figs. 1762, 1763, 1764,1765, 1766, 1767,176& Ruins and Ancient Castles. Figs. 1769, 1770. SüNDIAL. Fig. 1771. Figs. 1240,1772 to 1777. Vases. Urns. Figs. 1778, 1779, 1780. Pedestal. Fig. 1781. CENOTAPHS AND TûMBS. Figs. 1782,1783, 1784. Entrance Lodges and Gates. Plans of Lodges. Figs. 1786, 1788,1790, 1792,1794» 1796, 1798. Elévations of Lodges and Gates. Figs. 1785, 1787, 1789, 1791, 1793, 1795, 1797. Gates and gateways. Figs. 1799 to 1805. Details of Construction. Roofs. Figs. 33, 54, 121 to 124, 226, 227, 259 : of corrugated Iron, 348 to 354, 1670; for Ridmg- houses, 1705 to 1717, 1726, 1727, 1821, 1822. Eaves of Roofs and Gutters. 1 Figs. 27, 36,40,55, 56, 59, 63,77, 101,103, 120,127, 142,155, 159, 160, . ; 173, 174; Design XXXII. p. 118; figs. 248, 263 to 265,304, 335.371, 388, 389, 800, 864, 945, 1125,1216,1217,13u6, 1468, 1670, 1672. Barge-boards and Gables. Figs. 181, 185, 299, 321, 378 to 385, 863, 865, 1476 to 1478,1627. Pinnacles. Figs. 78, 1626. Water Trunks, or Spouts. Figs. 60,61. Thatching. Fig. 89. Tiles, Quarries, and Slating. Figs. 23, 24, 43, 146, 163, 164, 434, 885, 947; Slating, 1099, 1100; Kiln, 1135,1238,1239, 1242, 1517 to 1529, 1670 to 1673,1809 to 1813. Modes of Joining Pièces of Timber. Figs. 49, 50, 57, 238, 239, 376, 422, 447, 448, 450 to453, 455, 595,1180. Walls.. Figs. 7, 39, 44, 48, 216, 306 to 312, 329 to 334,463, 975, 976,1056,1057,1674. Partition Walls. Figs. 46, 58, 266. Weather Tiling. Figs. 392 to 402,466. Mathematical Tiling. Figs. 461 to 465,467. Chimney-tops. Figs. 32, 33, 84, 88, 91, 92,100,104, 131,132,141, 165, 172, 176, 190, 196, 202, 294, ; 303, 324, 343, 347, 373, 409 to 411,435, 436,879 to 882, 1305, 1308, 1531 to 1537,1579,1675 to 1682 ; Plates for ditto, 430 to 432. 'Tessellated Pavements. Figs. 1517 to 1529 ; 1809 to 1813. Watchtowers and Bell-turrets. Figs. 1692 to 1695. Windows. Figs. 28,45,73, 85, 90,180,188,191,192, 235, 237, 257, 262, 283 to 288, 322, 323, 344; Storm-head, 386, 478 to 489, 787,876, 976, 977, 1307,1595,1616, 1617, 1619 to 1624,1628 to 1635, 1647, 1684 to 1688, 1728.LIST OF ENGRAVINGS, Canopies for Windows. Figs. 496 to 500. Mullions. Figs. 87,177. Sash-bar. Fig. 126. Doors and Porches. Figs. 64, 232; Corrugated Iron, 355 to 358,469 to 476,519, 875, 1575,1576, 1593, 1594, 1596, 1616,1689 to 1691,1696 to 1698. Door Bracket. Fig. 34. Sills. Figs. 216, 218, 981. Gauge-box for hollow Walls. Figs. 1221,1222. Curb for a Well. Figs. 229,230. Vérandas. Figs. 128 to 130. Stairs and Staircases. Figs. 137,241,242,1643,1644, 1648. Chimneys and Chimney-pieces. Figs. 47,210 to 214, 219,220, 245,518,541, 542,1542,1578,1650,1817, 1847, 1848. Chimneys for Steam-engines. Figs. 1267,1268. Floors. Figs. 52, 62, 231, 446 ; Parqueted, 1814 to 1816. Modes of Heating Floors, &c. Figs. 4, 11, 276 to 282,295, 296, 313,1202. Ventilator. Fig. 1381. . Finishings, Fittings-up, and Futures. Panels for Rooms. Figs. 518, 519,1849,1850. Ceilings. Figs. 1640 to 1642,1651. Mouldings and Skirtings. Figs. 71, 195, 200 ; De- sign XXXII. p. 118; figs. 233, 234, 240, 418,514 to 517, 859 to 861, 877,1554 to 1564,1618, 1625, 1636 to 1639, 1649. Window-fasteners. Figs. 72,236, 985. Plaster Ornaments for Ceilings. Figs. 511 to 513. Cornices. Figs. 41, 93, 178, 179,182, 183,186, 204 ; Design XXXII. p. 118 ; figs. 302, 501 to 510, 869, 1683. Filters. Figs. 8,119,275. Tanks for Water. Figs. 1,118, 822 to 824. Water-closets. Figs. 13 to 16, 269, 413 to 415, 437, 438,1325,1336 to 1338. Stink-traps. Figs. 215, 222 to 224, 838, 839, 1499, 1500. Door-spring. Fig. 274. Cranks and Pulleys. Figs. 270 to 273,520,1818 Blinds. Figs. 788 to 793, 1806 to 1808. Breweries. Figs. 1830 to 1833. Kitchen and different Apparatus. Figs. 1819 to 1829 ; Sinks for, figs. 416,544,1259,1332 ; Roll- ers for Towels, figs. 546, 547 ; Dressers for, figs. 557 to 566 : Cupboards, figs. 567 to 572. Gas-pipes for Cooking. Figs. 1317, 1373, 1825 to 1829. Gas-pipes for Lighting. Figs. 1835 to 1837. Movable Cupboards. Figs. 1327 to 1329. Nails and Wall-hooks. Figs. 51,76, 221, 244,246. Brackets. Figs. 81, 82,161,162, 553, 554, 556, 983, 1249,1250,1333, 1339 to 1341, 1865, 1866, 1867. Balusters. Fig. 184; Design XXXII. p. 118; figs. 584, 858, 870, 874. ' Parapets. Figs. 83, 134, 147 to 154, 175,189 ; De- sign XXXII. p. 119; figs. 862, 1330, 1577, 1737 to 1757. Ornamental Nails. Figs. 477,1854,1855. Ornamental Shutters. Figs. 490 to 493. Locks. Figs. 69, 70. Bolts. Figs. 68,494. Hinges. Figs. 37, 65, 66, 187, 298, 495, 606, 731. 982, 1058,1059,1060,1061,1851. Latch. Fig. 67. Handles for Doors. Figs. 1852,1853. Modes of hanging Pictures. Figs. 1856,1857. Grates. Figs. 521 to 527, 533 to 539, 978, 979, 1243, 1244,1245,1252 to 1255,1256, 1257 ; American, 1258 ; Folding, 1330,1331,1843 to 1848. Heating-Stoves. Figs. 1838 to 1842. Cooking-Stoves. Fig. 528 to 530,1354 to 1360. Ovens. Figs. 531,532,1361 to 1372. Ash-pan. Fig. 540. Register. Fig. 543. Interiors. Dining-rooms, Grecian. Fig. 1900 ; Gothic, fig- 2009 ; Elizabeth an, fig. 2037. Drawingrooms, Grecian. Fig. 1980 ; Gothic, 2021 ; Elizabethan, 2038. Library, Gothic. Fig. 2012. Kitchen Fürnitüre, Sinks. Figs. 544,545,1259,1332. Rollers, &c, for Towels. Figs. 546,547, Tables. Figs. 550 to 556,596, 601,1348 to 1350. Dressers. Figs. 557 to 565. Cupboards. Fig. 567 to 572. Kneading-trough. Fig. 593. Settles. Fig. 636,1346. Chairs. Figs. 643 to 650. Stools. Figs. 623 to 630,1379. Clocks. Figs. 729,730, Ï247. Stand for brushing Clothes. Fig. 733. Washing-machines. Fig. 1262, 1335. Wringing-machines. Fig. 1262, 1858. Mangles. Figs. 1263, 1264, 1265,1834. Knife-cleaner. Fig. 1266. Napkin-press. Fig. 1334. Cooking Apparatus. Figs. 1354 to 1373, 1822 to 1829. Hall Fürnitüre. Hat and Cloak Pins and Stands. Figs. 548, 549, 724 to 727. Benches. Figs. 632 to 635, 637 to 639, 1863,1864, 2003. Table. Fig. 2034. Chairs. Figs. 640 to 642, 651, 718, 1343 to 1347, 1859 to 1862, 2004. i Mats and Scrapers. Figs. 719 to 723. Dining-room Fürnitüre. Sideboards. Figs. 573 to 575, 1868 to 1877, 1880, 2005, 2035. Tables. Figs. 602, 613 to 615,1882 to 1890,2006. Castors. Fig. 603; Table Flap-cases, 1878 to 1881. Screens. Figs. 732,1896,1899. Window-curtains. Figs. 705,708,710,711. Chimney-glasses. Figs. 712, 713. Chairs. Figs. 1891 to 1895,2007, 2008. Leg.rest. Fig. 1897; Candlestick-stand, 1898. Library Fürnitüre. Bookcases and Writing-tables. Figs. 576 to 582, 1901 to 1904,1906,1907, 2010,2011. Library-table. Figs. 1905,2014. Book.stands. Figs. 583,584. Window-curtains. Figs. 705,708, 710,711. Chimney-glasses. Figs. 712,713,1914. Desks. Figs. 610,1908,1909. Chairs. Figs. 1911,1912,1913,2013,2029, 2033. Drawingroom Fürnitüre. Chimney-glass. Fig. 1975. Curtains. Fig. 1976 to 1979 Stool. Fig. 2020. Tables. Fig. 604 to 609, 611, 612,1938 to 1941,1943, 1944,1947 to 1958, 2019. Footstools. Figs. 631,1921,1922. Chairs. Figs. 652 to 660,1923 to 1937, 2015 to 2018, 2023 to 2028,2030 to 2332. Fire-screens. Figs. 1972 to 1974. Chiffonier. Fig. 1942. Sofas, Couches, Ottomans, and Sofa Bedsteads. Figs. 674 to 680,1915 to 1920. Devonports. Figs. 1945,1946. Piano-fortes, Music-stands, &c. Figs. 1961 to 1966, 1968. ' Book-stands. Figs. 583, 584, 1959,1960. Portfolio-stand. Figs. 1967, 1969. Flower-stands. Fig. 1970,1971. Nursery Fürnitüre. Figs. 734 to 740, 1997 to 2002. School Fürnitüre Figs. 1404 to 1411, Bedroom Fürnitüre. Bedsteads. Figs. 681 to 699,1981,1982,1984,2022. Bed Pillars. Figs. 1983,2036. Cribs, &c. for Children. Figs. 700 to 703,1997. Wardrobes. Figs. 585 to 591,1987 to 1989. Looking-glasàes. Figs. 714 to 717,1991 to 1994. Chest of Drawers. Fig. 592. Towel-stands. Figs. 728,1351,1352. Chairs. Figs. 661 to 673. Tables. Fig. 619 to 622,1986. Washhand-stands. Figs. 616 to 618, 1910, 1995, 1996. Bed-steps. Fig. 1985. Dressing-table. Fig. 1990.LIST OF BOOKS QUOTED The Abbreviated Title, or the Name ofthe Author, is given, with the Number of the Paragraph where the work, or the Author, isfirst mentioned, and aftenvards the Title ofthe Books at length. Ail the Works m th fs List, with the exception of one or two which are out ofprint, may be hadof Messrs. Priestley and Weale, Architectural Booksellers, High Street Bloomsbury, London, to whom we beg thus publicly to acknowledge our obligations for the loan of several of the volumes enumerated. Aberdeen's Inquiry, %c. 2222. An Inquiry into the Principles of Beauty in Grecian Archi- tecture, with an Historical View of the Rise and Progress of the Art in Greece. By George, Earl of Aberdeen, K. T., &c. ; London, 1822. small 8vo. Àlison's Essays, 190. Essay on the Nature and Principles of Taste. By Archibald Alison, LL.D. F.R.S. Edinburgh, 1790. 4to. 1811,1815. 2 vols. 8vo. 1816. An Amateur's History and Analysis, ÿc., 2231. A concise History and Analysis of ail the prin- cipal Styles of Architecture, &c. By an Ama- teur. London, 1829. small 8vo. Anderson's Récréations, Sçc., 2229. Récréations in Agriculture, Natural History, Arts, and Mis- cellaneous Literature. London, 1799 to 1802. 6 vols. 8vo. Arnott's Eléments of Physics, 667. Eléments of Physics or Natural Philosophy. By Neil Arnott, M.D. London, 1829. 2 vols. Bakewell's Travels in the Tarentaise, 864. Observ- ations on the Alps, Savoy, &c. By Robt. Bake- well. London, 1825.2 vols. 8vo. Bartell's Hints, 533. Hints for Picturesque Im- provements in ornamented Cottages, &c. By Edmund Bartell, junr. London, 1804.8vo. Bath Society's Papers, 1222. Letters and Papers on Agriculture and Planting, &c., selected from the Correspondence Book of the Bath Society. Bath, 8vo, 1780 to 1832. Bêtancourt's Description, &c., 1943. Description de la Salle d’Exercice de Moscow. Par M? de Bé- tancourt. St. Petersbourg. Folio, 1819. Borgnis, Traité, ÿc., 1816. Traité Elémentaire de Construction appliquée à l’Architecture Civile. Par M. J. A. Borgnis, Ingénieur, et Membre de plusieurs Académies. Paris, 1823. 4to. Braidwood on Fire-engines, 1793. On the Con- struction of Fire-engines and Apparatus, &c. By James Braidwood, Edinburgh, 1830. 8vo. Brewster's Mechanics, 1261. Lectures on Me- chanics, Hydrostatics, Pneumatics, and Optics. By JamesFerguson, F.R.S. A new Edition, by David Brewster, LL.D. F.R.S. Edinburgh, 1805. 2 vols. 8vo. Britton's Works. 2150. Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain, 4 vols. 4to. ; Descriptive Sketches of Tunbridge Wells, &c., 1 vol. 8vo. Architectural Dictionary, 1 vol. 8vo. and other Works published from 1801 to 1833. Brown's Infant Mind, 1517. A Essay on the Culti- vation of the Infant Mind, &c. By J. R. Brown, Master of the Spitaltields Infant School. London, 1832. 12mo. Buchanan's Economy of Fuel, 600. Treatise on the Economy of Fuel in Dwellings and Manu- factories, &c. By R. Buchanan, Civil En- gineer. Glasgow, 1802.8vo. Bumeton Colouritig, §c., 2012. Hints on Colourin Painting. London, 1830. 4to. Cab. Dict. 2100. The Cabinet Dictionary, con- taihing an Explanation of ail the Terms used in Upholsteryin ail its Branches, &c. By T. She- raton. London, 1803. 8vo. Cardonnel's Vieios of Scotland, 1821. Picturesque Antiquities of Scotland. By Adam de Cari donnel, F.A.S. Edinburgh. London, 1788 and 1793. 2 vols. 4to. Carlisle's Hints, #c., 2222. Hints on Rural Rési- dences. By Nicholas Carlisle. London, 1825. 4to. (Not published.) Carter, 2,932. Ancient Architecture in England. Nos. I to 27. folio, 1780 to 1796. By John Carter, F.S.A, Caus, S(c., 1990. Hortus Palatinus a Heidelhergæ extructus. By Solomon Caus. Frankfort. fol. 1620. Chad. Chimneys, 602. A Treatise on the Form- ation of Flues of Chimneys, &c. By J. Chadley. London, 1832. 8vo. Chapple's Survey of Devon, 839. A Review of Risdon’s Survey of Devon, containing the ge- neral Description of that County, &c. By William Chapple. Exeter, 1788. 4to. Choix d'Edifices Publics, 1974. Choix d’Edifices Publics construits ou projetés en France j ex- trait des Archives du Conseil des Bâtimens Civils, &c. Par MM. Gourlier, Biet, Grillon, et Tardieu, Architectes, et gravé sous la direc tionde M.Clémence, Architecte. Paris, 1826. fol. Clavering, 2191. A Essay on the Construction and building of Chimneys, including an Inquiry into the Cause of their Smoking, and the most effectuai Remedies for removing so intolérable a Nuisance. With a Table to proportion Chim- neys to the Size of Rooms, illustrated with Œ figures. By Robert Clavering, Builder. n, 1793, 8vo. ' Cottingham, 2222. Gothic Ornaments (working Drawings for) selected and composed from the best Examples. By L. N. Cottingham, Archi- . tect. Atlas folio, 1828, 38 plates. Cours Complet d'Agr. 1289. Nouveau Cours complet d’Agriculture Théorique et Pratique, &c. Nouvelle édition. Paris, 1823.16 vols. 8vo. Cousins' Génie d'Arch., 1974. Du Génie d’Ar- chitecture, ouvrage àyant pour But de rendre cet Art accessible au Sentiment commun, en le rapellant à son Origine, à ses Propriétés, et à son Génie; et contenant une Doctrine Gé- nérale puissée dans des Faits, &c. Par J. A. Cousins, Architecte, &c. Paris, 1822.4to. Dearn's Hints, ÿc., 25. Hints on an improved Method of Building, &c. By Thomas D. W. Dearn, Architect. London, 1821. 8vo. De Clarac, $c., 1974. Musée de Sculpture, &c. Par M. de Clarac. Paris, 1811. 4to. De Lille, Les Jardins, poëme. Par Jacques De Lille. 1765, Paris. 12mo. Denson's Peasant's Voice, 128. A Peasant’s Voice to Landowners, on the best Means of benefiting Agricultural Labourers, and of réducing the Poors’ Rates. By John Denson of Waterbeach. Cambridge, 1830. pamph. 8vo. Des Etablissemens pour l'Education en Bavière, 8çc. 1513. Par J. C. Loudon. Paris, 1829. 8vo. Des. of Tremont Home, 1944. A Description of Tremont House, with Architectural Illustra- tions. Boston, 1830. 4to. Descriptions of the London Zoological Gardens, 8fc., 1951. Eight Views in the Zoological Gardens in the Regent’s Park. London, 1832. ob. fol. Illustrations of the Surrey Zoological Gardens. By W. H, Kearney. London, 1832. In monthly parts, 4to. Dictionnaire Technologique, 1261. Dictionnaire Technologique, ou Nouveau Dictionnaire Uni-xvi LIST OF BOOKS QUOTED. versel des Arts et Métiers et de l’Economie Industrielle et Commerciale. Par une Société de Savans et d’Artistes. Tome I.—XX. 8vo. et Planches 4to. Paris, 1822—32. Dictterlin's Architectural S;c., 1990. Architectura de Constitutione, &c. Wendelino Dietterlin. Nuremberg. 1598. fol. Donaldson's Gateway s, fyc., 1990. A Collection of the most approved Examples of Doors, from Ancient and Modem Buildings in Greece and Italy. By Thomas Leverton Donaldson, Ar- chitect. London, 1833, 4to. Duppa, 2214. Observations on France and Italy, made in 1818. London, 1819. 8vo. Dur and's Cours d' Arch., 2231. Cours d’Archi- tecture faits à l’Ecole Royale Polytechnique, depuis sa Réorganisation; précédé d’un Som- maire des Leçons relatives à ce nouveau Travail. Par J. N. L. Durand, Architecte* &c. Paris, 1821. 4to. Durand, Leçons, 8çc., 2231. Leçons d’Architec- ture. Par J. N. L. Durand, Architecte, &c. Paris, 1817. 2 vols. 8vo. Dwight's Trav.y p. 3. Travels in America. By Dr. Dwight, 4 vols. 8vo. London, 1820. Elmes's Lectures, p. 5. Lectures on Architecture ; comprising the History of the Art from the earliest Times to the présent Day. By James Elmes, Architect. London, 1823. 8vo. Emerson's MechanicSy ÿc. 2181. Principles of Me- chanics; explaiuing and demonstrating the generalLaws of Motion, theLatvs of Gravity,&c. Motion of descending Bodies, Projectiles, Me- chanic Powers, Pendulums, Centrés of Gravity, &c., Strength and Stress of Timber, Hydro- statics, and. the Construction of Machines. By William Emerson. London, 1754. 8vo. Encyc. of Dont. Econ.y 711. The DomesticEncyclo- pædia ; or, a Dictionary of Facts and Useful Knowledge, &c. London, 1802. 4 vols. 8vo. Epistle to Lord Lowther, 476. On Planting and Buildings, in a Poetic Epistle to Lord Lowther. London, 1776. 4to. Essay on Gothic Architecture. An Essay on the Origin and Progress of Gothic Architecture, traced in and deduced from the Ancient Edifices of Germany, with references to those of Eng- land, &c. By Dr. George Moller, first Archi- tect to the Duke of Hesse ; translated from the German. London, 1824. 8vo. Facts and Illustrations, Sçc., 480. Facts and Illus- trations, demonstrating the important Benefits which hâve been and still may be derived by Labourers from possessing small Portions of Land, &c. London, pamph. 8vo. Monthly, continued. Falda's Fountains, %c., 1973. contained in Nuova Teatro delle Fabriche et Edificii di Roma Mo- derna. Rome, 1665, 4to. ; and in Gli Giardini di Roma. Rome, fol. and Norib. fol. Farey's Derbyshire, 1377. General View of the Agriculture and Minerais of Derbyshire, pub. by Order of the Board of Agr. By John Farey, Senr., Minerai Surveyor, vol. i. London, 1811. 8vo. vol. ii. 1813. Maps and sections. Flaxman’s Æschylus, S(C. 2168. A Sériés of Engrav- ings from his Compositions to illustrate the Iliad and Odyssey of Homer, 1793,4to. Compositions from the Tragédies of Æschylus, 1809, fol. Fontaines de Paris, Sçc., 1794. Les Fontaines de Paris, Anciennes et Nouvelles. Par M. Moisy et M. A. Du val. Paris, 1812. fol. For. Quart. Ilev., p. 2. Foreign Quarterly Review. London, 11 vols. 8vo. 1833. Continued. Forsyth's Beauties of Scotland, 1821. Beauties of Scotland, &c. By Robert Forsyth, Esq. Edin- burgh, 1809. 5 vols. 8vo. Forsyth's Bemarks, ÿc., 2212. Remarks on An- tiquités, Arts, and Letters, duriug an Ex- cursion in Italy, in 1802-3. London, 1813, 8vo. Franklin's Letter, Sçc., 2181. Observations onsmoky Chimneys, their Causes and Cure, &c. In a letter to Dr. Ingenhausz. London, 1793,8vo.’ Frend's Universal Education, 1613. A Plan of Universal Education. By William Frend, Esq. London, 1832. 12mo. Gérardin, 1674. La Composition des Paysages sur le Terrein, on des moyens d’embellir la Nature autour des habitations, en y joignant l’utile à l’agréable. Par L. R. Gérardin. Paris, 1777. 8vo, Gilpin's Practical Hints, %c., 1987. Practical Hints on Landscape Gardening, &c. By S. Gilpin, Esq. London, 1832. 8vo. Gilpin's Wye, 533. Observations on the River Wye, and several Parts of South Wales, relative chiefly to Picturesque Beauty, made in the Summer of 1770. London, 1783. 8vo. Gregory's Mechanical Dictionary, 1261. A Treatise on Mechanics, &c. By Olinthus Gregory; LL.D. of the Roy. Mil. Acad., Woolwich, and Teacher of Mathematics, Cambridge. London, 1806. 3 vols. 8vo. plates. Gwilt’s Architecture, 2181. Rudiments of Archi- tecture, Practical and Theoretical. By Joseph Gwilt, F. A.S. London, 1826. Large 8vo. Gwilt's Chambers, Sçc., 2212. A Treatise on the Décorative Part of Civil Architecture. By Sir William Chambers, K.P.S. F.R.S. F.S.A. F.S.S.S. ; with Notes, &c., and an Examination of Grecian Architecture. By Joseph Gwilt, Architect, F.S. A. London, 1825.2 vols. imp.8vo. Hall’s Hypothesis, 2229. Essay on the Origin, Prin- ciples, and History of Gothic Architecture. Edinburgh, 1813. 4to. Hassel, 2012. The Spéculum ; or, the Art of Draw- ing in Water Colours; and Instructions for Sketching from Nature. London, 18G9. 12mo. Hay's Laws of Colouring, 2012. The Laws of Har- monious Colouring, adapted to House Painting, and other Interior Décorations. By D. R. Hay, House Painter. Edinburgh, 8vo. 1829. High. Soc. Trans.y 99. The Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, and Prize Essays and Transactions of the Highland Society of Scotland. Edin- burgh, 1832.8vo. Continued. Hiort's Chimneys, p. 2191. A Practical Treatise on the Construction of Chimneys, &c. By John William Hiort, Architect. Ixmdon, 1826. 8vo. Hirschfeld’s Théorie des Jar., 1674. Théorie de l’Art des Jardins. Par C. C. L. Hirschfeld. Leipzig, 1785. 5 vols. 4to. Hoare's Arlist, 8$c., 8çc. A Collection of Essays relative to Painting, Poetry, Sculpture, Archi- tecture, &c. Edited by Prince Hoare. London, 1810l 2 vols. 4to. Hoare's Wiltshire, 1831. History of Ancient Wilt- shire. By Sir Richard Colt Hoare, Bart, F.R. and A.SS. London, 1810. 3 vols. fol. Hofland's White Knights, ÿc., 1969. A Descriptive Account of the Mansion and Gardens of White Knights, a Seat of his Grâce the Duke of Marl- borough. By Mrs. Hofland. London, 1811. Large 4to. Hogarth's Analysis of Beauty, 864. The Analysis of Beauty. By William Hogarth. London, 1754, 4to. Hope's Essay on Ornamental Gardening, 1649. Published in the lieview of Art, and in Hof- land’s White Knights. Hope's Fumiture, Sçc., 2024. Household Furni- ture and Interior Décoration. Executed from Designs by Thomas Hope. London, 1807. fol. Hope's Observations on Downing College, 2169, Observations on the Plans and Elévations, designed by James Wyatt, Architect, for Down- ing College, Cambridge, in a Letter to Francis Annesley, Esq., M.P. By Thomas Hope, Esq. London, 1804. 4to. Hosking's Treatises, 2209. Treatises on Archi- tecture and Building, from the Encyclopædia Britannica. By William Hosking, Esq. London, 1832. 4to. Hunt's Tudor Architecture, 2148. Examples of Tudor Architecture, adapted to Modem Habit- ations, with Illustrative Details, selected from Ancient Edifices and Observations on the Fur- niture of the Tudor Period. By T. F, Hunt, Architect London, 1830. 4to. Jameson's Journal, 1980. The Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal ; exhibiting a View of the progressive Discoveries and Improvements in the Sciences and the Arts. Conducted by Professor Jameson. Edinburgh, 1833, 14 vols. 8vo. continued. Knight's Inquiry, 117. An Analytical Inquiry into the Principles of Taste. By R. P. Knight, Esq. London, 1805. 8vo. Knight's Landscape, 117. The Landscape; a Di- dactic Poem, in Three Books. By Richard Payne Knight, Esq. London. 1794. 4to. Krafft, ^c., 1943. Plans, Coupes, et Elévations deLIST OF BOOKS QUOTED. xvii diverses Productions de 1’ Art de la Charpente. Par Krafft. Paris, 1811, large fol. 202 plates. T.atng'sHints, 118. Hints for Dwellings, consisting of Original Designs for Cottages, Farm Houses, and Villas, &c., including Ten Designs for Town Houses. By D. Laing, Architect and Surveyor. London, 1800. 4to. Lairesse, 2012. The Art of Painting, in ail its Branches, methodically demonstrated by Dis* courses and Plates, &c. By Gérard de Lairesse. London, 1738. 4to. Lamb, 2221. Etchings of Gothic Ornaments. By Edward Buckton Lamb, Architect. London, 1830. 6 numbers, fol. Landesverschbnerung, 1005. Monatsblatt für Bauvvesen und Landesverschbnerung. Munich, 3 vols. 4to. Continued monthly. Lasteyrie's Rural Architecture, 1005. Traité de la Construction Rurale, &c. Paris, 1802. 4to ; and Recueil des Machines et Instrumens d’Agri- culture, &c., de tous les Pays, &c. Par M. Le Comte Lasteyrie. Paris, 1815. oblong 4to. Laugier's Essai, p. 5. Essai sur 1’ Architecture, &c. Par le Père Laugier. Paris, 1755. 8vo. Lawrence's Practical Directions, 128. Directions for the Management of Cottage Gardens. By Charles Lawrence. London, 1831. pamph. 8vo. Laxton's Builder's Price Book, 302. Tne improved Builder’s Price Book. By W. Laxton, Sur- veyor. London, 1833. 8vo. Le Jardinier des Fenêtres, 1963. Le Jardinier des Fenêtres, des Appartenions, etdespetits Jardins. Paris, 1825. 1 vol. 18mo. Lïbrary of the Fine Arts, 1664. Library of the Fine Arts. London, 1832. 2 vols. 8vo. Loch*s Improvements in Sutherland, 1047. An Ac- count of the Improvements made on the Mar- quess of Stafford’s Estâtes in Sutherland, &c. By J. Loch, Esq. London, 1819. 8vo. London Journal qf Arts and Sciences, 685. Journal of the Arts and Sciences. London, 8 vols. 8vo. Continued. Loudon, J. C. A Manual of Cottage Husbandry, Gardening, and Architecture. London, 1830. 8vo. c2s. Supplément to Loudon’s Cottage Manual, with 30 Designs, for Dwellings of from Five to Ten Rooms, on 24 Lithographie Plates. London, 1833. 8vo. 7s. Loudon's Treatise on Country Résidences, 340. A Treatise on Forming, Improving, and Manag- ing Country Résidences, &c. By J. C. Loudon. London, 1806. 4to. Malton's Works, 117. Essay on British Cottage Architecture, &c. By James Malton, Architect and Draughtsman. London, 1798. 4to. The Young Painter’s Maul-stick. London, 1802.4to. Marriage's Lètters on the Agricultural Labouras, 1368. Letters on the Distressed State of the Agricultural Labourers, and suggesting a Remedy. By Joseph Marriage. Chelmsford, 1832. pamph. 8vo. Mason, G., 1674. Essay on Design in Gardening. By George Mason, Esq. London, 1768. 8vo. Mason, 1674. The English Garden, a Poem in Four Books. By the Rev. William Mason. London, 1772, 4to. Meason's Landscape Architecture of Italy, 330. The Landscape Architecture of the Ancient Painters of Italy. London, 1830. 4to. Mechanics' Magazine, 142. Mechanics’ Magazine, London, 1832. 18 vols. 8vo, continued. Milizia, p. 5. Principi di Architettura Civile. Par Francesco Milizia. Bassano, 1785.3 tom. 8vo. Model Schools of the School Society, 1517. Manual of Model Schools of the British and Foreign School Society. London, 1831, 8vo. Morel, 1674. Théorie des Jardins, ou l’art des Jardins de la Nature. Par N. Morel. Paris, 1776, 8vo. Morel Vindé, S. A., $c., 743. Essai sur les Con- structions Kurales Economiques, contenant leurs Plans, Coupes, Elévations, Détails, et Devis, établis aux plus bas prix possibles. Par M. le Vicomte de Morel Vindé. Les détails par A.L Lussan, Architecte. Paris, 1824. folio. Morris, 2194.Lectures on Architecture. Two parts, 1734. 8vo. Murphy, 2222. Pians, Elévations, Sections, and Views of the Church of Batalha, in Portugal. By J. Murphy. Fol., 1792. 27 plates. New Monthly Mag., 493. New Monthly Magazine. London, 37 vols. 8vo, 1833. Continued. Newton's Vitruvius, 77. The Architecture of Vi- truvius Pollio, translated from the Latin by William Newton, Architect, London, 1791— 1791, 2 vols, royal folio. Nicholson's Practical Builder, 2007. The New Practical Builder, &c. By Peter Nicholson. London, 1823, 4to. Papworth, 2222. Rural Résidences, and Hints on Situation, &e. By J. B. Papworth, Architect London, 1820. imp. 8vo. Partington's Builder's Guide, 571. The Builder’s complété Guide, comprehending the Theory and Practice of the various Branches of Archi- tecture, Bricklaying, &c. By C. F. Partington. London, 1825. 8vo. Percier and Fontaine, Décorations Intérieures, 2005. Recueil de Décorations Intérieures, &c. Paris, 1812. fol Perrault, 2169. Les dix Livres d’Architecture de Vitruve, corrigés et traduits nouvellement en François j avec des Notes et des Figures. Paris, 1673. fol. Plan for a National Education, #EL COTTAGES. 9 them for their çhief excellencies in a useful point of view, that we hâve felt we should not be doing justice to our readers if we did not repeat these Designs, with their descriptions, in the présent work. This we hâve now done in a much more clear and systematic form than was compatible with the plan of the pamphlet alluded to, and with very considérable additions both of descriptive matter and engravings. Design I.—A Cottage of One S tory, combining ail the Accommodation and Conveniencies of winch human Dwellings of that description are susceptible. 16. In the Ground Plan of this Design, marked I. in page 10, a represents the kitchen, or living room. The floor of this apartment may be of tiles ; or paved ; or laid in a composition of lime, sharp sand, and Roman cernent ; or of lime, sharp sapd, and scoria from a smithy. Composition floors of this kind are much warmer than those of stones or tiles. In the ceiling, nearly over the hearth, is a trap-door to the loft ; which door may, in summer, be partially opened to promote ventilation, there being a false flue in the chimney for that purpose, which will hereafter be described. b, A small parlour, with a fire-place and boarded floor : as it will receive a good deal of heat from the kitchen lire, it will seldom require a lire made on purpose for it. It ought to hâve a small ventilator in the ceiling, near the stack of chimneys, communicating with the false or air flue, for summer use. c, Family bed-room ; the floor of tiles, or paved, or of the same material as that of the kitchen. d, Bed-room for girls ; the floor boarded. e, Bed-room for boys ; the floor boarded. There may be a door in the partition between these small rooms, which it may be convenient in some cases to use instead of the door be * tween the girls’ bed-room and the family bed-room. /, Water-çloset for the mother, girls, and females, supplied by water as to be hereafter described. The basin may be of brown earthenware or of cast iron, so as to cost very little ; the door ought to open inwards, and the small window outwards, so that every movement of the door may act as a ventilator. There might also be a water-cock and wash-hand-basin. g, Tool-house, and man and boy’s water-closet, with an.opening to the loft for ventilation : supplied with water from the same source as the other water-closet. The basins of both closets communicate with an earthern pipe, which empties itself into the réservoir of the cess- pools for liquid manure. The liquid manure thus gained will be of so much value to the garden, as alone, independently of cleanliness and decency, to justify the expense of two closets, and both of these water-closets. h, Cow-house, with a tying-post and trough for food in one corner, and a loft for hay and straw over : this loft may be got at through a trap-door, by the use of a common ladder. t, House for fuel, lumber, or for various other purposes, such as roots or other food for the cow and pigs. In cases where the cottager grows corn, it may be made his barn ; and if it were desired to hâve this barn larger, it could easily be made so, by projecting the whole lean-to two or three feet farther from the main body of the house. Je, Place for ducks or geese, with a small poultry-stair or ladder to hen-loft formed over / and g. This loft ought to be lined with straw on the top and sides, in order to keep the poultry warm in winter and cool in summer. l, Cistern for receiving half of the water which falls on the roof. * m, A pump for pumping water from the tank below, either for use in the back yard or in the house, or for raising the water into the water-closet cistern above. Siebe’s rotatory pump is the best adapted for these different purposes, being at once a lifting-pump and a forcing- pump. It costs no more than a common pump, may be worked in far less room, and with greater ease, by a female or a boy, and is much less likely to go out of order. n, The open yard, which should hâve a gentle inclination from ail sides towards the dungpit (p). o, Pigsty, with a rubbing-post in the open area or feeding-place. Two old barrels, for pigs’ food, will require to be placed under cover, where tliey can be kept from freezing in winter, and from being extremely hot in summer. One of these ought to be fllling while the other is emptying, and the contents should not be made use of before fermentation lias commqnced. The fuel-house, i, will be a very good situation for these tubs in summer, and a corner of the cow-house, h, in winter. q, Shed for faggot-wood. o, p, and q, may be roofed with one lean-to, or pavilion roof of uniform lieight and width ; or, if corn be grown by the cottager, then, instead of a roof of slates, tiles, &c., may be substituted a floor of joists of the same width as required for thé cMODEL COTTAGES. 11 roof; and on this floor may be laid, first, a layer of faggots, and on these built the corn or hay as a stack or stacks, and thatched in the usual manner. This would save the expense of tiles or slates, and also the ground that would otherwise be requisite as a rick-stand. r r, Two cesspools for liquid manure, i. e. for ail the drainings of the operi yard after they hâve passed through the dung-pit, p, for the water of the two closets, and that pro? ceeding from the sink to be described hereafter, including soap-suds and ail waste or foui water made on the piemises. As it is found advantageous that liquid manure should undergo fermentation before it is used, two cesspools become necessary, and also an arrangement by which the supplies from the different sources can be turned into either cess- pool at pleasure. s, The situation of two plug-holes, for regulating the admission of water to the cesspools. The well containing these plug-holes is, in horizontal dimensions, one foot square, and in depth, three feet. The sides are built of brick or stone, and the bottom is forméd of one stone, containing the two holes, each of which is three inches in diameter ; the left hand hole communicating with the left hand cesspool, and the right hand hole with the other cesspool. A plug, with a handle four or five feet long, is to be used for stopping the communication with the cesspool which is filled and undergoing fermentation: and as these pools are aîternàtely filled and emptied, the plug can be removed from thé one hole in the regulating well to the other. These pools are placed without the open yard, in the supposed garden, for the greater convenience of emptying them. 1t, The level part of the platform, or terrace, on which the house appears to stand, and which will be better understood bÿ referring to figs. 6 and 17, or to Designs IV. and V. u, Point at which this platform commences to incline gradually till it terminâtes at b. w, Sloping sides of the platform ; the slope being 45° in stiff loamy soils, and 30° or less, in loose soils. The platform may be covered with turf, or ornamental plants, and finished with a parapet or low hedge, as will be afterwards described. x, Steps for ascending the platform, opposite the principal door of the cottage. y z, Entrance porch : y represents the steps leading up to the living floor, and z the steps leading down to the cellar floor. If the front of such a porch were to any other quarter than the south-east, the porch should be larger, with an exterior door ; if it fronted the south-west, the entrance to the porch ought to be on its south side, for the sake of protection from the weather. Sç, Shelves for bee-hives ; the upper part of which may be fitted up as a dove-cote, and the lower part as a dog- kennel. 17. The Section AB of fig. 3, is represented in fig< 1. It shows the reserve tank, a ; the opening for insetting the cock for drawing supplies from it, h ; and the sink, c. 18. The Section CD of fig. 3, is represented in fig. 2. It shows the cellar window, d, with the open area before it, e, covered with a grating,/. 19. The Plan and Section of the Cellar floor, shewing the heating flùe, and the foundations, are given in figs. 3 and 4. a, Steps of descent to the cellar. Thesë steps are represented in Design I. by the letter z. h, Apartmerit serving as a back-kitchen, wash-house, brew-house, bake-house, &c., as well as for boiling or scalding food for the cow, pigs, and poultry. c, Store cellar and larder for potatoes, beer, Jiome-made wines, fresh and sait méat, and similar articles of provision. d, Milk-house and paotry; in the farther corner in the ceiling ought to be a small'grated opening, communicating with the air-flue in the wall, to promote ventilation ; the exterior window ought to be of tvire or liair cloth, which both excludes air and heat or cold. e, Copper for brewing, washing, heating water for the bath, &c., unless a copper pot or iron box is fixed over the oven, when a separate copper becomes unnecessary. /,'Oven foi4 baking, and also for heating the floor of the living-room and family bed-room. g, Termination of the double covering of the flue, commencing at the oven,/. (See also letter g, in fig 4.) h, Brick-on-edge work, for strengthening the sides of the dues. i, Loose round stones between the flues, for the purpose of retaining lieat.12 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE /r, Sunk area, before the cellar Windows. l, A situa- tion in which a bath may be placed, to be supplied with hot water from the boiler, e, or thecast-ironbox over the oven, ft or with cold water from the reserve tank, q. m, The re- ceiving tank, which, in ad- dition to the pipe from the roof, lias ano- ther pipe from the inside, with a funnel, into which a supply may be poured for filtration, from the pump (m,in Design I.), in times of great drought, or at any time when the reserve tank is exhausted.* n, Waste pipe from this tank, communicating with the drain of Drain pipe, communicating with the well, with plug-holes connected with the cess- pools (5, in Design I). Pt Filtering tank, consisting of sand and charcoal, placed on a false bottom, raised three or four inches above the bottom of the tank. q, Reserve tank for the filtered water, communicating by a cock with the sink, r, and the sink having a stink-trap (see fig. 13, d, in p. 18,) connected with a waste pipe, s, which joins the drain pipe, 0. ty Foundations of the out-buildings, shown in Design I. by f, gf h, i, Je, l, and m. u, Tank, or well of water for general purposes, and for supplying the filtering tank in times of extraordinary drought. 20. The Section showing the depth of tTïeflues and the cast-iron box over the oven for heating water y is represented in fig. 4. This section is taken in the line G H, in fig. 3, and the object is to show the depth of the flues; the double cover and vacuity between the covers at g ; the cast-iron box of hot water, Je ; the cock for draw- ing water from it, and for emptying and cleaning it, l ; the situation of the small lid for filling it, m ; the oven, n ; the copper, 0; the natural sur- face of the ground, p ; and the surface of the platform, or terrace, q. 21. The Section showing the height of the roomSf and other particulars, is given in fig. 5. This section is taken in the direction of the line I K, in Design I, and it shows the following particularsMODEL COTTAGES. 13 a, Natural surface of the ground. ô, Surface of the platform. c, Level of the foundation of the cellar. d, Foundations of the other walls. e, Foundation of the oven. /, Foundation of the partition wall between the living room and family bed-room. g, Well or tank. h, Siebe’s pump, with an ascending pipe into the cistern, i. i, Cistern for the water-closets, and for supplying the yard. Je, Place for ducks or geese beneath. lt Hen-house, with tool-house and man’s water-closet under. m, Family bed-room. n, Loft, with ventilator, or trap-door, from the kitchen, and opening near the air or ventilating flue. of Kitchen. pf Porch. qf Cover ta the air flue, which is only kept open during summer to prevent excessive heat at that season : it is simply a square paving tile supported by an iron shank, in order to exclude rain. r% Oven. s, Water-box over. t, Commencement of flue from oven. Uf Continuation of flue. v, Comice to chimney top, made large for the purpose of encouraging swallows to build their nests there; these birds being of great importance to cultivators or possessors of gardens, as destroyers of winged insects, on which they live entirely. 22. The perspective élévation of the entrance front and south-east side of Design I. is shown in fig. 6. The object of this élévation is to show the general appearance of this description of cottage. The steps to the level part of the platform are seen on the left, and the graduai inclination of the surface from the south corner to the south-east corner to the yard-wall. The shelves for bee-hives are shown with the dog-kennel under, but the dove- cote is placed over the entrance porch. 23. General Form. The most economical form in which a house can be built, is well known to be the cube. Not only does this form afford the greatest quantity of accommo- dation, with the least quantity of walling and roofing, but it is easier warmed ; and, when warmed, it retains the heat better than any other form, more especially when the chimney s are placed in the interior walls, the reason being that a smaller extent of surface is exposed to the exterior atmosphère. 24. Aspect. With reference to Britain, and to the flat countries of most parts of Europe, the mildest aspect is the south-east, and, therefore, the door of a cottage should, if possible, be placed on that side. The next best side is the south ; and the two worst are the north- east and the south-west. It is very désirable, in a cold moist climate, that the sun should14 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. shine on ail the exterior walls of the cottage, and also in at ail the Windows, every fine duy in the year, for the sake of keeping the walls dry, and the interior warm and cheerful. This object may be accomplished by placing any building, which is, or can be, resolved into a square, or parallelogram, on the ground plan, so as that a north and south line will form the diagonal figure. This being done, the out-offices should be placed on the north-west side of the square, or parallelogram, as in Design I. The dairy and the pantry should always, if possible, be placed on the same side, or with a north-east aspect, for the sake of coolness. Tanks for water should also be on the same side, and under ground, for the same reason. 25. Construction. The walls of this cottage may be built of stone, or brick, or earth ; but either of the two former are, undoubtedly, préférable to the latter, both in point of strength and durability. In situations, however, where these materials are too expensive, or cannot be obtained, ëverÿpart of the walls here shown above the platform, may be formed of earth, either in the pisé manner, by compressed blocks, or by lumps of loam or mud mixed with straw. Each of these modes will be described hereafter. In Design I. we hâve shown the walls as if built of brick, eleven inches wide, with a vacuity in the centre. This we propose to be done by keeping the width of the wall at eleven inches, working the out- side fair (even) ; and, on the inside, keeping the headers or cross bricks, fig. 7, a, one inch within the line of the stretch- ^ ing or lengthway bricks, 6, _____________ ___________________ ___________ and keeping these length- ~ way bricks two inches apart along the centre of the wall, - " ~c c. Walls built in this way are much handsomer on the fair side; at least equally --------------------------------------------------------- strong with solid walls ; always dry, and less easily penetrated by the cold in winter, or the heat in summer. The inner surface, being uneven, is peculiarly favourable for receiving and retaining the plaster. Hollow cottage walls may also be built by placing the bricks, both headers and stretchers, on edge, as first practised by Mr. Silverlock, of Chichester. They may be also built with bricks halved lengthways, by cutting with a knife or wire before burning, as recommended by Mr. Dearne. (Hints on an improved Method of Building, fyc. London, 8vo. 1821.) Both these modes will be afterwards described. The roôf may be covered with tiles, slates, thatch, &c., at pleasure or convenience. Other ordinary particulars of construction and arrange- ment hâve been incidentally mentioned in describing the ground plan, § 16, and in figs. 1 to 5, § 17 to 22. Some which are less common follow. 26. Platform, or Terrace. The principal use of this part of our plan, is to keep the living floor of the cottage dry, and to prevent the necessity, in moist situations, of much ex- cavation for the sunk apartments. Sgcondary advantages are, that it furnishes a neat and comfortable walk round the house, and adds to the dignity and stability of its appearance. To hâve the walls of so artificial and important an object as a house, rising abruptly from a plain fiat surface, whether that surface be dug or covered with turf,—in short, whether it be a garden or a field, cannot be considered as either in harmony with nature or reason. Every work of art is recognised as süch by the appearance which it displays of design; and theMODEL COTTAGES. 16 preparatory terrace may be considered as enhancing this appearance, and raising its character. Independently, therefore, of the platform being useful, its importance on the principle of en- hancing the character and dignity of the design to be raised upon it, ought, in our opinion, to ensure its almost universal adoption in buildings erected in the country. The platform, in Design I, is five feet broad, and includes a border of one foot for wall-trees and flowers next the house, and a margin of one foot, which should be of turf, on the outer edge, leaving a walk between of three feet, which ought to be gravelled. The exterior sides of the plat- form may hâve different degrees of slope, according to the nature of the soil, and the culture or application of the slope. For a loamy soil, the platform may be covered with turf, with a furze or a box hedge, about two feet high, along its upper angle, and the slope may be 45° ; where a loamy soil is to be cultivated as a flower border, the slope may be from 35° to 30° ; a sandy soil should hâve a still greater slope. Where stones are abundant, the slope may be formed into rock-work, with a small hedge at top, or a dwarf wall, or a row of rough stones. In some situations, it might be worth while to form a rough trellis over the roof, about a foot above it, and on this trellis to train either apples, pears, plums, or vines, for their fruit; or, in severe climates,ivy, for the sake of retaintng heat, by its evergreen leaves, in winter. On the side walls of the cottage there might be trained fruit trees, or vines, together with ever-flowering roses, honeysuckles, and a variety of climbing shrubs and flowers ; but, at the same time, there is danger of indulging in these to such an extent as to keep the walls damp, and to encourage Aies, and other insects, which are disagreeable in the house. The small border of one foot wide, under the wall, may always be planted with low flowers, and great might be their variety and beauty, if the taste of the occupant lay in this way ; but the number and kind of shrubs and trees to be planted among these, with a view of training up the walls, must dépend on the climate, aspect, and other circumstances, We shall afterwards give a list of climbing shrubs, and fruit trees, suitable for the purposes in view, in different climates. 27. The outer margin of the platform may either be finished with or without a low hedge, or by a low parapet, or other fence of wood or iron. If with a hedge, the sameness of the line may be broken by small standard trees, four or five feet high, at the angles ; and w'e see no reason why these standards should not be eut (not clipped,) into shapes, as well as the hedge, if the cottager’s taste inclines him to do so. The standards may either be of the same species of tree as the hedge, but in a State of variegation,—-say a green box hedge, with variegated box standards,—or of a different species. Green, and variegated box, are among the best shrubs for this purpose, in point of utility ; because every time the box is pruned, the twigs may be used as a substitute for hops, in brewing. But, in most cases, an architectural parapet will hâve a better effect than a dwarf hedge, and this may always be made an object of great beauty at very little expense. We shall afterwards show in how many different ways common bricks and tiles, and stones, rough or hewn, may be formed. into these para- pets. We shall also show various forms of iron and wooden parapets for the same purpose. 28. Entrance Porch. No édifice whatever, in our opinion, is complété, unless some dis- tinctive mark is placed on the opening by which it is entered. What a portico is to a palace or a public building, a porch is to a cottage. A porch is not only the distinctive mark of the entrance door, but, being a protection to it from the inclemency of the weather, it must tend to preserve the warmth of the apartment within. No cottage, therefore, ought to be without its porch. In many cases, the porch may be a wooden structure superadded to the cottage ; in others, a vestibule within may serve the same purpose ; but, for stability, durability, and dignity of effect, the porch should always project from the main body of the édifice, and be built of the same materials, and in the same taste or style as the cottage itself. 29. Chimney Tops. In every human dwelling, these ought to be conspicuous objects, because they are its essential characteristics. They distinguish apartments destined for human beings from those designed for lodging cattle. They also distinguish a dwelling- house from a manufactory or workshop, by their size, form, number, and disposition. Inde- pendently of these qualifies, they ought, in dwellings, to be dignified by a greater attention to design, than the less important parts of the édifice. On this subject we shall hâve much to say in describing succeeding Designs, but we hâve deemed it necessary thus early to State our guiding principle with respect to this part of the cottage, in order that it may never be supposed, for a moment, that we approve of concealing chimney tops, or of leaviilg them in their présent mean and trivial form. 30. Collecting and Filtering Water. Considering it to be désirable that every cottager should be perfectly independerit in respect of water, and also that rain-water is the purest of ail water, we propose to show the manner in which ail the water which falls on any dwelling may be collected ; how to filter and preserve one part of it, in a tank, for cookery purposes ;16 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. and to preserve the other part unfiltered, in acistem and in a large tank, for the purposesof the water-closets, for the use of the cowand pigs, for washing and cleaning, and for the garden. It is calculated by Waistell, that the average quantity of water which falls on a square yard of surface in Britain, in a year, is 126 gallons ; which, for this building, containing upwards of 100 square yards of roof, will give 12,600 gallons ; an ample quantity for the purposes mentioned. A cottage constructed on this principle, therefore, may be set down in any situation, without reference to a natural supply of water. The cistern, l, in Design I, may be of cast-iron ; or of slabs grooved into each other, and made water-tight with Roman cernent ; or of plates of Welsh slate ; or of large fiat paving tiles set in cernent ; or it may be made of wood, plastered inside with cernent ; or of bricks set in cernent, and plastered within with the same material ; or in countries where timber is abundant, as in America, or Australia, it may be formed of thick planks, well pitched ; or it may be simply an old liquor cask. However constructed, it must hâve a waste-pipe ; which, when the cistern is full, will flow over into the tank or well below, shown in fig. 5. This well or tank is to be considered as the grand réservoir of the premises; and if there should be a natural spring in it, so much the better. Should the culinary, or filtering tank, fig. 8, /, fail at any time, water may be drawn from this tank, and introduced into the filtering tank. 31. The mode of filtering is very simple, and will be easily understood from the section E F, of Design I. In this section, fig. 8, a, represents a vacant space of three inches from the bottom to b; b, is a slate, stone, ôr board, pierced with numerous n g holes, say at the rate of three to ---------------- an inch, of about the eighth of an^ inch in diameter ; c, is a mixture of clean coarse sand and powdered charcoal, or coarse burnt clay, with- out either sand or charcoal ; d, a filtering stone ; or in default of a stone of this porous nature, a plate of lead thickly pierced with holes, of one twentieth of ah inch in diameter ; e, an opening by which the water of the receiving tank, /, communicates with a, at the bottom of the filtering tank ; g, an opening by which the water after it has ascended through the filter, runs over into the reserve tank, h. The filtering of the water may be effected in a more simple manner, by placing a layer, about six inches thick, of round stones, about the size of eggs, in the bottom of the filtering tank, and over this either burnt clay, or sand and charcoal, covered by a pierced leaden plate, as before ; or by a stratum of sponge, which may be substituted for the plate. It must be évident by inspecting the section (fig. 8), that when the water supplied from the roof to the receiving tank,/, rises above the level of d, it willrun over, by g, into the reserve tank, h; and that the water in ail the three tanks will always stand at the same level, provided the water in the tank,/, be above the level of d, 32. The filtering material may be cleaned by having a large cock in the bottom of the receiving tank, com- municating with the waste drain ; by opening which, when the reserve cis- tern is full, the water in that cistern will rush through the filter in a con- trary direction to what it did before ; and will carry off ail the impurities, either in the filter, or in the space at the bottom, a. The filtering might also be effected by placing the filter in the tank fi instead of in the centre tank; and by introducing the water from the roof, direct to the space, a, by a pipe, through the filter; the water would then rise through the filter, and fill the tanks, e and h, A larger re- serve of filtered water would thus be obtained ; but the filter would require cleaning oftener. The great advantage of the mode we hâve recommended is, impurities in the bottom of the tank,/. that the water will deposit the greater part of itoMODEL COTTAGES. 17 33. For pumping up the water from the main tank or well, g, in fi g. 5, we hâve recom- mended Siebe’s rotatory pump. This pump, fig. 9, opérâtes by the rotation of a roller, on its axis, a, having paddles or pistons, b, b, b, b, by which, when the roller is turned, a vacuum is produced within the barrel, c. In conséquence of this vacuum the water flows up the rising trunk, d, into the barrel, and as thè paddles go round they force it into an opening which conducts it wherever it may be wanted, and by that means produces a continuai stream. By having an ascending tube, e, this water may be forced to any height, and, by having a horizontal tube with a cock,/, itmaybe let out at pleasure, as in a common pump. By having several pipes branching from e as many cisterns or réservoirs might be supplied. The appearance of this pump is very neat and simple, fig. 10 ; but, as in the case of otlier pumps, the tubes must be covered with straw or matting, during frosty weather, otherwise the freezing of the water will make them burst. 34. The mode ofheating by a fiue below the kitchen floor we con- sider a most valuable plan for ensuring and economizing heat, particularly in cold countries, where fuel is scarce. Indeed, we shall afterwards show how, with this arrangement, and an extra quantity of land, say an acre, besides garden ground, every cot- tager may grow ail his own fuel. Whenever there is a back kitchen adjoining the principal kitchen, or cottager’s living room, and both are on the ground floor, this mode of heating the floor by a flue may be adopted. Ail that is necessary is to hâve a sunk area in the back kitchen for the oven, as will be shown in Design IV. When there are two rooms on the ground floor, and one of these rooms is over a cellar, as in Design I., then the oven or furnace can be made in the cellar. In either case the courses of the flue are to be so contrived, as to allow the covers, supposing them to be one-foot tiles, to form the floor of the two rooms which it heats. The flues may be of any convenient depth exceeding eighteen inches, their sides built of brick-on-edge not plastered, and the intervals between the flues filled up with loose stones or rough gravel. If the flues are made deep, which in some cases may be found cheaper than preparing a raised solid basis on which to build shallow flues, then the side walls may be tied together by brick-on- edge work, (Design I./A,) and the foundation of the partition wall, which séparâtes the family bed-room from the kitchen, will contribute to the same end. To equalize the heat given out by the flue, and to prevent the kitchen floor from being too hot where the flue proceeds from the oven, a double covering is there shown, with a vacuity of six inches between the under cover and the floor, from the oven,/, to g ; a section of which may be seen in fig. 4, at g.— As faggots are intended to be burnt in the oven, the soot produced will be very trifling ; but the flues may be cleaned once a year by taking up atile at each end of the different courses of the flue. Except when there is a fire in the oven, its door must be kept perfectly close, and a damper in the upright flue, nearly so. In many cases, instead of a flue, a vault may be made under the kitchen, and the smoke from the oven or furnace allowed to spend the principal part of its heat in this vault, and afterwards ascend a flue proceeding from near its bottom, fig. 11, a. As the walls, from the superincumbent weight, would form abutments of very great stability, the arch might be made very fiat, and would thus cost less in execution than the flues. 35. The immense superiority of this mode ofheating the air of a room, over any other whatever, will be obvious to every one acquainted with the nature of heat. By open fire-places, by stoves, steam-pipes, or water-pipes, (unless indeed these are in the floor,) and, by heated air, the coldest stratum of air is always found immediately on the floor, where, for the sake of the feet and the legs, the air ought to be hottest ; by the method of under-ground flues, or a smoke vault, as in fig. 11, the lowest stratum is necessarily the hottest, which must be préférable for the feet and legs of grown persons, and for the whole bodies of little children. The heat being diffused over the whole surface of the floor, must contribute greatly to the equality of the température throughout the apartment, and the mass of loose stones, or the materials of the arch will con- tinue to give out heat for a day or two, according to the season of the year, after every time that the oven is heated. The heat from the floor, in its ascent to the roof, will warm what- ever it meets with ; but this is not the case with either raised stoves or open fires. In heating D18 COTTAGE FARM AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. by open fires or conimon stoves, the heat ascends directly to the ceiling, and is there in a great measure wasted, as far as it respects the persons in the apartment ; but by this mode the ceiling will not in general be hotter than the floor. 36. Hot waterfor dümestic purposes may always be obtained by a very simple arrangement connected with the oven and dues. Over the oven, and as a cover to it, instead of brick-work, might be placed, or built in, a cast-iron box or iron pot for heating water, as shown by the dotted linesin the plan fig. 3, and by k, in fig. 4. The upper surface of this box or pot might form a part of the kitchen floor, as at e, in fig. 22 ; and might hâve a properly secured fiat lid on that side, to admit of putting in and taking out water ; or the box might be entirely buried in masonry, as in fig. 4, and in that case a part of it should project from the wall into the back kitchen, or cellar, and should hâve a lid to open, for the purpose of filling and cleaning out, and a cock, l, in fig. 4, for the purpose of drawing off the water. If this box were two feet, or two and a half feet square, and nine inches or ten inches deep, it would supersede the necessity of the copper, fig. 3, e, and in summer, when the heat of the flue was not wanted, a damper withdrawn would admit the smoke to ascend directly through a flue to the chimney top. A family with a pot or box of this kind over their oven, the box or pot either opening only from the kitchen above, or both from above and from the back kitchen, would, throughout the year, scarcely require any other fire than what was made in the oven ; ail their roasting and baking would be done in the oven, and ail their boiling in the pot or box over it. As it might not be always convenient or désirable to boil the large box or pot full of water, there might be a well of six inches diameter, and nine inches deep, cast in its bottom, and the small quantity of water which this well would contain would be boiled with very little fuel ; for tea, or any similar purpose, a tin jug of water might be set in among the water in the well, which would keep the former perfectly pure. A very small quantity of fuel consumed in such an oven will hâve a powerful effect in heating the water above it, from the difficulty of the heat escaping by the sides. By this mode of heating and cooking a smaller quantity of fuel may be made to suffice for the wants of a family than by any other method that we are aware of ; since no more can escape by the chimney than is absolutely necessary to carry up the soot. Water might easily be drawnout of the well, or out of the box or pot when in com- \2 mon use, from the upper kitchen, without stooping, by inserting a long tube, like a trumpet, fig. 12, made of tin, and open at both ends. When plunged in the water, if the thumb be placed on the upper orifice, a, and retained there, the water in the lower part, b, may be transferred to any other vessel. 37. Water-closets and tanks for liquid manure. A water-closet or privy ought to be attached to every human dwelling, and in ail cold countries it should form part of the édifice, and be approachable under cover. No cottage is, therefore, in our eyes, complété without this appendage under the same roof, or under a lean-to. The well or tanks for liquid manure connected with it, are as advantageous, in point of profit, to every cottager who has a garden, as the water-closet or privy itself is essential to cleanliness and decency. 38. The Water-closets may be variously arranged ; but as one of the best and cheapest A modes, and as one the least likely to go out of order, we give the following. The cistern, fig. 13, n, may be at any distance from the seat, b, provided it be on a higher level, by four or five feet. The basin, c, may be an inverted hollow cône, truncated, and joined to a piece of cylindrical tube, inserted in a closed leaden vessel, technically called a stink-trap, d. In the side of c, at e, is a hole, or vertical slit, passing obliquely through the sides of the basin, and communicating with the cistern, a, by the pipe,/. The water in the cistern is prevented from run- ning off through this pipe, by the valve, g, shown in fig. 14, on a larger scale. When it is desired to allow the water to rush down into the basin, it is only necessary to pull the string, h ; which, if the cistern be at a distance, may pass over several pullies, according to the number of angles in its course. In order to ensure the descent of a quantity of water to the basin every time it has been used, a cord, i, may be joined to 13MODEL COTTAGES. 19 h, and passed over a pulley at le, and the end of this cord may be fixed to the upper part of the door of the water-eloset, at such a distance from the hinge, say a foot, as will suffice to lift up the valve, g ; or the same purpose might be effected by a lever, fig. 15, Z, which would be acted on every time the door was opened. 39. When the cistern is unavoidably placed on a level with the basin, the opening for the admission of water must be much larger than in the first case. This opening may be closed by a valve, similar to that marked g, in fig. 13 ; but a better mode is to hâve a lever valve, fig. 16, m, which will also be operated upon by the door every time that it is either opened or shut. In every case in which it is intended that a common or lever valve should be operated on by a door, the latter ojght to hâve a spring boit (a contrivance for shutting the door, which will be afterwards figured and described), to shut it, lest at any time it should be left open by neglect. There are different methods of constructing a privy to be used without water. One is, to hâve a basin, as in a water-closet ; and to continue down from it, a tube so far into the cesspool below, as to prevent the rising through it of air, and consequently of smell. If ail the waste water of the house is, as it ought to be, poured into the basin, neither that nor the tube will ever be choked up ; and, in that case, this construction may be considered one of the best for preventing smell. The next mode is to hâve no basin ; but to take care that the surface of the cess- pool exposed to the air, is no larger than is necessary ; and that no crevices are left in the seat, so as to admit of a current of air passing over the surface of the cesspool. There ought, both in this case and in the other, to be two covers to the hole in the seat; one of a circular form, to fit into the opening, and the other, larger and square, to be affixed by hinges to the back board, so as to shut down over the whole seat. The Windows in ail water-closets ought to be close to the ceiling ; both to prevent the persons within from being seen, and to admit of a more effectuai ventilation. 40. General Estimate. What is çalled a general estimate of the expense of a building is calculated at a certain rate per cubic foot, while a spécifie estimate is made up of the separate estimâtes of each particular article. The rate or price at which a general estimate is calcu- lated, dépends upon a variety of circumstances ; but in every situation, the principal points by which it is affected (ail others being the same) are,—first, thq irregularity of the outline of the ground plan, and of the élévation ; secondly, the number of angles in the roof, or the number of separate roofs; and thirdly, the ornamental or carved work, both within and without the building. The nearer the whole mass of a building approximates to the form of a cube, and the nearer ail its separate parts approach to that form, the lower will be the rate per foot. One roof of the simplest form may always be calculated at a lower price than a varied roof, or several roofs. In Britain, buildings are divided into three classes : called, first, second, and third-rate buildings. Cottages, and such dwellings as are contained in this Book, belong to the third-rate class, and are generally calculated at from four-pence to six- pence ,a foot for London. From the amount thus obtained, fifteen or twenty per cent, is generally deducted, and the total thus found is the amount of the general estimate. 41. The cubic contents of this building are 16,833 feet ; and the following is the manner in which these contents are calculated :—20 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. Length of the front of the main building........................ 24 feet. Width of the main building .....................................23 feet. Height from the bottom of the foundations to the middle of the roof 23 feet. Then, for the contents of the main building........... 24x23x 23 = 12,696 feet. Length of the lean-to building .............23 feet. Width of the lean-to........................ 9 feet Height, including cistern, pump, and well .. 16 feet. Then, for the contents of the lean-to............23x9X16 = 3,312 feet Length of tanks........................... 10 feet. Width....................................... 5 feet Height ..................................... 5 feet. Then, for the contents of the tanks, and yard walls .... 10x5x5 == 250 feet Length of sheds and piggery................23 feet. Width of sheds, &c.......................... 5 feet Say five feet high, as the sheds hâve no fronts and include the yard wall......... 5 feet. Then, for the contents of the sheds, &c. ........... 23x5x5 = 575 feet Whole amount.... 16,833 feet. 16,833 cubic feet, at 6d., £420:16s : 6d. ; at 5d., £350:13s : 9d. ; at4d.} £280:11s. and at 3c?., £210 :8s: 3d. 42. Expression. This dwelling has no pretensions to any particular style of Architecture, but it is obviously expressive of the subject or purpose in view ; and, as ail its details are well adapted for their various uses, whether as respects the convenience of the occupant of the cottage, or as component parts of the structure, it is also expressive of fitness. This Design may be ornamented by the addition of pillars to the porch, by a vase over it, by ornamental chimneys, and by a parapet on the terrace, fig. 17 ; or, if an architectural parapet is considered too expensive, a low hedge, fig. 18, may be substituted.MODEL COTTAGES. 21 Design II.—A Cottage of One Story, combining the Accommodations and Conveniences of Design I. differently arrangeât and witkthe addition of a Véranda. 43. Accommodation and Construction. This Design contains the same number of rooms, and of the same dimensions, as Design I. The communication with the cellar, by means of the stair, a, in the lean-to, and the direct entrance to the yard, b, is, however, more con- venient. The size of the cow-house, c, though somewhat diminished, is still large enough for a small cow ; the space, d, for ducks or geese, and for a ladder to the hen-house, is not quite so commodious as in the other plan ; but, on the whole, notwithstanding these drawbacks, this plan exhibits what we think a better arrangement than the preceding one. Exteriorly the platform is level as far as the steps to the porch, e, and thence it forms an inclined plane to the natural surface. The véranda, / (see fig. 19), which is supported by trunks of larch or spruce fir trees, with the bark on, set on plinths of stone, or brick, will add much to the com- fort and economical uses of this résidence. 44. Aspect. The différence in the aspect of this cottage will be ascertained by observing the points of the compass marked in the ground plan ; the north and south line being in the direction of from left to right ; whereas, in Design I. it is from right to left. 45. General Estimate. Cubic contents 17,440 feet, at 6d. a foot, £436 ; at 4d., £290:13s: 4^.; and at 3d.f £218. 46. Expression. Though no marked features of any style appear in this élévation, yet ic must be acknowledged to exhibit something more than the mere expression of purpose ; because it would be equally, and to ail appearance, as much a human dwelling, without the columns as with them. It may, therefore, be said to exhibit the expression of improved design. This expression would be further heightened l*y ornamental chimney pots, and a light iron parapet to the terrace, fig. 20.n COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. ILMODEL COTTAGES. 23 Design III.—A Cottage of Two Stories, combining the Accommodations and Conveniences of Design L differently arranged, and with an additional Bed-room. 47. Accommodation. The same general accommodations are here given as in Designs I. and II. ; but there is a second story, and this contains four bed-rooms. There is no cellar- floor, but there is a back kitchen, the floor of which is a few steps lower than that of the principal one. Into this sunk kitchen the oven opens, from which the flues proceed which heat the best kitchen and the parlour ; unless it be considered désirable to hâve a boarded floor in the latter apartment ; in which case, the courses of the flue will be confined to the floor of the kitchen. The following are the details of the ground plan, as exhibited in Design III. o, Kitchen. b, Parlour. cf Back kitchen, the descent to which is by five steps. d, Bed-room staircase, under which are the oven and boiler ; the former with its flue under the kitchen and parlour floors, which are both paved with tiles or stone. e, Sink, supplied as in Design I. from a filtering-tank. /, Dairy and pantry. g, Women’s water-closet. h, Tool-house and men’s water-closet. 48. The Bed-room Floor a and b, over the back kitchen and dairy, are on a lower level than the bed- rooms, c and d, over the Kitchen and parlour. The positions of the different beds, chests of drawers, and dressing-tables, in the different rooms, are indi- cated by outlines, as in Designs I. and II. ; and the vacuity in the exterior wall is shown as in the ground plan. The vertical profile of the lean-to, containing the cow-house, water-closets, and wood-house, is also shown. By vèrtical profile, is to be understood a view, looking down vertically upon any object. The walls and ceifings of the bed- rooms are supposed to be finished with two coats of plaster,without cornices, but with the usual fittings and finishings of joiner’s work, as given in detail in the spé- cification of DesignVII. The bricks used in the exterior surface of the outer walls, should not be of a harsh red colour. Ft. 10 i, Cistern for water-closets, with tank or well under, place for ducks and geese, and ladder to poultry-house at one side. kf Cow-house. l, Place for wood, or other fuel. m, Open yard. n, Pigsty. o, Dung-pit pf Faggot-shed. q, Well, for the regulating plugs to the manure tanks, or cesspools. r r, Cesspools. s, Shelves for bee-hives, with dove-cote over, and dog-kennel under. is exhibited in detail in fig. 21. In this figure, the bed-rooms, 49. The Levels of the different Floors are shown by fig. 22, which is a section on the fines A B, in Design III., and in fig. 21. In this section may be seen the level of the open yard,MODEL COTTAGES. 25 a ; passage froin the back kitchen, b ; sunk area under the stair, to give head-room for Ft. 10 5 0 10 20 Ft. HLM I, ! f t.J.. I,_______________-,____________________I __________________________| a'ttending the oven, c ; oven, d ; water-box over it on a level with the kitchen floor, e ; flues for heating the kitchen,// platform, g; natural surface, h; lower bed-room, i; larger loft over, k; closet, l; situation of openings to the false flue for ventilation, m n; cornice for swallows, o o. 50. Construction. The walls are shown as of brick, and of the same thickness as in Designs I. and II. The floors of the kitchen and parlour are formed in the same manner as those in Design I., with flues for heating. The roof may be either covered with Italian tiles, fig. 23, or with Grecian tiles, flg. 24. In putting on either of these tiles, the broad tiles, a, are laid side by side, and the semi-cylindrical tiles, 5, are bedded in mortar, or in cernent, over the joints. The advantages of these tiles are, that they admit of a roof being made so fiat, that it may be walked on, and used as a terrace ; while, at the same time, it is per- fectly water-tight, and of great durability, novelty, and characteristic beauty. In Staffordshire, these tiles are made from a stratum of clay, containing a large proportion of iron ; and when this clay is burnt, the tiles, or other articles formed from it, are almost as hard and heavy as cast-iron. The articles made from this clay are called terro-metallic. 51. Situation and Aspect. This Design, from having the sleeping-rooms on the second story, is more particularly calculated for low, moist, shady or confined situations ; in which, how- ever, cottages should never be built if it can be avoided. By observing the position of the points of the compass in the ground plan (Design III.), it will be seen that the entrance porch 2426 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 52. General Éstimate. Cubic contents, 19,040 feet, at 6d. per foot, £476 ; at 4d», £317:16s : 8d ; and at 3d., £238. 53. Expression. The tiles and the comice of the chimney stack, give the élévation of this Design, fig. 25, something of an Italian air ; and therefore, in addition to the expression of purpose, this cottage may be said to hâve something of the expression of architectural style. The beauty of such a dwelling would be greatly heightened by the addition of a terrace parapet, and by orhamental chimney tops, fig. 26 ; and quite a different character might be given to it, by having the roofing a good deal flatter, and adding cantilevers, (pièces of wood framed into the side of a house, to support such mouldings as may be placed over them,) under the far projecting eaves, so as to form an Italian cornice. Chap. II. A Miscellaneous Collection of Designs for Cottage Dwellings, with Critical and Analytical Remaries. 54. The Designs which follow exhibit various modifications of ail, or of several of the c.omforts and conveniences contained in each of the Model Designs, joined to various degreesCOTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STÏLES. 27 of^architectural style. The object is to show how some of the improvements in the Model Designs, may be applied to even the smallest dwellings ; and, how with ail, or with any ôf these ameliorations, or without them, various degrees of architectural style or beauty may be produced in cottages. For the' attainment of these objects, we hâve accompanied each Design by such remarks, as we think caleulated to enable the reader to form an opinion of his own ; grounded on sound principles, as to what is, and what is not, beauty in Cottage Architecture. These Designs might hâve been arranged according to the degrees of accom- modation, or their scale in respect to architectural style ; but considering that the first appearance of this work will be in periodical portions, we hâve preferred giving a miscel- laneous sélection in each portion. Design IV.—A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, without Children. 55. Accommodation. This dwelling, we consider as exhibiting the minimum of accom- modation, which ought to exist for a man and his wife without children, even in a çountry where there is an unequal distribution of civil rights. It contains one room, a, in which the cooking and ordinary avocations of the family are carried on, and which serves at the same time as a sleeping-room ; a wash-house,.ô, which must also serve as a store-room, pantry, and for various other purposes ; a porch, c, for wood or other fuel, and for tools of husbandry and out-door work ; a privy, d, and an enclosed yard, with a dung-pit, e, forming a circular basin, and having a well in the centre for liquid manure from the privy. 56. Description. The house is placed on an artificial platform, which is ascended by four stone steps, seen on the plan, near the entrance door. The surface of the platform, which may be laid with gravel, or paved, forms a walk, on three sides of the house, leading from the door of the house, to the door of the court-yard. The greater part of this court-yard is on a lower level than the platform ; the descent to this level being by an inclined plane from / to g. The pit, under the seat of the privy, communicates with the well, e, four or five feet deep, by an under-ground drain, which may either be formed in the usual manner, by bricks or stones, or by earthenware pipes ; so that whenever the well is emptied for the purpose of taking out the manure, (formed by what is thrown in from above, and what is communicated below by the drain from the cesspool, under the privy-seat,) the privy will be emptied also. In conséquence of this arrangement, the seat will never require to be removed for the purpose of emptying the cesspool ; and the opening in the seat may com- municate with the cesspool by means of a tube, either of boards, or earthenware, which, with double covers, will prevent the rising of smell. In the section of this cottage (p. 29), it will be seen that the floor is laid on loose stones ; if it be désirable to heat this mass of stones with a view to the economy of fuel, horizontal dues can be built among them, commu- nicating with an oven, in the wash-house, at one end near the boiler, and with an additional flue in the chimney stack at the other, in the manner shown in describing the model cottages. To every dwelling there must be some source for supplying water for the purposes of food and cleanliness. The common resource is a wellv from which the water is drawn either by a windlass, or lever and bucket, or a pump ; but the water which falls on the roof may be applied to domestic purposes, as described in the preceding chapter. 57. Construction. The walls of this cottage are here shown eighteen inches thick, with a view to their being built of rubble stone (stones rough from the quarry) ; of pisé (to be described hereafter) ; of mud blocks (which is nearly the same thing as build- ing in pisé) ; or of compressed blocks of common earth (also described hereafter). The footings, or lowest parts of the foun- dations of the walls are shown, in this Design, and most of those which follow, as only a few inches below the surface of the ground, h; partly because the footings being covered and surrounded by the platform, are not likely to be after- wards disturbed ; and partly because very little depth of foundation is wanted for buildings, generally of one, and sel- dom of more than two stories high. The roof may be covered with flag-stones, or slates, or Grecian tiles ; the eaves being sup- ported by wooden blocks, or cantilevers, as shown more clearly for the purposes of the28 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. carpenter, by the section of a portion of the wall and roof, dràwn to a scale of half an inch to a foot, fig. 27, i. The wall of the court-yard in countries where flag-stohes abound may be formed of a continuons line of these stones fixed in the earth, edge to edge ; or it may be constructed of boards, or pales; or built of wood, pisê, or blocks of compressed earth. If formed of earth, the wall ought to hâve a coping either of stone or boards. The raised platform may be made of the earth dug from the dung-pit and well, or froin any other convenient source, taking care not to employ any earth for this purpose, rich enough to be used for the garden, if it can possibly be avoided; the entrance door may be formed of what carpenters call bead and batten (bead, a circular moulding, stuck fin the edge of a batten, i. e. a scantling or piece of wooden stuff, from two to four inches broad, and one inch thick), with cross back bars inside. 58. General Estimate. The cubic contents of this building are 4,000 feet, and the following is the manner in which these contents are calculated : Length of the front of the main building, 14 feet 4 inches. ■ Width of the main building,14 feet 4 inches. Height from the bottom of the foundations of the main building to the middle of the roof, 14 feet. Feet In. Lines Then for the contents of the main building...... 14: 4x 14: 4x 14=2,876 2 8 Length of the front of both wings, 8 feet. Width of both wings, 11 feet. Height of both wings, 10 feet. Then for the contents of both wings...................8X11X10= 880 3,756 2 } Add for the wall round the court yard, and to make an even sum 243 9 4 4,000 0 ) 4,000 feetat 6d., is £100 ; at 4d., £66:13s : 4c? ; and at 3c?., £50. 59. Garden. The dung-pit and well show that this cottage is intended to hâve a garden, which ought, if possible, to be around it ; but as dwellings like this in Britain are often placed as lodges to entrance gates, and stand on the margin of a planta- tion or shrubbery, the garden in that case should be on the side of the house which has Windows ; because that side only in such dwellings is generally left open to the air and light. High trees or shrubs near a house, if on a side which may happen to hâve no Windows, do comparatively little injury in the way of obstructing the ventilation and lighting of the house, to what they do on the windowed side. It is a com- mon practice in Britain to place the kitchen gardens of lodges of this sort in the interior of the plantation or shrubbery, so that they may be concealed from the road; and to hâve only a flower garden on the front or open side of the house ; but in this case the kitchen garden is of very little use to the occupant ; the surface being overshadowed by the trees, and the soil exhausted by their roots. Whatever is decidedly contrary to utility and convenience, must be in bad taste, though it may seem to a superficial observer to be other- 30 wise. 60. Expression. A plain cottage, like the présent, cannot be said to be in any particular style of architecture ; though it belongs more to the Grecian than to the Gothic, from the proportions of the Windows, and from the blocks or cantilevers, fig. 27, i, supporting, or seeming to support, the eaves of the roof. If the door and the two Windows had Grecian architraves and mouldings (masonry supposed to be in imitation of the original beamsCOTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 29 IV.COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 31 which, in rude huts, fbrmed the sides and covers 'to openings, fig. 28), the building would then lay claim to be called a cottage in the Gïeciari style; but being without these, it has little or no expression of style, but simply an expression of the subject, or purpose, for which it was built ; that is, to serve as a cot- tage, or human dwelling of the humblest kind. The glass Windows, the door for security, and the chimney top, clearly show this édifice to be a human dwelling ; and its size, as decidedly détermines it to be one of the humblest description, or what is called a cottage. Re- move the Windows and the chimney top, leaving the entrance opening without a door, fig. 29, and it might be taken for a cattle- shed and yard. Remove the roof, and replace the door, fig. 30, and it might pass for a place of burial. Restore the glass Windows, in- crease the height of the principal one, and replace the roof with a little alteration, adding on its summit a turret and bell, fig. 31, and this structure might be mistaken for a chapeî. We stàte these things simply for the purpose of showing what is meant by expression of the subject, in contradistinction to what is meant by expression of architectural style. Design V.—A Dwelling for a Man and his Wïfe with Two or more Children, with a Cow-hou$e and Pigsty. 61. Accommodation. This is a simple, economical, and comfortable dwelling, without pretensions either to ornament or style. It contains an entrance lobby, a ; kitchen, b ; back kitchen, c ; children’s bed-room, d ; bed-room for the father and mother, and the infant chil- dren, e ; toolhouse,/; pantry, g; place for fuel, h ; privy, i; cow-house, k ; and dairy, l. There is a yard behind the house containing a pigsty and the manure well. This yard is entered from the back kitchen, c ; and also by doors in its boundary fence, m. 62. Construction. The walls may be of stone, brick, or earth ; the two former materials will not only be found more suitable in reality, but more satisfactory to the eye ; for walls of earth, when not whitewashed, hâve always a mean appearance, from the inferiority of the material ; and when whitewashed, this meanness, though concealed, is still known to exist ; for no building was ever whitewashed, but for the purpose of concealing something, and every one must feel, with Wood, that the grandeur or the beauty of any building is never heightened by this operation. “ The world in general,” says this philosophical artist, “ is exceedingly unwilling to acknowledge beauty of form when the material is bad ; and, on the other hand, where the materials are good, it is ready to praise the form also ; the one is a much more obvious and indisputable merit than the other.” {Letiers, 8çc. Vol. II. p. 96.) Where white- washing or lime-washing a building, with any colour, contributes to the préservation of the wall, it is justifiable ; but no genuine lover of truth will ever admit that this operation can add to the beauty or character of a building. The idea which it conveys of the neatness and cleanliness of the inhabitant is its principal recommendation ; and yet it is a fact, that where lime-washing is most employed, as in Wales and Scotland, the interiors of the cottages are less orderly and clean, than in the unwhitened mud and rough stone cottages of England. 63. The Cow-house in this Design is placed under the same roof with the dwelling apart- ments, but with its floor a few inches lower, so as to be on a level with the platform. That part of the platform on which the cow-house opens ought always to be connected with an enclosed yard ; and instead of sloping down to the general surface level at an angle of 45° or 50°, it ought to slope, as shown in the Section on the line A B, at an angle not exceeding 15°. The whole of the enclosed yard ought either to be paved, macadamized, or gravelled ; and the surface ought to be so inclined as to carry ail the water which falls on it, to the manure pit and well. The floor of the cow-house ought to be perfectly level and smooth, so as that it may never be necessary to employ litter. The gutter ought to be formed about a fodt broad, and four inches deep, and exactly behind the cow’s heels. This will be from seven to eight feet from the feeding-trough at her head, according to the size of the cow ; but the details on this subject will be found in our second Book. 64. The Roof is shown of a low pitch, and covered with slates. The chimney tops are quite plain; and, in our opinion, they, and most of the other chimney tops in the Designs04 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. hitherto published, are too short. The principle of truth, or a thing appearing to be what it is, and the expression of purpose, alike require that, in ail human dwellings in temperate climates, intended to appear as such, the chimney tops should be con- 32 spicuous objects. We would, therefore, recommend them, in ail cases, to rise boldly into the air above the roof, and to form a conspicuous feature in the outlines of ail buildings against the sky. As a palliative for the evil of a stack of chimneys being too short, architectural chimney pots may be employed. Of these there are a great variety of forms made of cernent, artificial stone, or earthenware. We shall give numerous specimens in the course of this work, and, in the mean thne, présent one, fig. 32, which may answer very well for the Design before us, and which was furnished us by Mr. Austin, from his artificial stone manufacfcory, in the New Road, London. Much of the effect of chimney pots, vases, and ail ornaments of this sort, dépends on their being raised on suitable plinths (a square plate, origmally a square tile, placed under the base of a column, or other object), fig. 33, n. 65. The Door-way in this Design is protected from the perperidicular rain by what is called a door-bracket, fig. 34, which, consi- . dering that there is a lobby or vestibule within, may, perhaps, > serve as a substitute for a projecting porch; for, as we hâve be- fore observed, when- ever comfort is the object, there ought either to be a porch, or a lobby; and in every exposed situa- tion, both are désira- ble. That the porch should always par- take of the expres- sion of the main body of the building is suf- r=z j 1 l ] ficiently obvious ; and not less so that it should be enhanced în the expression of Design, in order that it may be rendered conspicuous and inviting. 66. Situation. This building is not calculated for being placed in a situation where it will be seen from ail sides ; because the yard-wall, and the irregular size and position of the openings which look into it, hâve less of the character of architectural design than the front and ends. If it be placed near a road, therefore, the entrance side and end should first meet the eye as in the perspective élévation before us. 67. General Estimate% 11,700 cubic feet, at 6d. per foot, £292:10s. ; at 4d., £195 ; and at 3d., £U6 : 5s. 68. Expression. Nothing here can be considered as super- added to the expres- sion of the subject. A degree of orna- ment and elegance might be conferred by handsome chim- ney pots as sug- gested above, and by a low fence round the terrace, fig. 35 ; but, for the latter, might very well be substituted a box hedge, which the cottager might keep neatly eut and ornamented by verdant figures at the corners,, &c.COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOÜS STYLES. SS VI.34 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. VII.COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 35 Design Y J.—A Dwetting for a Man and his Wife with an Apprentice, Servant, or grown-up Son or Daughter. 69. Accommodation. This neat little dwelling contains only one large room or kitchen, a; a small bed-room for the master andmistress, b ; and a store closet, c. Included under the lean-to at one end, is a privy, d, and a place for fuel, e, and there is a porch in front,/. The servant, or grown-up son, or daughter, is supposed to sleep in the large living room, or kitchen, in which, the situation of a bed is indicated ; it being frequently requisite in the case of gate-houses, ferries, or bridges, to hâve one of the inmates sleeping near the door, for the convenience of rising in the night-time to open the gâte, take toll, &c. The use of the space between the ceiling and the roof may be obtained by having a trap door over the porch. 37 70. Construction. The walls may be either of brick or of stone. The roof may be covered with slates, projecting a few inches over the walls, and delivering the water into a gutter, fig. 36. The doors are ledged, and hung with ornamental hinges (fig. 37, to a scale of three quarters of an inch to a foot), fixed on the outside. 71. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 5,230 feet, at 6d. per foot, £130:15s. ; at 4d,, £87 : 3s : 4d. ; and at 3 d., £65: 7s : 6d. 72. Expression. There is obviously something more intended here than the mere ex- pression of the subject. The peculiarity of the hinges of the door, the small loop-hole opening over it, and the pinnacle by which the gable end is terminated, are intended to give some character or expression of style to this cottage; though we cannot refer to any known sub-style or manner which may be considered its prototype. The élévation, however, présents a very neat whole, and though not striking, is at least agreeablé. It might be enriched by suitable chimney pots, and to be complété, ought to hâve a parapet on the terrace, fig. 38. Design VII.—A Dwelling of Two Rooms, and a back Kitchen, for a Man and his Wife. 73. Accommodation. This dwelling is déficient in closets, which are always more or less useful, either in a small house or a large one ; it is, however, substantially built, and com- fortable. There is an entrance lobby, a ; a room, b, containing a bed, which may serve also for a working room, and which, in Scotland, very generally serves for a parlour ; a kitchen, c, well lighted, and with two cupboards ; and a back kitchen, d, which forms part of a lean-to. One end of this back kitchen may be partitioned off as a pantry. In the lean-to there is also a place for fuel, e, and a privy,/; which last communicates by a drain with the well of the dung-pit. 74. Construction. The walls may be built of rubble stone, with rusticated corners (that is, the joints channelled, or eut in grooves), as shown in the élévation ; and as is very V generally practised in countries abounding with free stone. / There is an obvious propriety in the practice of building ^ the corners with large and square stones ; because the corner of a building, from being exposed to the weather, and to accidents from coming in contact with persons or objects on two sides, in order to be equal in durability with the general face of the wall, must be formed of a more solid, homogeneous material. It is not, as some might suppose, that the corners require to be built thicker than I S \ ' ! : U 36 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. the other parts of the walls in order to be stronger ; for the corner, from its very position, is always the strongest part of the wall. Thus, a force applied to the wall, g, in the direction of h, fig. 39, is resisted only by the thickness of the wall ; but a force applied at i or k, is resisted by the thickness of the wall, backed by its length ; and a force applied at l, is resisted by the length of both walls. The walls in this Design are finished with what is called a blocking course, fig. 40, m, over which the slates of the roof project so as to throw the water into a gutter, formed in the upper surface of what is called the wall head plinth, n. This is a very common mode of roofing and finishing stone-built, slate-covered cottages, in Scotland; where it is found both economical and durable. The chimney stacks are formed of hewn stone, finished with a simple comice (fig. 41, to a scale of one inch and a half to a foot). In the section A B, in Design VII. it will be observed that the part of the platform which is under the house, is formed of stones ; the objject being to keep the floor dry, and to admit, if it should be thought necessary, of forming a flue in it. 75. Situation. A cottage with this description of roof is peculiarly adapted for an elevated situation* much exposed to storms ; it being impossible for the wind to get under a roof like this, which has no eaves. 76. Fitness, A great fault in this dwelling is, that the fire-places are in the side wall, and though they are in part protected by the lean-to, yet the heat thrown into that part of the building may be considered in a great measure lost, or of no great use. It would be an improve- ment to transpose e and /, as the heat given out behind the fire-place of b, would then be turned to some account. 77. Expression. There is very little more here than the expression of the subject. What there 'is, belongs to local manner, and that manner being common in Scotland, the dwelling before us may very well be termed a stone cottage in the common Scotch manner. This manner can by no mëans be commended in point of beauty ; but it might be improved both in ap- 42 pearance and usefulness, by the ad- dition of a porch ; a parapet to the terrace, and a vase over the porch, to bring those on the parapet, and the chimney pots into harmony, fig. 42. Vases for these purposes, of various forms and dimensions, are to be had from the potters, at a few shillings each. 78. Spécification. In the follow- ing detailed spécification, the walls are supposed to be built of stone, with brick coins instead of squared stones. As a number of technical terms are necessarily made use of in these details, we hâve explained them as they occur ; and the engravings which we hâve made use of in aid of this purpose, are to be considered as merely expla- natory, and not drawn to any scale, like those illus- trative of the construction of the different Designs. 79. Spécification of Bricklayer's Work. To dig out the several trenches for the foundations of the respec- tive depth and width required ; and to fill in and well ram in the earth round the foundations when built. To dig and steen (to line with brick or stone) in four- inch brick-work, a cesspool for the privy four feet in diameter in the clear, and six feet deep; and to dôme (arch over) the same in nine-inch brick-work; and put in four feet of twelve- inch hollow tile drain, fig. 43, with a proper fall to convey the soil to it. To buildCOTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 37 ail the foundations and the cross-wall under the bed-room floor, and the external walls with stônes properly headed (squared at the ends) and prepared (so as to lie fiat), laid in random courses (courses of unequal height, fig. 44) ; the external face with a neat garreted 44 45 46 ^r'i' i i'~ Q-V Sr l|'~^ ggO—L-J l.-t l / joint (the joint stuck with small pièces of stone), with brick coins (corners) and common skewback (a bevelled abutment, fig. 45, o o,) brick arches, set in Roman cernent, over the doors and Windows. The back kitchen, fuel-house, and privy, to be carried up in four-inch brick-work. Tofill in the cross partitions with four-inch brick nogging fiat (bricks laid fiat, or in bed, fixed between, and flush, i. e. even, with the stud-work, fig. 46). To build nine- inch brick spandrils and steps to the front door, with proper foundations. (The span of an arch is the distance between the two points from whence it springs, and spandrils for door steps are the arches, or the walls, which support the ends of the steps). To build the chimney jambs (sides, fig. 47, p), breasts (fronts, q), backs, r, 47 and shafts, s, in brick-work, with flues, nine inches by fourteen inches in the clear ; properly gathered and pargetted (plastered in the inside with a mixture of common lime mortar, fresh cow- dung, and loam) ; and provide an additional flue for a copper (boiler). The fire-places to hâve each a strong iron chimney-bar (bar for supporting the breast-work, or front side of the flues). Ail the door and window-frames to be properly bedded (placed in mortar), and pointed (the joints neatly closed) with good lime and hair mortar. To pave the kitchen and entrance with good paving bricks, bedded and jointed in mortar ; wheeling in stones and gravel, which are to be well rammed in and Consolidated, in sufficient quantity to raise the floor to the level shewn in the section ; and to pave the back kitchen, fuel-house, and privy, with common stocks, bedded in sand : the whole to be properly currented (laid to such a slope as to carry off the water). The bricklayer is to find scaffolding and ladders, and to fix and refix the same, as occasion may require ; and to eut the chasings (to eut into the brick-work) for lead, and ail rakes (to eut a rake, is to reduce to a smooth slope the face of brick-work which has been left in a rough slope, as indicated by the dotted line, fig. 48, t), and splays (a splay signifies a return of work deviating from a right angle, and is generally applied to the bevelled jambs of Windows and doors, as at u, in fig. 48) required ; and make good (reinstate what may hâve been deranged during the operations) ; and, from time to time, to clear away the rubbish arising from the work during its progress.' The bricklayer is to find ail materials; lime, sand, tackle, carriage, and labour, for the completion of the foregoing works in a Sound and workmanlike manner. 80. Spécification of Plasterer’s Work. To colour 48 twice over, iii a good warm-tinted stone colour, the — brick coins, arches, chimney shafts, and the exterior of the back kitchen, fuel-house, and privy. To lathe (to nail on the laths), lay, set, and whiten, the ceilings 11 ^ of the kitchen, bed-room, and entrance ; and render i set (first and second coats of plaster in two-coat work) H the walls and partitions, and lime-white (whitewash) “ twice over the back kitchen, fuel-house, and privy inside. The plasterer is to find ail materials, tools, carriage, and workmanship required for the comple- ■ l ■ ■■■ l — l .. 1 tion of his work ; and to do the same in a workmanlike manner. 3L 3^-38 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 81. Spécification of Slater’s Work. To cover the whole of the roofing with Countess slating (the third size of Welch slates, see States, in Glossarial Index), nailed with painted iron nails, and the eaves to be laid double. The whole to be laid with a sufficient lap, and to be carefully sorted in courses (laid so as that the joints may form regular lines), so as effectually to exclude the weather. The slater is to find ail materials, tools, carriage, and labour required for the completion of his work, and to do the same in a workmanlike manner. 82. Spécification of Stone-Masori s Work. To put Yorkshire stone quarry sills, eight inches wide, bevelled (sloped), throated (grooved underneath), and tooled (hewn, but not rubbed afterwards, as is done occasionally to produce a finer surface), to ail the Windows. To put a Yorkshire stone hearth and slab to the bed-room fireplace ; and plain Portland stone mantels (the cross pièces which bear on the jambs), jambs, slips (sides of the jambs), and shelves to both the fireplaces. The mason is to find ail materials, carriage, and work, required for the completion and fixing of his work, in a Sound and workmanlike manner. 83. Spécification of Carpenter*s and Joiner’s Work. Carpenter’s work. The work to be done with sound, well-seasoned, Q,uebec red pine timber, except where otherwise specified. The whole to be framed in a workmanlike manner, with the stuff (pièces of timber) sawed square of the several scantlings (dimension of breadth and thickness), and descriptions as foliows :—ail the carpenter’s work, as well as the joiner’s work, to hold the several scantlings (dimensions, see Glossarial Index), and thicknesses herein | ■ i named, when finished. To put oak lintels (correctly, the head pièces over doors or Windows, which rest upon the 49 jambs; in brick buildings generally a short beam over the \'V \. head of a door or window resting on the jambs, to carry work n'^ that does not receive support from an arch), three inches ànd n. a half thick, to ail the openings, of the width of the respective walls, less the thickness of the brick arches, so as to lay nine inches on the walls at each end. Oak wood bricks (pièces of oak timber, eut to the size and shape of bricks, and built into the inner surface of walls for the purpose of nailing joiner’s work to them, when finishing the rooms), to be provided in the jambs for fixing the linings (thin boards) where required. 50. fia Mi i H —Bed-room floor. To put oak joists, four inches by three inches, and twelve inches apart, laid on two-inch oak sleepers, four inches wide.—Ceiling floor. To put an oak wall plate, four inches by two inches and a half, dovetailed (see fig. 57) at the angles, and halved and spiked (a mode of joining, fig. 49) at the laps ; and ceiling joists, joggled on (fixed, as shown in fig. 50), and spiked 52 (nailed with spike nails, fig. 51) at each end, to the ttop of the plate, four inches by two inches, and twelve inches apart; the two end bays (spaces be- twixt the girders, or principal timbers in a floor) to be framed at one end into the binding joists, five inches by three inches, fig. 52, v.—Roofing. To put one inch and half yellow deal hip rafters (rafters at the angles of a pavillion roof), and ridge pièces, nine inches deep (fig. 53, iv), rounded on the top for lead. Common rafters, four inches by two inches and a half, and thirteen inches apart; with two pair of couplings, five inches by three inches, fig. 54,x, framed to the binding joists, or tie beams (horizontal pièces of timber, y), and spiked to the face of them at each end, having king-posts (perpendicular posts, z), six inches by two inches and a half. The whole properly trimmed (framed round, leaving a clear opening,) to the chimney shafts. The shed roof over the back kitchen, fuel-house, and privy, to hâve rafters, wall plates (pièces of timber on the walls, on which the rafters rest, fig. 54 fy 8ç), and ties of thé same scantling as above described. The whole of the roofs to be covered with three quarters of an inch thick yellow deal slips (boards), two inches and a half wide, for Countess slates ; with proper tilting fillets (tilting fillets are usedCOTTAGE DWELL1NGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. S2 to give a slight inclination to the verge or border-slates, where they butt against brick-work, o a nf ^nr in fin* K £ îti av/1av i-L -J. _i li . _ i /» . î 1 • i « 57 rz likewise employed to steady and support the lower edges of slates finishing against vallies ; the usual size is three inches wide, three-eighths of an inch thick, and feather-edged) ; and one inch and a quarter feather-edged (thin edged) eaves’ board, eight inches wide. Put one inch yellow deal gutters, and bearers (pièces of scantling to support the gutters. fig. 56, b,) to 58 JL the chimneys. The internai partitions to be made for nogging flat (the same as in fig. 46, but with the bricks set on edge). Put heads, four inches by three inches, dovetailed, fig. 57, into the plates ; sills of oak, four inches by two inches and a half ; common quarters, fig. 58, c, four inches by two inches, and eighteen inches apart ; door-posts, d ; principal quarters (principal up- right pièces of timber in the partition, e), and braces (diagonal pièces of timber, /), four inches by three inches; nogging pièces, g, four by two inches. 84. Spécification of Joiner's Work. Ail the inside framing, and ail the outside work, to be of sound, well- seasoned, dry, yellow deal. To put one inch and a quarter moulded fascia (fig. 59, h), with an inch thick gutter having a false bottom, i, to current the water (to slope the bottom, so as to make it run), put together with white lead, ail round / 61 59 Nk* 62 the eaves, with two three-quarters of an inch yellow deal water trunks, four inches and a half square (wooden pipes to conduct the water down, fig. 60, k), with head, l, and shoes, fig. 61, to deliver the water to the ground. To lay in the bed-rooms one-inch folding floors, (a partie ular mode oflaying down the boards ; but when finished, the appearance présents nothing particular; fig. 62. See folding floors, in Glos- sarial Index), with border to the slab.—[In the spécification of the gutter for carrying off the water from the roof, there is a déviation from the section, fig. 40, in p. 36, in which the gutter is formed in stone, being hollowed out of the wall- head plinths. The reason why this déviation has been made, is, that the spécification was drawn up with the view of erecting the cottage in the neighbourhood of London, where a stone gutter would hâve added greatly to its expense. The wooden gutter shown in the section, fig. 63, will produce the same effect, and correspond with the spécification.]—Doors. To put proper door-cases (door-cases are called proper, when wrought, i. e. planed, framed, rebated, and beaded,) qf fir (firis generaliy applied by builders40 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. '© © lo Baltic timber ; what they call pine generally cornes from America, and is of inferior quality), four inches and a half by three inches, and oak sillsto ail the external doors, with one inch and a half six-panelled bead, butt and square door (a door framed on one side withoutany moulding ; on the other the panel is flush with the stiles, and has a bead run on the edge, butting against the rails, fig. 64, m, m, m,) to the entrance, hung with three-inch butts (hinges, fig. 65) ; and one and a quarter inch proper ledged door (a proper ledged door has the boards planed, tongued into each other, see Index, and beaded ; they are placed vertically, and nailed to horizontal pièces at the back, called ledges,) to the back kitchen, fuel-house, and privy, hung with sixteen-inch cross garnet hinges (a hinge with a bar, fig. 66) ; the whole to hâve Norfolk thumb latches (latches lifted by the thumb, fig. 67), and eight-inch rod bolts, .fig. 68; and, except the privy, eight-inch fine plate stock locks (locks with a wooden back, or stock, fig. 69). The internai doors to be one inch and a quarter six-panelled, both sides square, with two inches and a half butt hinges, and six-inch iron rim brass knob locks, fig. 70.—Windows. To put an oak 65 solid two-light proper frame, three inches by two inches, with cast-iron casements, made to open with strong hinges, latches and spring stay-irons (irons to keep the window open) to the back kitchen.—[We hâve shown in the élévation, sash Windows, greatly preferring them to casements ; but as the object was to erect the building at as little cost as possible, case- ments were substituted in the scullery window, &c.]—The Windows in the kitchen and bed-room to hâve deal cased frames (frames with wooden cases formed at the back of the pulley stiles for the sash weights to hang in) oak sunk sills (the upper part ot the sill sunk, or grooved out, in order to prevent the rain from driving under the sash) one inch and a half ovolo sashes (the sash-bars with ovolo mouldings, fig. 71) ; double hung, with white lines, iron weights, and brass pulleys, with brass spring fastenings, fig. 72. Ail the Windows to hâve inchwrought and rounded window boards, (a narrow shelf in the interior at the bottom of the sash, fig 73, n,) with three quarters of an inch splayed lining and soflits, of with ogee mouldings, and fillets on the edge,^. The doors also inside to hâve one inch and a quarter single rebated jamb linings, with mouldings to match. To put inch clamped (cross-headed, q) folding shutters, with rule joints (joints like those of the common foot rule), and proper hinges to the window, with iron bar fastenings. To put three quarters of an inch square 68 skirting, (a skirting-board it-^a TV----^without any moulding at top), four inches high, fig. 74, in the bed-room, with inch narrow bevelled grounds (slips of wood to fix the skirting to, having the upper edge bevelled back, in order to retain the margin of the plaster, fig. 75, r), plugged to the walls (nailed to plugs of wood driven 70 into the walls). To put an inch deal seat riser (the front board on edge), and bearers (cross pièces), with water board hole and a cover, to the privy, and three quarters of ®i an inch skirting at back of the seat, six ^ inches high.—[We haye before, in Chapter I., recommended a hinged flap, or lid, in addition to the round cover which fits into the hole, with a view the more completely to exclude smell ; an object which ought, if possible, to be effected, at whatever cost. For this reason, we would always recommend the introduction of a 71 72 smooth earthenware basin, with a tube, which may reach down into the soil, under the seat,COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VABIOUS STYLES. 41 75 in order to diminish the evaporating surface, and prevent the possibility of a current of air rising through the opening.]—To put three tier of inch shelves in each of the recesses in the kitchen. The carpenter and joiner to find ail materials, ironmongery, carriage, and labour for the com- pletion of his work, and to do the whole in a sound and workman- like manner. 85. Plumber’s, Painter’s, and Glazier’s Work. To put flashings (strips) of milled lead (lead that is pressed out to the required thickness by a machine), eight inches wide, five pounds to the foot superficial, chased (let) into the brick-work, and fixed with wall- hooks, fig. 76, to the chimney shafts, with proper aprons (pièces of lead to overlap the flashings, fig. 77, s), and cover the gutters with lead seven pounds to the foot superficial. To cover the hips and ridges with milled lead, fifteen inches wide, five pounds to the foot superficial, properly lapped, dressed, and nailed with lead-headed nails (nails with their heads enveloped in lead, by dipping them in melted lead, in order to 74 prevent their rusting). To glaze and back putty, (to remove the putty pressed out of the rebate by the pane), ail the sashes and casements with good second (second in quality) Newcastle crown glass. To paint the whole of the external wood- work, and the gutters, and shoots (spouts), inside four times in goodwhite lead and oil ; the external doors to be finished in an oak, or in a stone colour. To paint the sashes, frames, shutters, linings, and skirting, inside the house, three times in oil. The plumber, painter, and glazier, to find ail workmanship, materials, and the carriage thereof ; and every thing requisite for the performance of his work, and to do the same in a perfect and workmanlike manner. ^ 77 86. Well, Pump, and Platform. The above spécification is exclusive of a well and pump, also of a copper boiler, and setting it, and of the bringing of the earth, and forming the platform or terrace round the house. 87. Estimate. The following is the form of an estimate, framed on the above spécification, as made by surveyors and builders. The architects about London and Edinburgh, as we hâve before observed, generally estimate by the cubic con- tents ; first making a calculation of what a cube of ten feet square will cost on each separate story; but the surveyor, whose business it is to measure buildings, and to estimate the Value of the labour and materials, goes into minute details. He does not, however, tn giving in an estimate, specify to his employer the vaille which he puts on every particular item ; but only the total amounts of the different works generally. executed by separate tradesmen, in the following form : 88. Estimate of Bricklayer’s Work. £ s. d. Nine cubic yards of digging, filling, and ramming ; seven cubic yards of wheeling in stones and gravel, to level the ground under the kitchen floor............................................................ One hundred and ninety-seven feet of reduced brick-work, (in estimating the price of brick-work in Britain, the quantity, of whatever nature and thickness it may be, is always redüced to walls of one and a half brick in thickness, two hundred and seventy-two and a quarter square feet of which form a rod of brick-work).......................... One rod, eighty-two feet of reduced stone-work (the stone walls are re- duced to one and a half brick in thickness)........................ Two rods, two hundred and twenty-five feet of reduced stone-work above ground, with brick coins and garreted joints..................... Twenty-nine yards of brick nogging fiat............................ Ten and a half yards of common stock paving in sand................ Sixteen yards of paving bricks hedded and jointed in mortar........ Eight feet run (lineal measure) of chasings for lead.• ............«4« COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. Forty feet of cutting splays.................................... Four feet of twelve-inch hollow tile drain ................... Digging and steening in four-inch brick-work a cesspool, four feet diame- ter in the clear, and six feet deep.......................... Paved slope to the drain in the privy ........................ Two iron chimney bars ........................................ Twelve çommon brick arches, set in cernent..................... Nine window and door frames, bedded and pointed............... £70 : 3 : 3 89. Estimate of Plasterer's Work. Thirty-two yards of whitewashing to new work ..................... Sixty-two yards of whitewashing twice over........................ Forty-five yards of stone colouring twice over ................... One hundred and twenty-one and a third yards of render-set plastering Thirty-two yards of lathlay set plastering........................ £10 : 7 : 2 90 Estimate of Slater’s Work. Eight squares(one hundred square feet each) of Countess slating, with painted nails...................................................... £13 : 12 : 0 91. Estimate of Stone-Mason’s Work. Twelve feet four inches, superficial, of Yorkshire hearth-stone.......... Twenty feet eight inches, superficial, of Portland stone chimney pièces Sixteén feet three inches, lineal measure, of quarry Yorkshire sills, eight inches wide, bevelled and throated................................. £4 : 0 : 6 92. Estimate of Carpenter1 s and Joiner’s Work. Sixteen cubic feet four inches of oak timber in lintels, plates, &c. ...... Thirteen cubic feet eleven inches of oak timber, framed in joists, &c. .. Ninety-one cubic feet one inch of Quebec red pine timber, framed in roof and ceiling floor................................................. Nine superficial feet of one-inch gutter-board and bearers.......... Seventy-one superficial feet nine inches of one and a quarter inch feather- edged eaves board rounded......................................... Forty-eight superficial feet nine inches of one and a half inch yellow deal hips, and ridge rounded........................................... Four superficial feet of two inch oak sleepers...................... Six squares and fifty-seven feet, superficial measure, of slips for Countess slates, two and a half inches wide................................ Wooden bricks....................................................... One hole eut, one water board, and one cover ....................... £30 : 15 i 93. Estimate of Joiner’s Work. Six cubic feet seven inches fir timber in proper (according to spécifica- tion) door-cases........................................................ One cubic foot four inches of oak timber, in sills ..................... Ten cubic inches of oak, proper, in two light frames.................... Seventeen superficial feet nine inches of three-quarters of an inch square skirting .............................................................. Ninety-three superficial feet ten inches of three-quarters of an inch splayed linings and soffits ........................................... Thirteen superficial feet six inches of inch shelves .................... Twelve superficial feet of inch seat and riser........................... Twelve superficial feet nine inches of inch wrought and rounded window board .................................................................. Eighty-six superficial feet of inch clamped folding shutters andhinges.. Sixty-four superficial feet six inches of inch gutter, with false bottoms and bearers, put together with white lead................................ 4COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 43 One square and fifty-seven superficial feet of inch yellow deal folding floor................................................................. Forty-nine superficial feet four inches of one and quarter inch fascia wrought.............................................................. Fifty-three superficial feet three inches of one and a quarter inch proper ledged doors......................................................... Fifty-éiglit superficial feet six inches of one and a quarter inch six-pa- nelled bead butt and square doors.................................... Twenty-one superficial feet of one and a half inch six-panelled bead, butt, and square door................................................ Eighty-one superficial feet ten inches of one and a half inch deal cased frames, oak sunk sills, with one and a half inch ovolo sashes, double- hung with white lines, iron weights and brass pulleys................ Thirty-nine lineal feet six inches of narrow grounds and plugging .. *. One hundred and fifty-seven lineal feet of ogee and fillet moulding.... Twenty-two lineal feet of three-quarters of an inch deal water trunk, four and a half inches square ..................................... 94. Estimate of Ironmongery and Fixings. Three pair of two and a half inch butt hinges, and screws for fixing them One pair of three-inch butt hinges, and screws for fixing them ........ Three pair of sixteen-inch cross gamet hinges ......................... Four Norfolk latches ..................................................... Three eight-inch Stock locks........................................... Four eight-inch bright rod bolts....................................... Three six-inch iron rim brass knob locks............................... Four spring sash fastenings............................................ Two cast-iron casements................................................ Two stay-irons......................................................... Five shutter bars...................................................... £38 : 8 : 7 95. Estimate of Plumber’s, Painter’s, and Glazier’s Work. Four cwt. two quarters of milled lead....1........................... Fifty-two superficial feet three inches of second Newcastle crown glass.. Fifty-one and a half yards three times painted in oil................. Twenty-eight yards four times painted in oil......................... Eleven yards four times painted in oil, of a stone or oak colour..... Thirty-nine lineal feet six inches of inch skirting, four and a half inches wide ............................................................. Four dozen squares and frames, three times painted in oil ........... One two-light square and frame, three times painted in oil........... Two casements, three times painted in oil ........................... Four dozen squares and frames, four times painted in oil............. One two-light frame, four times painted in oil ...................... Two casements, four times painted in oil ............................ Two stay-irons, four times painted in oil ........................... £14 : 13 : 4 96. Summary of Estimâtes. Bricklayer..................................*....................... £70 : 3 : 3 Plasterer........................................................ 10: 7: 2 Slater........................................................... 13:12: 0 Stone-Mason............«.................................... 4: 0: 6 Carpenter, Joiner, and Ironmonger................................. 69 : 3:11 Plumber, Painter, and Glazier ................................. 14 : 13 : 4 £182: 0: 2 97. Estimate from the Cubic Contents. This dwelling contains 7,305 cubic feet, which, at £182 for the whole, is between 5%d. and 6d. per foot; but, as before observed, contractors about London generally deduct a per centage from their estimâtes, according to the kind of building to be erected : this per centage, for ornamental buildings, is about ten per cent. ; but plain buildings,, such as the one above given, may admit of a déduction from the estimate of fifteen per cent., which would reduce the amount to about £155.44 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. Design VIII.—A Dwelling of Two Rooms, for a Man and his Wife. 98. Accommodation. This dwelling, though small, will be found suitable for those situations where neatness, with some little appearance of improved design, is an object. It contains a kitchen, a, well lighted, and with two closets ; a bed-room, 6, with a recess for a cupboard ; a porch, c ; a back-room, d, in which there might be a boiler and an oven, for baking, and also for heating water, and the dues in the floor ; a place for the fuel, e ; and a privy, f. The section, A B, shows that the kitchen floor, and that of the back kitchen and porch, are on abed of stones. The bed-room floor is of boards laid on joists, and hollow be- neath. The whole is surrounded by a platform, which may either be paved, or laid with gravel ; and along its outer margin, there may be a small parapet, with Gothic ornaments on it at the angles. 99. Construction. The walls may be built of stone or brick ; and the roof covered with slates, or flat tiles, projecting a few inches over the walls, so as to deliver the water which falls upon it into the gutter. The chimney tops are round, terminating with small capitals. The pediment over the entrance terminâtes in a small ornament or pinnacle, formed of oak (fig. 78, on a scale of half an inch to a foot), characteristic of old English cottages in districts abound- ing in timber. 100. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 7,430 feet, at 6c?. per foot, £185:15s. ; at 4d.f £123:18s. ; and at 3c?., £92:17s. 101. Expression. From the pointed top of the entrance- door, from the ornament on the summit of the pediment over it, and from the cylindricai chimney tops, it is évident that something more is intended than mere expression of the subject. Yet there is no great unity of style, for the tops of the Windows are square, and there is nothing out of the usual course in the appearance of the roof. Ail that can be said of this élévation is, that it is pleasing' and picturesque ; that is, very well calculated to look well in a picture, though it is not in any very marked architectural style. The space between the tops of the Windows and the eaves of the roof, is sufficient to admit of a véranda ; and this, with a suitable parapet on the terrace, fig. 79, would render this cottage a very ornamental object Placed in a garden, and surrounded by low and round-headed fruit trees, such a building would produce a better effect than in a forest of pines or firs ; as the pointed forms of those trees would not contrast so well with it, and they would overpower it by thêir size. In planting trees near dwellings of any kind, if it be desired to conceal the building, to diminish its importance in the land- scape, and to render it an unhealthy abode for its occupants, then tall evergreen shrubs and large trees ought to be planted close to the édifice ; but, if on the contrary, it be intended that the cottage should hâve some dignity of character, and that its occupants should keep their health, no tree, that under any cirçumstances, grows higher than the building itself, should be planted within the distance of several yards of it. Design IX.—A Dwelling in the Swiss style, for a Married Couple and Family ; with a Cow-house andPigsty. 102. Accommodation. The rooms in this dwelling are of a good size, and there is a sufficient number of them for the comfort of the occupants. On the ground-floor, there is an entrance lobby, a, containing the staircase ; a kitchen, b ; a back kitchen, or wash- house, c; a parlour, d; a liglit clôset, e; a pantry, /; a coal closet, under the stairs, g; a cow-shed, h ; a piggery, i ; a wood-house, h ; and a water-closet, or privy, l. The Windows and doors of ail this lower range are protected by a far projecting balcony, which, in point of comfort and effect, is equal if not superior to a véranda. The bed-room floor contains one best bed-chamber, m ; alight closet, n; staircase, o; bed-room for boys, p ; and for girls, q. 79COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARÏOUS STYLES. VIII.46 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. IX.COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 47 The balcony is entered from a glass door on the landing of the staircase ; and in countries subject to snow and rain, is valuable for the protection which it gives to the Windows and the boarded walls ; as a place in which children and invalids may take exercise ; to hang up corn seeds, herbs, tobacco, and various articles from the eaves ; and more especially, to dry clothes on lines during wet weather. 103. Construction. The foundations, as high as about two feet above the platform, and the two interior walls containing the dues and the chimney stacks, are of brick or stone. Ail the rest of the building is of wood, being framed work, covered with boards, outside and in. In Switzerland, the native country of such buildings, these boards are seldom painted, though those on the outside are sometimes tarred, in order to preserve them from the weather. The roofs in that country are generally covered with shingles (wooden tiles), usually of larch or oak, as being the most durable, six or eight inches broad, and a foot or eighteen inches long ; but in a country where slates or earthen tiles can be got, they are far préférable, not only on account of their durability, but because the shingles are very apt to be blown off by high winds. The bal- conies are supported by the continuation of the flooring joists, as appears by the cross section, fig. 80 ; under which are the further supports of brackets (fig. 81, to a scale of half an inch to a foot). The projecting part of the roof at the sides is supported by the continuation of the rafters, as may be observed in fig. 80 ; and the ends are supported by solid brackets (fig. 82, to a scale of half an inch to a foot). The railing is generally simple, and characterized by perpendi- 83 cular lines ; the ornaments may be notched with the axe and chisel, fig. 83. The chimney has a coping of two broad fiat stones or tiles, to exclude the rain ; and the openings for the escape of the smoke are consequently latéral. The Windows may be sashes hung in the English manner ; or they may be hinged, opening inwards aecording to the Italian and French taste, and as they most commonly are in Switzerland. G48 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 104. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 23,026 feet, at 6d. per foot, <£575 :13s. ; at 4é?., £383 :15s : U. ; and at 3d., £287 :16s : 6d. 105. Expression. This Design assumes a decided character or style, which no one, who has been in Switzerland, can doubt is in imitation of the timber-built dwellings of that country. As a picturesque object, it is most agreeable ; more especially in its native situation on the side of a hill, where it is frequently accompanied by firs, or pines, or other spiry topped trees, which contrast well with the long horizontal line of the roof. It frequently happens that cottages of this sort are placed on the side of a steep slope, so that while the lower end is entirely above the surface the upper end is half sunk into it. In this case, the sloping line of the hill contrasts admirably, both with the horizontal and perpendicular lines of the building, and the appearance of stability is heightened by the one end being sunk or bedded into the hill. The balcony in this case, terminating on the surface, may be entered on the outside. The same cottage placed across the slope would appear much less stable, as well as less picturesque. In imitating the style of any particular country, the Architect ought to take care not to imitate peculiarities or defects. It is common, both in Switzerland and in Kinsigthal, in the Duchy of Baden, to see the roofs of dwellings of this sort, loaded with stones, with turves, with planks, or with roots of trees, to keep on the shingles, and even, in some cases» to prevent the roof itself from being blown off by the wind. A landscape painter in taking views in Switzerland or Baden, would, very properly, copy these circumstances, and a moral traveller would describe them ; but for an Architect to introduce tliem as component parts of a Design in the Swiss style, would display a great want of discrimination, and would be, what Sir Joshua Reynolds, in his Lectures on Painting, calls, “ imitating a peculiarity.” It fre* quently happens, with such buildings in Switzerland, that being situated in narrow valleys, they are subject to partial inundations from sudden thaws ; and also to hâve the rain thrown more violently against some parts of the building than against others, when the wind is in a particular direction. To guard against these incidents, barriers of boards are put up in the first case, and an exterior protection of weather boarding (boards overlapping each other), in the latter. For an Architect to imitate these, would be to copy defects in the construction, rendered necessary by an error in the choice of situation, and would remind one of the story of the Chinese tailor, who imitated the patches on a coat sent him for a pattern. 106. Thefitness of a building of this construction for a human dwelling may deserve some considération. It is certain that wooden buildings of any kind are never erected (excepting now and then as a matter of fancy), by those who can afford to use stone or brick. Their liability to accidents by fire, is an objection for which no architectural or picturesque beauty can ever compensate. The balcony also surrounding the building, liable to be constantly used, and commanding the bed-room Windows, takes away ail idea of privacy from these apartments. We, therefore, by no means, recommend this style for any country. For our own part, indeed, rather than bestow.so much labour on so perishable and combustible a material as wood, we would prefer walls of earth. Design X.—A Dwelling for a Married Couple and One Child, with a Pigsty. 107. Accommodation. This is a dwelling of the lowest class, consisting ,of three rooms in two stories, and dif- fering only from the commonest cottages in England by the completeness of its appendages, and the architecture of its exterior. It contains, on the ground-floor, an entrance porch or lobby, a; a wash-house, with a place for an oven to heat the kitchen-floor by a flue, h; a kitchen or living room, c ; a large closet under the stair- case, d; apantry,e; fuel-house,/; water-closet or privy, g ; and pigsty, h. The chamber-floor contains a bed- room, i ; a clothes or lumber-closet, Je ; child’s bed-room, l; and the staircase, m. 108. Construction. The walls, as high as the bed-room floor, may be built of stone or of brick, with a vacuity in the centre, as explained in describing Design I. Above, the walls may be of brick nogging ; the principal timbers of which may be like those shown in the élévation. These walls should be plastered within and without. A much better plan of construction, however, is to carry up the brick walls to the roof ; unless the object of the Architect be the imitation of an accident inCOTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 4050 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. XI.COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 51 85 a style, rather than its essentials ; or economy, rather than strength, durability, and comfort. The roof may be covered with plain tiles ; and some care may be bestowed on the chimneys, fig. 84, (scale, a quarter of an inch to a foot). These chimneys may be built of brick, and covered with cernent ; or be formed of cernent only. The Windows may hâve wooden mullions, fig. 85, and wooden case- ments ; but we cannot recommend these casements being filled in with lattice-work ; for that, like ex- terior walls of brick nogging, is an inferior mode of construction. 109. Situation, As this building admits of being viewed on every side, it is suitable for an open space. A few fruit trees are its appropriate accompaniments ; and at a distance of a hundred yards, it may hâve as a back ground, a wood of oak, or other round-headed trees, to contrast with its upright and angular lines. It is not meant by this remark, however, either that such a wood shcmld be planted on purpose ; or that it is worth while to give up any point of utility or convenience, in order to place a cottage of this character near such a wood. The comfort of the occupant of the cottage should take precedence of every other object, either respecting it, or its accompaniments. It has been too much the practice, hitherto, for Architects and for their employers to set down cottages, more with a view to their effect in the landscape, than to any thing else whatever; but the habitation of a human being, however humble, ought not to be trifled with, either in respect to its accommodations, or its locality. 110. Aspect. From what we hâve already advanced on this subject in Chapter I. it will be understood, that in ail practicable cases, we intend that the dwelling should be so placed as to admit of the sun shining on ail its walls every fine day in the year, with the exception of a few weeks at the winter solstice. This, we need hardly repeat (were it not for the great importance of the subject), is to be done by imagining the general form of the ground-plan reduced to a square, and letting its diagonal be a north and south line. In most parts of Europe the door should face the south-east. When cottages are detached, and built either singly, or in pairs, and set down in a garden, the adhérence to this rule of position, with respect to the sun, will add to the picturesque beauty of a village ; whatever may be the direction of the road, along the sides of which the houses and gardent are built and laid out. This fact must never be forgotten ; and indeed it should be considered, like the introduction of the platform, as a law, which in building detached cottages, ought never to be violated. In building long lines of connected dwellings of this sort, this law cannot be applied ; but if the lines be in the direction of south and north, the same advantages, in point of heat and dry- ness, are obtained as by the diagonal position of detached cottages ; for the sun will shine throughout the year on the east and west sides of every dwelling ; and the south and north sides being party-walls (walls of division between different houses), will be necessarily both dry and warm. 111. General Estimate. Cubic contents 9,528 feet, at 6d. per foot, £238 : 4s. ; at 4d., £158 :16s.; and at 3d., £119: 1s. 112. Expression. This cottage is in what is called lhe old English manner, which is characterized by Windows not much higher than they are broad, and divided perpendicu- larly by mullions (vertical divi- sions) ; by high, conspicuous, and sometimes ornamented stacks of chimneys ; by steep roofs generally covered with plain tiles, projecting at the eaves, and sometimes also at the gable ends ; and, finally, by more or less of Gothic forms or mouldings in its details. In this imitation of the old English cot- tage, an erroneous manner of arrangement is conspicuous in the stacks of chimneys, which ought not to hâve been in the outside walls ; and the introduction into these outer walls of brick nogging, is an inferior g 252 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. mode of construction, undeserving of imitation. A peculiarity, which in respect to use is a great deformity, is introduced in the principal window, in the form of the head of a Gothic arch supporting the mullion. This Gothic arch crosses the window in such a manner as to intercept the most valuable portion of the light. Nevertheless, we hâve given this Design a place, from its being characteristic of the style which it affects to exhibit ; but we shall after- wards give other Designs in the same style not liable to the same objections. It is also proper to remark, that in new countries, where building materials and labour are scarce and dear, this would be exactly the sort of cottage that would be most suitable for a dwelling in the English cottage style ; and in temperate climates rather milder than Britain, such, for example, as many parts of Australia, there could be no objection to the chimneys being in the outside walls. Their effect there, rising boldly into the air, and contrasting with the sloping surface and horizontal line of the roof, is excellent. A low box hedge, with standards at the angles, eut into architectural shapes, would be in perfect harmony with this style of cottage, fig. 86. Design XI.—A Dwelling for a Man and Us Wife, and One or Two Children, with a Cow-house and Pigsty. 113. Accommodation. This hermitage-looking dwelling contains a porch, a ; a work-room or parlour, b ; a bed-room communicating with it, c ; a kitchen, d ; and an outer kitchen or wash-house, with an oven, e; communicating with a pantry and dairy,/. The wash-house has a back door, near which, in the lean-to, is a privy, g ; a cow-house, h ; and a place for wood, or for apig, i- In the section the floors are shown as laid over a bed of stones, and a gravelled terrace surrounds the \yhole building, on a level six inches lower than the floors of the rooms. In the bed of stones may be a flue connected with the oven placed in the angle of the back kitchen, e, as before deseribed. 114. Construction. The walls are of stone, hewn at the coins (corners), and with the barge stones (a corruption of verge, and signifying the margin of any thing), also hewn. The roof is of a high pitch, in conformity with roofs in the Gothic style, and may be covered with pan (hollow) tiles, or plain tiles ; it pro- jects afew inches at the eaves, so as to deliver the water into a gutter. The Windows and the door are surrounded by plain architraves ; the principal Windows hâve pointed tops, and are divided by mullions (fig. 87, &, to a scale of half an inch to the foot). The stack of chimneys, fig. 88, may either be executed in free-stone, or what in Britain will cost much The door is formed of bead and batten with exterior liinges, similar to those in Design VI. The gable ends are surmounted by crosses, which may either be formed of stone or cernent, and if a description of that article, used in forming stone ornaments by Austin, of the New Road, London, be employed, there can be no doubt of their durability. 115. Situation. It is évident that a building of this sort is erected chiefly with a view to its ornamental effect, and, therefore, wherever it is placed, it ought not to be obscured by trees. It may be considered as a sort of hermitage, and, in this point of view, it should be placed in a solitary situation. 116. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 11,700 feet, at 6d., £292:10s. ; at 4d., £195 ; and at 3d.} £146 : 5s. 117. Expression. This being the first Design in which we hâve made a great departure from symmetry, that is, a correspondence of parts in the general form, it may be useful to offer a few remarks on the principle of irregularity in Architecture. Itis évident that to introduce irregularity of form in buildings, is an architectural refinement of the présent âge ; for, though in ancient buildings of every description, there is much more of irregularity than of symmetry, yet this irregularity has always been the resuit of accident ; of additions made from time to time as they were required, or of subtractions or mutilations, according as certain parts might be done without, or as the ability to keep them in repair diminished. We find no ancient author on Architecture recommending irregularity ; and from this we may conclude that no ancient Architect ever designed a building of an irreguîar form when he could help it, The first in Britain who decidedly recommended irregularity in buildings, was Uvedale Price, in the first édition of his admirable Essays on the Picturesquef published in 1794; and he was less and yet be sufficiently durable, cernent.COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 53 soon followed by Mr. Knight, in his poem The Landscape ; by Malton, in his works on Cottage Architecture, and subsequently by various others. Uvedale Price, who was a great admirer of Sir Joshua Reynolds, and of the works of tlie great painters of Italy, probably was strengthened in his ideas in favour of irregularity, by the following passage in one of Sir Joshua’s Discourses :—“ Architects may take advantage sometimes of the use of accidents to foliow where they lead, and to improve them, rather than always trust to a regular plan. It often happens that additions hâve been made to houses at various times, for use or pleasure. As such buildings départ from regularity, they now and then acquire something of scenery by this accident, which I thinkmight not unsuccessfully be adopted by an Architect in an original plan, if it does not too much interfère with convenience. Variety and intricacy is a beauty and excellence in every other of the arts which address the imagination ; and why not in Architecture ?” This passage is quoted by Knight, in his Analytical Inquiry into the Principles of Taste, as an authority for the praise which he also has bestowed on irregularity in Architecture. The practice at présent needs no recommendation; being, as every one knows, followed in dwellings of every description, of extent, and of every kind of style. Ail that we are anxious to remark on the subject is, that irregularity can seldom or ne ver be adopted in cottage dwellings where economy is a main object. On this subject we entirely agréé with Laing, who, in the préfacé to his Hints on Dwellings, has the following remarks : 118. The nearer the plan of a building appràaches to a square, says Laing, “ the greater are its conveniences, and the cost proportionably less. A square, equal in superficial extent to a parallelogram, requires less external walling, and, consequently, less internai finishing. By compactness, convenience is produced, and expense is saved : when the apartments are scattered and lie wide from each other, with long passages between, much unpleasantness must be experienced ; and a much larger expense must be incurred from covering a larger space of ground than is absolutely necessary.” This objection, he adds, “ may fairly be urged against some schemes, which I hâve lately seen by an ingenious artist, in which his anxiety to produce variety and want of uniformity, has led him to devise plans void of convenience and economy ; how far void of taste, I will not say ; y et, surely, uniformity is essential to beauty. I say this merely to oppose a taste which I consider false, and an economy which is profusion.” (Hints on Dwellings. Préfacé.) 119. Irregular Buildings please their admirers partly with reference to their picturesque effect; and partly as being characteristic of some particular architectural style, as it is found to exist in ancient buildings. The castellated architecture of the présent day is evidently more an imitative style, than one of picturesque beauty; and the irregular cottage style dépends more on its picturesqueness, than on its being an imitation of any thing that has previously existed. Dugald Stewart, in one of his Essays on the Beautiful, has traced the progress of the taste for the several kinds of beauty from that of the rudest appearance of Design, to the greatest irregularities of form. He notices the pleasure which children very early manifest at the sight of regular forms and uniform arrangements. The same love of regular forms and of uniform arrangements, he says, “ continues to influence powerfully in the maturity of reason and expérience, the judgments we pronounce on ail works of human art, whose regularity and uniformity do not interfère with purposes of utility. In recommending these forms and arrangements in the particular circumstances just mentioned, there is one principle which seems to me to hâve no inconsiderable influence, and which I shall take this opportunity of hinting at slightly, as I do not recollect to hâve seen it anywhere applied to questions of criticism. The principle I allude to is, that of the suflicient reason, of which so much use is made (and in my opinion sometimes very erroneously made), in the philosophy of Leibnitz. What is it that, in any thing which is merely ornamental, and which, at the same time, does not profess to be an imitation of nature, renders irregular forms displeasing? Is it not, at least in part, that irregularities are infinité ; and that no circumstance can be imagined which should hâve decided the choice of the artist in favour of that particular figure which he has selected ? The variety of regular figures (it must be acknowledged) is infinité also ; but supposing the choice to be once fixed about the number of sides, no apparent caprice of the artist in adjusting their relative proportions, présents a disagreeable and inexplicable puzzle to the spectator. Is it not also owing, in part, to this, that in things merely ornamental, where no use, even the most trifling, is intended, the circular form possesses a superiority over ail others ? 120. In a house, which is commonly detached from ail other buildings, and which stands on a perfectly level foundation, why are we offended when the door is not placed exactly in the middle ; or when there is a window on one side of the door, and none corresponding to it on the other ? Is it not that we are at a loss to conceive how the choice of the Architect could be thus determined, where ail circumstances appear to be so exactly alike ? This54 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. disagreeable effect is, in a great measure, removed, the moment any purpose of utility is discovered ; or even when the contiguity of other houses, or some peculiarity in the shape of ground, allows us to imagine, that some reasonable motive may hâve existed in the artist’s mind, though we may be unable to trace it. An irregular castellated édifice, set down on a dead fiat, conveys an idea of whim or of folly in the designer ; and it would convey this idea still more strongly than it does, were it not that the imitation of something else, which we hâve previously seen with pleasure, makes the absurdity less revolting. The same, or yet greater irregularity, would not only satisfy, but delight the eye, in an ancient citadel, whose ground-work and élévations followed the rugged surface and fantastic projections of the rock on which it is built. The oblique position of a window in a house, would be intolérable ; but utility, or rather necessity, reconciles the eye to it at once, in the cabin of a ship.”— Stewart's Philosophical Essays, p. 240. Design XII.—A Dwelling of Two Stories for a Man and his Wife, with a Servant and Two or Tkree Children, with a Cow-house and Pigsty. 121. Accommodation. This may be considered a comfortable dwelling for a gardener or bailiff in Britain ; or for a small pro- 89 prietor in America, or Australia. It contains, on the ground-floor, an en- trance lobby, a ; staircase, h ; kitchen, c ; parlour, d ; tool-house or office for paying men, e ; pantry and dairy, /; back kitchen, g ; shed for wood and fuel, h; dusthole, i; privy, Je; and cow-house, with hen-house over, l. The cow-house is connected with a court-yard, which contains a shed for hay and straw, piggeries, and dung- pit, with a manure well, connected with the privy. The platform, on three ’sides of this dwelling, forms a handsome walk, from which there is a door into the court-yard. The bed-room floor contains a best bed- room, m; a second bed-room, n; a third bed-room, o ; and a stair, p. 122. Construction. The walls may be of brick, or stone, or of brick nog- ging plastered externally, as shown in the élévation ; care being taken, what- ever material may be used, that the colour is neither a glaring red, nor a glaring white. The roof may be covered with reeds, or with combed wheat straw (straw from which the ears of grain hâve been eut, or combed off, in conséquence of which, the culms are unbruised by the flail). The inter- secting lines shown at the ridge of the roof, and which may appear to many, not accustomed to see reed-covered buildings, as a mere ornament at the fancy of the thatcher, are formed by rods, generally of hazel, for the pur- pose of keeping down the, layer of reeds, which are spread across the ridge tree of the roof. The intersecting rods, fig. 89, qf are kept in their places by the horizontal rods, r r ; and these are fastened to the thatch, by Staples, or spits, or broaches, s, which are nothing more than short pièces of rod, previously well steeped in water, to render them flexible, bent in the form of a staple hook, and stuck in the thatch or reeds. The forked pièce of wood represented on the upper part of the gable-end, should only be employed if the COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. XIII. iQQŒCi£K3C3£3<COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 57 walls; are of brick nogging. The entrance door is ledged ; and the bed-room Windows, which are broad rather than high, show two perpendicular and fixed bars or mullions ; the casements being hinged to open inwards. The small Windows in the lean-to are round- headed, with Gothic labels over them, fig. 90. The chimney shafts may be executed in cernent, in a decorated style, (fig. 91, to a scale of the fourth of an inch to a foot), such as is sometimes found in the better description of old cottages and farm-houses. 123. Situation. This dwelling being intended as an orna- 91 mental object, should not be crowded with trees ; at the same time it is not calculated for a very exposed situation. 124. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 14,904 feet, at 6d. per foot, ^372 :12s. ; at 4d., £2é8 : 8s. ; and at 3d., £186: 6s. 125. Expression. The style aimed at here is some- thing of what is called the old English manner. Whatever interest may be excited by associations connected with this style, the specimen here represented, has evidently very little merit, taken by itself as a System of building. When a cottage is throughout in one System or style, ail the parts of which it is composed, will seem to be the resuit of the mode of its construction ; and to follow each other so obviously, that the eye and the mind are naturally led from one to the other throughout the whole super- structure. This is Wood’s doctrine ; and, tried by it, the Design before us will certainly be found wanting. There may be historical or accidentai associations between the form of the door and that of the window over it ; that is, it may hâve been usual to hâve such doors and Windows in the same building in some old English cottages ; but certainly the form of the one does not naturally arise out of the form of the other. Neither can it be said that the projection of part of the bed-room floor, as shown over the door-way, has any- thing to do with the mode of construction ; on the contrary, to the eye of reason, it appears an inferior method ; while, as a projection, it not only has not the merit of real utility, but the pretension which it mighthave had of forming a shelter to the entrance door, is destroyed, by that door having a small roof of its own ; a superfluity which ought to hâve been avoided, since the walls of the porch evidently do not stand out beyond the line of the projection ot the bed-room story. The small wing, or lean-to, shown below this last-mentioned window, seems to be in a different style from the rest of the building ; both as regards the projection of its roof, and the labels to its two small Windows. On the whole, though we acknowledge the ensemble of this Design to présent a picturesque appearance, yet as a piece of Archi- tecture, we consider it a deformity. Where the form of any one part of a building, says Wood, does not seem to dépend upon that below it, but might as well be substituted by something different, the principle of arrangement is wanting. In looking at any building we endeavour to trace some simple principle of arrangement, the want of which can never be made up by good parts forced into service, or by superfluity of ornament. Profusion of parts, or of ornaments, without obvious connexion and propriety, produce confusion and absurdity. (Letters of an Architect fyc. vol. i. p. 6). We hâve presented this Design for the purpose of showing how easy it is to captivate the eye in matters of this kind, without in any one point completely satisfying the judgmént. Design XIII.—A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with Two or more Chïldren. 126. Accommodation. Here we hâve a colonnade which serves as a porch ; a vestibule, a ; a parlour, b ; a kitchen, with a stair to two bed-rooms in the roof, c ; a bed-room on the ground-floor, d ; a pantry, e ; two closets, f g ; and water-closet or pantry, h. The two bed-rooms over c and d may be lighted by dormer Windows (windows made in the root) and by the small opening seen in the upper part of the gable end. 127. Construction. The platform on which this dwelling is built, is sustained by masonry ; which, on three sides, supports the columns of the véranda or colonnade. These columns may either be of stone, of brick stuccoed, or of timber ; in either case, set on stone plinths, and with stone caps. The roof should be slated, with barge courses at the gable ends, terminating in pinnaclés. The chimney tops (fig. 92, on a scale of three eighths of an inch to a foot), are plain, like the columns.58 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 128. The Garden, containing about three fourths of an acre, is here shown surrounded by a hedge. This bedge might, in many cases, be formed of fruit-bearing slirubs, such as plums, apples, sloes, service or mountain ash, the bernes of which afford an excellent spirit; or elders, the berries of which make a well-known wine. Whichever description of fruit-bearing plant is used, the branches must be pruned with a knife, and not clipped with shears ; because çlipping, by producing an exubérance of weak, young shoots, pre- vents the plants from forming blossom buds. If it should be désirable to hâve a very formidable fence, the hedge might consist of two rows; the inner one of fruit-bearing plants, and the outer one of hawthorns or hollies. There is scarcely any situation, either on hills or by the sea-shore, in which the elder will not thrive, and its fruit is always valuable. The same may be said of the sloe, and the mountain ash, and service, in respect to ail inland situ- ations. The mode of labouring and cropping the ground may be as follows : trench compartment i three spits deep, and plant with the cabbage tribe ,* manure and dig k, and plant with potatoes ; trench l two spits deep, and sow with root crops, such as turnips, carrots, parsnips, onions, &c. ; manure and dig m, and crop with peas, beans, and kidney beans. According to this rotation, în the second year, i will be manured and dug only, and will be under potatoes ; Je will be trenched two spits deep, and under root crops ; l will be manured, dug, and under leguminous plants ; and m will be trenched three spits deep, and under the cabbage tribe. Thus, a new stratum of soil will be brought up to the surface every other year : in the first year, what was the bottom becomes the top ; in the second, the top is turned over ; in the third, the middle becomes the top ; and, in the fourth, this middle is turned over. < Manure is applied every second year. This is enough to give a general idea of how a garden ought to be laboured, manured, and cropped ; but more minute and accurate details will be found in our Cottage Manual ; in Denson’s Peasanfs Voice i and in an excellent little work, by Mr. Charles Laurence, entitled Practical Directions for Cottage Gardens, §c. The smaller compartments may be cropped as follows : n, with gooseberries ; o, with currants and raspberries ; p, with strawberries ; q, with asparagus ; r, with sea-kale ; s, with tart rhu- barb ; t, with Jérusalem artichokes ; and'w, with perennial, or what is called Good Henry spinach (Chenopodium Bonus Henricus). The border which surrounds the garden may be devoted to the smaller crops, such as salads, herbs, &c. ; and to early crops, such as peas and potatoes. The spaee immediately surrounding the cottage should be ornamented with flowers and flowering shrubs. The trees at the corners of the compartments should be standard apples, pears, cherries, and plums. 129. Situation. It is évident that the main purpose of this building is effect ; and if placed, as shown, on a raised architectural platform, in the centre of a garden not over planted, it cannot fail to look well from every point of view. 130. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 14,568 feet, at 6d.} £364 : 4s. ; at 4d.f £242 :16s. ; and at 3d., 10182 : 2s. 131. Expression. It can hardly be said that this édifice resembles a cottage dwelling ; and, at ail events, it is certainly not one of the humble class. There is an obvious desire for display ; and as this has produced a comfortable colonnade for the exercise of children, for hanging up Indian corn, tobacco, or seeds, and for drying clothes during rainy weather, it need not be much objected to. As far as respects style, the building is mixed ; but, as the mixture is agreeable, a whole of some merit is produced. Design XIV.—A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with One Servant and a grown-up Son or Daughter. 132. Accommodation. There is a kitchen, a; a scullery and sink, h ; pantry, c ; closet, d ; two bed-rooms, e and/; a closet, g ; a water-closet for women, h; and a water-closet for men, i. These accommodations are surrounded by an uninterrupted arcade, for the sake of effect, and for air, exercise, and drying clothes during inclement weather. An arcade necessarily throws a much greater shadow on the Windows than square pillars, or round columns ; but to compensate for this, it may be executed in brick-work, without the aid of lintels of stone or wood, or of cernent.COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOÇS STYLES. 59 133. Construction. The arcade, which, may support the roof independently of the inner wall, should be of brick or stone. The inner walls may be of earth, or brick, or clay nogging, or of stud-work (frame-work), lathed and plas- tered. The pitch or rise of the roof is low, and the cover- ing is supposed to be of slates of the largest size ; the slop- ing joints being covered with narrow strips of slate, in the manner known in Britain by the term Wyatt’s Patent, to be afterwards described. The chimney stack has a far pro- jecting comice (fig 93, to a scale of half an inch to a foot). 134. Situation. This dwelling is calculated for being placed on a platform supported by masonry, in the midst of a garden, on an elevated situation, because it will look well from every point of view. 135. Garden. Contents, two roods, thirty-five pôles, and fifteen yards. The square in which the house stands is devoted to flowers and other ornamental plants. The com- partment to the lefit of this square, to the përennial crops, such as asparagus, Je ; sea-kale, l ; rampion, m ; tart rhubarb, n, n ; strawberries, o, o; American cranberriés, p; Jérusalem artichokes, q; and common artichokes, or perennial spinach, as may be preferred, r. The two squares to the right are devoted, s, to gooseberries, and t, to. currants and raspberries. The two long squares, m and v, may be subjècted to four years’ rotation, as described in the preceding Design. There may be a well, or a sun dial, at w, and a small court of offices beyond the garden for other conveniences. 136. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 26,824 feet, at 6d. per foot, ^670 . 12s., £447 : ls : 4d. ; and at 3d.} £335 : 6s. 137. Expression. Small dwellings in this manner of architecture are generall y considered as belonging to the Italian style. There can be no question of the excellence of the general effect ; but we naturally ask how it happens, that in a building so studiously unifbrm, the entrance stairs should not hâve been placed in the centre of the front? . If the answer be that there is not a central . opening, the question occurs, why was not this provided in arranging the plan ? Here, then, we hâve the Architect setting out on a principle, viz., thatof uniformity, pursuing it through the main body of the build- ing, and afterwards defeating ail his labours by abandoning it in an im- portant feature. If we consider this60 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. building as a human habitation, there is also an obvious absurdity in expending so mucli for appearance, and yet paying so little attention to internai comfort, as to almost exclude that essential requisite to every dwelling, light. It is évident that ail the rooms in this house must be very much darkened ; tiot merely by the arcade, but by the great projection of the roof beyond it. No man, who exercises his reason for a moment, as to what he sees before him, can feel satisfaction on looking at a structure like this ; at least with reference to such a climate as that of Britain. Perhaps in Italy, so much shade as this Design would produce may be désirable ; and the want of light may not be so great an object in the présent State of civilization in that country, since the people are not readers, and are far from being cleanly in either their persons or houses. But even for Italy, this Design is bad; because, in the warmest climates there must be timeswhen more light is désirable than can be ad- mitted into any of the apartments of this dwelling. Still the Design possesses a degree of simplicity and grandeur, and may afford useful hints for something better. The basement raised so as to include a sunk story, fig. 94, would be a great improvement, in point of convenience, and this would admit of ligliting the rooms above from two sides instead of one, fig. 95 ; because, in that case, the back kitchen and store closet would be under ground. Another mode of improving this Design would be to retain the ground-floor in its présent State, and to raise a bed-room story over it, roofing the arcade or véranda with glass, con- cealed by a parapet, and supporting the bed-room story on the innerwalls. The removal of the projection of the roof would of itself admit more light ; but when to this is added the light which will pass through the glass roof of the véranda, fig. 96, the house will be rendered habitable in any climate. In proportion as the height of the vérandas and their openings are increased, the more light will be admitted to the .Windows beneath them ; and if we imagine a véranda raised six or eight feet higher than the tops of the Windows which it pro- tects, the rooms would be as light as if there wëre no véranda at ail. In ail cases, therefore, of introducing arcades, colonnades, or vérandas, before living rooms, they ought either not to projeGt far from the walls, or to hâve their openings carried up higher than the archi- traves of the Windows. This last arrangement,' however, can very seldom be carried into effect in buildings of more than one story, without violating some principle of utility or fitness. The arches in the Design before us being somewhat higher than the Windows, a balcony might be formed over the véranda, which, by getting rid of the projection of the roof, would admit more light, and this, with a bed-room story added, would produce a good effect, fig. 97. There remains to be noticed another great defect in the expression of thisCOTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. XIV. 61 *• y.., , ■,?___________ «•COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES, 63 building as a human dwelling, and that is, the want of a porch. Independently of the addition which a porch would make to the expression of purpose, it would add to the actual comfort and propriety of the building; for, surely, there is a great inconsistency in forming so extensive a véranda, and yet leaving the steps of ascent to it not onlÿ uncovered, but without any architectural appendage to enhance their interest as a main entrance. To introduce a porch in the best manner in a building so entirely uniform, some alteration would be required in the position of the Win- dows in the ground plan, so as to admit df preserving the character of symmetry, by having a porch in tlie centre of one side, fig. 98. Were this done, the width of the piers somewhat diminished, and some- thing added to their height, the building would not onlyhave a much better effect, but become more ha- bitable, fig. 99. Edifices of this sort are much better calculated for ornamental purposes, such as a garden banqueting house; in pleasure-grounds, with a fruit and wine cellar under ; or to be placed on a rock or small island, in a lake or river, as a place to fish from under cover. Design XV.—A Dwelling for a Man and Ms Wife, without Children. 138. Accommodation. This cottage, though very small, con- tains a good many comforts and conveniences. The entrance, a, is by a lean-to at one end, which serves as a porch, and at b, may also be used as a place for fuel. There is a good kitchen, c; a pantry, d; back kitchen, e, with an oven and a flue to heat the floor of the principal kitchen ; a stair-case with a closet under,/; water-closet, g ; and place for poultry, h. The upper story contains only one bed-room, «. There is a small yard behind, k, which may contain a cow-house and a pigsty, and which must include a manure weil and dung-pit 139. Construction. The walls are here represented of rough stone plastered, and the roof as covered with Grecian or Italian tiles. The terrace is of masonry, and the chimney tops (fig. 100, on a scale of three-eighths of an inch to a foot), are of brick and cernent. The pro-64 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. jection of the roof is considérable, and it is linished with a gutter, supported by short pièces let into the wall, fig. 101, l, and by cantilevers, m. The blocks supporting the sill of the kitchen window are of stone, and so is the sill. The mili- tions which divide the window are of wood, and the casements which fit into them are hinged so as to open inwards. The Windows of the pantry and back kitchen are sash Windows. The principal objectionwhich we hâve to the construc- tion of this cottage, is the placing the fire- places in the outside walls. For cold climates, this is always with us, a very great objection ; though, as this building is in the Italian style, it may be supposed to be adopted for the south of Europe, the most Southern parts of North America, or for Australia. With a view to these countries, our objection falls to the ground ; and in truth, we hâve raised it chiefly for the purpose of showing that some objections to buildings of this description, and indeed to ail buildings, are relative. O'f positive, or absolute objections, which hâve no relation to either country, climate, or situation, we see none in this Design. It is on a dry foundation, of sufficient strength in construction, and of sufficient durability in its materials. It is securely roofed ; the rooms are sufficiently lofty, well lighted, and may be, if the occupant think fit, well ventilated. 140. Situation. This building having no Windows behind, is caleulated for being placed upon the side of a hill, and viewed from below. If surrounded by a good garden, and with no trees within a hundred yards of it higher than fruit trees, it - can hardly fail to hâve a good effect. In general, trees which stand close to any building, more especially to one of small size, should either be decidedly larger or decidedly smaller than the building itself. The chief reason for this is, that objects of the same size, or apparently so, do not co-operate well in forming a whole ; which always must consist of one principal or prominent part, and of two or more subordinate ones. 141. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 8,206 feet, at 6d., £205 : 3s. ; at 4d., £136 :15s : 4d.; and at 3rf., £102 : Ils : 6d. 142. Expression. The style at- tempted is evidently Italian; but why a déviation was made in the wings from the Italian Gothic win- dow, to the common English sash window, is not obvious. The fault is not a great one ; because so far from interfering with utility, a su- perior article is introduced instead of an inferior one. But in respect to appearance, these Windows cer- tainly diminish the force of the style. Reduced to their proper form, and a parapet added to the terrace, fig. 102, *his dwelling would produce a very good effect, and might serve for “one of those which a recent writer in the Mechanic’s Magazine, recommends to be substituted for mile-stones along the public roads of Great Britain. To the cottages so placed, he proposes to attach large gardens ; and those, with the cottage, are to serve as models for neatness and order in their appearance and management to the agricultural labourers in the vicinity. The occupier of the cottage is to sit rent-free, on condition of keepingthe sides and fences of one mile of road neat and orderly, and as firee from weeds and ail obstructions as the approach road in a gentleman’s park ; a labour which might occupy him fifty or sixty days in the year. Mech. Mag. Vol. XVI. p. 410. 102COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOÜS STYLES. 65 Design-XVI.—A Dweîling for a Man and his Wife without Children. 143. Accommodation. This building contains a commodious kitchen, twelve feet by six- teen feet ; and it has two Windows, in order to admit of a tailor or shoemaker, with his ap- prentice, carrying on work at one window, while the woman’s work is going on at the other. A large porch, a, which is lighted by a fanlight from the upper part of the doorway, forms both the entrance to the dweîling, and the passage of communication from the kitchen, b, to the bed-room, c. There is a pantry and store-closet, d, opening from the kitchen, and a light closet, e, partitioned ofF the bed-room. The privy, and other conveniences, are sup- posed to be placed at a short distance from the house, and to be concealed by bushes. 144. Situation. Tliis building, having one side with only a small window in it, may be placed against a wood, and so that the en- trance-door may front the south-east. The roof, being of thatch, indicates that it is not intended for a country subject to high winds. 145. Construction. The walls may be formed of sterne or mud ; or, in a country where bricks are abundant and cheap, they may be built hollow of brick-work (see § 25). The thatched roof will project over the walls, as shewn in the accompanying sketch, fig. 103 ; in which is shewn the rafter, f placed at an angle of 30°, and also a wooden moulding, g, under the projecting thatch. The chimney- stack consists of two circular columns with plain heads, as in the annexed drawing (fig. 104, on a scale of half an inch to a foot). 146. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 10,328 feet, at 6d., £258 : 4s. ; at 4d.f £172 : 2s : 8d, ; and at 3d., £129 : 2s. 147. The Garden contains two roods and a half, and is divided into eight compartments, with a surrounding border ; the boundary fence being a wall of mud, brick, or stone, against which may be planted fruit trees, or currants and gooseberries, according to the climate in which the design is executed. The compartment, h, is intended for a plantation of goose- berries, surrounded by a row of dwarf apples ; i, is a plantation of currants and raspberries, surrounded by a row of pears, plums, and cherries ; h, a grass plot ; /, strawberries ; m, pe- rennial spinach ; n, peas ; o, beans ; p, potatoes ; q, the cabbage tribe ; r, onions, turnips, carrots, and other surface and fusiform roots. In continuing the rotation, the compartments « and o, will, of course, be considered as one, and cropped, after (1) the leguminous vege- tables, with (2) potatoes, (3) the cabbage tribe, and (4) roots. The borders round this garden may be devoted to small crops, such as salading, annual spinach, pot-herbs, tart rhubarb, which ought never to be omitted in the cottager’s garden, a few plants of hops for their tops as asparagus, and their flowers for putting in beer, and, near the house, flowers and flowering shrubs. 148. Remarks. This Design may be con- sidered as imperfect in point of accommoda- tion, but we introduce it because there are many persons wlio may be able or willing to build such cottages for themselves or their de- pendents, who, from particular opinions or want of means, might be unable or unwilling to build a dweîling of a better description. If at any future time it were desired to enlarge this cottage, two rooms under a lean-to roof might easily be joined to the wall, s, t, which has but one small window, a communication being opened to such rooms by changing the destina- tion pf the kitchen closet. This will give the ground plan, fig. 105, which may be considered a tolerably commodious cottage ; not only two additional bed-rooms, u, v, being obtained, but • l 10466 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 105 106 i -^7 the closet, w, -as a substitute for d, in Design XVI., here, in fig. 105, turned into a passage. If it were désirable to add four rooms instead of two, a passage and staircase might be formed between the two rooms, and two bed-chambers obtained in the floor above. This might be easily effected by turning round the partition wall of w, to a line with the door of that closet, and by removing the centre division wall between u and v, to à line with the door of the right hand bed-room, v ; a space of seven feet wide would then be left in the middle for the staircase, fig. 106, x. Sup- posing the party who had made these alterations to hâve in- creased in prosperity, and to be desirous of one handsome dining-room in which to re- ceive his friends, it might readfly be attained by extend- ing the building from the ex- tremity of the staircase passage, as in fig. 107, in which a hand- some room, y, is obtained ; and over this it would be easy to form a corresponding drawing- room, or two additional bed- rooms. As it would be no longer désirable to pass through the kitchen to such apartments, a porch, z, might be added, so as to enter the dining-room and the staircase direct from the terrace or platform. The élévation, in the case of such alterations, may very properly be in a somewhat different style of building from the ori-COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 67 ginal cottage, because the builder may justly be supposed to hâve become possessed, not only of superior means, but of a higher degree of taste, or of consciousness of deficiency in tas te, and consequently hâve called in professional assistance since his former érection. But whether he employs another, or proceeds on his own opinion, he will be justified by historical truth, as well as by the natural love of mankind for variety of character, in building two different additions, at different times, in different styles, or substyles of architecture. The élévations in this case will, in our opinion, be in perfect good taste, either as in fig. 108, 110 which shows only the first addition ; or as in fig. 109, which shows the dining-room added, but not a drawing-room ; in lieu of this a fiat roof is shown, over which an awning may be placed in the summer season, a practice particularly suitable for America and Australia. For the sake of variety, we hâve shown the centre building in a different style in fig. 109 to what it is in fig. 108. We hâve also shewn in fig. 109, three descriptions of ^ terrace parapets, with three styles 'of ornamental vases; the vasès for the original cottage may be stone pots, in shape not materially dif- ferent from the common flower- pot; those for the first addition may be as in fig. 110, manufactured by Mr. Peake, of Tunstall, in Staf- fordshire, and sold at 15s. each ; and those for the second addition may be a tazza (cup) vase, like fig. 111, manufactured by the same potter, at 18s. The progressive improvement of cottages in this manner, we consider as particularly suitable for the inhabitants of new and prosperous countries. 149. Expression. The lofty proportions of the doors and Windows, and the height of the68 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. If we suppose thc walls from the platform to the roof, give a certain expression of dignity to the exterior of this dwelling which every one must feel. But this ex- pression is sadly counteracted by the mean, crouching appearance of the thatched roof, which, both as regards the material of which it is made, and the form in which it is disposed, is altogether unsuitable for the walls. In general, the truncated gable ends, such as are seen over the entrance- door, and at both ends of this cottage, convey the idea of imperfection of form, of restricted resources, and of meanness and tameness of character. pediment of the gable ends completed, even though the building continued to be covered with thatch, the effect (fig. 112) will be superior, and will leave much less to be wished for. But still the expression of a thatched cottage, as such cottages are gene- rally seen and formed in Britain, is not complété ; the walls continue to be too high, and the roof too low in the pitch, or not sufficiently steep on the sides ; that is, the proportion be- tween the walls and roof to which we are accustomed is violated. Lower the walls, and increase the surface of the roof, as in fig. 113, and the proportion is restored, the eye satisfied, and the ex- pression of a thatched cottage comparatively complété. Let it not be supposed, however, that we prefer these proportions to those given in fig. 112 with a view to the principleof use; but for the sake of maintaining the beauty of style, we would, with Windows of these proportions, introduce the Italian or Grecian roof of low pitch, similar to that of Design XV. Cottages with truncated gable ends, and with roofs, sometimes thatched and sometimes of slates, seem to be much approved of by many British architects built, but several Designs in this manner hâve been pub- lished. We hâve no doubt they pleased at the time of their first introduction, from the no- velty of the form, and they still please some ; but we doubt much if the pleasure they communicate will stand the test of time. There is scarcely any architectural land- scape painter who, if he were left to his free choice, would introduce Design XVI. into his composition in preference to fig. 113; at the same time weCOTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 69 XVI.COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 71 U i e l d .8X5 dl ii f ■ — - allow that the truncated gable ends may occasionally be introduced for the sake of variety. The same ground plan, and ge- '116 lierai proportion of the, different □ O O O O OQ parts, including the door and win- O O dows, may be easily adapted to different élévations, according to the circumstances of country, cli- mate, and locality, where it is to q be built; and the wealth, good taste, or peculiar taste of the builder. In the suburbs of a country village it may be thought ^ désirable, as amarkof distinction, to give it a highly architectural character, fig. 114; or on an ele- vated situation some might prefer finishing the walls with Gothic O II O battlements with narrow embra- QO OI, O OQ sures, fig. 115, a taste which we hâve been rather surprised to qq qq learn is not uncommon in Ame- rica. In the south of Europe, the Southern parts of the American continent, and in Australia, the great luxury of a portico might lead to a continuation of one ail. round the structure, fig. 116; the columns being either rude trunks of trees, rude blocks of stone, or worked timber, with square stone plinths as bases, and plain capitals, fig. 117. Indeed a colonnade or véranda, when it does not obstruct light or impede ventilation, is a great source of comfort and enjoyment in ail countries ; it excludes rain and cold in the north, and a burning sun in the south. Design XVII. —A Dweîling with Two Rooms and a Bed-closet, for a Man and his Wife, with an Apprentice or Servant. 150. Accommodation. Frôm the vestibule, a, a door leads to the kitchen, b, from which is partitioned off the room for the servant or apprentice, c, barely sufficient for a bed. The bed-room, d, has a dark closet, e, and a light one, /. There is a closet for fuel, g, and some use may be made of the roof, by having an opening in the ceiling, with a trap-door over the porch, and a suitable ladder as will hereafter be described. In the garden are two small yards, surrounded by fruit tree hedges ; one of which, h, is for wood, poultry, pigs, a privy, and in the centre, a tank for liquid manure ; and the other, i, isfor a drying-ground, wash-house, place for tools, &c. At a short distance from the house, is shown the situation of the spring water well and pump, h, it being never désirable to hâve this near the dung-pit, or liquid manure tank. The pump in the garden may be considered, by some, as too far from the house, but that well is supposed to be of hard water, and principally for use iii the garden. For washing, and other domestic purposes, soft water may be collected on the roof, and filtered as described under the Chapter of Model Cottages, Design I. § 31, or below, in § 151. There is a small building in the corner of the yard, i, which covers a tank for containing the filtered water, and it may be drawn to the house from that, or from any distance, by Siebe’s pump, § 33, fig. 10. Various plans for constructing such a tank may be72 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. given, but the following, by Waistell, is one of the most complété, either for a farm-house or for a substantial cottage. 151. WaistelVs Tank is circular in the ground plan, with the sides built like a well. “ The bottom should be in the form of a fiat dôme reversed, and the top also domical, with an opening left in the centre of sufficient size to admit a man to clean it out occasionally ; the top of this opening should be a little above the surface of the ground, and should be covered with an oak flap, with several holes bored in it for ventilation ; or the cover may be an iron grating, horizontal and a little elevated, or conical. These tanks may be constructed of various dimensions ; the depth and width should be nearly equal ; a hole should also be left for the service-pipe, or that which conveys the water into the tank, and also for the pipe for the pump, if the water be drawn out by that means. The water may be filtered previously to its entering the tank ; the hole for the service-pipe ought, therefore, to be near the top, and on that side most convenient for the filtering chamber ; this may be about four feet in diameter, and three feet deep ; across this, about twelve inches from the side next the tank, as at fig. 118, î, a slate partition from the top to within about six inches from the bottom should be fixed ; at the bottom of the box should be put clean coarse sand or pounded charcoal, about a foot in thickness. The pipe or opening from the filter to the réservoir should be of ample dimensions, and be made at about eighteen or twenty inches from the-bottom, in the small division or space behind the slate. Above this opening, and in any part most convenient, as at m, in the large division of the 119 filter, should be an opening or drain to carry off the water when the tank is full. This filter should also hâve a cover, that it may be cleaned out, and fresh sand, or some other purifier, put in as often as may be found requisite. Of course, the water, as it cornes from the roof, is to be first conveyed into the large division of the filtering chamber, on the opposite side to the slate partition, as at fig. 119, w, and passing through the sand it rises in the small division purified, when it is fit to pass into the tank by the tube, o. If there are two or more of these filtering chambers, or if they are of greater depth, the water may be passed through the greater quantity of sand, &c. in them, and be still more purified. Both the tanks and the filtering chambers should be water tight ; if constructed of brick, the inner course may be built in Roman cernent, and afterwards the whole of the inside covered with a coat of about three quarters of an inch thick of the same material. Water from drains formed in the ground for the purpose of collecting it for domestic pur- poses, may be purified by passing it through a sand filter previously to its entering the tank or réservoir. Sponge and flannel may also be used as filters. In constructing tanks of the above description, care must be taken to hâve the earth closely filled around the brick-work, and to allow sufficient time for the work to get properly settled previously to admitting any great weight of water. Cisterns for water formed of blue slate, or Yorkshire paving stones, are much better than those made of wood, and lined with lead.”— WaistelVs Designs for Farm Buildings. 152. The Construction of the Walls andC Roof of this dwelling is very similar to that of Design VII. The wall is carried up with a parapet or blocking course, fig. 120, p, be- hind which is the gutter, q. This gutter is usually covered with lead; but in countries like Russia, where cast-iron is abundant, it may be very conveniently formed of that métal, in connexion with the entire covering of the roof. A patent was some time ago taken out for this mode of covering roofs in England, by Carter, of Exeter, of which it may \ 121 be useful here to give the substance. 153. Carter's Cast-iron Roofs a: formed of three descriptions of cast-iron few,îi,luu"™1,m,,!""w r T" v t plates, fig. 121, r, s, t. These forms answer every purpose for fiat roofs which hâve not pavilion ends. One of them, r, is formed with three of its sides turned up and one turned down, and is called the roof plate. This plate is tapered narrower towards the lip by twiceCOTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VAEIOUS STYLES. 73 122 __ P ■ . 1 -- ■ I L_ =ÜÏ1 * i i i-r- ter i i i V PiH 123 the thickness of the plate. A second, s, is called the low ridge plate, and has two of its sides turned up, and the other two turned down. The third, t, is the high ridge, or cap plate, __ having ail its sides turned down, and formed lüL with an angle in the middle, so as to slope y each way of the roof. This roof may be made very flat, so much so, that, for a house twenty feet wide, the height of the roof in the middle need not exceed two feet. No boarding is required, but the plates, fig. 122, u, may rest without either cernent or nails, on the rafîters, v. The appear- ance may be considered massive and handsome, fig. 123; and it is évident, from the manner in / which the plates overlap each' other, as shown in figs. 123 and'-1 124, that there can be no risk of inconvenience from contraction or expansion. If a number of buildings were to be erected, it might become worth while to h^ve plates cast on purpose for hips and angles, so as to com- plété pavilion roofs on ■ ■ 124 the same principle. Probably, also, tiles, especially of the terro- metallic kind, manu- factured from a stra- tum of clay almost peculiar to Staffordshire, might be formed of the same shapes as these plates, and be found strong enough, after burning, to serve as substitutes for cast-iron. 154. The Garden contains about two roods and a half, and is divided into four large compartments, w, w, w, w, for the usual four course rotation; there are several smaller compartments, viz., x, x, for grass plats surrounded by flowers ; y, y, for strawberries î and z, z, for gooseberries, currants, and raspberries. The boundary fence is a hedge, which, in suitable climates, may be formed of figs ; in more northern latitudes, of apples, quinces, or plums ; and in cold, ex- posed situations, of sloes, elders, services, or moun- tain ash. The fruits of the sloe, and the berries of the elder, are valuable for wine, and those of the service and mountain ash afford an ex- cellent spirit. The three last named trees must never be clipped, otherwise they will produce but few blos- soms. Whenever a cot- tager has the power of choosing the sort of hedge which shall surround his garden, he may, in ail cases, if he chooses, render it productive of useful fruit ; for every climate has its fruit shrubs, and its low edible fruit-bearing trees. It must always be recollected that the ground inside of the fence being under garden cultivation, and well manured, it would be a pity to let any part of this enriched soil be exhausted by barren trees or shrubs. Eveil where a powerful fence is required, by planting a double row of hedge plants, the outer one of thorns, and the inner one of fruit shrubs, the riches of the soil will not be altogether lost. 155. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 1,089 feet, at 6d. per foot, £272: 5s. ; at 4d., £181:10s. ; and at 3d., £136 : 2s : 6d. 156. Expression. It must be confessed that this, though a substantial looking dwelliug, which promises not to be without comfort within, has nothing élégant in its appearance. If it has any character of style, it is that of the Scotch stone cottage, and it might very fitly form a pair with Design VII. What can be done to render such a cottage élégant ? A véranda might be added, more especially if it were roofed with glass, otherwise, it would darken the Windows. The chimney top might also be enriched by ornamental chimney pots. The greatest improvement would be a substantial porch, fig. 125, which would add to the h il 74 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. interîor accommodation and comfort. The véranda may be constructed of wrought iron sash 126 bars, of which fig. 126 is a section full size, eut to the proper length, the upper end let into the wall, and made secure by cernent, and the lower ends notched into a cast-iron gutter, fig. 127. The véranda may hâve an apron in front, formed of cast- iron ornaments, fig. 128, screwed to the under side of the gutter, or to the upper part of the iron props which support it, fig. 129. No simpler or more durable form of véranda can well be constructed; its roof may be glazed with panes of crown glass, from five inches to ten inches wide, according as the country is more or less subject to violent hail storms. \ /< ... v \ / country is more or less subject to violent hail storms. In those countries where there is no duty on glass, the bars may be placed a foot or more apart, and plate glass may be employed ; the panes, in that case, being from a foot to eighteen inches in breadth. Where light is not an object, and blue slate 12'8 abounds, it may be used in plates of any con- . r-, . venient size, stucco, or Roman cernent, being JJ employed instead of putty. Sheets of copper, zinc, tinned plates, or rolled iron, may be fixed in the same manner as the glass, or even tar- pauling well painted, or oil-cloth, may also be | fixed between the bars. The lightness of ap- 1 _ pearance may be increased, by bending the bars so as to give a concave form to the upper 129 surface of the roof, fig. 130 ; con- cave surfaces, whether of ground or of roofs, reflecting more light, and therefore being always lighter, or more varied to the eye, than plain or convex ones. In this, and in various other cases of a like naturè, where the width of the véranda is not more than four feet, it may be supported with cast-iron brackets of élégant architectural design, firmly built into the wall. 130 Design XVIII.—A Dwellingfor a Man and Ms Wife, without Children. 157. Accommodation. The man, in this cæse, is supposed to be a working mechanic, a shoemaker or weaver, who works at home in onè room, a, while the business of the house is carried on by his wife in the other, 6. There are two small rooms, c and d, one of which may be used as a bed-room, and the other as a store-room. In the kitchen, 6, is an oven, which will contribute materially to warm the whole house, when baking is going forward during winter ; and in summer, during the same operation, the apartment may be kept cool by opening both the Windows. There is a good closet in the work-room, a, and also in the kitchen, b, so that, on the whole, there seems something like comfort in this dwelling, pro- vided the man and his wife continue without children. In a small yard, which may be seen at e, in the plan exhibiting the garden, are contained a privy, pigsty, a place for fowls, a long narrow open shed for fuel, a manure tank and pump, and other conveniences. 158. Construction. The great art in building an economical cottage, is to employ the kind of materials and labour which are cheapest in the given locality. In almost every part of the world the cheapest article of which the walls can be made, will be found to be the earth on which the cottage stands, and to make good walls from this earth is the principal art of the rustic or primitive builder. Soils, with reference to building, may be divided into two classes : clays, loams, and ail such soils as can neither be called gravels nor sands ; and sands and gravels. The former, whether they are stiffor free, rich or poor, mixed with stones, or free from stones, may be formed into walls in one of the three modes already mentioned, viz., in the pisé manner, by lumps moulded in boxes, and by compressed blocks. Sandy and gravelly soils may always be made into excellent walls, by forming a frame of boards, leaving a space between the boards of the intended thickness of the wall, and filling this with gravel mixed with lime mortar ; or, if this cannot be got, with mortar made of clay and straw. InCOTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 75 XVIII.76 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. XIX.COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 7 7 ail cases when walls, either of this class or of the former, are built, the foundations should be of stone or brick, and they should be carried up at least a foot above the upper surface of the platform. In the course of this work, we shall describe ail the various methods of building earthern walls, and we shall here commence by giving one of the simplest modes of con- struction, from the work of a very excellent and highly estimable individual, Mr. Denson, of Waterbeach, Cambridgeshire, the author of The Peasanfs Voice, who built his own cottage in the manner described below. 159. Mode of building the Mud Walls of Cottages in Cambridgeshire. After a labourer has dug a sufficient quantity of clay for his purpose, he Works it up with straw ; he is then pro- vided with a frame eighteen inches in length, six deep, and from nine to twelve inches in diameter. In this frame he forms his lumps, in the same manner that a brickmaker forms his bricks ; they are then packed up to dry by the weather ; that done, they are fit for use, as a substitute for bricks. On laying the foundation of a cottage, a few layers of bricks are necessary, to prevent the lumps from contracting a damp from the earth. The fire-place is lined, and the oven is built with bricks. I hâve known cottagers, where they could get the grant of a piece of ground to build on for themselves, erect a cottage of this description at a cost of from <€15 to €30. I examined one that was nearly completed, of a superior order ; it contained two good lower rooms and a chamber, and was neatly thatched with straw. It is a warm, firm, and comfortable building ; far superior to the one I live in ; and my opinion is, that it will last for centuries. The lumps are laid with mortar, they are then plastered, and on the outside once rough cast, which is done by throwing a mixture of water, lime, and small stones against the walls before the plaster is dry, which gives them a very handsome appear- ance. The cottage I examined, cost €33, and took nearly one thousand lumps to complété it. I believe a labourer will make that number in two days : the roofs of cottages of this description are precisely the same as when built with bricks, or with a wooden frame. Cow- house sheds, garden walls, and partition fences, are formed with the same materials ; but in ail cases the tops are covered with straw, which the thatchers perform in a very neat manner. —Denson1 s Peasanfs Voice, p. 31. 131 160. The Roof of this cottage is shown 132 as if thatched with reeds or straw ; it pro- J jects considerably on every side, and forms T a truncated pyramid, terminating in the chimney-tops which are of stone, and of a very simple form, (fig. 131, to a scale of half an inch to a foot,) easily executed. Nearly the same form might be produced in well tempered clay, mixed with straw and gravel, and afterwards rough cast; but it is évident that it would not be so durable. When chimney-tops are formed of clay, a shape should be adopted which admits of covering them with a flag stone, or a large slate, or tiles, in the Swiss manner, fig. 132. 161. Garden. The extent is about three-fourths of an acre. There are four large compartments, f g, h, i, calculated for a four-fold succession of crops ; viz., potatoes, the leguminous tribe, the cabbage tribe, and turnips and other roots. Two small com- partments, Je and l, are devoted to currants, gooseberries, and raspberries ; and m, to straw- berries, asparagus, and sea-kale. The garden is surrounded by a wall, wûth a border for early and late crops, and for flowers. The rows of shrubs round the compartments, 7c and /, are chiefly ornamental, sucll as roses, honeysuckles, mezereons, Cydonia japonica, &c. The single fruit trees at the corners of the compartments are chiefly apples, with some pears, cherries, and plums. There is a small summer house at n, from which it may be supposed there is an extensive prospect. 162. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 11,3 €189 : 7s : 4d. ; and at 3d., €142 : Os : 6d. 163. Expression. “ I imagine,” says Newton, in his préfacé to Vitruvius, “ that every building should, by its appearance, express its destination and purpose ; and that some character should prevail therein which is suitable to, and expressive of, the particular end it is to answer. To effect this, will require the exertion of the powers of the mind; the fire of genius, and the solidity of judgment ; and without this, a composition is but a compilation of parts without meaning or end Préfacé. The dwelling now under considération can hardly be considered as having any other expression than that of the subject,/ It is a substantial Iooking cottage dwelling, without any pretensions to either elegance or beauty. K feet, at Od. per foot, €284 ; 1$. ; at 4d.78 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 164. Alterations and The first and most obvious mode of ornamenting this cottage, is by surrounding it with a véranda, either glazed, or finished with sheet- iron or coppèr ; and adding a light terrace parapet, and also chimney pots; for example, as in fig. 133. The terrace parapet may be a very simple wooden palisade, fig. 134; and both it and the véranda may be painted of a stone colour. In the suburbs of a town, we should not object to green ; but in the country there is green enough; and the colour of stone is, by contrast, a re- lief to the eye. Another, and a very simple and economical mode of conferring ornament on such a cottage, is by disguising its 134 roof .with a second roof, supported on a screen front ; both roof and screen front being formed of light trellis work, for the purpose of being covered with plants, fig. 135. The con- struction of this trellis roof will easily be understood from the section, fig. 136, in which o o represent the walls of the house, and p p the roof, while q q and r r represent the trellis roof and trellis screen. It deserves to be remarked, that the screen being at the distance of only three feet from the walls, the trellis- work, even when covered with foliage, will throw very little shade on the Windows, and therefore not materially darken thé rooms. and even to dine, or receive visiters, under the véranda of a house, its distance from the walls should be double or treble what has hitherto been shown in these cottages. At whatever distance the trellis screen and roof may be placed, they ought to be covered with végétation ; and for the in- dustrious cottager, we would recommend apples, pears, or vines, as the most profitable trees. We should even prefer elders for the roof, in climates where the apple would not ripen, rather than to cover the whole with mereîy ornamental plants, though these would do In warm countries, where it is désirable to sit,COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 79 Very well for the side screen. If heat were the great considération, no plant could answer fhe purpose better than ivy ; and it may be observed incidentally, that such a trellis-work and screen would form averyhand- some cover- ing for any building in a garden or pleasure grounds, which it might be désirable to conceal, though a great ob- jection to ail such coverings is their harbouring insects, unless birds are so abundant as to keep them under. The greatest im- provement, however, of which a cottage, such as Design XVIII. is susceptible, is by adding another story to it. This might be done in various ways ; the cheapest would be by turning the two small closets into one economical stair- case, of the kind shown in fig. 137. This description' of staircase occupies exactly one half the space of a stair- case on the ordinary plan. This may be easily con- ceived, when it is observed that every step rises twice the usual height. The space occupied by these two closets is four feet by three feet six inches, and supposing the tread or width of each step of the stair to be eight inches, and the rise eight inches, then the depth of the closet being eight feet, it will ad- mit of carrying the stair eight feet high. After this, the stair may project intO'the kitchen till it gains the height of the surface of the bed-room floor. This height is exactly eleven feet six inches from the surface of the ground . floor, none of our ceilings being lower than ten feet. If the projection of the top of the stair into the kitchen were an insuperable objection, then the bottom might either pro- ject two double steps into the bed-room below, the door shutting against the riser (perpendicular board) of the third step; or a trap stair, composed of the two lower steps, and made to fold up, might be resorted to. This practice is to be met with in France, and it is remarkable that the celebrated Jefferson, when making a tour in that country, wasso struck with the contrivance, that he made a note of it in his journal, which has since been published in his I n n n h i £ \ ■-*—^ JO 1 80 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. Vorrespondence. The élévation of this cottage, in the event of a second story being added, will admit of adopting different styles of architecture, and a variety of the décorations or features belonging to each style. The castellated Gothic may be adopted, as in fig. 138 ; the monastic Gothic, as in fig. 139 ; the Indian Gothic, the Italian style, with a campanile-like watch tower, or the Elizabethan style, fig. 140. It may appeâr improbable to some, that a person purposing to build so small a dwelling, should think of applying any of these styles to it ; but in particular situations in Britain, it is sometimes considered désirable to render such dwellings striking objects in a view ; and in America, we are informed that the proprietors in easy circumstances are commencing not only to build good, comfortable cottages, but to display architectural style in them. Sometimes, also, the object is to create particular associations. It may appear singular to a résident in Britain, that a British émigrant in Van Diemen’s Land should wish to build his dwelling in the form of an English church tower ; but, duly considered, the feeling will be found to be quite natural. The associations which an object so characteristic of British scenery and civilization is calculated to raise up in the minds of Britons, résident in far distant, and, as yet, scarcely peopled countries, surrounded by primeval forests or wastes, can hardly be conceived by those who hâve never experienced them. Design XIX.—A Dwelling of Two Rooms for a Man and his Wife without Children. 165. Accommodation. This dwelling contains what, in our opinion, ought to be the minimum of apartments for a man and his wife, without children, in any country. It is certain that, without this degree of accommodation in England, no country labourer considéra himself at ail comfortable ; and in new countries, where the first settlers are obliged to put up with huts, or log houses, if they commence with one room, they never rest satisfied till they hâve obtained, at least, two. The room, a, in this design, is supposed to be used as a kitchen, and as the place for sitting and eating in ; the bed-room is marked h ; and from the kitchen are divided off a lumber closet, /, and a pantry, e. The bed-room has, in like manner, separated from it by partitions, two closets, c and d ; one of which may be used as a store-room, and the other may serve as a place for clothes. The size of ail these apartments is comparatively small ; but they are ail well lighted, and ten feet high from the floor to the ceiling. The privy, dung-pit, and manure tank, to this dwelling, are supposed to be placed at a short distance from it outside the garden ; in our opinion, not the best arrangement, but in some particular situations unavoidable. The well for water is also supposed to be placed outside the garden, but in an opposite direction to, or at ail events, at some distance from, the tank for manure. 166. Situation. This building is well calculated for being placed on the summit of a gentle élévation, in a situation where it will be seen from ail sides. The reasons why it is suitable for this purpose, are, first and chiefly, the nearly cubical form of the building, which, from whatever point it is viewed, has a massive, substantial, and secure appearance ; secondly, from the chimney being in the centre of the roof, thus giving an expression of symmetry, or of a whole, of which the chimney top is the finishing part ; and tliirdly, from the number of openings being the same on every si de ; for though these openings are irregu- lar in size, yet they are regular in number, and mere regularity, though a minor beauty, has the ad- vantage of being recog- nised and acknowledged by ordinary minds, while, at the same time, it is al- ways more or less satis- factory to those even of the most refined taste. When we add to these particulars, the effect of the elevated platform on which the cottage stands, it being placed on the flattened summit of a knoll, and forming, as it were, an architectural plinth to this little cottage castle, it will not be denied that the resuit .will be a some what dignified, though formai expression of purpose. One conspicuous faultCOTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 81 in the élévation of this cottage is, that the chimney stack lises from the roof without any préparation, and is far from being sufüciently high. Were this feature properly altered, the effect would be very different, fig. 141. 167. Aspect. Much of the comfort enjoyed by the inhabitants of every dwelling will dé- pend on the aspect of the Windows. Where a house has only Windows on one side, as we hâve before observed, (§ 24) the best aspect is the south-east, on account of the greater mildness of the wind from that quarter, the infrequency of south-easterly storms, and the cheerfulness of the morning sun. The least désirable aspect for a house having the Windows and the door ail on one side, is the north ; because at such Windows the sun will only enter during a few mornings and evenings before and after midsuramer : the next worst aspect is, perhaps, the south-west ; because the winds from that quarter are frequently boisterous, and are almost always accompanied with rain. If the entrance is unavoidably on the south-west side, then the door should be protected by a close porch, having its door opening to the south; if on the north-west or north-east, the entrance should be similarly protected by porches, having their doors opening to the west or east. 168. Construction. The walls are supposed to be of stone, and the roof to be covered with Tuscan or Grecian tiles (figs. 23 and 24, § 50). The Windows are surrounded by what are commonly called facings, that is by architraves without mouldings ; and the sills are sup- ported by small blocks. The window frames may each be in three parts, opening inwards, with bold perpendicular astragals (from astragalus, the ankle bone ; a bar with a round moulding resembling the end of that bone), and lighter horizontal ones. The chimney top may be covered by two pièces of flag-stone, or two large slates, each chimney flue having Aiie eiiu ui ; i, on which 'N fters, l, rest, [[ two holes on the sides of the stack for the smoke to escape. The water which falls on the roof, is collected by a gutter, formed in the manner shown by fig. 142, g, which gutter ought to be lined with lead ; beneath this is the cantilever, h. The end of : the wall plate is shown at i, the binders, Je, of the rafters, and to which they are fitted. The poleplate, m, is for the purpose of supporting the rafters. 169. General Estimate. Cubic _____________ contents, 8,316 feet, at 6d. per foot, £207 : 18s. ; at 4d., i0138:12s* ; and at 3ûf., ^103 : 19s. 170. The Garden contains three roods. We hâve shown the house placed in the middle of a garden, and this garden is divided into seven compartments. The two small ones on the entrance front of the house, w, w, may be devoted to flowers, and herbs for seasoning, with a few rhubarb plants for tarts, and one or two hops. These compartments may be surrounded by a line of gooseberries, currants, raspberries, roses, and other useful and ornamental shrubs, three or four feet apart. The compartment, o, behind the house, is shown in three equal divisions, and is supposed to be cropped with strawberries, for the sake of selling the fruit. The remaining four compartments, p, q, r, s, two on each side of the house, will stand thus : — (1) potatoes ; (2) peas, beans, kidney beans, and other leguminous crops ; (3) the cabbage tribe ; and (4) turnips, carrots, parsnips, onions, and other root crops. These crops may suc- ceed each other in the above order in every compartment, and the rotation may thus go on for ever. The dung should be appiiedwith the first and third crops. The surrounding hedge may be of plums or sloes, pruned, but not clipped, in order that the plants may produee fruit for sale, for tarts, or for wine. The fruit trees shown at the corners of the compart- ments may be chiefly apples, with one or two pears and cherries. The privy, dung-pit, and well, already noticed, are supposed to be exterior to the garden in the fuel plantation, and therefore are not shown in the plan. 171. Remaries. On examining this dwelling, we find that though it is déficient in point of comfort, from having the privy at a distance, it is convenient in respect to in-door enjoy- ments, from having four light closets in addition to the two apartments which constitute the main part of the dwelling. It must not be forgotten, however, that the living-room, a, must also be used as a wash-house, and back kitchen ; and that the room, 6, having a bed in it, can never be considered, by an English labourer, as a comfortable sitting-room. Nothing, indeed, short of three rooms, viz., a kitchen, back kitchen, and bed-room, can be deemed sufficient for the comfort of even a labourer and his wife without children. We know a case in which a cobbler and his wife lived in such a cottage as that represented in the présent Design, and82 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. both these persons being under the usual sizè, they put a bed in the cldset, /, and used the room, b, as the cobbler’s work-room, for which, being lighted from two sides, it was very wel. adapted ; but this is what is called, in Eng- 143 élévation of this cottage than mere expression of the subject. The blocks or dentils under the window sills, the projecting roof, and its tiles, the cover to the chimney top, the general form of the Windows, and the arched head of the doorway, show something like an at- tempt at architectural style. What, then, is the style at- tempted? Those who hâve viewed the buildings of ail the countries of Europe with an architectural eye, or those who hâve studied the cottage build- ings in the pictures of the Italian landscape painters, will best be able to détermine this question. Ail will agréé that it seems to belong to the Italian Style. This style, as it is called, though in reality it is only a substyle or manner, is founded on the Roman variety of Grecian architecture, with some forms, dispositions, and ornaments belonging to the castel- lated Gothic, but is by no means definite in its characteristics. In build- ings of the humblest class, it may be described as characterised by fiat and far projecting roofs, mas- sive walls, and Windows broad rather than deep, which are generally car- ried up close to the eaves, in order to be shaded, as much as possible, from the sun. In adapting the Italian style to England, this last characteristic is generally somewhat mo- dified, as in this Design ; indeed no characteristic of any style or manner ought to be servilely imitated, when that imitation would prove inconsistent with utility or convenience. When ©ne âge orcountry borrows the architecture of any other, it must be modified in such aCOTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 83 manner as to suit the new locality to which shown in effecting this modification in the spirit of the original style. 173. Ornament or Variation. A véranda, and a common Italian parapet, would serve to decorate this Design, fig. 144 ; while, if it were désirable to adapt a different élévation to the same plan, any of the Gothic styles indicated in figs. 138, 139, and 140, § 164, might be adopted ,* or recourse might be had to the Indian Gothic, fig. 145. The Italian parapet is formed by tiles of any kind, but not it is applied; and the hand of the master îs 147 148 KKKKrQQ up between piers, as in figs. 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, and 152. It is easy to conceive that numerous other variations of the same kind may be made in the same manner, by tiles of these and of other kinds, with or without the aid of bricks and paving tiles. A very hand- 154 fl. flflflflflflOOflflfl-0 fl.flfl fl.fl fl some parapet may be made by using small hollow draining tiles or tubes as balusters. To the Indian cottage, fig. 145, parapets may be contrived of appropriate Indian forms, figs. 153 and 154. Design XX.—A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife with Childrent and having a Cow-house Pigsty, 8fc. attached. 174. Accommodation. The ground plan consists of an entrance, a; kitchen, b; bed- closet, c ; wash-house, d ; bed-room, e ; dairy, /; linen cïoset, g ; pigsty, h ; privy, i ; pantry, k ; and cow-house or wood-house, l. In the roof, there is one large bed-room, which may be seen in the section A, B ; it is lighted from one end, but can only be ascended to by means of a ladder through the trap-door in the ceiling of the entrance lobby, a. A hen- house might be formed over the piggery or the cow-house ; and rabbits, in hutches, might be kept in the latter building. 175. Construction. The inner walls are supposed to be of rubble stone, as being the cheapest material in the given locality ; the outer walls are of brick, and hollow ; the roof is thatched. The three-quarter columns shown in the front élévation, are supposed to be of wood ; and the manner in which they are attached to the walls may be seen in fig. 155, which is a section through the lean-to from back to front 176. General Éstimate. Cubic contents, 11,142 feet, at 6d. per foot, £278:115. ; at 4d., £185:145. ; and at 3d., £189: 5s : 6d. 177. Expression. To the eye which looks only at picturesque effect, this cottage will not'84 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. be unpleasing ; but strictly examined on scientific prînciples, it is full of faults. The three- quarter columns, supporting nothing but thatch, are absurdities : they are of no use as piers, because the wall is strong7 enougb without them ; and they are the more superfluous, because they are attached to the walls at the angles, which, as we hâve before shown (§74), are the strongest parts of the wall. A column is the noblest member of the architectural body, because iteffects, of itself, and in a simple and striking manner, by one bold * and independent form, what could otherwise be only effected by a great nunfber of petty details of masonry or carpentry. As a support, it may be substituted for a wall ; as a monument, it will serve the purpose of either a cône, a pyramid, or a tower ; and placed horizontally over an opening, in the form of a beam, it takes the place of an arch. Of what other architectural member can so much be said ? A column may be considered in architecture what a timber tree is in the vegetable kingdom; the first is one of the grandest objects of architectural art, and the second, one of the most imposing in the vegetable création. It is the part of correct judgment always to adjust the means employed 156 to the end to be attained ; and in attempting to gain any end, never to call forth more energy than the occa- sion requires. When a wall is employed to support a roof, no wise architect will ever join columns to this wall ; since, from what has been said of the uses of columns, it must be clear that, to place them there, would, in point of utility, be a mere waste of strength; and in point of order and beauty, it would be to de- grade their character. To see a column miàapplied in a building, is as offensive to a correct architectural eye, as it is to a well regulated mind to see misapplied wealth or power in the common affairs of life. Had there been an architrave of any sort over the capitals of the columns in the front of Design XX. they would hâve had some pretensions to fitness, by appearing to support it, and having thereby an air of completeness ; but merely set against the wall without any conspicuous superin- cumbent member of the roof, and immediately under the projecting thatch, they show an apparent disre- gard, not only of the prin- ciple of utility, but of that of congruity. A second fault is the placing of two false Windows in the wings, which, in the élévation, are so shaded that it is impossible to detect them as such. This, in a drawing, isCOTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 85 xx.86 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. XXI.COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 87 liable to be considered as a déception practised on the inexperienced eye, and an architect might thereby mislead his employer. Perhaps the architect may say that he intends glass to be put in these Windows, in which case they would not be distinguishable from real ones, either in the drawing, or in the reality. If so, our objections are less strong; but still we disapprove of the expense of false Windows in such a building as a cottage. A third objection to this dwelling is, that sufficient conséquence is not given to the entrance. So large a cottage, and one of so much pretension, ought surely not to be entered as it were by stealth. One other objection*, and we hâve done :—the window in the roof is too low, and not fit for ventilating suffieiently, so large a room as the one it opens into. 178. Improvement. We would remove the three-quarter columns and the false Windows ; place a porch over the main door, fig. 156, m, and extend the roof of the back kitchen in such a manner as to form a covered area for drying clothes, fig. 156, n, which might also serve as a play-ground for children, or, in hot countries, for occasionally dining under. We would also enlarge and raise the window in the roof, because there can be no perfect ventilation unless Windows reach nearly to the ceiling. This done, the ground plan would be as in fig. 156, and the élévation (chimney pots and a terrace parapet being added), as in fig. 157. Design XXI.—A Dwelling for a Man and Ms Wife, without Children. 179. Accommodation. We hâve here, in a compact form, and under a pavillion roof, a dwelling of the humblest class ; very well calculated for two persons, but not for more. It contains a kitchen, a, in which is an oven ; a bed-room, b ; two light closets from the bed-room, c and d; and two from the kitchen, e and f In this, as in most of the preceding Designs, some accommodation for lumber may be obtained in the roof, to which there should be an opening in the ceiling, closed by a door, with a hinged ladder, for ascent and descent. This ladder when not in üse, is easily kept suspended to the ceiling, by a hook at one end. By substituting hooks and Staples, as in fig. 158, for hinges, the ladder may be taken off at pleasure, and used for other purposes. The cow-house and yard, g ; and the pigsty, poultry-house, place between them for fuely liquid manure tank, and privy, h, are supposed to be placed in the garden. 180. Construction. The walls may be of earth, rough stone, or whatever may be the cheapest material in the particular locality. If they are built of brick, they should be made hollow, either according to the method already mentioned (§ 25), or according to that of Silverlock or of Dearn ; both of which will be afterwards described. The roof in this dwelling is shown as covered with large slates. No gutter is added round the eaves, fig. 159, in this, as in many other of the Designs ; because this essential accompaniment is of the same form in most buildings of the cottage kind, and is easily added, either as a tinned, copper, zinc, or cast-iron half cylinder. The most durable, the most convenient, and, ultimately, the cheapest gutter, is a segment of a hollow cast-iron pipe, fig. 160; supported by |0Q iron brackets, fig. 161. The brackets are nailed to the face of the eaves, as at fig. 159, k, and hâve sometimes rivetted to them tinned iron straps, fig. 162, Z, the ends of which are folded over the gutter, to hold it in its place. Each length of gutter overlaps the other ; and when the slope, for giving a current to the water, is less than one inch in a yard, the one piece. of gutter is bedded on the other in putty, or in white lead. If the water is not to be preserved for use, it may be conducted to a drain, by an upright pipe or tube, in one or two places (§ 84, figs. 60 and 61); but, if it is to be collected for filtration, the slope of the guttering, on ail the sides of the house, ought to be directed to one point, where a descending tube should conduct the water to a réceiving tank (see § 31). L 16188 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 181. The Garden has four main coippartments, m, ri, o, and p, for the usual four year rotation of kitchen crops ; two small compartments, q, q, supposed to be used, the one, as a yard for faggot wood, &c., and the other as a rick-yard ; and four small compartments, r, s, t, and u, for fruits, shrubs, and flowers. * 182. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 11,178 feet, at 6d. per foot, £279:9s.; at Ad., £186: 6s. ; and at 3d., £139:14s : 6d. 183. Expression. This Design, like the preceding one, aims at nothing more thàn the expression of the subject. To both, might be given a character of elegance, as well as a solid addition in point of comfort, by a srurrounding véranda. To fit both these Designs for receiving this addition, the tops of the Windows are kept two or three feet under the eaves. If the véranda were formed with an opaque roof, it would merely serve as a shelter, and ia cover under which to dry clothes, seeds, Indian corn, and tobacco, and to work or walk under in rainy weather ; but, if the roof were glazed, with a trellis under it, grapes and peaches might be grown ail round the house (the diagonal of the square being a north and south line), and ail the former advantages obtained in equal perfection. The architectural beauty of this Design, as well as its internai convenience, might be greatly heightened by a judicious porch, and by a window in the roof over the entrance door ; but these improve- ments we leave to be contrived by our readers ; requesting them to take out their pencils and make the attempt; and assuring them, that nothing will contribute more to their improvement, as architectural designers. Design XXII.—A Dwelling for a Gardener, or other Servant, on a Gentleman!s Estate, who has a Wife, but no Children. 184. The Accommodation of this cottage consists of a lobby, a ; a small kitchen, b, with an oven ; a light closet from the kitchen, c ; and a bed-room, d, with a small light closet, e, which may be used as the gardener’s library. This closet will be kept sufficiently dry and warm by its proximity to the oven. From the lobby, is portioned off a small closet for fuel, /. 185. Construction. The walls are supposed to be of common brick, or of flints, with pîers and coins, in the form of pilasters, built of brick, of a superior description ; or, if brick should not be the material employed, the plain part of the walls may be composed of rubble stone, or random jointed ashlar work (free stone, rough as it cornes from the quarry, laid in irregular courses), and the pilasters of tooled stone. The plain parts of the walls may also be of earth, and the pilasters of brick or stone ; or both the plain parts and pilasters may be built of earth ; the former being rough cast, and the latter covered with cernent, scored (lined) in imitation of stone, and lime-whited. The roof is framed at a low pitch (low angle of the sides), and covered with Italian semi-cylindrical tiles, fig. 163, in the manner practised in the neigh- bourhood of Florence, fig. 164. The chimney top, fig. 165, oii a scale of half an inch to a foot, is built with a far projecting cornice, supported by blocks, with intervals between, suitable for swallows’ nests. The Windows would hâve been more in character with this manner of building, obviously somewhat Italian, if they had been formed of two frames, lengthways, the whole height of the window, and hinged at the sides, so as to open inwardly ; but the comfort of a sash window to a poor man, in a cold climate like that of Britairi, is so great, that the British architect may well feel justified in adopting it in preference to the Italian form. In a building of a higher class, or for a warmer country, we should, probably, not so easily hâve formed an excuse for him, because there is a real advantage in being able to throw open the entire space occupied by the window ; and this never can ] 65 be done in the case of suspended sash-windows, where no more can be opened than one-half. 186. Situation. If this dwelling be erected for a gardener, it should, of course, be placed near the garden; and, if the health of the gardener, or that of his wife, be any object to the proprietor, it ought to be in a dry, open, airy situation ; and not placed, as such houses very frequently are in Britain, among dug ground, thickly planted with trees and shrubs, where there can be neither good90 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. XXIII.COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 91 air, nor a free circulation of such air as there is. This Design is also well adaptèd for a lodge, and is worthy of being exposed to view on three sides, instead of being almost entirely covered with végétation. The practice of almost entirely covering buildings in the country with creepers, can, by no means, be considered as in good taste : a few may be trained up a plain building, or a ruin; but to cover a handsome piece of architecture in this way, is to defeat the very intention for which that architecture was produced. In the country, ail is végétation : what beauty, therefore, can be expected from clothing with foliage an object, which, to produce any effect at ail, must operate bycontrast? In the town, ail is archi- tecture ; and there, the introduction of végétation of any kind on a building, can, in point of effect, hardly be carried too far. In the country, the white or grey walls of the plainest cottage, are a relief to the eye from the eternal monotony of green, by which such cottages are generally surrounded. In addition to this, it should never be forgotten that ail végétation near a house, especially that of deciduous plants, encourages damp and insects. 187. Garden. We hâve added a garden, on the supposition that this Design might be thought worth adoption, as a gâte lodge, or by an independent labourer, or small farmer without children. We hâve shown in it a building, and yard, for two cows and two horses, g ; and another yard with a privy, a place for pigs, another for poultry, and a third between them for wood, h. It is of great conséquence that the floors of these buildings should be raised at least One foot above the surface of the yard, and that their walls should be of such a thickness as to ensure warmth to the animais. The necessity and advantage of this will appear in Book II. There are several small borders $»d angles, round the house and beneath its terrace or platform, which are supposed to be devoted to flowers and ornamental plants. There are two compartments', i and Je, which, in the case of horses or cows being kept, might be devoted to lucerne, saintfoin, Hemerocâllis, (see Gard. Mag. Vol. V. p. 451,) Symphytum, or some other perennial forage plant, according to the soil ; in order that they may always afford food at a short notice, when it may be inconvénient to send to a greater distance. To a family of two persons without a servant, in Britain, and to small farmers in America and Australia, where servants or helpers, are scarcely to be got at any price, arrangements of this sort should always be kept in view. The four compartments, l, lf and 166 uè m, m, may be used as a kitchen garden ; and the four larger compartments, n, o,p, q, for growing corn crops. But if the garden is supposed to be on a smaller scale, and to contain only a quarter of an acre, instead of five acres, then these four large compartments may be devoted to the usual rotation of culinary vegetables ; and the four smaller ones to a grass- plot for drying clothes, and to strawberries ; either, or both. The two compartments, r and s, may serve for gooseberries, currants, and raspberries ; fruits that ought to be in every cottage garden, where the climate is suitable for them. 188. Informing Grass-plots for drying Clothes, where ap- pearance is an object, there ought always to be tubes built in or inserted in the ground, for the purpose of holding the posts, to which lines, for hanging the clothes on, are attached. These tubes, fig. 166, are generally about eighteen inches long and four inches wide inside at top, and three inches at bottom, with a plug, t, to cover each when its post is taken out and laid in the dry. Posts for being so used hâve a shoulder at their lower end, fig. 167, m, for pre- venting them from being wedged too firmly into the receiving box. The top of such a line post has generally two pins, v, passed through it in opposite directions, for the purpose of fastening the lines. In some situations, instead of moveable posts, the lines may be tied to fixed posts, ornamented by creepers ; or to trees with narrow heads, such as the Lombardy poplar ; or for some description of clothes, cords may be stretched under the far projecting eaves of the roof ail round the house. One end of the cord in this case is fixed, and the other passes over a pulley, and is made fast to a hook in the wall. The advantage of passing a cord over a pulley, fig. 168, w, is, that the line may be lowered to receive the articles to be dried» and then hoisted up again. This mode of drying clothes is very common in Germany92 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. and Switzerland, and has the advantage of never exposing the clothes to perpendicular rain ; with the disadvantage of running the risk of having the larger articles blown against the wall, and dirted and discoloured, in windy weather. Where very long lines are stretched from tree to tree, it is customary to support the line in the middle, or in one or two places by a prop, forked at one end, figs. 169, or 170; the weight of the clothes keeps these props steady. The clothes are kept fast on the lines by what are called clothes’ pegs. These are commonly formed of a piece of cleft wood, held together by a fillet of tinned iron; but an élégant improvement on them has lately been made by Mr. Stenning, of Haslemere, under the direction of our highly talented contributor, Mr. Perry, of Godalming, fig. 171, by which the fillet of tin is rendered unnecessary, and ail risk of iron-mould on the linen avoided. 189. General Estimate, Cubic contents, 9,828 feet, at 6d. per foot, £245:14s. ; at 4d., £163:16s. ; and at 3c?., ^0122:17s. 190. Expression. It is clear that something more is intended in this élévation than mere expression of purpose; else why the pilasters, the far projecting roof with its cantilevers, the semi-cylindrical tiles, and the swallow corniced chimney top ? The manner intended to be expressed is evidently of the Italian kind, which is only diminished a little by the English sash window. If it were desired to decorate this cottage, it might be done by placing four ornamental tulip-shaped chimney pots, fig. 172, on the chimney tops, raising a low wall or parapet in the Italian manner, in bricks and tiles, at a very trifling expense, round the outer margin of the platform ; and placing vases in harmony with the chimney pots, at the corners. An ornamental water-gutter, lig. 173, ought also to be used instead of a plain one. The dwelling might then be said to be in the enriched Italian style, and if no more trees were placed round it than what are shown in the ground plan of the garden, it could hardly fail to look well from every point of view. We leave our readers to embody these ideas in geo- 2 metrical and per- a n n spective sketches of their own ; and we may further suggest that by increasing the width of the ter- race and véranda, and adding a second story, a very handsome élévation, and a tolerably comfortable habitation (the walls still of earth), might be produced. The Italian manner of building cottages must naturally hâve more charms for such as hâve been in Italy, or are conversant with the works of the great painters of that country, than for those who hâve never travelled, or paid much attention to prints or paintings ; but even to such persons an Italian cottage may please, when first erected, from its novelty ; and afterwards, this satisfaction may be con- tinued on the principle of contrast, or the différence between such a cottage and the generality of cottages in the neighbourhood. It is évident, however, that the great beauty of an Italian cottage, that in which the imagination is engaged, can only be fully realized by those minds in which it will call up associations connected with Italy. An old English cottage has this great beauty to every Englishman, educated or uneducated, that, in addition to ail its comforts and conveniences, it operajtes upon his imagination, and recals to mind a thousand associations connectéd with his earlier years, with his parents, his kindred, his school companions, and, in short, with ail the vivid feelings of his youth. It ought to be the business of the young architect, therefore, not only to inform himself on ail that relates to actual fitness in a building, and to whatever contributes to the expression of purpose, but to those circùmstances, in style, which are calculated to operate on the imagination. For this purpose, we recommend to him the careful and repeated perusal of Allison's Essays on Tasie, Wood’s Letters of an Architectt and Dugald Stewart s Philosophical Essays LÀCOTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 93 Design XXIII.—A Dwelling of One Story,for a Man and Ms Wife with a Family of CMldren ; having a Cow-house and Pigsty attached. 191. Accommodation. The plan consists of a long broad portico, a, well adapted for drying clothes under, and protecting the children from the sun or rain while at play ; an en- trance lobby, b ; a kitchen, c ; a wash-house, d ; three bed-rooms, e, /, and g ; a pantry, h ; dairy, i ; store-closet, k; pigsty, l ; privy, m; cow-house, »; and open shed for fuel, o. 192. Construction. The walls may be of earth ; the props of the portico, and of the open shed, trunks of trees with their bark on ; the roof is thatched with reeds, heath, straw, or the shavings and dressings of barrel hoops, made from green rods, as practised in various parts of England. In countries where timber is very abundant, and other materials dear, the roof may be covered^ with shingles ; but materials s o liable to be con- sumed by fire, should never be employed if it can L be avoided. The rustic columns may be placed on stone plinths, and hâve square wooden caps, fig. 174, p. In a country having a long winter, and liable to heavy falls of snow, it might be dé- sirable to hâve the roof of such a cottage con- siderably steeper ; because the melting of snow on fiat roofs, or even any roofs which are under an angle, or pitch, as the technical term is, of 45°, is generally attended by water penetrating to the interior. Thatched roofs in snowy countries, unless very steep, are of particularly short duration ; and the same may be said of roofs covered with bark, heath, moss, ferns, or spray. These kinds of roof occur often in Sweden and Norway, but they are never resorted to when the builder can afford slate, or fiat stone, or iron. One of the best modes of con- structing fiat roofs in a country liable to heavy falls of snow, would be to employ fiat brick arches, tying the abutments together with wrought-iron rods, in the manner which will be afterwards mentioned. In Italy, and in other countries where stucco, puzzulano earth, or any other cernent is abundant and cheap, fiat roofs are not uncommon. The joists, or rafters, are first covered with boards, then with tiles, or sometimes with reeds ; and after- wards, first with a coat of stucco, mixed with gravel, or very coarse sand ; and, lastly, with a finishing coat of finer material. 193. General Estimate. Cubic contents 14,622 feet, at 6<2. per foot, £365 :11$. ; at 4d.f £243:14^. ; and at 3d., £182:15$ : 6d. 194. Expression. This cottage prétends to no- thing more than what it is ; a simple, humble dwelling, but not with- out comfort In a cold country, we should pro- pose to heat ail the floors by flues conducted from one fireplace in the back kitchen, d; thereby rendering the dwelling, at a mere trifle of expense and trouble, as comfortable as even a first-rate mansion could possibly be (see § 34). This would also greatly diminish the expense of fuel, the labour attendant on keeping up fires, and that of cleaning fireplaces. As a finish to this cottage, the platform may be bordeved with a neat hedge of box, or furze, or butcher’s broom, or an ivied trellis ; or by a rustic fence, com- posed of the trunks of small pine or fir trees, driven into the ground at equal distances, sawn evenly over at the height of two feet and a half, and finished with a horizontal railing of the san>e material, or of worked timber painted, fig. 175, to a scale of a quarter of an inch to a foot. Ornamentàl urn chimney pots, fig. 176, and one or two creepers, would complété ail the ornaments proper for such a cottage.94 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE Design XXIV.—A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife without Children, having Two Rooms and other conveniences. 195. Accommodation. For a small family this may be considered a comfortable cottage. It contains a porch, within which is a lobby, a ; kitchen, b ; bed-room, c; store-closet, d ; back kitchen, from which the whole house may be heated, e ; pantry, /; dairy, g ; privy, h ; root cellar, i ; and wood-house, k. 196. Construction. The walls 1: 177 f\J K-SL l may be of earth, or of any other convenient material ; the roof we hâve supposed to be 178 “L/^ slated, and the gutter is not shown. The Windows are in the French manner; that is, opening in the middle from top to bottom, and to render the junction as much as pos- sible air tight, the styles, fig. 177, half the full size, are made to fit into each other in the manner shown at l. In this, as in every case where the house is built of mud, or compressed earth, the chimney tops are supposed to be of stone, brick, or other material which will endure exposure to ail weathers. 'We hâve said little hitherto of internai finishing ; but we would not on that account hâve any cottage without some sort of comice, both to its living- rooms and sleeping-rooms. Ornament enhances comfort, and tends to refine the mind. For this cottage, which is somewhat in the Italian manner, fig. 178, to the scale of two inches and a half to a foot, may serve as the section of a comice for the living-rooms, and fig. 179, to the same scale, for the bed-rooms. 197. General Estimate. Cubic contents 10,920 feet,at Gd. per foot, £273 ; at 4^., £182 ; and at 3d., £136:10s. 198. Expression. Something more than a common cottage dwelling is here intended ; but there are, in our eyes, two conspicuous faults ; the first is the hipped or rather trun- cated angle of the pediment roof ; and the second* the want of height and boldness in the chimney tops. These defects supplied, and a window added to show that some use was made of the garret, with a véranda and parapet or balustrade, the effect to us would be satisfactory. We again recom- mend our readers to attempt to realize these improvements on paper. The benefit they will dérivé from so doing, is far greater than may at first sight appear. The irtere cir- cumstance of familiarizing the mind with orderly arrangement, regular figures, symmetry, means adapted to the end in view, either in buildings, in furniture, or in gardens, must hâve an influence on conduct. Order is the fondamental principle of ail morals ; for what is immorality but a disturbance of the order of civilized society, a disturbance of the relations between man andman ? We do not say that ail kinds of drawing hâve a tendency to pro- duce an orderly mind, but we do aflirm that architectural drawing has that tendency in an eminent degree. Carpenters and stone-masons aye a superior class of mechanics in ail cuuntries. 17996 COTTAGE, FARM, AND. VILLA ARCHITECTURE. XXV.COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARLOUS STYLES. 97 Design XXV.—A Dwellingfora Working Man with a Family of Children. 199. Accommodation. The ground plan exhibits a porch, a ; staircase and passage, b ; kitchen, c; closet under the stair, d; back kitchen, e ; sitting-room, with small closet,/; 180 TZL_ V privy, g; and wood-house, h. The chamber floor con- tains a bed-room, i; closet, k ; another closet, l; a bed- room, m ; two closets, n and o ; and the staircase and landing, p. The defect in the accommodation here, is the want of a proper pantry ; but this might be easily obtained by enlarging h, turning its présent door into a window, and opening a door to it from the kitchen. A substitute for h, may be provided adjoining g. 200. Construction. This cottage, its designer observes, “ may be built of brick stud- work, plastered outside, the roof to bethatchedwith reeds or straw. The entrance is to hâve a ledged door, and the Windows are to be filled in with lattice-work, having oak mul- lions, or mullions of other timber, painted in imita- tion ofstone. The rabbet heads of the Windows, fig. 180, q, to be back filled, (to project beyond the wall, in the manner of archi- traves, butwithout mouldings, as at r).” The chimney stacks to be form- ed of, or orna- mented with, Roman cernent, working drawing, fig. 181, made to a scale of half an inch to a j foot, in which s, s, are I the barge boards, and j t, the pendant. Fig. ! 182, shows a section of a suitable cornice for the living-rooms ; and fig. 183, one in the same style for the bed-rooms ; both these sections are to a scale ! of two inches and a half to a foot. 20L General Estimate. Cubic contents, 10,904 feet, at 6d. per foot, £272: 6s. ; at 4d., £181:10s : 8d. ; and &t3d.,£l36:3s. 202. The Expression is evidently that of an old English cottage. We shouldhave preferred the chamber Windows in the ends, which would hâve been less picturesque in effect, but cheaper to execute, and much easier to keep in repairi We should also prefer the ground floor Windows to hâve six large panes in each frame, rather than to hâve them filled in with lattice-work. This done, and the alteration made in the accommodation, which we hâve suggested, § 199, a parapet on the platform and pinnacles over the pendants, are ail that are wanting to render this Design very much to our taste. The barge boards and the pendants to be finished as in the 182 ~Ly^v 18398 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. Design XXVI.—A Cottage Dwelling in the German Swiss Style for a Man and his Family, with accommodation for two Horses and a Cow. 203. Accommodation. This description of dwelling is common in the northern parts of the continent of Europe, and also in Switzerland. To economize heat, no less than to save expense in the first érection, the apartments for the domestic animais, and the places for carts, ploughs, and other country machines and implements, are ail contained under the same roof. The occupier of such a dwelling is commonly a very small farmer, who joins to this occupation some description of trade or commerce ; such as a carrier, coacR-driver, jobber in cattle, fisherman, hunter, &c. There is a great objection to having cattle and horses under the same roof with living rooms for human beings, on account of the smells and insects generated by the former; but it must be recollected that in the warm season, the cattle are seldom in the house, and that during winter in the North of Europe, the great difficulty in human dwellings is to maintain heat. We hâve lodged in various dwellings of this descrip- tion, from Stockholm to Naples, both in summer and winter, and cannot recollect that we ever felt much inconvenience from smells, but certainly some from insects. We do not, however, recommend this Design, where the expense of erecting the offices apart from the dwellings is not an object.—In the ground plan of this building, we hâve a place for a cart, waggon, or other carriage, and for ploughs and other implements of agriculture or trade, a ; a three-stalled stable for two horses and a cow, b ; a back kitchen, c ; a privy, d ; and a pigsty, e. On the principal floor, we hâve an entrance under a porch, ascended to by an exterior stair, f ; a sitting-room, g ; pantry, h ; light closet, i ; kitchen, Je ; closet under the stairs, l ; bed-room stairs, m ; and three balconies, ra, n, n. The chamber floor consists of two bed-rooms, and two bed-closëts. 204. Construction. The foundations, and the first story, as high as the floor of the living-rooms, are supposed to be built of stone, or brick with rusticated stone corners ; the upper part of the building is en- tirely of timber. The roof is shown as covered with thatch, and without gutters. In Switzerland, where timber is abundant, and labour not high, the railing for the stairs and balconies of such a building is commonly massive, and very curiously carved. We hâve given a specimen, fig. 184, on a scale of half an inch to a foot, of a suitable railing to such a balcony. 205. Situation. Were such a building to be erected in England, it could only be for the sake of its character, and therefore the proper situation for it would be in a romantic, woody vale, glen, or dingle, like those of the South of Germany, and especially the valley of Kinzigthal, from a cottage in which, engraved and published, the idea of the présent Design is taken. There are many situations in Wales, and in the West of England, and some in Scotland, where the appearance of such a cottage would raise up interesting associations in the mind of a continental traveller, and would fill the stationarv inhabitants with surprise, and by exciting inquiry, might lead | to the improvement of their taste. We are naturally indifferent “ about what we do not understand ; but the moment we begin to hâve a knowledge of any subject, we take an interest in it, which incites us to further inquiry, and ultimately brings us to an acquaintance with what is right or wrong, beautiful or deformed. To teach men to think is the grand object of every effort for promoting human improvement. 206. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 16,980 feet, at Qd. per foot, £424:10s. ; at 4d., £283 ; and at 3d., £212: 5s. 207. Criticism. The effect of the walls of the ground story being of stone is good, by giving the idea of great solidity in itself, and of stability and security in the superstructure. The three balconies are calculated to be very useful, and are not liable to the same objection as those exhibited in Design IX. ; because they are not connected with any of the bed- room Windows (see § 106). The outside stair, by artificially increasing the distance between the living-rooms and the stable, must in some measure diminish the quantity of effluvia from the cattle, conveyed thither by the clothes of those who attend on them. The eaves ought to hâve the addition of an ample gutter ; ' and for our own taste, we should hâve pre- ferred having two Windows in each gable end, and none in the *oof ; dividing the garrets lengthways. We should not hâve truncated the gable, and we should hâve made a better. préparation for the chimney stack, raising it higher, and in a bolder style.COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOGS STYLES. XXVI. 99 Ft. 1Q 0 |l| 50 Ft L-I..J—I I I I .1 -I—I—!-------------------------1------------------------1100 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. XXVII.COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 101 Design XXVII.—A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with Children, or a Servant, with tke usual Conveniences in a detached Building. kitchen, b; back kitchen, c; 208. Accommodation. This plan exhibits a porch, a ; parlour, or family bed-room, d ; and children, or ser- vants’ bed-room, e. The privy, pigsty, cow-house, and similar appendages are supposed to be placed in a small yard, opposite the entrance to the garden, f. If this were the case, a wash-house might also be erected there ; the apartment, c, being used as a kitchen, and b, as a parlour. This cottage might then be suitable for a small farmer, or jobber. 209. Construction. The walls may be of rubble stone, small land stones, or flints, set in good mortar. They may be finished at the gable ends with summer stones (stones placed on a wall, or on piers, for the support of beams, or on the lower angle of gable ends, fig. 185, g, as an abutment of the 186 T \ barge stones, h), having worked cornices, fig. 186, and stone pinnacles. The roof may be of plain tiles or slates; the Windows are shown as common sashes with large panes, hung in the usual manner. The door is ledged, with ornamental outside hinges, fig. 187, to a scale of three-quarters of an inch to a foot. The chimney tops may be of Austin’s cernent, or of soft stone. 210. The Garden contains two roods and a half; it is surrounded by a hedge of fruit trees, within which is a border, and walk ; and the interior is in four main compartiments, i, k, Z, m} for the usual rotation ; with two small plots, n, o, for fruit shrubs ; two still smaller, p, q, for fiowers; and 187 three, r, s, t, for straw- berries, tart rhubarb, and perennial pot and sweet lierbs. 211. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 9,024 feet, at 6d. per foot, £225 : 125. at 4d., £150 : 85. ; and at 3d. £112: 165. 212. Situation. The designer of this building States, that it will hâve a good effect as a gardener’s house, placed in the garden, in cases where the gardener is a single man. The apartment, d, may be the gardener’s library and office ; and e, his bed-room. He also thinks that it might answer well for a small proprietor in North America ; the farm lands surrounding the garden ; or the garden placed near a public road. The house having Windows on ail sides, it ought evidently to be placed in an open, airy situation. 213. Expression. Something Gothic ; and, from the cross over the entrance front, bordering on the ecclesiastical style. This expression is counteracted in a small degree by thé modem Windows ; but. more is gained to the inhabitant in comfort by those Windows, than is lost to the man of reasoning taste, by this déviation from the details of correct style. However, as the comfort of a single man, for example, a gardener in his garden, is of much less con- — bu- 7 w W~ | i i?i 'jsi_ J sequence than that of a family, we see no objection to compléting the effect of such a building by intro- ducing mullions in the Windows with lattice-work, and labels over them (a label, or hood moulding, is an outer moulding, crowning a door or window head, either plain or carved, and always returned at the ends, when strâight, fig. 188) ; or, pointed topped Win- dows may be employed ; and, instead of lattice-work, with those very small panes, called by glaziers quarries (perhaps from carré, French, square), large panes may be used. M 188 ft would also be an im-102 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 189 provement to carry the chiraney tops higher, and to hâve a panelled entrance door, studded with cast-iron nails, substituted for the ledged one; which, with a neat architectural parapet, fig. 189, would form a finish to the platform. The effect of the whole would thus be enriched, and rendered more characteristic of the style so obviously indicated ; and it may be tried by such of our readers as can use a pencil, for themselves. We may remark incidentally, that the mere circumstance of deviating from the straight line in a very small degree in the window opening, as in fig. 188, at u, adds materially to the effect of that window, as a Gothic one. The more obvious forms of Gothic architecture are so universally known in this country, that the slightest line in a building which has an allusion to them, opérâtes upon the imagination and at once gives the idea of style. mmmrni Design XXVIII.—A Cottage in the Old Englisk manner, containing a Kitchenf Living Roomt and two Bed Booms. 214. Accommodation. The ground floor contains an entrance-lobby, a ; back kitchen with oven, h ; best kitchen or living-room, c ; closet under the stair, d ; stair to the bed-rooms, e ; privy, /; and place for wood, pigs, or poultry, g. In the chamber floor, there are two bed-rooms ; the largest, h, which is entered from the staircase, i, has a small closet, k ; the other bed-room, l, has a press near the fireplace ; and chests, and other articles, may stand in the passage, m. 215. Construction. The walls, as high as the bed- room floor, are of brick ; and from the bed-room floor to the roof, of stud-work, or brick nogging plastered. The chimneys, fig. 190, are of brick, covered with composition ; or they may be formed entirely of arti- ficial stone. The roof is supposed to be thatched ; the Windows of lattice-work, and the doors ledged. The large projecting window in the centre of the gable end, is called an oriel, or bay, or compass window, and is constructed in the following manner, viz. heart of oak bearers, fig. 191, n, n, are projected from the walls at the given height in a horizontal position, and generally so as to form an angle with the wall of 45°. The ends of these beams are inserted in the walls, and the brick-work is carried up over them, so that they are retained in their places by the whole weight of the superincumbent structure. By these means the diagonal beams afford a sufiicient support to a parallel beam, o, which is dovetailed into the diagonal ones, as 292 shown a.tp,p. The opening below the beams is covered in by the moulded boarding, g, in fig. 192, to a scale of three-eighths of an inch to a foot, and the section of the front, or parallel beam, o, is covered by the weather-boarding, r. The beams, n, n, ought to be of strong sound timber, and not less than fourteen inches by twelve inches. Oriel Windows are generally constructed of wood-work, as being lighter than any other material ; but beams of the above dimensions are sufiicient to support a wall of brick or stone. The manner in which oriel Windows of stone are carried up, is founded on the same principle, and will be described hereafter. Round the inside of these Windows, are generally formed seats, which commonly open in front, at s ; or at the top, like a ship’s locker ; so as to serve at the same time as a chest and a seat. Formerly these seats were called binks, bins, or bunkers, possibly a corruption of the French Word, banc. The barge 190COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 105 boards, and pendants, both for the gable ends and Windows, may be varied at pleasure ,* and they form very fit subjects of composition for exercising the ingenuity of onr female readers. The enclosure to the pigsty is of oak pales. 216. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 10,544 feet, at 6d. per foot, £263:12s. ; at 4d.} £175 : 14s : 8d. ; and at 3d.9 £131:16s. 217. Remaries. This cottage is dis- figured, rather than otherwise, by the two appendages, / and g, at the end ; not but what these appendages are essentially re- quisite, but that they are given in a mean and common-place manner. The door of/, is also in too conspicuous a situation, and 193 is too nearly resembling the door of the main entrance. In other respects the building is pic- turesque; expressive of what it prétends to be, an old English cot- tage ; and not uncomfortable with- in. The mean character of the lean-to at the end, and the naked- ness of the door of /, may very easily be remedied; as a glance at the ground plan, in Design XXVIII., and anotner afterwards at the plan, fig. 193, and at the view of the end of the cottage, as so alter- ed, fig. 194, will sufficiently prove. Design XXIX.—A Cottage Dwelling qf Three Rooms, with various Conveniences. 218. Accommodation. There is a good deal of convenience and com- 196 tile, or métal, and not by any kind of thatch. Beneath the floors may be flues heated from a lire under the boiler in the back kitchen. The Windows are shown in the French style, shutting by an air-tight joint, as exhibited in § 196, fig. 177. The panelled pilasters on each side of the door, and at the angles, a cross section of which is given in fig. 195, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, may be finished in plaster or cernent Fig. 196 shows the plan and élévation of one end of the chimney stack, which may be executed in brick-work, and covered with cernent 220. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 14,212 feet, at 6d. per foot, £355: 6s. ; at 4d, £236:17s : 4d. ; and at 3d., £177:13s. 221. Remaries. The entrante front of this cottage is satisfactory, but the outline of the106 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. ground plan is by no means so. For what purpose are so many breaks and angles made, when a plain square, as in fig, 197, would hâve given the same accommodation, with increased dimensions, and at less expense? The answer from the designer will probably be that the breaks are made to produce shade and variety in the élévation, as well as to mark the subordinate parts of the building, in order that an excuse may appear for their being executed in a cheaper manner than the rest. With respect to the first reason, we allow that some perpendicular shadows are by these means obtàined ; but no shadows whatever will, in our eyes, justify so direct a déviation from the principle of utility. Here are no fewer than five apartments or appendages diminished in size for the sake of getting four breaks and four perpendicular shadows. Surely this will not bear the test of reason. But it may be said by the author of this Design, that the breaks are made to show that what is included in them are appendages or offices, and that they afford a reason why these appendages or offices are placed under lean-to roofs, and hâve smaller Windows, and thinner and lower walls, than those of the main body of the house. Here we admit the architect has reason on his side ; for economy in building a cottage must ever be an important object, and indeed seems implied in the very name. The question, therefore, between the designer and us is, whether the superior simplicity and dignity of the exterior élévation that will be pro- duced by avoiding the breaks, and having the walls and roof of the offices of the same height and character as the main body of the building, will not compensate for the ad- ditional expense incurred? We think it will; for nothing, in our eyes, adds more to the dignity of a house, than a general simplicity of form, communicating grandeur to it as a whole, and giving an elevated character to its 197 appendages. By comparing the „ ground plan in Design XXIX. with fig. 197, the superior degree of simplicity of the latter figure, one would think alone sufficient to give it the preference over the other. 222. Improvement. A very suitable parapet for the terrace of this cottage might be formed by placing mignionette troughs of Austin’s artificial stone, or of Peake’s Staffordshire ware, such as fig. 198, on the top of a four-inch brick wall, formed of open or pigeon-liole brick-work, and car- ried to the height of eighteen or twenty inches. At the corner of this wall, solid square piers might be built, covered with plaster, and panelled like the pilasters at the end of the house, and these might be terminated by square mignionette boxes, fig. 199. This done, and corresponding terminations given to the chimneys, the design may then 198 be considered as tolerably complété. The mignionette boxes for mere admirers of flowers and lovers of sweet smells, may be filled with earth, and sown or planted with mignionette ; but for botanical amateurs, they may 199 be filled with alpines, or herbaceous plants in small pots. To a botanist, even if he had no other resource than the native plants of Britain, this would afford a perpétuai source of enjoyment; because the length of the four sides of the parapet being one hundred and sixty feet, the oblong and square troughs would contain six hundred and eighty pots of three inches in diameter, and of course as many species. These might be changed, arranged, and re-arranged, at pleasure.COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 107 Design YYY-—A Cottage Dwelling with Five Rooms and varions Conveniences. 223. Accommodation. This may be considered a commodious cottage ; and it might even be turned into two dwellings, by shutting up the door by which c communicates with e. The details of the ground floor are two open porches, a, a ; a shop, or business room, b ; a prin- cipal kitchen or living-room, c ; two bed-rooms on the ground floor, d and e ; dusthole, f ; place for fuel, g ; privy, h ; back kitchen, i ; pantry, k ; and staircase, with closet under, l. The chamber floor contains two good bed-rooms, m and w, each with two small closets. We may observe here, that closets in the outer walls of bed-rooms are very apt to become damp ; and that, in general, it is much better to keep clean clotlies in wooden presses, com- modes, or chests, and dirty clothes in bags. By these modes of keeping, also, less danger is incurred from tlie moth. 224. Construction. The walls may be of earth, of flints, or of bricks built hollow. Ail the floors may be heated by a flue from the back kitchen, i. Two plain mouldings are in- troduced in the principal body of the front, which will be easily understood from the cross section, fig. 200, to a scale of three-eighths of ati inch to a foot. The pro- jection over this ornament contains a sunk panel, the efîect of which, as an architrave to the perpendicular mouldings, is satisfaetory. The eaves of the roof ought to hâve gutters, as shown in the section, fig. 36, § 69 ; and the water may be conducted to a filtering tank under the pantry, from which it may be drawn up for use by one of Siebe’s pumps. The roof may be of thatch. 201 225. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 20,762 feet/at 6d. per foot, £511 £U0 :155. ; and at 3d., £255:10$ : 6d. 226. Remarks. The simplicity of this Design must, we should think, be generally pleasing. The ample sized Windows, with their large panes, give the idea of abundance of light and of cheerfulness within ; and the circum- stance of their being brought down to the floor, shows that elegance has not been lost sight of. Such a building would answer well for a bachelor who had a man and his wife as servants. The former might live in b and e, removing the bed from the latter room, and sleeping in m or n. The servant and his wife could sleep in d. The apartment, e, being made the dining-room, it would be requisite to hâve double doors between it and the kitchen, in order to exclude noise and smells ; and the proximity of these two apartments would be found highly favourable for economising labour, and for what constitutes the essence of ail good eating, having things brought to table hot. One little alteration in the plan would be. requisite to answer the comfort of ail parties, supposing the hoüse turned to this use ; and that is, that- thé staircase, l, should enter from e, instead of from d. This would require no additional expense at thé first érection of the house, but merely forethought. Supposing that the master were desirous of having a bed-room on the ground floor, it would only be requisite to join /, g> and h, to i, in a new form, and to open a door from e to o, as in fig. 201. The house would108 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE be greatly improved by this arrangement, and it might be rendered still more commodious.. by having two steps down to i, so as to get a floor over i, /, g, and h, in which to form a bed-room for the married servants, to be entered by a stair from i. This would allow of d being used as a drawing-room. In this way a very simple cottage might, at a very moderate expense, and what is of more conséquence, without injury to its beauty or cha- racter, be changed into a cottage villa, ht for the résidence of any gentleman whatever. It would then deserve some ornament; and what we should prefer would be to sur- round the whole by a glass véranda, placing a light iron fence on the outer margin of the stone parapet, and ornamental chimney pots, fig. 202, on the stacks of chimneys ; or a somewhat different style may be adopted, as in fig. 203. Design XXXI.—A Dwelling with Five Rooms, with Conveniences, in the Old English Style, where the building material is chiefly Stone. 227. Accommodation. There is more show than space in this building, from the cir- cumstance of there being only one room in width in the bed-room story. It is by no means recommended as a cheap Design, but as one ornamental and characteristic ; and suited for producing a great effect, at comparatively little cost, in a country where free-stone, soft and easily worked, is abundant, and the price of labour low. The ground floor consists of an entrance and staircase, a; a kitchen, b; a wash-house, or back kitchen, c; a bed-closet, d; a milk-room, e; a closet under the stair,/; a bed-room, g s parlour, h; store cellar, i; place for coals, h; and privy, l. The chamber story contains two bed-rooms, m and o; a dressing closet, p ; and a staircase and landing, n. 228. Construction. The walls should be of stone, in regular courses, or of brick ; and the jambs (sides) of the doors and Windows, with their sills, and lintels (covering stones) of hewn stone. These may, or may not, be bevelled at the angles. The mode of executing the summer stones and pinnacles, will be understood from figures already given, § 209, figs. 185 and 186. Great care should be taken in con- structing the guttering over the bay Windows, so as com- pletely to carry off the water. These Windows may hâve mul- lions, and iron casements made to open. The roof should be slated, and the chimneys may be of stone, and polygonal, or what are commonly called cannon chimneys. The chimney head comice may be executed as in fig. 204. Some use may be made of the roof, to which light and air may be admitted by the small openings shown in the upper part of the gables. 229. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 23,024 feet, at 6d. per foot, £575:12s. ; at 4d.f £383 :14s : 8d. ; and at 3d., £287:16s. 230. Remarks. In England, this would be considered a very suitable house for a gardener or bailiff, where effect was an ebject ; and it might be adapted to a small family, in easy circumstances, by rendering g a sitting-room ; and by raising a floor over c, d, and e, for servants sleeping-rooms ; and another over i, k, and l, for a family bed-room ; the dwelling would then be tolerably complété. A light stone parapet may be placed on the outer margin of the platform with omaments at the corners somewhat analagous to those which terminate the gable ends. These, with the other variations and improvements of which tins dwelling is susceptible, we leave to be designed by our readers. 204COTTAGE DWELL1NGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 109 XXX.110 COTTAGE, FARM, AND ViLLA ARCHITECTURE. XXXI.COTTAGE DWKLLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 111 Design XXXII.—A Cottage Dwelîing with Two Sitting Rooms, in a mixed style, where Timber, Brick, and State are the materials usedfor the Watts and Roof. 231. Accommodation. This is a very commodious, convenient, and handsome dwelîing exhibiting every thing requisite for a cottager, whether a gardener, a bailiff, or a small farmer. It contains three floors for cellars, for living-rooms, and for bed-rooms. The cellar, or basement story, (see the plate forming page 117), contains a store-cellar, a ; beer- cellar, b; coal-cellar, es salting-room, d/ and staircase, e. These are lighted by Windows having sunk areas, f. The ground plan of the living-room floor (also in page 117) shews the principal entrance and staircase, g ,* a sitting-room, h ; another sitting-room, i ; a stair- case, with a closet under it, k; a kitchen, l; a wash-house, m; a pantry, n ; and a store room, o. This floor is surrounded by a terrace, part of which is covered by an extension ot the roof of the kitchen and wash-house, as may be seen by inspecting the plates in pages 113 and 114. The chamber floor contains a bed-room, p; staircase and landing, q; closet, r; bed-room, s; closet, t; closet from the passage, u; passage, v; family bed-room, w; and nursery, or infant children’s bed-room, x. 232. Construction. The walls are to be of brick ; the roof covered with slates ; the chimney shafts of cernent, or artificial stone ; and the balconies, brackets, posts, and gallery railings, of oak timber. The details of construction are given in the plate, forming page 118, in which fig. 1 is the open truncated pediment in front of the house ; and shows the ends of the ceiling joists, a; the purlins, b ; the covering of the pediments, c, c; the wall plate, d; and the bracket, e. Fig. 2 is a section at the eaves of the roof over the kitchen ; in which is seen the rafter,/; the wall plate, g ; the brackets, h, h ; and the cross section of the post, i. Fig. 3 is the chimney top, in which is seen the chimney shaft, k. Fig. 4 is a cross section, or plan, of the chimney, in which one half, l, represents the plan of the base ; and the other half, m, the plan of the top. Fig. 5 represents the balcony, in which is shewn the corbel, n, which supports the bracket, e ; also the bracket, o, which supports the balcony ; and the wall of the house, p. Fig. 6 shows the gable brackets to support the roof, in which is seen the gable wall of the house, q ; and the section of the rafters, r, r. Fig. 7 shows the élévation of the lower part of the post ; in which is seen a balluster, s, with a section of the upper and nnder rails. Fig. 8 shows the end élévation of the flower balcony ; in which is seen the bracket, t, and the section of the wall, u. Fig. 9 shows the front élévation of the flower balcony. Fig. 10 is the section at the eaves of the front wall of the house ; in which is seen the rafter, v; the section of the wall, w ; and the bracket, x. Fig. 11 is the section of the plaster comice of the sitting rooms, &c. Fig. 12 shows the section of the grounds (ground work, or foundation plan) for forming the architraves round the doors, Windows, &c. ; in which is seen the ground, y ; and the jamb lining, z. 233. Particulars, or Spécification and Estimate. The contributor of this very élégant and judicious Design, has sent with it a no less copious and complété spécification and estimate. We consider the former, together with its accompanying explanations of technical terms, of the greatest value to the young architect, and the amateur. To the general reader, they will show the manner in which business is done among architects and builders, and their employers in England. A Design being once agreed on, details similar to those in the following spécification, are first made out by the architect; and then the builder, who contracts for the work (either at the estimate made by the architect, or at one made by himself, after having had the plans and spécification some days in his possession for that purpose), signs this particular, or spécification ; and also an agreement made out, according to certain legal forms. This agreement binds him to execute the work, under a certain penalty, according to the spécification, and to the satisfaction of the architect, or of a surveyor (for a surveyor, as clerk of the works, is often employed in addition to the architect). Security for the execution of the work is also sometimes required of the builder ; in which case, the guarantee also signs the agreement, or a bond for the amount of the penalty. The particular, or spécification sent by our contributor, Mr. Richard Varden, as a, fair specimen of the usual style, bears the following title :—“ Particulars of the several works to be done in building a cottage résidence, according to the annexed plans, élévations, sections, and details, and the conditions subjoined.” The work is classed according to the trades employed to execute it ; and we shall give the spécification, for each trade, in a separate paragraph. We may observe here, that the spécifications and estimâtes of architects, surveyors, and builders, are frequently composed in a sort of grofessional, or abbreviated style, which, independently of its technical terms, is unintelligible to general readers from want of care in its grammatical construction The terms are unavoidable ; but the employers of professional men should insist on at ieast readable language. Another point which we112 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. should always require would be perspective views, undisguised by trees, or gaudy colourîng, of the édifice to be erected, independently of the necessary geometrical plans, sections, and élévations ; and in works of importance, a model in unpainted wood should always be con- structed, and maturely considered before a Design is determined upon. 234. Spécification of Excavator’s, Well-Digger’s, and Bricklayer's Work. To dig out the earth for the basement story, together with the cesspools and drains, and the several trenches for the foundations of the whole of the building, of the respective depths and widths required; and to fill in and well ram the earth round the work. The surplus earth arising from these excavations, and from the well, together with the rubbish made in the progress of the work, to be spread round the hôuse so as to form the terrace, shewn in the Designs (if more earth is required for this purpose, it must be brought to the spot at the expense of the employer) ; and the whole to be well rammed and Consolidated.—To dig a well four feet clear in diameter, and forty-five deep, and to steen the same in four-inch brick-work, with the top properly domed over in nine-inch brick-work ; leaving a manhole, twenty inches square, covered with a Yorkshire stone, having a strong iron ring on the top. If a greater depth than forty-five feet should be required, the additions must be paid for by the employer as an extra ; and, if a less depth is sufficient, a proportionate déduction must be made. To dig a cesspool four feet clear in diameter, and nine feet deep, and steen it with four-inch brick-work ; leaving a manhole, which is to be closed with a Yorkshire stone, the same as that used to close the well. Ail the bricks to be used in the building, or brought upon the premises, to be sound and good well burnt grey stocks (bricks made of marley clay ; that is, clay having a certain proportion of mari naturally, or chalk artificially, mixed with it) ; those to be used in the external parts of the building to be carefully picked of an . uniform colour ; and the whole laid, and flushed solid (the joints filled up) in mor- tar, of the several heights and thicknesses, with the apertures specified in the draw- ings: none of the bricks to be brought upon the premises to be slack burnt (im- perfectly burned), or overburnt. The mortar to be composed of the best well burnt grey lime (grey lime-stone, not chalk lime-stone), and clean, sharp, pit, or river sand, well tempered together; and to be sifted through a screen, whose wires shall be at equal distances, and not less than thirty in everÿ foot in breadth.—The walls of the foundations and cellars, up to the level of the platform, to be worked in brick-work, and grouted (fluid mortar poured into the middle joints) with hot lime and sand ; the rest of the walls above ground to be of brick-work, and the external face to be wôrked with a neat fiat ruled joint (a ruled joint is a joint struck fiat with the trowel, with a line drawn in the centre by means of a small iron instru- ment, fig. 207, called a jointer, and an iron straight edge, or fiat ruler). The terrace wall to be built battering (sloping inwards), from two feet three inches at bottom, to nine inches thick at top, with a nine-inch upright parapet, coped with bevelled bricks, and fourteen-inch brick piers, as shewn by the drawings ; fourteen common garden pots and pans, twenty inches liigh, to be provided and fixed thereon. Four- inch brick discharging arches (arches built over lintels to relieve them from part of the super- incumbent weight, fig. 208, in which is shown the discharging arch, a, and the lintel which it is intended to relieve, b), to be turned over ail the openings in the interior of the walls ; twelve-inch guaged arches (bricks reduced by rubbing on free-stone laid on a table, called a banker, to the shape of truncated wedges, so as to form arch stones, fitting exactly with each other, according to the curve of the arch; the faces of these bricks are alsq rubbed quite smooth), with eight-inch skewbacks (the space between c and d, in the guaged arch, fig. 209, is the skewback of that arch), and four-inch soffits (the under side of the arches) corresponding in width with the reveals (the outside jambs, or rabbets; see q, in fig. 180), to be put over ail the external openings, made of the best grey cutting bricks. b 1 1 i 208 “T 1 T 1 n_^T 1 i Ti COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 113 XXXII.114 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. XXXII. 10 0 20 Ft. 1.1 1.11 I 1-1 l-l J---------------------------------!---------------1 Ft.COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. llô 210 Nine-inch brick inverted arches, fig. 210 (f g béing the level of the ground, and h the wihdow or opening over the arch), are to be turned, the whole thickness of the walls, under ail the external openings and chimney jambs. Inverted arches are intended to equalise the pressure of the foundations on the earth, and thus to prevent the sinking of one part more than anotlier, or what are called settlements : it is évident that whatever carries down i if fig. 210 must also carry down the point k. The chimney hearths, jambs (see § 79. fig. 47.), backs, breasts, and shafts, to be of brickwork. Ail the flues to be fourteen inches square in the clear, properly gathered (drawn in above the fireplace, till they are reduced to the proper size), and par- geted (plastered with mortar, mixed with cow- dung) ; and each flue to hâve a Roman cernent chimney shaft (as shown by figs. 3 and 4, in the plate of details, page 118,) flanched up (sloped in a way to throw off wet: in fig. 211, l is a section_______________________ of the chimney shaft ; m, a sçction of the flue; and _______________________________ n n, sections of the flanchings) with plam tiles set and rendered (plastered) in cernent. 211 212 A strong iron chimney bar (fig. 212,o o; in this figure, p is the breast; q q are the jambs ; ?*, the inverted arch under them ; and s, the footing, or first course of the foundations), to be put to each of the fireplaces; and four-inch brick trimmer arches to be turned wliere required. (Trimmer arches aremade to support the hearth- stones, abutting at one extremity on the wall of the chimney, and at the other on trimming pièces. Trimmers are pièces of timber framed at right angles to the joists, against the ways (openings) for chimneys, and round the well-holes (openings left in floors for admitting the stair) of stairs, &c. Fig. „ 213 is a plan in which are seen the joists, t t; the trimming piece, «; and the fireplace, v. Fig. 214 is a section of the same plan, in n 213 f 214 ,,kumiuzfxl« N116 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VÎLEA ARCHITECTURE. which the trîrryner arch, w, is shown abutting againstthe trîmmirig piece, u, and the baclc of the chimney, v.) To build brick foundations for the sink, and for the stone steps ; and nine-inch brickwork to surround the areas in front of the basement Windows, coped with brick on edge set in Roman cernent, and paved with bricks, having sink holes and drains, to deliver the water into the main drain. To put 100 feet of hollow tile drain, twelve inches clear in the bore, where directed ; and to lay the whole of the drains with a proper fiall, and at a sufficient depth to deliver the water away from the lowest part of the building. To provide nine cast-iron stink-traps eight inches square, and fix one at each external aperture of the drain. (The construction and action of a stink-trap will be easily understood from the section, fig. 215. Water falling into this trap, through the cover, Xf escapes by the funnel, y, the inverted se- 215 micircle over which prevents ail air from ascend- irig. See figs. 222,223, and 224. The terrace to be paved with pebbles laid in sand,properly currented, and well rammed. To build foundations and enclo- sure walls, and an oven three feet six inches by threè feet in the clear, properly domed, plastered, and paved ; and to findand fix the requisiteiron work for the same, suchasan irondoor andframe, hinges, latclies, &c., complété. To fill in the nogging partitions with brick nogging fiat (brick on bed). To pave the wash-house, pantry, and store room, with dressed paving bricks (smoothed on one side by passing a cylindrical rule, wetted, over the soft brick when moulded) ; the kitchen to be paved with ten-inch tiles, bedded and jointed in mortar ; and the rest of the basement story, throughout, with common stock bricks laid fiat in sand : the whole to be properly levelled and currented to the several drains. The openings of the fireplaces, in the sitting-rooms and in the chambers, to be three feet liigh by their respective widths; and that of the kitchen to be four feet high. Ail the window and door frames to be properly bedded and pointed in good lime and hair mortar, and the sills underpinnéd. (When stone sills are built into any wall, they are generally made to bear on solid work only in those parts directly above which the wall is carried up. The reason is, that, in buildings of any height, the solid parts are apt to sink a slight degree more than those parts in which there are several openings one above another. Thus, in the sill, fig. 216, a and b represent those parts of thesill on which the jambs of the doors 216 or Windows are carried up. Now, if the sill were bedded on solid walling throughout, from a to b) and especially towards c, it is évident that, if the walling sunk only half an inch at either a or 5, not having the same superincum- bent pressure, it would not sink to the same degree at c, and the conséquence would be a rent in the stone at d. For this reason sills are left hollow between the two points of bearing, uiitil the walling is completed ; and the fillingup of the hollows after iscalled the underpinning. In brick buildings, the sills, whéther of stone or oak, are not generally put in until the walls are carried up to their destined height, and they are tlien let in by cutting away part of the brickwork from the jambs.) The bricklayer is to find scaffolding for the use of the carpenter, slater, plasterer, and other trades requiring the use thereof for the outside work ; and to allow the same to remain until the external part of the building shall be completed. The walls are to be carried up in an upright, substan- tial, workmanlike manner ; and, in the progress of the building, no part is to be raised more than four feet above the other (in order that the whole may settle, or sink equally, and at the same time), except in gables and chimney-shafts; and the whole is tobe built in a regular and equal manner. To fix the wooden bricks, and to bed ail the plates, bond timbers, lintels, &c., in loam. To eut ail the rakes and splays, and ail the chasings required for the lead flashings (strips of lead to cover joints or joinings), and to make good and stop the same with Roman cernent. To do ail the wind-pinnings (filling in the angle between the wall-plate and the roof) and beam-filling (filling up with brick- work the interstices in the wall, between the ends of the beams) required. The brick- layer is to find ail the materials, ropes, ladders, boards, tackle, tools, workmanship, and ironwork, for the completion of his work, and for the carriage thereof; and to do theCOTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. XXXII. 117118 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. XXXII.COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOÜS STYLES. 119 217 wholé in the best and most workmanlike manner, subject to the general particulars at the end of’this spécification. 235. Spécification of Plasterer's Work. The cernent chimney shafts to be coloured twice over, of a good warm stone tint. To lath, iay, float, set, and white the strings of the principal stairs, and the ceilings of the sitting-rooms, of the passage, and of the chamber floor throughout. The ceilings of the kitchen, wash-house, pantry, store- room, and the whole of the basement story, as well as the pediment in front of the house, to be lath-laid, set, and whited. (To lath, plaster, float, and set, is to give what is called three-coat work ; the first coat, given after nailing on the lath, is called pricking up ; the second, floating ; and the third, setting or giving a coat of fine stuff. The second coat is called floating, from the tool used in the operation, which is denominated a float. There are three sorts of these tools; viz., the hand float, the quirk float, and the Derby or two-handed float. The floated coat is brushed with à birch broom, to roughen the surface before the setting coat is applied. The first coat of two-coat work is called laying, when on lath, and rendering on brick. In three-coat work, the first coat on lath is called pricking up, and upon brick roughing in.) To lime white, twice over, the walls of wash-house, and the basement throughout. To lath, plaster, float, and set, for paper or colouring, the whole of the battening (pièces of wood fixed to the bond timber on the walls at regular distances, on which the lath is to be nailed) of the inside of the external walls, and partitions for lath of the principal and chamber floors (except the wash-house) ; and render-float (roughing in would be the more correct term here, but rendering is generally used, and is understood by the trade), and set, for paper or colouring, ail the internai walls, and nogging partitions of both floors. Ail the external walls, with the exception of the wash-house, will be battened by the carpenter. Ail the timbers in the partitions, and the bond (the timber built into the walls), to be diagonally lathed. (Lathing diagonally lessens the risk of cracks i'n the plaster, in case the timber should shrink). The two sitting-rooms and passage to hâve plaster comices, as showft in fig. 11, in the plate of details, page 118. The plasterer is to find ail materials, tools, tressels (a sort of stool, sometimes five or six feet high, fig. 217, used for supporting scafFolding boards), boards, moulds, rules, car- riage, and workmanship required for the comple- tion of his work ; and to run (a terni used by plasterers, meaning to fôrm) suçh beads, quirks, arrises (projectirfg angles), &c., as may be necès- sary for the perfect execution of the same ; and to do the whole in the best and most workmanlike manner, subject to the general particular at the end of this spécification. 236. Spécification of Slater's Work. To cover the whole of the roofing with the best countess slates, nailed with stout wrought-copper nails ; the eaves to be laid double, and the whole of the slates to hâve a suflïcient overlap, and to be carefully sorted in courses consisting of slates of equal thickness, so as to exclude the weather effectually. The slater is to find ail materials, tools, carriage, ,and workmanship required for the com- pletion of theabove; andto do the same in the best and most workmanlike manner, subject to the general particular at the end of this spécification. 237. Spécification of Stone-Mason's Work. Ail the Windows to hâve York quarry stone sills, eight inches wide, beveled, throated (in the section of the stone si Ils, fig. 218, the throat is represented at e; fis the bevel of the 218 silly and g the oak sill of the window frame, resting on the stone sill ; and also throated at h), and tooled (see § 82). The entrance door to hâve a landing (a piece of pavement of larger dimensions than ordi- nary) over the area, of Yorkshire stone, four inches thick, rounded at the edges ; the terrace to hâve Yorkshire pavement laid the width of the stairs at the entrances; the steps and the coping of the spandril (the space between an arch and the member over it), together with the coping of the piers (the solid parts between any arches or openings) of the stairs, and those on the terrace wall, to be of York quarry stone. The coping of the spandrils to be twelve inches wide, and that of the piers seven- teen and a half inches square, properly cramped and run with lead. Each parlour to hâve vein mârble profile chimney-pieces, not exceeding seven pounds in value, exclusive of hearths and slabs. (Profile chimney-pieces are such as hâve projecting jambs, with their sides covered by slips,120 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. fig. 219, at, of marble, stone, or whatever matcrial the chimney-piece may corisist of When there are ___________ two side slips, 219 i iy and a slip in front, le, the chimney-pieceis saidto be in pro- file; when there ________ is only one piece in front, itissaid fco be not in pro- 1-----—1 file, and thefront slip, l, is called ajamb. Such chimneys hâve generally an inside slip, m; but this rests against the brick jamb of the fi replace, n, instead of the stone jamb, o, to which the slips of the chimney-piece are fixed. Fig. 220 is an élévation of à chamber fireplace cliimney, in which p is the -p shelf ; q, the mantel ; r r, the jambs ; and s s, the in- side slips.) Ail the Are- places to hâve Yorkshire stone hearths, and Portland stone slabs. The fireplaces of the front çhambers to hâve plain Portland stone mantels, jambs, slips, and shelves with rounded corners. The kitchen to hâve one inch and three quarters thick Portland stone mantel and jambs. The kitchen, pantry, and store-room to hâve milled slate (milled slate is sawed out of blocks by machinery; roofing slate is cleft into laminæ by wedges) skirting (a bordering to the wall) seven inches high, and one inch and a quarter thick, properlÿ cramped (by an iron or copper hook, fig, 221, driven into the wall at one end, and Ici 221 into tlie slate at the other), backed up, and set in Roman cernent. The wash-house to hâve a Yorkshire stone sink, five feet long and two feet three inches wide, with a proper hole for the bell-trap (a kind of stink-trap usually mâde of bell métal, about three inches across and round, figs. 222, 223, and 224). The mason is to find ail cramps, lead, and 222 224 ail the materials, as well as the carriage and workmanship required for the completion of the above ; and to do the same in the best, most substantial and workmanlike manner, subject to the conditions of the general particulars. 238. Spécification of Carpenters Work. The whole of the bearing timbers to be Sound, well seasoned, yellow Dantzic or Memel fir timber, except where otherwise specified. The whole of the carpentry to be framed in a workmanlike manner ; and ail the timber to be sawed square, and to be free from sap (outside wood, not properlÿ matured), wanesCOTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. .121 2‘25 ! \ (deficiencies, as at t, in fig; 225, owing to marking thë dimension too near the circum- ference, instead of making allowance for the sap wood, as at u), shakes (fis- surés in the wood), large knots, or other defects, and of the several dimensions, scantlings, and descriptions, which follow ; and ail the carpenter’s as well as thejoiner’s work, to hold the several scantlings (the term scantling is gene- rally applied by carperiters to the depth and width of a piece of timber) and thicknesses when finished, such which are named in the particulars: this inustbe particularly attended to. The principal and chamber stories to hâve two tiers of oak bond, three inches by two inches and a half, to pass through the openings, and not to be eut out \ / until the work has become settled; \ and an oak wall-plate under each floor, four and a half inches by three inches, """"----------- dovetailed at the angles, and halved and spiked at the laps. To put double oak lintels four inches thick, and of the width of the respective walls, except the reveals (properly revels, from revelo, to reveal or discover ; the two vertical sides of the aperture between the outside front of the wall and the window), and to rest nine inches on the walls at each end. Wooden bricks of oak (see § 83), to be furnished to the bricklayer to be inserted in the jambs, not exceeding two feet apart, for fixing the linings to, where neces- wary. The entrance passage and the two sitting-rooms to hâve heart of oak joists six inches by four inches. The chamber floors to hâve fir joists nine inches by two inches and a half, not more than twelve inches apart ; and trimmed (see § 234, and fig. 213), to the stairs and fireplaces, with trimmers and trimming joists nine inches by three inches and a half, with one inch and a quarter yellow deal keys (pièces of timber driven fast between each pair of joists, with their ends butting against the groin of the joists ; they are commonly called strutting pièces, and their use is to stiffen the floor), in each chamber. The back chambers and passage to hâve ceiling joists four inches by two inches, and thirteen inches apart, firmly spiked to the common rafters, as shown by the drawings. The front rooms to hâve ceiling joists four inches by two inches, not more than twelve inches apart, and framed into the tie beams. rThé penthouse (a roof projected from a wall, and not sup. ported by pillars) in front, to hâve ceiling joists three inches and a half by two inches, spiked to the rafters above the purlin. — Roof. Tie beams (see fig. 54) to be seven inches by four inches ; framed principal rafters six inches by two inches and a half at bottom, and four inches by two inches and a half at top ; purlins, five inches by three inches, to be framed to the principals; wall-plates, five inches by two inches and a half; pole-plates, four inches by two inches, supported by wrought curved brackets four inches and a half by four inches, as shown by the drawings ; common rafters to be four inches by two inches, not more than thirteen inches apart, and properly trimmed to the shafts. The feet of the rafters which project beyond the brickwork are to be five inches by three inches and a half, wrought, notched, and spiked to the wall-plate and pole-plates. The roofing of the back part will be without principals or tie beams. The roof throughout to hâve one inch and a half yellow deal hips, nine inches wide ; and ridge pièces of the same width and thickness, rounded off for the lead ; the valleys to hâve one inch thick feather-edged flanch boards nine inches wide. (Hips and valleys are formed wherever 226 roofing meets at a right or other angle; the ex- ternal angles,fig. 226, a a a, form the hips ; the in- ternai angle, b, the valley ; c c, the ridge; d, the gable ; eee, the eaves ; f» the span ; and g, in fig. 227, which shows a double122 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. roof, the gutter betweeii thë roofs.) The chimney shàfts to hâve one inch gutter boards and bearers, with feather-edged flanch boards nine inches wide ; the eaves to hâve one inch and a quarter thick feather-edged eave boards, with wrought and rounded edge, and a wrought fillet between the pole-plate and eave boards, nailed to the feet of the rafters : three-inch thick eut brackets to be put under the projection of the roof over the gables (as shown by fig. 6, in the plate of details, page 118). The rafters of the roof to be covered with three quarters of an inch thick deal slips two inches and a half-wide, for countess slating, with such tilting fillets (see fig. 55), &c., as may be required The penthouse in front to hâve wrought and curved chamfered (the angles planed ofF, as in fig. 228, in which h is the chamfer) brackets six inches by ten inches, to ^28 support the plate, as shown by the drawings, firmly fixed at the lower end v-zr*--s... into the wall. Partitions for brick nogging fiat (see fig. 58) to hâve f \ heads and sills four inches by two iijches ; puncheons (quarters) and braces, four inches by two inches and a quarter, and eighteen inches apart; door-posts and principal quarters, four inches by three inches; nogging pièces, four inches by two inches. Partitions for lath to hâve heads and sills, four inches and a quarter by three inches ; common quarters, three inches by two inches and a. quarter, and twelve inches apart ; braces, three inches by two inches and a quarter ; door-posts and principal quarters, four inches by three inches. The whole of the external walls of the principal and chamber floors, except those of the wash-house, to be battened inside with one-inch thick yellow deal battens, two inches and a quarter wide, and twelve inches apart. The well to hâve a proper barrel curb, four feet high, boarded with one-inch thick boards, and oak stages to be placed in the well for fixing the suction pipe of the pump. (A barrel curb is formed of circular ribs, generally of eim,'Oiitheoutsideof which slips of deal, four feet long, are nailed so as to form a cylinder, fig. 229, on which the brick steeningis placed ; the rest of the steening is built above it, as at ê, in fig. 230; and, as the well is sunk, the curb 229 W and superincumbent steening descend. When the well is in progress, the body of the earth, k, is dug out to the depth of two or three feet at a time, according as the soil may be more or less tenacious, and drawn to the surface in buckets ; a band or rim, 11, being left under the curb ; this band is afterwards dug out, when the curb descends, and several courses of steening are added above. The use of the curb is to keep the well perpendicular, and truly cylindrical during the work ; it is left in the well, the interstices between the slips being filled in with brick work. Oak stages are pièces of timber, with their ends fixed in the steening, which cross the centre of the well, at the distance of eight or ten feet from the bottora, and from each other ; to these the pipe of the pump is fixed, in order that they may support its weight, and keep it steady.) The carpenter to make, fix, and refix, when required, such centring (frames of timber by which the brick or stone work, COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES# 128 of arched vaulting is supported during its érection) as may be necessary for the brick- layer’s Or well-digger’s use, in forming arches, trimmers, &c. 239. Spécification of Joiners Work* Ail the timber used by the joiner to be the best well-seasonéd yellow deal listed (listing is cutting off a strip of such boards as are blue and sappy at the edges, so as to leave only the true wood), free from sap, shakes, and large or loose knots. The whole to be neatly wrought, framed, and finished off (rubbed after being planed) with firestone (a kind of soft stone, which serves to smooth the sur- face), in the most substantial and workmanlike manner. — Floors. To lay good one- inch thick yellow deal straight-jointed floors in thesitting-rooms and passage; and one- inch thick yellow deal folding floors throughout the chamber story. (The term folding is applied to a peculiar manner of laying floors. The first and fourth boards are bradded down (tacked, or slightly nailed ; from brad, a small nail made without a head, so that the nail may be sunk into the wood), with an intervening space, n, fig. 231, something less than the breadth of the two boards, o o, that are to go between ; so that when these two last are placed with their edges coinciding with the edges of those fixed, as shown by the section, m o o m, they rest, as it were, folded toge- ther in the middle, forming a ridge; on which ridge two or more workmen jump, till they force the boards down flat between the other two, they are then secured with brads. Theobjectofthis process is to procure very close joints.) The whole of the rooms to hâve proper oorders (narrow slips forming a margin) to the hearth slabs, &c, — Doors of Chamber Floor. To put one inch and a quarter thick four- paneled doors throughout this story, framed square on both sides, and hung with two inch and a quarter butt hinges (see fig. 65) ; and to hâve good iron rim locks, with plain brass knob furniture, one inch and a quarter single-rebated jambs (in fig. 232, p is the jamb, q the door, and r the rebate), with one-inch framed wrought and sunk grounds, five inches wide, and with quirk ovolo and fillets laid on to form the architraves.—Doors of Ground Floor.. The doors opening into the entrance passage to be one inch and a half thick, six-paneled, and hupg with three inch and a half butt hinges ; having good mortised locks (locks which are inserted in a mortise, eut edgewise into the style of the door), with plain brass knob furniture ; one inch and a quarter deal single-rebated jamb linings, with grounds (see fig. 12, in page 118) and mouldings the same as those of the doors of the chamber floor. The doors that open into the sitting-rooms to be moulded inside. The door at the top of the cellar stair, together with ail the other internai doors on the ground story, that hâve not been specified, to be finished in the same manner as those of the chamber floor The front entrance to hâve a two-inch deal sash door ; one inch and a quarter astragal and hollow sash bar, fig. 233 (fig. 234 is an ovolo sash bar), circular-headed, with double- margined and diminished styles, hung with three inch and a half butt hinges, and pro- vided with two six-inch bright rod-bolts (see fig. 68), and a ten-inch iron rim drawback lock (having a boit which draws back from the inside by means of a knob), with brass knobs ; the bottom of the dcor to be framed with three reeds, flush on one side, and square on the back, one-inch thick clamped lifting shutters, with studs and plates and screw fastenings, and one inch and a half rebated jamb linings and grounds, with mouldings to match the others. (Double-margined and diminished styles will be understood from fig. 235 ; in which, $ is the style of its full breadth ; t the style diminished; u the inner margin, for the purpose of receiving the shutter ; v the sash; and w the panel. The section of the diminished style is shown at xy and the shutter by the dotted lines, y.) The back entrance door to be one inch and three quarters thick, six-pa-124< COTTAGE, FARM, ANp VILLA ARCHITECTURE. neled, square on both sides ; and to be hung and fitted 235 as the front entrance door, with jambs, lining, &c., to correspond: both of the entrance doors to hâve oak- framed door cases and sills, five inches by three inches and a half. —i Basement. The basement story to hâve one-inch thick deal proper-ledged doors (a ledged door is called proper, when it is wrought, ploughed (grooved), tongued (slips which go into the grooves, so as to make perfect joints), and bedded), and good oak proper door-cases, five inches by three inches and a half, (a door-case is called proper, when it is wrought, framed, rebated, and beaded), hung with eighteen-inch cross garnet linings, with stock locks (see fig. 69), and Norfolk latches (see fig. 67). The basement story to hâve solid oak proper two-light window frames, four inches by two inches and a half, with one-inch iron stanchion bars (properly, support- ing bars, but here placed for protection), four inches apart, wrought-iron casements, and strong hinges, latches, stay irons (fig. 236), saddle-bars (cross-bars to which theleadwork of the glazing 236 is fixed), &c., complété. The other windows to hâve deal-cased frames, oak sunk sills, onej mch and a half astragal and hollow sashes, double hung with iron weights, and best white lines, brass pulleys, and patent spring sash-fastenings, The sash Windows, except the sitting-rooms, to hâve one-inch wrought hinges, and one inch and a quarter wrought and rounded window-boards. Ail the windows, except those of the basement, to hâve grounds and mouldings to match the doors. The kitchen, wash-house, store-room, and pantry to hâve one-inch thick square framed folding inside shutters, with rule joints, proper hinges, and iron bar fastenings. The sitting-rooms to hâve one inch and a quarter pro- per boxings (the frames which receive the architraves and the outer edges of the shutters are called proper boxings, when they are wrought, framed, rebated, splayed, and beaded), and architraves to match the doors ; one inch and a quarter ovolo fiat backs and splayed elbows (in fig. 237, a a are the elbows ; b is the cap- ping, or, as it is called when of some width, the window-board), and soffits (the part of the architrave which projects over the columns, but the term is used generally for the under side of any horizontal pro- jection), with proper capping (the coping or covering to the elbows and backs of the windows ; viz., to a ay as shown at b b b, in fig. 237), one-inch beacl and butt back linings ; one inch and a quarter ovolo fiat shutters, with one inch bead and butt back flaps (framed in panels, with a bead struck on the panel sides only), with proper hinges, strong wrought-iron spring shutter bars, and brass spring fastenings. (Fig. 238 is a section of part of a bead, butt, and square back door 3 in which, c is the style, d the panel, c the bead on the front side of the panel, and f the square back of the panel. Fig. 239 is a section of, paî t ofCOTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOÜS STYLES. 125 238 1TY~ 239 a bead flush door, in which the bead, g, is struck upon the styles, and returned on the rails, so as to surround the panel.) — Skirting. Chamber floor to hâve three quarters of an inch square skirting throughout, four inches and a half high. The sitting-rooms and entrance passage to hâve one-inch torus skirting, eight inches high ; ail the skirting to hâve narrow beveled grounds. (In fi g. 240, c is a torus moulding on the skirting, d, which isnailed to the beveled ground, e ; fis the wall ; g, the plaster ; and h, the floor of the room. The grounds are beveled, in order that they may retain the plastering better than by a horizontal joint;) Principal stair- case to hâve one-inch yellow deal steps, risers, and carriage (pièces which bear the brackets till the steps are fixed), with moulded nosings to the steps to be housed (let in) into the close stringing, which is to be one and a quarter inch thick, sunk, and moulded with a moulded planceer (a moulded capping to the stringing into which the balusters are fixed) with one inch and a quarter raking (following a slope) torus wall string- housed to the steps and risers. To put deal turned newels (posts firmly framed to which the ‘handrail is fixed) and moulded handrail, and three quarters of an inch square deal bar balusters, and one inch and a quarter square 240 framed spandril to enclose the cellar stairs. (In fig. 241, i is the spandril of the stairs; k, the string; l, the planceer; m, the balusters; n, the newel ; and o, the handrail. Fig. 242 ' represents the string board, in which the dotted lines show the housings. ) The cellar stairs to hâve one-inch deal risers, . one inch and a quarter oak treads with rounded nosings and proper carriage, a deal handrail, newel (turning) post, and one and a quarter inch string boards with steps housed in. The pump to hâve one inch and a half oak cheeks (sides) and silis, cased with one-inch deal, with proper cap, &c. ; which is to be fixed in the wash-house. The angles of the chimney breasts to hâve proper staff beads (upright corner beads put at the external angles of chimney jambs, and in similar situations. In fig, 243, p is the section of the staff bead ; q q, the plaster ; r r, what are called the quirks in the plastering; and $, the wall.) Two hundred feet (lineal) of one-inch thick wrought and roùnded shelf board, twelve inches broad, to be prepared and fixed with brackets and iron hold-fasts in the pantry, store-room, and closets, or elsewhere, às may be directed by the employer, Yellow deal balconies to be put up to one of the front and two of the side Windows, as shown by the drawings ; with moulded handrail, and turned balusters ; the floor wrought on both sides, moulded on the edge, and two inches and a quarter thick ; having four eut brackets three inches thick to support each : the whole to be firpily and securely fixed. Flower-stands of good yellow deal to be put up to the two fronÇ Windows as shown by the drawings, and fmished according to figs. 8 and 9, in plate of details, page 118. An oak moulded sill and a deal moulded handrail to be put round the back part of the building ; these are to be framed into the posts, and the oIg6 COTTAGE,.,FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. turned balusters housed into the same. The posts aie to be wrought, framed, and chamfered, seven inches square, with iron tenons (square pièces of iron fitted into mortises, that is, into holes eut to receive them) at bottom ; and circular wrought framed braces at top, to support the eaves of the project- ing roof of the kitchen, wash-hç>use, &c. The carpenter and joiner are to find ail tools, labour, glue, nails, and every description of ironmongery, locks, bolts, bars, hinges, fastenings, and the fixing of the same, and every thing required for the completion of their works ; which must be done in the best and in the most substantial and workmanlike manner ; and to préparé and fix ail kind of beads, stops (a term variously applied, but chiefly to slips nailed on for doôrs or shutters to shut against, or for fixing work), fillets, grounds, linings, and backings (back linings), required for the perfect execution ôf the above, whether the same may or may not be minutely specified in this particular ; the whole to be done, subject to the provisions in the general particular at the end hereof. 240. Spécification of Plumbers Work. Flashings of milled lead ten inches wide, weighing five pounds a superficial foot, to be chased into the brickwork (see § 85), and fixed with wall-hooks (fig. 244.), where the roof abuts against the brick walls, as well as to each of the chimney shafts, which must hâve aprons (strips of lead, to throw the wet from the joint between the roof and the chimney shaft) where they are required. The gutters against the chimney shafts to be covered with lead weighing seven pounds to the superficial foot. The hips, ridges, and valleys to be covered with milled lead, fifteen inches broad, weighing five pounds the superficial foot ; the whole to be properly lapped, dressed (smoothed), and nailed with lead-headed nails. The sink to hâve a six-inch brass grate and b'ell-trap (see figs. 222, 223, and 224), and a two and a half inch lead pipe. A good stout four-inch lead pump barrel, weighing 2 qrs. 14lbs., with bucket, sucker, and Wrought-iron thandle, complète, and forty feet of two and a half inch lead suction pipe, to be put up in he wash-house. 241. Spécification of Glaziers Work. The basement story Windows to hâve lead lights, and Newcastle crown-glass (crown-glass is white or colourless, and is so called to distinguish it from green glass), in quarries. Ail the sashes, including that of the front door, to be glazed with good second Newcastle crown-glass ; the best squares to be selected for the sitting-rooms. 242. Spécification of Painter's Work. To knot (cover the knots with paint, before the general painting), prime (give the first coat), and paint the whole of the external wood and iron work four times in oil, with good white lead, and to finish the same in a light stone colour ; with the exception of the doors, which are to be finished olive green. The whole of the joiner’s work, internally, with the exception of the floors, shelves, and the risers and treads of the stairs, to be knotted, primed, and painted three times in good white lead and oil ; and the sitting-rooms to be flatted (the glossy appearance of the 243, . COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 127 paint to be taken off by using turpentine in the last coat, instead of oil). The plumber, the painter, and the glazier to find ail materials, workmanship, and carnage, and every thing requisite for the performance of their works ; and to do the same in a perfect and workmanlike manner; subject to the conditions in the general particular at the end hereof. 243. General Particular. The whole of the foregoing works to be entirely finished and completed on or before the day of ; and the several portions to be performed in such order of succession as to insure the final completion of the whole by that time. Each contractor to be answerable for any damages that may be done to liis respective work during its progress (fire excepted), whether by the inclemency of the weather, or otherwise ; and to make ail good, and to leave the same perfect at the final completion of the work. The whole of the works are to be paid for within after the completion of the contract. If the contractor or contractors shall omit to complété the work by the time specified, a déduction of 1 per cent shall be made from the amount of his or their contracts, for every week the time shall be exceeded. The whole of the materials are to be of a sound and good description, and fit for their several purposes. The works are ail to be done in a substantial and work- manlike manner ; and every thing is to be performed that is necessary for completing the whole of thé work in the usual and customary manner, notwithstanding any omissions that may hâve occurred in the foregoing particulars : and if any alteration shall be made, by the direction of the employer, it shall not vitiate or annul the con- tract ; but the value of such alterations shall be ascertained at the customary prices of the neighbourhood, by of ; whose decision between the parties shall be final. And further, if any or ail of the works should be performed in any way inferior to the description and intention of the particulars and drawings, or shall be deteriorated below a fair standard of good quality or sound workmanship ; the same shall also be valued by as aforesaid, and the sum deducted from the amount of the contract by the employer : the decision in this case also shall be final. And further, if, in the course of two years from thé completion of the said work, there should become manifest any latent defects, resulting from imperfect or careless workmanship, or from badly burnt bricks, unseasoned timbeiyor other materials, the contractor shall be held to make the same good, upon receiving notice from to do so ; and in case the said contractor shall neglect or refuse to make good such defects within one calendar month from the date of such notice, to the satis- faction of the proprietor, he shall be at liberty to employ such other persons to do the same as he may think proper ; the expense of which shall be borne by the said con- tractor or. contractors. The contractor or contractors to sign an agreement to perform the' work according to the foregoing particulars and conditions therein ; which agree- ment shall contain such additional clauses as the solicitor to the employer shall deem requisite to secure and enforce the fulfilment of the same. Satisfactory security for the performance of the work to be given by the contractor, if required. 244. Estimate in Detail of the expense of building a cottage résidence according to the annexed plans and particulars of Design XXXII. 245. Estimate of Excavator's, Well-Diggers, and Bricklàyer's Work. £ s. d. One hundred and sixty-eight cubic yards of digging, filling, and ramming, for the foundations, cellar story, and drains.......... One cesspool, dug and steened in four-inch brickwork, nine feet deep, and four feet clear in diameter............................ One well, dug and steened in four-inch brickwork, forty-five feet deep, and four feet clear in diameter........................... Five rods two hundred and fourteen feet of reduced brickwork in foundations below the level of the plinth (grouted)......... Ten rods two hundred and eleven feet of brickwork above ground, flushed solid, with fiat ruled joints........................ Two thousand and twenty-seven feet six inches, superficial measure, of extra-labour in picking stocks of equal colour for the facing.... One hundred and ninety feet seven inches of gauged arches........ Seventy-five yards and a half of nogging fiat.................. Fifty yards of stock brick paving, laid fiat in sand.;............ Fourteen yards of paving bricks, bedded and jointed in mortar.. Twenty-four yards of ten-inch tile paving, bedded and jointed in mortar.......................;.................................. Seventy-six yards of pebble paving, laid in sand................ v Thirty-four feet lineal of cuttings to rakes, &c............... Thirty-four feet lineal of chasings eut for lead flashings, and making them good with Roman cernent....................................•»128 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. Fifty feet extra, to the setting of brick on edge coping in cernent (labour and cernent)...................*.....••....*• • .... • Ninety-six feet of beveled brick coping, and fixing the same.... One hundred feet of hollow tile drain, twelve inches clear in the bore (tube or tunnel), and setting the same........................ Eight feet superficial of Yorkshire stone paving, to cover the well and the cesspool.............................................. Sundries- — Two iron rings to the cover stones of the well and the cesspool, and letting in and fixing the same.................. Fourteen garden pots and pans for the piers of the parapet, twenty inches high........................................•..........«• Twenty-two window-frames bedded and pointed in lime and hair mortar.............................................•.......... Seven door-frames bedded and pointed in lime and hair mortar.... Eight Roman cernent chimney shafts seven feet high (as shown by the details), and fixing and flanching up the same with cernent and plain tiles................................................... Eight chimney bars................................................ A cast-iron door with wrought-iron hinges, latch, &c., to the oven, and fixing the same.*........................................... Five sink stones in the areas, with five holes eut in each...... Nine cast-iron eight-inch stink-traps, and setting them......... Bedding bond plates and lintels in loam (loam is used in bedding, because a bedding of lime is supposed to destroy the timber).... £362 : 6: 4 246. Estimate of Plasterer's Work. One hundred and fifty-eight yards of lime-whiting twice over........ Two hundred and nineteen yards of whiting to new work............... Forty-four yards of stone-colouring on cernent .................... One hundred and fifty-five yards of floated render set.............. Eighty-seven yards of lath-laÿed and set............................ Three hundred and eighty-five yards of lath plaster, floated and set One hundred and fifty feet lineal of plaster cornices, as per drawing Four extra mitres in the cornices..........»....................... £6* : 9 : 10 247. Estimate ofSlater's Woi'h Twenty-three squares andaquarterof countess slating, with wrought- copper nails ................*..................................- £41 : 17 : O 248. Estimate of StonemasorCs Work* Seven feet superficial of plain work to the Portland stone shelf....... Twenty-eight feet of Portland stone chimney-pieces................. Eight feet ten inches of Portland stone, one and three fourths of an inch thick......................................................... Thirty-six feet seven inches of Portland stone slabs.............. Twenty-five feet six inches of Yorkshire stone hearths............ Fifty-nine feet six inches of Yorkshire stone paving, and pier caps... Eight feet nine inches of four-inch Yorkshire stone landing,...... Eleven feet three inches of Yorkshire stone sink, six inches thick.... Forty-six feet five inches of one and a quarter inch milled slate skirting, fixed with cramps, and set in cernent................. Ten feet two inches of lineal rounded edge to the Portland stone shelf........................................................... Five feet lineal of rounded edge to the Yorkshire stone landing, four inches thick.................................................... Seventy-three feet four inches of York quarry stone sills, eight inches wide, beveled, throated, and tooled (quarry stone is a term ap- plied to stones prepared at the quarry, for any particular purpose, such as sills, copings, steps, &c. ; without being very carefully tooled, or rubbed).............................................. Ten feet of York quarry stone coping, twelve inches wide.......... Forty-five feet of Yorkshire stone steps.......................... Two veined marble chimney-pieces in the parlours, at £l each ...COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. Twelve chimney cramps................................ One hole eut in the sink for a bell-trap.*.......... 249. Estimate of Carpenter's and Joiners Work. Four hundred and twelve feet eight inches cubic of Memel, or Dantzic fir, framed in the roof, thefloors, and the partitions........ Twenty feet three inches of wrought and framed timber, in brackets, eut circular ..................................................... Six feet eight inches of wrought and framed timber, in brackets with chamfered edges.................................................... One hundred and six feet ten inches of oak in the bond-plates and £53:. lintels.......................................................... Fifty-four feet eight inches of oak, framed in single flooring..... Sixty-six feet superficial of feather-edged valley-boards.......... Sixty-seven feet eight inches of three-quarter incli wrought eaves fillet........................................................... Nineteen squares sixty-eight feet of three-quarter inch slips, two and a half inches wide, for countess slating......................... Twenty squares thirty-four feet of inch yellow deal battening, two and a quarter inches wide, and twèlve inches apart............... Twenty-four feet superficial of inch gutters and bearers .......... Ninety-four feet one inch superficial of one and a quarter inch keys Ninety feet nine inches of hips and ridges rounded................. One hundred and thirty-five feet four inches of feather-edged eave- boards, with wrought and rounded edges............................... Fifty-three feet one inch of three-inch eut brackets, wrought and notched to the rafters ...............«.......................... Sixty feet of barrel curb to the well............................... Sundries. — Oak wood bricks........................................... Twenty-three slip centres to the arches (a slip of deal eut to the intended line of the soffit of the arch, and supported by an upright piece against each jamb. In fig. 245, t is the slip centre ; u u, the upright pièces which support it ; vv, the jambs ; and w> the arch........................................................... £810 250. Estimate ofJoiner's Work. Eighty-five feet cubic of fir,wrought, framed, and chamfered ........ Two cubic inches of oak-framed pump sill. (This may seem a small quantity; but the factis, that surveyors and builders divide the cubic foot, which contains 1728 cubic inches, into twelve parts, which they call inches ; so that the two cubic inches in this estimate are T22of 1728, or 288 cubic inches. This custom is adopted by sur- veyors, to save them the trouble in calculating the money value of fractional parts of cubic feet.)................................. 129 6 : S 17s 1130 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. Thirteen feet eleven inches of oak proper door-cases................. Six feet six inches of oak proper two-light window-frames.......... Eighty-six feet superficial of three-quarter inch square skirting.. Ten. feet four inches of latticing................................. Two hundred feet of inch wrought shelves........................... Tliirty-five feet one inch of ditto bead and butt back linings....... Twenty-one feet eight inches of ditto pump casing.................. Seventeen feet of ditto wrought lining tongued;...................... Five feet of ditto apron lining................................ Fifty-eight feet six inches of ditto torus skirting................ Sixty-six feetof ditto proper ledged doors.......................... One hundred and twenty feet eight inches of ditto square framed folding shutters, with rule joints. ............................. Eleven feet of ditto clamped lifting shutters, circular headed ......... Two hundred and rtinety-four feet six inches of ditto wrought, framed, and sunk grounds................................................. Fourteen feet seven inches of ditto deal risers and carriage....... Seventy feet one inch of ditto yelloW deal steps, risers, and carriage (the piece which carries the steps), with moulded nosings (the edges of the steps which are exposed toview)........................... Seven squares thirty-four feet of ditto yellow deal folding floors. Three squares ninety-three feet of ditto yellow deal straight-jointed floor One foot of one and a quarter inch cap to the pump.................. Fourteen feet eight inches of ditto square framed piers.............. Nineteen feet six inches of ditto wrought and rounded window board One hundred and ninety-six feet four inches superficial of ditto four- paneled doors, both sides square................................. One hundred and ten feet eight inches of ditto single-rebated jamb linings.......................................................... Twenty-four feet of ditto square framed spandril................... Thirty-four feet two inches of ditto proper boxings................ Twenty feet of ditto sunk and moulded close strings................ Fifty-tvvo feet of ditto raking torus wall strings................. Twenty-five feet of ditto treads of oak, and rounded nosings....... Ninety-six feet six inches of ditto ovolo fiat shutters, with inch bead and butt back flaps............................................. Forty-four feet nine inches of ditto ovolo fiat backs, elbows, and soffits splayed.................................................. Twenty-eight feet nine inches of one and a half inch single-rebated jambs, with circular heads....................................... Seventeen feet ten inches of ditto six-paneled doors, both sides square Thirty-five feet eight inches of ditto six-paneled doors, moulded on one side, and square on the backs................................ Three hundred and eighty-six feet of ditto deal cased frames, oak sunk sills, one and a half inch astragal, and hollow sashes; double- hung with iron weights, best white fines, and brass pulleys...... Nine feet four inches of ditto oak pump cheeks..................... Twenty-two feet nine inches of one and three quarter inch six-pa- neled doors, square on both sides, and circular-headed............ Twenty feet of two-inch deal floor to the flower balconies......... Twenty-two feet nine inches of deal sash doors, one and a quarter inch astragals, and hollow sashes, circular headed, double-mar- gined and diminished styles, three reeds, flush fronts and square back at bottom................................................... Ninety feet of two and a quarter inch deal wrought floor to the bal- conies............................................................ ' One hundred and thirty-two feet nine inches of three-inch eut brackets, wrought................................................ Five hundred and nine feet superficial of mouldings................ Ninety-six feet superficial of oak mouldings....................... Three hundred and seventeen feet three inches lineal of inch narrow beveled skirting and grounds..................................... One hundred and five feet of staff beads........................... Five hundred feet of quirked ovolo, and fillets........ ........... Fifteen feet of moulded planceer................................... Six feet of moulded nosings (on the staircase landing to form the edge)131 COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. One hundred and' eighty feet of three-quarter-inch square bar ba- lusters.................................................. • ... Twenty-one feet of deal moulded handrails ................. Six feet of plain deal handrails........................... £ 251. Estimate of Ironmongery and Fixing with Screws and Nails. Four pair of eighteen-inch cross-garnet hinges.................... Ten pair of rule-jointed hinges................................... Twenty-fourpair of shutter hinges................................. Twentÿ-one pair of two and a half inch butt hinges................ Nine pair of three and a half inch butt hinges ................... Four bright rod bolts six inches long............................. Four stock locks eight inches long................................... Two iron rim ten-inch drawback locks.............................. Seventeen patent spring sash fasteners............................ Three mortise locks, with plain brass knob furniture................. Seven iron rim six-inch locks, with brass knobs............... Nine iron bar shutter fastenings..................................... Eight brass spring shutter fastenings............................. Two studs and plates.............................................. Two shutter lifts................................................. One plate and screw fastening....................................... Four Norfolklatches .................................... ......... Five wrought-iron casements....................................... Five stay irons to the casements.................................. Twenty saddle bars of iron........................................ Twenty iron tenons............................................•••• Thirty square wrought-iron inch stanchion bars, three feet six inches long..................................................... Forty holdfasts (fig. 246) to the shelves......................... Twelve iron tie fastenings, to fix the brackets to the balconies... Sundries. —Four elbow caps............................................ Thirty steps housed into the strings at both ends.................. Four deal turned newels.............. ............................. Four turned knobs and bases, one foot high, and four inches in diameter......................................................... Fifty-four turned balusters, three feet three inches high, and three inches in diameter............................................... One hundred and ninety-four housings to the balusters.............. Forty wrought brackets to the shelves.............................. Forty-three turned balusters, three feet seven inches long........ £260 : 11 : 7 252. Estimate of Plumber's, Painter's, and Glaziei,ys Works» Thirteen cwt. 8 lbs. of milled lead..‘............................ Forty-one superficial feet of lead lights and quarry glass........ Two hundred and forty feet seven inches of Newcastle second crown- glass in sashes....................;............................ Four feet lineal of two and a half inch lead pipe to sink ........... Forty feet of two and a half inch lead suction pipe .............. One six-inch brass grate and bell-trap.............................. . One stout four-inch lead pump barrel, and fixing the same.......... One iron handle, bucket, and sucker, for the pump................. One hundred and ninety-two yards, three times painted in oil...... Forty-eight yards, three times painted in oil and flatted......... Three hundred and twenty-three yards, four times painted in oil... Five yards, four times painted in oil of an olive-green colour....132 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. One hundred and five feet lineal of staffbeads, three times painted in oil........................................................ Twenty-seven feet of handrail, three times painted in oil....... Two hundred and twenty-nine feet six inches of skirting, four inches high, three times painted in oil.............................. Sixty-seven feet nine inches of torus skirting eight inches high, three times painted in oil and flatted................................ Tvventy feet of torus skirting, three times painted in oil........ Ten lights, five casements, three times painted in oil.......... Twenty saddle-bars, three times painted in oil.................. Nine shutter-bars, three tildes painted in oil................... Three newels, three times painted in oil........................ Sixty balusters, three feet long, three times painted in oil.... Twelve dozen and a half of squares and frames three times, painted in oil............................'..................... Four dozen squares and frames, three times painted in oil, and flatted Sixteen dozen and a half of squares and frames four times, painted in oil........................................................ Ten lights, five casements, and five stay irons, four times painted in oil.......................................................... £9S : 8 : 1 253. Summary of Estimâtes. Excavator, Well-digger, aqd Bricklayer............................ 362 : 6 : 4 Plasterer.......................................................... 64: 9:10 Slater............................................................ 41:17:0 Stone Mason........................................................ 53 : 6 : 8 Carpenter, Joiner, and Ironmonger................................ 441 : 8 : 8 Plumber, Painter, and Glazier......................................... 98 : 8 : 1 j£l061: 16 : 7 254. Architectes Fee. The above sum is exclusive of the Architect’s fee, which, for small buildings, is generally 5 per cent on the amount, independently of a sum charged for the drawings ; say, in the case of a cottage, ^010, or upwards. In the case of larger buildings, say such as amount to <301000, or upwards, the Arcliitect is content with his commission and travelling expenses ; for which he supplies ail the working drawings as the work is going on, and visits it from time to time. When plans are made for any building, and the work is not executed, a charge is made according to the value of the drawings. In many, perhaps in most, cases of very large buildings, a clerk of the Works, résident on the spot, furnishes most or ail of the working drawings, under the occasional direction of the arcliitect, who in this case receives a smaller commission, or a certain sum per annum while the work is going forward. 255. An Estimate for this design, formed on the cubic contents, will serve in some measure as a guide for the price per cubic foot, at which dwellings so carefully finished and ornamented as the présent, should be calculaied. The number of cubic feet in De- sign XXXII. is about 32,000 ; which, at 7|d. per foot, amounts to ,301060. If we add a farthing per foot for the Architect, we shall hâve about ^01130 as the cost of this cottage, and 8d. as the rate per cubic foot, at which such cottages should be calculated, in a general or guess estimate. 256. Remarks. This Design conveys the expression of a comfortable, and even élé- gant dwelling. There is much of style in its external details, and yet we cannot point to any particular manner as its type. Its contributor, says, “ I do not know what style it can be said to be in ; it is of so complicated a nature in its details, that I know of no 'term which expresses their general resuit. Were I requested to analyse its component parts I should give it as my opinion that the gables resembled those of the Italian style ; the balustrading and galleries, the Flemish or German manner ; and that the large pro- jecting eaves partake of the Swiss character, I say this with due deference to Architects who hâve visited foreign countries, for my ideas are derived from books alone. The hood over the entrance door is somewhat similar to those made use of in the Berkshire farm buildings. Whatever may be said of the kind of style exhibited in Mr. Varden’s Design, ail our readers, we think, will agréé in the praise which we hâve already (§231 and 233) bestowed on it. The effect of the whole is highly picturesque, and nothing seems wanting to render the dwelling complété. Considering the number of rooms, the décorations, &c., it çertainly cannot be considered an expensive structure, for the neighbourhood of London. A very good situation for it would be the north side of a public road, with a lawn in front, fig. 247 (on a scalo of about forty feet to anCOTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES 133 XXXIII.134 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. XXXIV.COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLE 135 asparagus, sea-kale, tart rhubarb, strawberries, and other perennial crops, f; and another compartment for common culinary crops, surrounded on three sides by dwarf fruit trees, g. The boundary borders may be occupied with small and very early crops ; and the walls should be planted with fruit trees. The walks may havë box edgings, and be gravelled ; or, should the dwelling be in a neighbourhood where flag-stones are abundant, they may be paved, the pavement resting on stone piers, by which a great annual expense in keeping the walks and their edgings clean and in repair will be saved, and the ground underneath them rendered available for the roots of the fruit trees in the borders. Design XXXIII.—Two Cottage Dwellings, under the same Roof; each having Two Rooms and other Conveniences. 257. Accommodation. Each of thesedwellings contains a porch, a; kitchen, 5;.and bed-room, c, which may be made a sitting-room, by placing the bed in the closet, e. There is also to each a back kitchen,y*; a pantry, g; and a privy, lu One of these dweljings has an extra bed-room, d; and a very little change in the arrangement, as will be shown afterwards, would give a light bed-room to the other also. Some use may be made of the roof, by having trap-doors and ladders, as recommended in § 179. fig. 158. 258. Construction. This building having; only one story, the walls may be made of earth, smoothed, and. lime-whited externally ; and lathed and plastered inside. The columns of the porch may be portions of the trunks of fir or pine trees, with the bark re- moved, and the knotsand other irrégularités reduced. The roof may be of slate; and, as it is of considérable span, it may be constructed as in fig. 248, with principal and secondary rafters. v136 COTTAGE, FARM, 259. General Estimate. Cubic contents of the two bouses, 15,868 at 6d. per foot, £396 : 14s. ; at Ad. y £264 : 9s. : Ad. ; and at 3d.f. £198: 7s. 260. Remaries. Looking at the élévation, we should say that this is a simple and somewhat élégant Design ; and at the plan, that it appears convenient. When we examine it critically, however, we perceiye that the Windows are not sufficiently high for the pur- poses of ventilation ; and that their proportions are not such as are commonly received as élégant. On exàmining the section, it will be found, that the heads of these Windows are not near so high as the ceiling, and that the window sill is more than the usual height from the floor, We must, therefore conclude that the designer of this cot- tage intended it for a warm dimate, where it would be désirable to exclude the light ; but even if that were the object, it might hâve been effected better, by having Windows of the same form close under the eaves. The interior of such a cottage, in Britain, would be gloomy, and the ventilation bad’; but its appearance, as well as comfort, would be improved by changing the proportions of the Windows. There is one great fault in delineating the élévation of this Design, which must not be passed over. It consists in representing the two false Windows in the principal front exactly in the same manner as the real ones. Let the reader make a sketch without these false Windows, or eut out a bit of white paper, and place it over them in our élévation, and he .will see how different an effect will be produced. Whenever the effect of any design dépends mainly on any thing not essential to its use, the critic may always be certain that there is something wrong. In general, also, when imitations of the effect of time on buildings are introduced in architectural designs, they,are to be looked on with suspicion ; as well as ail accompaniments of trees, clouds, and figures. A design for a building should always hâve a distinct and independent beauty in itself ; a beauty which can be conveyed by lines in correct perspective, without any reference to either shading, colouring, or accompaniments. Examined by these tests, some of the most showy works on Cottage Architecture, of the présent day, will be found to be little better than pictures for the eye ; or, as some would express it, to gratify the sense of the picturesque. The Design before us is capable of very great improvement ; and, by altering the ground plan, as in fig. 249, two most comfortable 249 AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE* dwellings, of two rooms and two bed closets, with a back kitchen, pantry, and privy, to each, might be obtained under a very handsome exterior. Fig. 250 shows the perspective élévation of the principal front, in which a close porch, with square columns, is shown instead of an open one, with round columns. It is intended that the door shall be placed on whichever side of this portico may best suit the prevailing winds of the given situ* ation. If the building were to stand east aiid wést, the door of the porch ought to be on , ' • ' *COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 137 one side, and tliat, of course, the south ; if it stood north and south, then the door of the south porch ought to be on the south side ; and that of the north, on either the east or west, which ever may be considered the mildest aspect. Fig. 251 shows the back éléva- tion of these cottages, which will be found as handsome as that of the principal front, though differently composed. This also is a test of excellence in architecture. When- ever any one side of a building is not as good in architectural design as another side, it may infallibly be considered as a proof of either poverty of invention or négligence in the Architect ; or of want of means or of spiritin the employer. On the whole, for cheap and yèt élégant cottages of the lowest degree of accommodation, we can recommend this improved version of Design XXXIII. as equal to any thing which has been yetgiven in this work. In a recent number of the Garderie?s Magazine (vol. viii. p. 263), we hâve animadverted on the misérable hovels of one room, recently built on the Duke of Buccleugh’s estate in Dumfriesshire ; and on some still more wretched habitations, built along the coastjn Wigtonshire. We would recommend to the amiable Duchess of Buccleugh to advocate the substitution of dwellings like those before us, for the cottages to which we hâve referred, on her husband’s estate. Design XXXIV. — A Cottage Dwelling of Two Booms, intended as a Gâte Lodge- 261. Accommodation. In the ground plan of this Design, fig. 252, there is akitchen, a ; with a bed-room, b ; a light 252 closet to the bed-room, c ; a bed closet from the kitchen, d ; and a pantry, e. 262. Construction. The exterior walls may be of earth or stone ; and the interior of brick nogging fiat, with the exception of the chimney stacks. The pitch of the roof being low, itmust be covered with slates, or with Grecian or Tuscan tiles. 263. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 7*770 feet, at 6d. per foot, ,£1947. : 5s. ; at 4cl., £129 : 10$. j and at 3d., £97 : 2s. : 6d. 264. Remaries. The ex- pression is simple and appro-138 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. priate ; and it is heightened by the bench under the recess, which may be supposed to be placed opposite the gâte which the occupant is expected to open, and gives an air of ease and attendance on his part, as a porter’s chair does in the hall of a mansion. Design XXXV. — A Cottage Dwelling of Three Booms, with Bach Kxtchen> Cow-houset and other Conveniences. 265. Accommodation. This is a commodious cottage, and ail the accommodations being got within one roof, with the exception of two small lean-tos, it must be considered as promising to be economical in its érection. Bÿthe ground plan, fig. 253, it appears to contain an entrance, a, from under a projecting porch ; a kitchen, 5, with a bed- closet from it, c, for a child ; principal bed-room, d ; parlour, e ; back kitchen,^’; shed for fuel, g ; cow-house, h ; dairy, i ; water-closet, h, with a cistern of water over it, supplied from the roof ; and pantry, l. If the cow-house and dairy can be dispensed with, or removed to the yard, then g and h may be . got out of h> and the whole building included under one roof; always a most désirable object. This alteration effected, the back élévation may be rendered symmetrical,-and altogether as handsome as the: front or the ends, as exemplified in the improved plan, fig. 254.COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 139 XXXVII.140 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. XL.COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VAEIOUS STYLES. lél 266. Construction» The walls are for the most part shown thick, as if built of earth or stone ; and the roof is covered with Peake’s Grecian terro-metallic tiles. These being heavy, require considérable strength of timber in the rafters; but their durability we believe to be greater than even that of cast-iron. 267. General Estimate. Cubic contents 13,904 feet, at 6d. perfoot, £347 : 12s. ; at 4d.f £231 : 14s. : 8d. ; and at 3d., £173 : 16s. 268. The expression is somewhat analogous to that of the-Scotch stone cottage, Design VII. ; but the low pitch of the roof, the Grecian tiles, and the porch in front, are great imprpvements. Design XXXVI. — A Dwelling, with Four Booms, a Bach Kitchen, and other Cou- veniences. 269. Accommodation. This is calculated to form a very comfortable habitation, and ail the rooms being on the ground floor, the walls may be built of earth, and the apart- ments heated by flues in the floor from the back kitchen. The ground plan, fig. 255, 255 and back kitchen, m. 270. Construction. The walls may be of stone, finished with blocking courses, after the manner of Design VII. ; the roof of slate, and the Windows of sashes hung with weights and pulleys. The floors may either be of boards, or paved, and heated by flues from the back kitchen. 271. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 19,468 feet, at 6d. per foot, £486 :14s. ; at 4d., £324 : 9s. ; 4d. ; apd at 3d., £243 : 7s. • 272. Remarks. The expression is that of an humble but very comfortable dwelling ; though little care has been taken to create allusions to any particular style. The door in the porch, and also the entrance to the back kitchen, ought to be varied relatively to the position of the sun, and the prevailing winds. Design XXXVII. —A Dwelling of Four Booms, with other Conveniences, intended as a Lodge, or a House for a Bailiff, or Head-Gardener. 273. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 256, contains a kitchen, a, enterer from under a verandp, ; a parlour, b; a smàll bed-room, c ; back kitchen, d, from which the whole may be heated ;. pantry, e ; dusthole, f; place for potatoes and other roots, and for fuel, g ; and privy, h. Thére is a closet under the stairqase ; and in the cham- ber floor two small bed-rooms, and a garret over the kitchen. 274. Construction. The walls of the main building are shown of extra-thickness, with a view to situations where the cheapest building material is compressed earth, or rubble142 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE; ' stone. In brick countries, hollow brick walls will be found both the cheapest and the best, both for the main building and the lean-to, containing d, e,f, g, and h• The roof may be of slate ; the Windows latticed; and the pillars of the porch of squared wood ; or, in some countries, they would be cheaper and better of slate, or slate stone. It is not the custom to form such co lumns of earthenware tubes, such as are made for dues in hot-houses, both in Bri- tain and on the continent of Europe ; but we hâve no doubt that such a mode would answer well, the weight being carried by a prop of wood, iron, or brick, in the centre of the tubes. The terro-metallic earth of Staffordshire would form admirable columns, lintels, summer stones, copings, ornamental chimney tops, and other component parts of buildings. Indeed, much might be done with common brick earth; but, unfortunately for Britain, ail articles formed of this material are heavily taxed, and, to save trouble to the exciseman, the brickmaker is only allowed to make his bricks of certain forms and dimensions ; viz., for building bricks, nine inches by four inches and a half, and two inches and a half. If he deviates from these, and makes a brick either longer or broader than usual, or impresses a moulding on one end, or on one side, he renders himself liable to such an increase of duty as amounts to a prohibition of the article. Two or three centuries ago, bricks were made in every form, ornamental and useful, which the Architect could desire ; for a proof of which, we hâve only to look to the Elizabethan mansions which still exist in different parts of the country. Even so early as the time of Henry VIII., the art of making bricks to serve ail the purposes of stone in the jambs and lintels of doors and Windows, appears to hâve been carried to a great degree of perfection. At Sutton Place, near Ripley, in Surrey, built by this monarch’s brewer, the piers, lintels, mullions, chimney tops, tracery in the Windows of the chapel, and other parts, some highly ornamented, are formed of artihcial stone or brick ; and are still in excellent repair. Fig. 257, in isome- 256 trical perspective, on a scale of a quarter of an inch to a foot, shows the manner in which the shelf is supported over the window in the gable end. 275. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 10,818 feet, at 6d. per foot, «£270 : 9$., at 4d,t £180 : 6s. ; and at 3d., £135 : 4s. ; 6d. 276. Remarks. What has the mental architect to say to this building ? What is the kind of mind discoverable in the élévation ? Certainly it does not exhibit a single feature of vulgarity. The pillars and comice, and the brackets to one of the Windows, hâve, onCOTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 143 the contrary, a simple and rather élégant appearance. The shapes of the three Windows are different, and yet not opposed, and they are in three different positions relàtively to the walls and the roof, forming an agreeable variety, or perhaps rather harmony. On the whole, we are satisfied with this élévation» and the plan is convenient. Design XXXVIII.—A JDwelling of Three RoomSy with a Back Kitchen, and other Cm- veniences, intended as a Porteras Lodge, or Gardener's Home. 277. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 258, shows an entrance lobby, a ; kitchen, b \ back kitchen, c ; parlour, d ; bed-room, e ; closet, f ; cellar, g ; pantry, h ; dusthole, i; privy, h ; a place for fuel, roots, and another for bees, exterior to^. 258 278. Constructim. The walls are sliown ofa thickness proper for earth or rubble stone. The roof is in two parts, fig. 259 ; one part, m n, covering the main body of the house ; and the other part, op q, __________ 7 being a lean-to at the back. From 259 —— this construction of the roof, the whole of the water might be easily, and with little expense, collected, and conveyed _________ L____________________________________ to a cistern over h, or to a tank under h or l. 279. General Estimate. 13,334 cubicfeet, at 6d. per foot, £333: 7s.; at 4d., £222 : 4s. : 8d. ; and at 3d., £161:13s. : 6d. 280. Remarks. The effect of the front élévation is dignified, and the expression, with reference to use, is that of substantial comfort. There does not appear to be much attempt at style. A side or back view would not give so favourable an expression, because a great breadth of lean-to roof has always a mean effect. To counteract this, care must be taken in planting the garden, fig. 260, (drawn to a scale of a quarter of an inch to ten feet,) that trees be so placed as to break the horizontal lines from every point of view wherice the lean-to part of the roof can be seen. The simplest mode of effecting this would be by planting a row of trees in the border below the terrace, commencing at r, and continued round s to t : but this would shade the Windows, and stagnate the air about the house; and, therefore, a better mode is, to place only a few trees in. that situation, and scatter others throughout the garden (but always so as not to impede ita1 M< COTTAGE, FARM, AND. VILLA, ARCHITECTURE. regular cultivation), between the dotted lines u r, and » t, and the back part of the garden w. The reason for the range, preciselÿ within which the trees must be planted, will be sufficiently obvious to ail who hâve the slightest idea of perspective. Trees scattered along the boundary of the garden, from u to wy and from w to v, would never disguise any part of the house from a spectator walking along the outside of the boundary, because they would be too near the eye ; and trees scattered any where between the dotted lines u r and x, and t v and a?, would be of no use in disguising the lines of a roof, or indeed any other object, situated between r and s, or between s and t. When the view is unconfined, the horizontal range of vision taken by the eye is ninety degrees; and, consequently, a fixed position for the eye being given, the nümber of trees required to. plant out any distant object, filling the whole of this angle, will chiefly dépend on the distance of, the trees from>the eye: on the contrary, when an object, filling a small- part only of the angle of vision, is to be concealed from a variety of points, through.ail of which the eye may range, the number of trees required will increase in proportion to their distance from the object. Thus, it will appear by fig. 260, that sixty-four trees would be required in the boundary hedgerow to hide that part of the house marked r s t, from an eye which could range from uy by wy to vy whereas sixteen trees would effect the same object, if placed near the platform on which the house stands. In the case of this garden, we neither recommend the hedgerow, uwvy of sixty-four trees, nor the semicircular row, r ty of sixteen trees ; but, as before observed,. we would effect our object by scattering them in the garden at different distances from those parts of the house/ which are to be concealed. Design XXXIX. — Two JDwellings for Country LabourerSs under One Roof with Two Booms in eachy and other Conveniences. 281. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 261, shows the fôllowing accom- modation for each cottage: —a projecting open porch, a; entrance lobby, b ; kitchen or living-room, c, with a closet under the stair; back kitchen, d, from which the whole might be heated; place for fuel or roots, e ; privy, /*; and cow-house, g. On the chamber flôor there are one good bed-room and a closet to each dwelling, There is a small yard to each cow-house, with a pigsty, h ; dung-pit, i ; and a liquid manure tank, k. There is a grass-plot to each cottage ; and a garden in front, and along one side ; behind may be a grass field or lawn. 282. Construction. “ The walls,” observes our contributor, “ may be of stone, or mud ; the roofs may be thatched with straw or reeds, and wattîed down at the ridge with hazel rods, as shown in the élévation. The Windows may be latticed, having the lintels, sills, and rabbet-heads, &ç, plastered (the rabbet-head of a window is a ScotchCOTTAGE DWELLJNGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 145 a IL cQ / BT term for what in England is called the reveal of a window, viz. p, in fig. 262 ; and what in Scotland is called the back-hlled rabbet, or the back-filled rabbet-head, is in *—--------------t-------j_________________ England called the facing, or architrave, y viz., qf in fig. 262, projecting an inch ail ----------------- round. This term is, however, only ap- plied to plain facings round doors and Windows externally ; for, wlien the facings round both the exterior and interior open- ings are moulded, they are called, as in England, “ architraves.” Fig. 263 is a section across the chamber floor, to show, that a part of thé height of the bed-rooms is obtained from the roof. 283< General Estimate. The two houses contain 12,986 cubic feet, which, at 6d. per foot, is £$24: 13s. ; at 4d., £216 : 8s. : Bd. ; and at 3d., £162: 6s. : 6d. 284. Remarks. There is an appearance of comfort about these cottages, and yet there is something mean in the roof slouching down over the two bed-rôom Windows. The manner of roofing the lean-tos is altogether bad ; a gutter against a gable-end wall Q □□□[ li---nu146 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. is almost certain to leak, or to become choked up, more especially when the roof is thatched. The building, however, is so far expressive .of its purposes, that it can never oe mistaken for any thing else than a cottage ; and, on the whole, is rather picturesqu j than othervvise. Design XL. — Two Cottages ofThree Rooms eaclu under the sarne Roof, with Cow-hon>e, Pigsty, and ailier Conveniences to eaclu 285. Accommodation. Each dwelling contains a porch, a ; kitchen, b ; back-kitchen, c; dairy, d ; store closet, e; two bed-rooms,/and g ; privy,h place for fuel, i ; pigsty, k ; and cow-house, l. Where neither cows nor pigs are kept, the cow-house may, with propriety, be used as a root-cellar and place for fuel, and the pigsty as a dusthole ; or, k and i may be got out of the space occu- pied by l\ and thus the whole of the con- veniences required may be obtained under one simple parallelogram roof. 286. Construction. The walls are shown of such a thickness as to admit of their being constructed of stone, or of earth, and the roof may be of slate : the eaves, where the roof projects over the porch, are supported in the manner exhibited in the section, fig. 264, or in fig. 265, both to a scale of half an inch to a foot, as double or single rafters may be required. 287. General Esti- mate. Cubic contents, 265 26,304 feet, at 6d. per foot, £651 : 12s. ; at 4d., £438 : 8s. ; and at 3d., £328 : 16s. 288. Remarks. Con- sidered as the lowest description of cottages, for country labourers these dwellings are commodious, and are calculated for being executed at a moderate charge. The walls in the ground plan are shown of more than the usual thickness, be- cause they are supposed to be built of earth, with the exception of the chimney stacks. formed of brick nogging on edge, fig. 266. or flag stone ; or formed of gravel or mortar mixed together, and laid down immediately, then beat smooth, and covered with a thin coat of cernent. Of whatever earthy materials the floors are made, they must be heated by a flue from the back kitchen ; because, othervvise, the dwelling would be ' cold and uncomfortable in winter. This flue will not re- quire the fire to be lighted more than two or three times a week ; because, if the floor be constructed as directed in describing Design 1., it will retain the beat communicated to it by the flue for several days. If the floors be made of boards, the flue may be dispensed with ; because, in that case, there will be a vacuity between the boards and the soil of, at least, two feet. The bottom of this vacuity should be, The partitions* between the closets may be The floors may be paved with bricks, tiles, 266 g r ~~r~ T _L _L X i _L - a T F X JL X a _L X L_COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOÜS STYLES. 147 at least, one foot above the surrounding surface, in ôrder that no water may ever drain into, or. rest upon it. Each cottage should hâve a yard behind it, surrounded by a wall of earth, with a projecting coping of slate, tile, or boards, and the entrance to this yard may eitlier be at one side, or behind, according to the arrangement of the walks of the garden. It is almost needless to observe that there ought to be a dung-pit and liquid manure tank in each yard, communicating with the privy by a pipe-drain; and, where superior cleanliness is an object, this drain should communicate with the cow-house and pigsty in the same manner. 289. Omament. These dwellings may be ornamented with handsome chimney pots ; by covering the roof with a trellis for vines ; by adding another pillar to each porch ; and by a handsome architectural parapet. Supposing the slope of the parapet not to be less than forty-five degrees, and covered with turf, and the upper part gravelled, with a margin of turf of about a foot in width, the effect from the surrounding garden would be exceedingly good, without any other addition than the chimney-pots. Design XLI. — Six Cottages grouped togetlier, with a view to Ecommy in building them. 290. General Arrangement. The object of this Design is, to show the manner in which dwellings may be erected with the greatest degree of economy. We hâve before observed (§ 23), that, where this is the case, the external form will always approach more or less to that of a cube, and the internai apartments will also approximate to this figure. In the Design submitted, figs. 267 and 268, six dwellings are ranged round an 267 2 open yard, a, which contains a privy, b, and well, c, common to the whole ; beside this is a wash-house and bake-house, d, also common to the whole. The building is two stories high, each story being eight feet high in the clear, 291. The situation of this group may be supposed to be near a public road,148 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. indicated as ranged on three sides of the building, and the whole space occupied by the dwellings and gardens need not, in ordinary cases, exceed oné acre. The accommoda- tions of the separate dwellings vary from two to four rooms each. The place for a wash-house and bake-house is intended to be used in rotation by each family, so that it will be employed as a wash-house and bakehouse six days in the week, and as a bake- house only on the Sunday morning. One of the cottagers may liave the general ma- nagement of the wash-house and of the oven ; and this management may either be taken by ail in turn, or a small payment be made for it monthly by ail to one, &c. 292. Accommodation of each Cottage. The four dwellings, marked gggg^ contain each a principal room ten feet by twelve feet, and a small room of ten feet by eight feet, on both floors, with a closet under the staircase. The two dwellings, marked h A, contain each a room ten feet by twelve feet, on both floors, with a closet under the staircase. 293. Construction. The walls are supposed to be built of brick, and the roof slated. If, instead of brick, timber were used, there would, at the présent price of British timber about London (£3: 10s. per load of fifty cubic feet), be asaving of from £50 to £60 on the six dwellings. In this case, ail the exterior and foundation timber ought to be oak, but the rest may be of any description of wood of British growth. The floors of both stories are to be of deal boarded ; the Windows of latticèwork in iron frames, and the covers to the entrance porches of slate slabs. 294. Spécification and Estimate. These are here combined ; the building being of so simple a description, that a separate spécification is not considered necessary. 295. Bricklayer, Plasterer, and Slater's Work. The bricklayer is to build the walls externally, and the division walls between each cottage, of one brick in thickness, with three courses of footings, one foot and a half thick. The openings of the chimneys on the ground floor to be two feet six inches wide, with jambs of one brick in thickness ; and the chimneys of the chamber floor to be one foot six inches wide, with half-brick trimming arches. The space under each staircase to be paved, and enclosed with brick - work one foot six inches high, and half a brick in thickness. £ s. d. Fifty-three thousand bricks, per thousand 38s..................... Six and a half bushels of lime for every thousand of bricks, at 8d. per bushel, is, per thousand of bricks, 4s. : 4d............... Road drift (the scrapings of roads, being stone or gravel, ground to powder by the traflSc on the road, and therefore become a sort of sand,) or pit or river sand, for every thousand of bricks say 2s. : 2d. Labour for every thousand of bricks, 8s.......................... In ail, per thousand of bricks, £2 : 12s. : 6d. which for 53 thousand is (The above price is equal to <^11 : 5s. per rod of brickwork.) Digging the foundations ......................................... Twelve chimney pots, and setting them, at 4s...................... Twelve cast-iron fronts to the fireplaces, five eighths of an inch thick, four inches wide, with slabs half an inch thick, and one foot six inches wide, at 13s ........................................... Twenty stone sills to the Windows, at ............................ One hundred feetlinealof ridgetiles, at 4d. ..................... Eighteen squares of countess slating on the roof, at 25s......... As slating is the lightest covering, and the cheapest in most parts of England at the présent time ; it is préférable to tiles. 139 : 2 : 6 2 : 10 : : 0 2 : 8 : : 0 17 : 16 : ; 0 6 : 0 : ; 0 2 : 16 : : 0 22: : 10 : : 0COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 149 Thirty feet superficial of half-inch slabs over the entrance porches, £ $. d. at ls. per foot .......................................................... 1 : 10 : 0 Two cwt. of milled lead for valleys, at 30s................................ 3 : 0 . 0 Two hundred and thirty-three yards of plaster, set and whited on latli, to the ceilings, at ls. : 3d............................................. 14; 6: 3 Seven hundred and fifty-five yards of plaster, set and whited, to the walls, at 7%d...............................................................23 : 11 : 10 296. Carpenters Work. The timber may be of larch, elm, or any other timber of equal durability. The rafters of the roof are to be four inches by one and a half inches. The ridge pièces, hips, and valleys, to be seven inches by one and a half inches. The ceiling joists to be four and a half inches by one and a half inches. The joists to the floors to be seven inches by two inches. The plates to the roof, to the floors, and to the angle ties, to be four inches by four and a half inches. The lintels to be four inches by three inches. The wooden bricks for fitting joiner’s work to the brickwork to be four inches by two and a half inches. The door-frames to be four inches by three inches. Eleven and a half loads of timber de- livered ........................................£& : 10 : 0 Sawing the same, per load......................... 0 : 10 : 0 Labour and nails, per load...................... 1 : 5:0 In ail, per load..................... 5 : 5:0 which, for eleven and a half loads, is.................. Fourteen squares of three-fourth-inch battening for slates, at 12s. ... One hundred and seventy feet superficial of three-quarter-inch eave boards, at 4d.........,............................................ Seventy-six slip centres for the openings, at ls..................... 297. Joiners Work. The joiner’s work for these dwellings is calculated on the supposition that deals twelve feet in length, three inches thick, and nine inches wide, cost, when delivered, per 120, £36. Twenty-six squares of three-quarter-inch deal wrought floors, at 31s. Two hundred and fifty-five feet superficial of three-quarter-inch deal skirting, 5\d...................................................... Twenty-three and a half squares of five-eighth-inch deal matched (the edge of one board grooved, and the adjoining board tongued, with a pair of planes fitting into each other, called match planes), and beaded boarding, planed on both sides, for each side of the stairs, at 34s. .................................................... Latches and bolts to twenty-four doors................................ Ten one and a half inch deal two paneled square doors, each measuring twenty-four superficial feet, and each having a latch and a boit, with stops, and hung with three-inch butt hinges, to be provided for the rooms on the ^ground floor, each door complété, at 23s.............................................. Twelve one and a half inch two paneled bead butt, and square out- side doors, each measuring sixteen feet three inches superficial, and each having a lock, latch, and oak sill, with half-inch lining to the frames, and hung with three-inch butt hinges, at 25s............... Twelve three-light frames to the Windows, and eight two-light frames of one and a half inch deal five inches wide, framed, rebated, and beaded ; the whole containing four hundred and sixty-four feet lineal, including the fitting in of the lights, at 6d.............. Twenty-six lifting shutters for the Windows of the ground floor of five eighths of an inch deal, ledged ; each shutter measuring four feet six inches superficial........................................ Twenty iron casements and fastenings ................................. Six staircases of inch deal, housed into one and a half inch strings, and framed newels and handrails....................................... 63 : 0 : 0 8 : 8 : 0 2 : 17 : 0 1 : 6: 0 40 : 6: 0 5 : 16 : 10 4:4:0 11 : l'O : 0 15 : 0 : 0 11 : 12 : 0 4 : 8 : 0 3: 10 : 0 15 : ; 0 • 0 298. Glaziers Work. Fifty-two lights glazed with quarries, each mea- suring six feet superficial, at ls. : 6d.................................. 19 : 10 : 0 Ninety-six saddle bars to the lead lights............................... 1 4 : 0 299. Painter's Work. The woodwork to be painted four times in oil colours ......................................................... 95 : 0 : 0150 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. £ s. d. 16: Si 0 14: 0: 0 30 : 0 : 0 5:0:0 2 : 10 : 0 4 : 9 : 0 7:1:9 2 : 8 : 0 2: 1:0 Total (£98 : 10s. : 10jd. per dwelling, or) £ 591 : 5 : 2 301. The qforesaîd priées are prime cost ; but if a builder be employed, a profit must be added, according to the mode of payment. 302. Remarks. For the foregoing very economical and convenient design, spécifi- cation, and estimate, \ve are indebted to Mr. W. Laxton, Surveyor, Holborn Bars, London ; well known among professional men as the author of Laxton's Builder's Price Book. We hâve given it exactly as received, in order that the spécification and estimate might apply to the engravings ; and we shall now show how we think it might be improved ; though, of course, by adding to the expense. The first thing which we shall suggest is, the building of the walls with brick on edge, in the manner of Dearn or Silverlock, both to be hereafter described. According to Dearn’s mode, a saving of one third in the number of bricks would be obtained, at once deducting £46: 7s. : 6d. from the estimate, besides producing walls which would keep the apartments within warmer in winter, and coder in summer. By raising the general floor of these dwellings two feet or three feet above the level of the surrounding surface, according to the nature of the soil and subsoil, and by having the oven in a sunk area three feet deep, a flue might be con- ducted from it under the ground floor of every apartment, as explained under Design I., § 34. O ver the oven might be placed a box boiler, from which a fiat tube, six inches by three inches, might be conducted horizo'ntally under the floors of ail the rooms on the ground flboV ; by which they would bp sufficiently heated. If an underground smoke flue were employed, it would be necessary to hâve the floor paved, at least in part, with tiles or flag stones ; but if a hot water pipe were conducted round the building, in the direction of the dotted line iii, in fig. 267, a boarded floor might be used. 303. Privy. In thè yard there ought unquestionably to be two privies, one for each sex ; and these might, at a very little expense, be rendered water-closets ; not by a cis- tern over them, the water in which would be liable to be frozen in winter ; but by a cistern in the wash-house, which would, at the same time, supply water for washiiig and other purposes. Basinsshould be placed in the privies, as shown in fig. 13, § 38, and, in order to prevent the waste of water, an arrangement may be made only to admit a little to the basin, every time the door is opened and shut. For this purpose, in addition to the simple and efficient plans described under § 39, we shall here exhibit a less perfect one employed in the British Muséum. In this example, which will be understood from fig. 269, as soon as the door of the water-closet is opened beyond a right angle, the 300. Sundries.—The érection of the wash-house will amouiit to....... Oven and copper.................................................. Well,,fifty feet deep, including bucket and tackle................ Erection of a privy.............................................. Fifty feet of drain ............................................. Two hundred and forty-three feet lineal of three-quarter-inch deal, planed, to the eaves, soffit, and fascia.............».......... Two hundred and forty-three feet in length of cast-iron gutter to the eaves...................................................... Seventy-two feet lineal of two-inch cast-iron pipe............... Six heads and six shoes to the pipe, and four angles to the gutter ...COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 151 wrought-iron rod fixed on it at a pulls the brass chain through the pulley b, that eommupicates with the crank c ; to which a wire is attached, that runs along ^ as sliown in the figure, between c and d. The crank d pulls down the lever e, which lifts the valve ^ and consequently admits the water from the cistern through the small pipe g, to the basin. Fig. 270 shows the brass pulley, b, on a large scale. Fig. 271 represents 271 the crank c, also on a large scale. Fig. 272 is an enlarged view of the crank d. The cross pièces of thecranksfor the réception of the screw nails are of iron japanned, and the other parts ôf the cranks are of brass. Fig. 273 represents the wrought-iron rod a, which is fixed on the door, and to which the chain is attached. Fig. 274 shows the spring 274 273 JJ à that shuts the door, in which h is a roller moving on the iron plate i, nailed to the door. It is almost superfluous to add that the whole of the water of the roof may be conveyed to the supply cistern, by connecting the outer eaves* gûtters with the inner ones, by means of pipes carried along the party walls, immediately under the roof ; that one of Siebe’s pumps may be used for supplying this cistern in.times of great drought ; or that the water, when filtered, may be preserved cool in an underground tank. § 151, fig. 119. 304. Manure Tank. The importance of manure to a cottager’s garden ought never to be lost sight of ; every means ought to be made use of to collect it ; and for this purpose not a drop of soap-suds or of foui water ought to be lost ; but the cess-pool, provided in this design, is much too small, and very incon- veniently situated for being emptied ; not to speak of its proximity to the well of pure water. We would recommend a larger cess-pool in one of the gardens, connected with the one in the yard by a barrel drain, and conveniently situated for dis- tributing its contents among the different gardens. We recommend attention to what we hâve before observed on this subject, when de- scribing Design I. 305. The Cistern in the wash- house should be raised at least eight feet from the floor; and, besides supplying the water-closets, it may communicate with a filter of a simple construction, from which water may be drawn at pleasure for the pur- poses of cookery or washing. This filter may bethus constructed:—Fig. 275, A:, represents the cistern;/, a cask; containing the filtering ma- terial at m, a space for the déposi- tion'of impurities from the water to be filtered, at n, and for the filtered water at o. This cask is connected with the supply cistern by the pipe152 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. g, which, having a stopcock at p, water may be admitted to n at pleasure ; and this water, by the pressure from that in the cistern, will speedily irise through the filter, m, to the space, o ; from which it may be drawn off by the cock, r. There is also a cock, s, for drawing off the water from n, when it is desired to clean the filter, which may be done by allowing the water from o to descend. It may be observed, that if at any time, there should be a deficiency of water in the cistern, k, water from any other source maybe filtered from the barrel, l, by the following means: —First, the filter, m, may be cleaned by pouring in water at the top of the cask through the funnel, t ; and afterwards water from the well, or any other source, may be poured into o, and drawn off by s for use, till the cistern, k, is again supplied from the roof. A wooden or copper bath may be placed in the wash-house ; which may be supplied with cold water from the filtering cask, or with hot water from the cistern over the oven, or from the washing and brewing boiler. The brewing utensils may also be deposited in this part of the building, and may be used in common. 306, A Drying- Close t, by another slight arrangement, might be formed over the oven ; ail that is necessary for this purpose, being to hâve the cast-iron box containing the water, fig. 276, made rather larger than the bottom of the closet ; that part of the cover of b b b b ___/ls\______ns\_____as\________ns\ _ admit of the escape of steam when the water boils. The portion of the cover of the boiler which forms the bottom of the closet may hâve grooves, b b b b, cast in it, or riveted to it, or to a false bottom, at six inches* distance from each other ; in which grooves may slide clothes-horses, to hold the clothes to be dried. There should be a large cock for draw- ing off the water at c; and, from the side which will be placed next the wall, a conducting or outgoing tube, d, and a returning o'ne, e, for the circulation of the hot water round the building. The upper surface of the outgoing pipe will be on a level with the floors of the rooms, and form part of them ; and the projections of three inches on each side of this pipe are pierced with holes, to permit the heat from the sides of the tubes to rise into the rooms. Over the grooved surface of the boiler a closet may be formed, five or six feet or more in height, three feet wide, and four or five feet long. This would admit of four clothes-horses standing side by side, at six inches apart ; and by a small opening in the bottom of the door (say half an inch in depth, and the whole of its width), with a corresponding opening in the ceiling of the closet at the opposite end, a current of air will be produced, which will rapidly convey away the moisture from the clothes. This arrangement would not in the least interfère either with baking in the oven, heating ail the dwellings with hot water, or supplying hot water for ordinary uses, as the following figures will show : — Fig. 277 is the foundation plan of the wash-house, in which the oven, fy is retained in the same position as in fig. 267, but varied in size, and sunk lower ; g shows the steps down to it ; and h is the area for fuel. Fig. 278 is a surface plan, showing the drying-chamber, t, over the oven, and the boiler for wash- ing and brewing, k. Fig. 279 is a section on the line A B, of the plans figs. 277 and 278, in which are shown the steps down to the oven, l ; the hot-water box, m, and hot- air closet over it, n. Fig. 280 is a section of fig. 278 on the line C D, in which are shown the oven, o ; the hot-water box over it, p ; the hot-air closet, q ; the opening under the door, r ; and the other opening near the ceiling, s. Fig. 281 is a section on the line E F of fig. 278, showing the front of the hot-water plate, tf the cock for drawingCOTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 153 off the water, u, and the two pipes for circulating it, v and tu. The hot-water box inay be either of cast-iron in one piece, or of riveted plates of iron or copper. It may be mentioned, that it would be an improvement to bave what may be called a false bottom to the closet, made of iron, or even of wood, to which the grooves might be attached, 282 and placed about an inch above the top of the boiler, with an opening (of about lialf an inch in depth, and the whole width of the closet), at the door, for the admission of the air to be heated, and another at the opposite end, about twice the size, for the escape of the hot air into the closet. The effect of tlu's arrangement would be, to carry off more heat from the cover of the boiler, and consequently to make the closet hotter. The principle has been illustrated in Perkins’s steam-generater, as dcscribed in the Mechanics' Magazine, vol. xvii. This pipe for circulating the water should be of iron; and it would be an improvement to hâve the upper one square, or at least fiat at top, about nine inches wide, with projecting flanches of grating, as in fig. 282, so that when the whole was laid down, paintèd of the colour of deal board, and completed, it might ap- pear ornamental rather than otherwise. The grating on each side of the pipe, x x, in fig. 282, it is almost. needless to observe, is to admit heat from the under pipe. By liaving the upper surface of the outgoing pipe no higher than the level of the floor of the apartments, no interruption is offered to the opening of the different doors which pass from the dwelling-ropms into tlie yard or to the wash-house. The lo\V position of tlie pipes will also heat the air of the rooms more effectually than if tliey were higher ; and, R-3"0 154 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE* so placed, they will be found convenient for warming tlie feet, and for keeping vessels of water or of food hot. Those who are acquainted with the mode of heating hot-houses by hot water will allow that there is not the slightest degree of difficulty either in erect- ing such an apparatus, in the first instance ; or, when erected, in managing it, and keeping it in repair ; and further, that, by it, it would be easy, in the most severe weather of even a Russian winter, to maintain a température of 60° and upwards in ail the rooms ori both floors of this group of cottages. 307. Windows. We do not like latticed Windows, because they are generally cold and gloomy ; but as they are much cheaper than sashes hung with cords and pulleys, where economy is a main object, recourse must either be had to them, or to iron Windows. Windows of cast iron, very fit for cottages, are now made, of different forms, and very cheap. Fig. 283, which is one foot two inches and a half wide, and two feet four inches high, and weighs 8 lbs., costs in London, in 1832, by retail, only 3s. 6d. Fig. 284, in the Gothïc form, which is one foot four inches wide, and three feet 7 inches high, weighs 23 lbs., and costs 6s. Fig. 285, two feet six inches square, weighs 19 lbs., 284 and costs 6s. 6d. Fig. 286 is one foot seven inches wide, and three feet high, weighs 11§ lbs., and costs 5s. 6d. Fig. 287 is one foot seven inches wide, three feet four inches high, weighs 20 lbs., and costs 6s. 6d. These Windows hâve each, either ears in the centre, as at a a, figs. 285,286. 287, by which they may be suspended, so as to open out- wards at bottom, and inwards àt top, or the contrary ; or they hâve side-ears, to which hinges may be riveted, as at b bt in figs. 283 and 284. Fig. 288 is a superior description of 287COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 155 cottage window : itis two feet six iriches broad, three feét high, weiglis 34lbs., and costs 155. This sash is calculated for being fixed in the masonry, having in the centre a square of six panes, which opens for thë admission of air. As it requires no window frame or hinges, it must be a very cheap substitute for the sash window. Mr. Laxton appears to hâve cliosen the cheapest of these casements ; but, where ornament or style is thought worthy of attention, the Gothic or Grecian headed iron sashes, figs. 284 and 288, would still be found economical. 308. Gardens. We do not think it désirable that tliere should be a walk round this building close under the windows, because it would hâve a tendency to destroy privacy. We would rather give a small flower-garden or grass-plot, to each house, separated by low walls, and forming separate entrances through each plot, as showrt in fig. 289. We 289156 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. c c, &c. As the floors in the original plan, figs. 267 and 268, are already two steps above the surrounding surface, thi& terrace will occasion no other expense than the proper disposai of the earth which cornes out of the foundations, the well, and the cess- pools. The kitchen-gardens, d d, would remain in the same positions as in fig. 267. We hâve shown a walk, four feet broad, round each garden, under the hedge, which may be of fruit trees, and we hâve placed the liquid mânure tanks, e, in a situation which will be central to ail the gardens. The emptying of theàe tanks should belong to each occupier in rotation. Nothing but useful plants and fruits will require to be grown in the large gardens, d d, &c., because the borders round the grass plots will be sufficient for flowers and ornamental plants. In order that this building may hâve a proper aspect, the diagonal of the parallelogram should form a north and south line, fig. 289, s n, (see § 24) ; however much the line of the front of the building may diverge from the line of the road. Ail that is necessary in this case is to include the building and its gardens in a parallelogram, one side of which coïn- cides with the line of the road, as in fig. 290, in which/is the public road, and g is the building, in a parallelo- gram of exactly the same size as in fig. 289. Here it will be observed that the north and south line is atHght angles with the public road. 309. Ornament. This building rnight be decorated, by surrounding it with a véranda, or a perithouse roof, which would give to each dwelling a covered walk during rain, or a hot mid-day sun, or under which clothes, herbs, or Indian corn, might be dried. The roof of this véranda or penthouse might be slated like that of the dwell- ing ; and this would supersede the necessity of covering the entrance lobbies with slabs, as in fig. 267. Suppose the whole building sur- rounded by a penthouse roof; brackets placed under the eaves of the principal roof ; Tuscan tiles used, and the common chimney pots supplanted by ornamental ones; the offect of the 291157 COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES, wholè would not be unpleasing, fig. 291. Or if, instead of a véranda, Gothic porches were added to each entrance, as in the plan, fig. 292, and Gothic labels were placed over the lower Windows, a Gothic character given to the doors, and to. the cast-iron gratingj and Gothic chimney pots added to the chimney tops, something ornamental in a different style would be produced, fig. 293. 294 Design XLII.—A Cottage of Three Booms, in the Elizabethan Style. 310. Accommodation. From a porch, a, tliere are two entrances ; one to a kitchen, b, with two light closets, c, d ; and the other to a parlour, e, and a bed-room,^ with a closet, g. No out of door conveniences are sliown ; and they must therefore be sup- posed to be placed in a yard, at a short distance from the dwelling. 311. Construction. The walls are supposed to be of stone, and the roof covered with grey slates. The openings of the Windows are shown with plain architraves or facings ; the sashes are modem, and hung with weights and pulleys. The porch is supported by a wooden column, which rests upon a square stone plinth, and has a plain capital. The chimney pots may be formed of cernent, agree- ably to fig. 294. The platform or terrace may either be finished with turf and gravel, or paved, as in Design XXXII., as may be most convenient in the given situation. 312. General Estimate. Cubic con- tents, 13,615 feet, at 6d. per foot, £340:7s.:6d.-, at4d., £226:18s.: 4d.; at 3d., £170 : 3s. : 9d. 313. Bemarks. This is evidently an ornamental cottage, and certainly possesses some characteristics of the Elizabethan style. Were a cellar floor added, and the stair to it made in the closets c and g, the accom- modation and convenience would be greatly increased ; a small stair might be continued from the same situation to the roof, the space in which, as exhibited by the section, might be applied to various useful purposes. A garret, where there is a suffi cient number of openings for ventilation*95 x: J j 158 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTE RE. may always be made use of in the winter season for drying clothei, and in summer for drying green herbs, or seeds in the pod. In the larger houses in many-parts of France, and in both large houses and cottages in most parts of Germany, clothes are always dried in the garrets. A decided improvement to this cottage would be an alteration in the position of the kitchen fireplace ; by which means, by having a cast-iron back to it, it might be made to heat both the bed-room,yï and the parlour, e ; either, or both, at pleasure. We do not think this mode so effectuai as that by a flue under the floor, which, if a cellar story were added to this cottage, might be most convenientlÿ adopted ; but as it may be useful in the case of cottages with boarded floors, or with earthen or paved floors, so low, or otherwise so circumstanced, as that flues cannot be made in them, we shall show how the alteration may be made. 314. Heating frorn the Back of the Kitchen Fire. Suppose the fireplace of b, in Design XLII., to hâve a cast-iron back, three feet square, and that six inches of each end are built into the brickwork, as at h h, in fig. 295, then it is évident that whenever there was a good fire at i, a great portion of heat would be communicated to the space behind o ; and that this heat might either be allowed to escape freely into both rooms, k and /, or confined by two doors, m and n (which may be wood), so as to admit the whole of the heat to either room at pleasure. By having a central door or movable partition in the situation of the dotted line marked o, the heat may either be equally divided between the two rooms, or half. the heat may be admitted to one room, and none to the other, &c. By enlarging the size of the enclosure behind the cast-iron back, and oy having an opening at the bottom of the doors, and another at the top, connected with an air flue in the wall, clothes may be dried in this closet with the greatest rapidity, and with very little labour. To increase the quantity of heat produced from these plates, when clothes are to be dried, or on other occasions when an extra-quantity of heat may be désirable, it is only necessary to place a plate of sheet iron, or a large slate, or even a well-seasoned board, at the back of the cast-iron plate, and separated from it about one inch ; the plate being raised from the floor at the bottom, so as to leave a vacuity of half an inch, and another vacuity of the same dimensions should be left at the top, as represented in the section through both plates, fig. 296. The use of this additional plate is to confine the heating power or radiation of the cast-iron plate p, in fig. 296, and thus create a current in the vacuity q, on the same principle that water is boiled with greater rapidity in one of Perkins’s double-bottomed boilers than in a common kettle. It must not be forgotten, however, that the additional quantity of heat procured by this means for the hot-air closet wilJ increase the consumption of fuel in the kitchen fire ; and also tend, by abstracting heat, to render the consumption of the fuel used there imperfect ; but these are minor evils, compared with the saving of labour and the eomfort which the judicious use of these cast-iron plates is calculated to afford. These plates, which are common in the north of France, hâve been introduced in the cottages on the estate of Closeburn, in Dumfriesshire, by its enlightened and benevolent proprietor, J. C. Stuart Menteath, Esq., who, having observed them in use on the Continent some years ago, immediately adopted them on his return home, with a degree of success altogether eqüal to his expectations and wishes. à Design XLIII. —A Cottage of Three Rooms, with Back Kitchen, Cow-House, and other • Conveniences» 315. Accommodation. The plan exhibits an entrance porch, which serves also as a lobby, a ; with one door opening to a kitchen, b ; a back kitchen, c ; and kitchen closet, f; another'door opening to abed-room, e, and bed-closet, g\ and a third to a parlour, d. In a lean-to behind is an open shed, from which is an entrance to the dairy, k ; and in the same lean-to there are a privy, h ; pigsty or dust-hole, i ; and cow-house, or root- cellar, l. There is a terrace shown round the building ; but if the cow-house and pig- sty are used as such, then the terrace may be limited to three sides, and the foürth enclosed as a yard. This is a very commodious and convenient dwelling, and would notCOTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 159 XLII.160 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. XLIII. f,.y. 50 Fl- X.L. I.,LCOTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VAUIOUS STYLES. l6l be expensive or difïicult to execute, either in earth or of rubble-stone, The parlour, d> might be very readily heated from the fireplaee of the kitchen, b, by means of a cast- iron plate, as described § 314. The open shed behind will be found useful for varions purposes, as well as being a passage of communication to the dairy, and having a place for fuel and lumber at the opposite end. 316. An élégant improvement would be, to remove the pigsty and the cow-liouse farthen from the dwelling, and connect them by a covered way open at both sides, as in fig. 297, in which m is the dairy ; n} the cow-house ; o, the pantry ; p, the water-closet 297 for females; q, that for males; and r, the passage which connects this wing with the house; s, a wicket gâte, separating the yard from the passage, and from the platform on which the house stands ; t, the yard ; u u, tank for liquid manure and dung-pit ; v v, pigsties ; w w> inclined planes, to the platform ; and x x, grass-plots, which in some situations may be varied with flower-beds. It will bè observed, at y, that we hâve altered the position of the steps to the terrace, and placed an open porch over the entrance. One advantage of this arrangement would be, that the terrace might be con- tinued completely round the house ; and, if it were thought désirable, as we undoubtedly think it would, the eaves might be made to project three feet, which would give a dry walk for infirm persons, or children, during rain. 317. ‘ Construction* The walls may be of earth; and, if it is found désirable, the whole of the floors may bè heated from a flue from under the boiler, in the back kitchen, c ; which, in this case, must hâve the space where the boiler is placed sunk three feet below the general level. The Windows are shown with Gothic labels, and the door is ledged with ornamental hinges (fig. 298), on a scale of three fourths of an inch to a foot. The gable end is finished with a barge-board (tig. 299), to a scale of three eighths of an inch to a foot, but without a pendant or a pin- nacle. 318. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 15,232 feet, at 6d. per foot, ,£380: 16s. ; at 4d., £253 : 17s. : 4d. ; and at 3d.t £190: 18s. 298163 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 319. Expression. Thougli we like tlie arrangement of this building in the intérim*, yet we by no means approve of the external expression. The projection of the roof at the eaves, which is here two feet, does not belong to the Gothic style ; and to place 299 labels over Windows immediately under a far-projecting roof, is, in point of use, superfluous ; since the original intention of labels was to throw off the rain from the Windows, which is here already done by the eaves. The pitch of the roof is much too low for the Gothic or old English cottage, and is by no means suited for the ornamental barge-boards at the gable ends, which are never seen but against the ends of steep roofs. The Windows ought to be of more lofty proportions, more especially as it appears by the section that they might be carried at least one foot higher ; and, if they were lowered one foot, the window shelf would not be too low for use. The chimney tops rise oui of the roof without any préparation, which is aways objectionable ; and we do not think the position of the steps to the terrace particularly fortunate. If we were to alter the ground plan, as in fig. 297, a very commodious and convenient cottage would be produced, and the élévation might then either be in the Italian, or modem style, as in fig. 300, or in the Gothic or old English manner, as in fig; SOI.COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOÜS STYLES. 168 Design XLIV. — A Cottage of Three Rooms and a. Back Küchen on the Ground Floor, with varions Conveniences. 320. Accommodation» In the ground plan may be seen an entrance lobby, a; kitchen, b ; bed-room, c ; parlour, d ; closets, e and f ; back kitchen, g ; dairy or pantry, h ; pigsty or dusthole, i ; privy, k ; and cow-house or root-cellar, l. 321. Construction. The walls may be of brick or stone; the copings and finishings t© the walls, Windows, and chimney tops, to be of the latter material, or of Roman cernent. The chimney head comice may be finished, as n fi g. 302, to a scale of one inch and a half to a foot, The designer of this cottage recommends the roof to be covered with painted pantiles ; the Windows to be divided into three parts by two mullions, and each compartment to hâve one iron frame filled in with latticework. The surrounding terrace appears by the section to be formed of earth, and the floors seem to be paved, 322. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 12,330 feet, at 6d. per foot, £308 : 5s. ; at 4d., £205 : 10s. ; and at 3d., £154: 2s. : 6d. 323. jRemarks. The accommodations of this cottage are obtained at more than ordinary expense, on account of the numerous projections in the ground plan, and the conséquent angles, hips, and valleys, in the roof. The style is somewhat Elizabethan ; but it is hardly justifi- able to raise the two pediments over the entrance door and right-hand window ; when, according to the section, there can be no use whatever made of the roof, section, that the doors, even of the dairy and back kitchen, are six-paneled, which is not very consistent with the entrance door, that being only ledged. While there is this attention paid to the style of the doors in the interior, no comices to the rooms are shown, nor any shelf to the kitchen chimney. In short, not to waste criticism on a design scarcely worthy of it, though there is something of style in the élévation, and of accom- modation in the plan, yet the composition, taken as a whole, is not such as to be held up as an example for imitation, but rather as a beacon to be avoided. It will also be observed by the S 303 7 Design XLV.—A JDwelling of Four Rooms, with Back Kitcheny and other Conveniences. 324. Accommodation. From the entrance passage, a, a door opens to the kitchen, b, which is connected with the back kitchen, c, on the one hand, and with the bed-room, d> on the other. There is a parlour, e, and another bed-room,^ with a closet,g: and, in a lean-to, we hâve a cow-house or root-cellar, h ; pigsty, i ; and privy, k. Should the cow- house and pigsty be occupied as such, then it would be necessary to hâve a yard joined to that side of the house, and to alter the slope of the platform within it, as in similar cases. Some use may be made of the roof by a trapdoor in the ceiling of the kitchen,, and the whole may be heated from a fireplace in the back kitchen. 325. Construction. The walls may be of brick or stone ; and the panels, shown in the élévation, either executed in the brickwork or formed in cernent. The roof is low in pitch, and it is proposed to cover it with slates. The chimney stack is large, containing four vents or Hues ; it has a sunk panel in the lower part, which, with the cornice at its termination, will be understood by the vertical section fig. 303, on a scale of half an inch to a foot. The section fig. 304, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, shows the projecting frieze, under the eaves of the roof, which is supported by the paneled pilasters. The door is paneled, and the Windows are in the modem style, with sàshes hung by lines, weights, and pulleys, & c. 326. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 13,700 feet, at 6d. per foot, £342 : 10s. ; at Ad. £228 : 6s. : 8d. ; and at 8d., £171: 5s. - 327. Remarks. There is, a simplicity and grandeur in the élévation of this cottage] which raises it above the cha- raçter of a dwelling of the humblest class. The massive chimney stack corresponds well with the simplicity of the roof; the effect of which is supported by the smaller, but similarly formed, roofs of the projections at the ends. The paneled pillars or pilasters, with the comice over them, hâve164* COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. a massive and architectural effect, forming zontal bond or chain work, as the French term it ; and they are supported and har- monised by the horizontal panels in the chimney stack. Where the perfection o£ architectural expression is àimed at, ail walls should be built either on the prin- ciple of vertical and horizontal bond, by projecting piers and horizontàl bands ; or, on that of squared stones or bricks, with or without piers and bands. The preten- sions of a wall to strength would thus, at ail limes, be obvious at a single glance. By altering the destination of some of the parts of the ground-plan, this building niight be rendered fit for the habitation of what is called a genteel family. Thus, h and i might be joined in one, and form a small bed-room or book-room, to the parlour, e ; and h, in like manner, might be made a bed-room, or a dressing-room, connected with d. The appendages, h, i, k, might be got in a separate building, con- nected by a lattice-roofed arcade, covered with ivy, from the door of c. • very complété System of vertical and hori- Design XLVI. —> A Cottage Dwelling, with Four Booms, with a Back Kitchen, Cellar, and other Conveniences. 328. The accommodations of this dwelling are, as usual, a kitchen, a, with closet under the stair, h ; back kitchen, b ; parlour, c ; bed-room d ; cellar, e ; dusthole, or place for fuel,y*; and privy, g : there is a bed-room over the kitchen ; and two useful garrets, one over c, e,f and the other over b, d, g, which may be lighted from the ends. The apartment e may, in this, as in most of the other Designs, be used either as a cellar or a cow-house, or a place for keeping fuel and lumber ; or as a réceptacle for potatoes and other roots, or whatever may be most désirable in the given locality. We are of opinion that in most parts of Britain it will not be found profitable for the labourer to keep a single cow ; but we are aware that in most parts of Scotland and Ireland, as vvell as in the north of France, the cottager never thinks himself comfortable without one. We are aware, also, that there are objections to having a cow-house and pigsty too close to a dwelling ; but it will be recollected that much dépends on the manner in which these animais are kept ; and that, by disposing of the liquid part of the manure in the manner we hâve directed, and having the door of the cow-house so far apart from the door of the house as we hâve always shown it, the practical inconveniencc would not be felt. We think the apartment for a cow ought to be added to ail cottages not having a cellar, be- cause, if not used for the former purpose, it may be applied to the latter j and a cellar is almost every where a great source of comfort to the cottager. 329. Construction. The paneled piers may be built of stone in courses, or of brick ; or they may be framed of wood, and filled in with brick, and covered with cernent. The same may be observed as to the architrave which rests on these piers or pilasters, and supports the roof. The interspaces between the pilasters may be formed of pisé, of brick or clay nogging, of rubble stone, of pebbles, of flint, or, in short, of any material which will support its own weight, and be of sufficient thickness to keep out the weather, and maintain a steady température ; for the weight of the roof in this Design, and in Design XLV., is supposed to be carried by the piers. As a good deal of the beauty of this, and indeed of most designs for cottages showing pilasters, dépends on the materials with which the panels or cementitious part of the wall is filled up, we shall here introduce a few remarks on the materials for walls, with a view of directing the reader’s attention to the subject. 330. Materials for Walls. The design, the style, the accompaniments, and ail other circumstances, being the same, the effect of the walls of a cottage being of squared stone, of rubble stone, of red, yellow, or white bricks, of flints, of pebblës, of mud, or of boards, will be very différent; and more so to the ordinary spectator than to the artist, or to the eye accustomed to study the effect of forms, shades, fines, and colours, in some measure, independently of materials. Tlie nature of the material, therefore, of which the walls of a cottage are built, is a fertile source of variety, where several cottages are to be built on the same estate ; or where a village is to be formed, in which variety of character in theCOTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 165. XLIV.166 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. XLV.COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 167 buildings is an object. As a general principle, it may be affirmed that the ma- terials of the walls of a cottage ought always to be such as are, or may be, furnished by the soil or vicinity where it is placed. In this point of view, mud, pisé, brick, and timber are the most universal materials for cottage walls ; and, next to these, small land stones, so far broken or squared as to incorporate in a wall built either on the bond or on the cemen- titious principle of construction. Among the land stones of a country are included the shale, scales, or shivery stone, of some districts, and the pebbles and flints of others. We shall here confine ourselves to giving short directions for forming a flint wall ; and we shall take them from the Landscape Architecture of Italy, by Gilbert Laing Meason. Be- fore we give this quotation, however, we wish particularly to impress on the minds of our readers the necessity of having coignes and other supports of the roof, which shall act on the principle of independent strength, in ail cases where the walls are to be formed of pisé, mud, pebbles, flint, or, in short, of any material, the strength of which dépends upon the cementitious principle ; that is, on the plasticity, when used, of a part of the materials. This Design and the preceding one are examples of this mode of construction, and these remarks are introduced here incidentally ; but in the systematic part of our work the sub- ject will be treated in detail, and it will then appear to be one of very great importance, though very little understood. 331. Flint Walls. “ In the chalk countries of England, why may we not renew the flint-built walls of our ancestors, seeing that the Roman circusat Toulouse has endured so long? Build up the flints in frames, and pour cernent into the interstices ; the found- ation should be on brick arches ; and the cernent employed may be composed of tho- roughly burnt chalk, slacked with water, to reduce it to the finest dry powder ; and then sifted, and added to two parts of rough sharp sand, with small sharp gravel stones. The whole should be mixed together dry, and then a sufficient quantity of water should be poured upon it to make it into a liquid paste, which should be used immediately. The slacking of the lime, the mixture, and the application to the walling, should follow one another without delay. A quantity of the sand and powdered lime ought to be at hand to throw into the moulds, in case the mortar should appear too thin. By such manage- ment this cernent requires not âge to harden it. On examination of the oldest parts of the ancient castle at Hastings, we are satisfied.that the mortar employed was so formed, and thrown, in a vevy liquid state, into the centre of the thickest parts of thè wall. Flint-built walls would produce an excellent effect in irregular buildings ; for therough- ness of the surface, in towers, gives the impression of strength and stability.” 305 ,_________________1 !_________________________________________ n n168 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 332. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 12,563 feet,at 6d. per foot, ^314: Is. 6tf.* at 4d., £209: 7s. : 8d. ; and at 3d., £157 : Os. : 9d. 333. Remarks. The arrangement of the plan of this cottage is not favourable to economy in its execution, from the greater length than breadth of the body of the build- ing, from the breaks and recesses in the walls, and from the raised part of the roof. Ali these déviations from the cube, Which, it will be recollected, is the perfect form, inçrease the expense in proportion to the accommodation afforded. There can be no doubt, however, that this would be a comfortable building, because the heated air from the kitchen, a, would always keep the bed-room over it warm ; and the fire both of the kitchcn and the back kitchen might, by very little contrivance, render a fire at ail times unnecessary in the room d, which might, according to circumstances, be made a shop or a parlour. Were it désirable to enlarge this dwelling, it might be done with great effect, by opening the door from a, as in fig. 305, in which i is the additional room ; k, a small court-yard, containing the pigsty, /, and liquid manure tanks, m ; the apartment e, in Design XL VI., being considered in this ground plan as a cow-house. We hâve shown a walk, n n, surrounding this cottage, which leaves between it and the slope of the plat- form a border of an irregular width, o o, &c., which may either be covered with turf, or with shrubs, flowers, and two orthree trees. Like Design XLV., this building, present- ing a simple outline against the sky, is well adapted for a situation where it would be backed by a broken outline of wood. Having no Windows in the ends, it is also better adapted for being viewed in front only, or chiefly, than for being seen on ail sides. Design XLVII. — Two Cottages for Country Labourers, under One Roof with Four Rooms in each, Back Kitchen, Pigsty, and other Conveniences. 334. Accommodation. Each of these dwellings contains an entrance lobby, a; kitchen, b; back kitchen, c; parlour or best bed-room, d ; staircase, e; dairy, f; place for fuel, g ; cow-house, h ; privy, i ; and pigsty, k. The chamber floor of each house contains a bed-room, l, with a landing, m, from the staircase, n ; and another bed-room, o. We hâve not shown the yard which would be necessary to the cow-house and pigsty, as we think it more probable that these appendages will be applied to other purposes. 335. Construction. The walls may be of stone ; but, as they exhibit few breaks or angles, they might be very advantageously built hollow, with bricks on edge, in Deam’s manner. In a country where fuel is abundant, we should recommend the floors of the kitchen and parlour to be of boards ; but where fuel is scarce and dear, or chiefly wood, we should prefer having the floors paved, in order that they may be heated by a flue from the back kitchen. Or, a flue may be made above the floor, so as to form a bench, in the Chinese manner (Mech. Mag., vol. iv. p. 362.) ; in several returns one over another, so as to form a stove, in the German manner ; or in one of the partitions, as in the flued walls of gardens. Having recommended Dearn’s mode of hollow walls as applicable to this building, we shall here proceed to describe it. 336. Dearns Method of building hollow Brick Walls. The manner of bonding the work is shown in fig. 306, which is an élévation and section of part of a wall. “ The three 306 lower courses, q, the upper one of which is proposed to be level with the floor, are in tended as a footing to the superstructure, and are laid in what is called the old English manner, consisting of alternate courses of headers and stretchers. The next course above is a stretching course on edge, p, and the backing course is like it, leaving an in- terval between of the width of half a brick ; these are then covered with a heading course, r, laid flat ; and the saine system is pursued until the whole height required beCOTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. XLVI. 169170 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. XLVII. 10 .( o Ft, -i.ua i i i > i- 30 Ft. 10COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. — — — 307 s T" 1 ! 1 . 1 1 1 1 ! • i i i 1 1 « s ! ! i : i 171 attafned. Fig. 307 is a plan taken on the upper course of the footing, showing the man- ner of bonding the angles. The dotted lines dénoté the course above, of heading bricks laid fiat. The two bricks on edge marked s s, at the angle, will be re- ▼ersed in each other course. Fig. 308 displays the manner of introducing a girder, t, into walls thus constructed. To support the stress of the girder, the intervals in the walls below it, u u, are filled in solid with brickbats from the footing to the course on which the girder, t, rests, by which means a solid pier is formed, nine inches wide. In the course on which the girder lies, it is proposed to introduce a piece of timber, v, for it to rest on, nine inches long, four inches wide, and two inches and a half thick. Mortises for the joists are shown in the girder at w w. Fig. 309 shows the élévation of part of a building of this kind, in which a doorcase and a window-f] ame are introduced : these are proposed to be of the same scantling as usual ; viz., window-fraraes, two inches and a half by two inches and a half, and door-cases four inches by three inches ; but in order to conceal the hollows in the wall, it will be necessary to tack in a fillet in the front or back of each window and door-case. In order to secure the frames in the wall, a piece of inch stuff, four inches square, may be attached to them at x x, by screws ; the heads of the screws to be on the outer side, that the frames may be taken out at any time, if found necessary, without injury to the brickwork. To take the weight from the heads of these frames, a lintel, four inches square, may be placed within the brick on edge course, marked y y, extending nine inches beyond the opening on each side.172 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 337. Economy and other Advantages of DearrCs liollow Walls. First, a saving of one third will arise in the article of biicks ; that is, if 4500 would hâve been required to complété a rod of reduced work in the common way, 3000 will be found sufficient according to Mr. Dearn’s method : secondly, only one half of the mortar will be requisite : thirdly, the labour will not be greater than for common brickwork, though it will include rubbing the bricks in the heading course to one length, in order to supersede the necessity of rendering (plastering) within, and to leave the walls with a fair face ready for white- washing or painting in oil : fourthly, the hollows in the walls will prove an antidote to damp î and, fifthly, ail the expense of inside plaster- ing will be saved. 338. jDeam's proposed Va- riation in his Method of building. Tnstead of the brick on edge course, half bricks may be used as stretch- ers, figs. 310, 311, and 312 ; the bricks being divided lon- gitudinally, by drawing a knife or other sharp instru- ment about half through them, while in a State between wet and dry, and giving each a slight stroke of the trowel on the reverse side, to separate the halves, after it has been burned. This is done, partly because, if the halves were entirely separated before being 310 ! i s s 1 1 l ii ji ü i! i! !! ii ii -i !! ü —s / Il j! || h V i i i ! Ij 11 11 1! Il i i i Z) 311 312 burned, the bricks would (in Britain) be subjected to a double duty ; and partly because the half bricks, thus treated, cost less, and are less liable to warp in the kiln, than if moulded separately. A fair charge for removing bricks from the hack (the stock or pile on which they are placed to be burnt), with the cutting and replacing them, is 5s. per thousand.. With respect to bonding the work, it may either be carried up in the old English manner i see § 336, and fig. 306); or in the Flemish manner: that is, having an alternate header and stretcher in each course ; as the air may be made to circulate freely through the walls in both ways. The bond at the angles is shown in fig. 310; and fig. 311 shows the appearance of the work in élévation. Fig. 312 is a section in which at a is shown the footing, and three courses above it, carried up solid, with a drain brick, 5, set in cernent on a level with the supposed floor of the house. The use of this course of draining bricks is to carry off any water that might at any time find its way into the vacuity, when this mode of building is used in walls under the level of the ground. 339. JDearrCs Mode of building Fourteen-Inch hollow Walls. When the thickness of the walls is proposed to be fourteen inches, the stretching course may be of whole bricks, instead of half ones, and the heading course may be bricks fourteen inches long, which are frequently made for the purpose of coping dwarf walls ; but, should economy be the main objeet, Mr. Dearn proposes to use half bricks for the stretchers, which, he says, will produce a wall strong enough for ail ordinary purposes ; and which will only require some degree of management when used for underground walls, when it will be necessary to take care that the latéral pressure of the soil outside does not throw the wall çff theCOTTAGE DWELL1NGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. XLVIII. 173174 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 175 perpendicular. Where there is any danger of this (which can only be when the foundations are made in very soft ground, or where the outside walls of a house are to be earthed up, in order toform a terrace), he directs the builder to extend the excavation, in those parts where the evil is anticipated, to a distance of not less than three feet six inches beyond the proposed face of the wall ; and, as the brickwork is carried up, to fill in the earth not more than one foot thick at each time ; to ram it well, and at each interval to introduce a thin layer of green faggot-wood, with the butt-ends to the wall : the ground thus made will unquestionably befound to settle ; but there can be little or no stress on the wall, the latéral pressure being directed by the faggot-wood to the natural earth opposite.”— Hints on an improved Method of Building, &c., p. 36.) 340. Deamus hollow Walls, applied to the heating of Green-houses, as hot Walls for ripen- ing Fruit, and for warming Barracks, Workhouses, &c. Mr. Dearn thinks that conserv- atories, vineries, &c., attached to houses thus constructed, may be heated without much expense, if placed against or near the back of the kitchen fireplaces. For this purpose he proposes to form the back of the range of a plate of cast iron, not less than one inch thick, open on the reverse to the hollow in the wall. From this plate such a degree of heat would be diffused throughout the whole extent of the wall, as would probably be sufficient to preserve the tenderest plants in the most inclement seasons, and to forward vines as much as a common forcing-house. The heat might be regulated by an opening in the wall externally, either above the conservatory, &c., or on the side, as the case should require. Barracks, workhouses (commonly so called), houses of industry, and manufactories, built according to Dearn’s method, may also, he conceives, be warmed, without any additional expense, and the heat so regulated as to answer the various pur- poses required. (Ibid. p. 37.) In our Treatise on Country Résidences, 4to, 1816, we gave a plan of a house, with a large conservatory and vinery attached to it, both heated from the lires of the living-apartments, the kitchen, and the offices; and showed by the section, fig. 313, a very efficient mode of abstracting heat from cast-iron plates at the back of the different Are- places. We hâve since put the plan in practice (in 1817); and it is but candid to State that we cannot recommend it either in point of comfort or econopay. In point of comfort, it is objectionable, on account of the great quan- ti ty of heat which is drawn off, and the con- séquent necessity of attending constantly to the Are ; and in regard to economy, the same abstraction of heat renders the consumption of the fuel, especially coal, very imperfect ; and, consequently, more is required to prôduce any given température, than would be case were the back and sides of the fireplace either of Are- brick only, or of iron plates with solid masonry behind them. 341. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 27,760 feet, at 6d. per foot, £694 ; at 4d., £462: 13s. : 4d. ; at 3d., £347. 342. Remarks. This Design is well calculated for being executed at a very moderate expence. The span of the roof not being more than 14 feet, timber of very slight scantling may be used both in the Aoors and in the rooAng; and the walls, as we hâve seen, need not be wider than nine inches, and may be built hollow, either in the manner detailed, Chap. I. § 25 ; or according to some one of the modes just described. If it were desired to ornament such cottages, it might be readily done by placing chimney pots on the stacks, by porches, or by a véranda ; in either case, adding a parapet to the terrace. The ends of both cottages, being without Windows, may be covered by vines or fruit trees ; and a few China roses may be planted along the front. Design XLVIII. —- A JDwelling qf Four Booms, with a Back Kitchen, and other Conveniences. 343. Accommodation. The ground-Aoor consists of a lobby and staircase, a; kitchen, b ; back kitchen, c; dairy, d; parlour, e ; bed-room,/; water-closet, g; and cellar, h. The chamber Aoor contains two good bed-rooms, i and /, with the staircase, k, between them. 344. Construction. Dwellings in this style are common in various parts of Glouces- tershire, and other parts of England, where freestone is abundant, and easily worked.176 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. They are generally covered with a grey slate, and the walls are in regular courses of tooled stone. As the inner part of these walls is generally built of rubble, they cannot be considered strong ; unless, indeed, a mortar were used capable of becoming as hard as the stone itself, or at least as Roman cernent. To add to the strength of such walls, what are called string courses are introduced in them ; one of which may be observed in the élévation of this Design, as a horizontal band between the ground floor and bed-room Windows. This band, horizontal chain, or string course, is supposed to be formed of stones of a sufficient width to cover the whole wall, and by that means to tie it together; and this, if the rubble part of the wall has been properly built, it will effectually do. If, on the other hand, the rubble stones hâve been small, and hâve not had true bearings, (that is, flat surfaces resting horizontally on each other), these string courses will add very little to the strength of the wall. When the reader cornes to that part of our work which treats upon the principles of construction, he will find, what willprobably surprise him, that the strongest, as well as the most durable, of ail walls for dwelling-houses, are those of well burnt brick, covered with Roman cernent without and plaster within. Even without these coverings, brick walls are stronger and more durable than stone walls, as the latter are generally built. There can be no doubt that stone walls might be, and sometimes are, so constructed for dwelling-houses, as to be stronger than common brick ; but the expense, except under very peculiar circumstances, is too great for general use. 345. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 24,548 feet, at 6d. per foot, £613 : 14s. ; at 4d., £409 : 2s. : 8d. ; and at 3d., £306 : 17s. 346. Remarks. The rooms in this Design are of a convenient size, and the dwelling may be considered as suitable for a gardener or other upper servant. For effect, we should hâve preferred three lights in each of the bays of the kitchen and parlour, and no Windows on the other side of >these rooms. We say, that, for effect, we should hâve done this ; but, for convenience and use, it is better that the light should enter on two sides, because two parties may then work at two different Windows. Respecting the situation of this building, its contributor observes that it “ should be placed on rather an elevated spot, thickly covered with wood. When the outline of a building is so con- structed that the various projections throw a mass of shade upon the receding parts, then the object itself forms an independent picture ; but in buildings of a plain unbroken out- line, such as this cottage, some assistance is wanted to produce the picturesque ; and trees will be found efficient auxiliaries in accomplishing this effect.” Design XLIX.—A Dwelling suitable for a Lodge or Toll-house, having Three Rooms, and other Conveniences. 347. Accommodation. The ground floor consists of an outer kitchen, which serves also as an entrance-lobby, a ; large kitchen, or living-room, b ; light bed-closet heated from the back of the ki,tchen fire, c ; pantry, d ; closet for fuel, e ; cellar for roots, f; privy, g ; dusthole, h ; stair to the bed-room floor, i ; and open shed, k. The chamber story contains two bed-rooms, l m, and the landing of the staircase, n. 348. Construction. The walls be may of brick, and the roof covered with tiles or slate. The comice of the principal part of the building may contain a gutter eut in the stone, similar to that shown in the section fig. 40, § 74, if that material should be abundant ; otherwise, the comice and gutter may be of wood, as shown in the section fig. 63, § 84. • 349. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 11,315 feet, at 6d. per foot, £282: 17s. ; at 4d., £188 : Ils. : 10d. ; and at 3d., £141: 8s. : 9d. 350. Remarks. The expression of this dwelling seems to aim at something more than a simple humble cottage, because it may be said to hâve a centre and two wings, like a cottage villa, or like what in Scotland is called a minister’s house ; yet there is no attempt at architectural style, either in the general forms or the ornaments. We leave our readers to contrive different modes of altering or adding to it, so as to make it more attractive without, and more convenient within. Design L. —A Cottage Dwelling of Four Rooms, with other Conveniences. 351. Accommodation. On the ground-floor there is an entrance and staircase, a; parlour, b; bed-room, c; closet under the stairs, d; pantry, e; light bed-closet,y*; and kitchen, g. The wash-house, privy, and other conveniences, are supposed to be in a separate building. The chamber floor contains a bed-room, h, and two closets, i ” and k. 352. Construction. Ail cottages having no cellar floor may hâve the walls built of rammed earth, on a brick or stone foundation ; though we would never recommend earth where brick or stone can be afforded. The roof is shown with a considérable projection at the eaves, and it is covered with Grecian tiles.20 Ft. Ft.COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOÜS STYLES. 179 $14 353. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 15,704 feet, at 6d. per foot, £292 ; 12s. ; at 4&, £261 : 14s. : 8d• ; and at Sd., £196 : 6s. 354. Remarks. The expression of this dwelling is agreeable, and the tiles give it some- what the air of an Italian cottage. The Windows, however, are modem, and the chimney tops are such as are used in various manners. As picturesque effect appears to hâve been studied in forming the Design of this cottage, we rather wonder that no porch was placed over the door, which would hâve added much to its beauty. It is true, the far- projecting roof will, in some measure, compensate for the want of this part of an édifice ; but we do not think it ought ever to supersede it. It is curious to observe, in the ground plan of this Design, the preference which the designer gives to irregular beauty over that which is regular. Had his object been to produce a regular sym- metrical building, he might hâve done so out of the same extent of walling, by adopting the ground plan fig. 314. By this arrangement, y and g are greatly enlarged; and a commodious back kitchen, h, linen closet, i, and a porch, k, are added. The apartment, c, will then become the kitchen (instead of g), and the pantry, e, and the back kitchen, h) will open into it. The space over e, f, g, and i, when equally divided, will afford two good bed-rooms in the chamber floor. The superficial surface of the ground occupied by this improved plan (fig. 314) is 1292 feet, while that of the original ground plan is only 875 feet. This différence will, of course, occasion an additional surface of roofing ; but, as it is the angles and breaks of a roof which are the most expensive parts, the cost will be very nearly the same ; the improved plan approximating much nearer to the form of a cube, and requiring only a plain roof. The lineal length of external walling, or the girth of the building, is 135 feet in both plans, and the internai walling is but little increased in the improved one. Thus, the second plan, though containing so much more accommoda- tion, would cost very little more than the first; for though the cubic contents of the building, according to the im- proved plan, will be 17,664 feet, while those of the original Design were only 15,704 feet; it must always be remembered, by those who wish to make an estimate of the expense of, or to fix a value upon, buildings measured in this manner, that the contents of the original Design would require to be calculated at 5d. or 5\d. per foot, while those of the Design fig. 314 from its nearer approximation to a cube, and the simplicity of its roof, need not be esti- mated at more than 4d. or 4\d. per foot. The élévation ur working population, are no doubt great ; because the labouring classes hâve as yet no idea of co-operating together either for enjoyment or advantage. If they had, as we shali hereafter show, the as- semblage of houses in streets and squares to a certain extent, even in villages, would bè attended with very great advantages. In a Country where fuel is abundant, or the winter mild, as it generally is in Wiltshire (the county for which this cottage Was designed), lires will seldom require to be made in the bed-rooms, and a flue ünder the kitchen floor will not be necessary. AU the chimneys are weU contrived to unité in one cluster of angular stâcks ; and this is judiciously placed in the interior, and not in the outside walls. The projection of the framework of the upper part of the walls, over the stonework of the lower, is both scientific and picturesque ; because it will preserve the Windows from the rain, and produce a striking horizontal line of shade across the élévation. Besides, when one object is placed upon another, we are pleased to see it either projecting outwards, like the capital of a column; or inclining inwards, at a regular slope, like the sides of an obelisk or pyramid. The source of the beauty lies in the evidence, which, in either case, is afforded, of the exercise of improved design. We do not altogether like the porch, which a stranger might mistake for some inferior appendage. A porch being, to a cer- tain extent, a luxury, should, we think, be generally in a conspicuous style of art, com- pared with the rest of the building. Perhaps, also, the oriel window is rather too insig- nifiant ; but this might easily be remedied, by raising it at top, and lowering it at bottom. This done ; the porch altered ; and the whole placed on a platform, so as to keep the interior perfectly dry ; the effect would be to us altogether satisfactory.186 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. Design LV. — A Cottage of One Story, with Four Booms, a Küchen, Bock Küchen, anc. otlier Conveniences. 372. Accommodation. There are a large lobby, a, and kitchen, b, with a closet between ; bed-room, c ; parlour from the lobby, d ; three bed-rooms, e, f, and g ; cow-house, cellar, or place for wood, h ; dairy, i ; pantry, k ; and privy, l. 373. Construction. The walls, in such a building as the présent, may be ail formed of mud ; because they hâve nothing more to carry than their own weight, and that of the roof. The weight on them of the latter, which is thatched, is diminished on three sides by the columns of the véranda, or, as the Romans would hâve called it, the portico. Such a design is also particularly suitable for brick on edge walls ; and having already (§ 336) explained Dearn’s method of building such walls, we shall now describe a similar kind, invented by Mr. Silverlock of Chichester, and practised byhimin the érection of garden walls, hot-housës, and cottages. 374. SüverlocBs hollow walls are constructed of bricks set on edge, each course or layer consisting of an alternate sériés of two bricks placed edgewise, and one laid across ; form- ing a thickness of nine inches, and a sériés of cells, each cell nine inches in the length way of the wall, four inches broad, and four inches and a half deep. The second course being laid in the same way, but the position of the bricks alternating, or breaking joint with the first, the resuit will evidently be a hollow wall, with communicating vacuities of the above-stated dimensions, equally distributed from the bottom to the top of the wall. 329 Fig. 329 shows the plan and élévation of such a wall, which differs only from the hollow wall of Dearn (fig. 306.) in being canied up in Flemish instead of English bond. At m is shown the manner in which piers may be built in such walls, so as to project equally on both sides of the wall, with a view to the north and south walls of gardens, both sides of which are equally valuable for training fruit trees. Fig. 330 shows how a pier may be built on one side of the wall only, with a view to the east and west walls of 330 gardens, the south sides î of which are chiefly valu- ____________ 1 ____ able for fruit trees, and j to the walls of cottages, ______ _________j_________ which should be made | smooth in the inside ; —----------- 1----------------------— while, on the outside, the ! piers, independently of j the strength which they —*■ add to the walls, will form sources of architectural beauty. These walls hâve been built by Mr. Silverlock in a number of places, as garden walls, to the height of ten or twelve feet, and with very few piers. The saving is one brick in three ; but the bricks and the mortar must be of the best quality. One great advantage ofCOTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. LV. 187COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES, 189 these walls is, that they admît of being equally heated throughout, by a tube of hot water or steam conducted along the interior, just above the surface of the ground. Several cottages hâve been built with walls of this description, on the estate of Robert Donald, Esq., near Woking, Surrey. It is évident that brick walls on the same plan might be built of eighteen inches or two feet in width, or, indeed, of any width, by joining two nine-inch hollow walls together, as in fig. 331, which, if a garden wall, might be heated on one side, without being heated on the other ; by carrying up the heading courses solid from the bottom, as in fig. 332 ; or, better, with a brick on edge wall in the centre, as in 332 fig. 333. A wall of this construction, with the bricks fiat, would form one of the very cheapest and best descriptions of walls for a fruit-garden. For a fourteen-inch wall 333 bricks might be made of that length, as proposed by Dearn ; and, for a wall two feet or more in thickness, the interior might be entirely hollow, with cross walls every four or five feet, as shown in Gard» Mag., vol. iv. p. 228. To save bricks in the cross walls, and also to admit of the free transmission of heat from one division to another, they might be built in what is called the pigeon hole manner, yiz. each stretching course having altemate vacancies, by leaving out every other brick, as in fig. 334. 334 u190 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 375. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 29,348 feet, at 6d. per foot, £733 : 14s. i at 4d., £489: 2s. : 8d. ; and at 3c/., £366 : 17s. 376. Remarks. The véranda in this Design being an object of luxury, or at least of élégant enjoyment, the wooden columns ought to hâve had plinths and caps, and the steps to the platform an air of more conséquence eonferred on them. However, the general form of this building, being that of a cube, is good, and the idea of the véranda on three sides is highly commendable. Design LVI. — A Dwelling of Four Booms, with other Conveniences, and a large Rustic , Portico. 377. Accommodation. The entrance is direct into the kitchen, a, from which there is a passage, b, to the back kitchen, and to the cellar stairs ; staircase to the bed-room, c ; d is the back kitchen, from which there is a pantry, l ; e is tlie parlour ; f, a bed-room, or second parlour, in case this building should be made a public house, for which the large space under the portico is well adapted ; g may be a place for fuel ; h, a dusthole ; if a place for ducks or other poultry ; and k, a privy. On the chamber floor there are a good bed-room, m,. and a closet, n. 37 8. Construction. The walls are shown of sufficient thickness to admit of their being built of rammed earth ; but we are informed, by the contributor of this Design, that it is erected as a small public house by the roadside in South Wales ; and that the walls are actually formed of the land- stones of the country, thickly coated over with plaster within, and covered with rough-cast without. The columns which> support the portico are of native larch fir, with the bark on, joined to the roof in the manner shown in the section, fig. 335, to a scale of half an inch to a foot. The roof is first thatched with straw, and then finished with a coating of heath over it. The ground floor of the house is raised about eighteen inches above the surface, and the floor of the portico about one foot above the surface. We hâve shown the ground on which the portico stands, higher in the Design, think- ing one foot insufficient, either for the purpose of dryness, or of dignity of effect. 379. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 14,798 feet, at 6d. per foot, £369: 19s.; at 4d., £246 : 12s. : 8d. ; and at 3d., £184 : 19s. : 6d. 380. Remarks. There is comfort in this building, and also economy. The three cellars under a, e, and^ (which hâve no light, or means of ventilation, in order to lessen the risk of variations of température,) are well adapted for a public house, as is the pantry or store-room from the back kitchen. The presses shown in each of the rooms are also very suitable for a public house, being well adapted for holding glasses and china or earthenware. The apartment g, though used for keeping fuel, may be very properly substituted for a stable ; though this public house does not belong to the class of occupiers who receive travellers on horseback, for the night. It is needless to add that the great width of the portico affords an excellent protection to guests enjoying themselves in the open air. Having said thus much of the fitness of this building, with reference to its use, we shall next consider its fitness, as expressive of architectural design. It is an acknowledged principle, that whatever idea obviously pervades a building, taken as a whole, ought also to pervade ail its separate parts. If the idea of the whole were that of an irregular mass, the parts ought to be irregular also ; if the whole were reguiar, or symmetrical, so ought to be the parts, and not only the parts, but their details. We do not say that these principles ought to be enforced in every building, whether or not they be consistent with comfort or convenience ; but we do assert that it is the main business of the Architect to accomplish this object, whenever it can be done without sacrificing the higher principle of purpose ; and that it is his duty to aim at this in the very smallest and most humble buildings, as well as in the larger and more important ones. Now, on looking at the ground plan of the Design before us, we shall find that the entrance front and the back front are reguiar and symmetrical in their general masses, and yet irregular in the details of these masses ; that is, in the disposition of the doors and Windows. In the apartment a, for example, the entrance door is on one side, and a window on the other ; whereas, to preserve the principle of symmetry, the door ought to hâve been in the centre, with a window on each side : and this arrange- 335COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 191 ment would hâve been more suitable for a room, the Windows of which must necessarily be darkened by having so wide a portico over them. A gain, the doors from this room into e and f ought to hâve been opposite to each other, in order to maintain the same principle. There ought to hâve been another press, both in e and f; and the fireplaces ought to hâve been exactly opposite the Windows in both of them. In the back kitchen, the press door ought to hâve been exactly opposite the door of the pantry ; the outer door to hâve been in the centre ; and the window, now there, in the position of the door. These alterations would render every thing regular, but the two small lean-tos contain- ing g, h, i, and k. The doors of g and k, at présent, answer to each other. Remove the partition between i and h ; reverse the positions of the window and door of g ; let the door of k be in one end ; turn its présent door into a window, to correspond with that of g ; build up the door of i, and take down the partition between it and h, thus forming a dusthole and place for poultry in one apartment; and the thing i s done, with a door less, and only one additional window, and without the slightest interférence with the use of any one apartment. As minor faults in this Design, we object to the columns (even though they are nothing more than the trunks of trees with the bark on), for not having stone plinths and wooden caps. The former are of real use, in preventing the ends of the wooden columns from rotting, and of apparent use, by seeming to take a larger bearing on the surface of the soil ; though this is rendered unnecessary, in reality, by sunk stones, or masonry, brought up as high as the surface. The wooden caps always give, or seem to give, a more secure bearing for the wall-plate or architrave, which is placed over them, besides protecting the end of the wooden column from the weather. Both the caps and the plinths hâve also the great advantage of calling forth the associ- ations which belong to them, as parts of the orders of Grecian Architecture. It ought to be the maxim of ail architectural improvers, never to neglect an established association, when it can be made use of without interfering with the principles of fitness and ex- pression of purpose. Design LVII. — Two JDweUings under One Roof, Two Stories high, with Four Rooms in each, and other Conveniences. 381. Accommodation. Eachdwelling contains an entrance, and stair to the bed-room floor, a ; kitchen, b, with closet under the stairs ; small bed-room, or parlour, c ; pantry, d ; back kitchen, e ; place for fuel, f; dusthole, g ; privy, h ; and root-cellar, i. The chamber floor contains two bed-rooms, h and l, with a closet to each, m and n ; and a staircase, o. 382. Construction. The most suitable material for a building having so many in- ternai walls is brick. The outside walls may be eleven-inch work, with a vacuity between, as shown in fig. 7, § 25 ; and ail the others may be brick nogging on edge, with the exception of the party walls, which may be brick nogging flat, and of the chimney stacks, which should be solid brickwork. The roof is shown covered with semi- cylindrical tiles, which, though they are much used in Italy, and commonly called Italian, are, in reality, Moorish, and, as we are informed, the oldest description of tiles in the world. In Barbary, they are bedded in clay, laid on reeds. 383. General Estimate. Cubic cpntents of both houses, 22,050 feet, at 6d. per foot, £551 : 5s. ; at 4d., £367 : 10s. ; and at 3d., £275 : 12s. : 6d. 384. Remarks. We hâve engraved this Design as it was sent to us ; because, though it is full of faults, it contains the germs of great beauty and interest ; and because it affords a very good example of the kind of impracticable Designs which are frequently made by picturesque architects or amateurs. The plan is so far commendable, that ail the apartments and appendages are obtained under one roof, and that the general form is symmetrical ; but, in the ground plan, it is bad to hâve a place like f, without the means of either light or ventilation. It would be much better to divide the contents of that apartment between g and c, which could easily be done, by making the division h narrower, and that of i shorter. The division g would then serve its own purpose, and that of f also. The two false Windows shown in the plan of the ground floor, and the two in the plan of the bed-room floor, which are seen in the élévations of both, are uncalled for, and add to thet expense, without being requisite to carry on any idea of symmetry, The small Windows shown in the ground plan, close to the staircase, are, or ought to be, intended for lighting the closets under them ; but in the élévation they are placed much too high for that purpose, being even higher than the Windows of the apart- ments b and c. Placed where they are, they could only light the staircase, which is superfluous, as this is already done in an ample manner by the broad mullioned Windows over them. The boilers in the back kitchen are also badly placed, because they are against an outside wall, instead of an inner one ; in which last case their heat would hâve served to increase the température of the interior, instead of being in a great192 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. measure lost in the atmosphère. The divisions g and h should obviously be transposed; because the one would be improved by heat, and the other injured by it. In the chamber floor, a division wall is shown, so as to give to each house its portion of the balcony ; but this division wall appears by the shading to be entirely omitted in the élévation. A pro- tecting railing is also wanting to this balcony, and the Windows in the élévation should 336 corne down to the floor. Finally, the chimney stacks are too low, and the shafts too short, for grandeur and elegance of effect. We would change the plan as in fig. 336, and the élévation as in fig. 337. 338 Design LVIII. — A Laboureras Cottage of Two Mooms, with other Conveniences* 385. Accommodation. The plan, fig. 338, shows a porch, o ; kitchen, b ; with pantry c ; bed-room, d ; and light bed- closet, e* The privy and other conveniences, such as pigsty, cow-house, &c., are supposed to be placed in a small yard at a short distance. 386. Construction. Thewalls may be built of compressed earth. The floors should be formed by loose stones, and finishedyeith a mixture of quick- lime and sharp sand; on the supposition that this construc- tion in the given situation would not be too cold for the inhabit- ants. In a country where bricks are to be obtained at a moderate cost, the piers of the doors and Windows, and the inner sides of the walls, might be built of them ; and the main body of theCOTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 193 LVII.194 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. LVIII. LIX. LX.COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES, 195 wall afterwards filled in with mud, or turf, or rustic work, rough stones of any kind, or straw, heath, or reeds, to keep out the heat in summer, and to keep it in during winter. One fireplace might, by means of a cast-iron back, be made to serve both apartments, and an oven and boiler might be added. It is évident, that, by this mode of proceeding, a very comfortable interior might be included in a very simple, picturesque, or grotesque exterior. The brickwork of the interior, and of the doors and Windows, being arranged, as in the ground plan (fig. 339, to a scale of 1^ of an inch to ten feet), no interior 339 plastering would be required, provided rubbed bricks were used. This adds greatly to the durability of the surface of rooms, and prevents them from being injured by children, and idle people, in countries where the labouring classes are not yet accustomed to comfortable dwellings. In this ground plan, fig. S39fffff/are the outside spaces, to be filled up with turf, rammed earth, rubble work, or whatever may be most economical in the given situation ; g g g, inside spaces, to be fitted up as closet cupboards ; h, bed ; if bed, with the foot projecting into a cupboard or small dresser in the kitchen or living-room, in the manner represented in fig. 143, § 171 ; k, dresser; l, pantry shelves; and mmm, piers of the porch built hollow. Ail the doors must necessarily hâve door- frames, with projecting heads or lintels, and sills, in order that they may build into the four-inch work. There should also be wooden bricks built in the door-jambs, to which the door-frames are to be nailed ; and there must be a stro:ig wall-plate to rest on the four-inch work, for the sake of equalising the pressure of the roof. Much may be done, in point of economy, by adopting this mode of building the walls of a house ; and by using corrugated iron roofs, corrugated iron panels for the doors, and flues for heating, either under the floors, or as benches over them, in the Chinese manner, to be afterwards described. 387. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 8696 feet, at 6d. per foot, ^217 : 85.; at 4d., £144 : 18s. : 8d. ; and at 3d., £108 : 14s. 388. Bemarks. This cottage is not without comfort ; and it would be improved, in point - of architectural effect, and executed at less expense, if the porch were included under the same roof. We say, it would be improved in architectural effect, because the roof and ground plan would be more symmetrical, and symmetryis the soûl of Architec- ture ; but it would not be so picturesque as it now is, because the soûl of that beauty is irregularity.19t> COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. Design LIX.—Two Cottages, of One Boom and a Bock Kitcheneacli, un (1er the same Roof. 389. Accommodation. Each dwelling contains an entrance lobby, which serves also as a place for fuel and tools, fig. 340, a ; a kitchen, b ; back kitchen, c ; a place for keeping potatoes, or for poultry or a pig, d ; and a privy, e. 340 390. Construction. The walïs may be of stone ; but brick walls, built hollow, would be greatly préférable. The roof may be slated. If désirable, the kitchen floor may be heated by a flue from under the oven in the back kitchen. 391. General Estimate. Cubic contents of both dwellings, 9110 feet, at 6d. per foot, £227 : 15s. ; at 4d., £151: 16s. : 8d. ; and at 3d., £113 : 17s. : 6d. 392. Remarks. It is sufficiently obvious that the expression of this design is that of the subject. Each dwelling can only be fit for a single person ; and the building must be favourably situated, in regard to a dry soil and free air, to admit of sleeping on the ground floor. As it is désirable, in cases where the sitting-room is also a bed-room, to hâve the bed in a recess, or of such a form as not to offend the eye of those who. are not accustomed to live in bed-rooms, a press-bed may be employed. Design LX. — Two Dwellings, under One Roof; each containing Four Rooms, with Back Kitchen, and other Conveniences. 393. Accommodation. Each house contains a kitchen, fig. 341, a; back kitchen, b ; parlour or bed-room, c ; bed-room, d ; large bed-room, e ; closet, ; pantry, g ; privy, h ; dusthole, i ; and place for fuel, k : or the smaller apartments may be differently 341COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 197 arranged ; thus, l may be a cowhouse, formed out of f and k; m, a privy ; n, a dairy ; and o, a pantry With this arrangement, the platform will require the alteration in- dicated at p. 394. Construction. The walls may be of brick or stone, and the roof thatched. One roof covers the whole of the apartments belonging to both cottages, without any guttering, and with only two hips, or pavilion ends. Roofs so simple are particularly eligible for being covered with zinc, or sheet iron, instead of tiles or slates. 395. General Estimate. Cubic contents of both houses, 24,660 feet, at 6d. per foot, £616 : 105. ; at 4d., £411 ; and at 3d., £308 : 5s. 396. Remaries. These are comfortable, unobtrusive dwellings, expressive of nothing more than what they are. Ail that we should wish to alter in this Design, would be the projections of the roof in front, which we would form into one general véranda, and return it also at the ends. Design LXI. — A of Three Booms on the Ground Floor, with a Back Kitchen, and other Conveniences. The ground plan, fig. 342, contains a back kitchen, a; a 342 397. Accommodation. principal kitchen, or living-room, b; a b est bed-room, c ; another bed-room, d ; with a closet, e; a pantry,/; a dairy, g ; a place , for fuel, h ; privy, i ; and cow-house, k. 398. Construction. The walls are supposed to be of stone ; the roof thatched, and the chimney stacks in square divisions, as in fig. 343, on a scale of half an inch to a foot ; the principal window, Gothic, with labels and mullions, as in fig. 344 ; on a scale of three eighths of an inch to a foot. The chimney stacks as repre- sented in fig. 343., will, as building is now car- ried on in Britain, re- quire to be executed in natural stone, artificial stone, or in brick covered with cernent ; but, if the practice of employing omamental chimney tops of this kind were general, they might be formed at every pottery of com- mon tile ware, at half their cost in cernent. Indeed a great deal is to be done in the commonest earthenware, not only in the way of chimney tops, but in comices, labels to windows, string courses, mouldings, omamental roof and weather tiling, and even in the internai finishing of kitchens, wash-houses, porches, &c. 399. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 9415 feet, at 6d., £235 : 7s. : 6d. ; at 4d.T £156 : 18s. : 4d. ; and at 3d., £117 : 13s. : 9d 400. Remarks. There is something mean and depressed in the élévation of this building ; though, to some tastes, this would be a recommendation to it, as a cottage. It is évident, that the main study of the Architect has been picturesque effect, else why so much irregularity, both in the masses of the ground plan, and in the roof? We do not like the truncated gables ; but there can be no doubt that precedents are to be found for them. We hâve before observed that some Architects consider their art as one of imitation, even in its higher departments ; and it is certain that the department of Cot- tage Architecture has been hitherto much more one of imitation than of improved de- sign. “ The general character of a cottage, as distinguished from that of dwellings of a higher class, is considered by Architects to consist in low walls, and of course low ceil- ings, in small windows rather broad than high, and in conspicuous high-pitched roofs, often with dormer windows in them. We admit, that, taking cottages as they are usually constructed, these features may be said to establish their character : and hence they are198 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILEA ARCHITECTURE, generally employed by painters, and bv poets, or other descriptive writers, who wish to portray a cottage of the présent day. In the like raanner, a certain degree of coarseness or homeliness of dress and manner may be said to hâve hitherto characterised the British labourer, as contradistinguished from the British gentleman. A romantic writer would, therefore, make use of these characteristics ; and a poet or a sentimentalist might pro- bably regret their disappearance, and the graduai assimilation of dress and manners between the labourer and the gentleman. The fault of the Architect is, that he has too closely followed the painter and the man of literature ; forgetting that his art, being founded upon and guided by utility, ought to embrace ail improvements, not only in Ar- chitecture, but in the uses of buildings, as they are brought into notice. It is surely the duty of landed proprietors who build cot- tages, to encourage and elevate the character of the people who live on their lands; and that of the Architect, in con- formity with this object, to consider, not what a cot- tage has hitherto been, but what it is capable of being made. Putting a servant into a handsome Gothic cottage, is like putting him into a hand- some suit of livery; but there is, unfortunately for the servant, this différence, that the faults of the dwelling, if it does not fit, cannot be so readily per- ceived as those of the coat ; and nobody may know, but the occupant and his family, how little comfort sometimes exists under a gay exterior. For our own part, we hâve seen so many ornamental cottages and lodges on gentlemen's estâtes, both in England and Scotland, small, damp, and badly contrived with- in, that we are compelled to consider them as much badges of slavery as a suit of Uvery. Let us hope that another génération will effectually simplify and improve the former, and entirely abolish the latter. We are aware that there is a great préjudice in favour of Gothic buildings of every description, from the cottage to the palace ; arising from the associations of reverence, antiquity, and chivalry, which are connected with them. Maturely considered, however, we cannot help some- times doubting whether the existing préjudice in favour of Gothic Architecture does not reflect more discrédit than honour on human nature : at ail events, it is a préjudice un- worthy of an âge of rapid improyement like the présent. We freely acknowledge that we do not expect many converts to our views in this respect ; because simplicity is one of the last refinements men arrive at, not only in the progïess of the arts, but in the progress of opinion. Believing, as we do, that this principle is undeniable, we hâve little doubt but that much of what is now considered beauty, both in art and in litera- ture, will, by the next génération, be neglected ; and, as the French characteristically express it, “réduit au mérite historique.” {Gard. Mag., vol. viii. p. 260.) 343 -71 K--------------------~A200 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. LXIV.COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES, 201 S44 Design LXII. — A Dwelling of Four Booms on Two Floors, with varions Conveniences. 401. Accommodation. In the groundplan, fig. 345, there are a porch, a ; kitchen, b back kitchen, c ; parlour, d ; light bed-closet, e ; root-cellar and lumber room ff; privy, g ; pantry, Ji ; and place for fuel, i. The stairs, % lead down to a small cellar under a and up to two good bed-rooms over d and b. 402. Construction. This dwell- ing, as an édifice, consists of three parts : one of these is two stories high, and contains the kitchen, the parlour, and the bed-rooms ; another is a lean-to, containing the smaller apartments on the ground floor ; and the third is the porch. The wall s of the first part may be of brick or stone; büt those of the other two parts, being much narrower, ought to be built of brick, or of nogging ; or, if necessaiily of stone, they should be double the thickness shown in the plan. The roof is covered with Grecian tiles, and ail the dues are brought into one chim- ney stack. The door of the porch should be varied in position, according to the aspect of the entrance front, and to the prevailing winds of the country, as before directed. 403. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 11,692 feet, at 6d. per foot, ^292: 6s. ; at 4d., ü?194 : 17s. : 4d. ; and at 8d.f £146 : 3s. x202 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 404. Remaries. On the supposition that this house is to be seen principally in front, we consider it handsome ; though, if it were to be seen alike on every side, it would be the reverse. The front part of this dwelling consisting of two stories, and ail the Windows, both of the ground floor and of the bed-room floor, being in front, the lean- to containing the inferior apartments may be well considered as the subordinate part of the building ; whereas, in perfect designs, whatever meets the eye, whether in thé back or front, ought to be noble. Placed on the outskirts of a wood, or half surrounded by an orchard, in the manner shown in fig. 260, § 280, it would be unexceptionable. Design LXIII.—Two Dwettings, of Two Booms each, under One Roof. 405. Accommodation. In the ground plan, fig. 346, there are shown, for each of these dwellings, a porch, a y kitchen, b y bed-room, c y back kitchen, d ; pantry, e ; place for fuel,/; and privy, g. 346 406. Construction. Nothing appéars to require notice under this head, which may not be gathered from preceding designs ; we may remark, hôwever, that porches of the kind here shown, in many parts of the country, might be covçred with lead, cheaper than they can be with slate, because in each of these porches there is not only a gutter between the roof of the porch and the roof of the main body of the house, but four ridge pièces on the hips, which must be covered with lead. The cheapest way, however, would be to make the porches lean-tos, when no lead would be re- quired, but only boards at the sides. Chimney pots, such as fig. 347, on a scale of three quarters of an inch to a foot, may be used. 407. General Estimate. Cubic. contents of both houses, 15,606 feet, at 6d. per foot, «30390 : 3s. ; at 4d., £260 : 2s. y and at 3d., £195 : ls. : 6d. 408. Remarks. This Design, like the preceding one, is chiefly calculated for being seen in front, and, on the whole, though it has no pretensions in regard to style, we think it satisfactory. 347 Design LXIV. — Two Dwellings under One Roof, each Three Stories high, andjiaving Three Booms, and other Conveniences. t / 409. Accommodation. The ground plan exhibits an entrance porch, a ; with a place for fuel or tools, b y kitchen or living-room, c ; back kitchen, d y staircase, e y cow- house or root-cellar, /; dairy or pantry, g y pigsty or dusthole, h y and privy, i. Each of the chamber floors contains one good bed-room, k y and a landing from the stair, l.. 410. Construction. The walls must necessarily be of brick, or of tooled stone; and the roof, being at a low pitch, should be slated. Should red harsh-coloured bricks be employed, they may be changed to a mellow tint, by a wash of quicklime, yellow ochre, and black ; or the effects of time may be anticipated by a grey moss-coloured tint, com- posed of lime and black only. There is also a mode of imitating weather stains,203 COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. LXV.204 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. LXVI. jrnsmCOTTAGE DWELL1NGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 205 technically called splashing, which will be described hereafter, as being more applicable to cottages in the Gothic style, than to the présent town-looking édifice. 411. General Estimate. Cubic contents of both houses, 21,906 feet, at 6d. per foot, £540 : 3s. ; at 4d., £360: 2s. ; and at 3d., £270 : ls. : 6d. 412. Remarks. This Design, we are informed, is actually executed, with the ex- ception of the platform. The situation is on the side of a road which passes through a high wood, on the steep slope of a hill in Devonshire. The object of the third story is said to be to show a part of the cottage above the trees, from the Windows of the man- sion of the proprietor of the estate, wlio résides in the vale below. This circumstance shows how much of the beauty of cottages must always be relative ; because, by itself, no one, we will venture to assert, would consider this a handsome building. The two wings or lean-tos are too small to becomc even secondary parts of so large a centre ; and yet they are sufiiciently obtrusive to excite a wish that they were either removed or made larger. In a word, they do not co-operate with the main body in forming a whole ; and, though important in a useful point of view, they are worse than useless in point of either architectural or picturesque effect. Design LXV. — A Dwetting, with Three RoomS) and other Conveniences. 413. Accommodation. The ground plan shows an entrance lobby, a ; kitchen and living-room, h ; bed-room, c ; back kitchen, d ; privy, e ; root-cellar or cow-house, f ; pigsty, poultry-house, or place for fuel, g ; dairy, h ; pantry, i ; and dusthole, k. The chamber floor contains one goodroom. 414. Construction. The walls of the main body of the building are shown of stone, the lower part of the centre has rusticated corners ; and the corners of the wings are plain. Some conséquence is given to the entrance door by two projecting pièces on each side, which may be covered with one fiat stone, that will thus serve both as a cap to the piers, and as a roof to the entrance. 415. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 13,056 feet, at 6d. per foot, £326: 85. ; at 4d., £217 : 12s. ; and at 3d., £163: 4s. 416. Remarks. This dwelling is neat, and has an air of comfort. There are some faults in the ground plan, one of which is, the want of a cupboard closet in the kitchen ; but this is probably intended to be supplied by a corner cupboard and dresser. The wall enclosingthe stair, considering that it is to be carriedup two stories, is not of propor- tionate thickness, and a door should hâve been shown to the closet under the stairs. The terrace requires a plain parapet, which might consist of a pigeon-hole wall, teralinat- ing in a row of flower troughs of the kind delineated in fig. 198, § 222; and there might be piers at the corners, finished with vases, or with the square flower troughs, fig. 199, § 222. Design LXVI.—A Cottage Dwelling of Two Rooms, with a Smithy, Shoeing-Shed, and Three-stalled Stable. 417. Accommodation. This is evidently a building for display, and therefore it may be called an ornamental smithy. It dépends for beauty principally on its arcade, and its far-projecting Italian roof. The ground plan shows the walk under the arcade, a ; the entrance passage, b ; kitchen and living-room, c ; pantry, d ; bed-room, e ; child’s bed- closet, f ; shoeing-shed, g ; forge and smith’s shop, h ; three-stalled stable, i ; women’s privy, k ; and common privy, l. 418. Construction. As this building has a great extent of walling in proportion to the number of openings, ail the walls, with the exception of the piers and arches, might be built of earth, or of some other cheap adhesive material. The roof may be covered with Grecian tiles. The stable should be fitted up in the usual manner, with hay- rack, manger, &c. ; and the shoeing-shed ought to hâve rings in the walls for the bridles or halters of the horses being shod, to be fastened to ; but it will not require either racks or mangers, as horses should never be allowed to eat during that operation. Such a buildipg as the présent is very well calculated for being covered with an irpn roof ; be- causethQspan is considérable, and the form simple. There are three kinds of iron roofs, any frf which might be adopted for this building. The first is the cast-iron roof; one kind of which, the invention of Carter of Exeter, has been already described, § 153 ; the second is the Russian roof, of wrought-iron rafters and sheet-iron plates ; and the third is the newly invented corrugated iron roof, without rafters of any kind. We shall here shortly describe the last two. 419. Iron Roofs, as conslructed in Russia. The rafters, in the better description of houses, are for the most part of wrought iron, and of very small dimensions ; they are constructed on the same general principles of trussing as wooden rafters. In smaller houses, the rafters are of timber ; and in these hcuses, whether iron or wooden rafters206 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. are used, the laths to which the plates are nailed are almost always of wood. Wehave, indeed, in Moscow, in 1814, seen iron rods substituted for wooden laths, and the sheets fastened to them by strong copper wire ; but we do not think the practice general. The common mode of covering iron roofs in Russia is thus givén in a late number of the Re- pertory of Patent Inventions, &c. :— “ Sheet-iron coverings are now universally made use of on ail new buildings in Petersburgh, Moscow, &c. In the case of a tire, no harm can corne to a house from sparks falling on a roof of this description. The sheets of this iron covering, measure two feet foin: inches wide, by four feet eight inches long, and weigh twelve pounds and a half avoirdupois per sheet, or one pound five ounces each superficial square foot. When the sheets are on the roof, they measure ordy two feet wide by four feet in length : this is owing to the overlapping. They are first painted on both sides once ; and, when fixed on the roof, a second coat is given. The common côlour is red; but green paint, it is said, will stand twice the time. Small bits, or ears, are introduced into the laps, for nailing the plates to the two-inch square laths on which they are secured. It takes twelve sheets and a half to cover 100 feet, the weight of which is only 150 lbs. ; the cost only £l : 155., or about 3d. per foot.” (Sup. to Rep. of Pat. Inven., 1832, vol. xiii. p. 409.) 420. Corrugated Iron Roofs are eomposed of sheet iron, impressed so as to présent a surface of semicircular ridges, with intervening furrows, lengthwise of the sheet. By this means, the sheet, from a plain fiat surface having no strength but from its tena- city, becomes a sériés of continued arches, abutting against each other, fig. 348 ; and the métal, by this new position, acquires strength also from its 348 hardness. To give an idea of y/5===\ the strength acquired, it is ob- ' # served by Walker, the inventor of this mode of preparing sheet iron, that “ a single sheet of iron, so thin that it will not continue in a perpendicular position, will, after undergoing the process of corrugation, bear upwards of /00 lbs. weight, without bending in the least degree.” Iron so furrowed will be préférable to common sheet iron for covering a fiat roof; because the furrows will collect the water, and convey it more rapidly to the eaves : but this is a trifling advantage, scarcely worth mentioning, in comparison with others which follow. Suppose, that, in addition to furrowing a sheet lengthways, so as to give it the appearance of 349 fig. 349, it is also bent in one general curve in the direction of its length, so as to give it the appearance of fig. 350, we hâve then an arch of great strength, capable of serving as a roof, without rafters, or any description 350 of support, except at the eaves or abutments. It is évident that, the span of any roof being given, seg- ments of corrugated iron may be riveted together, so as to form such an arch as may be deemed proper for covering it. To every practical man, it will be further évident, that a roof of extraordinary span, say 100 feet, which could not be covered by one 351 arch of corrugated iron without the aid cnr^-—' — 1 pf rafters, might be covered by two or thrpe, ail resting on, and tied together by, tie-rôds, fig. 351. Further, that in the case of roofs of a still larger span, say 200 feet, a tie-rod might be çqmbined with a trussed iron beam, fig. 352 ; by which 352 a ’’ a | (t a, Tie rods. b b, &c., Corrugated arches, each forty feet span. c c, Segment rafter of wrought iron, supporting the tie rod and the roof of corrugated arches under it, and kept steady and strong by the trussing, d d} &c.COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 207 roofs of this span, or even one of more than double the extent, might be covered without a single rafter appearing inside. In short, no material hitherto brought into notice at ail approaches this, in its capacities for forming light and economical roofs of the greatest extent of span, and with the least loss of interior room. Its durability will dépend on the application of oil or tar points : for barns, sheep-houses, and various other country buildings, and for ail œanner of sheds, both in town and country, it is par- ticularly suitable. As the invention has only been known four or five years, much has not hitherto been done with it ; but there are several roofs of corrugated iron in the London Docks, and fig. 353 represents a portion of one of them. “ Its length is 225 column to column, the whole length of the roof ; and in the gutter rests the edge of the roof. The arch is formed of several sheets of iron, curved in a reverse direction to the corrugated arches, as shown fig. 353, and riveted together longitudinally. Similar arches, connected to each other by rivets, compose the roof : every corrugated arch forms a watercourse, ending in the gutters at the side, and thereby rendering it quite water- proof. To give stability to the whole, a tie rod, fig. 354, is carried across the shed from each column to the one opposite. Between this shed and the brick wall is a lean-to corrugated roof, forming a half arch, springing from the gutter, and resting against the wall, as shown in fig. 353.” The walls of buildings may be constructed of this iron set on edge, either in single plates, or of double plates with a vacuity between, to lessen the efîect of changes in the exterior température on the space enclosed. As the corrugation, or fluting, of the iron may be made either large or small, it may be adapted to the panels of doors, as vin figs. 355, 356, and 357 ; or an 355 356208 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 357 358 entire door, with the frame of rod iron, may be filled in, so as to serve as a substitute for a ledged door, fig. 358. The slïding gâte, fig. 359, has been erected as an entrance to -ne of the docks. The frame is of the usual construction, of timber, and inserted in a brick wall. The gâte is composed of sheets of corrugated iron riveted together, so as to form one large panel, the size of the opening ; the foot of this gâte rests in a groove, as shown in the section, fig. 360, b, made of timber or stone, and embedded in the earth, so as to be level with the roadway. On the upper edge are two 360 grooved wheels, which work on an iron ledge groove, a. Shutters to shops p may be made of this description of sheet iron, as well as chests, and a variety jjjijferj of other objects which will easily occur to a practical man. The following Wr\ Il are the prices at London in 1832: — Roofs, per square of 100 feet, a jiijf £5 : 10s. ; vérandas, per square, £7 ; and doors of the ordinary size, in i l six panels, as in fig. 357, £2 : 10s. each. This description of roof is not | particularly applicable for small-sized cottages, but may be used for large ij ones ; and, for smithies, carpenters’ shops, and ail manner of sheds, it seems particularly appropriate. Portable houses might be very readily made of it | for exportation; but, wherever such houses were erected, they should be j covered with ivy, or some other evergreen creeper, to moderate the effect of | changes in the exterior température. ||J 421. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 28,636 feet, at 6d. per foot, ! £715 : 18s., at 4d., £477 : 5s. : 4c?. ; and at 3cZ„ £357 : 19s. |j 422. Remarks. Tliere is a simplicity and grandeur in the élévation of jj this Design, which by no means belongs to a common dwelling ; and, were the | | chimney tops omitted, we should be at a loss to know its purpose. The _ JL extent of the arcade, and its width, with the sma 1 Windows under it, would * ' ■ ™ seem to indicate that this Design has been intended for a hot climate ; but,COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. LXVII. 209COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 210 LXVIII.COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOÜS STYLES. 211 for such a- climate, the chimney tops are too conspicuous. They are very well calculated for Britain or North America; but, for either of these climates, there ought to hâve been at least one additional window to each room. In the engraving, we hâve shown the tiles of the roof much more distinctly than they were seen in the drawing sent by our contributor. When the covering of a roof is (like thatch, plain tiles, or slate) neither ribbed nor definitely marked, except by its great outlines, indistinctness is no defect; but a roof marked, in conséquence of its construction, by distinct lines and strong shadows, should hâve the parts as definitely made out in the picture as in the reality. Whoever will examine the published works of the Italian Architects, or the views of Italian buildings taken by British Architects or artists, will find that much of their beauty dépends on the minute details of the roof, and especially of the projections of the eaves ; and of the ridge pièces, as well of the hips as of the main roof. Design LXVII. — A Cottage DweUing of Five Booms, in Two Floors. 423. Accommodation. The ground plan contains an entrance lobby and staircase, a ; parlour, 5; another parlour, or best bed-room, c; kitchen, d ; back kitchen, e; closet,/; root-cellar, g; dusthole, h; privy, i; and pantry, k. The chamber floor contains two good bed-rooms, Z and n ; with a dressing-closet, o : the well-hole of the stair is shown at m. 424. Construction. The walls are shown of such a thickness as to admit of their being built of rubble-work. The roof is covered with slates, and the guttering, which is of cast iron, is calculated to serve as a cornice to the eaves. 425. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 29,044 feet; at 6d. per foot, £726 : ls. ; at 4c?., £484 : ls. : Ad. ; and at 3c?., £363 : Os. : 6d. 426. Remarks. The chief merit of this building is, that it contains five good-sized rooms ; for size is very désirable, both in a cold climate and a warm one. Air in large bodies is much more slowly either heated or cooled by the mere contact of hot or cold air, and it is also less liable to be traversed by currents of air, than when in a smaller volume. No one could sit in a small room with doors and Windows on ail sides, with- out experiencing what is commonly called a draught ; but, in a very large room, doors and Windows on ail sides will occasion no such inconvenience. We object to the position of the recesses for cupboard closets in b and c ; because they occupy the proper places for a sofa in the one room, and for a bookcase in the other : they also seem to divide the side of the room into two parts, and thus take away from the idea of a whole. If these rooms were to be handsomely finished, the doors in question would be highly objection- able, on the latter account. The closets in question ought to hâve been placed, one in both b and c exactly opposite the entrance door ; and another, in each room, between the fireplaces and the side walls in which they are now placed. So large a dwelling, we think, ought to hâve had a porch ; but that may be matter of economy on the part of the proprietor. There is a poverty about tne élévation, which requires to be removed by architraves to ail the Windows, by sills to those of the chamber story ; and by other means, which are by this time become familiar to our readers. We need not say that we object to the truncated pediments, which give a tame lumpish character to this dwelling, hardly in accordance with the bold and handsome chimney tops. Design LXVIII. — A DweUing of Four Rooms, with other Conveniences. 427. Accommodation. The door is protected by a far-projecting roof, and enters at once into the kitchen and living-room, a, in which is a staircase to the bed-chamber, with a closet under it, b: from this we hâve a room with a bed in a recess, c; and another of the same description, d: there are a back kitchen, e; privy,/; root-cellar and fuel place, g ; and dusthole, h. There is a good bed-closet in the chamber story ; and on the ground floor there is another closet, k, which may serve as a pantry, and a third, Z, which may be used as an office, or place for books, &c., according to the occupation of the inhabitant. 428. Construction. The walls may be of brick, hollow, and the roof slated ; but the building would hâve the best effect, if the walls were covered with cernent or plaster, and coloured of a mellow tint. We say they would hâve the best effect ; because the beauty of this dwelling dépends on the contrast between its perpendicular and horizontal lines ; and between its bright lights and dark shadows : and both lines and shadows are. moye conspicuous in light-coloured walls than in any other. 429. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 11 890 feet, at 6d. per foot, £297 : 5s. ; at 4 * h. The chamber floor, fig. 368, contains two good bed-rooms, i, k ; and two bed- closets, Z, m. 440. Construction. The contributors of this Design, Messrs. W. and H. Laxton, hâve sent the following details. Fig. 369 is a section across the window in the living-room, in which is shown the wall of brick, a ; label moulding over the window, b ; reveal, with splay, finished with cernent, c ; frame to the casements, four inches by two inches, with hollow worked on the edge, rebated, and beaded, d; inch and half Gothic bar casement, rebated on the lower edge, to shut against an iron tongue, let into an oak sill, e ; lintel, four inches and a half by three inches and a half, /; plate, four inches and a half by five inches, g ; joists, seven inches by two inches and r 1 15-0), l^-o" ■L C "V __ia a half, notched on to the plate, h ; ceiling, * ;COTTAGE DWELLïftGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 215 LXIX.216 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. LXXII.COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VAEIOUS STYLES. GI7 V —Lxi n comice, with flowers or bosses, fifteen inches apart, j ; floor boards out of two eut battens, k ; skirting board, with hollow worked on the edge and a groove, l ; narrow ground, splayed for plaster, m ; small fillet nailed oii the floor, for fastening the skirting, n ; wooden brick, four inches by two inches and a half, o ; plaster, p ; oak sill, q ; capping, or window board, r; and window 369 a/'V'aA' 3/0 \ back, s. Fig. 370 is a section show- ing the construction of the embattle- ments, in which we hâve the wall of. the ground floor a brick and a half thick, t ; the wall of the bed-room floor one brick thick, u ; the coping of the embattlements formed of Aus- • tin’s artificial stone, v v ; and the moulded string under the embattle- ments, w. Fig. 371 is a section, showing the gutter and the roof, in which the wall-plate is represented at a; the ceiling joist, four inches by one inch and a half, is nailed to the side of the rafter at b ; the rafter, c, four inches by two inches, is notched on to the wall-plate; the battens for the slates, three inches by three quarters of an inch, are shown at d; three quarters of an inch feather-edged eaves- board at e ; a cast-iron gutter at /, moulded to form a cor- nice, and fastened by copper nails to the ends of the rafters ; Fig. 372 is an élévation of the south-east end of this building. Fig. 373 is an élévation, to a scale of three eighths of an inch to a foot, of the chimney tops, formed of Austin’s artificial stone. 441. Spécification and Estimate. As the build- ing is small and simple, these are combined in what is technically called one particular. The prices are calculated at the prime cost of materials and labour, in London, in the year 1832. 442. Digger and Bricklayer's Work. £ s. Twenty cubic yards, digging, wheeling, or filling in to the founda- tions, and over the whole surface, six inches deep.................. 1 : Seven rods and three quarters reduced stock brickwork, at jÉ12 per rod............................................................. 93 : The walls are to hâve two courses of one brick in thickness, and the plinth is to be half a brick thicker than the walls above, as shown in the ground plan, fig. 367. There are to be one-brick footings, ^V'Vvv-vvy and slates at g. 1 ' f 5 371 0 : 0 0: 3£ «• d. 218 COTTAGE FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. eighteen inches high, to 37 3 One hundred and sixteen feet lii eement, for plinth, 2±dL per f< partitions forming the sides of the stairs and lobby; and one- brick sleeperwalls, for the joists under the parlour. ( A sleeper is a piece of scantling, laid on the top of a low wall, under the flooring, on which the joists are to rest. ) Thirty yards of brick nogging of stocks laid fiat to the partitions on the ground floor, at 3s. a yard........................... Five yards of brick paving of stocks* laid flat in sand, to the closet for coals, under the stairs, at 2s. 3d. per yard...... Forty-five feet superficial of cut- tings to the rakes of the gables at 3d. per foot ............... Ten feet superficial of two courses of plain tiles, bedded in cernent, and rendered on the top, to the flat roofs of the towers ........................ Two hundred and two feet lineal of cuttings to the splays of the Windows and doors, at 2d. a foot (c, in fi g. 369) ........ Cutting four small Gothic heads, and one large ditto ; and four loophole crosses to the towers îal of brick on edge, eut and set in >t (fig. 374)........ ............... 0 0 O 1 0 1 : 10 : 0 : 11 : 3 : 11 : 3 : 7 : 6 : 13 : S : 10 : 0 : 4 : 2 aCOTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 219 One liundred and sixty feet lineal bird’s-mouth splays to the quoins £ s, d, (corners) of the towers, at 2d. per foot. (A bird’s-mouth splay is an oblique angle, as at a, fig. 375, instead of a right angle. ). 1 : 6:8 To build a small cess-pool, two feet six inches square, and one foot six inches deep, of one brick wall ail round, under the water- closet ; and to provide thirty feet of eight-inch drain pipes, and digging, to convey the soil to the common sewer ; also an earthen- ware pan and trap......................................... 2 : 18 : O ^107 : 2:6 443. Slater's Work, Eight square forty feet of countess slating, at 25s. per square........ 10 : 10 : 0 Thirty-six feet lineal of glazed ridge tiles, at 6d. per foot..... 0 : 18:0 Eighty-six feet lineal of cernent filleting to the gable, at 2d, per foot 0:14:4 £12 : 444. Carpenter's Work, Seven squares of three quarters of an inch battening, two inches and a half wide, for slating, at 10s. per square........................ 3 : Sixty-three feet superficial of three quarters of an inch feather-edged eaves-board, at 5d. per foot ....................................... 1 : Eighty-six feet lineal of tilting fillets to the gables, at 1 \d, per foot O : Two hundred and ninety-eight cubic feet of Memel, Riga, or Dantzic fir, in bonds, plates, rafters, joists, and quarters, as under, at 3s, 6d, per foot............................................................ 52 : Ridge-pieces, ten inches by one inch and a half ; rafters, four inches by two inches and a half ; purlins, four inches by four inches ; two collar beams, nine inches by three inches ; ceiling joists halved on to the rafter, four inches and a half by one inch and a half ; (joists are said to be halved on, when they are joined by half being eut out of the joist and half out of the rafter) ; a girder under the floor of the large room, nine inches by nine inches ; joists, seven inches by two inches and a half j plates, four inches by four inches and a half under the roof, and under each floor, ail round, except where the flues intervene ; also two tiers of bond, four inches by two inches and a half ; oak sleeper under the ground floor, and oak sill, four inches by four inches, to the partition on the ground floor ; heads to the partition, four inches by five inches, to form the sill of the partition above, or the cross-tie to the roof ; centre and doQr-posts, and door-head, four inches by four inches ; quartering, four inches by two inches ; door-posts and head to the water-closet, and the closets on each side, four inches by four inches, to be wrought ail round ; beaded head to the partition over ditto, four inches by four inches ; puncheons, four incjies by two inches. Three centres to the flreplaces, and ten ditto to the apertures of the doors and Windows ; one centre to the Gothic head........................ 1 : 2 : 4 10 : 0 6:3 10 : 9 3 : 0 0 : O £58 : 10 : 0 445. Joiner’s Work, Nine and a quarter square inch deal wrought folding floors, at 40s. per square...................................................... Two hundred and thirty feet, lineal plain skirting out of two eut battens, with a hollow and groove worked on the face, backings, and wooden bricks at 6d. per foot (see Z, and o, in fig. 369)... Eight one and a half inch four-panel square framed doors, six feet six inches by two feet six inches, with a hollow worked on the fram- ing round the panels, as in fig. 376, hung with three-inch butt hinges, and fastened with a six-inch iron-rimmed two-bolt lock, one and a 1 half inch rebated linings and mouldings round both sides, at 30s. per door.................... Four doors as above, with fillets nailed on the door-posts to form stops, to the water-closet, to the closets on each side, and to the 376 Z 18:10:0 5: 15:0 12: 0:0220 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. closet under the stairs; each door hung with three-inch butt hinges, and having a four-inch lock to each, at 22s. per door..... Four one and a quarter inch framed and beaded closet fronts, eight feet by three feet three inches, with four-panel square doors, hung with three-inch butt hinges, and having a moulding round, and a closet lock to each, at 26s. per door............................ A two-ineh two-panel bead butt and square-framed door, seven feet by three feet, with one and a half inch sash and shutter ; the lower panels to be filled in with a Gothic moulding, and Gothic head, hung with four-inch butt hinges, and fastened with a nine- inch drawback lock, and two eight-inch bolts. A proper door- case of fir, four inches by four inches, with a moulding round inside........................................................... One and a half inch sash door to the back lobby, six feet six inches by two feet six inches, framed bead butt and square; with a shutter, and a pair of three-inch butt hinges, a thumb-latch, two bolts, a thumb-screw, and two stubbs ; a proper doorcase of fir, four inches by three inches, with a moulding round inside........ Eighty feet superficial of one and a half inch square framed partition, to divide the small room, on the bed-chamber floor, from the stairs ; also over the stairs, with a four-panel square framed door in ditto, at 9d. per foot ; sixteen feet of moulding round ditto ; one pair of three-inch butt hinges, and a six-inch two-bolt lock............. Four Windows with one and>a half inch deal casements, Gothic heads and spandril, four feet six inches by five feet in the clear ; hung folding (both casements to open and shut against each other as in fig. 177 § 196,) with three-inch butt hinges, and fastened with two five-inch brass flush bolts, and a brass fastening ; two-inch deal rebated and beaded frame, four inches wide, with hollow worked on the outer edge (d, in fig. 369), and with oak sills, at £2 : 2s. each.............................................................. Four windows, three feet six inches by five feet, at £1 : 18s. per window........................................................... Two pair of one and a half inch deal shutters, framed as doors, to the parlour windows, hung as sashes, with pulleys and boxings complété, each twenty-eight feet superficial, and with four feet extra-length of boxing, two brass flush rings, a brass tbumbscrew, and two four- inch brass flush bolts to each window............................ A three-quarter-inch ledged shutter to the kitchen window, seven- teen feet six inches superficial, with a wooden bar, and two Staples.......................................................... Fourteen feet superficial one and a quarter inch deal seat, riser and bearer to the water-closet ; five feet superficial one and a quarter inch deal clamped flap, and beaded frame; six feet lineal inch skirting, four and a half inches wide, one pair of two-inch brass butt hinges, and two holes eut ; and a small bull’s-eye light frame and linings...................................................... Sixty-five feet superficial of one and a quarter inch deal steps, with inch risers, bracketed and housed into one inch and a half wall string, twenty-five feet superficial, with thirty feet lineal of beaded capping ; and a deal moulded rail, fifteen feet lineal, fastened with three iron brackets ............................................. Deal dresser, seven feet long by two feet wide, with three drawers under, pot board and bearers ; three-inch deal shelves over, and two eut standards (the upright piece of deal to which the ends of the shelves are fixed)....................................... ....... One hundred feet of inch deal, wrought on both sides, to be fixed with bearers for shelves, at 8d. per foot......................... £ *. d. 4 : 8:0 5 : 4:0 3:3:0 2 : 0:0 3 : 7:0 8 : 8:0 7 : 12 : 0 4:0:0 0: 15 : 0 1 : 13 : 0 6 : 5:0 3:0:0 3 : 6:8 £ 89 : 446. Stonemason’s Work. Two profile stone moulded chimney-pieces, with slabs and back hearths, to the parlour and the room over ; opening three feet high, by two feet eight inches wide................................... 3 : A set of stone jambs and mantle, five inches wide, to the bed-room, w:th slab and hearth.............................................. 6 : 8 10 : 0 0 : 15 : 0COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 221 A set of one and a half inch stone ditto, eight inches wide to the £ s. d. kitchen, with slab and back hearth........................... 1 : 5:0 À six-inch stone sink, ten feet superficial, with a trap in ditto.. pinned into the wall on two sides .................................. 2 : 5:0 Two stone steps, seven feet lineal, to the doorway ............ 1 : 1:0 £8: 16 : 0 447. Plasterer's Work. One hundred and thirty-six yards of whiting ceilings, at 1 d. per yard 0 : 11:4 Two hundred and fifty-six yards of colouring walls, at 2d. per yard 2 : 2 : 8 One hundred and fifty yards of render and set, at ld. per yard..... 4 : 7:6 Fifty-nine yards floated ditto, at 10c?...................'........ 2 : 9:2 One hundred and eighty-seven yards of lath, plaster, and set, to the partition and ceilings, at 1 s. : 5d............................. 13 : 4: 11 Thirty yards floated ditto, to the parlour, at ls. : 9d............ 2 : 12:0 Forty-five feet lineal of cornice, six inches in girth, at Bd. per foot (see s, in fig. 369)............................................. 0 : 18 : 9 Fifty-eight feet lineal moulded coping in cernent to the gables, and eighty-one feet ditto to the embattlements (see v v, in fig. 370), at ls. : 6d. per foot............................................ 10 : 8 : 6 Thirty-seven feet ditto label mouldings to the Windows (see 6, in fig. 369), at 6d. per foot....................................... 0 : 18 : 6 One hundred and fifteen ditto ditto string mouldings (see w, in fig. 370), at 9d. per foot....................................... 4 : 6:3 Sixteen mitres to the gable moulding, at 3d. each................. 0 : 4:0 Three shields, at ls. each............................................. 0: 3:0 Four ornamental chimney tops of Austin’s artificial stone, five feet high, at £2 : 2s. each (see fig. 373)............................ 8 : 8:0 £50 : 14 : 7 448. Plurriber, Painter, and Glazier's Work. Three cwt. of milled lead to the valleys, at 25s. per cwt........... 3 : 15 : 0 Ten feet of three-quarter-inch pipe, with joints and stopcock to ditto, for the water-closet....................................... 1 : 0:0 Water-butt and stand................................................ 1 : 10 : 0 Fifty-three feet lineal of cast-iron gutter to the eaves, painted four times in oil, at 2s. per foot (see f, in fig. 371)................ 5 : 6:0 Thirty-six feet ditto of two-inch iron pipe, at ls..................... 1 : 16 : O Two heads and two shoes to ditto.................................... 0 : 12 : O One hundred and forty-eight feet superficial crown glass (third quality) to ail the sashes anddoors, at ls.' : 6d. per foot ..... 11 : 2:0 One hundred and twenty-five yards, painted four times in oil colours, at 8d. per yard ......................................... 4 : 3:4 Two hundred and thirty feet lineal of skirting ditto, at Id. per foot 0:19:2 Eight casements and firames, painted on both sides.»................ 1.: 0:0 £31 : 449. Summary of Estimâtes. Digger and bricklayer..........................................• 107 : 2:6 Slater......................................................... 12 : 2:4 Carpenter..........................*............................. 58 : 10 : O Joiner and Ironmonger ....................................... 89 : 6:8 Stonemason .................................................... 8 î 16 i O Plasterer ..................................................... 50 : 14 : 7 Plumber, Glazier, and Painter .............................«... 31 : 3:6 Total prime cost of this dwelling.........................£357 : 15 : 7 450. General Estimate. Cubic contents 17,688 feet, at 6d. per foot, £442 : 4s. ; at 4d.r £294 : 16s. ; and at 3c?., £221 : 2s. ; by which it appears that 4 jtf. per foot is about a fair price for estimating lodges of this description. 451. Remarks. For an ornamental cottage this must be considered a very economical plan : its accommodations are insufiScient for a small farmer, or a retired tradesman ; but it would not be difficult to enlarge it, and yet preserve the general character of the élévation. The contributors of this Design (Messrs. W. and H. Laxton) hâve sent us a plan for this purpose, fig. 377 ; in which a îs the entrance lobby ; b, the parlour, or222 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. living-room, with a wine closet, c, and a store-room, d; e, the principal room, with a china closet, f and book closet, g ; h, the passage leading to a staircase, with a light pantry under it, im, k, the kitchen ; l, the lobby to the back entrance ; m, the water- closet ; w, a coal and wood-house; and o, the yard. We object to this plan, and also to that of the original Design, fig. 367, on account of the chimneys being placed in the outside walls ; but this evil may be mitigated by an increased thickness, and by forming a vacuity ail round the chimney and flue, so as to lessen the conducting power of the wall. Whoever, in a climate where lires are necessary one half the year, employs an Architect to design a dwelling, whatever may be its rank, from the cottage to the palace, ought to make it an indispensable condition, to hâve no chimneys in the outside walls ; and none that shall not draw well. Every person looking through this work, with à view to make choice of a design, ought to bear in mind the same principle. With respect to the élévation, as shown in Design LXXI., p. 215, we cannot approve of carrying through, between the lower and the upper Windows, the forms of battlements, as shown in the section fig. 370, in the manner of a string course; because such an ornament has neither the appearance nor the reality of use. A string course, or horizontal band, has the architectural expression (to speak technically) of binding and tying together the work below it, as well as, to a certain extent, of protecting it from the rain. It is true that the battlement forms, carried through, as in fig. 370, will also protect what is below from the rain ; but they hâve not that expression, for every one knows that their usual pur- pose, on a building, is to form the termination of a wall. The effect of these battlements on the outline élévation, fig. 372, can hardly fail to deceive the unpractised eye; and, by raising the idea that the basement story of the building projects outwards, considerably beyond the upper story, créâtes a beauty in the design, as seen in an outline élévation on paper, which it could never hâve in reality. The shaded perspective view, Design LXXI., p. 215, may be referred to in proof of this assertion, as showing the advantages of such views in conveying correct ideas of the effect of architectural designs. We may further observe that it would be an improvement, to raise the angular towers two or three feet higher, so as to detach their summits more distinctly from the gable ends. The effect or this, as of ail distinctness and bold relief in buildings, is to make the parts ap- pear more decidedly what they are; in short, to add to the strength of their expression.COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 223 Design LXXII. — A Dwelling of Six Booms, with various Conveniences. 452. ^ Accommodation. From the entrance and staircase, a, there is a kitchen, b ; with back kitchen, c; and pantry, d: there aretwogoodparlours, e and/; a céllar, g; which, if thought necessary, might be connected with the kitchen ; a place for fuel, h ; dusthole, t ; and privy, k. The chamber floor contains three good bed-rooms, l, m, and o ; and a light closet, p. 453. Construction. The walls are supposed to be rubble-stone ; the roof covered with slate ; and the chimney tops, coping of the side walls, and tabling of the gable ends of tooled stone. The doors and Windows hâve plain stone facings. The guttering is formed as in fig. 120. 378 379 380 381 454. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 22,839 feet, at 6d. per foot, £520 : 9s. : 9d. ; at Ad., £360: 6s : 6d. ; and at 3d., £265 : As. : 10\d. 382 383 384 385 455. Remarks. This building will be known at once to be in the Scotch style. This style, which is also common in the north of France and in Flanders, prevails in ail those parts of Scotland where freestone is abundant ; varying sometimes with plain tabling ; with the tabling stones raised one above another like the steps of a stair, as in Design XI. ; or in various other forms, as in figs. 378 to 385. As the chief characteri^tic beauty of this manner of building dépends on the gables, we hâve given these different forms, which the reader may vary at pleasure. The next characteristic is the storm-head Windows, fig. 386; and these admit of as great à variety as the gable ends. A third distinction of this style is the facings to the doors and Windows, which may also be con- siderably varied. The chimney tops are generally very simple. Loopholes z224f COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. and very small gable Windows are frequently introdUced,partly to give character, but chiefly for ventilation ; and these also may be considerably varied. It is remarkable that hoùses in this style, which is evidently one attended with considérable expense in stone-cutting, are seldom found with a porch ; though this appendage, in a climate like that of Scotland, would be of the most essential service in point of comfort : a porch in Scotland, however, is seldom seen to any building under the rank of a villa. The Design before us is- given more as a specimen of the Scotch style, than as a model ; though it is certainly commodious, and convenient in its arrangement. It would be much improved by a string course under the chamber-floor Windows, and by squared stones at the corners. A better effect would hâve been produced in the élévation, as well as more heat in the interior, by having the fireplaces of the two living-rooms, e and /, against the partitions which separate them from the stair. Thesë alterations made, and a porch added, the resuit would be fig. 387, which may be described as a specimen of the improved Scotch style ot traûesmen’s houses. In this figure, the vertical and horizontal bond, both in regularly hewn stone, and the panels filled up with rubble-work on the cementitious principle, will be distinctly observed. Expression is by these means given to a mere wall, as such, without reference to what it has to support or enclose. The young architectural reader ought constantly to bear in mind, not only that every building ought to hâve its appro- priate expression obvious at first glance, but that every separate part of a building ought to hâve its separate expression. The student ought, therefore, to exercise himself in endeavouring to analyse every édifice that cornes before him, so as to be able to feei the force of every effect, and to refer it to its cause. Two of the Windows of the ori- ginal Design, p. 216, are false; which, in buildings of this class, is to us an abomination. Design LXXIII. — A DweUing, Three Storîes high, with Four Booms, and varions Conveniences. 456. Accommodation. From a porch, a, the door enters into a lobby, h ; whence there is a closet, c, under the staircase ; there are a kitchen, d ; back kitchen, e ; pantry, / ; parlour, g ; closet cupboard, h ; root-cellar, i ; place for fuel, k ; dusthole, l ; and privy, m. The chamber floor contains two good bed-rooms, n and o ; with a closet, p ; and a landing to the stairs, q. The garret, which is entered by a trapdoor from this landing, is in one large room, lighted by a dormer window. 457. Construction and Remarks. The walls may be of rammed earth, of mud, or of rubble-stone ; with the exception of the partitions, and the walls to i, k, l, and m, which may be of clay nogging. Near London, and in other situations where labour is high, walls of brick on edge, hollow, in Dearn’s manner, § 336, would be equally cheap, and préférable on account of their neatness and dura- bility. The roof is shown thatched, and without guttering, which, however, may be added ; in which case it should be of wood or of cast iron, with an exterior moulding, as in fig. 388. InCOTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 225 LXXIII.226 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. LXXIV. LXXVI.COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 22J general, however, thatched roofs should either project so far as to protect the wall and Windows, and also a space of two feet broad, to serve as a passage, and thus render a gutter unnecessary ; or, they should hâve two or three feet at the eaves tiled or slated, in which latter case a much cheaper and neater form of guttering may be adopted ; say • as in fig. 389. One reason why guttering is objectionable to ail thatched roofs is, that, by the continuai decay of the thatch, they are very apt to become choked up. A large clumsy gutter, like that shown in fig. 388, is, no doubt, less liable to this than a smaller gutter, such as is suitable for a thatched roof with slated eaves, like that in fig. 389 ; but both will be found to require continuai attention, and, afiter every violent shower, to be apt to choke up the descending pipe. There is a porch of trelliswork to this Design, which is so far good, as any description of porch is better than none ; but there are two trunks of trees, in the manner of columns, without plinths below, and with- out any thing in the way of an entablature above, which, we must say, we think in superlatively bad taste. What can be worse than a column supporting nothing but thatch ? There is a false window to the parlour, on one side of the porch, which we disapprove of ; because there must be something déficient in the invention of the Architect, when such Windows are found requisite in buildings of this description. A window in a thatched roof is always bad ; because the number of angles which it présents to the wind and the weather,.makes the thatch which covers them go rapidly into decay, and soon admit the rain. If such Windows are ever admitted, they should be in the style of that shown in Design XX., or in fig. 157. We never can bring ourselves to consider thatch as a proper covering for a building of two stories ; we would limit it to low buildings, with mud or rubble- stone walls, and where no guttering was required : but let taste be free. The- compact- ness of the plan, however, is commendable ; and this is, perhaps, ail that we can say in its favour. The cubic contents of this Design are 19,632 feet, from which our readers may easily form a General Estimate. Design LXXIV. — Design for a Cottage Dwélling, in the Oîd Engîish Stylet and of a Construction suitable for having Part of the Walls covèred with Weather- Tiling. 458. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 390, contains an entrance-lobby, a ; hall and staircase, b ; parlQur, c ; kitchen, d ; wash-house, with oven-boiler and sink, e ; pantry,/; dairy, g ; beer cellar, h ; and coal cellar, i. The chamber floor, fig. 391, contains three good bed-rooms, k, l, and m ; and a light bed-closet over the lobby, n. N 390 391 459. Construction. The foundations and walls of the ground-floor story should beof brick, or of rough stone with brick dressings (bricks at ail the angles, whether of doors, Windows, or corners), and with brick arches to the Windows. These walls, of whatever mate rial constructed, should hâve what. is called a Welsh cornice (two or three over sailing (protruding) courses of brickwork, one of which hasdentils, formed by the ends228 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 392 393COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOÜS STYLES. 229 402 O Q O O O O O O O O 392 of bricks projecting at equal and regular distances,) to finish with at top ; in order that the lower part of the weather-tiling, which is to cover the bed-room walls, may incline outwards, for the purpose of throwing off the water, and preventing it from nmning down the walls of the ground floor. The external partitions of the chamber floor should be formed of timber framing, lathed horizontally, to receive the tiling, which may be of any pattern, according to fancy. Our contributor has sent sketches, figs. 392 to 402, of ail the different kinds which he recollects having seen ; but as two or three sorts are generally used’together, arranged alternately, it would be fruitless, he says, “ to attempt sending ail their combinations. It is very common to hâve two, three, or more courses of ornamental tiles, separated by a row of plain ones, which has a good effect.” For the présent Design he recommends employing successive courses of figs. 393, 394, and 395, separated by a course of fig. 392, as shown in fig. 402, “ which would produce an agree- able play of light and shade, showing off some of the most pleasing alternations of straight and waved lines that this species of material is capable of producing.” It will generally be found advisable to colour thewhole of the weather- tiling a light stone or cream colour, and the brick or stone walls below may be left un- coloured, or not, accord- ing to whether the natural tint of the ma- terial employed is agree- able or otherwise. The roof is to be covered with the common plain tiles, and its picturesque beauty will be much improved if they are old ones that hâve lost the glaring hue which ail tiles hâve when they are fresh from the kiln.” With respect to colouring the materials of a building, it may be observed that it is not liable to the same objections as either plastering them over, or roughcasting or whitewashing them ; because colouring, being much thinner, does not, to the same extent, disguisé the nature of the material, and thus either destroy the natural expression of, or give a false expression to, the wall. A wall may be said to hâve its true and natural expression, when, at the first glance, it shows the materials of which it has been constructed ; the manner in which these materials hâve been put together ; and the principles of construction on which it dépends for its stability, strength, and duration. Now, a brick or stone wall, on the external face of which the distinct shapes of the bricks or stones are clearly discernible to the eye, is the same thing, in point of the useful qualities mentioned, whatever may be its colour ; but if the joints of the stones or bricks, and their surfaces, are covered with plaster or roughcast, or with such a thick coat of whitewash as to obliterate their forms and lines, the wall has lost its natural expression : it may be of brick, or it may be of hewn stone ; but as every body knows that whitewashing is generally applied for the pur- pose of disguise or conceal- ment, it is fair to conclude that, wherever it occurs on the external walls of buildings, they are made of lath and plaster, or mud. To retum to our Design, the general effect of the weather-tiling will be seen in the élévation of the entrance, or north-west front, fig. 404 ; in the south-west side, fig. 405 ; in the south-east end, fig. 406 ; and in the north-east side, fig. 407. The use of weather-tiling in England is chiefly eonfined to the marine230 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. districts, where it is employed for casing the wood, brick, or stone, to protect them from driving winds that carry with them the spray of the sea, which, from the sait it contains, would otherwise render the walls damp. Weather-tiling is also used in some parts of the interior of the country, on the South- west and west sides of buildings, to protect them from the rains, which, in England, are not-only more frequent from that quartér than from any other, but which are almost always accompanied by high driving windsi The most suitable weather-tiling, for this purpose, is that commonly called mathe- matical tiling, which is made to imitate bricks ; but we shall defer our description of this kind of tiling till some future oc- casion. of buildings, whether formed of 404 460. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 18,749 feet, at 6d. per foot, £468 : 14s. : 6d. ; at 4d., £312: 9s. : 8d. ; and at 3d., £234: 7s. : 3d.COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 231 hours afîfcerwards, to whatever surrounds it. If theoven has a horizontal flue proceeding from it, either under the floor as in our model cottages, or above it as a bench in the German or Chinese manner, both to be hereafter described, the heat given out will be so much the greater. The occupiers of cottages hâve much to learn in respect to the best mode of consuming fuel, and economising heat : but to be taught this they must become readers; or, we must hâve parochial discourses on economical subjects, as well as sermons on religious and moral duties. Design LXXV. — A Cottage in the OldEnglish Manner, containing on the Ground Floor a Living-room, Kitchen, and other Conveniences, with Two Bed-rooms over. ‘462. Accommodation. From the front porch, fig. 407, a, the entrance is to a passage and staircase, which leads on the left to a living-room,’& ; and on the right, to a kitchen, c ; from which there is a closet, or coal cellar, under the stairs. From the kit- chen there is a door to the dairy, d ; and another to a lobby, which leads to the water-closet, e; and to the common entrance porch, f. There are a cow-house, g ; a pigsty, h ; and a place for hay and straw, i. The chamber floor, fig. 408, contains two, 463. Construction. The walls are of brick nine titions are of brick nogging flat. The roof is slated, and the chimney stacks are of brick set angularly. These angular chimneys are thus constructed : the shaft being finished square, as shown in fig. 409, an eartheij- ware circular flue-pipe is placed over the opening of the chimney, and the square flue is made to unité smoothly with it, by being pargeted with mortar made of fresh lime and powdered brick. Bricks are then built round the upright pipe, leaving vacuities not filled up with mortar, in the four angles formed between the bricks and the pipe. As the work is raised in height, pipes are added ; the length of each pipe being two feet, and each baving an outside rebate at one end, and an inside rebate at the other, so as to admit of a perfect junction. We good bed-rooms, h and l ; one of which has a fireplace. inches thick, and the par- 409 may observe that the diameter of these pipes may be from nine to thirteen inches, according to the size of the fire- place below; andwe shall show, in Book III. of this work, that by having tubes of this sort, of two feet, one foot, nine inches, and six inches, rebated as above, flues might be built in any direction, however crooked, which would require no climbing boy to sweep them, and would be attended, as we think, with ail or most of the advantages of the circular flues of Hiort, Chadley, or Smith, at a comparatively trifling expense. Fig. 410 shows the plan of the projecting bricks set on edge, which form the dentils that support the capital of the shaft. Fig. 411 represents one of the chimney tops232 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. complété, with its base, m ; shaft, n ; capital, o ; and capping, p. Wherever a “ tall boy” (see § 432.) is required to make a chimney draw, we would enclose it with brick or stone, in this, or in some similar manner, and thus get rid of those house-top de- formities so cleverly ridiculed in the Mechanic’s Magazine, vol. xvii. p. 316. “ How generally,” says this writer, “ do we see fine terminations become pedestals for every foui thing in the shape of a cowl, a mitred, a caped, an uncaped, a vandyked, a per- forated, a conical, a crooked, or a straight, “tall boy ; ” or to support a black pot, or a red pot, or some of the numerous devices which start up in such great profusion and variety, as soon as a new house is inhabited, or an old one changes its tenant : thus, as it were, proclaiming from the house-top, that the Architect and builder hâve been unsuccessful, and that some variety or other of the tinker’s or potter’s whims, to charm or coax out the smoke, has pre- vailed.” What are called the genteel cottages about London, indeed, are, in this respect, a disgrâce to their Architects and builders. The cow-house, hay- shed, and piggery are supposed to be of studwork, weather-boarded, and roofed with pantiles. The ceiling of the living-room is curbed, or coved at the sides (see the section fig. 412), by which means some addition is made to its height from the roof. Further details of construction will be found in the following spécification and estimate ; which, it may be observed, does not include the cow-house, hay-shed, and pigsty; the ingenious contributors of this Design, Messrs. W. and H. Laxton, considering that the occupant might be able, with a little assistance from a carpenter, to erect these additions at his leisure hours. The prices stated in the esti- mate, we should observe, are calculated for the neighbourhood of London, in the year 1832. 464. Brichlayer and Digger's Work. To build the walls, as shown in the plan, one brick thick, with one brick and a half footing, one foot high : — £ s. d. Five rods of reduced stock brickwork, at £12 per rod.............;..... 60 : 0:0 Twenty-four yards and a half superficial of brick nogging fiat, to the partitions on the ground-floor, at 3s. : 3c?. per yard............... 3 : 19 : 8 Two yards superficial of stock brick paving laid fiat, for the closet or coal cellar under the stairs, at 2s. : 3c?. per yard................. 0 : 4:6 Two hundred and fifity-two feet superficial of foot tile paving to the kitchen, dairy, and fire-places, at 6d. per foot..................... 6 : 6 : 0 Twenty-five feet lineal of eight-inch draining pipes, and digging for laying them, from the water-closet and sinkhole, to a tank in the yard, or some other part of the grounds, at ls. per foot............. 1 : 5:0 A cast-iron basin and trap to the water-closet, figs. 413, 414, and 415...................................................................... O : 10 : 0COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 233 (Fig. 413 is the surface plan of the basin; and fig. 414 is a £ s, d. view of it before it is built in. Fig. 415 is a section of the basin, as built in ; in which q is the trap ; r, the riser of the seat ; s, the seat ; t t, the brickwork of the drain ; and u, the drain. It is évident, from this figure, that no smell can penetrate from u upwards, it being intercepted by the trap, q ; and the water into which it dips.) Digging out foundation, levelling, &c., say........................ Ten squares of countess slating, laid on three quarters of an inch battening, with eaves, boards, and tilting fillets to the rakes, com- plété.............................................................. Forty feet six inches lineal of ridge tiles........................ Three chimney pots formed in brickwork, set angularly.............. 1 : Os 0 17 : 10 : 0 0 : 13 : 6 1 : 10 : 0 £92 : 18 : 8 465. Carpenter's Work. Rafiter and ceiling joists, four inches by two inches ; ridge pièces, nine inches by two inches ; wall plates, four inches by four inches ; purlins, four inches by four inches ; joists, seven inches by two inches and a half; bond, four inches by two inches and a half; and lintels, four inches by four inches : one hundred and forty- eight cubic feet of Memel fir timber, including labour and nails... Three squares and a half of four-inch quartering in partitions, framed complété................................................... Three squares and a half of one-inch deal wrought folding floors... One hundred and seventeen feet lineal of skirting worked out of two- cut battens, including woôden bricks and backings................. Seventy-four feet superficial of one inch and a half square framed partition, between the stairs and the small bed-room............... Eight one inch and a half four-paneled square doors, six feet six inches high, by two feet six inches wide, with one inch and a quarter single rebated linings, and a moulding round both sides ; hung with three-inch butt hinges, and having a six-inch iron-rim two-bolt lock to each............................................. Two outside bead butt and square doors, with fir frames, four inches by three inches, rebated and beaded, with a moulding round inside. The doors hung with three-inch butt hinges ; and having two bolts, and a seven-inch three-bolt iron-rim lock to each....... Four window frames and mullions, containing seventy-six feet lineal, of one and a half inch deal, wrought, rebated, and beaded, four and a half inches wide, with forty-eight feet lineal of moulding round the frames inside.................................................. One bay or bow window in three divisions, containing thirty-eight feet six inches lineal frame and mullions, four inches by four inches, wrought, framed, rebated, and beaded. Twenty-four feet lineal of moulding inside, and fourteen feet lineal of moulded cornice and base, to the top and bottom of the frame outside .............. Six three-quarter-inch proper ledged lifting shutters to the lower Windows, four feet by one foot six inches, with fastenings......... A fiight of stairs, containing fifty-three feet superficial of one and a quarter inch deal steps, and inch risers, bracketed and housed into A A 25 : 18 : 0 5 : 5:0 7 : 0:0 2 : 8:9 2 : 15 : 6 11 : 4:0 3 : 12 : 0 2 : 0 ï 0 1 : 10 : 0 2 : 5:0234 COTTAGE, EARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. strings, fifteen feet superficial, one inch and a half deal wall string, £ s. d. and seven feet superficial of ramped ditto; twenty-five feet lineal of beaded capping, and three feet of framed newel..................... 3:17:0 One small skylight, frame and lining, to the upper part of the stairs, in the roof........................................................... 0 : 7:0 One and a quarter inch deal seat, riser, and bearer, to the water- closet, with hole eut and cover lined, and skirting round............. 0 : 12 : 0 £ 68 : 14 : 3 466. Plaster er's Work. Sixty yards of lath, plaster, set, and whiting, for the ceilings.... 4 : 0 : 0 Twenty-three yards of ditto and colouring, for the partition........ 1 : 14 : 6 One hundred and sixty yards of plaster, set, and colouring, for the walls............................................................. 6 : 0 : 0 Eighty-six feet lineal of cernent skirting, seven inches wide, to the kitchen and dairy................................................. 1 : 8:8 £ 13 : 3:2 467. Stonemason’s Work. A moulded profile stone chimney-piece to the living-room ; and a set of fiat jambs, mande, and slabs to the bed-room; and a set of one inch and a half ditto to the kitchen .......................... 3 : 5:0 Four stone sills to the Windows, and two stone steps to the outside doors..................... 2 : 5:0 A stone sink seven feet super- ficial, with grating and iron socket, waste pipe, two five- holes sink stones (dish hol- lowed out), fig. 416......... 1 : 14 : 0 £ 7 : 4:0 468. Sundries. Ten feet lineal of three-quarter-inch pipe, with stopcock to the water-closet...................................................... 1 : 0:0 Seventy-five feet superficial glazing to casements in small squares 4 : 7:6 Seven iron casements, as in fig. 287, three feet four inches by one foot seven inches ; and seven ditto, four feet by one foot seven inches............................................................ 5 : 15 :6 Painting woodwork inside and outside, four times, in oil colours.... 4 : 0:0 Centring for doors, Windows, and chimneys, and bedding and pointing (filling up the joints).................................. 1 : 0:0 £ 16 : 3:0 417 469. Extra Work for the Porch. Twenty-six feet reduced brickwork in the footings, and digging out the foundations for them....................................... 1 : Eight yards superficial of pebble paving......................... 1 : Three quarters of a square of slating and battening.............. 1 : Nine oak posts, five inches square, with chamfered angles, and having the slabs of trees with the bark on, nailed round them, to imitate the trunks of trees, fig. 417.................................. 4 (Trunks of trees very soon rot, if the bark be not removed; and the mode above recommended has ail the appearance required, with increased durability.) Eighteen one-foot tiles for the tops and bottoms of the posts................ 0 : Ten branches of trees to form arches... 1 : Twenty cubic feet of Memel fir to the roof................................ 3 : 10 : 0 Thirty-seven feet six inches superficial of three quarters of an inch deal soffit and fascia wrought and beaded.............. 0 : 18 : 9 10 : 0 9 : 0 5 : 0 £ 14 : 9:0COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 235 470. Extra Expenses to the Eæterior of the House. Eighty-one feet lineal three-quarter-inch deal eaves, fascia beaded, £ s. d. with lath and stucco soffits and backings, and cast-iron eaves gut- ters, and painting........................... ................ 8 : 2:0 Thirty feet lineal of two-inch cast-iron pipes, with heads and shoes 2 : 0:0 Sixty-six feet lineal one and a half inch verge board to gables, ten inches wide, wrought, moulded, and eut, with stuccoed soffits...... 4 : 19 : 0 Two oaken pinnacles............................................. 0 : 12 : O Label moulding to three Windows................................. 0 : 15 : O Seventy-six lineal feet of beading round the ceilings of the living- room (fig. 418.) ............................................... 0:19:0 £ 17 : 7:0 471. Summary of Estimâtes. Bricklayer and Digger ............. 92 : 18 : 8 Carpenter........................ 68 : 14 : 3 Plasterer.......................... 13 : 3:2 Stonemason...................... 7: 4:0 Sundries .......................... 16 : 3:0 Total expense of the building,------------- plain.....................£ 198 : 3:1 Extra work for the porch........ 14 : 9:0 Extra expenses to the exterior ... 17 : 7:0 Total expense with a porch----------------- and other extras..........,§£229 : 19 : 1 472. General Estimate. The cubic contents of this dwelling are 11,686 feet, which, at 6d. per foot, make £292 : 3s. ; at 4d., £ 194: 15s. 4d. ; and at 3d., £146 i 1 s. : 6d. As Mr. Laxton’s estimate amounts to £229 : 19s., it thus appears that about 4|d. per foot is a fair price for buildings of this description, in the neighbourhood of London, in the year 1832. 473. Remarks. The general effect of this building is good; but, for comfort, and especially warmth, the chimneys ought not to hâve been in the outside walls. In countries where fuel is abundant, or in those where fire is wanted chiefly for cooking and washing, this will be no great objection; but, in Britain, no exterior beauty or cha- racter can, in our opinion, compensate for having the fireplaces in the outside walls. When the chimneys are in the interior walls, they not only keep the whole house warm, but they invariably draw better. Knowing, and being deeply impressed with, these two facts, chimney shafts, when rising from the centre of a roof, always appear to us more beautiful than in any other position; and in this sentiment we think we are correct, because the origin of ail beauty must necessarily be utility. The différence between us and those who prefer the chimney shafts on the gable ends, consists in their judging with reference to a different standard. If we ask what that standard is, we shall generally be told that it is picturesque effect; sometimes, perhaps, the imitation of particular styles of cottage building, which hâve resulted from accident; and occasionally, though rarely, symmetry and regularity. In our opinion, the grand and fundamental principle of exterior beauty in dwelhngs is to be found in their internai accommodation and comfort. Whatever is required by or consonant with this, must be beautiful in the eye of reason; and ail exterior beauty inconsistent with this, must dépend on associations, which, not having their origin in reason, may be called arbitrary or accidentai, and ought there- fore not to be relied upon. Ail Architecture being founded on necessity and reason, and not on the imitation of any objects whatever, either of nature or art, it follows that the external beauty of any édifice as a whole can never be truly judged of, without a knowledge of the uses for which it is designed. So also the beauty or propriety of the various parts and details of a building, such as walls, supports, openings, &c., cannot be properly appreciated, unless we know the nature of the materials em- ployed. We cannot, for example, décidé as to the width of a doorway or a window, unless we know the materials of the wall in which the opening is made ; as well as the mode, whether by an arch or a lintel, in which that opening is covered. Neither can we estimate the weight which any prop or column will bear, unless we know the material of which it is composed. The proportions of a column, in timber, which may be very suitable for what it has to support, and therefore beautiful, would be more than sufficient, and therefore cumbrous and inélégant, in stone, and still more so in iron. It is true, that, in judging of doors, Windows, and côlumns, a very small portion of man-236 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. kind do so with reference to this standard; but it is not, on that account, the less founded on reason. The common standards of Architects, whatever may be the material em- ployed, are the models handed down to us by the ancients; and the common standards of the rest of mankind are the works erected by the Architects for the time being. Thus precedent takes the place of principle; and in Architecture, as in every thing else, fashion ultimately usurps the part of reason. But it is the province of criticism to test the fashions of the day, by a récurrence to first principles, and to endeavour to recall mankind to the considération of fondamental laws. In no art is this more requisite than in Architecture ; the pretended knowledge of which has hitherto, in ail âges and countries, been in the hands of a few ; but which, to be improved and brought to perfection, ought to hâve its principles universally studied and understood, so as that its works may be examined and criticised on these principles by the many In the infancy of ail art, the many are ne- cessarily led by the artists, and their arbitrary rules become law ; but, with the progress of things, the many become enlightened, and, judging for themselves, force the professors of art to recur to fondamental principles; and it is self-evident, that, in a usefol art, these principles must be based on utility. These remarks are not more applicable to this Design than they are to several others; but we consider it necessary to make them, with a view of impressing on our readers the necessity of mainly depending upon their reason, in judging of ail architectural works whatever. Design LXXVI. — A Cottage Dwelling, One Story high, containing Six Booms, a Wash-house, and other Conveniences. 474. Accommodation and Construction. The ground plan, fig. 419, contains an entrance-porch, a ; breakfast-room, b ; dining-parlour, c ; two good bed-rooms, d and e ; with two closets in d ; a servant’s bed-room, f ; kitchen, g ; wash-house, h ; and privy, 419 k There is a cellar under c, which is descended to by the stairs, l. A well may be dug, and a pump fixed either in the wash-house, or in the yard, m. The wall n may be continued at convenience, the south-east side of it enclosing a yard, in which may be placed a chicken-coop, pigsty, coal-house, dirt-bin, wood-house, and other conveniences ; and the north-west side may form one wall of the garden, against which, of course, fruit trees may be trained. It is proposed to hâve a cistern for rain water, over a part of the wash-house, to be formed of wood, and lined with zinc, as being much cheaper than lead. To this the water is to be conveyed by large wooden gutters, lined with zinc, to the thatched roof. The waste water from this cistern, and from the wash-house and from the pump, is to be led through the drain of the privy, to the liquid manure tank. The walls are proposed to be of chalk-stone with brick corners ; and with brick facingsCOTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOÜS STYLES, and labels to the doors and Windows, which are intended to hâve stone sills ; the roof is to be thatched with reeds, and the chimney tops are to be formed of Roman cernent. The whole is to be embraced by a platform on three sides. 475. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 13,308 feet, at 6d. per foot, ,£332 : 14s. ; at 4d., £221 : 16s. ; and at 3d., £166 : 7s. 476. Remarks. This Design, which has been sent to us by our much-valued contri- butor, Samuel Taylor, Esq., of Stoke Ferry, Norfolk, is calculated for being built of chalk-stone, which forms the cheapest material of that country, and for being covered with reeds, the produce of the adjoining fens. It forms a comfortable and commodious dwelling, expressive of what it is ; and, from the height of the walls and the proportions of the Windows, is rather élégant than otherwise. We cannot justify the Gothic labels over the doors and Windows, immediately under a far-projecting roof; because no other part of the building is in the Gothic style, and because labels of any kind, in such a situation, cease to hâve any character of use. “ From truth and use ail beauties flow.” ( Epistle to Lord Lowther on Building and JPlanting.') Design LXXVII.— The Model Cottages of the Laboureras Friend Society, as erected at Shooteras Hill, Kent. These cottages are built in pairs, in such a manner as to hâve 420 S >7 nz 15X10 d „a 1 — h i 15)00 =1 « . a 1.6vV C 4-6 xn __ i 421 10-?X6-2 477. Accommodation. the fireplaces in the party walls ; the groundplan, fig. 420, showb, for each cot- tage, an entrance- porch, a ; kitchen, b ; pantry, c ; and closet under the stairs, d. The chamber floor, fig. 421, shows two good bed-chambers to each cottage, without fireplaces. Theprivy, pigsty, and other con- veniences, are built apart. To each double cottage are annexed two acres and a half of land. 478. Construction. The walls are raised on grouted foundations (grout is com- posed of fresh lime and gravel, mixed, and imme- diately thrown in, beaten down, and left some days to consolidate), two feet broad and two feet deep ; over which are two courses of twenty-two inçhes in width, and two of eighteen inches, as a footing, and four courses of fourteen inches as a plinth. The walls above are nine inches, and hollow, and one course of slates is laid before the floors commence. The bricks are ail hard stocks ; the timber Swedish or Baltic ; the window sills and landings of York stone ; the chamber flooring of inch and quarter deal, ploughed and tongued (a groove made along the edge of one board, and a tongue or projection worked along the edge of the other, to fit into it, fig. 422) ; the window casements are of iron, and the roof slated. The course of slates is laid along the walls, just beneath the ground floor, in order to pre- vent the damp from rising through the vacuities, which are two inches wide, being formed in the manner shown in fig. 7, § 25. The brickwork is worked to a smooth face inside, and not plastered, but only whitewashed. The outside of the walls is thus left rough, and it is brought to an even surface by rough-casting it with a mix- ture of lime and fine gravel, which, when completed, has the colour and texture of Bath stone. The floors of these cottages are difteen inches above the general level of the surrounding ground ; twelve inches of this space is filled with gravel, and the top //, i 13-3X8-6238 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 422 three miches with grouting, which forms a hard bottom, upon which is laid a floormg of foot square paving tiles. The roof, as shown in fig. 423, projects, in order to keep the walls dry. j-----------5-------------—j 479. Estimate. Twelve of these cottages hâve been erected on Shooter’s Hill, at ^115 per pair, under the direction of our contributor, W. Bardwell, Esq., for the Labourer’s Friend Society. The cubic contents of the building are 9620 feet ; which shows that 2\d. per cubic foot is the proper rate for making a general estimate for this description of dwelling. 480. Remarks. This Design, which has been pub- lished in Facts and Illustrations demonstrating the Benefits derived by Labourers from possessing small Portions of Land, 8çc., vol. i. p. 31, was recommended to us, for our work, by its author, Mr. Bardwell. Considering the size of the rooms, these dwellings are certainly remarkably cheap ; and we are informed that, in conséquence of the grouted floors and hollow walls, they are the driest cottages in the neighbourhood where they are built. We agréé with the writer, who describes them in the work referred to, that, as ail the materials are of the best quality, these cottages will be as durable as they are cheap ; and that they may justly be considered élégant, from the proportions of the openings, the pediment ends, the low pitch of the roof) and (i the Doric simplicity of their general form.” The quantity of land annexed to them seems large ; but the reason may be that the occupiers are supposed not to hâve regular employment, and to find a ready market for garden produce. Design LXXVIII. — Six Cottage Dwellings, built at Abersychan, near Pontypool, in South Wales, with One common Wash-house and Bakehouse. 481. The object of building these dwellings, of which fig. 424 is the élévation, and 425 424 the ground plan, both to a scale of five sixteenths of an inch to ten feet, was to afford lodgings for the workmen of Messrs. Jones and Wilcox, builders, of Bristol, during theCOTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 239 time they were employed in erecting the extensive furnaces of the British Iron Com- pany at Abersychan. 482. Accommodation. The ground plan of each dwelling shows a passage, with a wooden dresser along the side, fig. 425, a ; living-room, b ; and back-kitchen, c ; over 425 which are two good bed-rooms. There are a wash-house, d, with two boilers and two ovens, common to the whole ; and four privies, e e e e. The front room, over the bake- house, belongs to the dwelling, f, which was occupied by the foreman of the masons; and the back room, over the privies, belongs to the dwelling, g, which was occupied by the foreman of the smiths. Each dwelling has a strip of garden-ground behind, and they are ail supplied with water by a mountain stream, which afterwards passes through the drains of the privies. 483. Construction. The walls are of stone, quarried on the spot ; the outside and party walls are eighteen inches in thickness, and the inside ones one foot. The floors are paved with stone, and the roofs covered with grey slate. The élévation, fig. 424, is wholly without ornament. 484. Estimate. These dwellings cost, including the wash-house, privies, enclosing the garden ground, &c., ,£800, which gives £133 : 6s. : 8d. for each cottage. As the whole line of building contains 61,005 cubic feet, it appears that 3d. per foot is the proper sum for employing in its general estimate. 485. Remarks. This Design was sent us by our esteemed friend, Samuel Taylor, Esq., as a specimen of a very cheap and simple mode of building dwellings of the lowest degree of accommodation in a stone country. The élévation has nothing to recommend it in point of effect : but, by advancing the wash-house in front ; by putting a screen wall be- fore the privies behind ; by reversing the position of the doors of the three dwellings on the right-hand side of the centre, in order to get the fireplace of the end one against a party-wall, as well as to maintain uniformity in the position of the doors and Windows ; by projecting the roof at the eaves, and forming pediment ends ; by introducing a string240 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. If such a line of cottages were erected in a country where fuel was dearer than it is at Abersychan, it might be worth while to keep the floor of tke wash-house three feet lower than that of the dwellings, and to conduct the flues from the boilers and ovens under the floors of the living-rooms, in the manner indicated in § 19. Perhaps some might think that it would be an improvement in our élévation, %. 426, to bring the Windows of the living-rooms more into the middle of the space between the door and the party-wall and also to bring the door to the back-kitchen into the middle of the space between the passage door and that party-wall, as in figs. 428 and 429 ; and we grant it 430 would, looking no farther than mere symmetry : but in figs. 425 and 427 there are spaces in the living-rooms at h, and also at i, in which a person may be seated at work without being in the draught between any opening and the fireplace ; and also in which tables or dressers might be placed : but supposing the door of the back-kitchen and the front window placed in the middle of their respective walls, as in fig. 429, there will be no place for either table or dresser, and the whole room will become, as observed by one of our correspondents § 365, a complété “ Temple of the Winds.” Thus, though there cannot be a doubt that, in point of architectural symmetry, the élévation, fig. 428, is much more beautiful than fig. 426 ; yet, in point of fitness, that is, with reference to the interior plan, the latter is decidedly more beautiful than the former. Can there be a doubt, then, which kind of beauty ought to be preferred, in cases of this sort? We say there cannot. The most useful is unques- tionably the most beautiful. When the question is between a beauty belonging to the expression of art, and a beauty con- nectée! with fitness for enjoyment, it is clear to us that the decision ought to be in favour of the latter. The great object of the Architect ought to be, to combine the two species of beauty; but as this cannot be done in every case, it is clear, that in judging of a building merely by its exterior, unless we are intimately ac- quainted with its use, we can only décidé as to its symmetry, or other architectural expression. To form a just taste in architec- ture therefore, it is as necessary to study ail the various purposes to which the different parts of the interiors of buildings are applied; and the different modes of lighting, warming, and ventilating, of supplying water and draining, of avoiding bad smells, damp, dry rot &c., as it is to study the original or conventional beauty of Lines and forms. It may be useful to observe that the chimney tops in figs. 426 and 428 are formed by setting up four slate stones, such as fig. 430, two about a foot, and two about eighteen inches broad, and ail from three to four feet high ; firmly 432 flanching them to the / / 'i top of the chimney / \ shaft with cernent, / J \ I andsometimescramp- / j \ ing them with iron / / \ into each other. O ver these slates is placed a two-feet square slab, fig. 431 ; and on that a truncated pyramidal stone, fourteen or sixteen inches square at the base, fig. 432. The handsomest cottage chimneys on the banks of the lakes of Cumberland and Westmoreland are formed in this manner ; and we shall give snecimens of some of them in the historical part of this work. 431 m/ \ er / \ ïd b, -----------COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 241. Design LXXIX. — Twelve or more Cottages in a Row, wiih a Kitchen, Wash-house, and other Conveniences, in common ; the whole heated by the Fires in the public Kitchen. 486. The object of this Design is to show how the modes of heating under the ground floor, and of having a common kitchen and wash-house, may be applied to a number of houses together, so as to produce very comfortable dwellings at a very moderate expense. By rendering fireplaces and chimneys unnecessary, not only is the expense of building them avoided, but also that of employing any other material than mud or earth in any part of the walls, or of having them, in any part, more than nine or ten feet high. It will be évident, after considering this Design in detail, that the domestic labours of a family living in one of these dwellings will be considerably diminished, and their com- forts, at the same time, greatly increased. 487. Ground Plan of the public Offices. The dwellings and offices may be either erected in a straight line, or in a curved line ; or they may form two or more sides of a qua- drangle. For so small a number as twelve, we prefer a straight line. At one end of this line we place the common kitchen, fig. 433, a ; in which there are two ovens for baking and roasting, b ; an open fireplace, c ; and three boilers for cooking and washing, d. The floor of this kitchen is four feet below the level of the floors of the dwellings, in order that flues from the ovens, and also from the boilers and the open fireplace in the centre, may be conducted under the floors of the drying- room and sitting-rooms, for heating them. Two ovens are shown, because, in the most severe weather in winter, the heat from one oven may not be sufficient for the floors. There are three boilers, in case of accident to one, and also because one boiler may be required for washing or brewing, while the others are being used, the one for boiling potatoes, and the other for making soup. The open fireplace is for the cooking of small articles by individuals. The roasting and baking is supposed to be carried on in the ovens, and the boiling méat chiefly in one of the boilers, in which also vegetables may be introduced to form soup ; while another boiler may be devoted exclusively to potatoes ; and the third to hot water. There may be a large table, with benches along its sides, in the centre of this kitchen, at which those who choose may dine. There are a cellar, e, and a store-room, f adjoining, in which potatoes and other roots, flour, meal, barley, table-beer, &c., may be kept for sale to the occupiers. The common wash-house, g, is fitted up with washing-troughs, from h to i ; and there is a pipe of hot water from the boiler in the kitchen, and another of cold water from a cistern over the wash-house ; both which com- municate by cocks with each trough. There is also a hole in the bottom of each trough, with a stopper, for emptying its contents into a common drain, connected with the cess-pool of the water-closets. There may be one of Siebe’s pumps in the wash-house, where it would be completely protected from the frost; and by this, the water might be raised from a well, either in the floor of the wash-house, or at any convenient distance from it, to the cistern. This cistern would also be completely protected from the frost ; and from it a pipe might be conducted along the upper part of the middle wall, which séparâtes the sitting-rooms from the bed-rooms of the dwellings, so as to supply each house. Another pipe, with a bail cock, will give a perpétuai supply to the hot-water boiler ; from which the water may be drawn for the use of the kitchen by one cock, as it is in the wash-house by several. This boiler, in- tended for the purpose of affording a perpétuai supply of hot water, should be raised considerably higher than the cooking boilers, in order to supply the water at a sufficient height for the washing-troughs ; the floor of the washing-house being on a level with the floors of the dwellings, while that of the kitchen, as already observed, is four feet below them. Adjoining the wash-house is a drying-room, h, heated by the hottest part of the flues which proceed from the ovens, the open fireplace, and the boilers ; and, to increase this heat, a part of the flues may be covered with cast-iron plates, over which may be a false floor, one inch distant from them, so contrived as to create a draught, on the b B 433242 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. principle before mentioiied, § 306. There are two divisions of privies ; one for the females and young children, l ; and the other for males, m. The drain, common to both, is connected with three covered cess-pools, n} nt and o ; by which, with the aid of two sluices or plugs, as described in § 16, s, the liquid manure in one tank may be allowed to ferment, while one of the others is being filled, and the third being emptied. Over these cess-pools are two dung-pits, n n, and one pit for rubbish not convertible into manure, o. 488. Accommodations of each Dwelling. The entrance is by a lobby, p, in whicji there is a sink with a water-cock at one corner, and the other corner may do for the tools, brooms, &c. A door from this lobby opens into the living-room, q, which is of a com- modious size, nineteen feet six inches by thirteen feet six inches. In this there is a place, r, with a raised hearth for keeping food or water hot over a lamp, a little charcoal, or a fire pail, there being a small flue formed of earthenware pipes, for carrying ofr the smoke. This cooking place, however, is only intended to be made use of in case of family sick- ness. Adjoining, there is a closet cupboard, s ; and at the opposite end of the room there may be corner cupboards, a' dresser, or any piece of furniture or kind of fitting up the occupier may prefer or find necessary. There are three bed-rooms, t, u, v, the largest for the master and mistress ; and the centre one, u, having the window down to the floor, paneled below, and to open as a door. This door is to be considered as exclusively for the use of the females. 489. The fines under the fioors will be six in number, going from the three boilers and the two ovens. We propose that the whole of these flues should be placed under the fioors of the living-rooms, and that ail of them should go from the drying-room in direct lines to the extreme end of the dwellings, each outgoing flue having a return flue along- side of it. There will thus be six outgoing and six return flues ; which, covered with one-foot tiles, will serve as flooring to the whole of the living-rooms. In order to prevent the smoke from rising between the joints, narrow slips of slate must be laid under each ; or, what would make a warmer floor, the whole should be covered with cernent, or arti- ficial stone composition. As heat will not be required under any of the floors during the summer season, except that of the drying-room, it is proposed to hâve ail the upright flues in the party wall between the drying-room and the first dwelling, and to hâve two communications with each of these upright flues, one from the outgoing flue immediately under it, and the other from the return flue of the same outgoing flue. By having a damper in the first, the smoke might be either sent round the horizontal flues, for the purpose of heating the dwellings ; or, when heat was not wanted, allowed to escape through the upright flues. These dampers will thus serve to regulate the heat supplied to the floors of the dwellings ; and, in the end of spring and the beginning of autumn, when only a little heat is wanting, some of the dampers can be drawn out ; while in winter, when a maximum of heat is required, they can ail be pushed in. The dampers will aiso be useful when first lighting the Ares in the mornings ; because withdrawing them will create a draught. The number of dwellings, which it is supposed these flues might heat, with no other fuel than what was required for the cooking and washing of the occupants, is here estimated at twelve ; but, if the houses were placed on a slope, the Ares at the lower end, and the upright flues at the upper end ; the outgoing horizontal flues having no returns, the number would no doubt be greater. Much will dépend on the kind of fuel used, and on care being taken to let no air pass into the flues from the furnaces or ovens, that has not entered by the ash-pit doors, and ascended through the Ares ; and also, that, when no Ares require to be made, the furnaces, ovens, and ash-pit doors are kept closely shut. The best fuel for heating flhes is that which burns the quickest, such as faggot wood, spray, shavings, &c. ; and Vhen once heated they ought to be closely shut up, to prevent a draught of air from cooling them. 490. Construction. We hâve shown ail the outside and party walls as eighteen inches thick, and the partition walls as one foot thick, on the supposition that it would be cheapest to build them in mud or rammed earth : there will thus be no brickwork required, but for the ovens, fireplaces, and flues. The walls may be finished inside according to the taste or means of the party. The roof may be of thatch, or whatever material is cheapest in the given locality ; it ought to project at least three feet on every side, as well for protection of the walls, as to form a covering^to the ter race path, which will form the common passage from ail the dwellings to the offices; and also to save the expense of gutters. In the roof of each dwelling there should be an opening of two or three inches square over the raised hearth, corresponding with a similar one in the ceiling under it, to admit the escape of smoke, when a lamp, embers, or charcoal,COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES, 24& happened to be used in the heating place. The opening in the roof may be simply a pan- tile with a covered hole, fig. 434, such as are common in thé neighbourhood of London. If thought necessary, a small flue to each cooking place could easily be made by earthen- ware tubes, ten inches or a foot in diameter, such as fig. 435, with a cap to keep off the rain, fig. 436. These tubes are common in ail potteries, and are 435 sold in the neighbourhood of London at only from ninepence to tenpence per foot. The same description of tubes, twelve or thirteen inches in diameter, may be used in forming the six upright dues to the six lires, which will thus render brickwork unnecessary for them, except at the dampers, and for the chimney shafts. Ail the window casements may be of iron, and ail the doors ledged ; and no window shutters can be required where there is perfect security, and abundance of heat. Warm curtains of some cheap worsted stulf in winter, and calico blinds in summer, will be found préférable. The privies are not proposed to be made water-closets ; but to prevent the rising of smell, a description of cheap basin and trap may be used, such as fig. 437, each ; or fig. 438, which has a hole for a water-pipe at w, and forms altogether a very complété trap ; these are also made at the tile works, and are sold at 5s. each. It will be understood that the upper part, x, of fig. 438. is a separate vessel, of a funnel shape, and that the lower part, y, is a basin with a soil pipe, z ; and that when the funnel is placed in this basin, it must be so adjusted as to hâve its truncated extremity reach to within two or three inches of the bottom. As this funnel, from its construction, must then necessarily remain immersed in water as high as the under part of the soil pipe or discharge tube, z, it is évident that no smell can rise through the funnel. When x has been properly adjusted to y, it must be made air-tight with cernent. 491. General Estimate. The cost of these dwellings will evidently dépend much on the price of common country labour ; for the work of the carpenter and joiner is very limited, and still more so that of the bricklayer. From a rough calculation made for us by an experienced surveyor, it appears that the whole of the twelve dwellings, with the requisite offices complété, as shown in the plan, might be executed, where common labourers’ wages are 10s. a week, for about £500 ; which averages less than £50 a dwelling. 492. Remarks. Wherever this plan is proposed to be carried into execution, choice should be made of a dry soil, because that will greatly lessen the expense of the footings to the mud walls, to the flues, and to the platform. It must not be forgotten, also, that a level spot is to be preferred, unless one of a uniform slope is obtained, and the number of dwellings increased so as not to require the flues to be returned. We hâve no doubt that in many situations, perhaps in most, it would be least expensive to form ail the flues of thirteen-inch tubes, so close together as to touch each other, supported on brick or stone piers, filling up the interstices above them, and levelling the surface so as to form a com- fortable floor over them with concrète (gravel and mortar), and the flooring composition before mentioned, § 386. These, and every other description of flue in this position, the direction being straight, may be easily cleaned, which they ought to be at least four244 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. tiraes a year, by first pushing a slight line through them, by means of a sériés of hazel rods, or rods of any kind, tied one to another as inserted, and afterwards with this line introducing a rope, to which a bunch of straw is attached. Not one tile of any of the floors would require to be disturbed, but merely the ends of the flues opened, by taking out foot tiles, b'uilt in so as to be convenient for that purpose. The farther ends of ail these flues will necessarily be on the outside of the gable end of the last dwelling, and the other ends will either form the throats of the ovens and furnaces, or they may termi- nate in the drying-room, close under the dampers, where their covering tiles may be taken up. It would save some trouble, if, when each flue was built, a copper wire were laid in it, extended from one end to the other. This might always be employed, when they were being swept, to draw through a rope. It may be thought that a line of build- ings of this description, fig. 439, with no chimneys but in one place, would be rather mean than ornamental ; but that difficulty would be easily overcome, and would speedily be so, if such dwellings were found as comfortable and economical as we consider they would be. By employing tiles of any of the Italian forms for the roof, by heightening the architectural expression of the walls, and by surrounding the whole with a light zinc-roofed véranda supported by iron columns, the whole might be rendered élégant, as well as comfortable ; not to speak of the additional beauty which might be given by ornamental shrubs and flowers, and by the gardens. In countries where grapes ripen in the open air, the whole roof might be covered with vines ; and in colder climates, even apples, pears, cherries, or plum trees, might be trained over it in the same manner. Design LXXX.— Eighty Dwellings of the humblest Class, placed together, with a View of being heated by One common Fire, and enjoying other Benefits, on the Cooperative System. 493. General Purpose. Dur able contributors, Mr. Laxton and Mr. Taylor, hâve shown, § 290 and § 481, how six labourers’ families may live together under one roof, and use, in common, the same wash-liouse, oven, drying-closet, well, &c. ; aiid we hâve, in both cases, suggested how the six dwellings may be heated from one fire. In our last. Design, we hâve extended the idea of a common kitchen, wash-house, and other offices, to twelve dwellings, and shown how they might ail be heated from the Ares which must necessarily be kept in these offices, for cooking and washing. We now intend to show an extension of the principle, so as to include any number of dwellings, with common offices for cooking, washing, baking, brewing, bathing, &c. ; and, instead of emplpying common smoke flues, as in our last Design, for heating the whole, to adopt, for that pur- pose, steam or hot water. Mankind are beginning to allow that society is in its infancy, and that “ the grand secret of its improvement is in union and coopération although, as the wrHer in the New Monthly Magazine, from whom these words are quoted, ob- serves, Mr. Owen, the founder of the cooperative System, may be laughed at in the mean time by those who do not comprehend his doctrine. Our object, in giving this Design, is to show the application of the cooperative principle in what may be called a college of mud houses, for the humblest class of country labourers ; by which it will appear, that, by such a plan, their comforts, compared to what they enjoy at présent, even in the best districts of Britain, may be increased in an almost incredible degree. We shall not go very minutely into details ; because we are aware that the labouring classesCOTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 245 themselves must be rendered alive to the benefits which would resuit to them from adopt- ing plans of this kind, before they can be carried into execution with much prospect of success. Good, however, will resuit from making such plans known, because it will préparé the way for them in the mincis of the rising génération. 494. Locality. The place where suçh an assemblage of buildings ought to be erected must dépend on the kind of labour supplied by the occupants, and the demand for it, Such a Design as the présent would answer best in the immédiate neighbourhood of a large manufactory, or, in a mining district ; or, in short, wherever mankind are employed in masses : but it would also answer for a central situation in an agricultural district, where the irumber of hands required was such, that none of the eighty men supposed to be here congregated together would require to walk more than a mile to and from their work moming and evening. In the neighbourhood of a large town like London, such a working man’s college might be set down, though at a distance of severaî miles ; be- cause there is always abundance of public conveyances to carry the occupants to and from their work, and others might be started, either by individuals or by the college itself, to carry a greater number, and at a cheaper rate. In the best cultivated districts of Scotland, where the farms are large, it is the custom, during harvest, and we believe also during the turnip-hoeing season, to carry the labourers to the field and back again in carts ; the same thing is also done with the colliers in the coal districts of StafFordshire, and has been lately adopted with the letter-carriers in London. Why, then, might not even an agricultural college, and much more a manufacturing or a mining one, support a public carriage for the accommodation of those of its inmates who had to go the greatest distance to their work ? Such a college must always hâve a certain portion of land for the growth of culinary vegetables, &c., the culture of which would fill up ail the spare time of the horses and their driver. 495. Situation. Whatever may be the locality of such working-man’s college, the situation ought to be dry and elevated ; and the summit of a regular knoll, or a level spot, will always be found préférable to an irregular surface, on account of the greater 440246 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 441 fh i 41 cH facîlities which it aflords for heating and supplying water to every separate dwelling. The aspect of this and of ail similar buildings ought to be such as that the sun may shine on every front nearly every day in the year. 496. General Form. In ail cases where economy is a leading object, the quadrangular form présents itself as the best. When the number of dwellings is few, as in Mr. Laxton’s plan, fig. 267, or that of Mr. Taylor, fig. 424, or in a plan which we made in 1818, for a London college for working men (see Mech. Mag., vol. xvi. p. 321), the whole of the buildings may be under one roof, and several floors may be formed one over another, and ascended to by stairs, or, as we proposed in the plan alluded to, by an inclined plane. In Design LXXX., however, we intend to hâve ail the buildings only one story high, as cheapest, and as admitting of their being built of mud, or of compressed earth, chiefly by the occupants themselves. < 497. General Arrangement. In the quadrangular plan,'fig. 440, we hâve shown in the centre the public offices of the college, which include one fireplace, from which ail the artificial heat required proceeds, and the public kitchen, store-rooms, dining-rooms, schools, &c. In the circumference we hâve placed eight fines of dwellings; every fine containing ten dwellings marked 1 to 10, of four apartments in each, similarly arranged to the dwellings in the >preceding Design. At the angles, a a a a, are water-closets ; those entered from the inner side for the women and female children and infants, and those from the outer side for the men and boys. There is one carriage road, c d, which passes through the centre of the quadrangle, and two walks, e and/, which connect the centre with the circumference, at right angles with the carriage road. Both the central buildings and the outer quadrangle are raised on platforms ; and the roof of the outer quadrangle is supposed to project at least three feet outwards from the walls, in order to give a dry path, at ail times, along both sides of the dwellings. The four enclosed areas, g, h, i, k, may be devoted to public gardens and play-grounds. Exterior to the qua- drangle, each dwelling is proposed to hâve a small grass plot or flower-garden, Z, the width of its front, and about fifty feet in depth ; beyond which there may be a circumferential walk, m ; and, beyond that, gardens for fruit, flowers, and amusement, to each house, n. Last of ail may corne the vegetable ground, and dairy and poultry farm, belonging to the college, with its cow-house, stable, piggery, poultry-house, &c. 498. Arrangement of the public Offices. The most important of these is the fire and fuel room, fig. 441, o, in which ail the artificial heat required either for cooking, washing, drying, &c., in the public offices, or for heating or cookery in the private dwellings, is generated; and from which it is dis- tributed in the manner hereafter described. Adjoining this is the public kitchen and bakehouse, p, in which the roasting is supposed to be done in an oven, heated, of course, by the common fire in o ; and in which there is also a baking oven, which may be either heated in a similar manner, or by Per- kins’s hot-water apparatus, which is connected with the common fire, and by which ail the heat requisite for boifing, stewing, and similar culinary operations, is supposed to be supplied to the kitchen in small iron tubes of hot water and steam under compression, and raised to a température of from 300° to 400°. The same mode is proposed to be adopted for conveying heat to every public office and private dwelling. Ad- joining the kitchen are, a scullery, q; dairy, r; larder and pantry, s; store-room, Z; potato and root cellar, u u; brewhouse, with beer-cellar under, v\ drying-room, w; wash-house, x; dining-rooms, y y; office for keeping the college accounts, and public library, z; infant school, a ; boy’s school, Z>; girl’s school, c ; bath for boys, d\ and for girls, e. The mash tub may be in the upper part of the brewhouse, and the water may be boiled in it, by a pipe from Perkins’s heating apparatus; from this the liquor may be let down into successive coolers, and working vats, till it is at last delivered by a funnel and pipe rw _nCOTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 247 to the different barrels in the cellar, as is done in the brewhouse of the Bush Inn, at Dudley. Adjoining the brewhouse is an apartment, u, with a cellar under it, for keeping potatoes and other roots; the upper part being devoted to fruits, herbs, and seeds. At this extremity of the building are the baths, &c. The two dining-rooms are each forty feet by twenty-five feet, which will afford space for two tables in each room four feet broad by twenty feet long; and these, with side-tables along the sides of the rooms, will dine 160 persons at once, in the two rooms. The entrance to these rooms is direct from the kitchen, and they are supposed to be surrounded by a sideboard shelf, one foot broad, above the dining-board, which may be two feet in breadth. The four detached tables are also supposed to hâve narrow elevated shelves, running along their centres, on which may be placed plates, and various articles, to which the party at table may help themselves, and thus lessen the labour of waiting. The tables may hâve a strip of iron along their margins immediately under the line of plates, and this iron may be easily kept hot during dinner by a very small pipe of hot water passing under it ; thus preserving the food of each individual quite hot while being eaten. The office and public library, infant school, and the two Lancasterian schools for the older boys and girls, which, when not occupied by the children, may serve as lecture-rooms, places of public discussion, &c., may be heated by hot-water pipes from the common lire ; as will the water in the baths, which it is supposed will be in use every day for washing the children. These bath rooms may, if requisite, be easily filled with steam, medicated or otherwise, for the benefit ot rheumatic patients, and along their sides there may be long trouglis, with forms beside them, for the larger children to sit on while washing their feet ; and into these troughs hot or cold water may be admitted by cocks, and drawn off in the same manner by a waste pipe, which will convey it to the manure tanks. A similar process to this, for washing children’s feet, is practised at Christ’s Hospital, London. The chimney of the grand central fire may serve at the same time as a tower for a turret clock, which should hâve four faces, and be placed so high as to be seen from the inner Windows of ail the dwellings. It should be made to play chimes at certain hours, such as the time of rising, of taking meals, of going to school, &c. &c. ; and at night the dials should be illuminated. In this tower there might also be a bell, for ringing on extraordinary occasions. In the fire house there may be a small two-horse power steam engine, which, by verv simple machinery, may communicate with the kitchen, to work a kneading machine, a machine for chopping méat, breaking sugar, mashing potatoes, &c. ; with the wash-house, to work the washing and wringing machine ; with the scullery, for washing potatoes and other roots ; with the knife and shoe house, for setting in motion a knife- cleaner (see Mech. Mag., vol. ii. p. 409.), shoe-brusher (as at the Angel Inn, Oxford), a coat beater and brusher, &c. ; with the drying-room, for working a mangle ; with the dairy, for churuing and breaking the curd of cheese, &c. ; and, when employed in none of these offices, in turning a small bone-crusher, to préparé bones for making soup, and in raising water to a cistern over the scullery, placed on exactly the same level as the four cisterns placed over the four angular water-closets, and communicating with them in such a manner that there should always be the same depth of water in ail the five cisterns. From the central cistern there should be pipes for conveying it to ail the dif- ferent offices, including even the dining-rooms and the schools ; and to each cock there ought to be a small sink, communicating with a common drain leading to one of the four angular cess-pools. Many other modes of applying the power of the steam engine to domestic purposes will doubtless suggest themselves in practice. We hâve omitted to Introduce a gasometer ; because, though we believe that in towns gas might be advan- tageously employed for the purposes of cooking and heating, as well as lighting, yet, for a college of so humble a description, it might involve more expense and trouble than it would be désirable to incur. Neither do we consider the steam engine, nor the various machines which it is intended to set in motion, as at ail essential to the plan ; but we hâve suggested them, because, in many parts of the country, in the mining districts for example, the rate of wages is sufficiently high to allow of their introduction, and every one, in such districts, understands their management. The only feature in the way of apparatus, that is essentially necessary, is that of Perkins, for heating by hot water ; and the reason why we consider this essential is, that it will convey to each of the eighty dwellings a higher degree of heat than can possibly be done by steam, and this at a cheaper rate, than by any other mode at présent known. But if the idea ofôindividuals ever cooking any thing for themselves in their own dwellings, or preserving any thing there at a higher température than 180°, is given up, which we think it very well might be, as the public kitchen is at a convenient distance for supplying hot water, &c., to ail; then, instead of Perkins’s apparatus for circulating hot water at a température of 300°, steam might be circulated at the ordinary température of 180° and upwards. The apparatus for this purpose would not be so cheap as that of Perkins, but it would be more easily put up, and kept in repair, in remote districts. In putting up a steam$248 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. apparatus, it must be kept in view, for the sake of economy, that ail the mains may be of small half-inch pipe, which does not cost above 3c?. or 4c?. a foot, while the heating pipes under the floor of each dwelling, in order to give them abundant power, may be of six or eight inches in diameter. In the management of steam, with a view to economy, it should always be remembered, that it differs from water in this, that the mains may always be exceedingly small, however large may be the service pipes. Where steam is to be conveyed to a distance, this is a very great advantage. 499. Arrangement of the Dwellings, These, as before stated, are in eight divisions ; by referring to the plan, fig. 440, it will be seen that the limits of each row of ten dwellings is determined by the carriage or foot entrance to the offices, at 10, at one end; and by the public water-closets, at a, at the other. We shall show, in succession, the mode of heating, and of supplying one of these divisions with water, the construction of the water-closets and manure tanks, and the drainage. 500. For heating each line of Dwellings, a steam or hot-water main proceeds direct from the central fire, to the end of the line, at 10. If steam be used, the main is there connected with two cast-iron pipes, the one under the floors of the living-rooms, six inches in diameter ; and the other, under the floors of the bed-rooms, three inches in diameter. The main, and these pipes, must be laid with a graduai inclination from the boiler to the further extremity of the water-closets, which it also heats ; and there each pipe must hâve a small return tube, gradually descending from that point to the boiler, to admit of the condensed water running back of itself. The mains, between the boiler and the dwellings, will be placed isolated within earthenware pipes ; and these, and the return pipes of condensed water, will be included in a dry drain, filled with charcoal or coke. Ail the différence of level requisite to return the condensed water need not be more than one foot ; so that, if this drain be two feet deep, the pipes will be sufficiently protected from the influence of frost. Under the floors of the dwellings, the drain need not be above ten inches broad and one foot deep, and it may be covered with one-foot tiles ; or, the tubes may be made square, and their upper surface may serve as part of the floor, as suggested in fig. 282, for Laxton’s small college, § 290 ; and also in § 489, for our college of twelve families. Should Perkins’s hot-water apparatus be preferred to steam, common gas pipe may be used throughout, both for the mains and service pipes. A description of this mode of heating will be found in the Repertory for Patent Inventions, for March, 1832, and a more particular account in the Gardenefs Magaziner vol. viii. p. 292, by Mr. Perkins himself. Should Mr. Perkins’s apparatus be adopted, thereCOTTAGE DWELL1NGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. m may, in the îiving-room of each dwelling, be what may be called a hot plate, connected with it ; that is, a branch pipe may rise from the pipe in the floor, and terminate at top in a piece of cast iron, say of a foot or eighteen inches in diameter, like a small table, or tike the raised hearths common in the kitchens abroad. The température of the upper surface of this table, when the apparatus was at work, would be between 250° and 300° ; and, consequently, it would boil water, broil méat or fish, toast bread, and perform every office of cookery, with the exception of roasting. This table would be most conveniently placed in a closet or cupboard, which might correspond in situation with the ordinary fireplace of a kitchen, so that it could be shut up at pleasure, and especially during sum- mer, when the heat escaping from it might render the room too warm. In the roof of this closet there should be an opening in the ceiling, communicating with the open air through the roof, by means of a tile or slate with a hole, as shown fig. 434, § 490, to permit the escape of steam and smell. 501. Supply of Water. From a cistern thirty feet long, and five or six feet broad, over the water-closets, a lead pipe should be conducted along the bottom of the same channel which contains the steam or hot-water pipe ; and from this, in each house, a branch pipe may rise, and terminate in a cock over a sink, either in the cooking closet, or in the entrance lobby adjoining, as at p, in fig. 433. In order that this cold-water pipe may not receive any heat from the hot-water or steam pipe above it, it should be laid at least a foot deeper, and covered with soil. 502. Water-closets, Manure Tanks, and Drainage. The situation of these is at the four angles of the quadrangle ; and each is arranged, as shown in fig. 442 ; in which f is the range of closets for women and infants, and g the range for men and boys : h h indicate the situations of two tanks communicating with the cesspool, common to both ranges of closets. By means of a hole, with a stopper, at one side of the roof of each tank, it may be emptied by one of Shalders’s pumps. There are drains directiy under ail the channels containing the steam or hot-water service pipes and mains, which convey the waste water from the public offices, and from ail the sinks of the private dwellings, as well as ail the water which falls on the surface, in equal parts, to the four cesspools of the water-closets. Thus an immense quantity of liquid manure will be formed. Wherever the surface water is allowed to enter one of these drains, a stink-trap must be used, to prevent the rising of smell. Of these there are many sorts very cheap ; one of terro-metallic earth, made by Peake before mentioned, is of great strength and durability, and costs only 9d. ; another, fig. 443, made in the tile-works about London, and very suitable for the sides of gravel walks, as the top lifts off, to admit of cleaning out the sand or rubbish which may hâve lodged in the bottom of the trap, costs only 6d. Over and adjoining each manure tank there is a place, i, for rubbish convertible into manure; and another smaller space, k, for broken crockery, &c., and such other kinds of rubbish as can be only useful in repairing roacîs, filling up pits, or making drains. 503. The Plan of each Dwelling we propose to be the same as that already detailed in fig. 433, § 487, for our smaller working-man’s college, Design LXXÏX. 504. Construction of the Dwellings. The walls and partitions of the whole of the private dwellings may be of earth, plastered over internally and lined, and coloured in imitation of stone externally. For this purpose the outside and party walls are shown eighteen inches in thickness, and the partition walls a foot. As no chimneys are required, and no second story, nothing can be more simple and economical than the construction of these walls. The floor may be formed of loose stones, gravel, or whatever material of the kind may be most conveniently had ; and its upper surface may either be paved, or covered with a mixture of lime and gravel, mixed while the lime is yet hot, and spread out over the rough materials, and immediately beaten perfectly smooth. This mixture is called by London builders concrète, and, when covered with a thin coating of cernent, forms an excellent flooring for either bed-rooms or sitting-rooms. The roof, as there is a central wall, need not be expensive ; strong tie-beams may be dispensed with, by having the ceiling joists of somewhat larger dimensions than usual, so as to project three feet at the eaves ; and by carrying up the central walls so as to serve as king-posts. The covering may be thatch, or whatever is cheapest ; and unless the rain water be an object, there need be no gutters to the roof, as without them the water will drop on the slope of the terrace,, which may be paved with pebbles, below which there may be a gutter, and under it a drain communicating with the main drains. The Windows may be iron casements of the simplest kind, and without either inside or outside shutters ; curtains, as before observed, § 490, where there is perfect security and an abundant supply of heat, forming a very good substitute. -> 443250 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 505. Construction of the public Offices. Ail the walling, with the exception of that of the central chimney and clock tnrret, may be of earth. The chimney and tower must be built of stone or bricks. Ail the flooring may be formed in the same manner as that of the private dwellings. The baths may be simply square tanks, lined with Roman cernent. The roof should project as in the private dwellings, as well for the protection of the walls, as to give a dry path completely round the whole, for the purpose of communicat- ing from one door to another. Other details need not be entered into : the oven may be Hicks’s patent one, described in the Mech. Mag., vol. xiv. p. 417 ; the kneading machine, one of several also described in the same work ; and the turret-clock may be of wood, a clock of that material being little more than half the price of one of métal (see Mech. Mag., vol. iv. p. 142) ; the washing and wringing machine may be one manufac- tured by Weir, to be hereafter figured and described. 506. General Estimate. The expense of each dwelling, steam or hot-water pipe and cold-water pipe included, would, in most parts of the country, not exceed £50; and the expense of furniture to the occupier would evidently be less than in the case of single cottages; because vessels for cooking, baking, brewing, washing, &c., would be unneces- sary. The expense of the greater number of the apartments, constituting the public offices, would be about the same, per cubic foot, as that of the private dwellings. The most expensive would be the fire-house and the kitchen. The different apparatus and machines would form a considérable item, because no part of the work connected with them could be done by the occupants themselves. Exclusive of the heating apparatus, and of the machines, and furniture of the public offices, the whole quadrangle might, in ail probability, be completed for between .£3000 and £4000 ; and £1000 more would supply ail the machines, furniture, and fittings-up for the public offices. 507. The general appearance of such a working man’s college as that we hâve just described will be simple, but not inélégant, as will be seen by the isometrical élévation, fig. 444. Much of the beauty and interest of the whole will dépend on the keeping of 508. Remarks. Though we hâve recommended a quadrangle as the préférable form for a large working college in the country ; yet there is no form which may not be adapted to this purpose, with advantages approaching more or less to those possessed by the quadrangle. One continued line along a road or river, up a steep hill, or across a slope, provided always that the floors of ail the dwellings were in one plane, whether level or inclined, would answer perfectly. In such cases the general fire must always be placed at the lower end, and the general cistern for supplying cold water at the higher end, for obvious reasons. Even in a scattered village, if the floors of the houses were either nearly on one plane, or nearly on a level, they might ail be heated from one fire ; and their inhabitants might ail hâve their cookery and washing performed in the same kitchen and laundry. Indeed, if Busby’s mode of circulating hot water below the level of the boiler, by mechanical means, were adopted, the floors of ail the houses might be heated, however different might be their levels. It would be easy to bring together double theCOTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 2Ô1 number of farailies in a quadrangle of the same dimensions as fig. 444, by diminishing the ground area of each dwelling one half, and raisirig a story over it, for completing the requisite accommodation. A second range of dwellings forty or fifty feet beyond the first, so as to torm a double quadrangle, would give 120 additional dwellings of the same size and arrangement as those in fig. 440, making in ail 200 ; and 400 might be obtained by having two stories. The situation of the dwellings of such an outer quadrangle is indi- cated by the dotted lines, marked one to fifteen, in fig. 440. The mode of having a double quadrangle would in general be much more economical than raising the buildings three or four stories high, and thus rendering a heating-pipe necessary for the living- rooms on the third story. In buildings of two stories, there would be no occasion for any other heating-pipe than that on the ground-floor ; because the heat would readily ascend from that to the bed-rooms. If the occupants were to agréé to dine at three separate hours, and to breakfast and sup in their own houses, no additional dining-rooms would be required ; and the only alteration in the public offices would be an enlarge- ment of the schools. Much more might be said on the subject of this Design, and on the immense advantages which would resuit from working men’s colleges, to the labour- ing classes of every description ; but the rising génération must be prepared for such a resuit by éducation. The first step towards living together in communities is being educated together in Infant and Lancasterian schools. In the mean time, those who hâve entered into the subject will be aware, that, by enlarging the separate dwellings, and using a superior description of materials and finishing in their construction, this plan might be rendered suitable for persons of any income ; even so large as to require a set of stables and coach-houses, assembly rooms, a theatre, walled gardens, conservatories, hot- houses, pleasure grounds, and a park. The principle is the same in ail,—that of produc- ing in masses, bÿ machinery, and by a division of labour, what has hitherto been effected in scattered fragments, by manual labour, and by every individual family for itself ; and the advantages are, that by the cooperative System each member of the community ob- tains a much greater portion of comfort and enjoyment for a given sum or quantity of labour, than he could possibly hâve done singly. It would be foreign from this work to enter more ftdly into the subject, and we refer our readers to its enthusiastic advocate, Mr. Owen, and to an able exposition of the cooperative principle, as applicable to persons possessing from £500 to jÊ’IOOO a year, given in the paper before referred to, in the New Monthly Magazine for August, 1832. Design LXXXI. — A Portable Cottage for the Use of Emigrants and others, 509. The principal object of this portable cottage is, to supply émigrants with comfort- able and secure lodgings immediately on their arrivai at a foreign seulement. It is well known that in ail new countries the rent of houses or lodgings is extremely high : it follows, therefore, that when an émigrant arrives with his family at the sea-port town of the country where he is to be put in possession of a grant of land, he must take a lodging for his family and goods ; probably for some weeks, or even months, till he has visited the interior of the country, examined it, and fixed upon the situation of his future résidence. A single room at Hobart Town, in 1830, was often let at £l a week ; hence it may be easily conceived that a portable cottage, like that given in this Design, which costs in London £50, will afford, though only containing two rooms, a considérable saving to a family of three or four persons of different sexes. Security from thieves, and protection from vermin, are also other recommendations. 510. As secondary uses of a portable cottage, we may mention, that it may be carried in ships making long voyages, for the purpose of being set up on shore wherever any stay is made, either for the benefit of invalids, or the use of scientific persons ; that it may be employed as a shooting-box, wherever there are tolerable roads, as it weighs little more than a ton, and might therefore be easily drawn by one horse. (It weighs about three tons ship’s measurement, which is forty cubic feet to a ton ; but as a cubic foot of Baltic fir timber weighs only thirty-four pounds, even if the 140 feet forming the three ship’s tons were solid, the weight would be little more than one hundred weight and a half. Not being solid, it is found not to weigh so much by half a hundred weight.) Where public works are going on in any remote district, one of these cottages would form a very convenient dwelling for the overseer ; and, being put on six wheels, might be moved forward as the work proceeded. When that stupendous undertaking, Napoleon’s road over the Simplon, was being executed, the chief engineer, a general of high rank, lived in a portable cottage, about ten feet square, which was carried forward by men, from one position to another, as required ; and the remains of which we saw in 1819, at a village near to where the road commences in the Valais, on the Swiss side of the mountain. A party exploring a river in any country, and wishing to study the natural history of the country on each side, or even to shoot and fish, would, if they had such a252 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. cottage in their boat with them, find it a source of great comfort, as it could be put up by a man and a boy in two hours, and taken down again in even less time. 511. The Accommodation of such a dwelling is liraited to two rooms, as in fig. 445 (to 445 a scale of three inches and one eighth to twenty feet), each twelve feet by twelve feet, and eight feet high in the clear. One of the rooms may hâve an iron stove, c, at one corner ; the pipe from which may be carried up within a square iron or wooden tube, with a vacuity of two or three inches between, in order to prevent the risk of setting fire to the tarpaw- ling, which serves as the temporary roof. If necessary on account of cold, the stove might be placed in the partition between the two rooms, so as to heat both ; or a tube from it might be carried round or along one side of either or both apartments. In general, however, horizontal pipes will be unnecessary, and one upright tube for carrying off the smoke will be found quite sufficient. The whole of the stove should be of wrought iron, for lightness. 512. Construction. The foundation of this structure consists of four sleepers, fig. 446, 446 1 1 | K]; i J é a d d d 1 CG 4; 1 d d d d, each thirteen feet long, and five inches deep by three inches wide. On these are placed grooved bottom plates, e e e e, forming the foundations of the flooring, of the outside walls, and of the partition. These plates are formed of pièces, five inches broad, and three inches deep, laid flatwise, grooved along the upper side, to receive the bottom rails of the paneled frames which form the walls of the cottage. These plates are let into the sleepers in the manner shown by fig. 447 (to a scale of three eighths of an inch to an inch). In this figure, f is the sleeper ; g, the bottom plate ; h, the corner post let into it, in which is fixed a screw-nut, for being taken hold of by a screw-bolt that passes through the bottom plate so that by means of a bed-wrench applied at i it can be screwed perfectly tight. The corner posts are eight feet six inches long, and three inches byCOTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 253 three inches on the sides. There are seven intermediate posts, and three posts in the partition, each of which is three inches and a half on one side, and two inches and a quarter on the other. There are five joists, each five inches by two inches, which are joggled on to the sleepers and to the bottom plate, as shown in fig. 448 (to a scale of an inch and a quarter to a foot), in which k is the sleeper ; l, the bottom plate ; and m, the joist. The posts are grooved on the sides, and so are the top and bottom plates, for the purpose of receiving in the grooves the ends of the paneled frames. When the cottage is putting together, the paneled frames, fig. 449 (to a scale of an inch and five eighths to three feet), are put in between the grooved posts. Two of these panels are in part glazed, and hinged to a hanging style, which fits into the upright groove ; thus form- ing at once ail the doors and Windows required. The panels being ail fixed, a set of top plates is put on, similar in dimension to the bottom plates, and similarly grooved to receive the top rails of the paneled frames ; and these are held together by iron screw- bolts at the corners, made fast by a bed-wrench applied on the upper side of the plates. On these top plates (which, in a common building, would be called the wall plates) are placed the rafters, seven feet six inches long, and four inches by one inch and a half254 COTTAGE, FAEM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. thick, which are let into a ridge piece at the top, as shown in fig. 450, and into the wall plates at the foot, as shown in fig. 451. A purlin is placed across the rafters on each side, halved into them, and flush at top, as seen in the skeleton élévation^ fig. 454. The flooring is formed of inch-deal boards, laid side by side, and let into the bottom plates, as shown in fig. 452 (to a scale of one eighth of an inch to a foot), in which n is the floor board; o, the bottom plate; p, the bottom rail of one of 5 the paneled frames; and q, the joist. The construction £ tv of these frames will be un- i derstood by fig. 453 (to a scale of five eighths of an inch to a —---------------- foot), in which r r are the ^ styles; s s, the muntins, or muntings (from the French, ----------- montant, meaning the upright pièces between the side styles,___________________________ into which the rails of doors, or other paneled compartments, are framed) ; 111, the panels ; and u u, the posts. The outside posts, to which the partition is joined, are 453 formed as in fig. 455 (one fourth of the full size), which requires no explanation. The roofing is generally completed by a tarpawling, which is thrown over the rafters, and,COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOÜS STYLES. 255 to keep it dry. These, however, may be generally dispensed with ; for on very dry soils, or where the ground falls from the site on every side, the sleepers may be laid on the ground ; and even in situations flat, and not very dry, a ditch may be dug round the256 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. cottage, at the distance of about a foot from it, so as to produce the effect of placing it on a platform, as shown in the skeleton, fi g. 454, and in the miniature élévation of the finished cottage, in isometrical perspective, v, in the same figure. Exterior appendages may be easily constructed of materials found on the spot. The tarpawling ought to be oiled, and ail the wood-work should hâve at least two coats of paint. If instead of being painted with common oil paint, these cottages were coated over with any of the anticombustible paints or washes, the risk of accidents from fire might be diminished. The most effective wash of this description is said to be a saturated solution of silex in alkali. This is obtained by dissolving to saturation, in a lie of caustic alkali, siliceous earth properly prepared. Whatever material is washed with this mixture is said to become covered with a vitreous coat, and this has been proved at Munich and other places effectually to resist ignition. ( Rep. of Arts, 2d sériés, vol. iii. p. 249. ) 513. Remarks. We consider this cottage as one of the most perfect things of the kind that we hâve seen. Every part of it being made exactly of the same dimensions ; that is, ail the panels, posts, and plates, being respectively of exactly the same length, breadth, and thickness, no mistake or loss of time can occur in putting them together. Another great beauty in the construction is, that there is not a single nail used either in the carpentry of the separate parts, or in putting those parts together so as to form the cottage. Ail the firamework composing the sides of the cottage being grooved and tongued, the weather is most effectually kept out ; and at the same time this construction allows the work to shrink or swell, according to the changes of the atmosphère or the season, without deranging any of the parts. The inventor of this cottage, Mr. Manning, carpenter and builder, High Holborn, London, has made a great number of them for the Australian colonies, and particularly for the Swan River. Mr. Manning, who has a son settled at the latter colony, -says, “ These cottages were found to be of the greatest service to settlers, both in protecting their families from the weather, and their property from theft. Many persons who took out only tents, suffered sev'erely in both respects ; their tents being frequently blown down in the middleof a stormy night, and their goods being thus not only exposed to the weather, but to pilfering. Provided with a cottage of this description, an émigrant might land from a ship in a new country in the morning, and sleep in his own house on shore at night. Whoever can use a common bed-wrench can put this cottage up ; and as none of the pièces are heavier than a man or a boy could easily carry for several miles, it might be taken even to a distance, without the aid of any beast of burthen. When a permanent situation is fixed upon, the cottage may be covered with shingles, or thatched with spray of trees, long grass, or sueh other suitable material as may be most readily obtained ; and at any future period, when the émigrant is prepared to build a stone, brick, or earth en-walled house, ail the posts, panels, &c., of the portable cottage maybe brought into use as doors or partitions ; or eut up for window-framing, shelves, chests, or a variety of other purposes; and the tarpawling, when no longer wanted for the roof, will always be a useful article for the agriculturist.” 514. A Portable Cottage maybe used as a Substitute for a Country Résidence. Mr. Man- ning hasfurnished us with an élévation and ground-plan, figs. 456 and 457, of one, which he constructed for Captain J. G. Hall, and which has been erected by that gentlemen as a résidence, at Wargrave, near Henley upon Thames. It is placed on a rising ground, within sixty feet of the river, and forms a handsome and conspicuous object to persons sailing from Henley towards Reading. The accommodations of this cottage are, an entrance hall, a ; servant’s sleeping-room, b ; kitchen, c ; store-room, d ; sitting-room twelve feet square, e ; and bed-room, f. A lumber-room which is formed in the roofCOTTAGE DWELLINGS IN YARIOUS STYLES. 257 has a floor of ploughed and tongued boards laid on ceiling joists, so as to form a ceiling to the room below, and a floor to that above. The roof is thatched ; and the walls are painted, and dusted over with powdered freestone. The interior is painted in imitation of wainscot. The fireplace of the sitting-room is a ship’s cabin stove, and that of the kitchen a ship’s galley stove ; both having iron piping for flues. By having horizontal piping from the kitchen through the servant’s room, sitting-room, and bed-room, with a return pipe, one fire might suffice to beat the whole house. In this case, by a very simple contrivance, the smoke, during warm weather, instead of circulating through the horizontal flues, might be made to escape direct from the fire through the upright pipe (see § 489.). The costof this cottage in London, exclusive of the stoves and the thatch, was only £120. For this sum, which would do little more than pay for a year’s lodging of two rooms and a kitchen, in a fashionable Street in London or New York, we hâve here a handsome and comfortable dwelling, abundantly commodious for a single person, or a man and his wife without children, and which, with moderate attention to painting, would last a lifetime. It must not be forgotten that a great saving is produced by the paneled walls, which render unnecessary ail expense of plastering and papering, and which, when painted in imitation of wainscot, look remarkably well, and remain many years without requiring any repair. 515. Ambulatory Cottage. With such a portable cottage as this on wheels, a man with ,£200 or £300 a year might enjoy in Britain as much rural beauty and variety, as would cost another with a fixed town and country résidence as many thousands. 516. Cooperative Ambulatory Cottages. If a family or a party intended to live in portable cottages, renting a small field wherever they found it désirable to set them down ; and to change their place of résidence frequently, say to the north of England or Scotland during summer, and to the south during winter, the most convenient plan would be to hâve not more than two rooms in one cottage, or, perhaps, even one room might be found enough, as the wheels should be low, and under the floor. At every place of encampment, the cottages, or rooms, any number of which might belong to one family, might be placed in a line, with the kitchen at one end ; from which a steam pipe might proceed to heat ail the others, and also a pipe of cold water from a cistern over the ceiling of the kitchen, filled by one of Siebe’s pumps, and a long leathern hose, from any neighbouring well or brook. The roof and the floor of one side of every cottage might project three feet beyond the wall ; and, when ail the cottages were placed close together with the projections alongside of each other, a covered passage or véranda would be formed the whole length of the line of cottages. There would be no difficulty in heating ail the rooms by steam from one fire, or in supplying ail the bed-rooms with water from one cistern. Every cottage should hâve its own pipes for these purposes ; and those of one cottage could be connected with those of another by right and left- handed screws and coupling pièces, as in Perkins’s tubes for circulating hot water under compression. In short, by some contrivance, many of the comforts of a fixed résidence might be obtained in thesé portable and ambulatory cottages ; and many of the enjoy- ments and advantages of society and of coopération, by a number of them encamping together. We do not say that the same comforts and advantages would be obtained so economically as in a fixed locality ; but for those who hâve no occupation, and dérivé a great part of their enjoy ment from visiting different parts of the country ; who like to live by turns among mountains, by the sea-shore, in a fertile valley, or in the suburbs of a large town ; among the lakes of Cumberland and Westmoreiand in summer, and in Devonshire or Corn wall during winter, we do say that an arrangement of this kind would procure those enjoyments for one tithe of what they now cost. 457 7\/ / e b 8X4 y c d 8-6 x 12 12X12 i 8.«X!2 4*12 i & a =k —, fl n d2à8 COTTAGE, -FARM-, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE, Chap. III. Designs and Directions for Exterior and Interior Finishing, as connected with Furnishing, and for the Fittings-up, Fixtures, and Furniture of Cottage Dwellings. 517. Exterior Finishing is theterm applied to stuccoing, roughcasting, and plastering ; and to whitewashing,'colouring, painting, and similar processes, for exterior walls, and timber-work, It also includes troughs, gutters to projecting. roofs, rain-water pipes, exterior window shutters and window blinds ; and the application of exterior ornaments, such as barge-boards, canopies, ornamental chimney-pots, balconies, vérandas, vases, trelliswork, and a variety of similar appendages. 518. By Interior Finishing is here to be understooa the covering of the walls with various materials, partly with a view to use, and partly to ornament ; such as affixing cornices,, whitewashing, colouring, painting, stenciling, papering, &c. Architects include under the term finishing, ail such portions of the joiner’s work as are fixed, afiter the ceilings, walls, &c., are plastered; also locks, bolts, bars, and springs, to shutters and doors; and water-closets, baths, chimney-pieces, &c. : but, in this portion of our work, we hâve thought it best to confine ourselves chiefly to such parts of finishing as hâve not before corne under our review. 519. By Fittings-up are commonly implied the putting up of wooden closets; the fixing of shelves ; of seats and basins in water-closets ; of cisterns ; and of pipes and cocks to supply the different parts of the house with water ; the hanging of bells ; and, the putting up of such other articles in a house, as cannot be taken down without deranging in some way or other the finishing of the apartments. 520. By Fixtures are meant stoves, grates, boilers, coppers, dressers, and sometimes bookcases and corner cupboards ; ail of which are more or less fixed to the walls, and, like the fittings-up, cannot be taken down without, in some degree, injuring or disfiguring the apartment. 521. Furniture includes ail the portable articles introduced into apartments, for thé purpose of rendering them habitable, comfortable, and agreeable : such as seats of dif- ferent kinds, tables, beds, carpets, and curtains ; wardrobes, and other portable réceptacles for clothes, books, &c. ; musical instruments ; and also ornaments, such as pictures, sculptures, curiosities, &c. 522. These different departments of the art of completing a house are not alike susceptible of being illustrated by designs, which cannot, for example, be made to include painting, colouring, papering, &c. For this reason we intend to blend some general directions with our graphical illustrations, deferring the details of the processes of the painter, plasterer, paperhanger, &c., till we treat of these arts in a subséquent part of the work. 523. In ail that relates to finishing and furnishing, the artist must be directed by the same general principles as those which were his guide in designing the building. These principles are as much founded on reason in the one case as in the other. The first im- pression which we ought to receive from seeing a human dwelling at a distance is that it is such ; and that it is suited for some particular class or description of family, mode of living, or State of civilisation. On a nearer view, the parts and finishing of the exterior, as they develope themselves, ought to convey to us some ideas of the taste of the occupant. As we enter the porch, these ideas ought to be confirmed by the continuation of the same general style of taste, enhancedin degree, because nearer to the éye and under the protection of a roof ; and, as we proceed to the principal apartment, the train of ideas awakened ought to be maintained, and increased, till it arrives at its ultimatum in the room where the mistress of the house receives visits from her friends. This is the general resuit to which ail finishing and furnishing is, or ought to be, directed ; and it may be reduced to two principles, unity of style, and gradation of excellence. Unity of style should pervade both the exterior and the interior; and there ought to be a regular gradation in the labour and care employed, from the outside walls and exterior finishing and ornaments, to the most highly enriched apartment within. Another principle, subordinate to these two, is, that as every apartment in a house has, or ought to hâve, its particular use, so it should be characterised by some particular piece of furniture essential to that use ; and that ail the subordinate articles and ornaments in such apartments should hâve a reference, or be appropriate, to the principal one. Thus a kitchen is characterised by the grate or kitchen range ; the dining-room, by the side- board; the library, by the bookcase ; the drawing-room, by the sofa ; andsoon: thé subordinate furniture must always accord with the principal article. Thus, the kitchen range should be supported in character by the dresser and plate-rack ; the sideboard, by the cellaret and massive dining-table ; the bookcase, by reading and writing tables and desks; and the sofa, by chimney and pier glasses, and by various descriptions of seats,EXTERIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES. 269 some with cushions. Every apartment, therefore, on being entered, ought to display a marked character of use; as well as a particular character of style, with reference to its finishing and furnishing. Whenever any doubt is left in the mind of the spectator, as to the use of an apartment into which he is conducted, something in that apartment raust as certainly be wrong, as when the exterior of a building conveys a false idea of its use, and a human dwelling is mistaken for a stable or a chapel. This principle must also be extended to the exterior of a dwelling, and the windows and walling of a drawing-room, or library, or other superior living-room, ought never to be liable to be mistaken for those of a bed-room or closet. At the same time that the nôbler parts of a dwelling are to be rendered prominent features in its general aspect, the meaner parts are not to be rendered more mean, but should rather be raised in character, so as to harmonise with the rest, and to support the general expression of the whole. These principles are as applicable to the humblest cottage as to the most élégant villa ; and we shall proceed to exemplify their application in the order of exterior finishing, interior finishing, fittings- up, fixtures, and furniture. We should premise, however, that some parts of the présent chapter must necessarily seem to belong as much to ornamental as to plain cottages ; be- cause the two subjects are so intimately connected, that it is almost impossible to separate them; nor, indeed, with a view to the improvement of the cottager, is it désirable that this should be done. 524. Previously to finishing either exteriors or interiors, a sufficient time ought to be al- lowed for what is called the carcass, or general framework, of a building to be thoroughly dried and settled in every part. The time requisite for this purpose will dépend on various circumstances ; but chiefly on the thickness of the walls, and on the doors and windows being left unclosed. The maintenance of this ventilation, when the house is finished, will dépend upon the judicious introduction of openings in the side walls under ail the floors, and under the eaves of the roof, for the admission of a free current of air. As a general principle, it may be laid down, that provision ought to be made for a constant circulation of air in ail the voids of a building ; or, in other words, wherever air is admitted, it ought to maintînn a circulation with the external air. A circulation between the roof of a house and the ceiling of the uppermost room is maintained by small openings directly under the eaves ; or by very small windows, loopholes, or slits, in the gable ends. A circulation is promoted under the floors of the different stories of a house by the introduction of small iron gratings in the walls, communicating with the vacuities between the floors and the ceilings. When précautions of this kind are neglected, prématuré decay is too frequently the conséquence. What is called the dry rot in timber, every builder knows, is brought on by the use of timber imperfectly seasoned in parts of buildings excluded by position, or by neglect of the means, fxom proper ventilation. Even in cottages of the humblest class, therefore, the walls ought to stand some months before being roughcast, or coloured outside, or plastered inside; and the timbers of the floors should remain still longer before they are covered with the flooring-boards above, and closed up by the ceilings below : when ail the timber-work is put up, it ought to remain another period before it is painted ; and in some parts of Britain, and in most parts of the Continent, this period extends to a year and upwards, even in cottages. Common plaster, on brick or stone walls, ought not to be whitewashed or coloured in less than a year ; or, if on lath and plaster, six spring or summer months. Where oil colottrs are used, the stuccoed plaster requires, in ordinary cases, to dry for one or two years. When this is neglected, the water enclosed in the walls cannot escape by évaporation ; and is therefore, by the swelling of the mortar, forced through the paint; entirely discolouring. it in some places, and oc- casioning it to peel off in others. 525. Provisions for ail the exterior and interior finishing and ail the fittings-up and fixtures of a dwelling, however humble, ought to be made in building it. Among these provisions, the principal ones are, proper openings for pipes for bringing in or carrying off water ; tubes for conducting bell wire; recesses, Hues, and other openings, for such of the new modes of heating or ventilating as it may be proposed to adopt ; and places for cupboard-closets, water-closets, cisterns, &c. &c. There is not much to be provided for in this way in cottages of the class now under considération, but still enough to warrant our noticing the subject in this place. Sect. I. Designs and Directions for the Exterior Finishing of Cottage Dwellings, 526. Outside Plastering includes stuccoing with the different kinds of cernent ; rough- casting, Scotch and English ; and common lime and hair plastering, ornamental or other- wise., The principal purpose for which any of these processes is adopted on the outside walls of a cottage is, to keep them dry ; and a secondary purpose is, to render them ornamental, either by imitating stone, or by producing a surface more curious or - agreeable to the eye, than the rude materials concealed by it. 527. The Cements for Stuccoing- are chiefly the Roman cernent, of which there are two260 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. kinds common in Britain, Parker’s and Mulgrave’s; the Puzzolano; the tarras ; the gypsum ; the mastic ; Frost’s cernent ; the metallic cernent ; and Bailey’s composition. The first two, and the gypsum, possess in an eminent degree the power of setting almost instantaneously, either with or without an admixture of sand. Puzzolano earth, tarras, and Frost’s cernent are better calculated than the Roman cements to indurate with lime ; because they do not set so quickly. A very hard and durable cernent may be formed of stone lime recently burned, and, immediately after being slacked, mixedwith clean, sharp sand. This about London is called Bailey’s composition, and is packed dry in casks, and sent to any distance. The usual proportions are, three of sand to one of lime. Mastic is a calcareous cernent, which consists of earth, and other substances almost insoluble in water, to which, when pulverised, are added any of the oxides of lead, and also a quantity of glass, or flint stones ; the whole reduced to a fine powder, and intimately incorporated with any cheap vegeéable oil. This is rather too expensive a cernent for cottages; but it forms a better imitation of stone, especially of freestone, than any other, and has this great advantage over ail the others, that, when put up into casks, it will keep without injury for any length of time. In general, wherever good fresh lime and clean sharp sand can be had, an excellent cernent may be formed. Mr. Frost has proved that lime, even chalk-lime, burned in a close kiln, and cooled without coming in the slightest degree in contact with the atmosphère, will, when afterwards slacked, and mixed with sharp sand, set as rapidly as Roman cernent, and this even under water. ( See the Spé- cification of the Patent in the Repertory of Arts.) In England, the scrapings of the public roads, where limestone or sandstone is the material employed, are found to serve as a substitute for sharp sand, provided care be taken to wash from them their finer earthy particles. But on the subject of cements we shall enter more at length in a future part of this work. 528. The object of covering the outside of the watts of cottages with cernent is generally to imitate stone. In this imitation, care must be taken that the lines drawn do not represent stones of too large a size ; that the shapes of the stones at the corners, and for the lintels and sills of doors and Windows, be suited to their situations and uses ; and that, in the regular courses, the joints alternate and show bond properly, as in regularly built stone buildings. A dwelling with the walls of brick will often be much improved in appearance by forming the string courses, the facings or architraves to the doors and Windows, the corner stones, the cornices, the tablings, and especially the chimney-tops, of cernent in imitation of stone. Where the cernent used for either of these purposes is lime and sand, it will resemble stone with little or no colouring matter added; but where Roman cernent, or Puzzolano, or tarras, is used, the colour, after being laid on, will be dark, and the cernent must therefore be brought to a stone colour by washing it over with washes, composed in proportions of five ounces of copperas to every gallon of water, and as much fresh lime and cernent (to which some add tallow), as will produce the colour required. The copperas, or sulphate of iron, oxidises with the atmosphère, and produces a reddish tinge. The forms of the stones, defined by the lines, shoiild, some days afterwards, be touched with umber, ochres of different shades, and occasionally with vitriol ; which colours, if laid on by a painter who knows how to imitate the tints of nature, will produce a harmonious effect. Oil colours should not be used on cernent laid on walls in the open air for a year or more, till the water mixed up with it is either solidified or evaporated. When cernent is once thoroughly dry, its hardness and durabi- lity is greatly increased by washing it over with any oily or greasy matter, with or with- out a mixture of colour incorporated. There are various lithic paints for covering cernent, ail of which are composed of oxide of lead, powdered glass or other vitrified matter, and the colour of the stone to be imitated, intimately mixed together, and beaten up with oil. 529. Roughcasfing, or Harling as it is called in Scotland, is a mode of outside finish- ing well calculated to protect walls from the weather. It is not capable of such a high degree of beauty as a covering of cernent, because a roughcast wall is only a plastered wal.1 with a rough surface, instead of a smooth one; but then it is considerably cheaper than any description of stucco. It is much used for covering rubble stone walls and liouses, in Scotland and Ireland. The following is the process : — Plaster the wall over with lime and hair-mortar ; when this is dry, add another coat of the same material, laid on as smoothly and evenly as possible. As fast as this coat is Jfinished, a second workman follows the other, with a pail of roughcast, which he throws on the new plas- tering. The materials for roughcasting are composed of fine gravel, reduced to a uniform size by sifting or screening, and with the earth washed cleanly out of it ; this gravel is then mixed with pure newly slacked lime and water, till the whole is of the consistence of a semi-fluid : it is then forcibly thrown, or rather splashed, upon the wall with a large trowel, which the plasterer holds in his right hand, while in his left he has a common whitewash brush. With the former he dashes on the roughcast, and with the latter,EXTERIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES. S61 which he dips into the roughcast, he brushes and colours the mortar and roughcast that he has laid on, so as to make them, when finished and dry, appear of the same colour throughout. 530. Another description of roughcast) which may be called English, as the otlier may be called Scotch, consists in dashing the surface of the plaster, afiter beipg newly laid on, with clean gravel, pebbles, broken stones of any kind, broken earthenware, scoria, spars, burnt clay, or other materials of the like description, sifted or screened, so as to be of a uniform size. The effect of surfaces of this kind is good, and the process admits of pro- ducing very great variety in the external appearance of cottages. The sea-side pebbles are frequently used in this way on the sea-coast of Norfolk : by being forcibly thrown against the moist plaster, they penetrate into ît, and render it very firm and durable. Sometimes, instead of the stones, or other matters, being broken to a small and uniform- sized gravel, they are pounded into a coarse sand, and this is dashed against the moist mortar. The effect is pleasing, but the strength and durability are not so great as in the other mode. In using small stones or gravel, it is désirable, for the sake of effect, previously to render the moist plaster as nearly as possible of the same colour as that of the materials to be thrown against it. It is also désirable that ail corners, sills, lintels, and, in short, ail vertical and horizontal bond, should be tinted of the same colour as the roughcasting. 531. Common Lime and Hair Plastering ornamented is to be seen on the outside of cot- tages in several parts of England. When the plaster is in a moist State, impressions are made on it in various ways, and by various articles. Lines are drawn with the trowel, straight, wavy, angular, intersecting, or irregular. Stripes, chequers, squares, circles, or trelliswofk, are also imitated. Wickerwork is a very general subject of imitation ; and this is produced by pressing a panel, generally a foot square, of neatly wrought wicker- work, against the plaster, while moist. It is évident that this description of ornament might be greatly extended and varied ; and that, instead of the panel of wickerwork, wooden plates of patterns, such as those used by room paper-printers, might cover the cottage walls with hieroglyphics, with sculptures of various kinds, with imitations of natural objects, or with mémorable or instructive sayings, or chronological facts. 532. Cementing, Roughcasting, and Plastering, as means of ornamenting the outsides of buildings, are dangerous processes in the hands of a builder who is without a culti- vated architectural taste. Let our readers never forget that the outside of a house, or a v^.11 of any kind, covered in every part with roughcast, or with plaster ornamented in any way, except being lined and coloured in imitation of stone, is a mere blank or négation in Architecture. Such a wall has no beauty, because it has no expression. It may not even be a wall, but a panoply of plastered lath, imposed upon us as a substitute. No wall is worthÿ of the name that does not bear on its face the nature and kind of its materials, and the manner of its construction ; or, in other words, that does not display in its physiognomy the character of its anatomy. A house, the walls of which are covered with roughcast, or with plaster whitewashed or otherwise coloured, whatever may be the beauty or magnitude of its doors and Windows, is no piece of Architecture ; it is not even an imitation of Architecture ; because the éléments of ail architectural productions are the stones or bricks of which édifices are composed. A wall or a house, therefore, that does not show, either in reality or in imitation, the materials of which its walls are composed, can hâve no pretensions to architectural expression. This expression can no more be produced with its full effect, without the indication of the constituent materials of the édifice, than a sentence can be printed without employing the letters of the alphabet. There is not a more important principle than this for the young Architect to bear constantly in mind, in the whole range of the science of Architecture. The rule to be derived from it, in the practice of the art, is, whenever cernent is to be employed on the outside of a building, and not to be lined and coloured in imitation of stone, there must be the requisite vertical and horizontal bond, for the strength, stability, and durability of the structure, of brick or of stone ; or, in minor buildings, of timber, or of projections or piers of cernent, lined and coloured in imitation of stone. The same rule applies to roughcasting and ornamental plastering. We shall illustrate this rule by the case of a plastered and whitewashed house, taken at random from a number seen from the window of the room in which we now write. Fig. 458 will, by general observers, be considered a very neat élévation ; but those who hâve understood the principles we hâve laid *down will see at once that it is totally without expression, having no appear- ance whatever of either vertical or horizontal bond. The facings to the windows convey the idea that these openings are surrounded by stone ; but there is no evidence that these .stone framings rest on any thing but plaster ; the mind, therefore, does not follow up the impression made by the eye, and the imitation stone facings, for want of imitation sup- port below them to carry on the illusion, sink into mere plaster ornaments. Let the plaster in front of this building be disposée! either as in figs. 459 or 460, and how dif-COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. mi 458 459 460 ferent would be the effect ! In the fîrst case, fig. 459, the vertical bond is prodüced, or, in other words, the roof is supported, by the squared stones at the angles, and the hewn stones forming the piers containing the Windows ; and iri the latter case, fig. 460, the roof is supported by the pilasters, and the architrave over them; while the Windows are supported by the string courses, or horizontal bond. 533. Whitewashing the outside walls of buildings is of very universal use, and it seems to please the eyes of persons of ordinary minds, by the contrast which it produces with the surrounding scenery. Bright whitewashing, however, has at ail times been objected to by men of taste ; particularly by artists, who, having cultivated the art of seeing objects with reference to their picturesque beauty, ought to be judges of its effect in scenery. Gilpin, speaking of the cottages in Wales, says, the Welsh generally “ seero fond of whitening their houses, which gives them a disagreeable glare. A speck of white is often beautiful ; but white in profusion is, of ail tints, the most inharmonious. A white seat at the corner of a wood, or a few white cattle grazing in a meadow, enliven a scene, per- haps, more than if the seat or the cattle had been of any other colour : they hâve mean- ing and effect. But a front and two staring wings ; an extent of rails ; a huge Chinese bridge ; the tower of a church ; and a variety of other large objects, which we often see daubed over with white, make a disagreeable appearance, and unité ill with the general simplicity of nature’s colouring. In animadverting, however, on white objects, I would only censure the mere raw tint. It may be easily corrected, and turned into stone colours of various hues ; which, though light, if not too light, may often hâve a good effect.” (Gilpin’s Wye, p. 94.) Bartell directs, that, in colouring cottage walls, “ every material of a strong harsh colour should be rejected. The fierce red of some kinds of bricks, and the perfect white of a wash of lime, are equally disgusting.” (Hints for Pic- turesque Improvement for Ornamental Cottages, p. 10.) 534. The Compositions for Exterior Colouring are various. The following is said to be a very superior one : — Take 26 pounds of quicklime, slacked to a powder, and well sifted, and 28 pounds of tarras, sifted well. Mix these with a small quantity of water as quickly as possible. Beat them together with a wooden beater, upon a banker (a stone or wooden bench). Continue to beat them three or four times a day, for four days ; and, at the end of that period, take three gallons of bullock’s blood (which should be well stirred in the catching, to prevent it clotting), and add to it, when cold, three gallons of water. Put the lime and tarras into a tub, together with the blood and water, stirring them well to make the wash thin ; when it will be fit for use. Keep stirring while using it, to prevent the tarras from settling at the bottom. Let the v/all be first cleaned from moss and dirt, washing it twice with a watering-pot ; and, before it is dry, begin to lay on the composition, observing not to work it too thick. In the second washing, add two quarts more blood, properly stirred while cooling, as before, to make the wash more sizy and glutinous. If a yellow tinge be desired, put in a pound or more of stone or Roman ochre, according to fancy. Stale milk may be substituted for blood, though it is said by some not to make the wash resist the weather equally well. 535. The common colouring in use about London is composed of whitening made from chalk or other lime, charcoal, or yellow ochre, and copperas, in proportions according to the colours which it is desired should prevail. A prépondérance of lampblack, or powdered charcoal produces a greyish white, which is a cold, and not in general a désirable, colour ; lime and stone ochre produce a cream or freestone colour. Lime and copperas produce a bright white at first, which, in the course of a few Weeks, changes to a white, with more or less of a reddish tinge, according to the proportion of coppieras introduced. 536. A whitewash which will adhéré to woodwork, and preserve it from the weather, is thus composed : — To three parts of unslacked lime add two of wood ashes, and one of fine sand, or of coal ashes sifted through a fine sieve. Let these be mixed with as much linseed oil as will bring the mixture to a consistence for working with a painter’s brush. If the mixture be ground together, it will be an improvement. Two coats will be re- quired; the first thin, and the second thick. The hardness of this wash increases by time. (Smith’s Art of House-Painting, p. 36.)-EXTERIOE EINISHING OF COTTAGES. 263 ; 537• The colouring of outside walls is most commonly effected by water colours, when the surface of the wall is new ; or by colours incorporated with glutinous substances or oils, after the walls hâve been thoroughly dried. As a general rule in colouring walls, it may be laid down, that colours unmixed with glutinous bodies, and held in solution by water alone, may be laid on the wall at any time when the température is ten or twelve degrees above the freezing point, and in no immédiate danger of falling lower, whether the walls are wet or dry, new or old. Colours mixed with glutinous matters or oils, on the other hand, should not be laid on new walls till they are thoroughly dried ; or on old walls at a season of the year when their surface may be saturated with mois- ture. The reason for these rules is, that water colours do not impede the évaporation of moisture from the wall, and the absorption by the mortar of carbonic acid gas, by which it is hardened and rendered durable ; while glutinous colours, by closing up the pores of the surface, do both. 538. Water colours for outside walls are generally formed on a basis of quicklime, Roman cernent, tarras, or Puzzolano. With one or other of these the colours are mixed as wanted, and are immediately laid on with a whitewashing brush. By far the most favourable time to do this is when the wall is newly built, or the plaster is recently laid on. In the case of old walls, they must first be thoroughly scraped, washed, and stopped ; and afterwards brushed over with the colouring mixture, either as a fiat shade, or clouded, as the expression is, to imitate the effects of time. This last purpose will be materially aided by taking any strong acid that combines with lime, or any metallic oxide, that will, of course, absorb oxygen from the atmosphère, and mixing these with water, in two separate pails, occasionally dipping the brush in one or the other. A very convenient acid is the sulphuric, in the proportion of one to ten of water ; and a suitable oxide is the sulphate of iron, dissolved in water, in about the same proportion. The blotches moistened with the sulphuric acid will in time assume a rich cream colour, and those touched by the copperas will hâve a reddish tinge. 539. Glutinous colours for outside waUs also take for their basis quicklime or some cernent ; and the glutinous matter is either blood, kept stirring till cold,. to prevent it from beeoming clotted, stale milk, or vegetable oils. Size and paste are sometimes used as glutinous media ; and, in such cases, alum is mixed with them, to prevent them from fermenting, and beeoming mouldy on the walls ; but they are not durable, and, if exposed to driving rains, soon wash off. The desired colours are added to the glutinous matter, which is laid on of such a consistence as to part easily from a common whitewasher’s brush. 540. Painting the outsides of walls in oïl colours is too expensive for cottages, and, on the whole, is unsuitable for any structure not formed of timber. As a medium of giving colour, it is more expensive, and not much more efficient, than glutinous colours formed with blood; and, as a protection from the weather, three coats of oil paint are nearly as expensive, and far less effective, than one coat of quicklime and sharp sand, which will last as long as the atmosphère contains oxygen, and will grow harder as it grôws older. In the United States of America, however, the exteriors of brick houses are said to be frequently “ painted in oil, the colours being most commonly red or brown.” It is also said that “ the Dutch very generally cover their buildings with a composition of mortar, or plaster, mixed with oil and colour : blue, red or light pink, and grey, are the most common tints. These walls, when dry, hâve a kind of gloss like varnish, and of course resist wet.” (Mech. Mag., vol. iv. p. 98.) It appears to us that the protection afforded by this oil-colouring is not sufficient to atone for the bad taste which it displays. 541. The kinds of colours most suitable for exterior walls should generally be such as belong to the stones or bricks of the country in which the dwelling stands. These are ehiefly whites, browns, yellows, reds, and grey s. Yellow, red, and brown ochres are among the cheapest of colours ; and from these, with whiting, charcoal, and bistre (or soot, from which bistre is made), ail the colouring désirable for the outsides of cottages may be produced. 542. Splashing is a mode of colouring walls, which may be performed with equal süccess, as far as immédiate effect is concerned, in water, in glutinous, or in oil, colours ; and, in regard to the State of the walls, the same rules will apply in this case that hâve been already laid down in § 537. The object of splashing is either to imitate the lichens and weather stains of an old wall, or some particular kind of stone. It is seldom attempted in water colours, from their transient duration in the open air, but answers perfectly well with colours mixed with either blood, milk, or oil. The surface of the wall to be splashed must be well seasoned, and perfectly dry ; and should resemble, as much as possible, the form of the stone or wall to be imitated; and the prevailing or groundwork colour of that wall should be given to it, by one coat over the whole. Then, several pots of different colours being mixed up, and a long painter’s brush, called a duster, being put in each, the artist, holding a short stick in one hand; takes in the264 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. other the brush, with the colour which he thinks it désirable to put on first, and strikes the head of the brush against the stick, so as to bespatter the wall with the colour. The taste of the artist must be his guide, as to the quantity of each colour which he throws on, and also as to the number of colours to be employed ; but in neither case will he be at any loss, if he keeps the object to be imitated steadily in view. The first brushful of colour falls on the wall in circular patches, from to £ of an inch in diameter; the second brushful adds to the number of these round patches, and enlarges many of them, either by falling thickly among several, and joining them into one irregular blotch ; or by falling on two or three, or on only one of the previous spots, and forming with it either an oval, or the figure 8. If we suppose the same process continued, on the same portion of surface, with different colours, it will be évident, that not only the shapes of the patches will be further altered by the addition of each splash of colour, but that their colours also will be varied. In this manner the process of splashing is carried on ; and the resuit is obtained partly by chance, though chiefly by the skill of the artist. This kind of painting is less applicable to cottages than it is to imitations of rocks in garden scenery, and to Gothic buildings of a considérable size. In cottages, however, it may sometimes be usefiully employed in colouring the imitations of stone or brick bond, where the rest of the walling is stuccoed, roughcast, or plastered ; and, at ail events, it is good to know every source of varied expression. 543. In whitewashing, colouring, or painting the exterior waïïs of buildings, the young Architect must constantly bear in mind that there are two objects in view ; viz., the pro- tection of the wall from the weather, and the production of a colour suitable to the object coloured, and agreeable to the eye. The protection of the wall is effected with glutinous or oil paints, by excbiding it from ail kinds of atmospherical influence, except that of change of température. The same object, but in a less degree, is pro- duced by washes composed of lime or cernent ; which, while they do not prevent the atmosphère from evaporating the moisture of the wall in dry warm weather, yet exclude from its surface driving rains. The colouring matter in either of these cases is of very little conséquence, so fer as respects the protection of the wall. By having a clear idea of the purposes to be effected by colouring and painting, the Architect will know when to direct, or the cottager when to employ, colours or washes which will protect the wall from the drying influence of the atmosphère ; and when such other colours and washes as will admit that influence ought to be preferred. 544. On painting the woodwork of the outsides of cottages little need here be said. If the wood be not thoroughly seasoned, it should not be painted with oil colours till it become so. It may be washed over in the mean time with water colours, or stained with nitrous acid, and dyed with logwood for immédiate effect. We allude chiefly to the doors and Windows. The larger outside timbers in cottages, especially those built of studwork and nogging, in countries where labour is abundant and paint dear, may be charred by the application of fire before being put up. We hâve seen buildings, tbe timbers of which had been treated in this manner, in France and Germany; and in Switzerland we hâve seen cottages in which the timbers had been charred, after having been put up, by the application of red-hot iron. The practice is not uncommon in some parts of Russia, not with a view to préservation, but for the purpose of ornamenting the very curious barge boards and gable ends which are sometimes seen on the cottages of enfranchised serfs in that country. The cheapest paint for the outside timber-work of common cottages in Britain is coal tar or gas liquor, which should be laid on hot during summer, when the timber is not only dry, but warm, and of which two or more coats, at intervals of two or three weeks, should be given, according to the nature of the timber, so as completely to saturate its pores. The colour cannot be called beautiful at first, but in the course of a year or two it assumes a subdued greyish tone, from the surface fibres of the wood becoming bleached by the atmosphère. Coal tar will, however, be suf- ficiently softened by the heat of the sun, to stick to clothes, or any thing that touches it, for three years ; but is an excellent préserver where it can be used without incon- venience. 545. The tiles, slates, and other roofing materials of cottages, may be painted exactly in, the same manner as the walls ; but this can only be désirable with certain materials of a perishable nature, such as timber ; or with others of a harsh glaring colour, such as red tiles. The latter will .be greatly improved, both in durability and. appearance, by being rubbed over or soaked in any greasy or oily matter, or by being painted with tar or gas liquor, before being put on the roof. But the best mode of colouring tiles and bricks is by mixing chalk, or ochres, or other oxides, with the clay, while it is being prepared for the moidd. The tiled roofs of cottage lodges are sometimes splashed with oil colour, and the effect of âge very successfully produced. 546. The best description of paint, for ail kinds of outside work, is such as is formed by ground glass bottles, scoria from lead-works, burnt oyster-shells, and the requiredEXTERIQR FINISHING OF COTTAGES. $65 çolouring matter, powdered, and intimately mixed with raw linseed oil. Paint of this kind is prepared in London, and sold in a State of powder, under the name of anti- corrosion, lithic paint, &c. : but, as it requires to be mixed a day or more before it is used, as it is much more laborious to put on than common paint, as it wears out the brushes in a very short time, and, above ail, as it lasts so long when applied to iron, or well-seasoned timber, or masonry, as seldom to require renewal during a man’s lifetime, painters very seldom recommend it. The appearance of a surface painted with anti- corrosion is rough, resembling that of unrubbed cast iron or freestone; and, when timber which has been once painted with it has to be eut up by a carpenter, it takes the edge off his tools (even his axe and saw), so that he also is against it. It is used, how- ever, in some government works ; particularly for cast-iron bridges. 547. The Waïls of Cottages may he protected and ornamented by Mathematical Tïling. The object of this is to make the walls appear as if they were built of brick. The tiles, fig. 461, hâve their surfaces in two planes ; each plane of the depth and length of a common brick ; so that when tiles of this kind are placed against a wall, the one overlaps the other, as shown in the section, fig. 462 ; and the general appearance of the élévation is that of regular brickwork, as in fig. 463. There are bats or headers to imitate half bricks, fig. 464 ; and closers or quarter bricks, fig. 465, for the purpose of breaking 462 463 joint at the angles, and rendering the imitation more complété. When these tiles are of cream colour, their effect is very neat, clean, and handsome ; but buildings in which they are used, to be in good architectural expression, ought always to hâve vertical bond in the form of projecting piers or angle stones. 548. Mathematical and common weather tiles may he rendered ornamental, either by varying their outline, or by impressing on them, in the mould, lines or figures. This has been done in a few places in England with bricks, and we think also with tiles. Fig. 466 shows some forms of weather-tiling, in addition to those before given, § 459. 466 >1 © ki V V k V By taking leaves of plants as the source for originating ideas for varying the outline, the variety of ornamental weather-tiling might be carried to a great extent ; and we are informed by travellers that it would be a most valuable protection to the wooden walls of houses in America, as we are certain it would be to the earthen walls of the farm buildings which are put up in some parts of Ireland. Weather tiles might also be applied instead of barge boards, the tiles in that case being formed longer ; and, when put ori at right angles to the slope of the gable, finished by a projecting line of plain tiles over them. The colour of common weather-tiling might be varied, as well as the form by the mixture of chalk, ochres, &c., with the clay while working it. Mathe- matical tiling might be ornamented on the surface by geometrical lines and figures ; by E E266 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. représentations of natural objects, such as the sun, moon, and stars, as is sometimes done on the window- facings and barge- 467 boards of the cot- tages in Russia ; of animais ; of the flowers of plants ; of their leaves, &c. In fig. 467 a, b, cf d, and e show a few of the simpler patterns. 549. Various other articles might be employed to cover and ornament the walls of cot- tages, according to the effect intended to be produced. Trellis-work of various kinds gives a gay and dressed appearance, suitable for the immédiate neighbourhood of a large town. A marine character may be given by shells ; a rustic one by bark of trees ; and a grotesque one by roots of trees ; that of a Dutch cottage by glazed quarries (square tiles) ; and that of a Russian log-house by the outside slabs of trees (the first pièces sawn off, to reduce the trunk to a square, and of course fiat on one side, and round on the other) ; the expression of warmth may be produced by clothing the walls with reeds ; and of coolness by blue slates, &c. 550. The use of barge-boards, omamental chimney topsf vases, vérandas, terrace parapets, balconieSf jlower-stands, mignonette boxes, 8çc., may be considère d as having been suf- ficiently iÜustrated in the preceding chapter. We hâve not hitherto, however, mentioned one very simple but neat cottage ornament, the sparrow pot, 468 fig. 468, which is made of common potter’s ware, and projected from under the eaves of cottage roofs at regular distances, by simply placing the pots, which hâve holes in the side of their bottoms, on nails or wooden pegs. The use of these sparrow pots is, to prevent the birds from dirtying the walls or Windows with what falls from their nests, by keeping them farther from the wall ; they also supply an easy means of taking either the birds or their eggs. We hâve seen a swallow pot for the same purpose, made by Adams, Gray’s Inn Lane ; but we are not certain that it succeeds. High and omamental chimney tops will, how- ever, generally be found to afford suitable angles and recesses for that bird (so useful to the cultivator in destroying winged insects) to build in. 551. The Doors of Cottages may be ornamentèdbÿ adding strips of deal, in the form of muntins, styles, rails, beads, &c. ; by omamental hinges and latches ; or by studding them over with imitation door nails. The plain door, fig. 469, may be rendered archi- tectural, in the Gothic style, at a very trifling expense, by fillets nailed on so as to produce the effect of figs. 470, 471, or 472, or that of fig. 473 ; or by nails, as in figs. 474,475, and 476. The woodwork should be painted in imitation of oak, and the heads of 470 471 472 473 474 475 476 469 the nails should be black. These nails are to be procured complété, of different shapes, in cast iron ; but they are equally fit for producing effect when the heads are made of wood, and fastened on by a brad. When properly painted, it is impossible to distinguish the wooden nails from the iron ones. The shapes of the heads of these nails may be round, square, triangular, or polygonal ; and with either fiat or raised surfaces. A few of the different forms are shown in fig. 477. Omamental hinges, or plates of iron as 477 in figs. 474 and 475, into which omamental nails are driven, may also be imitated in wood, and completely disguised by paint ; as may be certain parts of common latches, theEXTERIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES. 267 escutcheons of keyholes, &c. Ail knobs to cottage doors should be of real oak, laburnum (false ebony, as it is called by the French, from its hardness and blackness), yew,box, or other hard and tough wood, or of iron blackened or bronzed, but never of brass, which is too fine, and is besides liable to tarnish. The knobs, and other iron work of doors, may be blackened, by heating them nearly red hot, and immediately plunging them in oil ; after being taken out and dried, they are polished with a coarse woollen cloth. Knobs, nail heads, and other parts of doors, whether of iron or wood, may be made to imitate bronze, by first painting them of a deep yellow colour, and then green : before the green is quite dry, it should be rubbed off the projecting parts, so as to allow the yellow to be seen through it. The greatest ornaments to cottage doors are, the porch, the penthouse roof, and the projecting canopy or shelf supported by brackets ; but these may be considered as already disposed of. 552. Windows may be ornamented in a great variety of way . A plain sash or lattice window, figs. 478 and 479, may be disguised by a Gothic framework being put before it, as in figs. 480 and 481. In these cases it is supposed that the window to be disguised shows outside reveals of at least six inches in depth, and that the thickness of the frame- work is not more than an inch, which will still leave five inches of reveal ; a deep reveal being always désirable, as expressive of the thickness and strength of the walls. To dis- guise Windows placed in nogging, studwork, weather-boarding, or other kinds of thin walls, which prevent any reveal from being shown on the outside, an artificial reveal must first be formed round the window by a projecting facing, in the manner of an architrave ; and to be truly architectural, and to convey the expression of strength, this facing ought to be continued to the ground below, and to the roof above. Fig. 482 shows a portion of the front of a common weather-boarded cottage, in which it is desired to improve the appearance of the Windows. Fig. 483 shows the Windows improved in the manner described. On the supposition that these Windows gave vlight to a stable and hayloft, to a tool-house with a seed-room over, or to any apartment not occupied as a dwelKng, the Windows might be further ornamented by placing a framework before the glass, as in fig. 484 ; or Gothic labels might be added, as in fig. 485. It will readily be conceived268 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. that, by the application of facings round Windows, and by placing framework, judiciously painted and shaded to imitate mullions and their moulcüngs, before them, an inexhaust- ible source is opened for the improvement of commonplace Windows. Where the window to be improved is flush with the outside wall, even its proportions might occasionally be changed ; its height might be added to by using framework in which there was much tracery in the upper part, painting the wall immediately behind it black ; and the, width might be increased in the same manner, by having narrow side-lights, and broad mullions and transoms. Thus, fig. 486 might be placed before fig. 487, and fig. 488 before fig. 489 ; the spaces marked a in both figures being painted black. In a country like 486 487 488 489 Britain, where the cottage Windows are generally low and broad, nothing adds more dignity of character to a dwelling than heightening the Windows ; because high Windows are expressive of lofty rooms. Where height cannot be given, and the obvious tendency of the openings is to width, the effect of the élévation is improved by increasing that tendency, because the idea of a larger room is thus given. From what we hâve said on the subject of disguising and ornamenting Windows, we hope no reader will for a moment suppose that we intend any of the frames to be placed before the Windows of the dwelling-rooms of cottages, in such a manner as to diminish the quantity of light and air admitted by them, or to injure the prospect seen from them. Nothing can be truly an ornament, or an improvement, to a house, which in the slightest degree diminishes the comforts or enjoyments of the occupier. There are few tliings to which we hâve a greater dislike than the practice of some great owners of parks, of putting labourers to live in lodges, and other ornamental buildings, which, with a great display externally, are scarcely habitable within. 553. Outside Shutters to Windows or doors certainly cannot be considered as ornamental. To see on the outside of a building what we are accustomed to see on the inside, seems an offence against propriety ; while it gives, at the same time, the idea of meanness and insecurity. Nevertheless, it is certainly more economical, in building a cottage, to hâve outside shutters than inside ones ; and this circumstance, together with the influence that it is likely to hâve on the comfort of the cottager, being duly taken into considération, we ought to moderate our dislike to them. What, perhaps, increases this dislike is the practice of holding forth these shutters as ornamehts, by painting them green, and other gaudy colours ; instead of keeping them subordinate, by making them the colour of the walls, or of oak ; or by avowing them, and giving them the character of great strength, by fillets of wood, and nail heads, painted in imitation of iron ; or by adding some description of architectural expression. When we consider the economy produced in interior finishing by having Outside shutters, we think that, treated in this manner, they might be admitted even in ornamental cottages. Figs. 490, 491, 492, and 493, are examples of what may be câlled architectural shutters : those which are meant to be completely subordinate should be painted, and marked with lines, in exact imitation of the forms and materials of the walls against which they are to be turned back. We hâve seen houses in the suburbs of Konigsberg with the outside shutters painted so exactly like the walls on both sides, that, when shut, the house ap- peared to be without Windows ; and we were informed in 1813, by M. Koch, that severalEXTERIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES. 269 houses escaped in this way from being plundered by the retreating French army, during the preceding winter. In the Duke of Northumberland’s house, 494 in the Strand, London, there is a gateway painted so exactly like the wall, as to deceive every body. Hinged shutters, when folded back, should be made fast in that position by the same boit as that which fastens them when closed ; and the strongest boit for this purpose is one in which the end is turned up so as to form the handle, and render riveting on the knob un- necessary, fig. 494. The hinges used should be what are called set-back hinges, when it is wished to make the shutters fit close to the windows when shut, and to throw them back close to the wall when open, as shown in fig. 495. Outside shutters might also be made to slide in grooves, in the manner which we shall notice when speaking of outside blinds. Thus, outside shutters, which at first sight appear a deformity, may be converted into a source of beauty; for taste, like necessity, must bend to circumstances. The truth is, that the found- ation of ail taste, beyond that which is merely physical, lies in the mind ; and, as a writer in the New Monthly Magazine observes, “ every man manufactures for himself his own sub- limity and beauty.” 554. Outside Blinds form both élégant and useful ornaments to Windows. The mind is at once reconciled to them, from the idea which they convey of shading and protecting something délicate and refined within. Their expression is the very opposite of that of commonplace window shutters, noble rather than mean ; and the reason is, because, in Britain at least, they are almost exclusively used in superior houses. They hâve not only the effect of shading the curtains, carpets, and other fur- niture in a room, from the direct rays of the sun, and so pre- serving their colours ; but, by reflecting back the sun’s rays, they keep the rooms cooler during summer, and also darker ; which last circumstance lessens the inducement for Aies and other winged insects to intrude themselves. These outside blinds being only necessary during sunshine, various contrivances hâve been invented for putting them up in a compact form, during the night, or in cloudy weather ; and this circumstance has given rise to boxes with cornices, which are fitted to ______ the upper parts of windows, and joined to narrow wooden facings, or architraves, which extend along the reveals down each side. These boxes and facings are always more or less ornamental ; and hence, even without blinds in them, they confer, when added to windows, a certain degree of dignity and beauty. Ail the different kinds of outside window blinds may be included in three divisions ; viz., shutter blinds, Yenetian blinds, and cloth or curtain blinds. 555. Shutter Blinds of the commonest kind, sometimes called folding Yenetian blinds, are nothing more than outside shutters, opening in the middle, each shutter framed so as to form one panel, which is filled in with what are technically called luffer boards (inclined boards placed one above another in an aperture, so as to admit air, without permitting the rain to penetrate). These luffer boards are either fixed, or tum on pivots in thé styles of their frames ; their action, in the latter case, being like that of the common Yenetian blinds. In shutter blinds, where the luffer boards move (which is always the préférable plan, as by it the admission of light and air can be better regulated), the movement is effected by a lever handle fixed on one of the luffer boards. These boards mighî be placed vertically, instead of horizontally ; but the greater length required would render them liable to warp, and of course the shading would be imper- fect. Outside shutter blinds are generally hinged like outside window shutters, and fastened back against the wall like them, by bolts, or button fastenings ; but in very windy situations they are sometimes made to slide in grooves, which, as they are comnionly made, are by no means ornamental ; but by disguising them as string- courses, or labels, and painting them of the same colour as the walls, they may be rendered architectural as well as useful. These blinds, when the luffer boarding is shut close, serve, during night, as a secure window-shutter. In situations much ex- posed to the sun and wind, we consider this description of blinds, either running in grooves with fixed luffer boarding, or hinged and furnished with bolts or other fastenings, superior to any of the kinds of hanging outside blinds about to be described. From270 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. the manner in which shutter blinds are generally constructed and hung, their outer surface, when shut, is even with that of the wall. This is objected to by some, in a picturesque point of view, as depriving the window of the effect of the lines of shade that would otherwise be thrown upon it by the depth of the reveals. To overcome this objection, it is only necessary to form the luffer boarding narrower, say two inches in width, and to hang the blinds with set-back hinges, so as to shut them close against the sash frame, like the outside shutter in fig. 495. Thus, if the depth of the reveal be seven inches without the shutter blind, it will only be reduced to five inches with it. 556. Venetian outside Blinds, of the common kind, only differ from inside Venetian blinds in having comice boxes at top into which the blinds are drawn up, and frames at the sides which confine the ends of the laths forming the blinds, and prevent them from being blown about by the wind. In these blinds, instead of the laths being hung on tape, as is customary with inside Venetian blinds, slight brass chains are sometimes used. Outside blinds are generally painted of a stone or cream colour in the country ; and green in towns. In Gothic cottages, showing oak framework externally, they may be painted in imitation of that wood. 557. The Venetian Fan Blind, an improvement on the common Venetian blind, is made by Messrs. Barron and Mills of London, and its object is, to admit a greater quantity of light and air than is done by either the common Venetian blind or the shutter blind. For this purpose the front of the blind is projected from the wall, at an angle which may be varied at pleasure from 1° to 45° ; and to prevent the sun from shilling into the Windows on the sides, admitting at the same time free circulation of air, fan blinds are there introduced. Both the front blind and fans are worked by means of one line connected with cords and pulleys, which is made fast to the frame in the same manner as in the com- mon outside Venetian blinds. The front blind may be pulled up, and completely concealed under the cornice box at top, while the fan blind folds into a narrow box provided for it in the side frame. Hence, when this description of blind is not in use, the cornice box and side frame of the window hâve exactly the same appearance as those of any other hanging blind. A detailed account of the very intricate construction of this blind will be found in the Repertory of Arts, vol. viii. p. 449. ; and we shall recur to it when entering more at length into the subject of blinds, under the head of Exterior Finishing to Villas. There is another description of outside Venetian blinds, in which the laths are formed of iron, and copper chains supply the place of tape. These blinds are fixed at top to a box which projects from the window, and are attached at the other end to a roller having a pulley at one end, by which, and by a cord which passes over a pulley in the reveal of the window at top, the blind is let down and rolled up. These bullet-proof blinds, as they are called, are manufactured by Bramah of Pimlico, and hâve been employed by the Duke of Wellington, at Apsley House, to protect his Windows from the mob. They are most unsightly objects, and are only mentioned here as connected with the subject of Venetian blinds. 558. Outside Curtain or Cloth Blinds are of various kinds. The simplest form is where a curtain of the size of the opening of the window is furnished with rings on the margin of each side, which run upon two upright rods, concealed or not, according to the taste or means of the party, by side-framing. The lower edge of the curtain is attached to an irod rod, or a fillet of wood, to keep it down by its weight ; and to this there is a cord attached, which, passing over a pulley in the middle of the soffit of the window, admits of pulling up the curtain, and fastening it in the usual manner. By another plan, the curtain is made to spread out in front like the Venetian fan blind. This varietÿ is called a bonnet blind, and on it Messrs. Barron and Mills hâve made an improvement, which we shall hereafter describe. When these blinds are drawn up, they are as completely concealed, and protected from the weather by the box and frame, as any other description of blinds. The cloth generally used is strong linen, of the kind called gingham, and is generally striped with blue and white colours, which harmonise remarkably well with the sky and clouds. The cornice and frames are generally painted of a stone colour. A patent was taken out in 1826 for an improved mode of stretching by a contracting and collapsing apparatus, but it does not appear to hâve corne into use. (See Rep. of Arts, vol. iv. p. 195.) 559. Varions other outside blinds of the curtain kind hâve been used, and might be occasionally introduced in cottages. Projecting canopies, of different kinds, from the top of the window, might hâve corresponding balconies for flowers at the bottom ; and, common curtain rods being concealed in the top of each canopy and in the bottom of each balcony, curtains, with rings affixed in the usual manner, might run 'on them, and be opened by hand, in the middle or at the sides, at pleasure. This would be a very cheap exterior blind, and one which, judiciously placed over the principal window of a cottage, would produce a very striking effect. Another description of blind is formedEXTERIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES. ^71 by straining canvass, gauze, or fine wire cloth, on three or more light wooden frames ; and, by hanging these horizontally to a frame of the size of the window, the small frames being connected on the opposite side to that on which they are hinged, by two slips of wood or by irôn rods, they may be moved sympathetically to any angle, so as to keep out the sun. The slips of wood or iron rods must be screwed on so as to allow them to hâve free action at the head, otherwise they will not fall down. Elinds of this sort are kept in their position by a line fixed to the outer edge of the upper frame, which passes through a pulley at the upper end of the large frame, and being brought down, either on the inside of the window, or on the outside, is fastened as usual by a hook. It is évident that blinds of this description may also be hinged ver- tically; and if only two are used for each window, and these are hinged back to back to a style in the centre, one half of the window might always be uncovered, because before twelve o’clock it would be only requisite to keep that blind shut which was next the east, and after twelve o’clock that one which was next the west. Such blinds, however, would be chiefly applicable to Windows facing the south. If, instead of being hinged back to back in the middle of the window, they were hinged to the side styles, and fur- nished with set-off hinges, they would form shutter blinds of a simple and cheap description. Roller outside blinds, such as are used to shade shop Windows, are capable of a variety of useful and ornamental applications on the exterior of cottages. 560. Wire outside Blinds hâve not hitherto been used ; but the very fine wire cloth now applied as inside blinds, might, we think, in some cases be advantageously placed outside, either as leaf or sympathetic frame blinds, § 559, or as shutter blinds. The great advantage of this wire cloth is, that it admits a view of what is without from within, while it completely excludes a view of what is within from without. Where a cottage is placed by the roadside, such blinds are very désirable, not only on these accounts, but also because they keep out the dust ; and they are not less so where the Windows on the south side of a house command a fine prospect. Much of the enjoyment of some rooms, in country houses, is lost during the finest weather of summer, from the necessity of keeping down the blinds ; but, with wire blinds, the heat and great part of the light might be excluded, and yet the prospect be not only enjoyed, but even im- proved in effect, by the darkness of the room acting on the eye like the tube of a telescope. They should be painted to preserve them from the weather ; and they may, in addition, be ornamented with landscapes, figures, or other objects ; or, in the case of a country tradesman, in a roadside cottage, they may exhibit the owner’s name, or the implements or products of his trade. 561. Projecting fixed, Canopies are sometimes used for giving conséquence to Windows ; and they might be occasionally employed in cottages. They are framed in wood, with paneled sofiits, moulded comices, and sometimes ornamented friezes, and they are supported by brackets. Figs. 496, 497, 498, 499, and 500, are canopies of this 496 497 498 499 500 sort. They may very properly be put over doors, and when they cannot be formed in solid timber, a plain kind of trellis-work may in some cases be introduced, for the purpose of supporting an ornamental climber. 562. Other architectural modes of ornamenting the exteriors of either old or new Cottages might be mentioned but we hâve said enough to lead the reader into a train of thought on the subject, and to point out to him to what parts of a plain cottage he ought chiefly to direct his attention, when his object is to ornament it. 563. Ornamenting the exterior of Cottages by the productions of Horticulture, and by Landscape-Gardening, is a subject which has occasionally occupied our attention in the course of the preceding chapter ; and that of laying out the grounds round ornamental cottages and villas will be treated of in a future division of the work. We may here repeat, what we hâve before stated incidentally, that we by no means advise much to be atiompted in the way of ornamenting cottages in the country by means of végétation,272 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. on account of the damp produced, and the insects harboured, by leaves ; and becauso, in proportion as any building dépends for its effect on a covering of végétation, in the same proportion does it lose its beauty as a piece of Architecture. We are more par- ticularly anxious to impress on the minds of our readers the impropriety of planting trees, or creepers of any kind, against walls of cottages, which are shaded by opaque-roofed vérandas, penthouses, or far-projecting eaves ; because in such situations they can never thrive, and not only hâve a sickly and disagreeable appearance, but actually, to a certain extent, contaminate the air by their decaying foliage. Life without health is without beauty. Sect. II. Designs and Directions for the Inlerior Finishing of Cottage Dwellings* 564. The Walls of a Cottage, viewed externally, ought, by the appearance of the nature of the materials, and the mode in which they are put together, to give at the first glance unquestionable evidence of their sufficiency to support the roof. This being the case, on entering the dwelling we dispense with a répétition of this evidence, as far as the roof is concerned ; but if the apartments are large, and one is placed over another, as in houses of two or more stories, we require the appearance of strength in the ceilings to support the floor above them. Hence, the ceilings, in ail very large rooms, should be thrown into compartments, by the reality, or by the appearance, of beams Crossing the ceiling in the direction of its breadth, or shortest diameter. On the same principle it is désirable that these beams should be, or appear to be, supportedat the extremities by piers or pilasters projecting from the walls, and sometimes even by detached columns. The finishing of these piers or columns is generally in imitation of some description of stone or marble, as belonging toxthe wall; and that of the horizontal beams, of oak, or some other timber, as belonging to the superincumbent floor, or the roof. 565. The Interior of the Walls of a Cottage of the humblest class may, in some cases, require no other finishing than the rubbing or dressing of the material of the wall. This may be the case when the walls are built of brick, and the inner courses are rubbed and worked to a fair smooth surface. Rubbed sandstone may be applied in the same manner. For the plainest description of cottage the walls may be completely finished with one coating of plaster ; either by mixing the lime with a portion of Roman cernent, or by using fresh-burnt stone lime and sharp sand, in the proportions of five of the latter to two of the former. The basement stories of many of the commoner Street houses about London are finished in this manner ; by which not only the labour of putting on two coats of plaster is saved, but a more durable surface to the wall is produced. In general, however, the internai surfaces of cottage walls, of whatever materials they are composed, require to be plastered as indicated in the spécifications already given ; for example, in § 80, and in § 235. 566. Without a Comice no JRoom can hâve a finished Appearance, therefore we recom- mend cornices to be introduced into the living-rooms and principal bed-rooms of even the humblest cottages. The simplest cornice is formed by filling up the angle by a straight hypoténuse line, fig. 501 ; the next step is to curve this line convexly, fig. 502, or concavely, fig. 503 ; a square fillet, fig. 504, may be introduced ; or a round bead, fig. 505. In cottage dwellings, this bead is frequently formed of wood, as being 501 [7'- 502 U 504 505 □ u~ easier executed in that material than in plaster. The effect, when the bead is about an inch in diameter, is satisfactory ; and we think, instead of wood, it might, in some cases, be madé of iron, fastened to the walls with Staples ; and with one or two hooks to each length of rod between the Staples, for the purpose of hanging pictures or other articles, agreeably to the practice in what are called gentlemen’s houses. It is easy to conceive how a variety of cornices may be deduced from this simple form : by flattening the circle, by narrowing it ; by causing it to présent the broad end of an oval, or the narrow end ; and by its being made, sometimes, to seem chiefly projecting from the wall, and, sometimes, chiefly from the ceiling. From these elementary forms a great variety of cornices may be produced. For example, in figs. 506 and 507 weINTERIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES. 273 r 506 r hâve ten different variations of the concave line, the lightest and most agreeable feature of ail cornices, particularly when viewed from below, and the characteristic of the Gothic 507 cornice. Fig. 508 shows five sections of cornices having a convex curve for a leading F 508 F~ member, Fig. 509 shows modifications of the square, a leading feature in Grecian and Roman cornices. The square form, it thus appears, may be varied by approaches F to the parallelogram and to the rhomboid, and by altering its relative proportions with respect to the ceiling over it, and the surface of the wall beneath it. Composite comices, fig. 510, may be formed by employing two or more of these five leading forms as fi F T7Pr main features ; and cornices in particular styles of architecture are obviously of easy composition, from the lines and forms which belong to those styles. 567. The magnitude of a comice ought always to be regulated by the size of the room in which it is introduced ; since the origin of the cornice of a column or wall was the edge of a plate of stone or timber, bedded on that column or wall, to receive with greater security, and give a better bearing to, what was to be placed upon it. A long narrow room does not require such a massive comice as a square one covering the same surface, beçause there is less occasion for studying the security of the cross-beams or joists. 568.. Plaster Ornaments on Ceilings ha.\e not hitherto been much introduced in cottages, on account of the expense. We scarcely think comices with foliage or other cast ornaments désirable in plain cottages ; but a rose or other fiower, in plaster or composi- tion, might often be introduced, at very little expense, in the centre of the ceiling of a cottage parlour. There is scarcely any part of a house in which a single ornamental form produces so much effect as in the centre of a ceiling. Fortunately for the buiiders274 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. of even plain cottages, omaments suitable for this purpose, and for various others in the finishings and fittings-up of rooms, hâve recently been manufactured by Messrs. . Bielefelds and Haselden, at a very low price, of a description of papier mâché. They are perfectly light and strong ; and may be sent to any part of the world. They are fixed on by tacks or brads ; and, being painted, will last as long as any other part of a house. Fig. 511, p. 275, is one foot in diameter, and costs 7s. ; fig. 512 is two feet across, and costs £l ; and fig. 513 is two feet and a half across, and costs £l : 15s. For the ceiling of the principal room of a well-finished cottage, it could not be thought extravagant to lay out 7s. on such an omament as fig. 511. In ail cases of introducing such omaments, due préparation should be made for them, by raised borders, or mouldings, which should enclose them in a sort of framework. 569. The Paneling of the Walls or the Ceilings of the Rooms of plain Cottages is seldom attempted, otherwise than by Unes painted on the wall, or by coloured papers; but there is no other reason than the expense, why it should not be adopted in the humblest cottage, as well as in the highly enriched villa. The occupant of the one may hâve a mind as susceptible of deriving enjoyment from the contemplation of élégant forms as that of the other, and he is therefore entitled to procure them whenever it is in his power to do so without interfering with any moral duty. Panels of this sort are generally formed by raised mouldings in plaster or stucco; but they may sometimes be more cheaply produced by mouldings of papier mâché, some of which, such as figs. 514, 515, 516, and 517, p. 276, may be bought at from 2d. to 3d. per foot. 570. Whitewashing and Colouring the inside Walls and the Ceilings of Cottages should not be attempted till théy hâve dried at least a year. If the plaster be of the commonest kind, without a finishing coat of stucco, it is only adapted for water colours, or colours rendered tenacious by glue, paste, or other mucilaginous matter, instead of oil ; because of its porosity, which would wholly absorb the oil. The most common colouring for cottage walls is what is technically called Ume whiting, which is nothing more than the finest particles of Ume or chalk mixed with water, with the addition of a small quantity of size. The colour of this is varied by the addition of the black of charcoal (com- monly called blue black, as distinguished from the soot of lamps, which is called lamp- black), or by yellow ochre, by verdigrise, or any cheap pigment. 571. A superior description of whiteningfor interior walls is thus formed:—Procure a quantity of the very best Ume, and pass it through fine Unen ; pour it into a large tub, furnished with a spigot at the height equal to that which the Ume occupies : fill the tub with clear spring water ; beat the mixture with instruments made of wood, and then allow it to settle for twenty-four hours. When this period has elapsed, open the spigot, and allow the water to run off ; then supply the tub with fresh water, and continue this operation for several days, until the Ume attains the greatest degree of whiteness. When you allow the water finally to run off, the Ume wiU be found in the consistency of paste ; but when used it is necessary to mix a little Prussian blue, or indigo, to reUeve the brightness of the white, and à small quantity of turpentine, to give it brilUancy. The size proper for it is made of glove leather, with the addition of some alum ; and the whole is applied with a strong brush, in five or six layers, to new plaster. The wall is rubbed strongly over with a brush of hogs’ bristles after the painting is dry, which gives it its lustre and value, and makes it appear like marble or stucco. (Partington’s Builder's Guide, p. 550.) 572. To whiten the Ceilings of Cottages. Take the best white chalk, and add a Uttle of the black of charcoal, “ to prevent the white from growing reddish ; infuse them separately in water; mix the whole with half water and half size of glove leather.’* The size requires to be diluted, otherwise the whiting would corne off in rolls when dry. Giye two layers of this tint while itis lukewarm. (Ibid.) Instead of black, a small portion of any other colour may be mixed with the white, and Dutch pink is not un- frequently used for that purpose. The comice, where there is one, forms a member of ( séparation between the wall and the ceiling, and, being always an architectural object, \ should, for that reason, generally exhibit some colour belonging to stone, such as white, } or some shade of yellow, grey, or brownish red. 573. The colouring of the walls of rooms with water colours, or in what is called dis- temper, only differs from whitewashing them, in the appUcation being coloured. White, that is, Ume or chalk, forms the groundwork or body of the composition, and the colour- ing is added by soine concentrated vegetable extract, or metallic oxide. Ail the different colours are used for the walls of rooms; but the most common, after white, are some shades of yellow, red, green, or grey. As a general rule, the ceiling should be of a Ughter colour than the walls; because it is found that, when it is darker, it is apparently brought nearer to the eye, and has consequently the effect of making the room appear low. Rooms which are too low may on the same principle be made to appear some- what higher than they are, by having the walls a shade darker than is usual, and the1NTERI0R FINISHING OF COTTAGES. 511 275Ins. 12 € l_j_L € to Ft. Z L INTERIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES, 277 ceilings a shade lighter, and this effect may be heightened by a slight gradation in the shade of the waU from the base to the cornice. The manner in which the cornice is painted may also be made to cooperate in conveying the idea of height or the contrary. Small lines and mouldings, and faint shadows, convey the idea of distance from the eye, and the contrary that of being near it. Comices of small dimensions, in plaster, may be apparently increased by lines of colour, and members not sufficiently distinct may be rendered so by shades. When the walls of rooms are paneled, the shade of colour of the panel, and of the styles, rails, and munnions, should be the same : but the shades of the mouldings between them should be lighter on the side on which the light is sup- posed to corne ; and darker on the opposite side, as in fig. 518, p. 276. Sometimes panels are formed by lines in imitation of raised mouldings as in fig. 519, which, with the preced- ing figure, may serve to show the method of paneling in plaster as well as in colours. 574. As a cheap inside paint, which a cottager may préparé, and lav on himself, we shall give a receipt for milk paint : we could add a number of others ; but we hâve made choice of this, from having been assured of its superiority. 575. Milk Paint. Take of skimmed milk nearly two quarts ; of fresh slacked lime, about six ounces and a half ; of linseed oil four ounces, and of whiting three pounds : put the lime into a stone vessel, and pour upon it a sufficient quantity of milk to form a mixture, resembling thin cream ; then add the oil a little at a time, stirring it with a small spatula ; the remaining milk is then to be added, and lastly the whiting. The milk must on no account be sour. Slake the lime by dipping the pièces in water, out of which it is to be immediately taken, and left to slack in the air. For fine white paint, the oil of caraways is best, because colourless; but with ochres the com- monest oils may be used. The oil, when mixed with the milk and lime, entirely dis- appears, and is totally dissolved by the lime, forming a calcareous soap. The whiting, or ochre, is to be gently crumbled on the surface of the fluid, which it gradually im- bibes, and at last sinks: at this period it must be well stirredin. This paint may be coloured like distemper or size-colour, with levigated charcoal, yellow ochre, &c., and used in the same manner. The quantity here prescribed is sufficient to cover twenty- seven square yards with the first coat, and it will cost about three-halfpence a yard. The same paint will do for out-door work by the addition of two ounces of slaked Urne ; two ounces of Mnseed oil, and two ounces of white Burgundy pitch ; the pitch to be melted in a gentle heat with the oil, and then added to the smooth mixture of the milk and lime. In cold weather it must be mixed warm, to facilitate its incorporation with the milk. (Smith*s Art of House-Painting, 1825, p. 26.) 576. The painting af the walls of rooms in oïl is seldôm attempted, unless the walls hâve been finished with a coat of stucco ; but, wherever both can be afforded, the resuit, in point of durability and beauty, is far préférable to what can be produced by water colours. The great advantage of oil colours is, that they will bear washing with soap and water, so that a room once finished with them will not require repainting for many years. 577. Painting the internai woodwork af cottages ought never to be neglected, both on account of its preservative quality and its ornamental effect. Ail woodwork, avowed as such, should, if possible, be grained in imitation of soma natural wood ; not with a view of having the imitation mistaken for the original, but rather to create allusion to it, and, by a diversity of lines and shades, to produce a kind of vafiety and intricacy, which afibrds more pleasure to the eye than a fiat shade of colour. The most suitable colour for the woodwork of cottages is undoubtedly that of the prevailing timber of the district or country in which the cottage is built ; at the same time, where this timber is but slightly veined or marked, it is allowable and advisable to imitate a better description of wood. Thus, in England, the prevailing timber in several districts is fir and poplar ; but, as the wood of these trees is much inferior in beauty to that of the oak, the elm, or the chest- nut, which respectively prevail in different districts in Britain, it would be allowable, and what would be considered in good taste, for the painter to imitate them. In this, as in every thing else, the Architect must be guided by the object in view. If a cottage be in the Swiss style, the larch and silver fir, being the two woods chièfly used in cottages in Switzerland, should be either procured by the builder, or imitated by the painter. In an Indian or Chinese cottage, the bamboo and other tropical woods, or their imitations, should predominate ; and the same principle may be applied to other countries ; always, however, bearing in mind, that the business of an Architect of reason and taste is not to produce fac-similés, or répétitions of objects, but imitations of their style and manner. For the method of imitating woods in painting, or what is technically called graining, as well as for the practical details of the painter’s art, we refer to that part of this work where painting is treated of systematically, and also to Smith's Art of House-Painting, im- proved by Butcher, 12mo, London, 1825, price ls. 6d- 578. The Process of Stendling Walls or Ceilings. Stenciîing, said to be a corruption278 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. of stained ceiling, is of two kinds. The first, most ancient, and most universal mode, which is still generally practised in Italy, both on the outsides and insides of buildings, is that of pricking through, with a large-sized needle, the exact outline of a figure, previously drawn on paper or oilcloth ; and then placing it against the wall, and striking the surface with a small gauze bag containing red or white chalk in powder, or powdered charcoal. The powder goes through the holes in the paper, and, lodging in the plaster, forms an outline, which is afterwards filled up by the painter. Sometimes, instéad of pricking through the drawing, it is placed against the plaster before the latter has dried, and the outline is impressed on it by passing a blunt point over the outlines on the paper. This is generally done in the Italian practice of alfresco, a term applied-in that country to the process of painting in water-colours on plaster, when newly laid on, and before it has set. The second mode of stencilling is the most common in Britain ; by it, the patterns are ail eut out in pasteboard or oilcloth, and as many pièces of board or cloth are employed for each figure, or compartment, as there are colours or shades to be laid on. This mode of ornamenting the walls of rooms is not unsuitable for cottages of the humblest description, on account of its cheapness ; and because, in remote places, or in new countries, it might be done by the cottager himself, or by the local plasterer or house-painter. The beauty of the effect produced will dépend on the suitableness of the forms and colours of the figures to the style of the Architecture of the cottage ; and on their disposition on the walls. Where the cottage displays externally any kind of architectural style, it is reasonable to conclude that some of the same style should prevail in the omaments within, as well as in the furniture. A Gothic cottage should display lines, forms, and ornaments belonging to that style of Architecture, in ail its interior, as well as exterior detail ; and the same of other styles, or sub-styles. More judgment is required in the disposition than'in the choice of ornament. There ought always to be an obvious reason why an ornament is placed in one position rather than in another ; and wherever there is ornament or enrichment, there must be plain or fiat surfaces to con- trast with it. The side-walls of a room equally ornamented in every part by elaborate stenciling, or by a rich paper, would be intolérable, were it not for the contrast produced by the plain ceiling, and by the border with which the paper, or stenciling is finished under the comice at top, and above the base or surbase below. If the same border, however, were carried across the middle of the paper, it would be as intolérable as the paper without a border, because the spectator would see no suflicient reason for its being placed there. In stenciling, and in every other mode of putting ornaments on walls, no figure, however appropriate and beautiful in itself, should be put down at random ; nor should any wall be covered with figures for the sake of their individual beauty, but because they cooperate in forming a whole, or a particular object. That object may be the enrichment of the entire surface of the wall, by covering it, as it were, with a rich cloth or printed paper ; or, instead of a cloth, by covering it, with a picture in perspective. The cloth, as a production of the loom, and the paper, as produced by printing, ought to exhibit a succession of thé same figures at regular distances, and to be accompanied by ail that uniformity and regularity which is characteristic of works effected by machinery. The perspective view, on the other hand, as an imitation of something existing, or sup- posed to exist, in nature, forms a whole with reference to itself, and not to the art by which it is produced, and consequently admits of almost endless variety. 579. In the choice of patterns for stenciling, not only the architectural style of the cottage, but its situation, whether in a town, the country, or in a village; and the occupation, native country, and.taste or wishes, of the occupant, will naturally influence the artist. As contrast is one great source of beauty, both, as respects objects when placed so as to be seen together, and when placed so as to create allusion to other objects of the same order, but of a different class ; so figures of flowers and plants in gay colours are more suitable for the town than the country, and figures of human beings, buildings, and streets, are more suitable for the country than for the town. The taste of a cottager living in a country far distant from that in which he was born may lead him to wish to create allusions to that country, by depicting some of its scenery ; and, in like manner, another may desire to create allusions to scenery which he has heard of, but never seen, We State these things chiefly to show that, even in ornamenting walls, there should be a reason for every thing, and that this reason is, in every case, nothing more than a refinement on, or a correction, by a récurrence to original principles, of, the common practice of mankind. (See WhittocJc's Décorative Painter's Guide.) 580. A simple and élégant mode of stenciling the walls of plain cottages consists in throwing them into panels, with lines of dark brown or grey ; the general colour of the wall being white, a pale yellow, or fawn colour ; and in forming ornaments at the angles. These panels should be coloured of a shade darker than the spaces between them, which are left in imitation of styles, muntins, and cross rails; for there can be no doubt that ail paneling has had its origin in wainscoting. The panel may be ornamented,INTERIOR FINISH1NG OF COTTAGES. m and the styles and rails left plain, or the contrary. It is easy to conceive that there may be a great variety of stencil paneling adapted to plain cottages, which any cottager or émigrant, who could mix milk with ochres or any cheap universal colour, and use a blacking brush, might do for himself. 581. Papering the Watts of Booms is a very general practice in Britain; and is ap- plicable, to a certain extent, even to the humblest cottages. It is not adapted for kitchens or other apartments in which the coarser domestic labours are constantly going forward ; but it gives a clothed, warm, and comfortable air to bed-rooms, and an enriched finish to the better description of living-rooms. The variety of papers for rooms is almost endless ; beginning with a fiat shade of colour, and rising through patterns of one, two, or three, or more, to twenty or thirty different colours, or shades of colours, as in the printed landscapes, some years since introduced into this manufacture by the French. Àll this variety may either be printed on the paper in water colours, or in colours in which oil is introduced, so as to admit of their being washed with soap and water. The figures on papers may be classed as architectural, either in the Gothic, Grecian, or other styles ; as imitations of nature, either plants or animais, or combina- tions of these in landscape scenery ; or as historical or biographical, and, consequently, either groups of figures or portraits. As the fashions of most of these papers change as frequently as those of printed cottons, it would serve little purpose to offer designs of them, either for the choice of the builder or the direction of the manufacturer. 582. The designs which are printed on papers> like those which are printed on different cloths, may be divided into two kinds : those which are intended to be correct imitations of natural or artificial objects, such as of particular species of plants or animais ; and those which are fanciful compositions of artificial forms and lines, or of plants and animais imagined in imitation of nature’s general manner, but not copied from any of her spécifie objects. Ail ornaments truly architectural or sculptural are of this latter class, and they are in no style more beautifully exemplified than in the Grecian ; and, perhaps, in no ornament of that style more elegantly than in the sculptured honeysuckle which deéorates many of the friezes of the ancient temples.. As this style of design brings into exercise the imagination and invention of the artist, while the other (that of copying spécifie objects) only calls forth his powers of imitation, the former must necessarily be considered higher in the scale ; and hence we find that the ornaments of the most cultivated nations of antiquity are of this class, while those of nations who hâve never excelled in the arts of design, as the Chinese for example, are of the other. Thus, while Grecian or Roman ornaments hâve only in their forms a certain allusion to particular plants or animais, almost ail the plants and animais on Chinese papers and cottons may be referred to particular species or varieties. The imaginative style of design, carried to a high degree of perfection, is addressed to the cultivated mind, and excites admiration on the same principle, though in an inferior degree, as a painting or a piece of sculpture; and the imitative style, carried to an equal degree of per- fection, is addressed to the memory and the judgment, and gives pleasure to the mind, by its imitation of well known objects, and by the associations which their images recall* As a proof that the imaginative designs, if we may so term them, are more permanently satisfactory than the merely imitative or natural historv ones, it may be stated that ail those patterns of papers and cloths which hâve withstood the changes of fashîon are of the former description ; while ail those patterns which hâve soonest palled on the public taste hâve been attempts at close imitations of nature. At a large ma- nufactory of tea trays, and other articles in papier mâché, at Wolverhampton, a trial was made, a few years ago, to substitute portraits of plants botanically correct, for the ima- ginary compositions of flowers and leaves generally used ; but the change was found unsatisfactory, as the articles would not sell. The drawing-room walls of the celebrated stock-broker Goldschmidt, at Morden, were covered with silk, painted with flowers and other objects, which were ail drawn and coloured with scientific accuracy. We recollect the principal flower was the iVarcissus Tazètta, with its bulb and roots accurately portrayed ; but, though we admired the figure in a botanical point of view, it gave us no pleasure as an ornament among other ornaments ; because it had no connection with any of them, and did not combine with them in forming a whole. A showy géranium paper, and a red rose and green trellis paper, are seldom chosen but by those who cannot dérivé pleasure from a higher style of composition. 583. In the choice of papers for a common cottage, the same general principles may be observed respecting patterns and borders, as were mentioned under the head of stencifing. One of the best plain papers for the entrance lobby and the staircases of cottages, is one simply marked with lines in imitation of hewn stone ; because, when any part of this paper is damaged, a piece, of the size of one of the stones, can be rene wed, without having the appearance of a patch. There are very appropriate Gothic papers, with borders at the top, to imitate cornices, which are very suitable for Gothic cottages.280 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. There are also papers covered with green trellis-work, with roses and other flowers entwined ; and it is sometimes the custom to cover the ceilings, as well as the walls, with such papers* This practice may be allowable in towns, as creating an allusion to the country ; but, in a country cottage, we consider it in bad taste, as not contrasting witb local circumstances. 584. An instructive natural history paper for cottages, and the walls of nurseries and school-rooms, a contributor suggests, might be formed by printing figures of ail the commoner and more important plants and animais with the scientific and popular names beneath them ; each plant or animal being surrounded by Unes, so as to appear either in frames, or as if painted on the ends of stones or bricks* The advantage of the framed Unes would be to give unity to the paper as a whole, and also to admit of repairs by taking out any single frame or stone, and replacing it by another. There is no reason, but the expense, why a geographical paper should not be formed ; or one exhibiting ail the principal rivers, mountains, and cities in the world ; or the portraits of eminent men, with their names ; or perpétuai almanacks ; or lists of weights and measures 5 or chronological or arithmetical tables ; or, in short, any useful and instructive subject, which it would be bénéficiai to the cottager to hâve frequently befere his eyes. We ail know how easily, and yet how deeply, the mind is impressed with objects that we are continually in the habit of seeing ; and that what is learned through that medium in childhood is rarely, if ever, forgotten in after-life* Children, brought up in nurseries or cottages decorated in the manner we hâve mentioned, would thus hâve their minds stored with useful ideas, instead of fanciful images. 585. The Floors of Cottages of the common kind do not admit of much ornament. Entrance porches and lobbies may be paved with a description of tiles called quarries, which are formed in small squares of six inches on a side; coloured blue, red, drab, and black ; and sold at Newcastle under Line, at from 2s, 2d. to 2s, 8d. per square yard. A superior sort is sold at 10s. ; and a sort known as Wright’s quarries, which hâve dark brown figures in pigment on their surface, let into a pale yellow ground, and are very ornamental, are sold for 25s. per superficial yard. In countries where tiles are not taxed as in Bxitain (where the duty, in 1832, is £l : 4s. : 2d. per thousand), the price would of course be much cheaper. Quarries of diffèrent colours are set in mortar or cernent, so as to appear like tessellated pavement ; and Wright’s figured quarries are used to form bordering and centres to his plain ones, or to floors of rubbed stone : in either case, they make a very ornamental and substantial flooring. When ail the rooms of a cottage are on the ground floor, and when they are not flued under, a substitute for boards, at once ornamental, cheap, and comfortable, may be formed by paving them with one or different kinds of wood, obtained from the branches of trees, which hâve been eut into lengths of four or six inches, and set endways on gravel or in mortar ; or, pièces of board, of various woods, resembling tile quarries in size, or stained of different colours by acids, might be embedded in cernent, either in imitation of tessellated pavement, or of the Continental practice of parquetted floors. A very good composition for laying under such floors is made of one part of quicklime, two of sharp sand, and as much oil of any kind as will bring the other ingrédients to the consistence of mortar. A sound, warm, and durable floor is formed in the following manner : the ground being well drained, and covered to the depth of a foot with loose stones, lay on these a stratum of a mixture of gravel and newly slacked lime, to the depth of six inches ; let this be well beaten, and brought to a perfect level, and after it has dried a week or a fortnight, according to the weather, cover it, to the depth of two inches, with a composition of equal parts of quick- lime and powdered smithy ashes, brought to the consistency of mortar by the addition of bullock’s blood, stale milk, oil, or any other description of greasy matter. As soon as this is laid on, it must be well beaten with the back of a spade, or rolled with a cast-iron roller ; after which, if immediately well and long rubbed with coarse woollen cloths, it may be brought to a high polish. The colour, when bullock’s blood is used, is at first brown, but after some weeks it changes to a light grey. When yellow ochre is added to the mixture, a Bath stone colour is produced. One of the simplest modes of pro- curing a composition floor, in countries where Roman cernent can be easily obtained, is to bed plain tiles in this material ; then coat them over with a mixture composed of one part of cernent, and two of sharp sand ; and, a month afterwards, to give the floor a second coating of the same mixture, with the addition of as much lime and yellow ochre as will communicate a cream-coloured tinge to the surface. Or, the second coat may be com- posed of powdered Portland, Bath, or other freestone, and oxide of lead mixed up with oil, as in Hamlin’s mastic (see § 527). A greatobject, in ail ground-floors of cottages, is to lay such a foundation as to insure their dryness ; we hâve mentioned several modes of attaining this end, and we add the following (which is said to be practised in Bengal), as suitable for districts in Britain, or other temperate climates, where pottery is cheap. e( The area of the house or room to be floored is first made perfectly level ; unglazedINTERNAL F1TTINGS-UP OF COTTAGES, 281 earthen pots, each about a foot in height and large-bellied, are then placed with their mouths downwards, close together, over the whole surface. The vacant parts round the necks and tops of these pots are afterwards filled up with charcoal pounded fine (this sub- stance being well known to resist damp) ; and, over the whole, a floor is formed of brick- dust and lime, well worked together, and made as hard as possible. (Mech. Mag>, vol. xi. p. 21.) We shall describe different modes of forming composition fioors for the upper stories of buildings, when giving designs for fire-proof houses, in our suc- ceeding Book. Sect. III. Designs and Directions for internai Fittings-up for Cottage Dwellings. 586. Shelves to pantries, cîosets, and closet cupboards should be formed of boards of some description of wood not liable to communicate its flavour to the articles laid on them ; or, if such a wood cannot be got, the shelves ought to be painted in oil. The least expensive mode of fixing these shelves is by inserting their ends in the wall, or rather in the first coat of plaster ; a better one is by fixing them to wooden bricks, but the best is by lining the walls with thin boards to which the shelves are attached. When shelves are put in by tenants, or temporary occupiers of houses, this last practice is sometimes adopted, for the sake of allowing the temporary occupier, at the expiration of the period of his occupation, to carry away with him his shelves, which in this case are no longer considered as landlord’s fixtures. 587. Of Seats and Basins to Water-closets, and of Cistemsfor Water, we hâve already said enough for this division of our work ; and shall, therefore, not again recur to them, till we corne to give designs for those of omamental cottages and villas. 588. Chimney-pieces for the kitchens of cottages should generally be finished with stone facings and stone shelves ; but, where the stone is sandy and brittle, it is much better to substitute stout shelves of deal or oak. The cottage parlour should, if pos- sible, hâve a marble chimney-piece ; and those of the bed-rooms may be of stone or composition. Designs will be found in our succeeding section, where we treat of fire- places which may be executéd either in marble, or stone, or composition ; in the latter case, and even where freestone or slate-stone is used, they may be painted in imitation of some variety of marble. In countries abounding with slate of the kind which rises in large laminæ like that of North Wales, handsome chimney-pieces may be formed at very little expense, and painted so as to resemble either stone or marble. There are also chimney-pieces of cast iron, which are generally highly omamented ; and which are strong and durable when properly painted. The height of the shelf of the chimney from the floor is generally varied according to the width of the fireplace ; but, in a cottage where the shelf is always turned to some use, its upper surface should generally be about four feet and a half from the floor ; the projection of the shelf from the fascia, or face of the lintel, may vary from four to six inches, and its thickness should not be less than an inch. Where cast iron is used, and bronzed, so as to avow the material, the thickness of the shelf need not exceed half an inch, and the general design may be much more varied and enriched. Were the plan adopted of enclosing fireplaces in glazed doors, so as to prevent the heated air of the room from escaping by the chimney, and yet to show the lire, for which a patent was taken out by a gentleman of Edinburgh some years ago (see Rep. of Arts), and which has been recently recommended by Dr. Arnott, cast-iron chimney-pieces would be found very suitable. 589. A valuable substitute for Portland stone chimney-pieces is thus formed :—“ Take two bushels of sharp drift sand, and one bushel of sifted slacked quicklime ; mix them up with as little water as possible, and beat them well together for half an hour every morning for three or four successive days, but never wet them again after their first mixture. To two gallons of water, contained in a proper vessel, add one pint of single size made warm ; a quarter of a pound of alum in powder is then to be dissolved in warm water, and mixed with the above liquor. Take about a shovelful of the first composition, make a hole in the middle of it, and put therein three quarters of a pint of the mixture of alum and size, to which add three or four pounds of coarse plaster of Paris ; the whole is then to be well beaten and mixed together rather stiff. Put this mixture immediately into the wooden moulds of the intended chimney-piece, the sides, ends, and tops of which moulds are made of movable pièces, previously oiled with the foliowing mixture: —Take one pint of the droppings of sweet oil, and add thereto one pint of clear lime water, made from pouring boiling water on lumps of chalk lime in a close vessel till fully saturated : when the lime water becomes clear, it is in a proper State to be added to the oil, as above mentioned, and on their being stirred together they will form a thick oily mixture or émulsion, proper to apply to the moulds. In forming the side or jamb of a chimney-piece, the mould is to be first half filled with the sand, lime, and plaster composition ; then two wires, nearly the length of the piece to be moulded, are to be wrapped round with a thin layer of hemp, and to be placed in parallel lines,282 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. lengthwise, in the mixture or composition in the mould: the mould îs afterwards filled up with more of the composition; and if there is any superfluous quantity, it is to be • struck off with a piece of flat board. The lid, or top of the mould is then to be placed uponit, and the whole subjected to a strong pressure from powerful levers, or a screw press. The composition should remàin under this pressure for twenty or thirty minutes ; the précisé time necessary being guessed from examining the State of a small specimen of the composition, reserved purposely to détermine the time it requires to harden and set firm. The sides of the mould must be held together by iron clamps and wedges. The wires above mentioned answer a double purpose, by giving strength to the jambs, and retaining the whole mass together, in case it should at any tiiïie be cracked by accident. These chimney-pieces may be made either plain or fluted, according to the mould ; and when moulded, they are finished off by rubbing them over with alum water, and smoothing them with a trowel, and a little wet plaster of Paris. A common plain chimney-piece of this composition was sold at only 7s., and a reeded one at 28s., in London, in 1832, completely fitted up.” (Trans. Soc. Arts.) 590. Bell-hanging may be described as the art of conducting lines of wire, intended to ring a bell at one end, when pulled with a little force at the othèr, in ail directions round the apartments and through the walls of a building, in such a manner as not to obtrude on the view. This is effected with ease in straight lines ; and angles are got over by what are called cranks, of which there is a variety of sorts for extemal and internai angles. As féw bells can be required for common cottages, we shall defer what else we hâve to say on the subject till we corne to treat of public-houses and inns ; merely observing here, that a modem improvement consists in having the wires entirely con- cealed; and, in having a small wooden or ivory knob, protmding either from the plain face of the wall, or from the centre of a rose, a cup, or other omament, instead of riband or string bell-ropes suspended from the ceiling. Fig. 520 shows a bell handle of this 520 description, with its different parts : a is a cup, containing in the centre an ivory knob, by which is pulled the brass chain b ; this chain passes over a pulley, c, and consequently may pull a bell in the direction of right or left, upwards ,or downwards, according to the side to which the pulley is turned ; and when it is desired to pull the wire in a di- rection perpendicular to the face of the wall, the pulley is omitted, and the chain Works solely in the groove d ; e shows the outer rim of the cup unscrewed, in order to be cleaned if in wood, or new lacquered if in brass ; / shows the ivory knob also unscrewed ; g is the hollow of the cup, with the ears containing the holes for the screw-nails which fix it to the wall. The knob/is of ivory, and ail the rest is of brass; but the cup might be made of ebony ; or both cup and knob might be of bronze, or of iron painted to imitate bronze. The grooved boit, d, in which the chain works, is generally made square, but it is here shown round, an improvement made by Mr. Nettlefold of London, which is found to make it work more truly and easily. The use of the grooved boit is to guide the chain or wire, in pulling it out, and in letting it spring back again. Sect. IV. Designs and Directions for Fixtures for Cottage Dwellings. 591. The fixtures for cottages we shall take in the order of kitchen ranges, cooking stoves, warming stoves, ovens, boilers, grates, sinks, fixed basins, fixed washing troughs, fixed ironing boards, and other flaps andslabs, towel rollers, dressers, and corner cupboards. 592. Kitchen Ranges are manufactured in Birmingham, and sent to ail parts of the world, and their variety is almost endless. Ail of them, however, may be included in two classes ; those that hâve neither boilers nor ovens, either at the sides or behind ; and those which hâve either or both. It is of great importance to the cottager to know, that when he is obliged to choose a kitchen fire-place that has neither boiler nor oven in the hob or jamb, he ought to choose a front and bottom grate only, and hâve the sides and back of his fire-place one solid mass of masonry, and if possible of fire stone or lire brick.FIXTURES FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 283 In every country there are clay stones to be found, so free from sand or lime as not readily to fuse ; or clay so free from other substances as in like manner to resist the action of intense heat ; and of one or other of these the backs and sides of ail open fire- places ought to be formed, where the object is to get the greatest quantity of heat from the smallest quantity of fuel, with the least quantity of labour. When the cottager can afford to purchase a range having an oven on one side and a boiler on the other, the kind which we consider the most suitable is that first made by Mr. Eckstein of London, fig. 521, in which the boiler occupies one side and the back, from a to b; and the oven is on the other side, c ; the fire cornes in close contact with both oven and boiler, and héats them sufficiently with- out the aid of a flue under the former. This range, on a small scale, may be purchased in London, by retail, for five guineas ; the size here shown costs eight guineas. The oven, in this and other iron kitchen ranges, would be much improved by being lined with fire stone or fire brick ; the heat would be thereby moderated, rendered more uniform, and retained longer. For roasting méat, there might be a grated false bottom, with a valve in the lower part of the door of the oven, and another in the back part of its cover, by which a current of air might be admitted at pleasure to brown the méat. There is a very small cast-iron range made occasionally, in which a stove for heating irons, and for other purposes, is substituted for a boiler, and which costs only three guineas. 593. A Design for a Cottage Kitchen Grate, of great ingenuity, and capable of supply- ing ail the heat requirçd, not only for cooking, but for washing, warming, and every other domestic purpose, has been sent us by our scientific and gifted correspondent, Mr. Mallet, jun., of Dublin, who informs us that he has tried it, and found it to answer in every particular. Fig. 522 is a vertical section of this grate in the plane of the breast of the chimney ; and fig. 523 is a plan, or horizontal section, of the same, taken a little above the bottom grate. The sides and back of the fireplace are formed by the284) COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. hollow vessel 6, of boiler plate iron, into which two pipes are inserted to produce circula- tion between the water in it and that in the apparatus shown in figs. 524, 525, 523 and 526. The vessel b receives constantly that portion of the heat which would otherwise be dissipated in the brickwork of the back and sides of the fireplace, and transmits it to a hollow vessel, fi g. 524, enclosed in a cast-iron casing with doors, as shown in fig. 525, which may form at one time an oven or hot closet, and at another a water or steam bath : the tem- pérature of either of these, however, can never be higher than 212°, unless oil be used. The upper surface of this case will be useful for culinary purposes, most operations of which require but a moderate heat. Fig. 526 shows the top of the water-bath, with holes at one end for inserting sauce- pans, &c. ; and with a hot plate at the other. This double- cased vessel is easily and cheaply made of boiler plates. Over the fireplace is another vessel, also formed of boiler plates, fig. 522, a, the water in which is heated by that heat which generally escapes up the chimney, to the amount of half that evolved by the fuel. The flue passes in a circuitous route, c c, and the ordinary flue receives the smoke at d ; but if the smoke passed off by the dotted lines e e, more heat would be given out, though in that case soot doors would be necessary in the chimney breast, opposite the angles of the flues, to admit of cleaning them. This boiler or vessel will heat part, or the whole, of the cottage, according to its size ; it will supply hot water for culinary or other purposes ; and when the vessel b is not in use, the heat of a may be greatly increased by opening the cock m, which will permit circulation to take place between the upper and lower vessels. The vessel a is supplied with water by a small cistern and bail cock, f, connected by the pipe g, bent to prevent circulation, and sunk into the wall of the chimney; a i 527 simple smoke-jack may be placed over the opening of the flue, c, as shown at h in fig. 527 ; and a door of iron should be fixed in the breast of the chimney, a little higher up, as shown in the same figure at i, in order to get at the boiler at any time, and to sweep the chimney. Fig. 527 shows the élévation of the grate, which has a common crâne, k, for hanging pots on ; and two hinged cast-iron doors, l l, to turn back against the wall ; by closing which the fire may be at any time intensely urged, and thus the water made to boil in both vessels in a few minutes (the cock m being open). By these means a bath may be procured in a very short time in any part of the house or cottage. Of course many modifications and applications of this Design are ^racticable ; such as heating a conservatory or a poultry-house, hatching eggs, steaming fodder for cattle, &c. ; ail of which may be readily conceived and executed by any practical engineer accustomed to direct works in iron.FIXTURES FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 285 594. Cottage CooMrig-Stoves are not common in Britain, but they are much used iu those trüly economical countries, Holland and the Netherlands ; and might, in many districts, prove of great advantage to the British cottager. We shall give a description of the stove in use in the cottages about Bruges, as furnished us by Mr. G. H. Cottam, who adds that tliese stoves will be manufactured, in future, at the establishment of' Messrs. Cottam and Halien, Winslëy Street, London. Fig. 528 is a vertical section, showing the furnace or fireplace, a; the flue, e; andoven, o. Fig. 529isanothervertical section, taken at right angles with the former ; and fig. 530 is a perspective view, show- ing the extemal appearance of the whole. Near the top of the furnace there is a square opening, fig. 528, h, to admit the hot air and smoke produced by the consumption of the fuel, to enter into the flue, f, in which it circulâtes round the stove, between the plates p and q, before it escapes up the chimney, e. The oven, o, is heated from the furnace, a; which furnace, beïng closed at top, becomes red-hot, or nearly so, and produces sufficient heat for roasting, or any other culinary purpose. The size of the fireplace can be increased at pleasure by taking off the grate, g, and putting in a smaller grate to rest on the projections, i; or a still smaller one on the shoulders, at the bottom of the opening at k. The cinders and dust from the fuel fall into the box, b ; which pulls out, in order to remove them, without producing the slightest degree of dust or dirt. Thus, while bread is baking in one oven, and méat roasting in the other, boiling or stewing mav be carried on by saucepans set upon the cover, or in holes eut in it, having lids with handles, r, which lift off. One of these lids, n, is directly over the fireplace, and the two others, l and m, open into the smoke-flue. Irons may also be heated on this plate. These stoves will consume the most inferior description of fuel, and will produce an intense heat, from what would scarcely burn at ail in a common open fireplace, where the fire is, as it were, drowned with air on ail sides, instead of being, as it is in the Bruges stove, surrounded on ail sides by heat, and the air supplied in one stream from below, through a valve in the front of the drawer for receiving the ashes. Most of our readers will agréé with us in thinking that this stove, when it becomes generally known, will form a treasure to the British cottager, as it will not only serve to cook his méat, &c., but will throw out more heat for the purpose of warming .his room, than any open tire- place whatever. The construction of this stove, in a scientific point of view, is admirable ; and ail that is necessary, in putting it up, is to set it on the floor, a few feet from the chimney (if one should be already built), and to conduct the smoke funnel of the former into the flue of the latter, immediately under the ceiling of the apartment, or, if the cottage contains two floors, it might be carried through to the roof, in order to heat the bed-rooms. When this stove is used as a substitute for a kitchen range, the open fire- place, or the throat of the flue over it, should be closed up, in order to prevent the escape of the heated air of the room. The fireplace, indeed, might be turned into a cupboard. We hope to hear of orders being given for hundreds of Cottam’s Bruges stove; because they would not only serve instead of ail other kitchen fires for common cottages, but would prove a useful auxiliary to the kitchen in most houses. It would be easy to make an improvement on this stove, so as to circulate hot water from it ail over a house, for the purpose of heating it ; thus rendering open fireplaces totally unnecessary, and doing away, in ordinarv-sized dwellings, with ail the chimney-flues and chimney tops, except one. 595. Warming-Stoves are of endless variety. Those manufactured in Britain are generally of iron ; and for the consumption of pit coal they are erroneous in one im- portant particular, viz. that of not being surrounded by fire brick or fire stone, to serve as286 COTTAGE» FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. a réservoir of heat. Were this done, or were even a double vacuity of air formed around, above, and below the furnace of a stove, by plates of iron, a great deal more heat might be procured from the fuel ; because nearly the whole of the smoke might be consumed: ail the différence would be, that the heat, instead of being radiated directly from the stove into the air of the apartment, would be radiated from the flue ; and this flue, being of iron, might be conducted so as to heat several apartments, or the whole house. A good and cheap construction for this purpose is still wanting. A stove invented by Witty effectually consumes the smoke ; but it is bulky, the fuel is supplied in an awkward manner, and the stove itself is rather too expensive for our présent purpose. 596. Cottage Ovens are formed of either iron, lire stone, or lire brick. The two latter kinds are by far the best ; because they do not, like iron, acquire suddenly so much heat as to burn what is to be baked or roasted in them ; and because they retain the heat they do acquire for a long time. An excellent oven is formed by cramping together five square fire stones or fire bricks, of a foot or more in breadth each, and having a sixth stone or brick as a cover. The fire may be made within, and taken out when the stones are thoroughly heated. This oven may be fixed by the side of a kitchen fire, or set on a weak fire, as practised with a description of stone oven in use among the cottagers in Gloucestershire, and with clay ovens at Dunstable, in Bedfordshire. Excellent ovens of this sort might be made of Stourbridge fire clay ; and Mr. Peake of Tunstall infonns us, that not only ovens for baking bread, but entire fireplaces, with their flues, might be made of the same material, at a ver y moderato expense, if it were not for the présent enormous> duty. A fire clay fireplace, with an oven on each side, and requiring no ironwork, except a small grating in front and another at the bottom, would be a most désirable fixture for the cottage kitchen. 597. Portable Iron Cottage Ovens are common among the ironmongers, but they are not very désirable. Occasionally, however, they may be useful where nothing better can be got, and we shall therefore briefly notice two kinds. Fig. 531 is a front view of a portable wrought-iron cottage oven, which costs in London, by retail, 30s. It is intended to be placed over a fire, so that the smoke and hot air may enter at a, circulate round the oven, and escape by the funnel, b. There is a valve, cf to permit the escape of steam when méat is roasting. Fig. 532 shows a view of the oven with the door open, and with a false bottom, d, of fire stone, raised half an inch from the iron bottom, to moderate the heat. The dimensions of the chamber are, depth and height, thirteen inches and a quarter, and width fifteen inches. Another portable oven is nothing more than a com- mon cast-iron flat-bottomed pot or stewpan, with a false bottom inside supported on pivots, under which sand is put, to diminish the intensity of the heat. When this oven is to be used, it is put on a moderate fire, and covered with a lid, which may be taken off occasionally to admit air. The cost in London, by retail, is only 3s. 6d. It will bake a small loaf, or roast a fowl. 598. Boilersfor Wash diouses are commonly made of copper, and require little art in either making or managing, except, in setting them up, to provide for getting as much heat as possible out of the fuel burned beneath them ; and to get ready access to the flues, to free them from soot. In ail open boilers, as usually constructed, there must necessarily be a great waste of heat ; and therefore, in cottages, we always desire to contrive the flues proceeding from them so as they may heat the air of the apartments. 599. Parlour and Bed-room Grates are manufaîctured in iron in thé greatest variety ; but it may truly be said that there is not one in a hundred of their forms worthy of being recom- mended, as being scientifically constructed, with a view to the complété consumption of the fuel used, and the radiation of heat into the room. The grand error of almost ail of them aFIXTURES FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 287 consists in their being exclusively constructed of iron. We hope the day is not very far distant when open fireplaces will be considered as relies of barbarism, and will be altoge- ther banished from every room in British houses, except the kitchen : in the mean time, we recommend the cottager who persists in indulging his préjudice for the sight of an open fire, to form the sides and back of his fireplace with tire brick or tire stone ; and to use no iron whatever in its construction, but four bars for a front to the fuel chamber and a bottom grate, which, together, in cast iron, will not cost more than 3s. or 4s. The most convenient fire bricks are what are called Welsh or Stourbridge lumps, from the nanties of the places where they are made ; that is, masses of burnt clay, eighteen inches or two feet long, nine inches or a foot broad, and six or eight inches thick. One of these may form the back of the fireplace, and two others the two sides, as in fig. 533 ; in which a 53S represents the front bars ; b, the bottom grate ; c, the plan of the fireplace, the bars, grate, and Welsh lumps being shown in their proper places ; d, the élévation ; e, the section of the front bars, and the bottom grate, showing the inclination of the latter, f, towards the back of the fire chamber, in the proportion of about one inch in six, with a view of giving the ashes a tendency to the back ; and g, a section of one of the front bars, of nearly its full size, showing the upper surface inclining towards the back of the grate, in the pro- portion of half an inch to an inch, h being the front of the bar. The nearer the fuel- chamber is placed to the hearth, the more heat will be radiated into the room from the increase produced in the space, i, between the grate and the chimney breast ; and, on the contrary, the nearer the fuel chamber is to the chimney breast, the less will be the heat radiated into the room, though the chimney will draw better. The Welsh or Stourbridge lumps at the sides should form with those of the back an angle of fortv-five degrees or upwards. In a fireplace of this sort a fire is much more easily lighted, and much less liable to go out when neglected, than in one having the back or sides of iron. It also con- sumes the fuel much more effectually ; and, by not radiating the heat so rapidly from its surface as iron, it créâtes less draught up the chimney, and consequently carries less heat out of the room. When the mass of fire brick is once thoroughly heated, it retains heat for many hours after the fire lias been extinguished ; so that, if the fire is at any time suffered to go out from neglect, the room is not so soon cooled as it would be, under similar circumstances, by the radiating and conducting powers of cast iron. Where the grate is raised somewhat higher than is shown in fig. 533, a drawer may be added to the front bars, and bottom grate under the latter, for receiving the ashes, so as to prevent them from raising a dust, by falling from the bottom grate to the hearth, and at the same time to retain more heat about the fire. The ashes may also be carried away in the drawer, in furtherance of the same object ; and by drawing it out more or less, or keeping it closely shut, the burning of the fire may be accelerated or retarded. As a further means of preventing the ashes from falling from the front bars on the hearth, the upper288 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. surface of the former should always be made to slope inwards, as before stated, and the breadth of the bars should be somewhat greater than is usually employed. This is shown in fig. 533, g, and also in the section, fig. 534, to a scale of a quarter of an inch to a foot, in which h k k are the sections of the bars ; l, the bottom grate ; and m, the ash-drawer. The front bars should always be straight, because the consumption of the fuel dépends on its being as little exposed as possible to cold air on the sides, and because the heat given out to the room dépends on the breadth of surface of the ignited fuel, and not on the depth of the fuel chamber. Curved fronts, therefore, for fireplaces of this sort, are never to be recom- mended ; not only because they increase the depth of the fuel- chamber, but because they expose a greater portion of the fuel to the action of the cool air, by which perfect combustion is rendered more difficult. With the fireplaces near the hearth, with front bars beveled înwards, and with an ash-drawer, the fender may be made very low ; and thus the heat may be allowed to radiate freely to that part of the floor from which it is excluded by a high fender. It is necessary to observe that the bottom or ash-drawer is not recommended as a means of increasing the heat, because its front and bottom will prevent a portion of that from being radiated to the hearth, but chiefly as a means of regulating the draught of air through the fire, and consequently of accelerating or diminishing the consumption of the fuel ; and partly for the sake of cleanliness, in preventing the small ashes from falling on the hearth, and avoiding the dust which in that case arises when they are swept up and carried away. 600. A simple and economical Fireplace for a cottage parlour the chimney of which is liable to smoke, is in use in some parts of Fifeshire and Mid-Lothian, and is worthy of imitation in countries where fire stone or fire clay can be readily procured. In the cot- tages alluded to, the sides or jambs, figs. 535,536, n n (between which are fixed the front bars and the grate), are formed of a kind of fire stone, found in the island of Cramond : the fire-cham- ber is wide in front, but not deep ; in conséquence of which it consumes but few coals in proportion to the heat it throws out. The upper part of the fireplace, behind, and at the sides, is formed of the same stone ; and in front there is fixed a cast- iron plate, with an opening in it ; which, though generally semicir- cular, might be made square, or Gothic, according to the character of the architecture of the house. These fireplaces are valuable for low-roofed cottages placed among high trees, as the chimneys of dwell- ings so situated are very apt to smoke. Fireplaces thus constructed draw well ; but it must be obvious that, in proportion as this is the case, a greater amount of heat must be carried up the chimney, A thin plate (generally of sheet iron) is sometimes hooked on in front of the opening, on first lighting the fire, in order to increase the draught, by preventing the cold air of the room' from mixing with the heated air that has passed through the fire. In Ireland, we are informed by Mr. Bu- chanan, in his Economy of Fuel, p. 315, that, instead of using a cast-iron plate, the back of the upper part of the fireplace is formed into an oval niche, by fire stone or fire brick ; the breast of the chimney being rounded off, and the throat very much con- tractée!. A view of such a chimney is given in an excellent work, entitled The Theory and Practice of Warming and Ventilating, &c., p. 183. We can only recommend such fireplaces, however, as a minor evil to that of a smoky chimney. The grate, fig. 535, and the preceding one, fig. 533, hâve one disadvantage for the cottager, common to both, viz., that of having no hobs ; but this want may be supplied in the présent grate, by omitting the cast-iron plate, when the tops of the jambs would become hobs, as is actually the case in the parlour fireplaces of cottagers about Edinburgh ;FIXTURES FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 289 537 538 1= ! p lin ODUD! 111 \A i _£î 589 and hobs might be supplied to the grate, fig. 537, having the sides of the fire at right angles to the front, as indicated in fig. 538, in which o o are the hobs, formed of Welsh lumps, or fire stone ; ppp-, Welsh lumps forming the sides and back ; and q qy angles filled up with mortar, or fragments of fire brick. In such fireplaces as fig. 533, a substitute for a hob may always be found in the movable bracket called a trivet, for hang- ing on the bars ; or by a similar stand with three feet, for setting before the fire. 601. An economical union of cast iron and fire stone or fire brick is sometimes attempted by ironmongers, by lining iron cases with stone or brick, as in fig. 539 ; in which the front plates of the jambs, r r, and the plates which form the hob, s s, are of cast iron ; and the back and sides are also of iron, but lined with three fire stones, 11 t. The iron back and sides are of no other use than to retain the stones in their proper places, and thus render this fireplace portable, and, in conséquence, an article of trade for ironmongers; since a much more effective and less expensive fireplace would be produced by having only the covers of the hobs, the front plates of the jambs, and the bottom grate, of iron, and building up from the hearth, the jambs, and the back, of solid masonry, and on that placing the firestone. A grate built in this way is both economical and handsome, more especially if it has broad beveled front bars and an ash-drawer, as shown in figs. 534 and 537 ; but, as Mr. Tredgold observes, “ ironmongers, in general, seem to think it more désirable to use iron, than to économisé fuel, or to work on sound principles.” In the neighbourhood of Birmingham, and in the coal districts of the midland counties, where coal is abundant, and the inhabitants are fond of large bright lires, the bottom grates are made so wide that cinders of con- sidérable size are allowed to pass through them. To prevent these cinders from being lost, and also to prevent dust from being raised, by sweeping up and carrying away the ashes, what is called an ash-pan is often placed on the hearth between these fire jambs, immediately beneath the grate. This ash-pan, fig. 540, is a frame or box, with a grated top and a drawer undemeath. The open spaces in the grating are about a quarter or three sixteenths of an inch apart, which is the width between the bottom bars of grates about London, and in most parts of the country where fuel is scarce and dear. In some places, the drawer or box is let into the hearth, and the grating over it is formed of brass wire, which gives a remarkably clean and warm appearance to the hearth, as no ashes can lie on the wires, which, from the reflection of the fire over them, présent a glowing hue to the eye. Where provision has not been made for this recess in the hearth, the same effect may be produced by a box over it, the outer rim of which should form the fender, which will look better, and be more effective, than the ash-pan, fig. 540, which only receives the ashes that fall directly under the grate ; leaving those which fall from the front bars to be swept up. By having the whole of the hearth within the fender formed of one shallow box, of which the fender is the outer rim ; by having this box co- vered with brass-wire grating, and the front bars sloping inwards, no ashes could ever be /X / K 1 1 1 1 1 ' r r 540290 COTTAGE, FAEM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE, seen. In kitchens on the ground floor, it is a common practice, in many places, to leave an ash-pit under the kitchen range, three or four feet deep, covered with a wrought-iron grating, into which the ashes fall, and are only taken out when it is full, generally when the chimneys are swept. This practice is highly comraendable, as saving the labour of daily carrying out and sifting the ashes, and bringing back the cinders. 602. The rounding of the chimney breast, and the contraction of the throat of the fluet whatever may be the kmd of grate adopted, are points which contribute materially to the free draught of every chimney. The chimney breast requires to be rounded, in order to direct the current of cool air drawn from that of the room gradually upwards, so that it may mix in by degrees with the current of hot air ascending from the fuel chamber, instead of striking against it at right angles, which it must necessarily do when the chimney breast is not rounded. The object of contracting the throat of the chimney is to diminish the quantity of heat drawn from the room, by the current of air which is continually passing up the chimney ; but the same contraction, it is justly observed by Mr. Tredgold, often augments the draught to such a degree, as greatly to increase the consumption of fuel. The grand point to be attained is, such a draught as wilt do nothing more than carry off the smoke, and keep the lire clear ; because then there is the greatest radiation from the fire and fireplace, with the least waste of hot air from the room. The rounding of the chimney breast may either be effected by liaving a stone lintel or a cast-iron one. In countries where stone is so abundant that lintels of that material are thrown across the openings of the fireplaces, the under side may be rounded off as at a, in fig. 541, and the throat of the flue gradually contracted (as shown in the section from c to d, p. 113.), till, at the height of two or three feet from the chimney breast, the superficial area, in ordinary cases, is not more than 90 or 100 square inches; this being found by expérience to be a suitabley sized flue for an ordinary coal fire. When this contraction has been neglected in building the chimney, or done improperly ; or when it is found necessary to contract the throat still farther, to create a draught ; this may be done, in stone countries, by the piece of flag-stone, b, set on the surface, c, which may be moved backward or forward to adjust the draughts to the degree required. When fires are no longer wanted, this stone may be brought forward so as to lean against the breast of the chimney, as at d, to close up the flue ; or thrown back, as at e, when the chimney is to be swept. That this may be done with ease, and without dirtying the hands, the stone may be removed by inserting the points of the tongs in two holes eut in its face for that purpose. In countries where brick is the principal building material, the chimney breast, as we hâve seen, § 79, is built on an iron bar: this bar is generally fiat, and about three inches broad ; consequently its inner edge pré- sents a sharp angle, instead of the rounded surface repre- sented in fig. 541 : to remedy this, a bar has been invented by Mr. Chadley, fig. 542, the cross section of which, taken at the centre of the opening, is shown at f; and another cross section, taken nearer the end, is shown at g. This is obviously an excellent bar, and its cost, for an opening three feet wide, is not more than the usual expense of a common wrought-iron bar, suitable for the same opening. The contrivance for contracting or closing the throats of chimneys, ii? brick-built buildings, is either by a plate of cast iron, formed with a base so as to stand like the stone, f b, in fig. 541 ; or by what is called a register plate, fig. 543. In the latter case the plate is furnished with a turn latch, which may be worked by the tongs, so as to regulate the distance between its upper edge and the breast of the flue. It mayFIXTURES FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 291 b& takcn out to admit of sweeping the chimney; or the flue may be completely closed bÿ it. “ When the chimney top is properly contracted,” Mr. Tredgold observes, fi g. 547, to a scale of an inch to a foot, is a fixture suitable for 547 O [hé either bed-rooms or kitchens : it requires no description beyond the inspection of the figure ; and may be nailed to a wall, to a door, or to the side of a wardrobe or chest of drawers. This rail should be made of strong wood, and painted of the same colour asFIXTURES FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 293 the walls or door of the room, or tlie wardrobe against which it is fixed. The use of the paint is not only to harmonise it with the rest of the apartment, but to preserve the wood from being first discoloured, and afterwards rotted, by the wet and damp of the towel. If it should be fixed against a papered wall, and near a wash-hand stand, a row of wooden pins or buttons, e, may be placed in the under side of the rail, on which may be hung a curtain of brown holland linen, or of any other material, to prevent the wall from being splashed. 611. Hat and Cloak Pins are sometimes formedof wood, turned or plain, and let into a rail of the same material ; this rail being fixed to the wall, in the entrance lobby or passage, or sometimes in cottage bed-rooms. The more common pins for this purpose are made of cast iron ; and figs. 548 and 549 show two of the most useful shapes : the latter answers two purposes, as a cloak may be hung on d9 and a hat on e. 612. An Iron Hand-mill, for grinding coffee, rice, barley, and groats, and another smallér one for pepper, &c., are most valuable articles in the better description of cottages ; because the cottager may not only roast and grind his own coffee, or any of the su hsti tûtes for it, but he may, at pleasure, fc'-m rice flour from whole rice, for puddings, &c., for invah 1s or children ; barley flour from pearl barley, for fever cHnk ; or oatmeal from groats, for porridge or gruel. These mills are always easi st to work, and most effective, when fixed ; and for this purpose, if there be no style of a door or quarter of a partition sufficiently strong, they must be bolted to the wall, unless provision was made in building it, by inserting a piece of strong timber, or a sto 'e to which the mill could be cramped with lead. 61 S. Fixed Ironing-Boards and Flaps are useful both in kitchen\ and, on a smaller scale, in lobbies and passages, and even sometimes as brackets in sit : ng-rooms. Fig. 550 294* COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. for a portable table. The piece of board, a, is made fast to the wall, either by holdfasts, or by being nailed or screwed to wooden bricks. The flap, b d, is hinged to it, and, when raised up, is supported in its place by the hinged folding legs, of which c c, fig. 550, is a plan, and d an élévation. Fig. 552 is an insulated fixed table, or ironing-board, supported by cast-iron framing, which is fixed by screw, nails to the floor, and also to the under side of the top. Mr. Mallet, junior, of Dublin, who has sent us this Design, observes that ail manner of kitchen tables may be supported in this manner, most securely and firmly, and at very little expense. Fixed insulated tables occupy more room than wall flaps ; but in roomy cottages, and especially where the mistress is a washer- woman, they admit of two or four persons ironing at the same time, instead of one or two. Fig. 551 is an ironing-board, or side-table, supported by cast-iron brackets; the dotted lines showing the ge- neral disposition of the framing to support the table, and the diagonal rib, e, introduced to prevent latéral action. Figs. 553 and 554 show two modes of fastening sideboard framing to walls ; the first by an eye-bolt, with a round key, passing through holes jumped (the expression for boring stone with a blunt chisel, called a jumper) in two superincumbent stones in the wall ; the latter shows the boit passed through the wall, and secured with a nut. Fig. 555 is a sideboard suitable for a lobby, wide passage, or dining-parlour. The board or flap, is hinged at the joint, to fall down, and is supported by two jib brackets, fig. 556, which sliut into the frame when the flap is let down, and are concealed by ît. There is a slip of board, g, above the flap, to keep things from rubbing against the wall. In the construction, the brackets are fixed to the frame, by having round pins worked in both ends of their upright piece, which turn in corresponding holes of the top and bottom rails of the frame. 614. Dressers are fixtures essential to every kitchen, but more especially to that of the cottager, to whom they serve both as dressers and sideboards. They are generally made of deal by joiners, and seldom painted, it being the pride of good housewives, in. most parts of England, to keep the boards of which they are composed as white as snow, by frequently scouring them with fine white sand. The dishes, plates, &c., which they contain are also kept perfectly clean and free from dust, by being wiped every day, whether used or not. In old farm-houses, the dressers are generally of oak rubbed bright, and the shelves are filled with rows of pewter plates, &c., polished by frequent cleaning, till they shine like silver, The dresser may be called the cottager’s sideboard, and in the dining-rooms of the first nobleman’s houses in Britain, the splendid mahogany sideboards, set out with gold and silver plate, differ only in the costliness of the materials employed from the cottage dresser : nor do the essentials of humàn food differ more in the palace and in the cottage than the furniture; for, in Britain and America at least, good méat, good bread, and good potatoes are the main dishes on ail tables, and may be obtained by the workman who has good wages and full employ- ment, as well as by the wealthy merchant or hereditary aristocrat. When there is a pot-board affixed to the dresser, it is usually painted black or chocolaté colour ; and when the shelves and fronts are painted, it is generally white, or, what is in better taste, the same colour as the walls or doors of the apartment. Gothic dressers would be more appropriate if made of oak, or painted to resemble that wood. The price of a deal dresser, in London, is from ,£2 to £5.FiXTURES FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 295296 COTTAGE,- FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.FIXTURES FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 297 615* Dressers in the Grecian Style» Fig» 557, on a scale of three eighths of an inch to a foot, represents a dresser in a plain Grecian style, the characteristic features being the square columns which support the drawers, and the board or table which covers them : under the drawers is seen the potboard, or place for setting pots, saucepans, &c., when not in use. There are three shelves, and two large drawers. Rails are fixed a few inches under each shelf, on which to rest the edges of the plates and dishes, in order that they may lean forward, so as to protect their faces from the dust, which, when they are in this position, can only fall on their backs. There are hooks fixed in the edges of the shelves, on which jugs and any small articles having handles may be hung. Fig. 558 is 557 558 Ç________ o O a cross section of this Design, on a somewhat larger scale, on which are shown the ends of the shelves, e ; of the plate rails,/; of the hooks, g ; and of the potboard, h. Fig. 559, p. 295, is another dresser in the Grecian style, but differing from the other, in having beads fixed along the upper surface of the shelves, near the edge, to support the plates and dishes in a reclining position against the back. In this position they are liable to receive the dust on the face ; but it is nevertheless preferred by some housewives, as showing better whether or not the plates are clean. Instead of an open potboard, there are two side-closets, and, in the middle, shelves. There are three drawers above : the centre one for tablecloths, towels, &c. ; and the two side ones, one for knives, forks, and spoons, and the other for dusters, brushes, &c. In one of the cupboards below may be kept what wines or spirits are in daily use, glasses, &c. ; and, in the other, bread, biscuits, groceries, or any other articles of food. The tea^tray and teacups may be put on the upper middle shelf, and the smaller saucepans, &c., on the bottom one. Fig. 560 is an end view of this dresser, on a somewhat larger scale, in which the ends of the beads, i, the hooks, k, and supporting brackets, Z, are more distinctly delineated. The top of this dresser, being somewhat heavy, should be fixed to the wall by two holdfasts driven in above so as to be concealed by the cornice, or by screw nails to wooden bricks. Fig. 561, also to a scale of three eighths of an inch to a foot, is a very convenient dresser, used in the better description of cottage dwellings in Cambridgeshire. The middle drawer, which is shown drawn out, has a lift-out box or tray, which is divided in the centre for the knives and forks, and spoons, in daily use ; and underneath, in the bottom of the drawer, is a space in which are kept those not generally in use. There are two other drawers, one on each side, for clean tablecloths and towels, and for dusters, &c. The cupboard in front is made, in order to look uniform, with three panels like doors, but the centre one is fixed, and behind it, in the middle, is a division forming the whole into only two cupboards, in one of which may be kept glasses, teacups, &c.-; and in the other, the liquors, fruits, sweetmeats, &c., in daily use. Fig. 562 shows a section of this298 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. dresser, in which is seen the middle drawer, m, with its lift-out tray, n, and the space below, for knives and forks not in use, o. This dresser being intended to hâve the plates leaning forward, as in fig 557, sections of the plate rail for that purpose are seen at p. 616. Dressers in the Gothic Style. Fig. 563, p. 296, to a scale of three eighths of an inch to a foot, is considered in the Gothic style, from the character of its mouldings at q q, and of the upper part of its supporting columns, r r. It has an open potboard and two large drawers over it. The plates, &c., are intended to lean forward, as shown in this figure, and also in the section, fig. 564. Fig. 565 is a dresser more decidedly in the Gothic style, as is obvious from its openings with pointed-arched tops in the ends which support the shelves, and from its pointed-topped panels in the two cupboard doors. There are three shallow drawers under the board or table, two shelves in the middle, and a lock-up cupboard on each side. The plates are intended to lean back, as shown in the section, fig. 566. 617. Fixed Corner Cupboards. Where the dresser is without cupboards, as in figs. 557 and 563, a corner cupboard becomes requisite for cups and saucers, glasses, the tea- caddy, liquors in daily use, &c. ; and these cupboards are cheapest when put up as fix- tures ; because the shelves, instead of being fitted into wooden sides or linings, are then let into the plaster, or fixed on slips nailed to the wall. In small rooms these cupboards are very convenient, as they occupy very little space, and, for a moderate sum, supply a handsome article of furniture. 618. Fixed Corner Cupboards in the Grecian Style» Fig. 567, p. 299, toa scale of three eighths of an inch to a foot, is the external view of a corner cupboard in a plain Grecian style. The side styles are finished, with pilasters, and there is a handsome cornice at top. There are an upper cupboard with two glazed sashes, and a lower one with two paneled doors. Fig. 568 represents another cupboard, in the Grecian style, with the doors open to show the interior, and standing on turned legs, to give it the character of a portable piece of furniture. The shelves, which are supposed to be of deal, are let into the plaster ; and the whole, outside and inside, including the plaster between the shelves, is painted of a wainscot colour. Fig. 569 is a Grecian corner cupboard in a more elevated style of design ; the panels below and the round heads of the sashes give it an élégant and rather uncommon air. 619. Fixed Corner Cupboards in the Gothic Style. Fig* 570 is an open corner cup- board without doors. The shelves are nailed to slips of wood ; and these, with the wall between them, should be painted of the same colour as the side styles or pilasters, and the whole will look well, if grained to imitate wainscot. Fig. 571, p. 300, shows a plain Design, with glazed doors above, and paneled doors below. Fig. 572 is a Design somewhat more elaborate ; the pilasters having sunk panels ; and the sash-heads and cornice having more work in them. The expense of fixed corner cupboards of the kind here shown, with glazed doors above and paneled doors below, varies from £2 to £5. The cost will be considerably diminished by having the upper doors in single wooden panels, instead of being glazed. Sect. IV. Designs and Directions for Cottage Furniture and Furnishing. 620. The Furniture and Furnishing of Cottages hâve been hitherto neglected in every country where the comfort of the cottager has depended on those above him, and this never can be fully remedied till the inmate of the cottage is suffi ciently enlightened to be able to take care of himself. We hâve shown, in our Chapter on Model Cottages, p. 8, that ail that is essential, in point of the general arrangement of a house, may be obtained in a cot- tage with mud walls, as well as in a palace built of marble ; and we intend now to point out in what manner ail that is comfortable, convenient, agreeable, and much of even what is élégant, in modem furniture and furnishing, may be formed of the indigenous woods and other common articles of every country, as well as of the most beautiful exotic timbers, and other costly materials obtained from abroad. If it should be asked, whether we ex- pect that such Designs as those which follow can be executed or procured by the cottagers of this country, we answer that we trust they soon will be ; and we believe that the first step towards this désirable end is, to teach them what to wish for. As the spread of knowledge becomes general, it will be accompanied by the spread of taste ; and correct habits of thinking will go hand in hand with comfortable dwellings, and convenient, neat, and élégant forms of furniture. An approximation to equalisation in knowledge will lead to an approximation, in every thing else ; for knowledge is power, and the first use which every man makes of it is, to endeavour to better his own condition. Our grand object, therefore, in this as in every other department of our work, is, to cooperate with the causes at présent in operation for bettering the condition, and elevating the character, of the great mass of society in ail countries. Though most of the Designs submitted are of a superior description to w hat are common in cottages, they are not on that account more expensive than various cumbrous articles of furniture now possessed or desirèd byFURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS 299300 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 301 every cottager in tolerable circumstances. The différence will be found to consist chiefly in the kind of labour employed in making them, and in the style of design which they exhibit. To speak in familiar language, we hâve given more work for the joiner than for the carpenter; and our Designs prétend to nothing more than what could be in- vented by any joiner who could read and draw, and dérivé ideas from books. Mr. Dalziel, under whose direction most of them hâve been prepared, has shown superior taste in pre- serving the character of simplicity, and preferring what was really good in itself to what had only novel or showy appearance to recommend it. For the Designs for iron furni- ture we are chiefly indebted to Mr. Mallet, jun., of Dublin ; but partly to Messrs. Cottam and Hallen, and Mr. Eckstein, of London. We shall présent the following Designs in the order of sideboards, dumb waiters, bookcases, book-shelves, wardrobes, chests of drawers, tables, chairs, stools, benches, sofas, beds, cribs, window-curtains, inside blinds, looking-glasses, fenders, carpets, oilcloths, matting, umbrella stands and hat and cloak holders, mats, scrapers, docks and musical instruments, pictures, sculptures, and other ornamental furnishing : the various utensils employed in cookery, brewing, baking, washing, the dairy, &c,, or for the table and bed-rooms, including earthenware, China and glass of every description, with linen, the minor articles of ironmongery, cutlery, &c., do not corne within our plan, because they cannot be considered as architectural in their Design. 621. Sideboards for a cottage parlour generally include cupboards, unless there should be a corner cupboard in the room, either as a fixture, or as a movable piece of furniture. Fig. 573, p. 300, shows a small cupboard side-board for a neatly furnished cottage par- lour, in which there is not much room. In point of style it maybe considered Grecian ; because the panels do not indicate any thing of pointed architecture at their angles, and because the mouldings under the top belong to the former style. Fig. 574 is a Design in the Gothic style ; and fig. 575 shows the interior of the Design. A partition is fixed in the centre, which divides the cupboard into two parts. One side has a drawer at the top, which drawer is partitioned, and lined with baize, for holding plate. There are four tray shelves below, which draw out, the space between them being of suflScient height to hold wine glasses, tumblers, &c. In the other side is one fixed shelf, leaving height enough for bottles and decanters both above and below. The lower part may be lined with lead, to keep wine and liquors cool ; or it may contain earthenware wine coolers for that purpose, the bottom being lined with lead, and having a ledge in front about an inch high, to retain any water that may exude from the coolers. The top of this sideboard lifts up, and leaves a well for holding tablecloths, napkins, doyleys, table- mats, &c. This article may be made in deal and painted; of any. native broad-leaved wood, as oak, elm, walnut, &c., or of mahogany. Made of the last material, in London, the price would be from £7 to £12, according to the style of finishing 622. Corner Cupboards are best put up as fixtures (see § 617), and Designs for them may be made after the style already given, figs. 562 to 574; ail the différence in con- struction between a movable and a fixed corner cupboard, being, that the former hâve linings or sides of boards, to which the shelves and side styles are fixed. In some old302 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. cottages and farm-houses there is a sort of pyramidal corner cupboard, fig. 575 a, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, sometimes in use for holding glasses, the punch bowl, &c. ; and another sort of corner cupboard, fig. 575 6, to the same scale as the preceding Design, has this advantage, that, when not in use, its two open sides may be turaed against the two walls of the room, and, its two close sides only being seen, it may pass with a stranger as a book or music stand, for which, indeed, a similar design is frequently used. There is a drawer below, for holding plate, and on the top may stand the tea-urn ; or, in the event of its being used as a music-stand or book-stand, the drawer may contain manu- scripts, and the top a globe or bust. This piece of furniture should stand on castors. 623. Dwmb Waiters, or portable sideboards, are useful in small families, with few or no servants or children. The most common form is that of a candelabrum, with tiers of circular shelves fixed to an upright axis, the shelves diminishing from the bottom upwards, and the whole on castors. The two figures last described will also make very good dumb waiters. 624. Bookcases and Escruioires, Secretarîes, or Bureaus, are extremely useful for holding books, keeping papers, or writing on ; and, therefore, no cottage parlour ought to be without one. Figs. 576 and 577 are bureaus in the Grecian style ; the middle part of fig. 576 draws out, and the front lets down and forms a writing-desk. The lower part, enclosed by doors, may be either fitted up with shelves or drawers ; the upper part is for books. Fig. 577 has a falling board or flap, which, when let down, asshown in fig. 578, forms a writing-desk. Figs. 578 and 579 are bureau bookcases. in the Gothic style. In the first of these figures, the writing-table is formed by pulling out a drawer, and letting down its front, as in fig. 578 ; in the second (fig. 579), the sloping flap falls down, and rests on two sliding pièces, a, technically called lopers. This last description of secretaries is often made without the addition of the bookcase over it ; and, instead of paneled doors, it is more common to hâve drawers exposed to view. The knobs to the drawer desks, figs. 576 and 578, aresupposed to be madeof wood, mahogany, ebony, or laburnum, as being more in harmony with the articles, and as less liable to tarnish than brass, the usual material of which similar handles are formed. The astragal moulding which covers the joint formed by the two doors of each Design is also com- monly formed of brass ; but wood, generally of the same sort as the rest of the fabric, is now substituted by the best manufacturers. Even the linings to keyholes, fig. 580, and the shields or escutcheons of locks, are now made of ebony, or some other hard wood, in ail the better articles of cabinet furniture. Fig. 581 shows a section of the door style and astragal of the Grecian Designs ; in which b is the astragal, and c the door style. Fig. 582 is a similar section, showing the Gothic astragal and door style. It will be observed that the astragal is not worked on the door style, but on a distinct piece of wood, d ; which is afterwards glued, and rabbeted on to the edge of the side style. The situation in a room for pièces of furniture combining bookcases and secre- taries should never be on the side opposite to the window ; for nothing can be more awkward than the idea of a person sitting down to Write with his back to the light, or, should the room be small, to an open fireplace. Recesses in those sides of a room, which form right angles with the window sides aflord the most désirable positions ; and, of these, the preference is always to be given to the side containing the fireplace. In rooms heated by stoves or flues, the same care as 583 to the position of the secretary with refer- ence to the lire is not requisite. 625. Book-shelves will shortly become as necessary as chairs or tables, for the cottage of even the humblest labourer. We shall give two Designs, figs. 583 and 584 ; the first may be considered as suitable for a Gothic cottage, and the other for a plain one. Either of these Designs may be fixed against a wall, with the lower shelves about six inches higher than what is called chair-back height from the floor. Or they may be set on â chest of drawers* or secretary, provided these are in suitable styles of Designs. The balusters which support the shelves, in fig. 584, are called by cabinet-makers shaped columns; and they may either be made plain; fluted or reeded, as at g; or with carved foliage, as at h, in the same figure. 626. Wardrobes are as essential in a bed-room, as a dresser is in a cottager’s kitchen, or a cupboard, or sideboard of some sort, in his parlour. Figs. 585 and 586, p. 304, on a scale of three eighths of an inch to a foot, exhibit a Design for a wardrobe in the GrecianFURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 303 57 6 57 8 580 581 582304 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 585 586FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS, 305 style. Fig. 586 is a view of fig. 585 with the doors removed, showing four inside sliding tray shelves, with a deep drawer underneath for bonnets, &c. In this drawer are com- monly fixed bonnet-holders, fig. 587, and against its sides cap pins, fig. 588. Fig, 589 is a Design for a wardrobe in the Gothic style, and also differently arranged in the interior. Fig. 590 shows a view of it with the doors removed. There is an upright division in the centre, with four fixed shelves on one side, and on the other an open space, with cloak pins fixed round it for hanging gowns, coats, caps, &c., upon. It is to be remarked, that the row of pegs is continued round the inside of the door. In the bottom of this division may be a fixed or portable bonnet-holder, such as fig. 587. These wardrobes may be made of deal, and painted wainscot colour, or of any other suitable to the other furniture of the room. The price in London is from £3 to £5 eacli. 627. Chests of Drawers are the common substitute for wardrobes, but they are very far inferior to them for keeping clothes, and create a great deal of useless labour in pulling out and pushing in drawers, and perhaps in locking and unlocking them; whereas one lock secures the whole of the wardrobe ; and, by the opening of one door, the whole of the contents are exposed to view, and the article wanted can be had with the least possible trouble. For those who prefer the old mode, we hâve given the Design 591* to a scale of half an in ch to a foot, which represents a chest of drawers in the Gothic style. It may be constructed of common deal, painted wainscot colour, with real oak knobs. The cost in London is from £3 to £4. A common chest of drawers may be made more useful in a small room, by having a slider to pull out ,------------------, in front, from under the n"~ ~~ top above the first drawer, as in fig. 592, a; the two bottom drawers may, if re- quired, be made into one deep drawer, to hold bon- nets, &c., like the drawer in the wardrobe, fig. 586, p. 304. Knobs of the same wood as the furniture, fig. 592, b, are now generally substituted, as in most other pièces of furniture, for brass. They harmonise better, and do not tarnish ; besides, the fashion is, at présent, comparatively new in London, and this çonfers on them a certain degree of factitious elegance, viz., that of novelty and fashion. 628. Tables are of numerous kinds and various forms. We shall take them in the order of kitchen tables, parlour tables, and bed-room tables. 629. Mtclien Tables ought to be strong, on account of their continuai use ; and, if possible, they should be contrived to fold up, or otherwise go into little space, when not in immédiate use, in order to afford more room for carrying on the business of the kitchen. One of the most economical of kitchen tables is that formed by the kneadîng-trough, represented by fig. 593, to a. scale of half an inch to a foot, of which a is an end view. Such tables are a good deal in use in the cottages and small farm-houses in many parts of England. The cover, which, when on the trough, serves as a table or ironing-board, eitlier lifts off, or, being hinged, is placed so as when opened it may lean against a wall, when the trough is wanted to be used. Frequently a division is made in the centre of the trough, so that the dry flour can be kept in one compartiment, and the dough made in the other. Sometimes there are three compartiments, in order to keep separate two different kinds of flour or meal. The board forming the cover ought to be an inch and a half thick, and always in one piece, in order that neither dirt nor dust may drop through806 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 593 a a the joints. Theré ought to be four fillets, b b, nailed along the under side of each edge of the cover, so as to keep it exaetly in its place when on. Deal, beech, sycamore, and ash are good woods for the trough and cover of this table, because they are light in colour, and hâve a clean appearance. No part of them should be painted, because both the trough and cover, when used for making bread, will require frequent scouring to keep them clean ; and, if the board should be used for an ironing-board, the heat of the irons would blister the paint, aiid make it stick to the cloth or blanket used to cover it. Fig. 594, p. 313, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a kitchen table on four fixed legs, which, by means of two portable legs in addition, can be extended at each end, so as to make a table of double its original length. Thus, suppose the table, fig. 594, when folded up, to be three feet long, and two feet six inches wide, it may, in two minutes, by screwing in the two portable legs, be made six feet long ; and, instead of being only large enough for two persons, it may dîne several, or be used as. an ironing-board, which, in narrow rooms, must obviously be a great convenience. There is a drawer under the centre of this table, in which the portable legs may be kept ; or they may be set elsewhere, and the drawer used for other purposes. This Design might be varied by having lopers to support the end leaves, instead of portable legs ; or the leaves might hang down, like those of a common dining-table, and be supported by draw-out feet. 595 596 597 In the construction, care must be taken to hâve the wood of the hinged leaves very dry and well-seasoned, otherwise they will warp ; and the ends of these leaves should be clamped at each end, by a piece of wood the reverse way to the grain of the leaf or flap. The term clamping is applied by cabinet-makers, when a piece of wood is grooved, and another tongued into it, as in fig. 595. This table will cost in London from £ 3 to £ 4. Fig. 596, to a scale of half an inch to a foot is a fold-up kitchen table, chiefly valuable because it will take up little room when not in use, as in fig. 597* The top consists of two leaves hinged together at the ends ; and, when the table is opened, it is prevented from fall- ing down in the middle by the wooden button, c, being locked into the notched piece, d, figs. 598 and 599. The for- mer figurerepresentsthe under side of the table. The tops and feet of the standards, e e, and the rails, f f, must be beveled, to admit of their free action. The legs may be fastened together, when shut, by a hook and eye at each end, as shown at g, otherwise it would be apt to warp. This table will be found very convenient for carrying out to a cottage lawn or arbour, or for using under a véranda. Where, however, the véranda is narrow,FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS, 307 599 the preceding Design, forming a long narrow table, will, perbaps, be found more com- modious. Fig. 601 shows a table with a semicircular top, double-hinged at the ends, and supported by three legs and a triangular frame, as shown in fig. 600. The two legs, h h, fold out, to support one half of the top, when it is opened and turned over on them. As this table, when shut up, will stand againsb a wall, it will take up but little room, and is, therefore, very suitable to a cottage kitchen. A common kitchen dining- table, square, round, or oval, with a fixed centre, and two hinged folding-down leaves, supported, when up, by hinged folding feet, is so familiar a form, that we hâve not thought it necessary to give a Design for it. Its construction will be easily understood from that of the fixed flap table with folding legs, § 613, fig. 550. 630. Parlour Tables. Where the parlour is square, a round table will be found the handsomest and most appropriate. Fig. 602, designed by Mr. Mallet, shows a round fable with a wooden top, supported on a cast-iron pillar, with iron castors. Each of these castors con- sists of a bail one inch in diameter, having free motion in every direction within a wrought-iron cup, which is pressed into its form in a fly press, from a piece of fiat iron ; and, the bail being put into it, it is then closed sufficiently at the mouth, to prevent the bail from falling out. The con- struction of this kind of castor (which Mr. Mallet informs us he invented some time ago, and which has beén since used extensively) will be better understood by fig. 603, in which a is the bail of a single castor ; b b are the sides of the wrought- iron cup ; and c is the leg of the table, bed, sofa, or other piece of furniture, to which the308 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. cup is riveted: d shows the plan of three castors, such as are used for the table, fig. 602 ; and e is a view of these castors appended to the round foot of any piece of furniture, the junction being concealed by the moulding f. Mr. Mallet states that three castors placed in this manner form an exceedingly firm and effective loco- motive support for any heavy article of furniture. The pillar of this table is cast hollow and thin, so as to corne far cheaper than the same Design could be made in the commonest description of wood. Fig. 604, to a scale of half an incli to a foot, is a table on four legs, and which, when covered with green baize, is commonly called a 605 711 B » - m 1FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS, 309 card table. The top is made double, and hinged at the back, so as to fold over, and there is a drawer in the frame. The two legs g g are fixed, but the other two, h h, are hinged, and fold out to support the folding flap. The joints, which are made in the rails of the folding legs, are of wood, as shown at i and k ; and, being put together, a piece of strong iron wire is driven down the centre of the rounded ends, and forms the axis on which they turn. This joint is technicaliy called a knuckle joint ; and rails of tables hinged in this manner are called fly rails. Fig. 605 is a table, which, when folded up Hke fig. 604, has exactly the same appearance. The top is double, like the' top of a card table, and turns round on a pivot Z, having a fixed well, n, to answer the pur- pose of a drawer ; when the flap is opened it makes a square table with rounded corners like the other. There is a rail, m, fixed to the upper side of the frame, to receive the pivot on which the top of the table works, as shown in the cross section, w, and longitudinal section, o. Fig. 606, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a table on four legs, with two drawers in 606 the frame. The end flaps, p p, are made to put on or to take off as required, by means of what are called strap-hinges, which are fastened to the fiaps. These hinges are shown in fig. 606, in which q is the part screwed to the under side of the flap ; and r the strap or part which is inserted under the top of the table, into an iron plate, s, screwed to the under side of the top, as shown at U The hinge of the strap is of the knuckle-joint kind, as exhibited at u. After the flap is put in, it is supported by small fly-brackets, fig. 606, y v. This is certainly a very convenient table, and very simple in its construction : it might be made still more economically, by substituting fixed bracket-shaped iron straps to the flaps, in lieu of the strap hinges ; which would render both the latter and the brackets, Vf unnecessary. The only inconvenience of this plan would be, that the fiaps, when not in use, would require to be taken out and put aside. Fig. 607, p. 313, is a table on four turned legs with castors, and with the ends of the frame made to draw out to support two flaps, which may be loose, and fastened at the joints by sockets, wf and pins, x ; or the flaps may be hinged to the ends of the top, and lift up and let down, being sup- ported, when raised, by the end frames. A shelf might be added to this table, about fifteen inches from the floor, which would be found useful for holding workboxes, books, &c. Fig. 608, p. 313, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a plain parlour work-table, with two drawers; and with flaps having ruled joints to fall down, and fly brackets to support them when up. Fig. 609, p. 313, to a scale of three fourths of an inch to a foot, is a wôrk and writing table for a cottager’s wife ; for we trust that the time will soon corne, when not only every cottager’s wife will be able to write as well as read, but will hâve leisure to do so. ITiis table may be made much plainer than is here shown, and consequently cheaper. For example, if the legs were not turned, and the whole were made of common deal, it would cost little more than an ordinary table with two drawers. The bag frame, which, when economy was the object, might be made of glazed coloured calico instead of silk, is made to draw out in fronts and the writing-drawer over it pulls out at the end. In this drawer there is a flap to write on, hinged to a sliding piece,310 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. which may be pushed back from the front of the drawer, so as to raise the desk upontlie edge of the table to the angle reqüired. Undemeath this writing-board is a space for papers; and, to the right, another for the inkstand, pens, and wafers. The writing- board, or flap, might be made to rise with a rack and horse, (fig. 610, in which a is the rack, and b the horse) ; but the first plan is far simpler, and answers the same end. Indeed, even the sliding piece might be dispensed with, and the writing- flap adjusted to the proper angle by pulling out or pushing in the drawer. At the opposite end of this table a flap is shown, which may be put up or let down accordingly as it may be desired to make the table longer or shorter. This is evidently a very convenient table ; because a cottager’s wife may hâve a book to read in lying at one end, writing materials at the other, and her work in the middle. Fig. 611 is a smali tea or work table. The top is hinged on a triangular box, which may be useful to hold work in. When not in use, the top is set up on edge, and when brought down, it fàstens itself by a common catch fasten- ing. Fig. 612 is a neat work- table, which may be made by any joinçr, out of the common woods of the country, at a very trifling expense, and placed on three of Mallet’s iron castors, or even on turned knobs in imi- tation of castors ; either of which, by raising it from the ground, would add much to the lightness and elegance of its appearance. Figs. 613, 614, 615 represent a very useful article, called a camp table, from its going into little bulk, being light, and being used by officers in camps. Fig. 613 shows it opened out to its full extent ; the top being hinged to the two legs, and supported by a portable leg which is fastened into it by a screw and Socket, c, in fig. 613, and can be removed at pleasure. When not in use, this leg is fixed to one of the legs of the stand by two pièces of girth webbmg, d d in fig. 615, which are fastened to the leg of the stand. When the stand is opened to its full extent, it stretches out, as a top, three pièces of webbing, which serve as a tray- atand; and a tray is generally made of a proper size to go along with the table. Fig. 615 shows how this camp table may be used as a common table; the hinges projecting above the rail of the stand in such a manner as to let the top tum round either way. Fig. 614 shows this table shut up ; there are two turn buckles, e, on the legs at f to keep the top fastened, and to prevent it from swinging about when the table is môved. In families, accustomed to give large dinner parties, these tables are found useful, as forming additions to the sideboard : they are also brought in réquisition when parties are given in the open air, or when a meal is taken in any room déficient in tables.FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. SU 631. Bed~room Tables are of three kinds : those for holding washing utensils ; dressing- tables ; and tables for sick persons. Fig. 616 is a small wash-hand stand, or table, in The hole in the top is eut 618 the Gothic style, with a shelf below, and a drawer under it. round to receive the basin, and on the back-board is fixed a small shelf to hold a glass, trays for brushes, &c. This table may be made of oak, or of deal painted and grained in imitation of that wood. Fig. 617 is a small enclosed wash-hand stand with two cupboards; one of which will hold the ewer, and the other a night-vase. There are two hinged shelves, one on each side, supported by fly brackets, in order that they may be let down to save room, when not in use. Fig. 618 is a Design for a lady’s wash- hand stand, which has been sent us by its inventress. When not in use, the basin is concealed by two box covers, which are hinged ; and which open and turn over when the stand is used, af- fording space for soap-holders, brush- ■trays, &c. There is a drawer below, ;vith partitions for keeping these and various other articles belonging to the toilette ; one partition having a flat board raised two inches from the bottom of the312 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. drawer, and being pierced with holes for scent bottles, &c. Below this drawer there is a deep cupboard with double doors. This wash-hand stand, which has a neat and rather massive or architectural appearance, is said to be a great favourite with ail the ladies who hâve seen it. Fig. 619, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a small dressing-table, with a drawer in front to hold combs, brushes, &c. Common dressing-tables, consisting of a top without flaps, supported by four legs, and with one or two drawers, are sa simple in their construction as not to require any particular exemplification. Fig. 620, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a table for invalids, commonly called a bed table ; which is a very great convenience to a person bedridden. The top of this table is made to rise and fall at pleasure, by raising or lowering the upper part of the pillar, a, which is perforated with holes at given distances, and which Works in a square groove, in the centre of the lower part. This lower part is formed of four pièces glued together, as shown in the plan, b9 in fig. 621. It is firmly fixed in the bottom block by a mortise and tenon, and at top the four pièces are confined by an iron ferule, to keep the joints from opening : the mortise at bottom sufficiently confines the lower part of the pillar. The height of the top is regulated by moving the pin at c; the block or foot, of which d represents a plan, is elongated on one side to about the saine extent as the top is elongated on that side ; and, when the table is in use, the block is turned under the bed, and the top over it ; the latter being adjusted to the height most con- venient for the patient. This table is very frequently used for reading in bed ; and in that case it is generally made with a horse and rack, e, and a shifting ledge, f, to support a book, at one end. This ledge is fixed by two wire pins, fastened in its under side, which drop into two holes bored in the lower side of the flap of the table. On the edge of this ledge are affixed two book-holders, g, commonly made of brass, but which are much better if made of ivory, or of ebony, box, or any other hard wood. This table, in mahogany, costs in LondonFURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 313 607 609814 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 652 653 654FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 315 from £5 to £7 ; but, made of any common wood by a joiner in the country, it would not corne to half the amount. Fig. 622 is a cheap invalid’s bed table, which we had made at Bayswater some years ago, for our own use. It is simply a piece of mahogany board, about three feet long, and one foot nine inches wide, supported by a wrought-iron pillar, with a brace, h, and two feet, ii; the latter extending nearly the length of the top from the pillar, and spreading out at their extremitîes to about its width ; thus producing in effect a table with three feet. It is placed on castors, and is light and strong. The height of the pillar must be regulated by the height of the bed. The maho- gany board cost 5s., and the iron work and castors £l. 632. Seats may be arranged as stools, forms, benches, chairs, and sofas. 633. Stools. Common kitchen stools for children admit of little variety of design, without incurring more expense than would be justifiable by the use and place of the object. Fg. 623 shows the construction of a plain round stool, with three legs framed together at the top, and with rails about six inches from the ground ; a shows the proportion which the triangular frame bears to the circular top. Fig. 624 is a round stool, which may be calledin the Gothic style, and would be suitable in a Gothic cottage, where every thing was in character with that style. Fig. 625 is a 623 624 Uk A 625 box stool ; the lid slides in a groove, as shown by the section, b ; but there is a stop, to prevent it from being taken off entirely. The box may be useful for a child to put its playthings in, and to teach it betimes those habits of order and neatness which are so highly essential to its success in life. Figs. 626, 627, and 628 are stools with cast-iron J 630 legs or pillars, invented by Mr. Mallet. The tops' may be of any common wooo, with or without cushions, according to the use for which they may be intended. Fig. 629 is a long stool, in the Gothic style, for a child ; and fig. 630, one, also for a child, suitable for a plain cottage. 684. A Footstool, either 629 plain or covered with /-------------------------- carpeting, is an article of _____________________ essential utility in every cottage where there is a mother; and italso forms a seat for a child. In England, they are very K K316 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. commonly formed by coverîng abundle of bulrushes with rush matting, and they are then called hassocks. Fig. 631 is a design for a box footstool, which has been sent us by a lady. The top is formed of an outside frame, on which is stretched strong webbing, for the purpose of supporting the stuffing above, which is co- vered with carpeting of the same kind as that of the floor of the room in which it is to be used. The sides are of wood, painted of the same colour as the other furniture. 635. Forms may be described as long stools, for the use of several persons; and, as such, are useful in cottage kitchens, and in lobbies and passages. In the scullery they also often serve as stands for tubs, and for various articles to be washed or cleaned, to prevent stooping more than is necessary. Two or more of them are, therefore, always requisite about a house. Figs. 632 and 633 are every carpenter. Figs. 634 and 635 are forms in the Gothic style, equally simple with the others. Ail these Designs are to a scale of half an inch to a foot. 636. Benches are broad forms with backs to them, and sometimes with arms. Fig. 636 is a kind of bench with solid back and arms, for a cottage kitchen, commonlyFÜRNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 317 called a settle, and frequently to be met with in public houses. The back forms an excellent screen or protection from the current of air which is continually passing from the door to the chimney. The drawers below are deep, and will be found very useful for a variety of purposes. On the back there might be a towel rôller ; or, in a superior kind of cottage, the back of the settle might be ornamented with prints or maps, in the manner of a screen. Placed in the open floor, where it would seldom require to be moved, there might even be book shelves fixed to this back, and a flap might be hung to it, with a jib bracket, to serve as a reading or writing table, or for other purposes. Fig. 637 is a handsome Gre- cian bench with turned legs and open back, but without arms at the ends, or drawers under the seat. Fig. 638 is a Gothic bench also without arms or drawers, but with a paneled back and square legs. Fig. 639 is a Design for a handsomer Gothic bench the back of which may either be paneled or open, according to the position, in the kitchen, where it is intended to stand. It has arms and two drawers, and has below the latter a broad shelf about three inches from the ground, on which shoes, &c., may stand, or a dog may hâve a mat for sleeping upon. AU these benches are to the same scale of half an inch to a foot.318 COTTADE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE, 637. Chairs may be classed as suitable for the lobby, kitchen, parlour, and bed-room. 638. Lobby Chairs, being seldom moved, may be made of heavy massive forms in timber, or of cast iron, so as to hâve a decidedly architectural character. Fig. 640 is a lobby chair of cast iron, suitable for a porch. x The Design is Etruscan ; and Mr. Mal- let, to whom we are indebted for it, says that it may be cast in two pièces. It would, therefore, corne cheap, and would look exceedingly well in the porch of a cottage in the Italian style. Mr. Mallet observes, that “ where carved work, or much or- nament, is to be executed in fur- niture, cast iron will al ways be found cheaper than wood, even though a small number only of the article were wanting. ” We hope that this hint will not be lost on Architects, who might thus introduce a style of highly improved design in aü the principal articles of furniture, at a moderate cost. Chairs of this de- scription, whether made of iron or wood, may be painted in imitation of oak in the following manner : — Give two coats of white lead in the usual mode ; add a third coat of a pale yellow, as near as possible to the lightest part of the oak board to be imitated. Yellow ochre is rather too deep for most varieties of oak board ; but stone ochre and white may be mixed together, till the exact shade ne produced. When this coat is dry, th i graining colour is to be laid on. This colour is not fluid like common oil paints, but is a mixture about the consistence of thick treacle, composed of various ingrédients, and technically called meglip. The recipes given for making meglip are various ; but the following are the articles principally used : sugar of lead, rotten stone, linseed oil, white wax, and spirits of turpentine. These are ail ground up together, and immediately after the colour they produce is laid on, the graining is made by passing horn combs over it before it is dry. These combs hâve their teeth of different widths and lengths, and may be had of every combmaker. Fig. 642 is a lobby chair of wood in the Grecian style, which may be made of deal, with the exception of the legs, which, being turned, should be of beech or some fine-grained wood suitable for that operation. This chair may be painted of the colour of the wall against which it is to stand. Fig. 641 is a lobby chair in the Gothic style, which may be made entirely of deal, or of any other common wood, and painted and grained in imitation of oak.FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 319 689. Kitchen Chairs. Fig. 643 is a Windsor chair, one of the best kitchen chairs in general use in the midland counties of England. The seat, fig. 644,a,isof elm, somewhat hollowed out ; the outer rail of the back is of ash, in one piece, bent to the sort of horseshoe form shown in the figure, by being previously heated or steamed ; its ends are then inserted in two holes bored through the seat, and are wedged firmly in from the under side. An additional support is given to the back, by two round rails, fig. 644, bf which are also made fast in two holes, formed in a projecting part of the seat, c. These chairs are sométimes painted, but more frequently stained with diluted sulphuric acid and logwood ; or by repeatedly washing them over with alum water, which has some tartar in it: they should afterwards be washed over several times with an extract of Brasil wood. The colour given will be a sort of red, not unlike that of mahogany ; and, by afterwards oiling the chair and rubbing it well, and for a long rime, with woollen cloths, the veins and shading of the elm will be rendered con-SâO COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. spicuous. Quicktime slacked in urine, and laid on the wood while hot, will also stain it of a red colour ; and this is said to be the general practice with the Windsor chair manufacturera in the neighbourhood of London. Fig. 645 is a chair with a seat like the Windsor pattern, but with a different back, the two side styles of which are mortised into the seat, as shown at d- The legs are put together by dowels (wedges put in tenons after they are inserted in the mortise, to prevent them from being drawn back), like the Windsor chairs before mentioned, fig. 643. This forms a very comfort- able and cheap chair. Fig. 646 is a very strong chair, being put together with mortise and tenon : it forms the common kitchen chair about London. It is generally made of déal, but sometimesof birchorbeech, andisusually painted. Figs. 647 and 648 are two Gothic arm-chairs for kitchens ; and fig. 649 is a kitchen workbox and table chair. The from under the seat three fourths of its length, the remaining fourth remaining in to steady it ; by which means lopers or fly-brackets are rendered unnecessary. Such a chair will be found very useful, and it may be made of deal, at a very trifling expense, by a common carpenter. The bottom of the box below may be loose, so that by turning the chair upside down, it may be taken out, and the box cleaned. Fig. 650 is a Design for an iron elbow kitchen chair, by Mr. Mallet. The back and elbows are cast in one piece ; the supports for the elbows and also the legs are of gas tubing, screwed into a cross frame of iron, which prcceeds from the back of the chair under the wooden seat. This is a strong, durable, and cheap chair, and only wants good cushions, for the back, elbows, and seat, to render it a most comfortable article for a cottager. Fig. 651 is a Design by Mr. Mallet for a cast and wrought iron chair, with a wooden seat. It is cast in one piece, the legs being tubular, with wire stays ; the whole forming an exceedingly light and yet stable chair, weighing less than most oak ones. This chair might hâve a cushion seat, and also a cushion for the back, which the cottager might make himself of bulrushes, or of any other monocotyledonous water plant (the pith of these being filled with air, and therefore bulky, soft, and elastic), or of the chaff of Indian corn ; covering them with cloth, and tying them on the chair with tape. 640. Parlour Chairs. These are of various patterns; and, as the characteristic of the kitchen chair was strength and durability, so that of the parlour chair is lightness and elegance. Figs. 652 to 657, p. 314, are plain Grecian chairs, sold in London at from 75. to 125- each. They are usually made of beech, and may be stained to imi- tate mahogany, by the following process : — WTash the wood, after the chair is completed,FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 321 with red ochre mixed with thin glue and water, quite hot ; when dry, rub the chair well with woollen cloths, till it assumes a good colour,and afterwards varnish and polish it. Chairs of this sort are made in great numbers in Buckinghamshire, where there are extensive beech woods. The commoner sort are generally nailed together, but the best are screwed or mortised, as in figs. 654 and 657. The bottoms are made of cane, with the exception of fig. 654, which .is covered with leather. These chairs are generally painted and varnished; but they are sometimes stained either black maho- gany colour, or a rosewood pink. We shall give the processes from Partington’s Builders Guide. 641. For a deep Black, the wood is brushed over four or five times with a warm décoction of logwood, made by boiling one pound of logwood for an hour or more, and afterwards as often with décoction of galls, allowing it to dry thoroughly between the several ap- plications of the liquor ; thus prepared, it receives a fine deep colour, from being washed over with a solution of vitriol, in the proportion of two ounces to a quart : in the room of which some use a solution of iron in vinegar, keeping the vinegar for this purpose upon a quantity of the filings of the métal, and pouring off a little as it is wanted. A pretty good black is also obtained, more expeditiously, by brushing over the wood, first with the logwood liquor, and afterwards with common ink. 642. A very fine Black may be produced by brushing the wood over several times with a solution of copper in aquafortis, and afterwards with the décoction of logwood (Hæma- toxylon campechiénse), repeated till the colour be of sufficient force, and the greenness produced by the copper overcome. The blacks may be varnished as the other colours. 643. A light red-brown Mahogany colour may be given to wood by means of a dé- coction of madder and fustic wood (the wood of Maclùra tinctoria), ground in water, in the proportion of half a pound of madder and a quarter of a pound of fustic wood, to a gallon ; or, instead of the fustic wood, an ounce of yellow berries (the berries of i?hâmnus tinctorius) may be used. Brush over the wood with this solution, while boiling hot, till the due colour be obtained. Nearly the same effect may be produced by a tincture made by dissolving an ounce of dragon’s blood in a pint of spirits of wine; and a similar tincture of turmeric root ( Curcùma lônga), made by putting an ounce of the powdered root to a pint of spirits of wine, and after it has stood some days straining off the mixture. 644. For a dark Mahogany, take the infusion of madder as above, and substitute for the fustic wood two ounces of logwood : and when the wood has been brushed over several times, and is dry, wash it over with water in which pearl ashes hâve been dis- solved, in the proportion of a quarter of an ounce to a quart. The wood, in the better kind of work, should be afterwards varnished with three or four coats of seed-lac varnish ; but, for coarse work, resin and seed-lac varnish may be used, or the articles may be well rubbed over with drying oil. 645. Wood may be stained Yellow by the above tincture of turmeric root, or by a tinc- ture of yellow berries applied boiling hot ; the wood, when dry, being brushed over with weak aluni water, used cold. 646. For Rosewood Pink, make an infusion of a pound of Brasil wood (Cæsalplnia brasiliénsis) in a gallon of water impregnated with pearl ashes, in the proportion of an ounce to a gallon of water. The infusion should be frequently stirred, and should stand two or three days. When wanted for use, two ounces more pearl ashes should be added, and the mixture strained, and made boiling hot. It should then be applied to the wood, which should be afterwards brushed ovér with alum water, made in the pro- portion of two ounces of alum to a quart of water.,822 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 647. Elbow Parlour Chairs in the Grecian Style. Figs. 658, 659, and 660, p. 314, are Grecian elbow chairs with stuffed seats. Fig. 660, has a workbag under the seat, which draws out on one side ; and on the othèr a slide, which serves as a table. These chairs may also be made of beech or birch, and stained or painted like the other. The silk or glazed cotton, for the workbag and the covers for the cushions, should be of the same colour as the window curtains and the cover of the sofa, if there be one in the room. 648. Gothic Parlour Chairs. Fig. 661 to 666, p. 323, are Designs for chairs made of beech ; the first with a rush bottom ; the second, third, and last with cane bottoms, and the two others with stuffed bottoms. Figs. 667 and 668, p. 323, are Gothic elbow chairs with stuffed bottoms. Fig. 669 is a Gothic chair, with a workbag and sliding board for table. Ail these chairs may be made of any strong fine-grained wood, mortised together, and afterwards painted and grained in imitation of oak. In the construction of chairs, care should be taken that the feet of the back legs shoula always spread out an inch at least more than the top rail of the back, in order to keep the latter from touching the wall, or paper, or window, when set against it. 649. Bed-room Chairs. These are of two kinds ; a light sort for common use, and strong elbow or easy chairs for times of sickness. The light chairs may be any of those frames figured in p. 314, but with rush instead of cane bottoms. Figs. 670 and 671 are two strong elbow chairs for the use of a labouring man, when confined to his bed-room. Pillows may be put in them as cushions, both for the seat and back. Fig. 672 is a bedside chair of the same description, with a cupboard beneath for containing a night convenience of the simplest description. Such a chair ought to be in the bed- room of every cottage. Fig. 673 is a very comfortable easy chair, stuffed in the back and sides, with a movable cushion as a seat ; beneath which is a night convenience. 650. A Sofa is a piece of furniture which affords a great source of comfort to its possessor; and therefore the cottager ought to hâve one as well as the rich man. Let him strive to obtain it, for no parlour is completely furnished without one ; and he will certainly succeed. We shall give some Designs for sofas, and also for sofa-bedsteads, which we hope will côme within the reach of many cottagers ; and shall commence with figs. 674 and 675, p. 324, which are Designs for sofas of a superior description. Fig. 674 is in the Gothic style, with castors sunk in its legs, a great improvement with regard to appearance. We may here observe, generally, that good castors are essential to the convenient use of every piece of furniture to which they are applied. Many persons, by saving a few shillings in castors, deprive themselves of the full enjoyment of what, if easily moved, would be a most useful piece of furniture ; besides which, bad castors destroy the carpets of sitting-rooms, and scratch the boards of bed-rooms. Purchasers of furniture, who are no judges in this respect, are often deceived; for of two articles of furniture, exactly the same in size and appearance, one mayFURMTURE FOR COTTAGE DWELL1NGS. 323 661 662 663 664 665 666FÜRNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 325 be sold by a manufacturer for a pound sterling less than the other, merely from his havifig employed in it the most common, instead of the best, description of castors. We are informed by Mr. Dalziel, who is extremely particular to use only the very best materials in ail the articles which he manufactures, that the best castor at présent in use is that of Cope of Birmingham. This is a bail working in a cup, something in the manner of Mr. Mallet’s iron castor ; and the more pressure there is on it, the easier it Works. The cushions and mattresses of sofas are commonly stuffed with hair or wool; and sometimes, for cheapness, with chaff, chopped hay, or straw, or bran; but an article has been lately introduced into this manufacture, which is found to answer as well as baked hair, and not to cost above a third of the expense. This is the Zostèra marina, or sea wrack grass, found on the coast of Norfolk ; abundantly in the Orkneys and Hébrides; and on the northern shores of the German Océan. When gathered, it is repeatedly washed in fresh water, to deprive it of ail its saline particles ; and, being afterwards dried in the sun, it is twisted into thick ropes, and in that State sent to the manufacturer, who has it untwisted, and eut into short lengths for use. Whatever material is used for stuffing, it is first enclosed in strong canvass, and afterwards covered with black horse-hair, moreen, or damask, nailed on with brass- headed nails, or with a loose cover of printed cottons or other stuffs. A very cheap and yet tasteful loose sofa cover may be made of glazed self-coloured calico, with a narrow piece of different coloured calico, or shawl bordering, laid on about a couple of inches from the edge. This kind of cover lasts clean much longer than one of common printed cotton ; and, when the bordering is carried round the covers of the cushions, bolsters, &c., it has a pretty and even élégant effect. In ail cases where the covers of sofas are- made of a material which admits of a choice of colours, those should be preferred which prevail in the carpet and window curtains of the room ; the principal reason in this, and ail similar cases, being, that such a choice indicates unity of design. 651. Sofa JBeds. Sofas which may be converted into beds arê most convenient articles of furniture for cottages and other small dwellings. Fig. 676, p. 324, shows a bed formed out of a sofa of this description. The back of the sofa is hinged, as shown in fig. 677, at a; and it falls down, and is supported by two portable legs, fi g. 678, b, c: these legs are tapped and screwed into the top rail of the back (that is, a screw is formed on the upper end of the leg, and, a hole being bored in the rail, nearly of the same diameter as this screw, an instrument called a tap is introduced into the hole, and being turned round, grooves out a path for the screw ; this path, or screw groove, is called the female screw, and that which goes into it, the male screw). The end, d, is made to shift ; it is fastened to the side rail of the seat of the sofa by the two wooden dowels, e e, which go into the rail, and is secured to the back and bottom by two thumb screws, at f f When the bed is used, this end is shifted to that opposite, in order to form the head of the bed ; the end style of the back of the sofa having holes to receive the same dowels and thumb-screws, so as to retain it in its place. Underneath the sofa there is a well for the legs, fig. 676, g, which may either open to the front or the back, and may be either concealed by the valance of the sofa cover, or by a movable panel of wood. There is a cupboard which opens at one end, as seen at h, in fig. 678. Fig. 679, p. 327, is a view of a sofa which may be turned into a bed with posts and curtains. Fig. 680 shows the first process, that of removing the sofa cover, mattress, and cushions of the seat, and the mattress of the back. Here is seen a third mattress, i, which is kept in a well underneath the seat, and sufficiently long to hold it in a curved though not in a straight position. The remaining part of the space underneath the seat is oecupied by L L326 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. a cupboard, k. Under the cushions which form the seat of the sofa, and above the well, may be seen the folding frame, Z, which forms the bottom of the bed. Fig. 681 shows this folding frame opened out, and supported by four portable legs, tapped and screwed into its sides. The bedposts are, in like manner, tapped and screwed into the top rails of what formed the sofa ends ; and the tester laths, and their sidè pièces, forming the top, drop on to iron pins inserted in the upper ends of .the bedposts. • The legs, the posts, the tester laths, and side pièces, ail go into the same well as the mattress, when not in use ; and when the sofa cover is on, it completely conceals the holes which receive the bedposts, and also the well and the cupboard. Fig. 682, p. 327, shows the bed with the mattresses and bolsters laid in their places, and the curtains put up. This is a very désirable description of sofa bed to hâve in a cottage parlour, or, indeed, in any small dwelling either in town or country. The cost, complété, in London, is from £10 to £l 5. There are also chair beds, which are formed by drawing out a frame from under the chair, so as to triple the length of the seat ; on which frame are arranged the cushions which were previously placed against the back and sides of the easy chair. The bottom of the chair may be formed into a cupboard to open at the side. 652. Beds of other descriptions may be classed under the following heads : folding or camp beds ; stump, press, and half-tester bedsteads ; couch, box, and French beds ; tent and four-post bedsteads, and cliildren’s cribs. In our opinion, those cottagers who can afford to hâve good furniture are often disproportionably extravagant in the article of beds and bedding. In Scotland and France, where the cottager’s parlour has frequently a bed in it, luxury in this article may perhaps be excusable ; but in Engïand, where the bed-room of a cottager is seldom entered by a stranger, we think it would be a wiser economy to hâve the bed plain, though, in ail respects, comfortable, and to expend any surplus money, which might hâve been spared from it, on the furniture of the parlour. However, we make the remark with great deference to the opinion of the cottager’s wife, who must be allowed to be the best judge on the subject.FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 327 682 679828 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 329 653. Folding Camp Bed. This is one of the cheapest of ail beds ; and when the sides and feet are made of iron rods, with no wood but the head board, it goes in very little bulk, and costs complété, with sacking, not more than 15s. Fig. 683, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a view of a folding bed, with the sides and feet made of wood, which may be manufactured complété, in London, for £l. The head board has two iron pins in its lower edge, which drop into holes made in the side-rails of the bed. WHen a cottage is small, we recommend ail boys to be made to sleep on beds of this kind, which they ought to be taught to fold up and put away in the morning, as soon as they get up ; and to bring out and make up for themselves at night. The boy or lad who cannot sleep soundly on such a bed must hâve something either physically or morally wrong in his constitution ; and is, in either case, not very likely to become a man capable of earning his bread by labour. 654. Stump Bedsteads are common in the humblest description of dwellings in England, both in town and country. They are commonly made of wood, with sacking bottoms ; but as these materials are apt to harbour vermin, they hâve lately been ma- nufactured entirely of wrought iron ; the place of the sacking or canvass bottom being supplied by interwoven thiniron hooping, as shown in fig. 684, which is manufactured by Messrs. Cottam and Hallen of London, and sold complété with castors, when two feet six inches wide, for one person, at 23s. each ; and at a proportionate increase of price, according to the width, up to 33s., which is the price of an iron stump bedstead five feet wide. 655. Press Bedsteads are very common in kitchens, and, sometimes, in parlours where there is a deficiency of bed-rooms ; but they are objectionable, as harbouring vermin, and being apt soon to get out of order when in daily use. They hâve, however, one / advantage, which is, that persons sleeping in them are generally obliged to get up ; betimes in the morning : we, therefore, présent one Design. Fig. 685 is a view of the press-when*the bed is put up. There is a cupboard shown at one end, and the remainder of the lower part is occupied by a drawer which is made to appear like two externally, in order to form to a regular front, with that of the cupboard. Fig. 686 shows the manner in which the bedstead folds up : a is one of tlie feet, which is330 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE, hinged on an iron pin, and is seen when down, as in fig. 687. The other two feet, b by in fig. 687, are plaeed, when folded up, as shown in the section, fig. 686, at b ; c represents part of the front and top, lifted up and folded back. Press bedsteàds are sometimes made to imitate a chest of drawers, or a secretary, in front ; in order, if possible, to prevent the real use of the article from being discovered : a proof that beds of this kind are not held in much repute ; because they indicate a deficiency of bed-rooms. 656. Half- Tester Bedsteàds are used in small rooms, where it may be désirable to turn them up during the day, in order to allow the occupant to work in the room. They hâve this advantage over press beds, that they are turned up and let down with very little trouble ; and that when turned up, and the curtain drawn round them, they are by no means unsightly objects in a room which is to be considered as a bed-room ; but they are quite inadmissible in a kitchen or a parlour. Fig. 688 is a Design for a half- tester bedstead, with the posts, rails, and feet of wood, and the bottom of sacking. It is shown in this figure as turned down, and ready to receive the mattress and bedding. In fig. 689 the bed is shown turned up, by which it appears that the turned legs, d d, are hinged and fold down, so as to occupy less space. The manner in which the curtain rod is fixed is also here shown. It is fastened to the lath at the middle of the front, at e, and at both its extremities an eye is formed, which drops on a hook, as shown at f. The fixed feet are always plaeed in an inclined position, to give greater steadiness toFÜRNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELL1NGS. 331 the bed : they are shown straight in fig. 688, and curved in fig. 689, to indicate tliat they may be made either way. Fig. 691 is an iron half-tester bedstead, which, however, does not fold up, but which has the great advantage of being remarkably cheap. It is manufactured by Messrs. Cottam and Hallen, of two feet six inches in width, for 465. 6d. ; and of five feet in width, for 68s. in both cases it is complété, with castors, head board, and curtain rods, and is thrice painted in oil. Fig. 692 is another wrought- iron half-tester bedstead, one half of which folds over the other : it is the invention of Mr. William Mallet of Dublin, who, we are informed, has made many thousands of them. In this bedstead both the head board and the foot board are of iron. Fig. 690 is a different modification of the same bedstead, intended for sick persons, which is made to rise with racks, h h, so as to place the patient, though still recumbent, at any angle that may be required. An important addition to this bed would be two upiight rods, one on each side, about half way between the head and foot, securely joined together by a strong rod at top, so as to be perfectly firm ; from this top rod a cord,332 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. sash, towel, or piece of girth webbing, might be suspended, or even a hooked walking-stick put on, for the bedridden patient to take hold of, to assist him in turning, or otherwise changing his position. Every person who has been long confined to a bed knows that this simple contrivance is the most valuable part of a sick man’s bedstead ; and it is one reason why the beds of ail elderly people should hâve bedposts and testers, because from the centre cross laths this simple contrivance, for the comfort of an invalid, may be suspended. Both figs. 690 and 692, we are informed, can be afforded for less than the price of the frame of a common wooden bedstead, 657. Couch Beds may be described as sofas used as beds ; and, for our parts, we prefer them to either the press or the half-tester bedstead. They are very common in France and Germany. Fig. 693 is a Design, by Mr. William Mallet of Dublin, for an iron couch bed frame. The head is cast in one piece, the back in another, and the frame in a third. Ail the rest is of wrought iron ; the four legs of gas pipe, the braces of quarter-inçh wire, and the bottom of iron hooping. Castors might easily be added ; and this Design would then form a suitable article for some descriptions of cottages. 658. Box Beds are common in the better description of cottages in Scotland, and also in Alsace, Lorraine, and other parts of the north of France, and in Holland and Flanders. This bed is of the usual length, and in general four feet wide within. There are fourFURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 333 square posts, at the four corners; and the back and ends are filled in with boarding grooved and tongued ; while the front is formed into panels, one of which at top and another at bottom are fixed, and two between them slide in grooves, and form the door of the bed. The roof is of boards, and the bottom of laths, three inches wide, and about two or three inches apart. There is generally a shelf, and sometimes two, fixed to the inside of the bottom of the bed, just above the bedclothes ; and sometimes there is one at top, close under the roof. There are also sometimes one or two shelves against the back of the bed; so that this piece of furniture not only serves as a bed, but as a wardrobe and linen chest. In some parts of the country the bed doors fix within by bolts, or hâve a lock to fasten them on the outside ; so that a person going to bed, with ail his treasure round him on the surrounding shelves, may secure it while he is asleep at night, or going out to work in the daytime, by bolting or locking the doors. These box beds can be easily taken to pièces, and put together again ; the ends, backs, and roofs being in separate pièces, and fitting into grooves in the posts, and in the top and bottom rails, in the manner of Manning’s portable cottages, § 512. Besides serving as a wardrobe, &c., a box bed may be made to supply the place of a partition, two of them being often placed, in Scotland, as well as in Alsace, across any apartment of fourteen or fifteen feet in width, which they thus divide into two rooms (a but and a ben), leaving a passage between them. In roomy cottages, four are sometimes so placed back to back ; thus giving two beds to be entered from the kitchen, and two from the parlour. A bed of this sort, well made, was formerly considered the principal article in a Scottish cottager’s fumishing ; and this is still the case in Alsace and Lorraine, as we learned when we visited those countries in 1829. Something might be made of these beds in any country where the cottager’s house is his own, and where he is likelÿ to be a permanent résident ; but they are too costly, and too cumbersome, for a tenant at will, or on a short lease. 659. French beds are generally formed like couch beds, especially those in use by French cottagers. Fig. 694, p. 328, shows a French bedstead of an improved description, with the furniture complété. There are two drawers underneath, and a small cupboard, ail of which open from the front ; because the furniture would be in the way if they opened at the ends. There is a turned rail above the headboard, to keep the furniture from the face ; and another over the footboard, to be uniform with it. The pôle whicl supports the curtain is screwed into an upright piece, which is securely fixed by a mortise and tenon to the back rail of the bottom of the bedstead, as shown in fig. 695, so that the bedstead and furniture can be removed from the wall. Castors may be introduced into the four pillars, so as not to be seen. It will be observed that the Design of fig. 695 is different from that of fig. 694 : both may be considered élégant, and well adapted for a superior description of cottage. These bedsteads may be made of deal, and painted, with the exception of the upright piece, which should be of beech or some other stiff wood. Fig. 696 is a French bedstead of wrought iron, which costs when two feet six inches wide, 46s., and when five feet wide, 84s. The curtains, in this case, are supposed to be thrown over a pôle, projecting from the wall, and supported by a bracket.334 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 660. Tent Beds are in universal use, and scarcely require description. Fig. 697, to a scale of tliree eighths of an inch to a foot, shows the framing or woodwork of the bed : a, b, c, is the bed frame, a and b being the side rails, and c the bottom rail ; d is the head-board which fixes into a groove in the head posts. These posts, being intended to be covered with that part of the bed hangings called the head piece, are made plain; while the bottom posts, which are intended to be exposed, are generally turned or covered. Fig. 698 is a tent bedstead with the curtains complété. Fig. 699 is an iron tent bedstead, manufactured by Messrs. Cottam and Hallen, which costs, when two feel six inches wide, 56s. 6d., and when five feet wide, 77s. 661. Four-Post Bedsteads are more suitablefor villas than for cottages, except perliaps the cheap and excellent ones made of wrought iron, which do not cost much more than a tent bed of the same materials. Four-post bedsteads, however, of every descrip- tion, are objectionable for cottagers, both on account of the room they take up, and the quantity of bed furniture which they require.FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 335 662. Cribs are bedsteads for children so young as to render it unsafe to trust them by themselves in beds with unguardedsides. They are generally intended to be placed, during the night, by the bedside of the mother ; and, for that purpose, the height of the crib should cor- respond with that of the large bed, and one of its sides be made to liftout. This is effected by grooves in the up- right posts, with tongues on the end styles of the side. Fig. 700 is a Design for a crib in the Grecian style, and fig. 703. for one in the Gothic style, both by Mr. Dalziel, who recommends that the heads of the bed-screws, with which fig. 700. is screwed together, should be concealed by a wooden cap, fig. 701, instead of by a brass one, as is commonly done. In the Jeg of the Gothic crib, fig. 703, the screwis concealed by means of a small wooden panel made to take out. The turned rails of the sides, in fig. 700, and the plain rails in the Gothic Design, are considered better than the open canework usually employed for crib sides, through which children are apt to put their fingers and hurt themselves. Cribs are sometimes made with only one side, the rail on that opposite being held close to the rail of the large bed by hooks and eyes. Any joiner might make these cribs of deal, or any other cheap wood ; and they may be painted or stained to harmonise with the bedstead and chairs of the room in which they are to be placed. Fig. 702 is a view of a cheap crib, the frame and bottom of which are formed of wrought iron, M M336 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. and the sides and ends of deal. It may be made for 15s. Swinging cribs and cradle.3 are now justly exploded. 663. 2tedeh>igincludes palliasses, or straw mat- tresses ; hair, wool, or other mattresses ; hay, chaff, or feather beds; bolsters, pillows, sheets, blankets, and counter- panes, The palliass is an inflexible mattress, stuffed with drawn wheat straw ; placed as the lower layer of the bed- ding, for the purpose of raising it, and giving a more agreeable basis to thè feather-bed. The common mattress is formed by stuffing a canvass case with flocks, wool, baked horse-hair, sea grass, technically called CTlva marina, or any other articles which when put together form an elastic body, and afterwards quilting it down, and covering it with a description of cloth called ticken. The feather bed and the pillows are stuffed with feathers. In Scotland, mattresses and bolsters, exceedingly agreeable to sleep upon, are stuffed with the outer chaff of the oat, carefully sifted from the smaller chaff, and from ail dust, and renewed once a year. In Italy, and in countries where the maize is in common culture, excellent mattresses are formed by stuffing them with tlie chaff of that grain. A few flowers of the hop mixed with the chaff of the bolster gives that article an agreeable fragrance, which is at the same time soporific. George III. at one time slept on a pillow entirely stuffed with hops ; and some years ago, when in Worcestershire, we think in 1815, we slept at a farm house, on a bed, bolster, and pillows, ail stuffed with hops, and found that they formed a speciesof bedding soft and powerfully fragrant, though said to be unwholesome. 664. Substitutes for Stuffing to beds, bolsters, and pillows hâve been proposed by upholsterers at different times, and some of them hâve lately been a good deal used : of these we shall mention three ; viz., wire springs, air, and water. 665. Wire Springs for stuffing are nothing more than spiral doils of wire, fig. 704, gjne- rally an eighth of an incn in diameter for mattresses, and smaller for cushions, carnage seats, &c. These springs are placed, side by side, on interlaced webbing, strained to a frame of the size of the intended bed, cushion, or seat ; they 704 are then ail confined by cords to one height, and covered by a piece of ticken or strong canvass, strained tightly over them. On this is spread a layer of curled horse-hair, and an upper cover of ticken is then put over the whole, and nailed down tight to the under side of the wooden frame with tacks. For our own part, we prefer beds made with these spiral springs to any other ; not only from their greater elasticity, and the equal diffusion of the support which they afford to the body, but because, from the quantity of air among the springs, they can never become so warm as beds stuffed with any of the ordinary materials. The effecfc of spiral springs as stuffing has been long known to men of science ; but so little to upholsterers, that a patent for using them in stuffing was taken out, some years ago, as a new invention. Beds and lü seats of this description are now, however, made by upholsterers generally, and the springs may be had from Birmingham by the hundred weight.FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWEELINGS. 33J 666. Air JBeds and Cushions were invented by John Clark of Bridgewater, in 1813. He first renders the case of the bed, pillow, hammock, or cushion, impervious to air, by preparing it with caoutchouc; he next encloses it in another case not impervious to air, and afterwards forces the air into the inner case by means of an air-pump, preventing it from returning by an air-tight stopcock. He observes “ that these beds afford the most renovating and easy repose ; that they may be rendered soft to any required degree, and either cool or warm, by changing the air ; that, on the general principle of fluids main- taining a uniform level, they are not subject to hard lumps or knots, like feathers, wool, or down ; that they never can get damp ; that they require no making up ; that the largest bed weighs only a few ounces, and that, being exhausted, they may be folded or rolled up, so as to go in very little bulk, and hence their great advantage to travellers.” For medical purposes, hesays, “ they may be filled with air at any required température; or with water, steam, or other fluids, either wet or dry, elastic or non-elastic, to which the case is imperméable. Seamen’s hammocks, if fllled with air, would be light, portable, and buoyant ; and, in case of shipwreck, might be used as life preservers. Cushions, pads, and carriage linings thus, filled, will also be eligible and commodious, from their lightness and elasticity. (Repertory of Arts, vol. xxiv. p. 157.) 667. The Hydrostatic Bed for Invalids is a recent invention of that enlightened and benevolent physician Dr. Arnott, the author of the Eléments of Physics, and is already coming into general use in the London hospitals. Its object is to mitigate ail, and entirely to prevent some, of the evils attendant on remaining for a great length of time in a reclining posture. “ The health, and even life, of every part of the animal body dépends on the sufficient circulation through it of fresh blood, driven in by the force of the heart. Now, when a man is sitting or lying, the parts of his flesh compressed by the weight of his body do not receive the blood so readily as at other times ; ^nd if, from any cause, the action of his heart lias become weak, the interruption of the circulation will both follow more quickly and be more complété. A peculiar uneasiness arises where the circulation is thus obstructed, impelling evenahealthy person to involuntary changes of position : when the body is debilitated with sickness, however, these changes occasion much fatigue ; and should the sensations after a time become indistinct, as in delirium, palsy, &c., or the patient hâve become too weak to obey them, the compressed parts are kept so long without their natural supply of blood, that they lose their vitality, and change to what are called sloughs, or mortified parts. These hâve afterwards to be thrown ofF, if the patient survive, by the process of ulcération ; and they leave deep holes, which require to be filled up with new flesh during a tedious convalescence. Many a fever, after a favourable crisis, has terminated fatally from this cause ; and the same termination is common in lingering consumptions, palsies, spine diseases, &c. ; and, generally, in ail diseases which confine patients long to their beds.” (Penny Mag., vol. i. p. 215.) Dr. Arnott, having tried various descriptions of beds contrived for inval ids, including air pillows, down pillows, &c., thought at last of a hydrostatic bed. He “ reflected that the support of water to a floating body is so uniformly diffused, that every thousandth part of an inch of it has, as it were, its own separate liquid pillar, and no one part bears the load of its neighbour ; that a person resting in a bath is nearly thus sup- ported ; that a patient might be laid upon the surface of a bath over which a large sheet of waterproof India rubber cloth had been previously thrown, his body being rendered sufficiently buoyant by a soft mattress being placed beneath it ; and that it might thus repose upon the surface of the water, without sensible pressure any where.” (Ibid.) The hydrostatic bed is made of the usual dimensions ; and is nothing more than a wooden trough, say four feet wide, six feet long, and one foot deep, lined with lead or zinc, to render it water-tight. Over this is thrown a sheet of India rubber cloth, as large as would be a complété lining to the box if it were empty. The edges of this sheet are secured by narrow slips of wood, or tinned iron hooping, firmly screwed down ail round the top of the trough, shutting in the water as completely as if it were in a bottle, the only opening being at one end, which is filled by a cock. Upon this India rubber sheet a mattress, pillow, and bedclothes are laid, as in common beds. The box may be made by any carpenter, and lined by any plumber, and the India- rubber cloth is manufactured by Mackintosh and Co., Charing Cross.. 668. Bed Fumiture. The usual material for the hangings of cottage beds, especially for tent beds, is dimity, which has the advantage of being easily washed, and may thus be always contrived to hâve a clean appearance. Printed cottons, Manchester stripes, and chintzes are also very suitable, particularly the latter, for French beds ; but moreens and other woollen stuffs should never be used in cottages, as they hâve not only too heavy an appearance for a small room, but are liable to harbour dust and vermin. The fumiture of the bed, and the curtains of the Windows of the room in which it is placed, should always be of the same material and colour. 669. Window Curtains give such an air of comfort to a room, whether it be to the8.38 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. spectator from without, or to the occupant within, that we coulcl wish no cottage, however humble, to be without them. For the same reason, we should wish cottage Windows to be large, that the curtains may be displayed without too much obstructing the light. Window curtains give the mistress of the house an excellent opportunity for exercising her taste in their arrangement; and it is but doing justice to the French and Germans, to State that they are far in advance of the British, or, indeed, of any other people of Europe, in this particular. From Stockholm to Naples, the room of a French- man may always be known, before entering it, by the curtains of his window. It is not that they are formed of expensive materials, for these are seldom employed, except in a superior description of houses ; but muslins, cottons, and lenos, of different colours, sometimes accompanied by shawl bordering, sewed upon the cottons, are put up with a degree of style and taste which indicates both talent and a love of home in the occupant. It would be easy to introduce the same taste in Britain, if it were once properly pointed out to young females, and exemplified by the comparatively enlightened cottager ; for example, in the dwellings of the married upper servants of country gentlemen. The first step, however, is to hâve large Windows. Fig. 705, p. 339, is a very plain style of hanging curtains. A round pôle of wood is supported at each end by a bracket, fig. 706 a, which is fixed by screw nails to the architrave of the window. The pôle is kept securely in its place by the screw-pin, b, which passes through the bracket, and is screwed into the pôle so as to keep it quite firm. On the pôle are fourteen rings, generally of brass, but for a common cottage they might be made of iron bronzed ; and in the lower part of each ring there is a small eye, c, in which is inserted the end of the wire hook, d, which is sewed along the inside of the upper margin of the curtain. By these means the curtain can be unhooked, and taken down to be cleaned at any time. The curtain, when not drawn, may be supported by a wooden pin, by a brass pin, by a brass band, e, which fits into a socket, f, and will stand either upright, or horizontal, at pleasure, accord- ingly as the square tenon of the band may be introduced. In fig. 705, this band is shown at g g, placed horizontally ; in fig. 706 it is shown placed upright. Instead of a pin or band, a piece of riband or curtain line, with a ring on each end, might be hooked on two knobs, and thus loop up the curtain. The manner in which this curtain, which opens in the middle, is made to draw from the centre to each side of the window, is shown in fig. 707. A line, h, is passed round the small pulley which works in the pulley rack, i ; it is then carried over another pulley atÆ; then over a third at l ; and a fourth at m, return- ing to the pul- ley rack, where it is joined to its other end. There are two rings at n and o ; one of which, the curtains being closed, is attached to the inner edge of one curtain, and the other to the inner edge of the other. The ring n is then fastened to the upper line, by a small eye on the outer edge of the ring, which may be seen in the figure ; and the ring o to the under line, by similar means. On inspecting the figure, it will be évident that, when thus arranged, by pulling the line p, the curtain to which the ring o is attached will he pulled towards m, and that to which n is fixed towards l ; and thus the curtains will be opened. The reverse will be of course effected by pulling the line h. The curtain rod may be formed either of iron or of any hard wood ; and it should 707FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 339 7 05340 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. no V 313365FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 341 be fixed to the under side, or soffit, of. the window, by hooks of the form shown at g. This is the very simplest form of curtain made to draw. apart, and it may be made by any country carpenter. The cheapest matèrial for these curtains is calico, dyed crimson, blue, or any other ingrain colour that will wash. They may also be formed of dimity, with a strip of glazed calico about an inch and a half wide, of any colour suitable to the other furniture of the room, sewed on about two inches from the margin. This coloured calico is, of course, taken off when the dimity is washed, and, with care, will last clean and look well for years. Coloured calico eut in vandykes, or in any other pattern, and sewed on close to the edge, may be substituted for the plain strip, if preferred. 670. Window Curtains in the Grecian style. Fig. 708, p. 339, may be considered as suitable for a cottage finished in the Grecian style, including under that term the Italian manner. This curtain requires a different bracket from the other. A lath, four inches wide, fig. 709, r, is fixed on the architrave of the window, by an iron angle bracket, s. The bracket which supports the pôle, t, is of brass, and it is fastened by screws on the top of the lath. The curtains are arranged as in the preceding Design, and the drapery or valance over them, at top, 709 is hooked into the rings (shown in fig. 708), in a similar manner to the curtains, so that both drapery and curtains may be taken off to be washed. The pôle to which the drapery is attached would look remarkably well if stained of a mahogany colour ; or, in a Gothic cottage, to re- semble oak. Fig. 710, p. 340, is another curtain in the Grecian style, in the construc- tion of which the plaited drapery, or valance, is tacked to the cornice in a manner which vve shall include in our description of the next figure. 671. A Gothic Curtain and Cornice are represented in the Design, fig. 711, p. 340. The cornice may be made of deal, and painted and grained to imitate oak. The drapery is nailed on to the lath with tacks, the heads of which are covered by the cornice, as 1 shown in the sections, p. 340, u. The cornice takes off and puts on by means of what are called cornice slides, v, which go into a broad staple, w. The curtain runs behind the drapery, on a pulley rod, as shown in the section x, in fig. 708, p. 339. The pins to support the curtains may be made of oak, in order to harmonise with the cornice. 672. Curtains for the humblest description of Cottages. Where an apparatus of lines and pulleys wouîd be too expensive, a simple curtain, opening in the centre, may be formed by nailing two pièces of dimity, coloured calico, or printed cotton, to a square cornice, either painted, or covered with a piece of paper bordering ; these curtains may be looped back by a piece of sash line, or coloured cord, twisted round hooks fixed to the architrave, and will thus form a kind of Gothic drapery across the window. Another simple description of curtain is formed by nailing a piece of dimity, or other matèrial, of the requisite length and width, to a fiat piece of wood, in one end of which are inserted two pulleys ; while two others are let into it, one in the middle, and the other at the opposite extremity. Three pièces of tape are sewed down the curtain, one on each side, and one in the middle, to which are affixed small rings, at regular distances : through these rings are passed three pièces of cord, which aftetwards go over the pulleys, and, being fastened together on one side, are kept tight by means of a pulley rack. By this apparatus the curtain may be raised or lowered at pleasure. The board with the pulleys is concealed by a cornice, to which a valance, or any other description of drapery, may be attached. 673. Inside Window Blinds are of various kinds; but the chief are roller blijids, Venetian blinds, and wire blinds. The roller blind, being much the cheapest, may be considered the most suitable for common cottages. It is simply a piece of linen, of the height and breadth of the window, nailed to a roller, which has a pulley at one end, by means of a string over which the blind is pulled up ; and it is drawn down by a cord and tasse! fixed to the middle of its lower edge. The blind is kept extended to the width of the window by a lath, passed through a broad hem, at the opposite end to that which is fixed to the roller. The roller works in pivots at each end ; and motion is usually com- municated to it, for the purpose of drawing up the blind, by an endless cord, which passes over the wooden pulley on the end of the roller, and under the small brass pulley in the rack. (A rack is shown in fig. 707, at i.) As the pulley and rack often re- quire adjusting, a more simple plan is to hâve the pulley affixed to the roller of the blind, with a cylinder or axis smaller in diameter than that of the roller on which the blind is wound up. To this is attached a line, the length of which should bear the same relation to that of the blind, as the diameter of the cylinder of the pulley does to that of the cylinder of the roller. The line must be affixed when the blind is wound up on the roller, so that the action of drawing down the biind may wind up the cord*34)2 COTTAGE* FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. The smaller the diameter of the axis of the pulley is in comparison with that of thé oller, the shorter will be the length of string required. A great improvement in this description of blinds has been made by forming the roi 1er of a tin case that encloses a spring, which acts so as to turn the roller, and pull up the blind of itself. The best description of this spring roller blind is one improved by Messrs. Barron and Mills, which we shall describe when treating of blinds for villas. Sometimes, instead of linen blinds being plain, they are painted with transparent colours, so as to represent stained glass Windows, landscapes, &c. These blinds, while they exclude the sun, admit abun- dance of light, and are very suitable for staircase Windows, or the Windows of cottages which hâve either no view, or one which it is désirable to exclude. A great improve- ment has lately been made in the manufacture of transparent blinds by Mr. Newbury of London, who paints them on a superior description of gauze, of his own invention. Long and short Venetian blinds, and short inside wire blinds, are not unsuitable for the better description of cottages ; but we shall defer what we hâve to say of them till we corne to speak of Villa Furniture. 674. Commoner descriptions of Short Inside Blinds are formed of muslin or leno, either flounced ail round, and opening in the middle, or with flounces only at top. These blinds may be affixed to the Windows either by a piece of tape drawn through a string case running across the blind near the top, and fastened by brass hooks to the side styles of the window ; or by brass wires or rods passed through broad hems at the top and bottom of the blind, and having a loop at each end, to drop on the pin of a small brass bracket affixed to the side style or bead of the window frame. Other blinds may be netted by the cottager’s wife, of white cotton, or green worsted, the size required, and hung on brass hooks fixed to the astragals and side styles of the window. Various other blinds may be formed of equallÿ cheap materials, according to the taste and skill of the mistress of the cottage. 675. Lines and Knobs for Curtains and Blinds, $c. The description of line used should always be the plaited thread line, which, being of the same material throughout, is much stronger, and lasts four or five times as long as the common twined sash line, which in many cases is made of one material on the outside and another in the interior. This patent thread line, as it is called, is manufactured of ail sizes, from that fit for a carriage window blind, to one thick enough for a sliip’s cable; and it should be used, not only in curtains and blinds, but in hanging sashes, piictures, and, in short, in ail cases requiring Unes. Knobs of iron, brass, or wood, for the purpose of fastening Unes round, are far préférable to the hooks of different kinds in common use ; because they hâve a more solid and architectural look; are mcrre removed from a common nail ; and are not so apt to catch the corners of the laths of Venetian blinds, or to tear cloth blinds or curtains. 676. Looking-glasses for cot- tages may be divided into two classes ; chimney or pier glasses, and dressing-glasses. Fig. 712 is a Design for a chimney glass in the Grecian style, and fig. 713 is another in the Gothic manner. The frames may be of deal, painted in imitation of oak, or they may be gilt, which is generally considered to look best. For a Gothic cot- tage, very handsome and cheap pier and chimney glasses may be formed by constructing a frame like a Gothic window, and glazing it with panes of plate glass, or of a superior descrip-FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 343 tion of coramon glass prepared as looking-glass. The same may be done in Grecian cottages by imitating a Grecian window. By placing mirrors of this kind so as to reflect the best exterior views, apparent extent, variety, and gaiety may sometimes be added to even small rooms. Where it is desired to hâve richly ornamented frames, they can be had in great variety, and at a very moderate price, made of the papier mâché of Bielefield and Haselden (see § 568), or of a composition manufactured by Jackson of Rathbone Place. 677. Dressing-glasses may hâve their frames made either in the Grecian or Gothic style. Fig. 715 is the ordinary form, improved in the style of design, so as to har- monise with Grecian forms ; and, if the supporters were of cast-iron bronzed, it might be recommended : but, made of wood, it is not heavy enough to resist the action of the wind against the back of the glass when the window is open ; and, accordingly, bed-room glasses of this description are very frequently blown down and broken. Fig. 714 is also a Design in the Grecian style, with a plinth or base of solid wood, on which it stands. Such glasses are called by cabinet-makers plateau glasses ; and they are far préférable to the common sort, for obvious reasons. Figs. 716 and 717 are Designs for plateau glasses in the Gothic style, which are given principally to show that style should be attended to in minor as well as in major articles of furniture. Fig. 717 has a drawer for trinkets, &c. 678. Fenders should be low, and may be narrow, when the fuel chamber is placed low ; and more especially when the beveled front bars and drawer, § 599, fig* 534, are used. The lower and narrower the fender, the more heat, other circumstances being the same, will be radiated into the room. The front of the fender, unless very low indeed, ought always to be of open work, in order to admit through it the radiation from the fire. The forms and lines and general style of the fender ought to be the same as those of the grate; and both ought to harmonise with the chimney-piece. We hâve seen a cottage fender with a well hole inside for containing coals ; thus serving instead of a coal scuttle, and at the same time drying the fuel so as to diminish the quantity of smoke produced ; in this case the fender and its well fitted into a sunk panel in the hearth, and as it was in the house of a toll bar keeper, who had to sit up ail night, it proved convenient ; because the coals were always at hand, and burned readily when put on the fire. Fenders should hâve stands for fire-irons, unless a substitute is provided by holders being screwed to the grate. The cheapest kind of cottage fenders are of painted wire, and these may do for parlours and bed-rooms ; but there are very bandsome and cheap fenders of cast iron, which are much more appropriate tor kitchens. 679. Fire-ironS) stoves, and grates, when of polishediron or Steel, require a great deal 717344 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. of severe and disagreeable labour from women, which we hâve long wished to see put an end to, by the substitution of a more rational mode of heating than that of open fire- places; but, in the mean time, as the cottager must hâve fire-irons of some sort, we recommend him to hâve plain patterns, and rather to indulge in some other description of furniture which requires less care in keeping. Where wood is the principal fuel, we recommend the kitchen poker to terminate at the lower extremity in two claws like a claw hammer, cw a crowbar; and to be hollow, with one orifice between the claws, and another at the opposite end for applying the mouth to blow the fire, or rather to rouse the embers after they hâve been collected together from the ashes by the claws. We hâve seen the use of such pokers in the kitchens of inns in Germany ; and tliink they may be safely recommended as very superior to those in common use, where wood is burnt on a hearth. 680. Carpets are sources of comfort in every room ; and we should wish the cottager to hâve not only one in his parlour, but, if possible, also one in his bed-room. For neither the parlour nor the bed-room would we recommend the carpet to be fitted to the room ; because such carpets can very seldom be either turned or changed in any way. In general, whatever may be the shape of the room, the carpet ought to be in the form of a square, a parallelogram, or a circle. A square carpet may be changed eight times, so as to be worn equally on every part of both sides ; a circular one, indefinitely. A parallelogram may be changed four times, which will also admit of wearing it with tolér- able regularity. A carpet, accurately fitted, or planned (the term among upholsterers), to every projection and recess of a room, cannot even be changed once, unless the projections and recesses should be of a particular description of symmetry, which is very seldom to be met with. It is évident, then, that a fitted carpet, which can neither be changed nor turned, will not last more than one eighth the time of a square one, or one fourth the time of a parallelogram. For a cottager’s bed-room, we would chiefly recommend one piece of carpeting placed by the dressing-table, and pièces neatly fitted to each other to go round the foot and sides of the bed. In general, the parlour carpet will require to be made fast at the margins with a few tacks, but the bed-room carpets may be left loose. Stair carpets give an air of great comfort and finish to a house ; and a cottage should never be without one. We shall describe the manner of laying these down, and shall enter into other particulars respecting carpets, when we corne to speak of Villa Furniture. When a parlour carpet does not cover the whole of the floor, there are various ways of disposing of the margin between it and the wall. Some recommend oil- cloth, others baize, drugget, coarse broadcloth, or brown linen ; for our part, we greatly prefer to any of these, painting that part of the boards of the floor which is not covered with the carpet, of the same colour as the woodwork of the room ; taking care that the margin painted shall exceed in breadth by a few inches the space which it is intended to leave uncovered. This is by far the best mode in staircases and in bed- rooms, as well as in parlours ; it also saves a great deal of the most disagreeable part of a woman’s household labours. When the woodwork of the room is painted to imitate oak, this mode of treating the margins of the floor has a particularly good effect. The expense may be objected to ; but we shall show, when we corne to treat of the art of house-painting, how easily any cottager or his wife, though they never before saw a paint brush in their lives, may learn in an hour to grain the woodwork of their cottage, in imitation of oak, sufficiently well for every purpose they can require. Round carpets are not very common in England, but they are not unfrequent on the Continent, and look exceedingly well in a square room. 681. The kinds of carpets most suitahle for cottages are chiefly the Scotch and the Kidderminster, on account of their cheapness ; but we consider none too good for the cottager, provided he can afford to pay for them. In choosing a pattern, the smallest is generally to be preferred, not only as a matter of taste, as being more in accordance with small rooms, but in point of economy ; because, in sewing the breadths together, it requires less cutting out to make it match, and because, when the carpet gets old, the patches put? on in mending are less conspicuous. The parlour carpet, and the carpets of at least one bed-room, should be of the same pattern, in order that, when the former is partly worn out, the latter may be used to mend it ; because it is always bad, both in point of effect and economy, to mend what is old with what is quite new. A very neat pattern for carpets has lately been introduced for libraries, but it would suit Gothic cottages equally well. It consists of an imitation of wainscot, has a quiet subdued tone of colour, and accords well with furniture made, or painted in imitation, of oak. 682. Colours of Carpets. Much of the opinion which we form of ail objects dépends on the effect of the first impressions which we receive from them. Our first ideas of any man or woman, on seeing them at a short distance from us, are taken from their height and clothing ; and our first ideas of a room, from its size, and the covering or colour of its floor and walls. Taking the room as a whole, and considering its effect asFURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 345 a, picture, the colours of the carpet and of tlie walls will form the principal masses in the composition, and will necessarily influence every othér component part. If the floor and the walls were of the same colour, there would be a deficiency of force and of effect, from want of contrast ; if they were of different colours, equally attracting the eye, the effect produced would not be tbat of a whole ; because a whole is the resuit of the coopération of different subordinate parts with one principal part. The harmony of the colouring of a room, therefore, can only be produced by the same kind of knowledge which guides an artist in painting a picture. The principles of the art of painting supply the prin- cipes for the art of distributing colours in furnishing ; but, as this art cannot ail at once be communicated to the reader, ail that we shall attempt, at présent, is, to supply him with a few hints, drawn from the usual practice of upholsterers. These are, that neither the colours of the carpet should be so brilliant as to destroy the effect of those of the paper, nor the contrary ; and that the curtains should always be of a colour suitable to both. It is not necessary that they should be of the same colour, but that they should be of colours that harmonise, or, in other words, look well together. A very brilliant colour, such as crimson, in the carpet, may hâve a drab or other subdued colour in the curtains and paper ; but then there should be some of the brilliant colour introduced in both, as bordering or ornaments. Thus, a room with a bright blue or crimson carpet may hâve white, yellow, or drab, curtains and paper ; but blue or crimson bordering or ornaments should be introduced in them, to harmonise the effect. It would not do, in the case of the blue carpet, to hâve green curtains or paper, or with the crimson ta hâve scarlet ; because these colours do not accord. A green carpet may hâve black, red, or white curtains, with green borders and ornaments. A yellow carpet may hâve black curtains, and a dark grey paper with yellow borders and ornaments. Whatever will apply to a self-coloured carpet, curtains, or paper, will àpply equally well in ail cases where those colours predominate. It should never be forgotten, that the whole effect of an elegantly furnished room may be destroyed by the sélection of a carpet which, though handsome in itself, does not harmonise with the other fumiture. 683. Geographical Carpets. The idea of a geographical carpet, that is, a carpet with the lines of a map substituted for a regular pattern, has been suggested (Mech. Mag., vol. xii. p. 21.) ; and we agréé with the author of the suggestion in thinking that “ a carpet is so admirably adapted to geographical instruction, that it may be almost said to be a natural article for the purpose. A map is a picture of the surface of the earth, and on the ground is the place to view it. One on so large a scale as a carpet would admit, is calculated to give a more correct idea of the relative position of places than cotild be effected by the largest map now extant. A family in the daily occupation of a room furnished with such a carpet, would acquire unavoidably a more permanent knowledge of a given portion of the earth than could be obtained by any other means ; and, when the local position of the room would admit, the carpet might be placed agreeably to the bearings of the compass, and it would thereby give a correct idea of the real direction of places on the map.” The principal objection to this plan seems to be, the great difficulty which would attend its execution. A map, such as above described, might, however, be printed on fine cloth, or brown holland linen, and might then serve as a cover to a carpet. This would be particularly suitable for a school-room or jiursery. 684. Substitutesfor Carpets. Green baize and drugget are often used as substitutes for carpets, and are not only cheap, but in many cases look remarkably well. When a drab drugget is used, a border of black or any dark-coloured cloth, laid on about two inches from the margin, has a very good effect. Cheap carpets may be made by industrious housewives of a kind of patchwork. Remnants of cloth bought from the woollen- draper, or tailor, and eut into any kind of geometrical shapes, may be sewed together, so as to form circles, stars, or any other regular figures that may be desired ; and, when arranged with taste, produce a very handsome and durable carpet, at a very triflin^ expense. The figures, of whatever nature they may be, should be always symmetrical ; and a handsome border should invariably surround the whole, so as to preserve the idea of unity of design ; care should also be taken that the colours employed harmonise, not only with each other, but, as before advised, with those of the other furniture of the room. 685. Paper Carpets are formed by cutting out and sewing together pièces of linen, cot- ton, Scotch gauze, canvass, or any similar material, &c., to the size and form required ; then stretching the prepared cloth on the floor of a large room, and carefully pasting it round the margins so as to keep it strained tight. If cotton be the material, it will require to be previously wetted. When the cloth thus fixed is dry, lay on it two or more coafc of strong paper, breaking joint, and finish with coloured or hanging paper, according to fancy. Centre or corner pièces, eut out of remnants of papers, which may be bought for a mere trifle, may be laid on a self-coloured ground, and the whole surrounded by a border ; or any other method adopted which may suit the taste or circumstances of the N N346 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE; occupier, or accord with the other fumiture of the room. When the carpet is thus pré- parée!, and quite dry, it should receive two coats of glue, or size made from the shreds of skins, such as is used by carvers and gilders. This size should be put on as warm as possible, and care should be taken that no part of the carpet be left untouched by it ; otherwise the varnish to be afterwards laid on will sink into the paper, and spoil it. When the size is perfectly dry, the carpet should hâve one or more coats of boiled oil ; and when that is dry, a coat of copal or any other varnish. The varnish is not absolutely essential, as boiled oil has been found to answer very well without it ; but where oil only is used, it requires several more coats to be applied, and takes a much longer time to dry. These carpets are portable, and will roll up with about the same ease as oilcloth. They are very durable, are easily cleaned ; and, if made of well-chosen patterns, hâve a very handsome appearance. Where labour is cheap, the cost will be very trifling ; the materials being of little value, and the expense consisting chiefly in the time requisite to put them together. Where cloth cannot be easily procured, the carpet may be made by pasting paper to painted boards ; when, by repeated coats of paper, it is become strong and firm, it will separate from the paint, and will be as durable as if mounted on any kind of cloth. For earth, brick, or stone floors, in order to render them impervious to damp, these carpets may be made with two faces, by pasting paper to both sides of the cloth which forms their basis, and well oiling or varnishing them on the under as well as upper surface : they may also be bound with leather or any strong substance, to prevent moisture from penetrating to the paste. The pàste used in the préparation of these carpets ought to be very strong, and is best when beer or sweet wort is substituted for common water. It must be kept free from lumps, and, when taken from the fire, stirred till cold. Papers used for carpets should hâve sufficient gum or size employed in the printing of them, to enable them to withstand the effects of the washing over with warm size. If printed in oil, a strong coat of size should be given to the back to prevent the oil from penetrating through the paper, otherwise it can- not be pasted to linen, cotton, or any thing else. Papers printed in oil will not require any size before they receive the finishing coats of boiled oil and varnish. When varnished on one side only, they ought to be rolled up with that side outwards, to pre- vent its cracking. {London Jour, of Arts and Sciences.) Paper carpets would perhaps be better for geographical subjects, than carpets formed of any material produced by the loom. We hâve before suggested the idea of geographical, natural history, and other scientific papers, for the walls of apartments ; and, if these were once made, they might be transferred to paper carpets at pleasure. 686. Hearth Rugs are of various patterns and prices. Their use is obvious, in saving the carpets from becoming worn by the constant movement of persons near the lire. When economy is an object, a piece of carpeting the same as that of the room, and the width of the hearth, may be employed, and this may be either hemmed at the ends, or stir- rounded by a deep fringe of black or very dark brown worsted, which the mistress of the cottage may net herself, and sew on. A cheap rug may also be formed of a piece of drab drugget bound with black, or any other colour to suit the paper and curtains, and fringed ; either with or without a strip of cloth, of the same colour as the binding, laid on about two inches from the margin. This kind of rug does very well without the fringe. Another kind of cheap hearth rug may be made by the cottager’s wife, of remnants of cloth eut into narrow strips about half an inch broad, and three or four inches long; these strips are doubled, and sewed at the bend, in rows, to a strong piece of cloth, or knitted into a framework of packthread. In either case the colours are disposed so as to form some kind of pattern ; and, the ends being left loose, and eut even when the work is finished, with a large pair of scissors or shears, the whole présents a remarkably rich, warm, and massive appearance. 687. Painted Floorchths may sometimes be used in the lobbies and passages of cot- tages ; but they are not economical articles, where there is much going out and coming in of persons generally employed in the open air, and of course wearing strong shoes, probably with nails in the soles. When they are used in cottages, the most appropriate patterns are imitations of some materials usually employed for floors, such as tessellated pavement, different-coloured stones, wainscot, &c. ; but, for the better description of dwellings, where oilcloths are considered chiefly as ornamental coverings, there seems to be no reason why their patterns should not be as various as those of carpets. 688. Matting of different sorts may be extensively used in cottages. There are some kinds, which the cottager might make for himself in the winter’s evening ; and there are others that he may purchase cheap. Matting is manufactured, in many different manners, out of the straw of corn, rushes, or other long, narrow, grassy or sedgy leaves. Among the uses to which a cottager might apply mats of this sort, which he could make himself, are, seats for chairs, stools, and benches ; foot mats for outside doors ; and screens, than which there is not a more useful article for the cottage kitchen. In Monmouthshire,FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 347 easy chairs with hoods, like porter’s chairs in gentlemen’s halls, are constructed of straw matting on a frame of wooden rods, or of stout iron wire ; and chairs like fig. 718 are made entirely of straw in diffèrent parts of England, in the same way as the common beehives. Matting of this sort might in some cases be employed as partitions, and is extensively used in the more misérable of the cottages both in France and Scotland. Russian matting, or bast, made from the inner bark of the lime tree, is very cheap, and might be useful to the cottager in many ways : the walls and partitions might be lined with it, and temporary ceilings formed of it in hovels where there were none. There are various other applications of Russian matting, which will readily occur. Indian matting, when bound with black or coloured ferreting, is a very neat article, and may be used either for walls or floors. 689. Door Mats may be made of basketwork, straw, rope, hair, wool, sheepskin, &c. A very good outside mat, or rather perhaps scraper, is formed by a piece of fiat wicker- work, somewhat coarser than that of a common hamper ; it takes the dirt effèctually from the soles of the shoes, and as it falls down in the interstices between the rods, the wicker- work has only to be lifted up now and then, and the dirt swept away. A mat which opérâtes like this wicker mat has been formed in Germany of fiat tarred rope, in the following manner:— The breadth of the rope, fig. 719 «, full size, is about three quarters of an inch, and it is something more than a quarter of an inch thick. The out- line of the mat is first formed by setting the rope on edge on the floor, or on a piece of board, in the manner of a frame, and attaching it in two or three places with nails or pegs ; the rope is next returned on itself in zigzag lines within the frame, either by continually going round it till it ends in the centre, or by going backwards and forwards from one end to the other, tül it finishes on one side. This being done, ail the parts which touch are sewed together, and the resuit is a mat like fig. 719, b (to the scale of half an inch to a foot). These mats are imported from Ger- many ; and, when used as shop-door mats in London, they are found to be more durable than any other kind that has yet been tried. One of the commonest and most useful out-door mats is made of untwisted rope yarn, woven into very coarse canvass, and then eut, so as to présent a brush-like surface, on which, not only the soles of the shoes maybe cleaned, as in the wicker and rope mats, but also the sides. In-door mats are made of hair, tow, or wool, in various modes. One of the best for a cottager’s bed-room door is a black or grey sheepskin, with ail the wool on. A black or dark goatskin makes also a very handsome mat. Skins with white or other light-coloured hair or wool make very handsome mats, but are hardly advisable for a cottager, as they require frequent washing. 690. Scrapers for the feet may be let into the wall of the cottage, on each side of the door, a cavity being left over the scraper for the foot, and one under it for the dirt. There are various forms of scrapers for building into walls, which may be had of every ironmonger ; and ail that the cottager has to do is to choose one analogous to the style of his house. There are detached scrapers in endless variety ; the most complété are those which hâve brushes fixed on edge, on each side of the scraper, which, with other forms, we shall describe and figure under Villa Furniture. Scrapers are so essential to cleanliness, that, where the cottager can get no better, he may drive two short stakes into the ground, about a foot apart and half a foot high, and let into them a piece of iron hooping edgewise ; or he may sink the blade of an old spade, with its edge upwards, The last two scrapers are very suitable for gardens ; and, unless the cottager keep his garden walks perfectly clean, or at least free from the clods of earth which will stick to his feet when working in the compartments, he cannot expect to hâve the gravel of his platform in nice order, or his entrance-porch clean. A dirty entrance is a sure sample of an untidy housewife ; and little coinfort can be expected in a cottage the floor of which is soiled with filth brought into it from without. Those cottagers who can afford it may' purchase the portable scraper, fig. 720, which costs, in London, only 1$. 6c?., or fig. 721, which costs 2s. ; both of which will answer either for the entrance door or the garden walks : or they may take the dibber scraper, fig. 722, which costs only 2s. 6d., and may be stuck into the garden anywhere, and pulled out again to remove it, at pleasure.3i8 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. furniture for aGothic porch or passage, where the walls are covered with pictures ; or where there are other objections to having coat and cloak pins fixed against them. Besides, it is always better for hats to be hung on stands in the free air of the apartraent, than to hâve them placed on a table, or against a wall, where they get the air only on one side. In the box at the bottom of this stand, there is a tray of tinned iron, painted black, which lifts out, in order that it may be emptied of the water which may run into it from wet umbrellas, &c., and be cleaned. Where there is sufficient space in the apartment, hat and cloak pins may be put on both sides of the tree ; in which case there should be a second box. We hâve shown on the two upper branches or rails of the trunk, or upright piece, five hat pins, or surplice pins, as they are called by upholsterers, which may be made either of brass, or of iron bronzed. On the lower rail there are four wooden pins, which may be either ma^e of oak, or painted in imitation of it. These pins are formed in two pièces ; the stem, or shank, and the head ; and the latter is screwed into the former, as indicated in fig. 725. Such 725 (1 77777 pins are made of mahogany, in Birmingham, in large quantities, and are sold to the trade ail over the country. They are far superior to brass or iron knobs or pins ; because they never tarnish or rust, and because they give decided evidence of improved design, in their far removalFURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELL1NGS. 349 from the common nail or hook. The umbrella stand, fig. 726, might very well be made of cast iron; and could not, in that material, eost more than a fourth of what it would in any description of wood ; but in this, and in similar cases, the objection is, the first expense of the pattern, which, being necessarily considérable, cannot be prudently in- curred, unless the manufacturer be secure of an extensive sale. We could wish that our furnishing ironmongers would direct a portion of that power of invention which seems to be nowalmost exclusively occupiedincontrivingbadfireplaces, to the improving of the designs and lowering the price of cabinet furniture, by the judicious introduction of cast iron. Much, we are sure, will one day be done in this way. For a smail cottage, a 730 with the addition of Mallet’s iron castors ; but very light and efficient screens may be formed by two or more wooden frames, five feet high, and two feet wide, hinged with girth webbing or leather, so as to fold either way. The mode of hinging, so as to admit of this, is by nailing the pièces of girth which serve as hinges, alternately to one side of350 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. the one hanging style, as at a, fig. 731, and to the opposite side of the other, as at b, Supposing two hinges done in this way, the two alternate ones should be nailed, as indi- cated by the dotted lines at c and d. A brass hinge, to answer the same purpose, has been lately invented by Mr. Vokins, architect and builder, of Wilton Road, London ; several of whose ingenious inventions and contrivances we shall hâve to notice when speaking of Villas. The wooden frames for the screen may hâve canvass strained on them, in order that they may be covered with paper ; or they may be covered with green baize, drugget, or any sinvîlar material, with a border of ferreting, attached by brass-headed nails, or bordered by the nails only. In case of the screen being covered with paper, maps, subjects of natural history, arithmetical or chronological tables, alma- nacks, or, in short, any kind of useful subjects, should be preferred, for the reasons given, § 584. 695. Fire-screens may be wanted in a cottage as well as in a palace. A lady has sent us a cottage fire-screen, made of straw, with a hook attached to it, by which it is hung on the back of a chair, fig. 732, which will answer very well when sitting with the back to the lire. To shield the face a standard fire-screen is required ; but we shall leave the reader to contrive one for himself from the Designs, which he will find in another part of this work, under the head of Fire-screens for Villas. 696. Clothes Horses and Stands for brushing Coats. Clothes horses, for drying linen, Sec., are open frames hinged in the same manner as folding-screens ; and one or more of them should be found in every cottage, not connected with a public drying establishment. There are generally three horizontal rails to these clothes horses ; one at top, one within two feetof the bottom, and one between. In a small cottage the clothes horse might be contrived to answer the purpose of a screen, by having a movable cover, either to slip on, or to be attached by hooks, or pièces of tape. Stands for brushing clothes are formed of a foot in the form of a Greek cross, with an upright piece firmly mortised into it at the point of intersection ; into the top of which, about five feet from the ground, is mortised another piece, about two feet long, which serves as arms, on which is put the coat to be brushed. Where there is not room for a stand, the arms, with a post of six or eight inches in length, may be hinged to the back of a door, so as to fall down like a flap when not in use, and be supported by a bracket, or horse and rack, when a coat is to be brushed ; or the form shown in fig. 733 may be adopted, in which the jïb bracket, e, works by two pins in f f, and the cross piece, g, also works on a pin in the upper part of the bracket ; the holes, h h, are for slipping it on to nails fixed to any wall or door. Whatever kind of coat stand or horse ma.y be used, there should always be a table at the command of the person brushing the coat, on which to fold it up, previously to putting it away. 697. > Chïldrerüs Fumiture. To enable a mother who has no servants, to relieve herself at pleasure from carrying her child, there are various contrivances in use in England, which deserye to be mentioned ; and there is one, for cleanliness and decency, which deserves imitation in every country, and more especially in our own. Fig. 734 is a swing chair, formed out of ten pièces of elder tree, a, six inches long, and an inch andFURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 351 a half in diameter, with the pith burnt out with a redhot poker, or other iron ; nine rails about a foot long, with a round hole at each extremity, b ; a bottom .board a foot square, with a round hole in each corner, c ; and four sash lines or cords about a quarter of an inch in diameter, and of sufficient length to reach from the ceiling of the room in which the chair is to be hung. Knots being made on the ends of the lines, the tubes and rails are strung on as in the figure, and the other ends of the cords tied together and suspended from a hook in the ceiling. By omitting four of the cylinders and four of the rails, a chair may be made for an infant of the earliest âge. A cushion may be put in the bottom, or the bottom may be stuffed. Fig. 735 is a go-gin for a child who can stand, to teach him to walk. It consists of a perpendicular shaft, long enough to reach from the floor to the ceiling, which tums in a hole in a brick or stone of the floor, and within a staple driven into the side of one of the ceiling joists, or by any similar means. The piece d, about eighteen inches long, is mortised into the upright shaft, about eighteen inches from the ground ; and the wooden ring, e, about seven or eight inches in diameter, has a piece about six inches long, which is hinged at one end, and fastened with a hook and eye at the other. This opens, and the child being put in is enclosed at the height of the waist. The ring taking part of the child’s weight, he cannot fall, and he soon learns to walk. Frequently this ring is made of twisted withy, fig. 736, with an eye at one extremity and a hook at the other : or each extremity is made to terminate in a loop, and when the child is put into the ring one of these is slipped over the other, and a hooked wooden pin serves to keep them together : in both cases the hinge is made like that of the handle of a basket. Both these pièces of furniture are made in England by every cottager for himself. Fig 737 is a hollow cylinder, nothing more than the section of the trunk of an old pollard tree, commonly to be met with in England ; the inside and upper edge are smoothed, and a child just able to stand is put into it, while its mother is at work by its side, or going after the business of the house. Fig. 738 is a go-cart which is frequently made of willow rods without castors, but is here shown as a piece of carpentry, standing on castors. The ring, f} opens with a hinge, and shuts, and is made fast like e in fig. 735. Children readily learn to walk by these machines, without the danger of falling. Fig. 739 is a pierced chair, made entirely of wickerwork, which costs, complété, about London, only 4s. 6d., while there is a cheaper sort, with a rush bottom, at 2s. 6d. Every one who can make a basket can make a chair of this descrip- tion. First form the skeleton frame, fig. 740 ; then commence round the circular hole in the centre, and work in either willow rods or rushes towards the extremities, according 734 735 737 738 736 739 740 to the kind of chair it mav be wished to produce. The cover of the vase in the seat, g, is lifted off by two thumb holes, so as to be quite fiat for the child to sit upon when the vase is not in use. There are two holes in the elbows of the chair, through which may be placed either simply a rod to keep the child from falling out, or a table flap, h, with two pins at the ends to fit into the holes ; the table being also sup- ported by a movable leg in front, and having a ledge round it for holding the child’s playthings ; its pins being kept in their holes by the elasticity of the sides of the. chair. In England the cottager’s child is placed on a chair of this sort after he is a week old ; but in Scotland there is neither this chair, nor any substitute for it. In both( countries there are small chairs with long feet, for elevating children to the height of an;352 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. ordinary table, so that they may sit and eat with tlieir parents ; and these, like the pierced chair, ought to be universally in use. 698. Other articles of furniture might be enumerated, and various hints given for the sélection of household utensils and instruments, but we are doubtfdl whether in this work they would be seen by those who would feel most interest in them, or to whom they would be most useful. A washing and wringing machine, such as we shall figure in our next Book would be too dear for one cottager ; but we would strongly recommend that half a dozen cottagers should join in purchasing one; as it would afford a great savirig of labour, and that, too, of the most oppressive kind, to the cottager’s wife; since wring- ing is, to a female, almost as great an exertion as mowing is to a man. Washing-tubs hâve hitherto been chiefly made round, and by the cooper, probably to accommodate the form to the ancient practice of washing by treading with the feet ; but oblong troughs are much cheaper, and far more convenient. — Every house whatever ought to pôssess the means of filtering the water used in cookery. We hâve shown how this may be done on a large scale, § SI and 305 ; on a small scale, the operation may be performed with a common garden flower-pot of a foot or more in height, according to the impurity of the water to be filtered. Over the hole in the bottom of this flower-pot should be placed a piece of sponge ; around and over which should be put two or three pièces of smooth clean stones, to keep it in its place, and, at the same time, to prevent the pressure of the filtering mate- rials (to be placed . over them) from rendering the sponge so compact as not to allow of the escape of the water. Fill the pot, when thus prepared, to within two inches of the brim, with a mixture of one part of powdered charcoal, and two parts of clean sharp sand, and on the top of this lay a piece of flannel, letting it sink in the centre, but making it fast on the outside of the pot, by a string tied tightly under the rim. The upper sur- face of the pot will nôw form a shallow basin, lined with flannel, into which the water to be filtered is to be poured, and it will be found to corne out rapidly at the bottom, quite clear. As the flannel will intercept the grosser impurities, it should be taken off fre- quently, and washed and replaced; and two or three times a year the sand and charcoal ought also to be taken out and washed. This will be found absolutely necessary ; for the purification is effected simply by the filtering materials attracting the impurities in the water ; the sand the earthy particles, and the charcoal those of organised matter. From this use of the charcoal the reader may leam to increase or lessen its proportion, according to the nature of the water to be purified. — When a cottager keeps a cow, he will require a churn, and one of the cheapest and best is the patent box churn which may now be had at Weir’s manufactory, London, for ^1. Butter may be made in this churn with a fourth of the labour requisite with the common plunge churn ; it is, besides, much more easily used, and when not wantedas a churn, makes an excellent vessel for holding water. In the choice of utensils much dépends upon knowing when to choose iron, and when wood, earthenware, or papier mâché. Cast-iron pots, tea urns, tea and coffee pots, and parlour candlesticks, are excellent ; but iron tea trays are bad, as compared with those of papier mâché, because one of the latter will last out a dozen of the former. The same may be said of ail vessels of copper or pewter, as compared with those of cast iron. It must never be forgotten that copper, pewter, and lead vessels sell for nearly as much by weight, when old and worn out, as when new, and that even cast iron will sell for some* thing, but that vessels of wrought or turned iron, when worn out, are of no value at ail. Spoons, forks, and other articles, made of a composition of nickel and other ingrédients, and known under the name of German siiver, or of Beauchamp’s British plate, may be recommended as very good substitutes for real siiver. 699. Pictures9 Sculptures, and other internai Ornaments. There is no cottage or dwelling, however humble, in which there will not be found some object purely ornamental: we hâve observed this to be the case in the most wretched log-houses in Russia, where engrav- ings of the rudest kinds, and sometimes fragments of glass or earthenware, such as no one would think worth picking up in the Street in England, are placed in rooms which cannot boast of either chairs, tables, or beds. The occupants of these hovels sleep in their sheepskin clothes, on the stove in winter, and on the floor or out of doors in suinmer ; and their seats and tables are wooden forms or turf benches. It seems, at first sight, difficult to account for a taste for ornament existing among people so circum- stanced ; but the truth is, that man, whether in a State of barbarism or refinement, is essentially the same animal, and ornaments his home, because he loves it, and wishes to render it agreeable. The trumpery of the Russian boor, and the pictures and statue of the English gentleman, are collected and displayed exactly on the same principle. It is clear, therefore, that every cottager must hâve ornaments in his house, as well as flowers in his garden ; and, since whatever it is worth doing at ail, it is worth doing well, we strongly recommend him to cover his walls with the best engravings he can get, and to ornament his chimney-pieces with handsome plaster or terra cotta casts. Such articles may now be had for a mere trifle ; for example, alto relievo plaster portraits, onFURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 353 tablets six inches or eight inches square, of eminent men, remarkably well cast, may be had in London by retail, at 6d. each; casts of Venus, Cupid, Adonis, anJ of various cele- brated antique statues, eighteen inches or more higli, may be had at 5s. each ; busts of a large size may be had at the same price, and Swiss figures in terra cotta at 2s. 6d. each. .By sizing over plaster casts when they are first bought, and quite clean ; and afterwards, when the size is perfectly dry, washing them over with copal varnish, they may be made to look almost as beautiful as marble sculpture. ( Mech. Mag., vol. xîv. p. 96.) Excel- lent engravings of subjects of everv description may now be had for a few halfpence each : the commoner sorts the cottager may paste on the back of his settle, fig. 636, § 636, or kitchen screen, and varnish them ; and the better kinds he may frame with common deal, painted to imitate maple, and either glaze or varnish them according to his means. When there is a good broad chimney shelf, there will be room for otlier ornaments of a smailer description than busts or sculptures, such as curious stones, spars, ores, or other minerais, or coins, and objects of art and antiquity ; and these the cottager will collect as he can. The public taste for articles of this description has improved in an astonishing degree within the last twenty years; and, as knowledge spreads, and the working classes acquire that leisure which, in conséquence of this spread of knowledge, will become a necessary of life to even the most hard-working country labourer, tliis improvement will increase. But the objects with which, above ail others, we should wish to see the cottage ornamented are books ; and every room, even the kitchen and bed-room, ought to hâve its book shelf. If we were asked what sort of books we should recommend generally to the cottager, meaning in this term to include the very humblest cîass of society, as well as the more elevated, we should reply that, as our aim is to render him free and independent alike mentally as physically, to fit him in short for taking care of himself, we recommend, first and principally, works on morals and politics : the former, that he may know the principle on which the social duties of ail individuals are founded ; and the latter, that he may learn the use and duty of public government. Next, we recommend books on his own art, trade, and manner of living ; and, for the rest, we leave him to his own taste. Évery cottager ought to possess a general encyclopædia. and to take in a newspaper. The penny magazines, and other cheap literature cf the présent day, though more calculated to amuse the cottager, than to instruct him how to improve his condition, will end in creating a demand for something better. 700. Remarks. Some other articles of furniture and décorations suitable for cottages might be enumerated ; but we hâve, we think, done enough, in Designs both for cottages and furniture, to prove the assertion with which we set out (§14), that ail that is essen- tially requisite for “ health, comfort, and convenience, to even the most luxurious of man- kind,” may be obtained in a cottage, the walls of which are of mud, as well as in a palace with walls of marble ; in a working man’s college of one story, as well as in the magnificent halls of Oxford and Cambridge, or in the élégant club-houses of London. A number of our readers will, no doubt, object to many of our Designs, both of cottages and furniture, as being beyond the reach of the great majority of British cottagers; but let such recollect that, in our Introduction to the Book of which this is the conclusion (see § 13), we in- cluded under the term cottager, not only labourers, mechanics, and country tradesmen, but small farmers and cultivators of their own land ; and the gardeners, bailiffs, land stewards, and other upper servants, on gentlemen’s estâtes. Let them consider, also, that our plans and views extend to both hemispheres (see § 1 ) ; and that the citizen of America, who thinks with his countryman, Dr. Dwight, that ail private dwellings should be as much as possible alike in accommodation, and that architectural display should be confined, as in ancient Greece, chiefly to public buildings, may on his part not only find the Designs given not too good, but may even object to our making any distinction between Cottages and Villas. The British cottager or workman is, no doubt, at présent in a widely different situation from the American ; but we anticipate for him a new era, and a condition very different from that in which he now is, at no great distance of time. Ail the evils which hâve so long afflicted him hâve arisen from his own moral and poli- tical ignorance, and from his conséquent incapacity for self-government, either indivi- dually or collectively ; and they will be dispelled by the éducation of the rising génération, and the new order of things which will thencèforth be established. The working classes will then be able to take care of themselves ; and never, till this shall be the case, will they obtain those comforts and enjoyments which ought to be in the possession of the industrious labourer, as well as of the wealthy capitalist Every country is essentially the property of its inhabitants; and it is only in âges and in countries where éducation is partial or unequal, that wealth and the enjoyments of life can be very greatly different. o o354 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II. ? DESIGNS FOR FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES, COUNTRY INNS, AND PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS. 701. The Designs which compose this Booik are càlculated for three of the most important occupations of man in civilised society ; viz., that of raising food on a large scale ; that of furnishing ail domestic comforts to travellers and others, who are absent from or hâve no home ; and that of the éducation of youth. The last subject does not necessarily belong to an Encyclopœdia of Domestic Architecture ; but, as our main object in this work is the amelioration of the great mass of society in ail countries, and as we consider éducation as the source of ail amelioration, and, in fact, as the only means of preparing the most depressed part of society for appreciating and obtaining the comforts and conveniences which we are pointing out to them, we find that the parochial school, for the purpose of mutual instruction, is the most important feature for the accomplishment of our object ; and, as such, ought not to be passed over unnoticed in a work like the présent. 702. The Arrangement of these Designs will be in three chapters; viz., on Far ms, on Inns, and on Schools. The first section in each chapter will consist of Fundamental Principles and Model Designs, on which the Miscellaneous Examples given in the second section of the same chapter are founded ; and the third section of each chapter will be devoted to such Furniture as may be peculiar to the class of subjects of which that chapter treats. Chap. I. Designs for Farm Houses and Farmeries, exhibiting varions Degrees of Accommodation, from the Farm of Fifty to that of One Thousand Acres, suitable to different Kinds of Farming, and in different Styles of Architecture. 703. A Farm House differs from other dwellings, more in the circumstanee of its situation, being adjoining a farmery, than in its accommodation ; but still there are some extra-arrangements, which require to be provided for in designing it, according to the kind of produce raised on the farm, the mannèr in which it is manufactured or disposed of, and the mode of lodging the lahourers employed. 704. A Farmery, or set of buildings necessary for carrying on the business of a farm, consists of various structures and enclosures ; some for lodging animais, and others for securing farm produce, for keeping farm implements, and for other purposes ; with yards for enclosing cattle, and for preparing or keeping manure ; others for containing ricks of corn, and stacks of hay, or other produce. The house in which the farmer résides is no essential part of a farmery, and is therefore left out of view in this énumération of its leading features. These features are three : the buildings, the court-yard, and the rick-yard. The rick-yard does not form an essential part of the farmery ; because but little inconvenience would resuit from having the ricks placed apart from the farm ; and, indeed, in some parts of Britain the produce of every field is fbrmed into a rick, or ricks, in one of its corners. The two essential parts of a farmery, then, are the buildings and the court-yard ; and ail the variations of which these are susceptible, in point of design, are founded on their relative position with regard to each other. Thus, ail farmeries may be included under two classes ; viz., those in which the buildings surround the court-yard, and those in which the court-yard surroùnds the buildings ; and a model of each mode must necessarily be the groundwork of every variation or combination of the component parts of a farmery. 705. The Divisions of the Buildings of a Farmery admit also, to a certain extent, of being founded on model plans ; because the animais which, in temperate climates, are to be lodged in them, are every where of the same species, and require the same extent and kind of accommodation and food ; because the manner of threshing out grain is, or may be, the same throughout the world ; and because the implements to be worked by the same animais cannot differ greatly in bulk in different countries. Previously, there- fore, to giving Model Plans for Farm Houses and Farmeries, as a whole, we shall submit General Principles, and give Model Designs and Directions, for the construction of their component parts. 706. Every particular situation and kind of Field Culture requires an appropriate arrangement in its Farmery ; therefore our object, in giving Model Designs, is chiefly to embody principles in a tangible shape, to which practical men may recur for general rules for application to peculiar localities. The manner of applying these rules we shallMODEL DESIGNS FOR FARM HOÜSES. 355 exemplify in a sériés of Miscellaneous Designs for Farm Houses and Farmeries, most of which hâve been executed in different parts of Britain, and some in France. 707. The Arrangement of the first two Sections of this Chapter, therefore, will be in the order of General Principles with Model Designs, and Miscellaneous Designs with Details and Remarks. Sect. I. General Principles and Model Designs for Farm Houses and Farmeries. 708. The object of this section is to show what parts of a farm house are peculiar to it as such, and the best mode of constructing and arranging these ; what are the details of a farmery, with the relative position for each object there ; and what is the best arrange- ment for a Farm House and Farmery, as a whole. Subsect. 1. General Principles and Model Designs for the Arrangement of a Farm House. 709. The Interior of a Farm House may be arranged in three divisions : viz., the apartments of the family, including such of the servants as live in the house ; the rooms for farm-house stores; and the places where the in-door business of the farm house is carried on. In farm houses of the smallest size, ail these may be obtained under one roof ; but in the case of large farms, where fifteen or twenty persons live on the premises, ail those offices, or places, in which the in-door business of the farm house is carried on, such as the dairy and its appendages, the cider-house, the brewhouse, the bakehouse, the wash-house, and the cleaning place, ought to be in a building or buildings separate from the house, but not far distant from it. Cellars of most kinds, however, such as those for potatoes, and other roots or vegetables to be used by the family ; for fruits ; and for beer, ale, wines, &c. ; and the larder, pantry, and coal-house, may be in the same build- ing as the farm house. 710. Of the Apartments for the Family we need enter here into few details in addition to those which hâve been given in the preceding Book. The number of living-rooms in a farm house will dépend on the extent of the farm, and on the style in which the farmer chooses or can afford to live. The smallest farm-house should hâve at least one good parlour ; and for a farm of 300 acres or upwards, of good productive soil, there ought to be in the dwelling-house, at least two good sitting-rooms, and a small library or office for business ; besides three or four bed-rooms, and a nursery. In farm houses where it is the custom to board and lodge the out-door labourers, a larger kitchen will be required for them to dine in, and a larger kitchen range tocook their food. More bed-chambers will also be necessary, and these should always hâve a separate staircase from that leading to the better rooms. In some parts of Britain yrhere the farmer and his out-door labourers are nearly on a par in point of intelligence and manners, they continue to dine at.the same table in the kitchen. This is by no means the practice in districts where the farmers are highly intelligent, and superior in their manners to their servants, as, for example, in East Lothian ; but when the latter are raised nearer to the level of the former by the universality of éducation, this excellent patriarchal practice will in ail probability be restored. 711. The Sleeping-Rooms for unmarried Farm Servants, in most parts of Britain* are generally such as merit extreme réprobation. Those of the men are frequently in lofts over stables or cow-houses, without light, or sufficient space for air ; subject to the deleterious exhalations arising from horse or cow dung ; sometimes badly ventilated, and at other times under a roof insufficient to exclude the wind and the rain. Female servants are lodged in-doors, but often in damp back-kitchens, store-rooms for the coarser articles, harness-rooms, dark closets, or low, ill-ventilated garrets. “ I am sorry,” says the excellent and benevolent Mr. Waistell, when speaking on this subject, “ that the health of servants is often less attended to than the health of cattle. Too often,” he adds, “ there is neither chimney nor window by which to ventilate servants* bed-rooms, and when there is no window they are not likely to be properly cleaned. What renders them still worse is, their being partly occupied as store-rooms for green fruit or bacon, or for drying new-made cheese : the effluvia from ail these articles contaminâtes the air, and renders it greatly injurious to the health of those who breathe it ; indeed, ail strong- scented bodies, placed in bed-rooms, are more or less pernicious. I shall, therefore, enumerate,” he continues, “ a few more of those things from which farmers and their families no*t unfrequently suffer in their healths, without being, perhaps, at ail aware of their pernicious effects. The air of rooms is rendered unwholesome by keeping in them oil, oil colours, impure wool, sweaty saddles, soap, tallow, fat, fresh méat whether raw or dressed, wet clothes and other wet articles ; by foui linen, washing, drying, and ironing ; by the fumes from charcoal lires, which are extremely pernicious, and frequently fatal ; by green plants, and flowers however fragrant ; and by saffron and hops, which last articles, Dr. Willich says (Encyc. of Dom. Econ.), hâve also sometimes proved fatal.’* ( Waistell on Agricultural Buildings, p. 22.) There is no department of farm architecture356 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. in wliich reform is more necessary than in the rooms appropriated to unmarried servants . unless, indeed, it be in the cottages of the married ones. The State of both in Britain is disgraceful to the farmers and their landlords. 712. The Places in which the ordinary Farm-House Stores are kept are, the potato or other root-cellar, the cabbage-cellar, the liquor-cellar, the fruit-room, the cheese-room, the larder, the pantry, and the coal and wood cellar. In general, ail articles that are not frequently wanted are better kept in a dry cellar than any where else, becausé they are there less subject to atmospherical changes. If cellars, however, are damp, they are uniit for storing up any thing except liquors in glass or in earthen vessels. 713. In the Construction of Cellars the first thing is, to provide such a drainage as will draw off the water at least one foot lower than the surface of the cellar floor. If the soil be naturally wet, this floor, which should be of flag-stones or tiles, should be laid hollow ; the walls should also be built hollow, and, if convenient, with a powerful cernent, rather than with common mortar ; or, at least, they ought to be coated over with cernent in the inside. In ail very cold or very hot countries, provision should be made for double doors and double Windows, even though the inner window should be nothing more than a boarded shutter ; and the Windows, in ail such cases, ought to fit tightly. The space between the double Windows need not be more than from six inches to a foot ; but the space between the double doors ought to be at least three feet, so that the one door may always be shut before the other is opened. In cellars so constructed, even ice, enveloped in abundance of straw, might be kept without danger of melting ; and it is so kept in most of the confectioners’ cellars in London. As cellars are not places to live in, they need not necessarily be made higher than seven feet. In general they are better under- ground, and arched over with masonry ; but the same results may be obtained above ground by double walls, very small and double Windows, double or thickly thatched roofs, and double doors. 714. The Potato and Root Cellar may be under the floor of some part of the house, when the soil is dry naturally, or capable of being rendered so by drainage. The opening by which the potatoes or other roots are introduced should be on the outside of the house, and not higher than the level of the ground, in order that a cart may be set back against it, and the potatoes or other roots shot out and shoveled down the opening. This opening should hâve double shutters, in each of which should be at least one pane of glass, to admit sufficient light, and yet effectually to exclude the cold in winter and the heat in summer. The panes of glass should be in the upper part of the shutters, so as to be protected, by the lintels of the Windows, from the direct rays of the sun ; but, if the opening be to the north, this précaution is unnecessary. The size of a root cellar, where the roots are merely for the consumption of the family, need not be large : ten or twelve feet square, and seven or eight feet high, will be sufficient dimensions in a house calculated for from twelve to twenty persons. When there are different roots to be stored in the same cellar, they may be separated by temporary partitions of boards. 715. A Cabbage-Cellar is a common appendage to a farm house in Germany, and might well be introduced in Britain and North America. It may be formed either above or under ground, provided it can be rendered quite dry, and lighted by one or more Windows, with double sashes, about six inches apart, to guard against extremes of température. This cellar ought to be twice as large as the other, because the manner in which the cabbages and other articles are disposed in it requires a good deal of room. The common method is, to cover the floor with soil to the depth of a foot, and to plant in it, at the commencement of winter, full-grown cabbages, broccoli, lettuce, endive, &c., as close together as they can be placed without touching each other. Water is given occasionally in the course of the winter, and the greatest care is taken to remove every leaf as soon as it shows symptoms of decay. The improved method which is adopted in the better description of cabbage cellars is, to surround the cellar with shelves about eighteen inches in width and three feet apart, which, if convenient, may be formed of flag-stone or slate, or, if these materials are not to be had, of strong wood. On these shelves are placed layers of earth, with alternate layers of cabbages or other vegetables ; with their tops projecting beyond the shelf, and their roots and stalks bedded in the soil. Where the soil is of a sandy nature, bricks, moss, straw, or some other suitable material, should be introduced in the front part of the soil, to keep it up. Not only the cabbage family, but the lettuce, endive, celery, beet, sweet herbs, and a variety of other culinary vegetables, are kept in this manner from October till May, in Bavaria, Wirtemburg, Baden, and other States. In very severe weather, or when the air is more than usually humid, hot embers are placed on the floor to raise the température, or dry the air ; or, when the cellar has a chimney-flue, which is the préférable mode, provided it be kept shut when not used, a fire may be made in a small iron stove. 716. A Cellar for forcing some kinds of Culinary Vegetables might be formed in every house, merely by placing an iron stove in any cellar sufficiently protected by extern alMODEL DESIGNS FOR FARM HOÜSES. SÔ'J walls. Light is not necessary. In boxes or pots, or in beds of earth on the floor, or oh shelves, may be placed roots of tart rhubarb for its footstalks ; succory for its leaves ; hops for their tops, as a substitute for asparagus ; asparagus roots, sea-kale, &c. Potatoes might _also be placed in such a cellar, to make them throw out fresh tubers ; but, as the young ones so produced would be merely a transfer of nutriment from what we consider a better to a worse State, we cannot recommend the practice as one of utility. Were light admitted into a cellar of this description, mustard, cress, and other small salading might be grown ; and roots of parsley, mint, and other herbs, and of beet, sorrel, and other spinaceous plants, for their leaves, might be planted. In short, a good dry cellar with double doors and Windows, might, with very Httle trouble, be made to produce a great many articles of convenience and luxury for the table, which are now grown in glass trames, or hot-houses, at very considérable expense. Every body knows that mushrooms can be grown in a cellar better than any where else. We do not, however, recommend the practice of forcing for general adoption ; thinking it, with a few exceptions, in better taste to take the vegetable productions of nature or art in the open air, by turns, in their proper seasons. Our exceptions are, tart rhubarb, sea-kale, asparagus, mush- rooms, succory, and small salading ; ail of which are as good, when forced, as when grown in their natural climate. 717. A Fruit-Room, or Fruit-Cellar, is essential to every farm which has an orchard ; and no farm ought to be without one where fruit will grow. The great art in preserving fruit is, to keep it dry, and, at the same time, so as to prevent évaporation from its surface ; for this last purpose, ail change of température and moisture in the air must be guarded against. The simplest mode of effecting these objects is, to place the fruit on a thick bed of dry straw, and to mix and surround it with an ample mass of the same material in any situation dry and protected from the weather ; but a better method is, to place the fruit in a dry cellar, on a layer of dry sand, and to cover it with the same material, or with fern, finishing with an upper layer of straw. The superiority of the sand consists in its coolness, and comparative freedom from air, by which the fruit is less liable to wither. Where there are several kinds of fruit to be kept in one cellar, shelves may be employed ; and if the cellar be not often entered, so as to admit air of a different température or degree of humidity, the fruit need not be covered at ail, or may only hâve fera strewed over it. Where the situation does not admit of an under-ground fruit- cellar, a fruit-room may be formed above the surface, with thick or hollow walls, and double doors, Windows, and roofs. The size for a fruit-cellar, on a farm of even considér- able extent, need seldom be more than an area of ten feet on a side, and seven feet high. 718. Cellars for Liquors, including ale, beer, cider, wine, and spirits, are esseiitial to every farm house. In even the smallest there ought to be one cellar for beer, empty casks, brewing utensils, &c. ; and another, opening out of it, for ale, wines, and spirits. The area of the former, in the smallest farm house, should not be less than twelve feet by twelve feet ; nor that of the latter less than six feet by eight feet. The beer-cellar, and that part of the wine-cellar which is to contain ale, should hâve brick or stone benches or shelves built solid, or on arches or piers about two feet high, on which to place casks, for the greater convenience of drawing off their contents. That part of the inner cellar which is to contain wine should be fitted up with cells, or bins, one above another, ot about two feet broad, and the same height, and of any convenient depth, provided it be a multiple of the height of a common wine bottle. A part of the wine-cellar should be fitted up with stone shelves, for spirits or other liquors, and for various articles which are best preserved in the température of a cellar. 719. The Larder and Fantry are conveniently placed near each other, and close to the kitchen. Both ought to face the north ; and the former more especially ought to be thoroughly ventilated, by openings near the floor on one side, generally in the lower part of the door, and near the ceiling, generally in the outer wall, on the other. Both larder and pantry should be fitted up with shelves and hooks ; and the larder may hâve a wooden grating or cradle, called a rack, three or four feet wide, about one foot deep, and of any convenient length, suspended from the roof, for the purpose of holding bacon. In old farm houses these racks are generally placed in the kitchen, but in very large establishments, or where bacon forms the principal animal food of the labourers, as it does in the midland counties of England, there is often a separate room fitted up with racks and shelves, set apart for keeping it. 720. A Salting-Room is necessary in every house where the farmer occasionally kills his own méat. The effluvia from this room being both disagreeable and deleterious, it should, when convenient, form one of a detached group of buildings. In small establish- ments, or where only a part of the méat used is killed at home, an airy cellar, facing the north, may be employed. The room should be fitted up with strong benches for cutting up the méat, and salting it on ; and fixed long shallow troughs, generally lined with lead, for holding thé sides of bacon, &c., while in pickle. These troughs should be provided358 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. with cocks, or holes with plugs, at the bottom, for the purpose of drawing off the brine, and cleaning them; the brine, when boiled and skimmed, being fit for use several times. Smaller troughs, or round earthenware pans, are generally employed for holding tongues, pièces of beef, and other smaller articles ; and the whole shoüld be carefully provided with the means for being kept clean, by having pipes of water conducted into it, and the floor arranged so as to hâve a graduai inclination towards a corner, having a trap and drain. 721. The Coal-house and the Wood-house should aiways be adjoining the kitchen or back kitchen, and both should be perfeetly dry ; since whatever moisture is added to fuel, beyond what it contains in combination, must be driven off before combustion can take place ; and this must aiways occasion a certain loss of heat. Both places ought to be of considérable size, because in well regulated farras there are ‘only certain periods of the year when the farmer finds he has leisure to bring fuel from a distance, and to store it up: he will also by the same means be enabled to take advantage of a temporary dépréssion in the fuel market. 722. A Tank, or a Well for Water, is essentiel to every farm house, independently of the provision of water for the farm-yard ; but we hâve already sufficiently eidarged on this subject in § 30 and § 151 ; and the subject of supplying water to the farm-yard will occur hereafter. 723. A Place for brushing Çlothes, and cleaning Knives and Shoes, 8çc., should form part of the arrangement of every farm house ; and as this is necessarily a place where much dust and dirt are generated, it should be kept apart from the house, and especially from the back kitchen, which is too generally made use of for these purposes. As a mere open shed, which every countryman may erect for himself, will suffice for a cleaning place, there can be no sufficient excuse for not having one adjoining every farm house ; and, indeed, every labourer’s cottage or human dwelling whatever. Conveniences of this sort, which are within the reaçh of every one, and which may be obtained rather by thought and contrivançe than by expending any considérable sum of money, are indeed some of the distinguishing marks of a high State of civilisation and refinement. A savage is satisfied with mere food and shelter ; and, if he prétends to more, takes delight in showy or gaudy ornaments ; but the man whose mind has been enlightened by éducation prefers simplicity in décoration, and only employs his leisure time and money in contrivances to lessen human labour, and obtain the greatest possible proportion of comfort which his opportunités will permit. Ample apartments and sumptuous furniture can be obtained but by few, and, as they contribute little to happiness, are not worthy of becoming objects of ambition to any rational being ; but a clean, comfortable, and well arranged home is an essential ingrédient in human happiness, and, as such, ought to be sought after and obtained by every one. Cleanliness is also essential to health ; and this blessing, so désirable in every condition of life, is particularly so to a labouring man, as without it he cannot perform his daily toil. 724. The Wash-house, Bakehouse, and Brewhouse, in srnall farms, are commonly ail united in the back kitchen; but in extensive establishments they, together with the laundry, dairy, cheese-room, cider-house, salting-room, and smoking or curing room, should be in a building or buildings apart from the house, but connected with it by a covered way. 725. The Wash-house should be well lighted; and therefore, if united with other offices, it should, if practicable, be made a corner building, and hâve Windows on two sides. Instead of portable round tubs, which, as noticed in the preceding Book, are the most inconvénient of ail the forms that could be devised for washing by hand, oblong troughs, about three feet in length, eighteen inches wide at top, one foot wide at bottom, and eighteen inches deep, should be fixed round the two lighted sides of the room. Each trough should hâve a hole and stopper in the bottom ; and close under these holes should be a gutter, common to ail the troughs, which may convey away the waste water to the manure tank. In one corner or side of the room the boiler should be placed ; and over it a supply pipe from a cold-water cistern. Pipes may be conducted from both the cold- water cistern and the boiler, so as to deliver, on turning cocks, cold or hot water, at pleasure, into each trough. The main part of the washing, however, we should propose in ail cases to be done by a washing-machine, of which we shall hereafter give an improved Design ; and this, with a pressing or wringing machine hereafter, may be worked by a horse or steam power, which may also be applied in churning and other operations, to be carried on in this department of the farm offices. The floor of every washing-house ought to be very carefully paved, with an inclination of an inch in a yard towards one corner, in which there ought to be a trap drain leading to the manure tank. This inclination, which will hardly be perceptible to .the eye, or recognised in standing or walking, will yet be most useful, by directing aîl the water, which must be occasionally spilt on the floor, to the point where it will be carried off. Close under the ceiling there ought to be several openings communicating with the open air, to carry off the steam, andMODEL DESIGNS FOR FARM HOUSES, 359 in the bottom of the door there ought to be correspondent openingsto admit fresh air: both openings ought to hâve shutters sliding in horizontal grooves, with hooks iii them, so as to admit of their being easily drawn back, or pushed forward. 726. The Laundry, the business of which in small dwellings is generally performed in the kitchen, may be very conveniently placed over the wash-house ; and, like it, should hâve windows on two sides, and ventilators under the ceiling, and in the bottoms of the doors. Against the two lighted sides, tables or flaps for ironing on may be fixed ; and in the corner behind, directly over the boiler, may be placed a drying-closet ; which may be partly heated by the flue from the boiler, and partly by the requisite ironing-stoves, or by a steam-pipe. If the laundry should be placed on the same floor with the wash-house, it should adjoin it, so that the back of the boiler fire may heat the drying-closet. In this closet the clothes may be dried by the arrangement described § 306. Where a drying- closet is not used, the clothes may be dried, as is usually done, in the open ironing-room, either on common clothes horses, or on rails suspended from the ceiling by ropes and pulleys, so as to be raised or lowered at pleasure ; or by lines stretched across the room, which may also be raised or lowered by means of pulleys. The last mode may be very completely effected by having the pulleys to work in vertical grooves, or in hollow rods similar to that invented by Mr. Vokins for hanging pictures, to be hereafter described. The mangle may stand in the middle of the room, or on the dark side not occupied by the drying-closet. 727. The Bakeholise should be close to the wash-house, in order that their united dues, with those of the dairy, scullery, and the brewhouse, may form one stack. The bakehouse may hâve light on one side only. The oven should be lined with fire-bricks ; and immediately without its iron door there should be a grating over an ash-pit, for the réception of the ashes when it is cleared out. Height in an oven is of no use, but rather tends to bake the bread unequally : eighteen inches will generally be found sufficient for private ovens, and the length and width need not be more than three or four feet. Against the light side of the bakehouse should be placed a flap or table, for making up the loaves on, with a kneading-trough close to it ; and near the kneading-trough should be a flour chest or cask. If a kneading machine be employed, which for large families ought always to be the case, nôt only from the saving of labour, but from the greater certainty of cleanliness,,and the more thorough working of the dough, it should take the place of the kneading-trough. In the largest private establishments it may also be found worth while to construct the oven on Hicks’s plan, so as to be able to condense the spirituous vapour produced from the dough while baking. The plan will be found de- tailedat length in the Repertory of Arts, new sériés, and in Mech. Mag. vol. xiv. p. 417. 728. The Brewhouse, for the reasons before given, should adjoin the wash-house and the bakehouse. It should occupy two floors, in order that the malt may be placed in the upper floor, and be conveniently put through a shoot into the boiler, which should be near the ceiling of the lower room, to allow of the liquor or wort being conducted from its bottom by pipes or tubes to the coolers, which again should be sufficiently raised from the ground floor to allow of casks being placed under them, so as to be filled without trouble ; or, where it is practicable, a small pipe may be conducted at once from the coolers to the beer-cellar in the house* Where the.cellar is under the brewhouse, which, however, is seldom désirable when the latter is detached from the farm house, the same arrangement may be adopted as that inentioned § 498. 729. The Dairy is one of the most important of farm-house offices, and yet it is seldom properly constructed. The desiderata are, equality of température during every season of the year ; and frequent renewal of the air, so as to hâve it perfectly fresh and sweet. Equality of température is easiest obtained when the dairy is under ground ; but in this case the ventilation is insufficient to supply the other desideratum. Where the dairy is in a detached building, a compromise between a cellar and a room above the level of the ground may be formed by sinking the dairy two or three feet, and covering the outside of the walls and the roof very thickly with thatch ; or by forming the walls hollow, and raising against them a bank of earth covered with turf. One of the most complété modes is, to form the walls hollow, and to throw over the room two or three arches of masonry, one above the other, covering the whole with a mound of earth, like that of an ice-house, but with proper Windows for light and ventilation, protected from the covering mound by projecting side walls, .with lintels or arches over them of corresponding depth. The windows, in this and in every case, should face the north, or north-north-east, or north-north-west, and should be double ; the outer window fixed and of wirecloth, and the inïier one of glass and to open. There should also be double doors, and the space between them should not be less than three or four feet. In both doors there should be panels of wirecloth, to exclude the Aies, and yet admit the air. In the most severe weather of winter, the wirecloth of both doors and windows may require to be protected by temporary shutters of either mats or boards<360 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 730* Where the dairy is connected with a group of other farm-house offices, including the dairy scullery, cheese-room, cheesepress-room, &c., it may occupy the north angle, or part of the north side of a square mass of building. The walls should in this case also be double, and the Windows should be treble ; the outer one of wirecloth, and the two inner ones of glass. There should be double doors, and care should be taken that one should always be closed before the other was opened, and that neither should ever be left open for more than a few minutes at a time. To compensate for ail inequalities of température, there should be a power of introducing a stream of water to run through the dairy, or spring water from a well, tank, or spring, so as to cover the whole of the floor, or to sprinkle it and the shelves, at pleasure, and thus reduce the température of the air in summer, or raise it in winter. To do this more rapidly, part of the floor may be perforated, and from each small hole a jet of water may be contrived to rise, on turning a cock ; or perforated pipes may pass under the dairy shelves, and under the middle part of the ceiling ; and from these there may be a power of producing an artificial shower to raise or lower the température at once. The process of introducing water in this way, either from the floor or from the ceiling, may seem at first intricate and ex- pensive ; but whoever has seen it done in Messrs. Loddiges’s palm-house will allow that it is neither. We shall give some details hereafter, when speaking of fountains for villas. Common lead pipes, of half an inch in diameter, may be used ; and the perforations may be made with a stout sewing needle. The only matter of expense is the tank, or cistern of water, which should be so placed as to maintain the same température throughout the year ; and at the same time be above the level of the dairy ceiling, so as to give due force to the delivering pipes. If, however, the dairy be properly constructed, and a power contrived for flooding its floor with water (and, if no permanent jet can be made, this may be done by a common watering-pot), the two grand desiderata may in every case be certainly and economically obtained. The floor should be accurately paved, and should slope to a trap drain in the corner, as before directed for the washing-house. The shelves and benches should be formed of thin flag-stones, or slates, or of wood covered with lead ; the walls and ceiling should be plastered with cernent, or coated with a firm- setting mortar, or should be inlaid with glazed tiles. The milk-pans are better portable than fixed ; because, if fixed, they must be scalded in the dairy ; and hot water should never be introduced into it, in summer at least, on account of its raising the température. Even milk directly from the cow should be allowed to stand to cool in the dairy scullery, before it is taken into the dairy ; because its température, when in large quantities, either in summer or winter, would soon raise that of the apartment. A thermometer should be kept in the dairy, and the température should be never allowed to fall below 50°, or rise above 55° ; expérience proving that most cream is thrown up by milk in a medium between these degrees. If at any time in winter the température of the dairy should fall too low, vessels of hot water may be carried in and set down on the floor, or the milk, in such a case, may be sent in direct from the cow. No articles of food, but milk, cream, and fresh butter, should ever be kept in a dairy ; nor, as Waistell tells us, should any thing that has a strong scent, even though it may be sweet, be placed in or near it. “ Bad scents,” he says, “ greatly lessen the product of butter dairies, by preventing the complété séparation of the cream from the milk.” It is also certain that raw méat, if kept in a dairy, has such an effect upon the cream as to prevent the butter produced from it from keeping. This, and the facts stated by Waistell, it is difRcult to account for, but not more so than others equally well ascertained ; such as the influence which the leaves of certain milky-juiced trees, such as the papaw tree and the fig for example, hâve in intenerating fresh méat. 731. The Dairy Scullery should be near the dairy, though not immediately adjoining it : it should hâve a boiler for heating water, and two underground pipes with traps ; one for foui water, communicating with the liquid manure tank, and the other for waste milk, communicating with the pigs’ food tank. From the latter pipe there may also be a communication with the dairy ; because it may sometimes be advisable to empty out milk there, without bringing it into the dairy scullery. The churning may be carried on in the dairy scullery ; for which purpose, on a large farm, provision ought to be made for the introduction of a shaft from a horse or a steam power for working the churn. There ought to be fixed benches and movable forms, for setting milk-pans and other dairy utensils on ; and.a portable rack with a wheel and two feet likea wheelbarrow, for draining the pans and pails, and wheeling them out to a shed to dry. Figs. 741 to 746 show a Design for a double dairy, which will keep the produce at a proper température, in whatever climate it may be built. It may also, with very little alteration, be partly or chiefly used as an ice-house, or as a wine or ale cellar. We shall first describe it as a dairy.. Fig. 741 is the ground-plan, in which a is an outer room, for airing and drying the utensils, or for drying cheese ; being warmed by an open fireplace at h, and lighted and ventilated by two Windows, c c, beneath which are two elevated sinks, d d.MODEL DESIGNS FOE FARM HOUSES. 36l 741 o c H+h-hihî--------—H--------] Fl. 10 0 10 «0 Ft. close to one of which is a Siebe’s pump, from a well or tank common to the whole dairy, It will be observed, by the five steps at e, that the floor of this building is three feet below the common surface of the soiL The room marked fis the dairy scullery ; in which may be observed a boiler, two Windows, two sinks close to one of which is a Siebe’s pump, and five steps at the entrance door. In this room the dairy utensils are to be washed ; and churning may be performed, if it shouldbe a butter dairy ; or cheeses pressed, if the object should be cheese-making. In both these rooms there should be traps to a common drain ; and from one of the sinks in each room a bell trap communicating with the pig’s food tank, unless the piggery should be at such a distance as to render it more economical to convey the milk thither in wheelbarrow tubs. The two milk rooms, g g, are to the right and left of the lobby or drying-room and these are surrounded by slate or thin stone shelves two feet broad, with smaller shelves beneath them eighteen inches broad, indicated in the section, fig. 742. Each range of shelves has two small sinks, at the two corners liext the lobby and scullery : ^one of these sinks is for waste milk for the pigs, and the other, which has a Siebe’s pump close beside it, for waste water. It is to be observed that we mention Siebe’s pump, because it goes into less bulk than any other ; and, indeed, when the handle is taken off, and an escutcheon put over the keyhole, no appearance whatever of a pump is discernible. These pumps are also worked in much less space than any other. In the centre of the floor of each of these milk-rooms is a small circular basin, and under the shelves in each is a trap to a drain. There are skylights directly over the two circular basins, which are seen in the section fig. 742, at h h. These are covered with glass cases, which project and are open at the eaves ; and under these are other glass cases, i i, which are lifited out during summer, but put in again during winter for the purpose of retaining heat : below these cases are wiie- cloth frames, which remain on always, in order to exclude the Aies. There are three Windows, kkk, in the side walls of these milk-rooms, with three frames, shown both in the plan, fig. 741, and in the section, fig. 742. The outer frames of these Windows are filled in with wirecloth, and fixed ; the two inner frames with glass, each in two vertical divisions, hinged, so as to admit or exclude air at pleasure. There are double doors to each of the rooms, one of which is chiefly of wirecloth, and the other of wood, so that ventilation may be allowed to take place from or to the drying-room, a, as may be required to warm or cool the milk-room. It will be observed that the milk-room is surrounded by double walls ; and by the section fig. 742 it will be seen that the whole is covered with a mound of earth, which necessarily produces the long tubular openings to the side-wall Windows, k k, so favourable for producing currents of air during the warm season, and for tempering the frosty air during winter. Fig. 743 is a cross section,862 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. in wliicll 11 represents the ground’s surfece, m the top of the upper nnlk shelves, and n the skylight. It may be observed that, instead of employing glass and wirecloth frames for these skylights, vessels of water with glass bottoms might be introduced ; which, while they admitted light, would exclude heat in summer and cold in winter ; and they might be rendered further useful, by having openings in their j bottoms, to be regulated by cocks within the dairy, so as to allow water to drop down on the basin below, whenever it was 'dé- sirable to increase the coolness of the tem- pérature. The vessel might be covered above with a skylight, and supplied either by the Siebe’s pump within the dairy, or by a pipe and ball-cock from some exterior source. The water might contain gold and silver fish. The glass might be stained, as might that of the side Windows ; and, instead of a small circular basin in the centre, there might be a deep well for containing very cold water. — We shall now describe this building as two ice-houses with a dairy between. The shelves of the milk-rooms should be removed, and the Windows closed up entirely ; and, instead of a skylight at top, there should be three flag-stones substituted for the frames containing the upper skylight, the under skylight, and the haircloth, and resting on the same ledges on which they rest. There are three offsets or ledges, shown at h i, in the section fig. 742, for this purpose. The object of leaving these openings in the ceiling is to put in the ice ; and this being done, and the flag-stones replaced, the space between them should be filled in with barley straw. The traps to the drains before mentioned will serve as conduits for such water as may be produced by the thawing of the ice ; the well in the centre will also hold a part of this water, which will be valuable for its coolness even after the ice is gone. The spaces o o, between the doors, must be kept constantly filled with straw cushions. The room a may be fitted up with shelves as a dairy, the chimney being turned into a ventilator; and the room / may remain a dairy scullery, as at présent. For a wine or beer cellar this building is admirably contrived, whether for a very warm or a very cold climate. The wine or ale may be kept bottled in bins, or in casks on benches, in the milk-rooms ; and it may be supplied to customers in the room o, while the cleanmg operations go on, and the attendants wait, in the room f. Wine and earth, in which ale is kept and drunk at the same température both in the hottest sum- mers and the severest winters of that climate of the most opposite extremes. There is an excellent one at Silberberg, near Stuttgardt, both for ale and wine ; and there are nume-MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARM HOUSES. 363 rôtis others in the neighbourhood of Vienna, which no doubt are familiar to many of onr readers; By a third arrangement, one of the milk-rooms might be made a dairy ; the other milk-room a wine and ale cellar, and the lobby a drinking-room. The appearance of such a construction, to whatever use it may be applied, when covered with green turf, need not be disagreeable ; we hâve given the architectural parts something of an Egyptian character, as may be seen in the élévation of the end, fig. 744 ; of one side, fig. 745 ; and in the perspective view, fig. 746. 732. The Cheesepress-room may be very properly placed between the dairy and the dairy scullery. It should be surrounded by shelves, and the presses may stand in the middle of the floor. The shelves should be grooved across, with a small gutter suspended in front, to collect from the grooves the whey which runs from new cheeses, for a day or two after they are taken out of the press, and before they are carried up into the cheese- room. These gutters may deliver their contents into one upright pipe, communicating with the pig tank. As a good deal of whey will also run from the cheeses while in the presses, grooves may also be formed along the floor communicating with the same pipe. 733. The Cheese-room may be over the cheesepress-room, the dairy, and dairy scullery. There should be Windows on opposite sides of this room, for thorough ventilation ; and these Windows should hâve outside wire shutters, to exclude Aies and vermin, and yet admit a free circulation of air. The best position for the shelves is in the middle of the room, so that the cheese may hâve air on ail sides. The shelves should be of the breadth of the cheese intended to be made, and should be perfectly smooth and level. They may be supported from the floor, or, if danger from mice be anticipated, suspended from the ceiling by iron rods. 734. A Dryiny-shed is a useful appendage to the back kitchen, dairy scullery, wash- house, and even brewery. It is useful not only for drying every description of wooden vessel, but even clothes, leaves, such as those of tobacco, ears of maize, garden seeds, &c. In old English farm-hou$es, the penthouse, or far-projecting eaves, supplied the place of this appendage; and in Switzerland the galleries answer the same purpose; but Waistell, by fhr the best British writer on farm buildings, as Morel-Vindé is by far the best of the French writers on the same subject, recommends that a drying-shed should be built on purpose. We are decidedly of the same opinion, unless vérandas connecting the different parts of farm offices, and forming covered passages between them, can be made to serve the same end. 735. The Cider-house, on a small farm, where cider is not made for sale, may be dispensed with, and the |ipples ground in the churning-room, or in any room or shed where steam or horse power can be applied to turning the grinding rollers. Gn large cider farms, the cider-house requires to be of considérable size, for holding the fruit before and after it is ground, and for holding the rollers or mill for grinding it, and the press. In Worcestershire the dimensions of the best cider-sheds are twenty-four feet in length by twenty in breadth. The rollers are turned by horse power, communicated by a gin wheel operating on a pinion on the end of a horizontal shaft, in a similar manner to what takes place in a horse churning or washing machine. The cider-house is occasionally open on one or more sides, and the liquor, after being expressed from the pulp, is carried in pails to the cider-cellar, which is commonly under tlje dwelling-house ; but a better mode would be, to hâve a cellar under the cider-house, and to let down the liquor into the casks by pipes, in the manner suggested for the brewery, § 728. The floor ought to hâve an inclination to a trap at one corner, in order that it may be easily washed ; and this trap ought to communicate with the manure tank. A second trap and pipe should lead to the pig’s food tank, to pour down it such liquor as may not be fit for putting in the casks. 736. An Ice-house for a farm house may be considered a superfluous appendage in Britain, but it is common on the farms in America, and therefore its construction deserves a place in this work. There are various descriptions of farms in Britain, particularly those belonging to public-houses and inns, to which an ice-house would be a most désir- able appendage; not only as affording the means of preparing ices, cooling wine, &c., but as supplying a place for preserving fish, méat, fruit, and vegetables fresh, much longer than can be done by any other means. The simplest mode of keeping ice is by envelop- ing it in an immense body of loose straw above the surface. For this purpose, the first operation is to form the surface of the ground into a flattened cône, for the sake of drainage when the ice happens to melt ; next, put on a layer of faggots, and straw a foot or more in thickness ; then lay on the ice, in a conical mass, the larger the better, and cover it with' straw to the thickness of otie foot, and afterwards with faggot wood to the thickness of two feet, for the purpose of preserving a stratum of air above and around it ; lastly, cover the whole with two or three feet of straw, arranged as thatch. The ice will now be surrounded on every side by such a powerful non-conducting medium, that scarcely any heat from the atmosphère will be able to penetrate to it ; while whatever portion of364) COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. it may thaw will find its way off through the under stratum of faggots, without the admission of air. Ice has been kept in large quantities in this manner both in England and America, throughout the year. The best situation for such an ice stack is under the shade of trees, or under a shed roof, closed on the south side, and open on the north. 737. An underground Ice-house may either be a large cellar, with hollow walls, hollow floor, hollow roof, and double doors ; or, it may be a separate structure, iri the form of an inverted hollow cône, with a drain and trap at the bottom, and double doors on one side at the top. When a cellar is employed as an ice-house, a proper drain and trap should be provided in the lower floor, for carrying off such water as may be produced by the melting of the ice, without the risk of introducing air. When the ice is about to be put in, the floor and sides of the cellar are thickly coated over with strong wheat straw, or reeds, as a powerful non-conducting medium. Double, treble, or quadruple doors are always requisite to an ice-house of this description, according to the use which is to be made of the space between the doors. Where these spaces are to be used as pantries, four doors are requisite ; and two should never be opened at once. The space between the outer door and the second door should always be kept filled with straw, and that of barley is found better than the stiffer straw of wheat, rye, or oats. The space between the second door and the third should, if possible, be kept filled with straw also ; but the space between the third door and the fourth should be of suflicient width to admit of its being fitted up with shelves, on which the articles to be preserved fresh are to be placed. From time to time, the door of the ice-house may be opened, in order to reduce the température of this space, and to freshen the air. In some cases there is a movable shelf or table placed over the ice, immediately within the inner door, as a substitute for the shelves in the passage. When an ice-cellar cannot be formed under or adjoining a dwelling, it may be constructed above ground, even on wet soils, covered with a mound of earth, and that mound further protected by trees, evergreen shrubs, or, what is equal to any thing as a non-conductor, and at any rate far superior to deciduous trees, ivy. The common form of out-door ice-houses, is, as we hâve before observed, an inverted cône, and the supposed advantage of this form is, that, as part of the ice thaws, the remainder slides down the sides of the cône, and still keeps in one compact body. This is no doubt true ; but the advantage by no means compensâtes for the difliculty of constructing an ice-house in the conical form. A plain square room, with double side-walls, say a foot apart, a double arch over, and a double floor under, which can be built with the same ease as any common cellar, will, ail other circumstances being alike favourable, keep the ice as long as any conical form whatever. Where there is a doubt of being able to exclude the heat, treble walls, roof, and floor may be resorted to ; and the entrance, which should always be three or four yards in length, instead of being straight, may be made crooked, with a door at each turn. The space between at least two of the doors should always be filled with straw ; and, to render the removal of this straw easy, when passing from the outer door to the ice-house, it might be put into two or more canvass bags, like immense cushions, which might be hooked to the ceiling and the sides, so as to close up every interstice. The space between the second and third doors may always be widened, and fitted up, as before described, with shelves for holding articles which require to be kept cool, but not to the same degree as if they were placed in the ice-house. It ought always to be recollected that any perfectly dry cellar may be made an ice-house, by employing faggots as well as straw, in the manner we hâve described as proper for preserving a stack of ice above ground. The French preserve ice in frames of wood- work suspended in cellars or pits, in the form of inverted cônes, surrounding the whole with a thick covering of straw. Both the Frénch and Italians also form ice-houses in dry, chalky, or calcareous soils, deep under ground, where neither drains nor straw are necessary, with the exception of as much of the latter as will close up a long circuitous opening. In England, many persons are deterred from forming an ice-house, by the idea that the form of an inverted cône is essentially necessary to it ; that it must be under ground; and that ice is only useful for making ice-creams and eooling wines : but an ice-house may be made any where; and, as a place for preserving méat, fish, fruit, and vegetables, there is not a more useful appendage to a country house. Fig. 747 is a section, and fig. 748 a ground plan, of an ice-house on the inverted cône principle, but of an improved construction. This form, as usually employed in English country seats, very frequently fails in keeping the ice, from not having double walls, and double or treble doors, or from imperfect drainage ; but the plan now submitted is free from these defects, and will keep ice throughout the year, in any climate, if covered with a suflicient thickness of earth or straw. In this Design, o is the well or cellar for the ice ; 6, a drain from its bottom, for carrying off such water as may be produced by the graduai thawing of the ice ; c, a trap in this drain, toMODEE DESIGNS FOR FARM HOÜSES. 365 preyent the external air from coimnunicating with that of the ice-house ; and d, a lead pipe from this trap, connected with one 747 of Siebe’s rotatory pumps at e. The objectof this pumpisto allow of making use, during the heat of summer, of the very cold water produced by the thawing of the ice, either for cooling wines, or5 after filtering it, for drinking. There are five doors to this ice- house, at f, g, A, i, and k ; and a vacuity, Z, one foot wide, between the two walls, surrounding the cellar, and covering the inner division of the passage, m. This passage may be fitted up with shelves, as a place for keeping ve- 748 Xy 0 1 A il m h p 1 r // ~ - ft. 10 H- -H- getables, and various other articles of food (raw or cooked), fresh during summer. The natural level of the ground is shown at n n; and the whole superstructure may be covered, in Britain, to the depth of two or three feet with earth, planted with ivy, and surrounded with trees. In warmer climates the depth of earth ought to be increased to eight or ten feet. The size of the well ought also to be enlarged, and it might be well to hâve even a third vacuity round it. The space between the doors i and k should be filled up by a barley-straw cushion, and it would be well to hâve similar cushions against the doors g and h, at least during summer. The two recesses, o and p, are here shown only two feet in depth ; but, by making the walls behind them of brick, that depth may be increased at pleasure. It may also be observed, that, in situations where brick is cheaper than stone, ail the walls in this Design may be built, in Dearn’s manner, hollow ; and that the side walls of the ice-well need not be more than thelength of a brick in thickness, the one wall being tied into the other. It may be further observed, that, if it should be inconvénient to cover the building with earth, a covering of straw or reeds, or even planting ivy against the outside walls, and surrounding the whole with a few trees, will be equally efficient in keeping out the heat. If trees cannot be planted, on account of the soil, or of shutting out any view, a slight roof elevated on props of any sort will hâve the same effect. One of the most effective ice-houses which we hâve ever seen was covered in this manner, by a wire trellis and Ayrshire roses, mixed with honeysuckles, clematis, and Virginian creeper. Ice-houses, we are persuaded, would become much more general, were country gentlemen fully aware of the fact, that they might be built square just as well as round, and be equally effective at less expense, above the surface than under it. A square ice-house above ground, or sunk three feet into it, may hâve treble hollow floors formed of bricks on edge, covered with foot tiles or flag-stones ; and its side walls may be treble also, of brick on edge, in Silverlock’s manner. ’ To form the roof, a nine-inch semicircular arch may be first thrown on these walls, and on this arch three vacuities built of bricks on edge and tiles : there may be five doors, as in fig. 748 ; and the whole may be covered with a cône of earth, or thatch, four feet thick, and clothed with giant ivy. In filling an ice-house, the ice, being collected and laid down outside of the exterior door, is there broken into small pièces, and reduced to a powder composed of particles not larger than those of sand or sait. It is then carried into the house and thrown down into the icè-well, in which a man is placed with a rammer to beat, and ram it closely ; occasionally sprinkling it with a little water to consolidate the whole. An improved method consists in using water saturated with sait, by dissolving ten pounds of •sait in ten gallons of cold wàter, and pouring it on the ice through a common garden watering pot every two feet of thickness, as the house is filling, and finishing with a double quantity of the sait water. « The ice, in houses filled in this manner, will be366 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. found, when opened in summer, to be as firm as a rock, and to require, at ail times, the force of a pickaxe to break it up. Thus prepared it will be found to keep three times as long as by the common method in the house, and it will also keep three times as long when exposed to the air, from sait water, and consequently salted ice, having a less capacity for heat than fresh water, or fresh ice.” ( Gard. Mag., vol. iii. p. 139.) 738. A very cool Place for the Préservation of Méat, Butter, Vegetablesf §*c., might be formed as follows : — Construct a frame of wooden or iron rods, in the form of a cône, or in any convenient form, and raise it from the ground on pillars between two and three feet high ; form a door of wirecloth on one side, and one or two openings as windows, also filled in with wirecloth, on the other. Cover the whole, except the doors and Windows, with a coating of cernent, and form a double floor of boards. The resuit will now be a conical bottle of cernent, with three wire openings in the sides. Place on the summit of the cône a vessel of water, or conduct a pipe of water there, and allow it to trickle down the sides of the cône, and the greater the heat of the weather, the cooler will the area be made within, by the heat carried off by évaporation. Perhaps it would be better to form the cône over a pit or well, and without any openings in its sides ; entering under ground to the pit or well, in which the heavier articles might be put, while the lighter ones were placed on shelves suspended from the roof. In an airy situation, in the shade, it is presumed the température, through the continued évaporation of the water, would be kept sufficiently low for every purpose that could be required from an ice-house pantry. Perhaps the water might be conducted more regularly from the apex to the base of the cône, by forming round, it a screw gutter, something like the rings of a straw beehive. 739. A Boom for smoking Hams and other dried Provisions is, in some countries, particularly in Germany and Sweden, a general appendage to a country house or a large farm. It is usually bruit of stone or earth, and placed apart from other buildings. It may be a square room, ten feet on the sides, and ten feet high, open to the roof ; and it may hâve iron ceiling joists, at about two feet apart, in both sides of which hooks are fixed for suspending the articles to be smoked. The smoke is generally allowed to escape through crevices in the roof, or through chimneys or apertures formed of slates, or thin stones, placed like luffer-boarding ; but, in an improved construction, air-hole tiles, like that shown in fig. 434, or central luffer-boarded chimneys which admit of régulation, like those of stables, to be afterwards described, would be an admirable substitute ; because, while they admitted the escape of smoke, they would exclude the entrance of rain. In Germany, not only bacon, beef, and mutton hams are smoked in houses of this kind, both as a means of préservation, and to communi- cate a flavour; but venison, geese, ducks, salmon, cod, haddock, eels, herrings, &c., are so cured. The preserving principle is the pyroligneous acid, which being purer in wood than in coal, the former is always employed. The flavour dépends upon the kind of wood used : that most esteemed is communicated by the juniper, with which the Westphalian hams and the Embden geese are smoked. The wood most generally next in use is the beech ; but in Sweden and in Pomerania the spruce fir is often used, either alone or in mixture with the birch. In Hampshire, and other counties, where much bacon is smoked, the kiln is egg-shaped, with a door in one side, and a covered chimney on the narrow end : the hams are suspended from hooks in the roof, and a smothered fire of sawdust is kept up on the floor, by throwing on successive handfuls of sawdust. The sawdust of hard wood, such as oak, ash, beech, &c., is preferred to that of resinous trees. In Cambridgeshire, and other parts of England, hams and bacon are frequently smoked by hanging them in a wide kitchen chimney, and making a lire of sawdust on the hearth ; and, in the north of Scotland, gentlemen often send their bacon or mutton hams, wrapped in paper, or coated in sawdust, to their tenants, to be hung up in their wide kitchen chimneys where peat is burned below. In the neighbourhood of Aberdeen, and in various places in the north of Scotland, haddocks are strung up on rods called spits, and suspended in wide chimnéys, under which peat and sea-weed are burned, and some- times fir; though the flavour of the sea-weed and peat is greatly preferred. Red herrings are strung by the gills on wooden spits, and these spits are suspended in rows above each other, in a house which is kept filled with the smoke of birch for several weeks. As this process cannot require to be performed more than two or three times a year on a private farm, the same apartment might serve for distillation; or for smoking willows with sulphur, to bleach them, where basket-making was carried on ; or straw, where hat-making was praçtised. In the same room, also, articles of carpentry intended for the open air might be either saturated with pyroligneous acid, or actually charred at the ends to be inserted in the ground. The value of the saturation process is évident from the great durability of the timber of the roofs of cottages which hâve irnperfect outlets for the smoke ; many in Scotland, and some in England, might be referred to as examples. 74CV As an Example of the essential Accommodations of a Farm House on a small scale.MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARM HOUSES. 367 and on the most economicaî principle of construction, we may refer to fi g. 749. The walls of this house may be built of rammed earth, or mud, or clay nogging, or in whatever manner is cheapest and best suited to the particular locality ; and, as ail the accommoda- tion is on one floor, the highest of these walls need not be more than ten feet above the stone or brick foundation. The accommodations are, an entrance-porch, a, facing the south-west ; a hall or lobby, b ; kitchen, c ; back-kitchen, d ; place for fuel, e ; larder, / ; pantry, g ; place for fuel for lighting lires, and women’s water-closet, h ; ale and beer cellar, i ; dairy, k ; room for potatoes and other roots, l ; wine and spirit cellar, m, with a china closet over, opening from the dining-room ; boys* bed-room, n ; lobby to the three family bed-rooms, and to the private water-closet, o ; master and mistress’s bed-room, p ; girls’ bed-room, q ; stranger’s bed- room, r ; parlour, s ; single men’ssleep- ing-room, t (the window of which is also a door,by which they can go out early in the morning without disturbing the family); maid- servant’s room, u ; dining-room, v ; dry- ing-closet, heated from the back of the kitchen lire, w ; and projection over the oven, x. There is a flue from the oven across the dining- room, going round the parlour, and back again ; which, with the heat from the drying-closet, will, it is calculated, rentier open lire- places wholly un- necessary, and there forenone are shown. By examining the section, fig. 750, the simplicity of the construction of this building will be obvious. The outside walls are only seven feet high, but the capacity of ail the rooms is rendered sufficiently ample by raising 749 p-n-rprui----------j---------[—--------j Ft. 10 S 0 10 20 30 Ft. the ceïling, as shown in the section. To admit of raising the ceiling, a chain of purlins, fig. 750, y, is placed in the direction shown by the dotted line c b d, &c., in fig. 749, and is carried round the house. These. purlins are supported by the cross walls ; and on them, and on the wall surrounding the dining-room, the rafters, which are of short lengths, find a secure support. From the entrance-door to the door of the dining-room there is a rise of two feet, effected by an inclined plane ; and there is also a déclination from the door of the back-kitchen to that of the root-ceÜar, also of two feet, by which368 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. means the fireplace of the oven is sufficiently low to admit of the flue from it pâssing under the dming-room floor; or the same purpose may be effected by having afew steps down to the oven furnace. There may be an upright flue from the oven, for use during summer. The stairs down to the wine-cellar are shown with a line across the steps, indicating that it is to be constructed with double treads, in order to gain space, as shown § 164, fig. 137. The Windows in the roof are double; the outer sashes being glazed with small panes, to resist hail ; and without cross bars, like hot-house sashes. The inner ones are upright, and hung in the usual manner. A line passed diagonally through this house, from the south to the north, should intersect the centre of the farm- yard, which would thus be completely overlooked from every part of the parlour, s, which for that purpose has Windows on both sides. Fig. 751 is the élévation of the entrance, labourers’ wages at 18s. a week, and carpenters* at 25s. a week, for £250 ; and, were there no duty on glass, the sum would be much lower ; beçause, the floors and walls being of earth or' composition, and the roof of short pièces of timber and thatch, the chief expense is incurred in the doors and Windows. 741. A Farm House with an enlarged degree of Accommodation, but still on the most economical plan, for a country where the cheapest material for the walls is earth, and for covering the roof, thatch, might be formed from the same ground plan, with a story over it. The change in the destination of the apartments shown in fig. 749 may be as follows : —r may be an office, the window serving also as an outside door, for the entranceMODEL DESIGNS FOR FARM HOUSES. 369 of persons on business belonging to the farta ; t, a fruit-room and china-closet, or room for the use of the mistress ; and u, a laundry. Fig. 754 may be the plan of the bed-room P' I i i I I i I I i j---------J---------J Ft. 10 5 0 15 20 30 Ft. or garret floor, in which a is the room for female servants, and b that for single men ; d, e, f and g are bed-rooms for members of the family, or for strangers ; and h is a lumber-room. The entrance to the two servants’ rooms is from the landing of the staircasev in conséquence of which they can go down stairs without disturbing the rest of the family ; and the entrance to ail the other bed-rooms is from the gallery, which is pro- jected from the side walls of the dining-room, as shown in the section fig. 755. The gallery, the staircase, and also the dining-room below, may be amply lighted during the day from the four skylights, which lights hâve double sashes ; viz., outside ones of the same slope as the roof, which slide the one over the other like those of a hot-house, with very small panes, as before described ; and inside ones, which are perpendicular, and open like commoh sash Windows. Both sashes may be worked from below by lines and pulleys. A lamp suspended in the centre of the dining-room will light it, the staircase, and the doors opening into ail the other rooms, in the evening. For the sake of economy, the outer walls of the bed-rooms are kept low ; but as they are larger in length and width, Q Q370 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. there wîll be an ample volume of air in each for health. The whole of tins house may be effectually heated by the oven and kitchen fires, without any others. An ironing stove may be placed in the laundry ; for which purpose there may be a flue built in the stack which contains the kitchen flue. In this Design, and the preceding one, it will be observed that there are no passages ; which is a great saving of room. The general appearance of this farm house may be as in fig. 756. 742. A Model Farm House for a smaü Farmer has been given by Morel-Vindé, which we consider perfect in its kind, for a country where the chief material of construction is timber of a small size. No piece of wood, in constructing this Design, is longer than ten or twelve feet, or thicker, when squared, than six inches on the side. It is not intended that this wood shall be eut out of large trees, but that it shall be squared from young trees or branches ; to the end that, in countries abounding with wood, it shall not cost more than that which is used for fuel. The walls are framed of timber, and the panels filled in, and covered with weather-boarding or plaster, outside, and lath and plaster inside. The cellar floor of this Design, fig. 757, contains two divisions, a bake 757 house, in which there is a stove, c, for heating the apartments above; an oven, h ; and a supporting post for the parlour floor, k. The cellar has also a supporting post, Z, and the entrance to both has six descending steps at o. The use of the two posts, k and Z, is to admit of forming ail the joists of the floor above of wood not longer than ten or twelve feet. Fig. 758 is the plan of the ground floor, in which may be seen the parlour, a, with a small office, b, and a bed for the master and mistress in a recess, c ; the kitchen with its dresser, i, at one end of which there is a post, k, to support the floor above. In the centre of the building may be seen the stove funnel, /, with three small openings to the two bed-rooms, h h, and to the parlour, a ; one of the bed- rooms containing two beds, d d, for children, and the other two for female servants, e e. In the mid wall may be seen at g the flue from the oven ; and at one end the dairy, m, and the harness and small tool room, n : at the opposite end is a water-closet, p ; and a house for wood and the larder farm implements, q. The entrance is by the ascendingMODE JL DESIGNS, FOR FARM HOUSES. 371 758 steps, r. The plan of the ceiling joists over this floor is represented in fig. 759. Over these joists there is a garret, which may be entered either from a staircase, formed in a porch behind, placed at o, in fig. 758, 759 and corresponding with that in front ; or by an outside ladder. On the sup- position that it is entered by a ladder in front, its door is represented in the élévation, fig. 760, in which may be seen the two small windows to the bake- house and cellar ; the doors of the harness-room and water-closet in the two wings ; the entrance door of glass, the window to the kitchen, that to the parlour, and that to the cabinet or office. Fig. 761 is a side view, in which the projection of the porch is conspicuous at s, the window of the harness-room is seen at t, and of the dairy at u. Fig. 762 is a longitudinal section, in which the oven is seen at h, with its asb-pit imderneath ; the kitchen fireplace over it at «, the parlour at k, the garret at Z, the ventilator to the dairy at m, and to the water-closet at n ; and the doors to the two bed-rooms at o o. In fig. 763 we hâve given a perspective view of this improved French farm bouse, varying the form of the chimney-tops ; of the angle brackets of the porch ; adding rails to the outside stair ; giving a Gothic or old English character to the ventilators ; and placing the whole on a platform. A further improvement372 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. on the original Design is a glass window as a.door to the garret, instead of the boarded one shown in fig. 760. This garret, instead of being entered by a ladder outside, might be got at by a trap- door in the ceiling of .the kitchen, with a hanging ladder like that shown in fig. 158, § 179. The area covered by this building is 920 superficial feet; and it would cost, in the neighbour- hood of Paris, £258 : 8s. : 4d. ; but in the departments of France the ex- pense would not be above halfthat sum. 743. On the Construction and Ar- rangement of this Design, Morel- Vindé has the following remarks : — The post which, in fig. 758, is shown at h, as proceeding from the kitchen dresser, may be thought to be incon- vénient, but it is not found to be so in practice; on the contrary,.it serves as a standard to drive hooks or nails into, on which to hang things : at all events, its position there is essentia! to the solution of the problem of usingMODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMER1ES. 373 instead of two short joists. The privy or water-closet is thus constructéd : — A tub, firmly held together by iron hoops, is sunk in the earth to -the brim ; and it has two strong hooks which project from each side. Over this tub is placed a portable seat, with a funnel, which descends into the tub, and there is a lid to the opening in the seat. Ail the soap suds, and other waste water of the house is poured through this funnel. Directly over the tub, in the rafters of the roof, a pulley is fixed ; and, when the tub is full, which it will be once or twice every week, the portable seat is removed, and the tub is raised up and placed on a wheelbarrow, by means of a cord passed over the pulley. The tub is then wheeled away to two tanks, or small trenches ; into one of which is poured the liquid matter, and into the other the more solid contents. The tub is then washed out, and returned to its place ; and the liquid matter is immediately rendered thick by mixing with it powdered lime, chalk, or mari ; or, in default of either of these, powdered lime rubbish. This manure is what is called in France urate. The thick matter the farmer allows to dry, and afiterwards he reduces it to powder, when it forms that excellent and high-priced manure so well known throughout Europe, and especially in France, as poudrette. Finally, the urate and the poudrette are mixed together in a large tank, having the bottom and sides of masonry ; and soap suds, or the liquor from stable dung, being added, the whole is worked till it becomes of the consistency of mud. After this, powdered plaster of Paris, or lime, or mari, is added, and thoroughly incorporated, till the whole is so thick that it can scarcely be stirred with a stick. Left to itself it soon sets, and in three weeks will hâve become so firm, that it will eut like cheese, and may be taken out and dried in lumps about twice the size of bricks. These bricks Morel- Vindé calls stercorat, and he says that they form as powerful a manure as pigeon dung. When used they are reduced to powder, and strewed over the soil by hand, as a top- dressing. In situations where neither plaster of Paris, lime, nor mari is to be had, the urate and poudrette may be mixed up with clay, when the stercorat is to be used on sandy soil, and with sand when it is to be used on clayey soil. This, Morel-Vindé says, is the best of ail known manners'of employing the contents of privies, and he speaks from long practice on his own estate, at Celle, near St. Cloud. (Essai sur les Constructions Rurales Economiques, &c., p. 26.) Subsect. 2. Fundamental Principles, Directions, and Model Designs, for the Construction and Arrangement of the varions Parts which compose a Farmery. 744. The Parts which compose a Farmery may be arranged under two heads, buildings and yards. The buildings may be classed as houses for lodging and feeding live stock ; storehouses for produce and food ; houses for preparing food, or carrying on in-door farmery operations ; houses for portable machinery and implements ; lodgings for single men, and houses for married men. The yards are chiefly two ; the cattle or dung yard, and the rick or stack yard : but in large establishments there are, besides these, the pig yard, the poultry yard, the carpenter and smith’s yard, and some others, according to the kind of farm. 745. The Principles on which the Lodging-places of ail domestic Animais are designed must necessarily be drawn from the size of the animal, the température of its native climate, its habits of life, and the State of domestication to which it has been brought. The domestic quadrupeds which form the inmates of farmeries are chiefly the horse, the cow, the sheep, and the swine ; and these, in their artificial State, may be considered as requiring the same climate, or nearly so ; and as not differing very materially, either in the kind of food which they eat, or in their manner of taking it. They may ail feed from a rack or manger, of nearly the same height relatively to their own ; and, taken in the plan, or vertical profile, they are ail more or less wedge-shaped ; the head being placed at the narrow end of the wedge. The chief différence, therefore, is in their magni- tude as wedges ; and it is to ascertain this différence that the Àrchitect who wishes to draw his practice from fundamental principles ought in the first place to direct his attention. A horse of average size, he will find, forms a wedge eight feet long, six feet and a half high ; two feet broad at one end, and one foot and a half broad at the other. A cow or bullock of average size forms a shorter and somewhat blunter wedge than the horse ; being generally seven feet and a half long, five feet high, two feet and a half broad at one end, and, allowing for the horns, nearly two feet at the other. Taking the horse and ox together, we may consider them, on the average, as wedges eight feet and a half long ; two feet and a half at the broad end, and two feet at the other ; and six feet and a half high. The sheep we may consider as three feet and a half long, two feet high, eighteen inches broad at one end, and, allowing for the homs of the ram, one foot at the other ; and the swine may be considered as a wedge of the same size and shape as the sheep. Assuming these averages to be sufRciently correct for practice, two important conclusions may be drawn from them: first, that the most economical mode of lodging the first two of these quadrupeds must be in houses the walls of which form concentric#7‘i COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE, circlçs, or segments of circles parallel to each other ; and that the rack or manger being required for the small end of the wedge, should always be placed against the smallest circle or segment ; and, secondly, that in ail open yards wherequadrupeds are allowed to run loose, and eat from racks or mangers, the length of the rack or manger required to allow the whole to eat at once may be obtained with certainty when the kind of animal is given ; since, when the rack or manger is to be in a straight line, the breadth of the broad end of the wedge must be allowed for each animal, and when it is to be curved, the radius of the curve must be determined by the breadth of the smaller end of the wedge. From this theory it may also be deduced, that there must be one magnitude, as well as one form, more economical than any other, for lodging each of these animais ; and that this magnitude must be that circumference of a circle which the narrow ends of the wedges completely fill up, and no more. Fig. 764 shows the number of horses, or horned cattle, that will stand together in the cir- cumference of a circle, with their heads towards the centre ; and fig. 765 shows the parallelo- gram that would be required to contain the same number of the same-sized ani- mais,supposing them to be placed in a straight line. Fig. 767 shows the num- ber of average-sized sheep or swine that would stand in a circle; and fig. 768 the parallelogram that would be re- quired to contain them in a straight line. The loss of space, in both in- stances, is about one fourth. It is true that, in practice, ani- mais can never be placed so near to- gether for any length of time ; but the comparison which we hâve made suf- ficiently establishes the principle, that, in calculating the room required for lodging these animais, or feeding them from racks or mangers in open courts or yards, they must be con- sidered as wedges. In applying this principle to practice, the habits of each animal, and the kind of food to be given to it, will form subordinate principles, which must also be taken into considération by the Architect. We shall endeavour to illustrate this in the case of the animais above mentioned. 746. The Horse and Ox are capable of lying down and rising up, when they hâve a vacant space of a foot round them on every side. This will give a wedge-shaped stall, eleven feet long, five feet broad at one end, and four feet broad at the other ; in which they will hâve ample accommodation, and the saving of room on each animal, in a stall of this description, as compared with a parallelogram stall, will be five and a halfMODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 37Ô i'j superficial feet, or above one eighth part of the whole. The circular building best suited for this accommodation would hâve the radius of the inner wall fifty-four feet six inches, as in fig. 766 ; and, therefore, if (other circumstances being the same) stable s or cattle-houses in farmeries could be built in this form as easily as in the parallelogram shape, there would be an obvious saving of space to the above extent ; and this, in a stable of twelve horses, or a cattle-shed of twelve cows, would amount to sixty-six feet ; or, in other words, more room would be gained than would be suffi cient for an additional stall. Wherever curvilinear stables, or cattle-houses, therefore, can be introduced into a farm- yard, the Architect may feel satisfied that the proper radius for the smaller circle, when the animais are of medium size, is fifty-four feet six inches. 747. Sheep and Swine, from the necessity of the former being kept in almost continuai exercise, and being surrounded by, or at least having above them, a great abundance of fresh air, and from the restlessness of the latter, are never kept tied up in stalls ; and therefore the curvilinear principle, as applied to them, refers only to the lineal direction of their mangers or troughs. Allowing a full- grown sheep or swine, when feeding at a rack, three inches on each side of his head, this will give fifteen feet 768 nine inches as the best radius for the convex side of sheep racks, which are intended to be eaten from on one side only ; and for the feeding-troughs of full-grown swine kept in a yard. This will beseen on inspectingfig.769, in which the inner circle represents a trough or manger, out of which fifty-eight sheep or swine might eat on the outside, though not half that numberwithin. As the différence is considérable between the width of a horned sheep and one without horns, this radius will require to be varied according to the proportion of horned to polled sheep in the flock. 748. These Principles for the cur- vilinear arrangement of stalls, racks, and troughs, we do not lay down as of very great importance, but rather with a view to induce the young Architect to enquire into the reasons of things ; and to endeavour, in every thing, to take principles into considération rather than precedents. We shall now proceed to give details of, accompanied by reasons for, the more ordinary modes of con- structing stables, cattle-sheds, and other buildings for animais which belong to a farmerv. 749. The Buildings usually employedfor lodging, feeding, orfatteningLive Stock, com- prise the stable, cow-house, calf-house, cattle-stalls, hammels and sheds, sheep-house, piggery, poultry-house, rabbit-house, pigeon-house, and house for sick horses or cattle. These should either be connected together, and open into one yard, or they may be separated by the barn, and open into the same or different yards. On no account should they be intermixed with the implement and machine houses, or with the cart-sheds. 750. Stables. The horse is an animal in a highly artificial State, and requires to be treated with a degree of care beyond that bestowed on any other domesticated quadruped. The stable in which he is lodged should hâve its doors and Windows to the south-east, as the mildest aspect, and, in general, hâve ail its openings on one side, and in the roof, to prevent cross draughts of air. It ought to be on a dry soil, or, if on a wet one, it should be raised above it by a hôllow floor ; or by materials of a kind which will contai n interstices of air between the natural surface and the artificial floor. Ail stables should be large, cool, and capable of being well ventilated. The proper température for a horse is 50° in winter and from 60° to 65° in summer. The best mode of ventilating. a stable in winter is by trunks or tubes of boards, about a foot square, forming openings under the eaves, or carried up through the ceiling, where there is one, so as to pass through the roof ; their tops being covered in such a manner as to exclude the rain, without impeding the ascent of the heated air. The inside openings of ail these tubes376 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. should hâve small sliding shutters to regulate the ventilation. In summer, this is best effected by having -the Windows filled in with binged luffer-boards ; or by having glass Windows, with outside luffer-blinds. In the latter case, the quantity of air admitted, both in summer and winter, may be very accurately regulated by the degree to which the glass Windows are opened. It was formerly supposed that darkness was favourable to good condition in horses; but this has been found to be a mistalce, and light is now freely admitted, as well as fresh air. The floors of that part of stables in which ' the horses stand should be level ; because, when raised towards the horse’s head, they are found to put the back sinews on the stretch, and thus to fatigue the animal when he ought to be at rest. The urine may be carried off by a drain under each compartment, covered by a grating ; and this grating where the horse stands loose, should extend from the centre of the compartment in four directions, like a right-angled cross. When the horse stands in a stall, in addition to the gutter behind, there ought to be a branch from it carried up themiddle of each stall, a third part of its depth ; and this, also, ought to be covered with a close grating of cast iron, or, as it generally is on the Continent, of oak pierced with holes. These cover gratings ought to fit into the tops of the gutters, so as to lie close and level with the adjoining floor, without requiring to be fixed, in order to admit of their being lifted out occasionally, for the purpose of cleaning out the gutter. This gutter should communicate with a covered liquid manure tank by a drain ; or, if it communicates with an open tank, there ought to be a stink-trap in the drain immediately without the stable door, to prevent the entrance of a current of air through the grating, which air being necessarily saturated with the volatile alkali of the urine, would contaminate the atmosphère of the stable. The great advantage of this drain and grating is, that the évaporation of urine in the stable is in a great measure prevented by it ; and not only its atmosphère rehdered much more healthy, both for men and horses, but the whole of the ammonia of the urine is transferred safe to the manure tank, where it forms one of the most valuable portions of the manure. To get rid of this ammonia in the stable, ail droppings from the horse should be removed immediately, if practicable ; and, at ail events, the litter which has been stained by the urine or the dung ought to be removed to the dung-pit, or to the outside of the stable, at ïeast twice a day. It is the practice with some farmers to clean out their stables only once or twice a week ; but the exhalations produced by such an accumulation of matter cause many diseases in the feet and legs ; and the floor, by the unequal accumulation, being rendered uneven for the horse to stand on, he is strained and fatigued when in the stable, instead of being rested. The litter kept in a stable should be only such as is dry and sweet ; and that taken out should be immediately put into the dung-pit, to prevent évaporation. The eminent veterinary surgeon Blaine observes, in an excellent article on the horse, in our Encyclo- pœdia of Agriculture (2d edit. § 6706.), that horses should not stand on litter during the day ; because, though it is thought to save their shoes, and even their feet, by preventing the uneven surface of the floor from hurting them, he affirms that it “ holds the urine, injures the feet, and is very apt to encourage swelling at the heels.” As stables are commonly constructed and managed, it is by no means désirable to hâve a hay-loft over them ; unless this is floored in such a way as to prevent the dust and dirt from the hav from descending upon the horses, and the ammoniacal gaa from ascending into the hay. Upright racks are preferred to racks which slope forwards, because the horse in drawing out the hay is less liable to get dust and hay-seeds in his eyes ; but, if the best and most economical System of horse feeding were adopted, viz. cutting ail the hay and fodder, and giving it to them well mixed with corn and pollard in their mangers ; and if these mangers were watertight, and the hay and fodder, previously to cutting, sprinkled with a solution of sait and water, no racks whatever would be necessary. When the horse is tied up, the halter should be contrived to run in a groove in the manger post, or in a tube behind it, to prevent it from becoming entangled with his feet. Stalls should always be wide, and for single horses of full size not narrower than six feet, and at least eight feet deep. Stalls for two horses ought not to be less than ten feet wide and eight feet deep, unless the horses are under the middle size. These are the fundamental principles and rules on which ail stables ought to be formed, when the health of the horse, and the prolongation of the working pcriod of his existence, are the objects in view. We shall now show their application. 751. The Stables for farm buildings ought to be at least sixteen feet wide from wal? to wall. The walls ought to be nine feet high ; there ought to be no ceiling or floor over ^ and the width allowed for each horse should be at least five feet, whether they are separated by partitions or not. In stables without partitions, or with partitions of not more than three or four feet from the head wall, four feet six inches may suflîce ; but it has been observed that, when horses are crowded together, they do not lie down near so frequently as when they hâve ample space ; and it has been further remarked that horses tied up in stalls do not lie down near so frequently as horses which are shut upMODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 377 loose in separate compartments. When it is considered how much the health of almost ail quadrupeds dépends upon their reposing a portion of every twenty-four hours in a horizontal position, and more especially when we reflect that the horse is particularly liable to hâve swelled legs and heels, we cannot help being of opinion that ail horses whàtever ought to be lodged in separate cells or rooms, with divisions so high as to prevent them from seeing each other. We are informed by Waistell that some stables in the north of Yorkshire are divided in this manner, and that horses hâve been found to lie down in these stables, which would seldom do so when tied up with other horses, either with or without stalls. In several stables in Britain for hunters or riding horses, we hâve seen this practice adopted ; and it is very general in the great breeding establish- ments known by the name of des haras (studs) in France. There is a very large stud of this kind in the neighbourhood of Nancy, which we visited in 1828 ; and where we found entire ranges of stabling partitioned off into separate cells for mares and foals, with a passage behind. The dimensions of these cells, as estimated by us on the spot, and marked down at the time, were about fifteen feet square ; the partitions were of inch and a half boards, ten feet high, grooved and tongued into each other ; and in the centre of the side next the passage was a doorway opening into it : this passage was at least six feet wide. These dimensions, being for mares with foals, are much more ample than would be required in farm stables: in these, eight or nine feet by twelve feet, the dimensions adopted in the north of Yorkshire, would be sufficient. It is well known that almost ail hard-worked horses fail first in the legs and feet, and that the best way to alleviate this evil is to induce them to repose as much as possible in a reclining position. Now, since horses are found to lie down more readily in separate rooms than in stalls, there can be no doubt that, as a matter of economy, this mode of lodging them would repay a farmer for the extra-expense. This once proved by practical men in the best cultivated districts of Britain, such as East Lothian or Northumberland, for example, such stables would as soon be substituted there for those now in common use, as the threshing mill was fifty years ago for the flail, in the same districts. Whether the stable is laid out with stalls, or in separate compartments for single horses, there ought to be a broad passage behind, between the stalls or horse-rooms and the wall ; which passage ought to be paved, and kept at ail times dry, clean, and free from litter. In the wall there ought to be one or more windows, according to the size ofthe stable, for light and ven- tilation. Each window may contain two glass sashes,sliding past each other in grooves, and should hâve on the outside fixed luffer-boarding, or shut- ters of that description, either hinged, or also sliding in grooves. Under each window there should be a recess for a corn bin ; or these may be placed at the extreme ends of ' the passage, or in the fodder- ing bay. There ought to be tubes under the eaves for ven- tilation, protected outside by luffer-boarding, and furnished with sliding shutters inside, for the purpose of régulation. . There ought to be cupboards formed in recesses in the walls, one for each man who works a pair of horses, in which he may keep the currycombs, and other articles necessary for cleaning them. The harness of every horse that is in daily use ought to be hung against the wall behind it, in order to lose as little time as possible in taking it off and putting it on ; and that which is only used occasionally should be kept R R878 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. in the harness-room. There should be one or more lanterns, suspended by cords and pulleys from the roof over the passage, for putting lighted candies in, while feeding or cleaning the horses during winter. The racks, when placed on the floor, should occupy two thirds of the width of the stall or horse-room, and the manger ought to occupy the other third, its top being on a level with that of the rack ; or the rack may occupy one angle, and the manger the other. The loft being condemned in farm stables, a place must be provided for holding food and litter : the most convenient is one or two divisions in every stable opposite its door, into which the food, whether green clover or tares in summer, or hay or roots in winter, can be readily carried from without, and easily distributed within. Being near the door, the food will be better ventilated than it could be in any other part of the stable, and it will occupy the least valuable part with reference to the horses ; it being well known that in farm stables the horse which stands opposite to the door is more liable to take cold than any other. The corn bin or chest may also be kept in one of these divisions, and, in that case, should be so large as to hâve separate compartments for corn and beans, and for eut straw or hay, or bruised furze to mix with the corn or puise. Stable doorways ought to be made four feet wide, and seven feet high ; and the door ought to hâve no projecting latches or handles, because these are apt to hurt the horse, or become entangled with the harness. Racks and mangers are very frequently made of cast iron, and they are found much more durable and economical than wood, without any inconyenience being experienced from them. Fig. 770 is a cast-iron rack, two feet four inches long, one foot wide in the centre, and one foot four inches high. The bars are one inch and a half by five eighths of an inch in thickness, and two inches and a half apart; the whole weighs thirty pounds, and costs by retail 8s. 6d. Below it is seen a cast-iron manger, three feet long, one foot three inches wide, outside measure, at top, and eight inches deep. It weighs two quarters thirteen pounds, and costs 10s. 6d, Fig. 771 is a wrought-iron angle rack. The chord of the arc on each side is two feet eight inches ; the surrounding frame is one inch and a half by a quarter of an inch ;MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 379 the ribs are round iron rods five eighths of an inch in diameter ; and the whole weighs twenty-four pounds and a quarter, and costs 6s. Below it is an angle manger of cast iron, which measures three feet in length in front, with a basin one foot seven inches long, one foot wide, and eight inches deep. It weighs two quarters twenty-three pounds, and costs 9s. Fig. 772 is a wrought-iron rack, three feet long, eighteen inches high, and eighteen inches wide. It weighs thirty pounds, and costs 6s. 6d. Fig. 773 is a cast-iron bull’s-eye rack two feet and a half in diameter, which costs 7s. 6d. These iron racks are far more durable than wooden ones ; and, about London at least, cost less. 752. As an Example of a Stable with high Racks, Mangers, and partitioned Stalls, constructed in the most approved manner, we refer to figs. 774 to 779. Fig. 774 is the 774 A ground plan of a stable for eight horses, in which the racks are upright. In the centre there is a foddering bay, a ; with a corn chest, b, placed on blocks of stone, to prevent its bottom from rotting ; in the front walls there are recesses, c c, six inches or more deep, according to the kind of wall, for hanging harness in the upper part, and for pails and other articles used in the stable to stand in below. The recesses under the Windows will allow of placing a small corn bin or cupboard there. The dotted lines from d to d represent the main gutter drain, and the short dotted lines from it, e, the branch drains into the different stalls ; the dotted lines at / indicate a drain communicating with the liquid manure tank. The gratings placed over the main and stall gutters may be of stone or oak, pierced with holes ; or of massive cast iron, like fig. 775, which, when twelve inches square, costs 4s. ; when fifteen inches, 6s. 9c?. ; and when eighteen inches, 9s. 9c?. Fig. 776 is a cross section on the line A B ; in which is shown a ventilator in the roof, formed by a tube, with a stopper, g, sliding horizontally, continued up imme- diately under the roof, and opening in the ridge, under a protecting cover composed of two large slates, h; ? is a cast-iron harness peg ; k is the corn chest ; ?, the rack ; m, the manger ; n, the grating at the termination of the stall gutter ; and o, the main gutter ; p, the space under the rack, into which dust, seeds, and other matters from the hay or fodder drop down through the grated bottom of the rack, and are taken out, from time to time, by removing the bottom board in front. Fig. 777 is a front élévation of this stable, in a simple style, which may be called Grecian. Two of the Windows are shown with outside blinds, and two glazed between upright bars, without horizontal ones, in the manner of hot-house sashes. The intention of this mode of glazing is to avoid collecting the moîsture and dust which otherwise are always found on the cross barn of stable and out-house Windows. Ail the Windows are intended to bave outside380 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. luffer-board blinds, to be worked from the inside by a lever handle, in the manner which we shall describe hereafter. Fig. 778 is an élévation of the plan, fig. 774 ; supposing it to be finished exteriorly in a style which may be called Gothic. Fig. 779 is a cross section, in which is seen the small corn bin or cupboard for currycombs, &c., under the window, q ; the ventilator, with its protecting cover, r r; the gutter drains wîth their gratings, s ; the cast-iron manger, t ; the bull’s-eye cast-iron rack, u ; the bottom of the rack, v, beneath which is the space for dust and seeds ; a cast-iron ramped cap, w, to the partition between the stalls ; and a cast-iron sill, with a groove for receiving the ends of the boards from the partition, x. The stable-post, y, in this section, is also of cast iron, and it costs 20s.; the ramped iron copings cost 12s. each, and the sills 7s. each. These cast-iron copings and sills for stalls are mànufactured by Mêssrs. Cottam and Hallen ; and they afford a very cheap, easy, and durable mode of forming the partitions between stalls. 753. The different Modes of arranging the racks and mangers of stables are shown in figs. 780 to 785. Fig. 780 is a front view of the rack and manger, shown in the section fig. 776; and fig. 781 is a front view of the bull’s-eye rack and cast- iron manger shown in fig. 779. Fig. 782, two corner cast-iron racks, and a cast- iron manger. Fig. 783 shows what is called a corner manger, with a standard corner cast-iron rack, which costs 10s. 6c?., and of which fig. 786 is a perspective view. Fig. 784 is a standard rack, ex- tending two thirds of the width of the stall, in which the horses or cattle are supposed to eat from the top when standing, and from the side when lying down. The length of the manger is one third of the stall, and the space under it is fitted in with spars, so as to form a continuation of the rack. The bottom of the rack is raised six inches from the floor, and is sparred somewhat doser than the sides ; the top has cross spars, one foot apart, to prevent the animal from tossing the fodder out of the rack. Fig. 785 shows a cast-iron manger, and a projecting quarter circle rack ; that is, the fourth part of a gratedMODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 381 780 781 782 783 784 785 78 6 globe, open at top, for putting in the hay or other fodder. When the upright rack shown in fig. 780 is formed of wood, the staves or upright spars are one inch and a quarter square, or round,' let into top ana bottom rails, three inches and a half by two inches and a half. If the staves are square, they are mortised into these rails; and, if they are round, holes are bored in the rails, to admit their ends. The common width of the openings between the staves is two inches and a quarter ; but large horses require three inches. The bottom of the rack is filled in with spars of the same dimensions as the staves of the rack, and at rather less distance from each other. The partitions between the stalls, when made of wood* are thus formed : — A strong post, called the heel-post, or stable-post, six inches square, and seven or eight feet long, so as to stand six feet high when the lower end is inserted in the ground, is firmly fixed by ramming round its lower end with earth and stones. Into this post two rails are mortised, the other ends of which are nailed to the uprights which support the rack, and against these rails upright boards an inch thick are nailed, and terminated by a capping piece, straight or ramped, according to taste. Short partitions, three or four feet long, and seven feet high, are sometimes formed between stalls, to prevent horses adjoining each other from eating together. The width of stalls with these short partitions, Waistell observes, may be about four feet and a half. Long partitions to stalls, he says, should be about eight feet ; and the width of each stall, from five feet and a half to six feet. In some parts of the country, it would be cheaper to form the partitions of slate or flag-stone, or even of common rubblework ; or of rammed earth, or of cob. 754. The Window most suitdble for Stables and Cow-houses, we think, should be com- posed of glass within, and of luffer-boarded blinds, to serve also as shutters, without. The construction is shown in figs. 787 to 793. Fig. 788, to a scale of a quarter of an inch to a foot, is a view of the glass window, as seen inside the stable or cow-house. It is com- posed of two sashes, a, 6, one of which slides past the other, in two grooves, in the top and bottom of the frame, as shown in the section fig. 787. These two sashes are without horizontal bars, and are glazed in the manner of hot-house Windows, for the reasons before mentioned, § 752. At c is a mortise eut in the side style of the window frame, for a handle to move up and down in, which is used to work the outside blinds, and this handle can be locked by an iron pin, when the blinds are used as shutters. Fig. 789 is an outside view of the same window, with the blinds placed before it ; the laths or luffer- boards being in a horizontal position, to admit the greatest quantity of light. Fig. 791 isa cross section of the window complété, with the luffer-blinds, d, outside, and the two sashes, e, inside. In this figure is seen the lever handle, f which w«rks the lufîer-boards. In the knob of this handle there is a small hole, which (when the382 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. luffer-boards are shut close clown, so as to admit the least quantity of light, and the handle is, in conséquence, raised to g) necessarily coincides with the ring staple at g ; when, by inserting an iron pin through the hole in the lever handle, and through this staple, the luffer- boarding is locked, and becomes a secure shutter. Fig. 790 is a view of a single lath or luffer-board, in the ends of which are seen the two small iron pivots or studs which work into the holes shown in the two lever rods, fig. 792. Fig. 793 is a fragment of the section fig. 791, on a large scale ; in which are shown the luffer-boards locked, the lever handle, h, being at its highest point. These figures will be understood by an y car- penter, if not by ail our readers ; and though Win- dows and blinds of this description may be thought too good for stables and cow-houses of the commonest kind, yet, for amateurs, we hâve no hésitation in stating it to be our opinion, that they are far préférable to any others which hâve yet been invented. No other construction gives 788MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES, 383 such command of light and darkness during the day, and of air at ail times. In common farm stables, Windows might be formed of broad luffer-boards, so hinged as to shut close when it was désirable to exclude air, and to open to different degrees according to the quantity of light or air, or both, which might be wanted. In these broad luffer- boards, there might be inserted one or two small panes of glass, for the purpose of ad- mitting light in severe weather when it was not désirable to admit much air. On the whole, whatever description of window is used in a stable, it ought to be such as will when it is désirable, as in very cold weather, for example, admit light without air, and in very warm weather, in the day time, admit abundance of air without much light. 755. As an Example ofa Stable with Boxes as well as with Stalls, such as is usually erected for gentlemen keeping hunters, we shall give the plan and other details of a Design sent us by Mr. Perry, and executed under his superintendence, for a gentleman in the neighbourhood of Godalming. Fig. 794, to a scale of one sixteenth of an inch to a foot, is the ground plan, in which a b are two-stalled stables, each seventeen feet by 793 792 791 790 L_L v\ r v Jxj mm Above line C are two rooms for any convenient purpose, twelve feet six inches, and con- taining mangers, c, of the width of the stall, and quarter circle upright racks, d, in the angles of each stall. There is a com- mon sash window to each stable, and near it an angle hay bin, e, formed of boards, with a lid, and capable of containing a truss of hay. The two-horse boxes, ff, are each twelve- feet six inches by nine feet six in- ches, and hâve mangers, racks, and hay bins like the stables. There is an entrance lobby, g, with stairs to the rooms over, and this entrance has double doors, as appears by the élé- vation, fig. 795. Fig. 796 is a longitudinal section from A to B, in which are shown the partitions between the stalls, K h ; the mangers, i i ; the si- tuation of the drains beneath, k k ; and the openings in the exterior walls for ventilation, l l. Fig. 797 is a cross section on the D, in fig. 794, in which may be seen the mangers, n n ; the racks, o o ; and the384 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. ventïlators, p p. Fig. 798 is a plan of the flooring of the rooms over the stables, exhibiting the channels or grooves in the walls, for ventilation, q q; and the appearance of these open- ings exteriorly is indicated in the end élévation, fig. 799. Fig. 800, to a scale of two thirds of an incli to a foot, shows the manner of finishing the eaves of the roof; in which r is the principal rafter, eight inches by three inches at bottom, and' six inches by three inches at top ; s, the wall-plate ; t, the pole- plate ; u, the upper rafter ; v, the eaves board ; w, the slate boarding ; x, the bracket ; y, a bed-moulding ; and z, the soffit boarding. The stalls in this stable hâve level floors and gratings similar to those in fig. 776, § 752; ^ 795 the floors of the boxes are also level, and paved with flag-stones, ail of which, except about eighteen inches in width round the box, are per- forated with holes about the fourth of an inch in diameter at top, and gradually widening to the under side of the stone, like the holes in the tiles of a malt kiln. The centre stone lifts up, for the purpose of cleaning out the drain below. 756. Houses for Horned Cattle. The anatomical structure and physiology of horned cattle are much less intricate than those of the horse ; and 796 the animais are consequently much hardier, and much less liable to disease. They will endure a greater degree of cold in winter, and of heat in summer ; and they requise less delicacy of management in their lodging, either in respect to space or ventila- tion, than horses. No horse could be kept in a stall for months, without exercise in the open air, and yet retain his health ; but cattle hâve been so kept till they hâve been made suffi ciently fat for the butcher ; and milch cows hâve been kept in the neighbourhood of London, standing in the same stall, without having been once taken out, for two years. (Encyc. of Agr., 2d edit. § 6898.) It does not follow from this, however, that great improvement might not be introduced into cow-houses and cattle-sheds ; and that exercise in the open air would not add to the flavour and wholesomeness both of butcher’s méat and dairy produce : on the contrary, the cow-houses in Holland, and the cattle hammels, or small feeding yards, of Northumberland, may be referred to as proofs that this is actually the case. The principal différence between a house in which cattle are tied up, and one in which horses are either kept in stalls or in separate rooms, is the open gutter behind, which has hitherto been considered indispensable in cattle-houses, on account of the more fluid nature of the dung of the animais. This gutter, or some substitute for it, is m ü Qû ÜQ m □QMODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES< 385 certainly essential where cattle are tied up; and one of the principal points m the construction of the floor, in every house for horned cattle, is, to place the gutter at a proper distance from their hind feet. This distance, in Holland, is never less than six inches, nor more than a foot. The gutter is generally made a foot broad, and three or four inches deep ; it is usually perpendicular on the sides, but some- times the cross section of the gutter is that of a semicircle or semioval; which last form is, however, objectionable, as it is apt to make the cattle slip when they cross it to their stalls. Whatever be the form of the section of the gutter, the hoe or scraper employed to clean it out must hâve its blade of a corresponding shape. In houses where cows or cattle are kept untied, two or three are generally placed together in an apartment ten or twelve feet square, opening into a small yard of twice that area. Such cattle- houses are called, in Northumberland and Berwickshire, hammels ; and in them there is no regular gutter, but simply a very gentle inclination of the floor of the shed and of the surface of the yard to one angle, where there are, or should be, a trap and drain, com- municating with the liquid manure tank. 757. Cow-houses, in which cows are kept for giving milk, require to be constructed with more care than other cattle-houses, with respect to ventilation, light, and cleanliness. Cows on common farms are not generally kept in separate stalls, except in cases of sickness, or when they are near the period of calving. The width of a common farm cow-house, where the cows are to be ranged lengthwise of the build- ing, should be at least sixteen feet, and the width allowed for each cow, of the largest and most improved breed of cattle, should not be less than five feet, or, when the cows are kept in-doors throughout the year, six feet ; and the space from the manger to the gutter should be eight or nine386 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VIELA ARCHITECTURE. feet. The manger should be a boarded, stone, or iron trough, placed so that the uppeî cdge may be from a foot to eighteen inches above the surface of the ground, or about, the height of the cow’s knees ; and it may be eighteen inches broad, and a foot deep. It should be divided into three parts, to admit of putting dry food in one, moist food in another, and water in the middle. In default of this arrangement, there ought to be a division of the manger for water between every two cows. Where cows are not kept in separate stalls, there ought to be a partition between every two pair, to reach half-way or more to the gutter behind. Between the manger and the wall there should be a passage of at least three feet in width, for supplying food, and for cleaning out the mangers from time to time. The gutter behind the cattle should be at least a foot wide ; and this will leave a passage, between the gutter and the wall, of three feet in width. There ought to be a door in one end of the foddering passage ; and, another as an entrance for the cows, in the end of the broad passage. The food may either be kept in an empty stall next the door, or, what is préférable, in a foddering bay, into which the doors should open. In every cow-house there should be Windows for light ; and there ought to be tubes for ventilation in the side walls, or in the roof, similar to those recommended for stables, to use when the Windows cannot be conveniently opened. The cows may be fastened to the front rail of the manger by a halter or chain passed through an iron ring, and loaded at its lower end. The floor of the standing-room ought to be perfectly level, because it is found that, when it is lower towards the gutter than at the manger, it is apt to occasion abortion, when the cows are in a gravid State ; and, for the same reason, the top of the manger or rack, if there is one, should never be higher above the floor than eighteen inches. Morel-Vindé observes that the farmers of Normandy are so particular in this respect, that they not only hâve their mangers and racks very low, but, when the cows are tumed out to grass, they always harness them with a bridle and brechin (bricole Normande), in such a manner as to prevent them from tossing up their heads, or reaching to the branches of trees. 758. A cow-house in which the cows are to stand across the building will afford the same accommodation as that in which they stand with their heads against one of the side walls, at less expense of walling ; because the foddering bay, which need not be larger in this case than in the other, serves at the same time as a foddering passage. In these foddering bays Waistell recommends that a cistern should be constructed, in order that when the turnips are topped and tailed in the field, the cart which brings them home may be backed into the bay, and the turnips tilted into the cistern, where, by stirring them a little, the loose earth which adhères to them will readily drop off, and they may be taken out of the cistern, and supplied as wanted to the mangers. This operation is per- formed by means of a grated iron scoop with a long handle. 759. In the cow-houses of landed proprietors of taste, or in those of large establish- ments near town, various improvements may be suggested on the above arrangements. One of these is, to hâve a drain covered with oak planks pierced with holes or cast-iron grates along the bottom of the gutter, for the purpose of allowing the urine and thin dung to pass immediately through it, and be carried off, as was practised in the Harleian dairy, near Glasgow ; thus diminishing smell and évaporation, and presenting at ail times an appearance of cleanliness. The gutter, in this case, may be very shallow ; and, indeed, if a broom be now and then passed over the grating, so as to press ail the dung into it, it might be raised to a level with the floor, and the open gutter entirely dispensed with. Grated bottoms to gutters, with drains underneath, are common in the cow- houses of men of wealth in France and Germany ; where there is sometimes, as in the king of Wirtemberg’s dairy at Weill, a supply of water at one end of the gutter, always ready to be turned on by a cock, every time it is cleaned. This is the case also in the cow-houses of the Agricultural Institution at Schleissheim ; and it is found there not only to keep the gutters sweet, but, by the obvious increase it affords of fluid matter in the manure tank, to supply the means of rotting a greater quantity of straw in the dunghill which is there kept over it, and moistened with the fluid beneath by means of a pump. Another improvement is, having ail the divisions in the manger, intended for water, on the same level, by which means they may be simultaneously supplied by turning a cock ; or the same thing may be accomplished, if they are on a uniform slope, by sinking them six or eight inches below the general surface of the bottom of the manger, and having a faise bottom, or water channel, leading from one to another. In this case, after the first division was filled, the water would run along the false bottom or water channel and under that of the dry and moist food divisions of the manger, te- the next water division, and so on to the end. It must be confessed, however, that supplying cattle with water in this way is a refinement that can only be worthy of adoption in very extensive establishments ; for cattle, like ail other animais, when regularly fed, and properly treated, Avili only drink at stated periods after they hâve had their due supply of solid food, and at these periods they could be let out to drink in theMODEL DESIGNS FOU FARMERIES. 387 open air. Water is supplied in the manner above mentioned at Rhodes’s dairy, at Islington (see Encyc. of Agric., 2d edit. § 6897.), where one division for water is formed in the manger between every two cows ; and these divisions are furnished with covers, which are put on when the cattle are eating dry food, to prevent them dropping any of it into the water, and thus dirtying it. As abundance of light in every farm building is highly favourable to cleanliness by exposing the want of it, large glass Windows might be formed in every description of house for cattle ; but these should always be provided with outside shutters ; or, what is préférable, luffer-boarded outside blinds, as recommended for stables, fig. 789, § 754, to keep off the intensity of the light, and also the heat of the sun. These shutters or blinds should be opened whenever the master or mistress may enter the building, or when it is to be cleaned out ; but at other times they should generally be closed, as it must not be forgotten that light stimulâtes the animais, and prevents their repose, while it favours the introduction of Aies and other insects, which are always very troublesome to cattle. In the royal cow-houses at Bagatelle and at Villeneuve d’Etang, near Paris, the Windows reach from the floor to the ceiling, and open like those of a drawing-room. They hâve outside shutter blinds, and hinged panes of glass at top and bottom, for giving air in the winter season. The walls and ceilings are plastered, and finished as carefully as those of a common dwelling-house in London ; and a person being constantly in attendance to remove any dung that drops, the place is as clean and sweet as can be desired. We speak of them as they appeared to us when we visited them in 1828. In Flanders the cow-houses are equally clean and sweet ; and Radcliffe, in his Husbandry of Flanders, informs us that, in the winter season, the farmers generally breakfast in them : he adds that he did so himself, and found no inconvenience from either bad smells or want of cleanliness. In general, indeed, cow-houses and cattle-houses, as well as the animais themselves, are kept far cleaner and wholesomer on the Continent than in Britain. In the Harleian dairy establishment, which existed some years ago at Glasgow, some ingenious contrivances for cleanliness were introduced, which may deserve imitation. In front of each cow, between the manger and the foddering passage, a wire grating was suspended by cords and pulleys like a window-sash, which was lifted up when food was given, or the mangers cleaned out. The racks for hay were also suspended by cords, weights, and pulleys ; so that they could be pushed up out of the reach of the cows, when moist food was put into the mangers. In the gutters there were round apertures, of about six inches in diameter, with cast-iron covers fitted to them at short distances, and through these the dung was swept into large drains below, whence it was carried away by its fluidity to a dung-pit. The tails of the cows were tied up to the ceiling at milking time, as in Holland, and they were regularly combed and brushed twice every day. A stream of water could be introduced into the mangers and gutters at pleasure, for the purpose of cleaning them, or for supplying water to the cattle to drink. No litter was used, but the floors of the stalls were formed of boards, and the gutters behind were furnished with grated bottoms, and openings with covers, at intervals, as before mentioned. The température of these cow-houses was regulated by a thermometer. We cannot approve of this plan of not littering the cows, which is still adopted in some of the large dairies near London ; because it must be more comfortable to the cattle to lie down on straw tBan on bare boards or pavement, however smooth or clean either may be. Much less can we approve of the plan of not turning cows out of doors at least once or twice a day for exercise : this is always done on the Continent, even in the winter season, unless during a heavy fall of snow, or during continued heavy rain. Cows are universally cleaned like horses in Holland and the Netherlands, and in ail the first dairies both in France and Germany; and the Continental custom of tying up their tails at milking time, already mentioned as practised by Harley, is beginning to meet with imitators in this country. Curry- combing and brushing hâve long been in use in gentlemen’s dairies. We mention these things with a view of supplying the young Architect with ideas for the introduction of these and still further improvements in the design and construction of this kind of buildings ; since no Architect can improve the arrangements of a building, of which he does not thoroughly understand the use ; and the mere improvement of its Architecture, or external effect, without adding to its utility, is calculated to excite a feeling of contempt, rather than of approbation or respect. 760. Calf-houses ought to be placed near the cow-houses, to lessen the labour of carrying the milk to them ; but they ought never to be so near as to permit the cow to see or even hear the calf ; because either would disquiet her, and prevent her from feeding. The best mode is to hâve a separate house for the calves, and to tie them up to stakes like cows. The width of the space allotted for the calves need not be more than eight feet, and it should be arranged in every respect like a cow-house in miniature. Where calves are to be fed for the butcher, they are sometimes enclosed singly in388 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. small pens, between six and seven feet square ; but this is an unnecessary expense when the object is simply to rear tbe calf. In general, no arrangement is advisable by which two or more calves are kept loose in the same pen ; because, so placed, they are apt to suck one another, and also because milk or food cannot be given to more than one calf at a time, and the others are liable to be injured while being driven off. As calves require the greatest attention to keep them clean, ail the architectural arrangements connected with them ought to be especially directed to that end. The best constructed calf-pens in Middlesex hâve false bottoms of boards pierced with holes, through which ail moisture escapes, by which means they are kept quite dry ; and, by a little care on the part of the attendant, they may also be kept perfectly clean and sweet. 761. Feeding-sheds for homed Cattle may be constructed on the same plan as cow- houses, and the cattle placed in pairs between wooden, stone, or slate partitions. The cattle may either be ranged along the side walls, with a foddering passage at their lieads, and a cleaning passage behind (the foddering bay being at one end, or at both ends) ; or they may be ranged across the building, with bays for holding fodder, or serving as passages for supplying it, alternating between every two rows of cattle. A house sixteen feet wide and twenty-eight feet long will contain eight head of average-sized cattle, in a row, with their heads to a foddering passage three feet wide, at one of the side walls ; and with a cleaning passage four feet wide behind them. A house thirty- two feet long and fourteen feet wide will contain the same number of cattle, with their heads towards a foddering bay, and place for giving fodder in the middle of the house, eight feet wide. This last mode of placing the cattle is much more convenient than the other, and though it contains four feet more of circumferential walling, yet, if we make allowance, in the former case, for a building to contain the fodder, the latter will be much the more economical as well as the more convenient mode. 762. Feeding-houses for loose Cattle. It has been found that many descriptions of cattle, and particularly those bred up in mountainous districts, which are naturally small and active, do not fatten so well when tied up in stalls, as when left loose in a limited space, with a well-littered house or shed to take shelter in at pleasure. This is the general practice in, Northumberland, and in most parts of Scotland. The sheds or houses may be fifteen or sixteen feet square, and fitted up with raeks, either at the angles or against the partitions. The open yards may be of the same size as the covered sheds, with walls four feet high, and doors lifting out of grooves ; or in two parts, with the upper half hinged, and the lower part fitted in a groove, so as to lift out. The reason why it is proposed to fit the doors in grooves, or to hâve them in two parts with the lower part grooved, is, that, in opening doors hinged in the cormnon manner, they are apt to be obstructed by the litter which generally, though improperly, covers every farm-yard passage. In some Scotch farmeries, not only the doors of hammels and pigsties lift out of grooves, but even the gates lift out in a similar manner, or are suspended by weights with cords and pulleys, and are raised up and lowered like common sash Windows. Ail this is owing to the practice of keeping yards covered with litter ; but, when the management of cattle and manure is properly understood, the former will always be kept in houses or hammels, in order to moderate température ; and dun'g and litter always under a roof, in order to lessen évaporation. 763. Feeding-places for growing Cattle are nothing more than open sheds fitted up with racks, each having a court or yard of proportionate size to the shed ; that is, containing three or four times its area. In general it is désirable to divide these yards or sheds, so that not more than six or eight head of cattle may be together in the same yard. Besides the rack in the shed, there ought to be fixed or portable racks, with roofs to them, in the open yard. Ail cattle-racks ought to be placed on the ground : their height need not exceed two feet and a half, and their width eighteen inches. The top should hâve cross bars eighteen inches apart, to prevent the cattle from tossing out the fodder, and the bottom should be grated, to allow reeds, stones, dust, or other matter to drop through on the ground. 764. Houses for working Oxen may either be fitted up like the cow-houses, or, what is préférable, like the cattle hammels ; a pair of oxen being allowed for each hammel. Whether oxen are kept loose in hammels or tied up in stalls, provision ought to be made under cover, and near them, for hanging up their harness; and for keeping the eurry- combs and other instruments or utensils with which they are cleaned or fed. As it requires two pair of oxen to do the work of one pair of horses, on a farm where the ox is the principal beast of labour, a.proportionate increase of building is required ; and, in general, also an additional labourer for every three or four pair, for the purpose of cleaning them, and their stalls, harness, &c. 765. Piggeries. The swine is an inhabitant of ail climates, and eats every kind of food ; but lie is nevertheless averse from extremes of either cold or heat. Nature has taught him, in a wild State, in the torrid as well as in the frigid zone, to seek the recessesMODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. S89 of the forest, both for food and shelter ; where, while grubbing up the soil for roots, he is protected, by an impénétrable non-conducting mass of branches and foliage, from the heat of the one or the cold of the other. The domestic swine is in a highly artificial State, and requires to be kept warm by abundance of dry litter in the winter ; and cool, shady well ventilated houses or sties in summer. Seeking his food chiefly in *»e soil, he cannot be considered a délicate animal ; and he has few diseases compared with either the cow or the horse. Uniformity of température, therefore, seems to be the chief thing to be studied in the construction of piggeries. As pigs are generally fed in great part with refuse from the kitchen and dairy, the piggeries should be so placed in a farmery as to be accessible from the offices of the dwelling-house, without passing through any of the straw yards, and at the same time not so near as to prove an annoyance in summer by their smell. The construction of piggeries is exceedingly simple, each pigsty consisting of a covered lodging, and a small open court ; the latter for feeding and the former for sleeping in, in the case of store pigs ; though, for fattening pigs, especially in winter, the feeding troughs are frequently placed in the covered or warmest part of the structure. In a complété piggery for fattening pigs, there should be, at one end, or in the middle, a bay or compartment for pig’s food dry and moist ; and on the two sides of a passage may be placed rows of separate sties ; each with its feeding- trough in the side next the passage, and with a swing-door on the opposite side to a small yard. The use of the swing door, whicli is nothing more than a frame of boards suspended from a rail, the ends of which move in sockets freely either way between the jambs of the door, is to prevent the door from ever being left open in severe weather. When the pig wishes to go out, he soon learns to push it before him ; and the same wlien he wishes to return. Fig. 801 is a section across a wall containing a pig’s trough, in which a is a swinging flap or door ; b 6, stops to prevent it from being pushed too far either way ; and c c, holes for a boit to fix it in the position d, when the troughs are to be filled with food, or to be cleaned ; or at e, when the pigs are to eat. The pigs, however, will keep the flap open them- selves while eating. This arrangement is well calculated for fattening pigs, when there is not more than one in a sty; but for store pigs, or for a sow with a litter, it is désirable to hâve a longer trough, or to hâve two or more small troughs, as the strongest pig is apt to get into the trough while eating, to the exclusion of the others. The floors of ail pigsties should hâve an inclination to carry the moisture to a trap or drain ; and no animal requires a greater abundance of dry litter. If under a good roof, and well supplied with this material, the pig will keep himself warm and comfortable, almost any where, and in any season. 766. Sheep-houses. The sheep is a native of temperate climates, where the ground ,j5 not long covered with snow during winter ; but it has become an artificial inhabitant of ail countries from Iceland to the equator. It is only in those countries where it cannot pasture in the open air, from the snow covering the ground during some weeks at a time, or where the extreme heat of summer burns up the herbage, that sheep-houses ought to be required. There are, however, other cases, in which, from the imperfect State of agriculture, and the absence of fences to the fields, or from imperfect civilisation, or the want of rural police, and the conséquent prevalence of thieves and wolves, sheep- houses become necessary for protecting the sheep during the niglit. Structures of this kind are common in Russia, to prevent the sheep from being famished during the long winters of that country ; and in France they abound as nightly shelters to guard them from the wolves. In Britain, folds, or walled enclosures, are almost the only description of sheep-houses in use ; because our sheep can pasture in the open air during every month in the year, and ail our fields are enclosed by hedges, walls, or other barriers. In some of the mountainous districts it becomes necessary to protect and feed the sheep during severe storms ; and this is done in Scotland by square or circular folds, called stells, into which the sheep are driven and fed. Sometimes these stells are roofed in, but in general they are left open. The sheep-houses of France and Germany are simply roofs supported by posts, and covering a space sometimes open on ail sides, but generally closed to the height of six or seven feet. Across, or lengthwise, in this space, hay-racks are placed;390 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. and, instead of side and end waîis» oi masonry, there are generally wooden pales. The roofs are made very high and steep, in order to acquire strength to bear, and inclination sufficient for throwing off the snow, at the least possible expense of timber. As there is no objection to numerous posts within, provided they be in the line of the racks, sheep- houses of the largest dimensions may be constructed of pièces of timber not more than ten or twelve feet long, or thiqker than six inches. Sheep-houses, or folds for feeding and housing sheep in bad weather, are, in England, Mr. Main observes, “ square enclosures erected in sheltered places, formed of an outside wall built of turves or other materials, about six or seven feet high ; and ail round the interior are lean-to thatched sheds, supported on posts about four feet high. Against the back wall are racks for hay, and troughs for chaff, bran, oats, or peas, &c. The middle of the fold is kept well littered with straw ; and on one side of the gâte there is a lock-up shed for keeping the provender. These folds are usually about fifty feet square, and are no less serviceable to the flock in bad weather, than to the farm in making great quantities of excellent manure.” In the north of Germany, and in Poland and Lithuania, there are immense sheep-houses of a very simple construction, which nevertheless are exceedingly effective. A skeleton roof, sometimes circular and sometimes oblong, is formed of long pôles, chiefly young spruce fir trees, with their lower ends inserted in the ground, and their points meeting at top ; across these, smaller pôles are fastened, not by nails or wooden pins, but by withy ties. The whole is then covered, or thatched with branches of spruce fir. The doors and places for ventilation are merely gaps, stopped up or opened according to the discrétion of the shepherd. These sheep-houses answer their purpose perfectly. They are sometimes also used for sheltering cattle. 767. The Sheep-house at Celle, near St. Cloud, may be given as one of the most complété in France. It was erected in 1809, by Morel-Vindé, on his own estate, and the plan published fourteen years afterwards, as of a construction which, during that period, had given entire satisfaction. Long expérience has convinced Morel-Vindé that every sheep in lamb, or with a lamb, to be at its ease, ought to occupy a superficies of ten square feet ; that every full-grown sheep without a lamb requires a space of six feet ; that every ewe requires a length along the edge of the rack and manger of one foot, in order to eat at ease ; and that every ram with horns requires fifteen inches along the rack ; that the racks are best when portable, that is, when they are capable of being taken down from the posts on which they are hung, as shown in fig. 802 ; and, lastly, that in no case slioidd a sheep-house hâve a floor over it, the health of the sheep depending essentially on their having a great height of open space over tliem. On these fundamental principles theMODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 391 sheep-house at Celle was designed. Fig 803 shows the ground plan, in which a a a a are double racks and mangers, like that shown in fig. 802, placed lengthwise in the 803 middle of the building ; and b b a single rack and manger, continued round three sides. There are three doors at one end, c c c. These doors may be seen shut in the élévation, fig. 804 ; and the double and single racks may be seen in the cross section, fig. 805 in this section, also, are seen two bull’s-eye openings, d d, in the end, for ventilation, and which are kept open at ail times. Fig. 806 is the side élévation, in which are shown the situation of small sliding shutters, immediately under the eaves, at e e, and that of small 806 y/Tn 'ira uu 050 l^n-rru-D^- e f_ 6 l _ openings close to the ground, at ff which hâve also sliding shutters, and which are for the purpose of establishing a current of air on a level with the soil. Fig. 807 is a 807 Mmrn il » ii ii il n ii n |jmuiiiJüL fflJUUUB il il il ii il in FMI il il II 1 'il il il mmm ^l.ll II 11 if\\| (il 11 lüülül il il n n Hlm n %îUt.iliLnlEg Hl'lllil'h, fin mm if Il II ll'JLIULU ^nrrhnrnr; S 1 1 ' i! | 1 1 ! Il 1 £-r t-* TT longitudinal section, showing the framing of the roof. The dimensions of this sheep- house are thirty feet in width, and seventy feet in length ; giving, exclusive of the space occupied by the racks, eight parallelograms, marked from 1 to 8, in fig. 803, each thirty feet by ten feet, and each containing sufficient room for thirty sheep in lamb, or fifty without lambs. The racks cover a space of 370 superficial feet, exclusive of the 24,000 feet devoted to the sheep. The great merit of this structure is its economy ; it having cost only ,£117 : 10s., which was mainly owing to the circumstance of its construction requiring only short pièces of wood ; none of these exceeding twelve feet, or measuring892 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. more thaii six inches on the side, as before mentioned. In France, wood wliich does not exceed these dimensions sells at the same price as firewood. 768. Goat-houses are not in use in Britain ; but in France the celebrated manufacturer, M. Ternaux, who introduced the Cachemire goat from Persia, keeps them in his groundg, at St. Ouen, near Paris, in the same description of houses as he does his sheep. In similar houses deer might also be kept. 769. Rabbits may be këpt in any dry house. Sometimes they are allowed to run at large on the floor, and a range of boxes, eighteen inches high, and two feet broad, is placed round it, at the foot of the walls, divided into compartments of two or three feet in length, with one small door, a foot high and six inches wide, to each. On other occasions, where there is a scarcity of room, or where rabbits are to be fed, they are kept in tiers of boxes, one above another, called hutches. Each box or hutch, in this case, has a grated front, and behind, or at one side, an inner box or division, for the animal to enter and repose. The size of this inner box may be a foot by eighteen inches, and eighteen inches high ; and the size of the open part of the box may be a cube of eighteen inches. The bars or spokes in front may be an inch square, and two inches apart. Two of them ought to take out, for the purpose of putting in food, &c. 770. Poultry-houses require no particular form or magnitude ; because, the animal being small in size, there is no necessity for accommodating the shape of the house to its par- ticular figure. Both terrestrial and aquatic poultry agréé in requiring a dry and rather warm lodging ; and they differ, in that the web-footed birds ail roost on a fiat surface, while gallinaceous fowls roost best at someheight from the ground, on roundish horizontal rods or rails, of a size suitable for being grasped by their claws, but neither perfectly round nor perfectly smooth. Ail fowls, nvhen in a State of incubation, require repose, to which darkness is favourable as well as solitude ; and places where they can hâve these requisites must be provided for them, as well as separate places for fattening them, to which also solitude and darkness are congenial. Poultry of every description, while growing, are exceedingly active, and, in an artificial state, require a considérable extent of yard to enable them to take sufficient exercise for health. The variety of their food is also con- sidérable, including not only animal and vegetable matter, but even, as a help to digestion, sait, sand, or small pebbles. As land poultry require a dry yard, so aquatic poultry require ponds ; and, while the common hen will roost at the height of a few feet from the ground, the turkey and peacock prefer the highest trees. It must be évident from this variety in the nature of these animais, that every kind will require a separate house or compartment of a building, and that this house or compartment should be in four divisions ; one for rearing, another for keeping full-grown fowls, another for incubation, and a fourth for feeding. For the first two of these houses or divisions, a yard for the purpose of allowing the fowls to take exercise and pick up food is essential, and in this yard there ought always to be an open shed for shelter from the sun or rain, abundance of sand, and small pebbles ; and, for aquatic fowls, a large pond. The healthiest poultry of every description are those which are well fed in their yards in the morning, and allowed free exercise out of them the greater part of the day ; and the fattest poultry are those which are confined in the dark, and not allowed to take any exercise. In ail cases where poultry hâve not the free use of a large yard, they should hâve troughs filled with sand and small pebbles, placed so as to allow them to pick them when they choose, to promote digestion. We hâve described, in the Encyclopœdia of Agriculture, the mode of fattening geese and other poultry, as practised at Strasburg ; but it is too disgusting to wish for its adoption in any other country. These being the general circumstances connected with domestic poultry for architectural purposes, they may be classed in the three fol- lowing divisions : viz., the web-footed or aquatic, which must necessarily, for every kind of treatment, be lodged on the ground floor ; the common cock and hen, which prefer the floor above ; and the turkey, guinea fowl, and peacock, which roost in lofty open sheds, or on trees. In small farms, therefore, ail the different kinds of poultry may be lodged in the same house. Ducks and geese, with the other kinds, while rearing, on the ground floor ; common fowls, when full grown, and while in a State of incubation, on the middle floor ; and the turkey, &c., above. One yard may answer for the whole, provided it be Sufficiently large, and contain a large pond. As warmth is highly conducive to the prosperity of poultry, common fowls are frequently lodged above cow-houses or stables, or even pigsties ; and in other cases, when it is very désirable to cause hens to lay early in the season, their houses are heatedby flues. When, however, the house is of a construction well calculated to retain heat, and it is perfectly dry below, and has few openings above* and a roof sufficiently thick to exclude ail frost, artificial heat can very seldom be necessary. When it is desired to rear chickens for sale very early in the season, the eggs may be hatched by hot water, or in a bed of tan, dung, leaves, or other fermenting matter ; and, after being hatched, they may be reared under a roof of glass, which roof may be employed in the summer season as a covering for vines. At Bagshot. Park,MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 393 Surrey, there is a very extensive poultry establishment ; and early in the season the fowls are reared in a vinery ; and a writer in the Gardener*s Magazine (vol. viii.) not only rears, but hatches, in a house of the same description. In the centre of the large yard at Bagshot there is a tree partially denuded of its branches, in order that it may serve as a roosting-place for the turkeys. In every poultry-house the places for incubation are small stalls or boxes, eighteen inches or two feet square, and open in front, in whiçh the fowls sit on their eggs ; and, after these are hatched, they are taken out into the yard, and the mother is confined in what is called a coop, an inverted cup of wickerwork, with the interstices large enough to allow the young brood free egress and ingress, while the parent cannot escape. These coops are frequently boarded on ail sides, with a grated door opening in front. Partridges, pheasants, quails, bustards, and other gallinaceous birds are sometimes bred and reared in artificial structures, with a view to their domes- tication or increase in any particular locality. When this is the case, it is necessary to enclose thera above and on ail sides by netting, to prevent their flying away ; because these birds are not susceptible of perfect domestication. 771. The Pigeon-house, or Dovecote, has been an appendage of the country-house from the. earliest âges ; and nothing can be more simple or universally known than its structure. The only essential requisite is, that it must be at some distance from the ground ; because the pigeon is a bird that Aies much higher than any of the domesticated fowls before mentioned. The openings for the birds may be in the roof, or in the highest part of the side walls, with shelves before the holes for the birds to alight on ; and the walls of the interior may be lined with boxes, divided into square holes, for the birds to make their nests in ; in short, into pigeon-holes. 772. The Farmer y Infirmary is simply a house, or one or more divisions of one, in a quiet part of the farmery, large enough to contain a horse or cow in each division, and to serve as lodgings for animais under a course of medicine. Dryness and a command of température and ventilation are essential. 773. The Store-houses for the Produce of the Farmery include the barn; the straw- house ; the granary ; the root-house ; the hay-barn ; the maize-barn ; the place for keeping pigs’ food ; the wool, hair, and feather room ; the hop-loft ; and the loft for miscellaneous products. 774. The Barn combines a manufactory and a storehouse, and is to the farm-yard, in the former capacity, what the kitchen is to a human dwelling ; that is, it manufactures a great part of the food consumed in the other apartments or divisions of the premises. Formerly the corn barn was much larger than it has become necessary to hâve it since the introduction of threshing-machines. It should still, however, be of considérable size, so as to contain a rick of unthreshed corn of the size that such ricks are generally made on the farm. The size of the ricks, and the size of that part of the barn which is to con- tain the unthreshed corn, should be accommodated to each other ; and the size of that part of the barn which is to contain the straw after it has been threshed, if the straw- room is not a separate building, should be accommodated to both. The form of the barn should, in almost every case, be a parallelogram, and at least twenty feet wide, with walls twelve feet high. The length will dépend chiefly on the size of the ricks, and it is always most economical to hâve these small ; not only bçcause a small barn costs much less than a large one, but because both grain and straw are sweeter, and more relished by cattle, when recently threshed from the rick, than when they hâve been long kept in a barn, granary, or straw-room. Where the expense is not an object, it is désirable to hâve a room, as a granary, over that part of the barn which contains the machinery for threshing, and the room for cleaning up and measuring the corn. Into this granary the corn, as measured and put into sacks, may be hoisted up through a trapdoor by a wind- lass, with a rope and pulley. The position of the barn relatively to the other buildings of the farm-yard, dépends on the position of the stables, and cattle-houses ; it should always adjoin or be central to them, and be close to the rick-yard. Where the thresh- ing-machine is to be driven by horses or steam, the barn may be set down on whatever side of the farmery is thought best for it ; but where it is to be driven by water, local circumstances must often détermine its position. In general, as the buildings of a farmery form a shelter to the cattle-yard, and as the barn is the highest of these buildings, it should be placed on that side from which the coldest winds blow ; and this is also favour- able for its proximity to the rick-yard, which ought to be in the most windy situation, for drying the corn when it is newly stacked. There is another reason for placing the barn on the most airy side of the farm-yard, which is, that when the threshing-machine is driven by horses, they are less apt to be heated in the track-shed, which should always be as open as possible on ail sides. Wind machinery is also sometimes employed for driving a threshing-machine; and, whèn that is the case, the north side of the farmery is, in Britain at least, still the best situation. The most désirable power for driving a threshing-machine is water ; and the next, in a coal country, steam.394 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 775. A Corn Bam on Posts was erected by Morel-Vindé, at Celle, St. Cloud, in 1812 ; and the plan and details of it are given in his excellent work. He observes, that though the construction of a barn ôn posts is necessarily more expensive than one the floor of which is the groùnd, yet that it does not cost more than one third of a barn of the same size built of masonry, while it is a great deal better, especially in countries where timber is at a low price. When Morel-Vindé’s work was published, the barn at Celle had stood twelve years without undergoing any alteration, or requiring the slightest'degree of repair, and without a single mouse or rat ever having been seen in it. The great advantage of this barn is that of preserving the straw always as fresh as if it had just corne from the flail : he has preserved it one and even two years, without its undergoing the slightest damage. The saving from the ravages of rats and mice, produced by such a barn, is found by expérience to be more than fifteen per cent ; and, compared with barns built of masonry, there is also another saving, that of being able to fill it with corn the first year ; whereas a barn with stone or brick walls requires a year to dry them. The wood of which. this barn is composed was not felled on the 25th of March, 1812, and yet the barn was completed by the 25th of June in the same year ; and in the harvest follow- ing 15,000 sheaves of wheat were put into it. The only kind of wood employed in this barn is that of the Lombardy poplar, with the exception of the posts, two feet high, which are of oak ; it is covered with slates ; and the whole cost was only £182 : 5s. : lOd. in the neighbourhood of Paris. In the departments of France, the cost is estimated at ,£109 : 7s. : 6d. Fig. 808 is the ground plan, on one half of which are shown three sleepers the whole length of the structure, a a a, which support the joists, b b, on which is laid the plank- ing, c. Fig. 809 is a cross section of fig 808 on the line A B, on which are shown the threshing-floor, d ; a floor over it, e, and the suspend- ed fold-up steps, f. Fig. 811 is a cross section of fig. 808, on the line C D, showing that there is no second floor over any part of the barn, but the threshing-floor, as seen in the preceding figure. Fig. 810 is an élévation of one end, showing the cross braces, which are only placed in the ends and sides. Fig. 812 is a side view in which may be seen the threshing- floor, g ; the end of the floor over it at h ; and, in the roof, four small openings for the escape of the wind during stormy weather, to preventits blowing off the roof 808 The side view of these openings is seen in fig. 811. Fig. 813 is a longitudinal section, showing the cross braces which strengthen the upright posts, and the construction of the roo£MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES, 395 812 776. In the Con- struction of the Corn Barn at Celle, the object was to enclose a space fifty-five feet long, twenty-two feet broad, and twenty- two feet high, without taking into calcula- tion the space con- tained in the angle of the roof, which was eleven feet high in the centre, the angle of theside being at forty-five degrees, for the better throw- ing off of the rain. Numbers divisible by 11 were made choice of, because 813396 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. On the eighteen pillais, presenting on their upper extreroities eighteen tenons, is placed, first a frame of carpentry composed of three sleepers the whole length of the structure* which may be easily eut out of trees of Italian poplar ; and, secondly, six sleepers of twenty-four feet long each, Crossing the three long sleepers, and let into them by notch- ing out each to the depth of one third. The three long sleepers contain, on their under sides, mortises to receive the tenons of the oak pillars, and these are made fast by wooden pins. On this frame is placed the skeleton of the building, which is rendered plain by the sections and élévations represented in fig. 809 to 813. The skeleton of the superstructure consists of twelve upright posts, each twenty-two feet high, framed into two top plates extending the whole length of the barn, and into six cross plates. This framework complétés the skeleton of the rectangular part of the building. The roof is composed of twelve principal rafters, on which are placed two purlins ; and on these rest the secondary rafters, to which are nailed the laths for receiving the slates. The eaves of the roof project about four feet on each side, to protect the unthreshed corn or straw from the rain ; it also projects about two feet at each end, for the same purpose. This is the more necessary as the sides are not covered with boards. Ail the joinings of the timbers in this building are by tenon and mortise, and ail the pins used are of wood, with the exception of those employed for nailing on the laths for receiving the slates, and the nails used in fastening them. With these exceptions, there is not a single piece of iron in the whole of this structure ; and there is no other métal used, except four pièces of lead for the four openings in the roof. In order to make certain of excluding the rats and mice, by rendering it impossible that the thresher should ever forget to turn up the folding stair when he leaves his work, two chains or ropes are attached to it, one on each side, counterbalanced by heavy weights, as shown at m, in fig. 815. In case of the roof requiring repairs, twenty-four hooks of iron may be placed at equal distances along the ridge, to which the slater’s ladder may be hooked on. Instéad of painting or tarring the timber work, it may be covered, on the exterior sides, with slates. We examined this barn and the other buildings at Celle, with M. Bailly de Merlieux, in 1828, and were highly gratified with it. We consider it a model for economy and usefulness, and would strongly recommend it to the American farmer. 777. The Straw-house is generally the end of the barn opposite to that in which the unthreshed corn is placed ; but in large farms it forms a separate building, adjoining and connected with the barn, and opening into the different cattle-houses and cattle-yards. 778. The Granary, where the barn is not sufficiently high to admit of its being placed in the roof, is commonly placed over the cart-shed, or some other building. It is some- times built apart ; but this is a needless expense, and seldom incurred in wooden construc- tions. A detached granary should be built on pillars with projecting caps, to prevent the ascent of rats and mice ; and it should hâve Windows filled in with luffer-boarding on ail sides, for thorough ventilation ; it should generally bje placed exterior to the cattle- yards, in any open situation not far from the barn. When the granary is placed over any other building, it is always convenient to hâve a windlass fixed in it ; either im- mediately over a trap-door in the floor, or over a door in the outside wall ; through the first of which, sacks of grain may be hoisted up from the corn-room of the barn, should the granary be placed over it ; in the other case, be raised up from, or let down into, a cart. Af\MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 397 779» A Granary with a Loft for Wool above, and a Cart or Implement Shed beneath it, is given by Morel-Vindé, which, where economy of room and money is an object, we consider a most ex- cellent model. The material of construc- tion is entirely timber of small dimensions, no piece in the whole structure exceeding ten feet in length ; and only the story posts, or supporting pillars, are so much as nine inches square. Fig. 816 is the ground plan of the cart-shed or ground floor, fifty feet by thirty feet. The height to the under side of the floor above is ten feet. The two longitudinal sides of this plan are carried up perpendicularly as gables, and the two ends are hipped in at an angle of forty-five degrees, as shown in figs. 818 and 819. The granary floor is of the same dimen- sions as the ground floor, and the wool floor, fig. 817, which is above the granary, is thirty 816 817 feet by thirty feet. The granary and the wool-room are both seven feet high. The grain and wool are both taken up and let down through a trapdoor, by means of a windlass fixed over it, as shown at a, in the plan of the wool room. Fig. 818 shows the longitudinal élévation of the building, in which may be observed three doors to the corn granary, and one door to the loft over it. Fig. 819 is a longitudinal section through the centre of the building, showing the situation of the windlass, b ; and the pulley over which the rope passes, a. Fig. 820 is an end élévation, and fig. 821 a cross section. The total expense of this structure, in the neighbourhood of Paris, in 1819, was £24A, and the estimate for the departments of France was £150. Such a building is admirably calculated for a country where small timber is the cheapest building material ; and we hâve introduced it with a particular view to America and Australia, as it might be put up by the very commonest description of country carpenter. The granary might even be used as a hay-loft, or a loft for maize or Indian corn in the ear, and the wool-room may be employed as a granary or seed-room, according to local circumstances. By means of398 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. the trapdoors and windlass, any article might be hoisted up from or lët down into carts with very little labour or loss of time. Should it be intendea, before creating this building, to use the granary as a hay-loft, or hay-barn, the floor need not be laid witb boards. 780. Storehouses for Roots, such as potatoes, turnips, mangold- wurtzel ; and temporary deposit- aries for clover, tares, or other green food, or for chaff, hay, or other dried food, should be placed next to the houses or yards of the animais which are intended to be fed by them. In form they should either be squares or parallelograms, as giving most space at least expense. They should hâve ample doors, ge- nerally of such a width as to admit them, and shooting down the article to be stored up. Food which is to be consumed immediately in feeding cattle, such as green clover, tares, turnips, &c., may also be laid down at once in proper recesses or stores formed in the houses or sheds in which the cattle stand. Food which is to be steamed, or otherwise prepared, before it is given to cattle, should be stored next to the place of préparation. 781. A Barnfor Hay is used on some farms, though the practice is given up by the best farmers as too expensive, and as being less favourable for keeping the hay than stacks or ricks in the open air. 782. A Barnfor keeping the Ears of Maize is sometimes required in countries where that corn is grown upon a large scale. Barns of this description should be made quite narrow, and open on the sides, so asto admit a thorough current of air ; and, to prevent the weight of the ears above from compressing those below, there should be horizontalMODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 399 floor s of open work on which the corn may be borne in separate layers. A small înaize-barn on this construction, and supported on posts six feet from the ground, has been erected by M. Mathieu de Dombâsle, at Roville, near Nancy. 783. A Store Place for Pigs’ Food is a most useful part of a large farmery, which never can be properly conducted without keeping pigs. It ought to be a dry well-aired room, near the pig- geries, and should be of considérable size, so as to hâve two tubs or tanks for liquid food, the one being always filling while the other was emptying, after the contents had undergone proper fer- mentation ; and three or four divisions, for different kiiids of meal and other dry food. The situation should be close to the pigsty, so as to minimise the trouble of supplying their troughs. 784. Storehouses for Haïr, Woolf and Feathers should generally be formed in dry airy lofts ; and, as nothing is more offensive or unwholesome than the décomposition of these materials, no one, as before observed (§ 711), ought to be aîlowed to sleep, or to work for any length of time, in such places. 785. The Storehouses for the Machinery and Implements of the Farmery include the cart and roller shed, the plough and harrow house, the house for hand implements, the harness-room, the chaise-house, and the place for miscellaneous articles. Of several of these it is unnecessary to say any thing. 786. Storehouses for portable Machinery and Implements should be placed apart from the houses for live stock ; and they should not, if it can be avoided, open into a yard in which cattle or swine arë at large. The sheds for carts and waggons are generally left open in front ; and, when this is the case, they should face the east, in preference to the west, from which driving rains are to be expected ; and the north, rather than the south, because the intense heat of the sun is apt to warp the wood, and occasion a shrinking in the joints. Houses for smaller tools should hâve closed doors, and luffer- boarded Windows for better ventilation, and their floors should always be perfectly dry and free from litter. In general small implements should be hung up, or supported at some distance from the floor, that they may be kept drier and more airy ; and those of iron should be placed horizontally rather than vertically ; because it is found that in the latter position they become in time magnetised, and more apt to rust and decay at their extremities. 787. A Harness-room, for harness not in use, should also be a dry airy loft, or other- wise a room on the ground floor, with a fireplace to admit of occasionally drying and ventilating it by artificial heat. 788. The Working-houses of the Farmery, besides the barn already mentioned, include the slaughter-house ; the carpenter’s shop ; the smith’s shop and shoeing-house ; and a room for pickling wheat, cutting potatoes, carrying on various miscellaneous works, &c. 789. A Slaughter-house is necessary in a farmery of considérable extent, as it will always be found profitable for a farmer to kill as much of the méat used on his farm as possible. This part of the farmery should face the north : it should be well ventilated, but without admitting light, because darkness tends to exclude the Aies. The floor should be paved, and hâve a sink and trap communicating with a manure tank. 790. A Room for a Smithy, and another for a Carpenter's Shop, are required in very extensive farmeries ; and they should generally be placed so as to open into a small yard devoted to the different materials used by the carpenter and smitli, and to machines and implements undergoing repair, &c. 791. A Room of AU-worh is necessary in every farmery, whether small or large, and it may generally adjoin the slaughter-house. In it there should be a boiler for preparing drinks for sick cattle, or for supplying hot water for other purposes. Wheat may be pickled or brined, and other seeds prepared, in this room ; harness cleaned, tools sharpened on a grindstone, chaff or roots eut by machinery, malt ground, &c. 792. Bee-houses are seldom requisite, where bees are kept, unless for the purpose of preventing the hives from being stolen ; and this Huish and other writers propose to do by fiiaining them to the bee-stand. A bee-house is very conveniently formed in the end or side of any building, or in a wall, facing the south-east, east, or south. There should be a recess, or a projection formed so as to give the effect of one ; and in this recess there should be shelves of stone or boards, eighteen inches broad, and from eighteen inches to 821400 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. two feet one above another. In front there may be either a grated iron door, or several horizontal iron bars, to lock, so as to permit the free ingress and egress of the bees to and from their hives, and yet prevent any person from taking them ont. 793. Dogkennel. A watchdog is commoii to most farmeries, and the shepherd’s dog is a valuable assistant where docks of sheep are kept. The proper position for the watchdog is the middle of the open area between the farm house and the farm-yard, in order that the dog may hâve a complété view of the yard, and be seen both from the yard and house, as well as by ail strangers who approach either. The lodging-place for the dog is commonly a roofed. wooden box with an opening only on one side, the conséquence of which is, that he may be passed by persons on the other sides without his seeing them. We would suggest the idea of raising the dogkennel eighteen inches or two feet, by placing it on a knoll sloping on every side, and of having two or three panes of glass on each side, that he may see every way around him. To enable the dog to lie in his kennel with comfort during hot wèather, we would form two openings the whole length of the sides of the kennel, close under the eaves of the roof, by means of hinged flaps, which could be let down during summer, and put up and fastenéd with wooden buttons in severe weather. Kennels for dogs kept for field sports belong to the subject of villas. 794. A Lodge for single Men sometimes forms a part of farmeries, and should always consist of one large well lighted and comfortable room for cooking and eating ; and another, also large, dry, and well ventilated, for sleeping in. These rooms ought to be placed near to the stables and cattle-sheds ; and perhaps it might not be amiss, in some cases, to hâve speaking pipes from the stables and cattle-houses to the men’s bed-room, in order that they might the more readily hear any noise made there in the night-time. Near London, where farms are liable to be robbed, we hâve known the farmer hâve a speaking or hearing pipe, communicating from his bed-room to his dogkennel, and also a wire connected with his dog’s collar, by means of which he could loose the animal, without moving from his bed. Mr. Ackermann, the celebrated printseller, has a contrivance somewhat similar, in his villa near Fulham. 795. Cottages and Gardens for married Servants are built in the neigbourhood of the farmery, in ail the large farms in the north of England and in the south of Scotland. Sometimes they form part of the farmery, but in general they are 200 or 300 yards apart from it. The convenience of proximity is, however, so great, that we think the distance should be diminished rather than increased. These cottages, in Scotland more particularly, are very wretched habitations, even on the most extensive and best cultivated farms. In 1831, we examined some farm labourers’ houses of this description on a very large and admirably cultivated farm, on the Duke of Buccleugh’s estate in Dumfriesshire. The dwelling-house on this farm ( Cumroo) is more than usually large, with two rooms in its width ; a part of its exterior wall is covered with well trained and wide-spreading fruit trees ; and there is an excellent kitchen-garden, well stocked, and apparently in good order, in which, when we saw it, a professed gardener (judging from his blue apron) was at work ; so that the whole, had it not been for the farm-yard behind, might very easily hâve been taken for a mansion résidence. Passing this house, and advancing about half a furlong, we came to a row of fourteen cottages, occupied by yearly servants of the farmer who resided at the large house, and who, we were told, came from the best-cultivated district in Scotland, East Lothian. Observing that to every door in this row of cottages there was but one window, we entered one of them, and found a woman sitting at a table, writing a letter (which seemed in a very good hand for a person in lier rank in life), while she rocked the cradle with her foot. The room, which comprised the whole cottage, was about fourteen feet square, without a ceiling, and open to the roof ; the floor was of earth, and the walls were left rough, just as the stones were put together in building, but whitewashed : there was a fireplace, but only one fixed window of four small panes. In this room there were two box-beds, placed end to end, and, behind, a space of about two feet in width for fuel and lumber. The fumiture and utensils, though scanty, were clean and neat ; more especially when contrasted with the floor, which, underneath the box-beds, which hâve no valances, wasof earth, quite loose, though near the lire were laid some flat stones, which the woman said her husband had picked up and put down himself. The cottage window, as already observed, was fixed, and incapable of opening to give air. There was no back door, and no opening either in the roof or walls for ventilation, except the entrance door and the chimney. There was no appendage, nor garden ground of any sort, behind these cottages ; but across the road, in front of them was a narrow strip of ground, divided so as to allow one fall (thirty-six yards square) to each cottage. In these gardens was no structure of any kind. ( Gard. Mag. vol. viii. p. 265. ) There are few of the houses of married farm- servants in Scotland any better than those at Cumroo, where they are built by the tenants j but we hope that the time may not be far distant, when the landlords willMGDEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 401 undertake this part of the farmery, as well as those buildings which are destined to lodge cattle, or protect produce or implements ; which are now deemed of so much more importance than the cottages, that their érection is not intrusted to the farmer. 796. By the Extra-Building s of a Farmery are to be understood those which do not belong strictly to agriculture ; but which, nevertheless, are to be found on particular farms, and the businesses for which they are calculated carried on by the farmer, as well as the common culture of the farm. This practice is, no doubt, at variance with the principle of the division of labour; but as it does exist in many cases, and must necessarily long continue to do so in new countries, we cannot avoid shortly noticing such extra-buildings, in a work addressed to occupiers of land, and dwellers in the country generally. They may be included under corn mills, malt-houses, hop oasts or kilns, cider-houses, kilns for drying corn or other seeds, and for general purposes, limekilns, houses for manufacturing meal from potatoes, distilleries, beet root sugar manufactories, &c. We shall shortly describe the most common of these, and such as are most closely connected with general agriculture. The reader whose situation may render bim par- ticularly interested in any of those not notieed in this work will find every information he could wish, accompanied by plans, sections, and details, in the Dictionnaire Techno- logique, and in the Agriculteur Manufacturier ; the latter one of the most scientific agricultural periodicals published in France. 797. Corn Mills are of various kinds; the principal of which are those for grinding or husking oats, barley mills, and flour mills. The first class is sometimes connected with the threshing-machine ; more especially in Scotland, where it is driven by water, or impelled by steam. The farm in this case is always small, seldom exceeding 100 acres; and, as the occupier’s attention is divided between his mill and his land, he rarely succeeds either as a miller or a farmer. Still we see no reason why an active intelligent man, with sufficient capital, might not excel in both, and thus secure to himself the profits of the grower, as well as those of the manufacturer, of corn. The same observation may be made with respect to barley and flour mills ; and, no doubt, will apply to a variety of others which are used for manufacturing farm produce. 798. Malt-houses. The manufacture of malt being a much more simple process than that of grinding meal or dressing flour, a malt-house is a very common appendage to the farm-yard in the barley districts of England. A malt-house and kiln comprehend three divisions ; a floor, or place for steeping the barley, and managing it, till it has germinated ; a kiln for drying it, to check végétation ; and an airy loft for cooling it, and rendering it so dry as to admit of its being put up in sacks, without the risk of its undergoing fer- mentation in them. The floor for germinating the corn may be level with the surface of the ground ; or, if the soil be dry, it may be three or more feet below it, as, the warmer and moister the atmosphère is, the better it will be for the végétative process to be carried on. One end of this room should contain a cistern for steeping the barley ; and near it should be a pump for supplying water. The barley, when the process is completed, is thrown out on the floor, and turned over till it has sufficiently germinated. It is now ready to be put on the kiln ; and, after being properly dried there, it is spread out on the floor of the loft, which is generally over the malting-room, and of the same size ; being thoroughly ventilated by having luffer-boarding on both sides. The building containing the kiln may be advantageously placed at that end of the malting-room which is opposite to the end containing the cistern ; and the floor of the kiln, and that of the upper or drying room, ought to be on the same level, for the convenience of throwing out the malt to be cooled and dried. The common form of ali kilns is that of an egg, with the broad end uppermost ; or of two inverted cônes, placed base to base, the floor for drying on being formed where the diameter of the shape so produced is broadest. The fire is made at the bottom of the kiln, and the smoke from the fuel, and the vapour from the articles drying, are allowed to rise directly through the floor above it, and to pass off by a chimney covered with a cap or cowl, mounted on ari upright shaft, and furnished with a pivot, so as to turn freely with the wind, and présent the opening for the émission of smoke and vapour always on the sheltered side. This form of kiln and mode of management are still continued in Aberdeenshire, and in other parts of the north of Scotland ; and the malt made there takes a particular flavour aceording to the kind of fuel used. The malt most in repute is what has been dried with birch wood. In England the fuel used is most generally wood, coke, or Welsh coal ; none of which produces a smoke injurious to the flavour of the malt, so that the heated air which arises from the fire is allowed to pass directly through it. The principal modem improvement in the construction of malt-kilps consists in the employment of a furnace and flues, in the lower part of the kiln, by which common coal, or any description of fuel, may he burned there ; and heated air, being generated on the sides of the furnace and around the flues, ascends through the malt, instead of the combination of air and smoke which issues from an open fire. The sides of malt-kilns are of masonry, and the drying-floor is commonly formed of cast- u u402 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. iron plates, sixteen inches square, and three eighths of an inch or half an inch thicls, pierced with holes an inch apart, half an inch in diameter on the under side, and con- tracted to the eighth of an inch on the upper side. Sometimes tiles pierced in the same manner are used instead of iron plates ; and a kiln tile, about a foot square, ought to contain 900 or 960 small holes. Whether tiles or plates are used, in either case they rest loose on wrouglit-iron rafters, with a narrow rib along the middle of the upper edge, which forms two rabbets for receiving the plates or tiles. Wirecloth, supported by iron rafters, is used occasionally, but it is found not to be sufficiently durable ; or perforated sheet iron may be employed. This last material was formerly almost exclusively used for drying pale malt, but it is now found that with cast-iron plates or tiles, like those above described, the malt may be made pale or brown at pleasure. The space betweert the floor tiles and the top of the furnace or flues is commonly between five and six feet : this space is called, in Norfolk, the dunge, and into it fall the chives or cooms which, in the process of turning and drying, are rubbed off the malt; and these form an excellent manure, under the name of malt dust, as well as a good mash for sick cattle. The proportions of the openings on the top of the kiln, and for admitting air to be heated over the furnace, relatively to the area of the surface of the kiln, are points rather difficult to adjust. For a kiln twenty-seven feet square, a circular opening at top, of about five feet in diameter, will generally be found sufficient ; and the area of the openings on each side of the furnace and flues, for the admission of cold air to be heated, must, when united, equal that of the opening at top. These openings for the admission of the external air should hâve regulators of sheet iron balanced by weights, so as to adjust the draught according to the heat, and the State of the malt. A great improvement has been lately effected in some of the Norfolk malt-kilns, fiy the dismissal of that unsightly and expensive appendage, the cowl, before-mentioned, as being placed over the orifice at top. This cowl, until of late years, was deemed an indispensable part of every malt-kiln ; but to Mr. Salmon of Stoke- ferry is due the merit of the discovery that it may be wholly dispensed with. In lieu of them this gentleman substitutes a fiat circular canopy of sheet iron, supported on iron rods. By this improvement, not only the exterior deformity is got rid of, but also two large interior beams ; the one forming a guide, and the other a base and pivot for the upright axle of the cowl. In a country like Britain, where malt is heavily taxed, there are necessarily a variety of observances having reference to the duties of the excise officers, which occasion some peculiarities in the details of construction ; such, for example, as the malt couch, dry cistern into which the malt is thrown from the steeping cistern, before it is spread on the floor, in order to be gauged ; but these we leave unnoticed at présent, as unconnected with general principles. 799. Hop- Oasts, or Hop-Kilns, are constructed much in the same manner as the malt- kilns ; and the principal modem improvement which has been made in them, that of sub- stituting hot air cockles for open fireplaces, is common to both. In the old plan of the hop-oast, the fire was made on a grating at the bottom of the kiln, with what is called a spark plate (a broad plate of cast iron, to reflect back the sparks, and prevent their reaching up to the hops) placed at the distance of a few feet over it. Instead of being laid on a perforated floor of iron or tiles, hops are almost always dried on haircloths. These are supported on a floor formed of wooden spars or laths, about two inches and a half square, and nailed, two inches apart, to wooden joists. The haircloth is laid upon this floor, and its edges round the sides of the kiln are hung up by loops, to prevent the hops from falling over into the fire-chamber below. The form and size of hop-kilns vary, but they are generally built square, as being most suitable for covering the drying-floor with a cloth ; and the ordinary sizé of a drying-floor for a hop ground of two statute acres and a half, is eleven feet on the side. This size will dry three changes of hops in twenty- tôur hours. The floor of the kiln ought to open into a loft on the same level, into which the hops are thrown to cool. In one part of this loft is a circular hole, about two feet in diameter, with an iron rim round it, on which is placed the hoop to which the mouth of the bag or pocket in which the hops are to be packed is sewed. This bag hangs down through the floor into the place below, which may be a cow-shed, or, as it is very fre- quently in Worcestershire, a cider-house ; and a man gets into it and treads down the hops as they are thrown in to him. The fuel which is used for drying hops, when the smoke is allowed to pass through them, is coke ; and that made from very sulphureous coal is preferred, as tending best to preserve the colour of the hops. In the management of hops in Britain, there are a variety of arrangements connected with the kiln and hop- loft, rendered necessary by the mode of collecting the excise duty ; but these we take no notice of here, as our object is merely to lay down the general principles of drying, from which every Architect can deduce the most advantageous forms. 800. A Drying-Kïln for General Purposes is a useful building for a corn farm in a wet climate, and it may be easily constructed, at very little expense, and scarcely any loss of room; since the drying-floor may be used as a granary or store-room, when notMODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES, 403 required for drying on. In the north of Russia it is frequently found necessary to dry the corn, while in sheaf, in a particular description of kiln, the characteristic of which is, that the floor is of wooden rafters about a foot apart, and at least twenty feet above the hearth on which the fuel is burnt. There are various uses to which a farmer could apply such a kiln as might be used for drying either malt or hops ; and since it is verv désirable for every farmer who grows barley, to make his own malt, and brew his own ale, we think a drying-kiln ought to be considered as a part of the farmery on every large farm. 801. A Cider-house is only essential to an orchard farm. Where the fruit, as in Devonshire, is ground between rollers, the house for containing these need not be large ; but where it is ground in a circular trough by a stone roller mill, as in Worcestershire, greater extent of space is requisite. It seems to be agreed on by the most competent judges, that the Worcestershire practice is by far the best ; for, while the fruit is merely torn and crushed to pièces by being passed between two revolving cylinders, it, together with the rind and seeds, is reduced to a pulpy mass by the continued révolution of the stone wheel in the trough. The exposure of the pulp to the atmosphère, while this process is going forward, is also more favourable to its absorption of oxygen, than that given to it by the cylinder mill, from which it drops at once into a vat. Hence the great supcriority, in flavour, of the Herefordshire and Worcestershire cider over that of Devonshire. It may be observed, also, that the malic acid corrodes the métal of the iron cylinders, and thereby injures the liquor ; and further, that the machinery which impels these cylinders is much more liable to get out of order, than the extremely simple apparatus by which the roller mills are driven. In choosing a stone for a roller to grind fruit, ail such as contain lime must be avoided, on account of the action which the acid of the fruit would necessarily hâve on it. Granité, quartzose rock, or millstone grit, is therefore necessary. The stones are mounted so as to turn in a circle of from ten to twelve feet in diameter, in the manner which we shall describe when we give an example in our succeeding section. 802. A Limekïln is a most valuable article on a farm containing limestone, or with limestone in its neighbourhood. We are even of opinion that, where fuel is abundant, a kiln for burning a portion of the soil of the farm, whether calcareous or clayey, would be a valuable source of manure ; because ail calcined earths, in conséquence of their affinity for oxygen and carbonic acid gas, décomposé air, water, and insoluble organic matter. Almost ail clayey soils contain a certain proportion of lime ; and it has been found that when such clays are calcined, and spread on any soil, even the same as that from which they were taken, they add to its friability and fertility. There are various rude modes of burning lime adopted in different parts of the country : in some districts it is mixed with the fuel, and burned in heaps ; in others it is burned in kilns in the form of an inverted cône, or of an egg with the broad end uppermost ; but the most improved form has been determined, by Mr. Menteath of Closeburn, after long expérience, to be that of an inverted wedge rounded at the angles. The advantage of the wedge or oval form in the ground plan of a kiln is, that it admits of two or more openings at the bottom for emptying the kiln, by which that work can be more speedily performed than in the common round kilns, which admit of only one opening ; and by which improvement, of course, more lime can be burned in a shorter time. The great object, in burning lime, is to burn it thoroughly, with the least possible expense of fuel, and in the shortest time ; and for these purposes the kilns of the most improved construction, in addition to the wedge shape for the expeditious emptying of the kilns, hâve either non-conducting movable covers, or very small openings at top, into which the fuel and limestones are thrown. The first inventor of the cover for limekilns was Booker of Dublin ; but they hâve since been greatly improved by Mr. Menteath, as we shall show hereafter, in giving designs. A most scientific combination of a limekiln with a coke oven has been made by Mr. Heathorn of Maidstone ; in which the lime is burned by the gases which are driven off from the coal while it is being turned into coke, and which gases would other- wise be entirely lost. Of this kiln, also, we shall hereafter give a plan. 803. Buildings for carrying on Agricultural Manufactures, such as making potato flour, extracting sugar from the beet, maple, or cane ; distilling spirits ; crushing seeds for oil ; preparing woad, or weld, or flax, or hemp, and similar operations, hâve nothing so peculiar in them as to demand the particular study of the Architect ; the building being, in ail these and similar cases, rendered subservient to the machinery. 804. Water is essential to every farmery, both for supplying the cattle with it to drink, for washing the feet of horses, &c., and for other purposes of cleanliness. The most convenient form of supplying this is from a well with a pump, in a central part of the yard. If the subsoil do not naturally afford water, the well, or in that case the tank, must be supplied artificially, either by pipes laid from some distant spring, pond, or brook ; or from the rain which falls on the roofs of the buildings. We hâve already, § 151, given Mr. Waistell’s design for a tank, and shall here submit a plan which has been sent us by our ingenious and most scientific contributor Mr. Mallet.40é COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 805. Mallet'$ Tank, fig. 822, is calculated to save expense ; first, by using a figure of maximum capacity and minimum surface ; and, next, by being able to dispense entirely with the centring, which, according to the présent practice, is used for arching over tanks. Mr. Mallet proposes for very large tanks to adopt a spherical form ; but for any of less than five or six feet in diameter, a short cylinder with hemispherical ends, as shown in fig. 822. The excavation being made, the building is commenced, either with a- single brick at the bottom, a ; or better with a circular piece of stone laid on a layer of tenacious clay, tempered as dry as possible, well beaten together, and previously mixed with some sait to prevent the worms from working through it. This layer of clay, 6, completely surrounds the brickwork in every part, to make it retain the water. The bottom part is now built ail with common mortar, in the form of an inverted dôme, nine inches thick ; then the perpendicular part, c ; and, lastly, the upper dôme. Now, any common arch may be built without centring as far up as where the courses lie at an angle of about thirty- two degrees, or what is called the angle of repose for masonry ; that is, where the bricks will first begin to slip off ; but a brick dôme may be built of any size, entirely without centring, for the following reason : — Referring to fig. 823, d d are two bricks supposed to belong to part of the course of bricks next above that at the angle of repose. Each of these is to be considered, with the mortar in which it is embedded, as a quadrangular prismatic frustum, whose sides ail incline towards the centre of the hemisphere at e : now, the upper surfaces of these two bricks form an internai or reentering angle with one another, from the position they lie in on the preceding courses ; that is, they lean against each other, as if they lay on opposite inclined planes, as shown in fig. 824. If, then, these 822 > 823 bricks slip, they must do so in the line e f; but, in doing so, they must approach each other : but they are aiready in contact, therefore they cannot slip. This démonstration applies to any greater number of bricks, until the whole course is finished, when the bricks are sustained by their latéral thrust. There is a limit to the weight of the voussoir (the overhanging part of an arch, looking up from under it) which will support itself in this way, as must be obvious to every one from the common principles of gravitation. It is also obvious that a dôme may thus be either left open, or closed at top. To make the tank perfectly watertight, it is finally coated over two or three times with coal tar inside. A manhole is shown at g, in fig. 822, for getting in to clean it out occasionaily. This plan of building without centring is applicable to constructing large architectural dômes, provided they be of brick, and that they be afterwards plastered outside with Roman cernent, which would stand as well on a dôme as on a wall ; and, the great expense of heavy domical centring being got rid of, dômes on our large public buildings might be more common than they are at présent. The hollow bricks invented by Mr. Frost might be here advantageously used. The usefulness of this plan of building without centres, in constructing ice-houses, fruit-cellars, ovens, kilns, sewers, &c., is obvious. Mr. Mallet adds, “ I hâve built one tank on this plan, which holds sixty hogsheads : it was built by one mason in four days, and never leaked a drop, although one side of it stood close to an area wall, where the least moisture would hâve been visible.” 806. Ponds formerly were thought essential to farm yards, partly for supplying water for the cattle to drink ; but chiefly for the horses to wade through, in order to wash theirMODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIESi 405 feet. The first use is now, in ail the best-planned farmeries, supplied by troughs or cistems from pumps ; while the horses’ feet are either washed in the stable with water in pails ; or the horses are made to walk repeatedly through a narrow trough with a paved bottom, and with oak or stone sides. This trough, which ought to be placed near a pump, and opposite the stables, in the side of the passage between the buildings and the dung-yard, may be three feet wide, six inches deep at the two ends, and gradually increasing in depth to the middle, where there may be three feet of water. It must be acknowledged, however, that in many, perhaps in most cases, the best mode is to wash the legs of horses while in the stable ; because, when they are ridden into a pond or trough, while warm from the plough or the cart, they are very apt to catch a cold or rheumatism from the sudden chill produced by the cold water. This will chiefly dépend on the distance which the horses hâve walked after they hâve left off work. Horses taken out of the gin wheel of a threshing-machine should never either be driven through a pond or through a trough, for similar reasons, as will be obvious to every farmer. In ail cases, when the feet and legs of horses are washed, they should be immediately rubbed dry with straw and cloths. 807. The Yards of Farmeries are, the corn-yard, the hay or dried herbage yard, the cattle-yard, the sheep-yard, the poultry-yard, the dung-yard, the implement-yard, and, in large farmeries, the yard for the carpenter and smith. 808. The Corn- Yard is that which contains the stacks of corn, and should always be placed adjoining the barn, and on the most elevated and airy side of the farmery. The size ought to be regulated by the size of the arable part of the farm, and of the barn ; because no rick ought to be made larger than what could be contained at one time by the corn bay, or end for unthreshed corn, of the barn ; and, consequently, a small barn will require a larger rick-yard than a large one. The form, in this case, as in almost every other yard or building on a farm, ought to be rectangular, and as near as may be convenient to that of a square. Acute-angled or round forms are necessarily attended with loss of space, and great inconvenience both in building the ricks, and in removing them to the barn. The ricks ought to be placed in parallel rows, with a sufficient space between every two rows, for a cart to pass along, either to unload when building the ricks, or to load when taking them into the barn. Round the ricks, on the margin of the yard, there ought to be a space sufïiciently wide for a loaded cart ; and at the angles this space ought to be increased by the omission of a rick, in order to admit of the cart’s turning round easily. Ail the ricks ought to be placed upon stands or saddles, so as to keep them dry and safe from rats and mice. These stands are of different kinds, some of which we shall notice. 809. The Rick Stand most common in countries where wood is the cheapest material is formed of oak pillars inserted in the ground, and standing two feet high above it, with a frame over them composed of joists of any cheap wood. The plan is round when the ricks are to be small and rectangular, and generally a parallelogram, when the ricks are to be large. 810. The rick stand, in wet climates, where the corn is frequently obliged to be carried before it is perfectly dry, has, in addition to the flooring of joists, a funnel, formed by a frame of wood, carried up from the flooring to the summit of the rick, passing, or at least which ought to pass, through it, and terminating in a light cap of sheet iron. The funnel is commonly not carried higher than two thirds of the height of the rick, but this often defeats the object in view, for, from the sluggish nature of air, it will not ascend freely unless it hâve a clear passage from the base of the stack to the summit ; and there- fore the funnels, to be efflcacious, ought always to be carried through the thatch of the rick. 811. The rick stand, in countries where stone is more abundant than wood, and where central funnels are unnecessary, is frequently nothing more than a wall two feet high, of the size and shape of the intended rick, with a coping of stone or wood, project- ing at least six inches over the wall outwards, to impede the ascent of vermin. The foundations of this wall should be a foot or more beneath the surface, to prevent vermin from burrowing under it. The interior space may be partially filled with earth or loose stones, according to the nature of the soil, keeping in view the importance of pre- venting the ascent of damp into the rick. 812. The rick stand, where cast and wrought iron are cheap materials,may be formed of cast-iron pillars set on stone plinths, with cast-iron copings and joists ; and a cylindri- cal funnel of wrought-iron round rods held together at intervals by circular rods, and terminating in a cap above the thatch. Corn stands and funnels of this kind, but not carried through the thatch, and without the cap, are not uncommon in the iron districts of Scotland; having been first invented by Mitchell of Balquharn, near Alloa, in Stirlingshire. 813. A square or parallelogram rick stand, fig. 725, is manufactured by Messrs.4)06 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. Cottam andHallen. It consiste of cast-iron pillars fig. 826, two feet six inches high, which cost 8s. 6d. each. Wrought-iron rods, a, six feet eight inches long, which cost 10s. each ; secondary rods, 6, six feet eight inches long, which cost 3s. 4d. each ; and small rods, c, five feet six inches long, which cost ls. 5d. each. The method of fixing the principal rods is shown in fig. 827 ; that of placing on them the secondary rods, b, in fig. 828 ; and that of fixing the small rods on these last in fig. 829. A square yard 825 of this description of rick stand costs in ail 12s., which may be considered cheap for an article which, if heated, and afterwards rubbed over with oil or tar, previously to being put up, will last many years. 814. Waistell's circular rick stand, fig. 830, is formed entirely of stone, and consiste of two concentric circular walls ; the outer wall is twenty 830 inches high, to the top of the projecting flags ; at about half its height,* four grates of cast iron, about six inches square, and half an inch thick, are placed in openings left through the external walls, at equal distances from each other, to admit air. The bars of the grates are a quarter of an inch broad, and a quarter of an inch distant from each other, which is suffi ciently close to prevent the entrance of mice. Stands thus constructed are con- sidered, by those who hâve tried them, to be less expensive, and more effective, than on any other plan that has been invented. The air that passes through these four grates, and through the openings in the internai walls, will circulate freely under the rick ; and, if a chimney be carried up the middle of the rick to its top, the current of air that will pass up through it will carry off the heat and moisture which might otherwise injure, and even spoil, such corn as was rather too moist when carried.” (Waistell's Designs, &c. p. 101.) These rick-stands seem to hâve been invented by Mr. Waistell’s nephews, who built the outside wall twenty inches thick, the inside wall eighteen inches thick, and left a distance between the two walls of eighteen inches. Across this space hedge-stakes or faggots were laid, sufficiently long to support the sheaves. The funnel in the centre, when necessary, need hâve noMODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 407 frame round it, but may be merely a circular opening, of two feet in diameter, left in building the rick. 815. Morel- Vinde’s rick stands are of two kinds, one of which is circular and the other square, and both are calculated for containing 3000 sheaves. The circular rick stand, fig. 831, is twelve feet in diameter; and, to contain 3000 sheaves, the rick must be carried up to the height of twenty feet. It is surroundedby a ditch from two to three feet deep, the soil from which serves to elevate the stand or basis of the rick. On this is placed a bed of faggots, which is first covered with straw, and on which the sheaves are afterwards built in the usual manner. Morel-Vindé’s square rick stand is called in France the Ame- rican rick stand. It is formed of a square frame of carpentry, fig. 832, with a St. An- drew’s cross in the middle, and is placed on five posts, each of which is furnished with a cône of tinned iron, in the form of an inverted basin, to prevent the ascent of vermin, as shown at a a, in fig. 833 ; on this frame are placed faggots and straw, and afterwards the 832 sheaves ; and, when the sides are twelve feet high, this square rick, at that height, will contain 3000 sheaves. 816. The Dutch rick stand is made square in the plan, with a frame of wood, placed on five wooden posts, furnished with tinned iron cônes, like the American rick stand ; but it differs from it in having the corner posts, twenty-five feet high, tied together at top, so as to be there at exactly the same distance as at bottom, by horizontal rails, as shown in fig. 834 ; and further braced at top by two pièces in the form of a St. Andrew’s cross, as shown in fig 835. The sheaves are.built in the usual manner within the four posts ; and in the centre of the under side of the cross of St. Andrew, at top, is fixed a pulley, to which is suspended a light roof, formed of deal, and covered with matting of drawn wheat straw, placed quite thin, or of oiled or tarred canvass, as shown in figs. 836 and 837. This light roof is raised and lowered at pleasure by means of the windlass &, in figs. 834, and 835 and a cord, which passes over a pulley placed on the top of one of the corner posts, as shown at c, in figs. 834 and 836. The rest of the construction of this rick stand will be sufficiently obvious from the figures. We agréé with M. Morel-408 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. Vindé in thinking, that, as the great object of the farmer is to do the mostat the cheapest rate, the common round or square rick stand, on posts, and without a roof, is the best. This is more especially the case where the barn is sufficiently large to contain a rick at a time. The Dutch, no doubt, contrived these ricks for very small farms, and small barns, where the sheaves were put on the rick by a few at a time, as they were harvested, and taken into the barn by degrees as they were to be threshed. 817. The Hay-Yard of a common country farm is generally much smaller than the corn-yard ; because the horses and cattle eat straw of different kinds rather than hay. On grass farms, however, the hay-yard is often the largest. The same principles of form and arrangement are applicable to it as those laid down for the corn-yard, with this différ- ence, that its position should be placed as near as possible to the stables, cow-houses, or such houses or yards in which it is to be chiefly consumed. 818. The Dung-Yard ought to be central to the stables and cattle-houses, for the réception of the dung produced in them as it is daily wheeled out. The common situ- ation is the centre of the farmery, where it is enclosedby a wall, against which, in large farms, there are frequently open low sheds for cattle, and pigsties for swine. Both these animais, as well as poultry, are ailowed the run of the yard over the dung, to which they do good rather than harm ; the pigs and poultry by picking out grains and seeds, which would otherwise be lost, or spring up as weeds when the manure was spread on the land ; and the cattle, by treading the straw into the moister part of the manure, and thus pre- paring it for being carted out and put into a dunghill for fermentation. The surface of the dung-yard ought to slope towards its centre, or towards one point which ought to be the lowest, and under which point there ought to be two capacious liquid manure tanks, with which ail the drains of the stables, cattle-houses, piggeries, &c., ought to be con- nected. In this tank there ought either to be a pump constantly standing, or a hole for inserting one at pleasure, in order to admit of pumping up the liquid to moisten the straw of the manure, or into a barrel cart, for being earried off to form urate, or to apply at once to growing crops. In small farm-yards, where few or no cattle are kept loose in a central enclosure, instead of a dung-yard there is simply a dung-pit, into which ail the dung produced in the surrounding houses is thrown, and into which ail the gutters and drains (except those which are merely intended to collect rain or underground water) are to be directed. This pit ought either to be sufficiently deep to contain the liquid manure among the dung, or, what is far préférable, a liquid manure tank ought to be formed under it. Ail dunghills ought to be kept constantly covered with dry loose straw, to diminish évaporation by the cun and wind. 819. The Poultry- Yard, as we hâve already mentioned, § 770, should be in front of the poultry-houses, and should be divided into the breeding, rearing, and fattening yards. These oug.t always to face the warmest aspect, being well sheltered from cold winds ; and the breeding-yard ought to contain a large pond for aquatic fowls. In most country farms the aquatic fowls are ailowed to run at large over the farm, as being useful for picking up slugs, worms, tadpoles, &c., and even the common poultry are ailowed the run of the dung-yard, rick-yards, and, in general, ail that constitutes the farmery. The poultry-yards, therefore, are chiefly used for rearing, and, to a certain extent, for feeding in.MOBEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 409 820. The Carpenter's and Smith*s Yard is placed in front of the shops or work-places to which it belongs ; and it ought always to be quite distinct from any of the other yards which hâve been already mentioned ; particularly those containing straw, on account of the danger from fire. On the largest farms, in the most improved agricultural districts, a carpenter and a smith are kept constantly on the premises ; and in those of a smaller size, these tradesmen attend one, two, or more days in a week, fortnight, or month, according to the size of the farm and kind of culture pursued. In either case, shops for these mechanics become requisite on the farmery ; these shops and yards serve also as repositories for such articles as require repair, and for rough timber, hurdles, gates, bricks, lime, and other materials of construction. 821. Passages or roads are required, in large farmeries, between the yards and the houses, and these ought to be of such a width as to allow two carts to pass each other, and so rounded at the corners as to prevent any difficulty in turning. Their width, in general, should not be less than sixteen feet, and there should be as few gates across tliem as possible. As the surface water collected in the gutters of these passages is not intended to be conveyed to the dung-pit or manure tank, they should never be covered with litter, but kept as clean as any other gravelled, macadamised, or paved road. 822. The System of Drainage in a farmery is a matter of very great importance, and it ought to be determined on before any part is commenced of the yards, farm buildings, or farm house. There are three distinct Systems of drainage which must necessarily exist in every well-constructed farmery : the first is the underground drainage of the natural soil, so as to render it perfectly dry beneath, and fit for serving as the immédiate basis of the floors of the different buildings to be erected ; the second is the surface drainage, for the removal of rain water from the roofs and passages ; and the third the liquid manure drainage, for conveying the urine from the stables, cattle-houses, pigsties, &c., and the dung liquor from the hammels and yards, to the liquid manure tank. We shall offer a few words on each of these Systems, for the guidance of the Architect. 823. Underground Draining. It seldom happens that the site for a farmery is so dry as not to require some underground drains around and through it, for carrying off the water that either sinks into the soil from the surface, and is retained there, or is found latent in the subsoil, or from some other cause. In making these drains, particular care ought to be taken that they be made so as to dry thoroughly the ground under the floors of ail the houses ; and, at the same time, neither in the houses nor in the yards to interfère with the underground gutters to the manure tank, so as to carry off any of the liquid manure. For this purpose, and also because their object is chiefly to carry off underground water, they ought to be deep, and they need not corne within a foot or more of the surface. In general, one drain should surround the farmery, so as to inter- cept ail exterior sources of water ; and others should cross the farmery under the principal lines of buildings and roads or passages. The dung-courts will, by those lines, be rendered sufïiciently dry for containing manure. As the drains under the passages, and in the rick and hay yards, will hâve to receive the surface water through traps, they ought to be barrel drains ; but ail the others may be formed of loose round stones of three inches in diameter at the bottom, four or five inches in the middle, and of the size of large gravel at top. 824. Surface Drainage. The water of the roofs should ail be collected by gutters at the eaves ; and, if not wanted for a well, tank, or pond, it should be conducted direct to the underground drains. The water which falls in the passages, roads, courts, or yards not covered with litter, and more especially in the rick-yard, ought to be collected in gutters, and also conveyed direct to the underground drains, through air traps. These traps ought to be of such a construction as to retain the sand and grosser particles, which might choke up the drain, and also to admit of being readily cleaned out. There are various forms very suitable for this purpose; but one of the cheapest and best at présent in use is the iron one of Messrs. Cottam and Hallen, shown in the perspective view fig. 838, which weighs 4 cwt. 19lbs. and costs 50s. In this figure, and in the section, fig. 839, a is the level of the water, on both sides of the trap, b; c is the opening by which the water escapes ; and d the place where the sédiment is deposited. The grating at top, e, lifts off ; when this sédiment is to be removed. Gratings of this kind ought to be placed ail along the gutters, at distances of thirty or forty yards; in order that no great accumulation of water may ever take place on the surface. The grating being hollow in the middle indicates that the direction of the bars ought to be across the line of gutter ; their strength is sufficient to bear the pressure of the most heavily laden waggon. The contents of ail the underground drains about a farmery should be conducted to a pond' where they may be rendered available for the purpose of the surface irrigation of grass land ; for, notwithstanding ail ordinary care and attention that may be given, to prevent the water collected from the surface by these drains from being mixed with manure x x410 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 838 839 e liquor, some, if only from the droppings of horses and poultry on the passages, will find its way into it. 825. Underground Gutters for Liquid Manure. In general, there ought to be a cess- pool, or liquid manure tank, in the centre, or in the lowest part of every dung or cattle yard, or yard which is intended to be kept generally covered with litter ; or where a number of small yards, such as those of hammels, are to be placed together, one tank centrally situated may hâve communications with the whole. The inclination of the surface of every part of every yard should be to the cess-pool, or to the trap of the drain communicating with it; and the underground drains from the cattle-houses, stables, piggeries, &c., should always be conducted to the nearest cess-pool. These underground drains or gutters need neither be large nor deep, and may in general be formed of brick earth draining-pipe of three or four inches in diameter. To prevent the possibility of a current of air passing through these pipe drains, the end which enters the cess-pool may either hâve a trap there, or be carried down the side walls to near the bottom of the tank, so as always to be filled with water at their orifice. This is easily done by oarrying up the requisite number of funnels in the side walls of the tank, from the bottom of the tank to the bottom of the drain, as shown in the section, fig. 840, in which a is the bottom of the tank ; b, the funnel left in its side walls ; c, the conducting drain or draining-pipe; and d> the surface of the ground. These manure drains, when formed of earthenware piping, may be laid a foot under the surface, and protected by side walls and an outer cover of stone, to prevent them from being injured by the wheels of carts or waggons ; or they may be sunk two feet into the ground, in which case they will be safe without any protection. The manure tank should, as we hâve before mentioned, § 16, always be in two divisions, that one may be fermenting while the other is filling; and there should be a pumphole in each. Were it not for the expense, we should recommend the dunghill in farmeries to be always covered with a roof, close down to the ground, to prevent évaporation, which, in ail cases where the dung is not enveloped in a thick covering of dry straw, as before recommended, § 818, carries off the most nutritive part of the manure. The présent clumsy mode of making manure, at a great loss of material, and at a considér- able diminution of the comfort of cattle and other animais, is unworthy of an âge of science and refinement, and, we hâve no doubt, will soon be reformed. We see no reason why the straw should be trodden by cattle at ail ; if it were placed in layers from time to time under a roof, over the manure tank, and the liquid beneath pumped up over it, such solid manure as was ma4e in the stables and cattle-houses being added daily, the manure produced would be as good as if the straw had been trodden by cattle in a yard or in a cow-house ; while the loss which that practice occasions, by évaporation and by what sinks into the soil, would be saved, and the cattle preserved clean, and better in health, as well as more agreeable in appearance. The mode of feeding cattle with straw is al§o in its infancy. We are persuaded that it dMODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 411 would pay a farmer to hâve his straw eut by a machine into lengths of three or four inches; and afterwards to hâve it boiled or steamed, and mixed with a portion of succulent food of some kind. For litter and thatch the larger and stronger the straw is kept the better ; but both for eating and for manure it would be more easily managed if eut into short lengths. The science and the art of making manure are alike unknown to the great majority of even the best British farmers, and will be so till they learn something of chemistry. In every farmyard, at présent, it piay safely be affirmed that there is nearly as much manure lost as made. A liquid manure tank, connected by underground tubes with the back-kitchen, and kitchen-court, with ail the privies, and with ail the houses or yards in which cattle are kept, in short with every source of water impregnated with animal or vegetable matter or with any of the alkalies, would alone, on a large farm, supply manure for severai acres yearly. Even supposing the manure tank not to be adopted, the mere circumstance of placing ail the dung made on a farmery in one dunghill under a roof, where its more valuable parts would neither be washed away by the rain nor carried off by the sun and wind, would be an immense saving. We say nothing here of other sources of manure, such as stall-feeding, which ought to be universally substituted for grazing, &c. We strongly recommend the subject of employing manure tanks and dunghill roofs to the land stewards of country gentlemen, and to scientific agriculturists, and rural Architects generally. 826. The Liquid Manure Tank, to be generally adopted, ought to be of a very simple construction ; for which purpose a square or a parallelogram plan, with perpendicular side and end walls, and a semicircular arch over, with a manhole in the centre for the pump, and for entering to clear out the interior, may be recommended as of easy érection by any country bricklayer or mason. The walls may be built with common mortar, provided they are well puddled behind with clay ; but cernent will make the strongest work, and will render a clay puddle unnecessary. In some parts of Germany, where timber is abundant, the liquid manure tank is made ten or twelve feet wide, about the same depth, and is covered with joists of wood, on which first coarse litter, and afterwards the stable and cattle dung, are put as made. 827. Gates for farmyards and fields are commonly treated of in works on Farm Architecture; and a very excellent wooden one is given by Waistell, which we hâve copied in our Encyclopœdia of Agriculture, We shall here, therefore, confine ourselves to two very strong and cheap iron gates, and to a mode of opening gates, which, though chiefly applicable to gates on public roads, may also be occasionaily adopted with entrance gates to farms, or farmeries. 828. Buchanan of Catrine's Fiéld or Farm, Gâte, fig. 841, on a scale of five sixteenths of an inch to a foot, is composed of a frame or rim of bar iron, seven feet long and four feet high, one inch and three quarters broad, and three eighths of an inch thick, not riveted, but welded at the angles, and the rim presenting its edge to the face of the gâte. The head style and the falling style are each projected about three inches above the rim, for the purpose of retaining a horizontal rail of wood, about three inches by two inches, placed on the top bar, in order to render it more conspicuous to cattle than the narrow edge of the top of the iron rim. The diagonal strutt or brace is of the same breadth and thinlrnpss as the surrounding rim, to which it is firmly riveted at both extremities. The vertical round rods are eleven ; six of them are three quarters of an inch in diameter, and five are five eighths of an inch ; they are riveted into the top and bottom rails, and firmly fixed into the brace, by being put through it cold while the brace is red-hot. The842 *4 412 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. hanging post is continued clown nine inches at bottom, so as to form a pivot for working in a socket fixed in a stone ; and up, so as to turn in a hook. The shutting post admits of the application of any description of fastening ; one of the best for a cattle-yard, to which this gâte is particularly adapted, is a spring latch, which shuts into a recess in the falling post, as seen in the figure. These gates are manufactured in the workshops of the inventor, at Catrine, and the prime cost, in 1831, was found to be about 30s. 829. Cottam and Hallen's Iran Field Gâte, fig. 842, is made of wrought iron, the hori- zontal bars and braces being made of fiat bar iron, riveted together at every intersec- tion, in order to prevent the swagging or sinking of the head or falling style. The lower rails are placed suf- ficiently close together to prevent pigs and lambs from passing through between them. This gâte can be supplied, singly, for 26s. each, and by the dozen 10 per cent lower. Mr. Cottam considers this gâte stronger, more durable, and far more economical, than any gâte which can be made of wood. 830. The Closeburn Field Gâte is the invention of C. J. Stuart Menteath, Esq., and of which he has lately sent us a sketch, fig. 843. The material is timber ; the construction is very light and strong, and so economical that it may be made in some parts of the country, where young fir trees are abun- dant, for 7s. When the head sinks, it is raised by the simple operation of adding another washer be- tween the key, and that which retains the hook of the upper part of the hang- ing style at a. The fasten- ing latch is protected from the rubbing of cattle, by being made to shut into a recess in the falling post at b. When gates of this sort are made of young timber, it is, after being sawn up, steeped in lime water, which is found to add to its durability ; and, when well seasoned and put together as a gâte, it receives three coats of boiling hot tar. 831. Gates to open by Machinery. One of these, for a park or farm, made to open on the approach of a carriage, will be found in our Encyc. of Agr., § 3107 ; and we shall here describe two others; one of which is used as a turnpike gâte at Scotforth, in the neighbourhood of Lancaster, and the other is the invention of our correspondent, Mr. Saul, of that town. Mr. Saul has sent us the following àccount of the mode of opening the gâte at Scotforth. In fig. 844, a a represent two fixtures ; each consisting of two posts, with rollers between, for guiding the chains b and c. The chain b, fixed to the lower bar of the gâte, is the opening chain ; and the chain c is the shutting one. There is a continuation of these two chains in tunnels under the road, represented by the dotted lines d d ; and both chains pass under a roller at e, after which they rise through a wooden tube tof in the sleeping-room of the toll-house. They are there worked by a winch, which being turned one way opens the gâte, and the other way shuts it. Mr. Saul was informed by the gatekeeper that this gâte did not work freely ; and he has suggested what is obviously a far more efficient plan, of which he has given us an explanàtion, accompanied by the sketch, fig. 845. In this figure, g represents a horizontal shaft placed in a tunnel made across the road directly under the gâte ; working at one end on the heel the hanging post by a piîiion at A, and at the other by a beveled pinion at i, on the upright shaft k. This shaft has another pinion at its upper end, which works into the , pinion Z, on the axle of the winch m, supposed to be at the bedside of the gatekeepei. It is évident that, by tuming this winch, the gâte may be opened or shut to any extent at pleasure. The whole of the machinery may be concealed under ground, and in the wall of the house ; the winch alone protruding into the bed-room of the gatekeeper. Any millwright could easily make a working plan from the above description and sketch. It may sometimes be worth while to hâve the principal entrance gâte to a farm-yard con- structed so as to open in this manner, and the use of the contrivance for toll gates, and for the coach-yard gates of inns, is obvious. We hope also that the time is not far distant . n ■ n 843 L C L_ ü Tl ' 1 —I 1 i -d _1 • ! “D I MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 413 844 when the occupiers of mansions, whose approach roads are guarded by entrance lodges and gates, will so far study the comforts of their gatekeepers as to introduce this piece of mechanism, or something better, to prevent the necessity of their getting out of bed to open the gâte in the night-time. In Germany the toll-bar or beam (schlagbaum) îs balanced by a weight at one end, and the other is held down by a cord, which passes under one pulley and over another into the bed-room of the gatekeeper ; who, without rising from his bed, pushes out through a small opening a long-handled iron ladle, in which he receives the toll, and, afterwards untying the cord, the weight raises the bar, and the traveller passes through. 832. A Gâte with a Puzzle Latch, to serve as a Substitute for a Lock, fig. 846, is in use on the estate of R. Bevan, Esq., Rougham, Suffolk, and the following description of it has been sent us by Mr. John Levett. The latch, a, is fastened by a brace, with a screw boit and nut to the head of the gâte, and it works on the joint 6. When this latch is drawn back by pressure on the top of a, it raises the rod c, which is connected with the catch d at e. The catch d being now raised, the pin /, fixed in the head of the gâte, is allowed to pass, and the gâte is opened. The catch d, and plate for the rod, marked c, are fastened to the post with four screw nails and two screw bolts.Sübsect. 3. The Farmery considered as a whole. 833. The Farmery, as a whole, may be considered with reference to its situation on the farm ; its extent and character relatively to the size of the farm, and to the kind of culture pursued or of crops raised ; its position relatively to that of the farm house ; the style of its architectural design ; and the materials of its construction. 834. The Situation of every farmery ought, as far as practicable, to be in the centre of the farm ; because this will reduce the labour of carting home produce, and carting out manure, to a minimum. When the surface of a farm is very irregular, or where it consists of the sloping side of a hill, the site of the farmery should be chosen at that point of height in the slope where the extra-labour of carrying home the crop will always be balanced by the extra-facility of carting out the manure ; and where, as much as possible, the labour of the two operations may be equalised. The most difficult case for choosing a proper site for thé farmery is where the lands lie on the two sides of a valley: here there is no choice but that of placing the farmery in the valley, and laying out the fences, roads, and even ridges of the fields, in directions athwart the slopes, so as to diminish ail the farm labours to the extent of one half of what they would be by ascend- ing and descending in straight lines. Ail labours with ploughs, carts, or waggons, and even harrowing, and the manual labours of hoeing and reaping, may be diminished on this principle. In laying out farmeriès in ail old countries which hâve been long inter- sected by hedges and roads, and the boundary lines of ail landed property in which is exceedingly irregular, numerous cases occur where true principles must give way to circumstances ; and ail that the Architect can aim at is, after weighing well the argu- ments for and against particular situations, to make choice of that which has a maximum of advantages. Our intelligent contributor, Mr. Main, has paid much attention to this subject, and has sent us the following observations : — “ Proximity to a high road, to a natural pond, or to the summit of a dry knoll, in order to be free from floods, is an advan-MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 415 tage which is never disregarded by the British farmer ; but, for the sake of these, we often see others of much greater importance wholly neglected. If the buildings are on the highest ground belonging to the farm, it follows that carting out manure from the yards must be facilitated ; but that, on the other hand, ail the produce will hâve to be carried up-hill; and if, for the sake of water, the homestead be placed in a valley, that these circumstances will be reversed. A gentle eminence, near the centre of the fhrm, is, on ail accounts, the most eligible, provided only that water can conveniently be hadnear it ; but, now that the practicability of obtaining water by boring, in almost any situation, has become so well known, no homestead need be wrongly placed merely on that score. Some old homesteads are badly arranged in other respects ; such as placing them across public footpaths or bridleways ; in which case gates are frequently left open by careless passengers, and much damage is often sustained by the straying out of cattle, &c. There are even instances of farm houses standing on one side of a turnpike road, and the barns and yards on the other ; but surely accident, and not design, must hâve prodyced such absurdities.” 835. The Size of the Far mer y-, and the Kind of Buildings which compose it, must necessarily be regulated by the extent of the farm, and by the kind of culture pursued on it. A farm wholly arable will obviously require different buildings from one chiefly in pasture ; and an arable farm, on a strong alluvial soil, on which wheat, beans, and clover are chiefly cultivated, will require different buildings from a farm on a light soil, on which turnips form a principal article in the succession of crops ; and, consequently, extensive cattle-sheds are required for lodging the cattle to consume them. On this subject Mr. Main observes : — “ The size of a farm régulâtes the extent and number of the build- ings belonging to it. The lowest grade of farmeries has only a dwelling-house of two or four rooms, with a small barn on one side, and a cow-house and stable on the other. A front fence (generally carried across from the outer end of the stable to that of the barn) forms the yard. The rick-ÿard is behind the barn, and the orchard and garden are behind the stable and dwelling-house. The carts or waggons, when not in use, are usually kept loaded with straw to preserve them from the weather ; pigsties lean against the end of the house or stable ; and the whole is on a very homely and limited scale. Such a homestead is only fitted for a farm of from forty to sixty acres. Large farms require buildings in proportion. Those belonging to a farm of 500 or 1000 acres appear like a little town. In arranging these buildings, it should always be contrived to hâve ail the barn doors and cattle-yards in view from the dwelling-house. The superintending eye of the master, or of some of his family, assists the vigilance of servants, and accidents among the live stock are sooner observed and prevented, or remedied. Another point, in disposing the buildings, should be, to hâve the lowest on the south, and the highest on the north and east sides, for the purpose of shelter to the yard. Where the buildings are insuflficient for the purpose of shelter, closely planted ranks of spruce firs are avaÜable. A horsepond is generally supposed to be a désirable appendage to a farm yard: but a pump and trough in the yard are far more suitable. Cart horses are liable to greasy heels; and the having their legs wetted in the pond causes irritation, which they generally indicate by constant stamping for an hour or two afterwards ; and this is sometimes attended with dangerous wounds, loss of shoes, &c. The pantry and dairy are always placed on the north side of the house. The latter, on a dairy farm, is usually a large clean room, with a stone floor, four or five feet below the surface ; and a ceiling lofty and plastered. At one end, on the ground surface, is the chuming and scalding room ; and on the outside of this, next the yard, are the hog-cisterns, for the réception of the whey, skim-milk, &c. It is an advantage to hâve barn room enough for every crop, especially in climates where the corn is quickly and thoroughly dried. But in cold humid districts of country, it is absolutely necessary either to hâve Dutch barns, or covered rick stands, § 816, or to set the corn abroad in small cocks, thatched, to receive the sun and wind for several months before housing. Agriculturists are generally of opinion that a well-proportioned farm should consist of one third of meadow and pasture ground, and two thirds of arable land ; because ail the advantages of the plough and the hoof will thus be so well balanced, and each will assist the other so beneficially, that there need be neither redundancy nor waste of any of the produce; but ail may be turned to the best account in the shortest time. In grazing farms, the above proportions are reversed; one third of arable land being considered necessary to supply litter for the cattle, and straw for thatching ricks, &c. The buildings on such farms are also different ; as, instead of barns, they hâve extensive feeding-houses.” We might enlarge on this subject at great length, from the circum- stance of having been early initiated in farming under our parental roof, and having since farmed extensively on our own account, as well as from having designed several farmeries, and executed some of them: but having already treated on the subject in detail, in our Encyclopædia of Agriculture, we purposely refer the reader to that work; being desirous of not repeating any part of it in the présent one, and of saying no more on416 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. the subject of agriculture than what is absolutely necessary to put the Architect in. possession of the requisite data and desiderata of the buildings which he will be required to design. 836. The most désirable Position of the Farm House, relativély to the Farmery, has already more than once (see § 740 and 741 ) been incidentally mentioned ; and it is only necessary to repeat, that it should always be such as to command as complété a view of the yards and the doors of the buildings as possible. For this purpose, when the living- rooms of the house hâve Windows on two sides, as in fig. 749, § 740, the diagonal of the square of the house ought to be parallel to the square of the farmery ; but when the parlour or living-room has Windows only from one side, its front may be parallel with the front of the farmery. On whichever side of the farmery the house is placed, the buildings or walls on that side should always be so low as to be overlooked by the dog- house and the Windows of the parlour. 837. The Style of Architectural Design, in Farm Houses and Farmeries, may be con- sidered in two points of view : first, with reference to the nature of the buildings ; that is, their magnitude, shape, materials, and uses ; and, secondly, with reference to the other buildings of a superior character, when there are such on the estate to which they belong. Grecian architecture is best suited for low extended buildings, and for build- ings constructed of timber, and abounding in piers and posts ; and Gothic architecture is best calculated for lofty buildings of stone, without detached outside piers, posts, or pillars. The prevailing Hnes in Grecian architecture are horizontal, and lead the eye along the eaves of the roof ; the prevailing lines in Gothic architecture are perpendicular, and lead the eye upwards, by long, narrow, upright openings, and high gables. A Gothic building of one story produces no effect, because there is no room for the ex- tension of its characteristic lines ; but a low Grecian building may hâve the full measure of its characteristic expression by extending its length. It is clear, therefore, that the Grecian style is better adapted for farm buildings than the Gothic style ; and that, if expense were not an object, the piers and posts of a farm yard might be, with propriety, finished as Grecian columns andpilasters ; and open cattle-sheds and cart-sheds might show the noblest colonnades, arcades, and piazzas. On the other hand, when the mansion, or château, or convent, or college, or school, to which the farm belongs, is in the Gothic style, there is a propriety in yielding to accidentai circumstances, and conferring the same character of style on the farm buildings. As this cannot be done by general forms, since it would be useless to carry stables and cattle-sheds three or four stories high, it is to be attempted chiefly by the character of the openings, and by highly raised roofs, the barn may hâve something of the forms and proportions of a cathédral ; the cart and cattle sheds, of cloisters ; and the stables and cow-houses, of lodgings for monks, like those common in old monasteries. We throw out this idea respecting the Gothic style more in conformity with the taste of the times than with our own, which in every case of farm buildings is in favour of the greatest simplicity of design, and of the indication of the Grecian style rather than of any other. 838. The Materials with which Farm Buildings are constructed are commonly those which are most abundant in the given locality. As the improvements which are con- stantly taking place in agriculture necessarily occasion changes in the buildings for storing or consuming its produce, it does not seem essential that the constructions on a farm ought to be of the same degree of durability as those for a dwelling-house or for a public building. Indeed, as society advances, change will enter more and more into every thing, and almost the only buildings that will eventually require to be made of great durability will be those of a public nature ; such as bridges, which ought to be the most durable of ail architectural constructions, piers, quays, sewers, public offices, parochial schools, &c. As the walls of the greater part of farpn buildings hâve no weight to support but the roof ; as the rétention of a high température within is seldom, if ever, an object ; and as scarcely any fires are requisite, timber seems a very suitable material of construc- tion ; and in ail countries where wood abounds it will be found the cheapest. The objection hitherto has been the want of durability, but this evil may be in a great degree remedied by raising proper footings of masonry, as basements for the framework of the walls ; by thoroughly seasoning the timber before it is used ; and by coating it over, after it is put together, with tar, or some description of paint or other adhesive material, which will effectually exclude the air and the weather. Walls of mud, or of compressed earth, are still more economical than those of timber ; and if they were raised on brick or stone foundations, the height of a foot or eighteen inches above the ground, or above the highest point at which dung or moist straw was ever likely to be placed against them, their durability would be equal to that of marble, if properly constructed, and kept per- fectly dry. The cob walls of Devonshire, which are formed of clay and straw trodden together by oxen, hâve been known to last above a century without requiring the slightest repaîr ; and we think that there are many farmers, especially in America and Australi a,MODEL DESIGNS FOK' FARMERIES. 417 who, if they knew how easily walls of this description could be built, would often avail themselves of them for various agricultural purposes. We shall therefore here describe the Devonshire practice, as furnished us by the Rev. W. T. E-----—, who has himself built several houses of two stories with cob walls, in the manner which he details in the follow- ing paragraph ; and who, moreover, informs us that he was born in a cob-wall parsonage, built in the reign of Elizabeth, if not a few years earlier, which was only taken down last year (1831) to be rebuilt. 839. Cob Walls, as they are called, are composed of earth and straw mixed up with water like mortar, and well beaten and trodden together. Chapple, in his Survey of Devon, 1785, dérivés cob from the British word chwap (ictus), or from the Greek kotttos (contusus), because the earth and straw ought to be well beaten or pounded together. The earth nearest at hand is generally used, and the more loamy the more suitable it is considered for the purpose. These walls are made two feet thick, and are raised upon a foundation of stonework. The higher the stonework is carried the better, as it elevates the cobwork from the moisture of the ground. After a wall is raised to a certain height, it is allowed some weeks to settle, before more is laid on. The first rise, as it is called, is about four feet ; the next not so high ; and so every succeeding rise is diminished in height as the work advances. The solidity of cob walls dépends much upon their not being hurried in the process of making them ; for, if hurried, the walls will surely be crippled ; that is, they will swag, or swerve from the perpendicular. It is usual to pare down the sides of each successive rise before another is added to it. The instrument used for this purpose is like a baker’s peel (a kind of wooden shovel for taking the bread out of the oven), but the cob-parer is made of iron. The lintels of the doors and Windows, and of the cupboards or other recesses, are put in as the work advances, (allowance being made for their settling), bedding them on cross pièces, and the walls being carried up solid. The respective openings are eut out after the work is well settled. In Devonshire, the builders of cob-wall houses like to begin their work when the birds begin to build their nests, in order that there may be time to cover in the shell of the building before winter. The outer walls are plastered the following spring. Should the work be overtaken by winter before the roof is on, it is usual to put a temporary covering of thatch upon the walls, to protect them from the frost. 840. In forming cob walls, one man stands on the work to receive the cob, which is pitched up to him by a man below ; the man on the work arranging it and treading it down. Each workman generally uses a common pitchfork, though sometimes a three- pronged fork is employed. Cob houses are considered remarkably warm and healthy ; and they are generally covered with thatch. The durability of cob is said to dépend upon its having “ a good hat and a good pair of shoes ; ” that is, a good roof and a good foundation. The Devonshire thatching is very superior to that in most other parts of England. It is done with combed wheat straw, called reed, consisting of the stiff, unbruised, and broken stalks, which hâve been carefully separated from the fodder straw by the thresher, and bound up in large sheaves called nitches. In this way the thatcher is enabled to finish his work much more neatly than in other counties where no reed is made. Instead of brick nogging for partitions, cob is used for filling in the frame- work, which is previously lathed with stout slit oak or Jiazel. This sort of work is called rab and dab. 841. Cob walls thatched are very common for garden boundaries. The trees are trained against them by being pinned with maple hooks ; but such walls in the course of time become full of holes, and afford a hiding-place for insects ; they, therefore, frequently require a fresh coating of plaster. 842. In estimating the merits of cob walls, it must not be forgotten, that, when pulled down, the materials are good for nothing but as manure ; whereas the materials of brick, stone, and sometimes even of timber walls may be used in rebuilding. It also deserves to be remarked, that earth or mud walls are not in use in any district of Britain which is in an advanced state of improvement ; they appear to be chiefly suitable to a rude State of society, where every man is his own builder, and where mechanical skill, and good tools for working in timber and stone, are scarce. However, though they cannot be recommended for general adoption where brick and stone walls are common, yet the very circumstance of their being neglected, or not known, in such places, renders it pro- bable that a great economy would be produced by their occasional use ; on the same principle that, in a country where the common labourers live on bread and butcher’s méat, one of them who should détermine to subsist merely on oatmeal or potatoes would save money. 843. For covering the Roofs of Farm Buildings, the cheapest material will generally be the straw raised on the farm, which, when laid on thick, and with a steep slope, lasts many years. The spray of trees previously well seasoned, hoop chips, and the chips from other articles made of coppice wood, form more durable materials for thatching with than Y Y418 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. straw, and we think they might be more used than they are, with advantage. Never- theless, thatched roofs hâve disappeared with the improvement of agriculture in ail the more advanced districts of Britain, and hâve given place to tiles and slates. It would appear, therefore, that mud walls and thatched roofs, like the practice of using oxen in field labours, notwithstanding ail that is said in favour of the former for excluding extremes of température, and of the latter as combining a working with a beef-producing animal, are fast falling into disuse. Our own opinion, with respect to thatched roofs, is, that in very many cases they are préférable, both for farm buildings and cottages, to roofs of tiles or slates, as these are commonly constructed, even where the latter two are cheaper, because they are less liable to admit through them the influence of every change of température. 844. For Details of Construction common to buildings in general, we refer to that part of this work which treats of the practice of building ; or the Architect may consult Waistell’s very excellent chapter (v.) on this subject. Chap. II. A Miscellaneous Collection of Designs for Farm Houses and Farmeries, in different Styles of Architecture, and adapted to different Kinds of Farms ; with Spécifications, Estimâtes, and accompanying Remarks. 845. The following Designs exhibit various combinations of the separate buildings, courts, and yards which compose a farmery ; and exhibit also farm houses with different degrees of accommodation, from those of the gentleman’s bailiff, and of the rent-paying occupier of a hundred acres, to that of the wealthy proprietor who cultivâtes his own estate. Though there is little room for a display of style in the necessarily simple form of farm buildings, yet we shall endeavour to show in what manner style may be intro- duced even in the hurnblest of them ; because the farm house is as susceptible of archi- tectural design as any other dwelling ; and when it is in the same style as that of the farmery, it gives a first impression, which should be found to be echoed, as it were, through ail the subordinate buildings. With respect to the arrangement of these Designs, it is enough to say, that, like those of the cottage dwellings in the preceding Book, it is miscellaneous. Design I. — A Bailiff's Cottage, in the Old English Style, intended for the Manager of a Farm in the Neighbourhood of London. 846. Situation. This dwelling, which has been erected at Bury Hill, near Dork- ing, Surrey, the seat of Charles Barclay, Esq., was designed by John Perry, Esq., architect, Godalming, and executed by contract, in 1831, under his direction. It is situated on the south side of the farm yard, which will form the subject of our next Design, andof which the bailiff has the management. We were shown the house and the yard by Mr. Barclay, in October, 1831, and were so much gratified with both, that we requested his permission to publish Designs of them. This permission he kindly granted ; and, by the liberality of our excellent friend, Mr. Perry, we are here enabled to give them, with the most ample details of construction, and with the original spécifi- cations and estimâtes signed by the contractors who executed the work. 847. Accommodation. The ground floor, fig. 847, p. 419, contains a porchway, a ; 849* u pantry, d ; g-room, or pump, h; ice, l. TheFARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 419420 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 851 853FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. MX chamber floor, fi g. 848, to a scale of twenty feet to an inch, contains four good bed- rooms, m, n, o, p ; each with fireplaces, and ail commodiously entered from the landing, q, of the stairs, r. The basement story, fig. 849, to the same scale, contains an outer cellar, s, and an inner cellar, t. There is an area, u, to the kitchen window, with a trap over a drain, v, which is conducted under the cellar floor ; in one corner of which, another trap, w, is placed over it, for carrying ofF any moisture spilled in the cellar. 848. Construction. The walls are of local sandstone, in random courses, with brick arches and coins ; and the window sills, lintels, labels, and chimney shafts are of Bath stone. The posts of the entrance and drying porches, are of oak and the superstruc- ture of the drying-porch is of framed oak, filled in with brick nogging fiat, as shown in the élévation of the south front, fig. 850, p. 419. The roof is covered with plain tiles. The different élévations are shown in p. 420 ; fig. 851 being the north front, fig. 852 the east front, and fig. 853 the west front. The ground floor is raised three feet six inches above the general surface, and the terrace three feet; as shown in the different élévations, by the line a;, which represents the solid ground, as compared with the line y, which represents the surface of the terrace. The cellar is shown at z, in fig. 850, p. 419, in fig. 853, p. 420, and in fig, 854; the latter being a section across the cellar, z; the parlour, c; the kitchen,/; and the bed-rooms, o, p. The foundationsandtheirfootings are distinctly seen in this section, and in the different élévations. Fig. 855 is an end view of the drying-porch, and fig. 856 a side view of the same ;4)22 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE* both to a scale of one eighth of an inch to a foot. The columns hère, it will bè observed, are twisted ; a practice nôt unfrequent in old English cottages of the better kind, and which is in perfect accordance with the enriched barge boards and the turned balusters of the balustrade. Fig. 857 shows the plan of the drying-porch. Fig. 858, to a scale of one inch to a foot, is a section across the balustrade, in which a is the top rail, and b the bottom rail. Fig. 859, to the same scale, is a section of the moulded face of the beam, c, in figs. 855 and 856. Fig. 860 is a section of the top of the columns, on which the beam, c, is placed. Fig. 861 is a section of the base of the same columns. Fig. 862, to a scale of one fourth of an inch to a foot, shows one of the piers to the parapet of the terrace, supposed to be of stonework ; in which d is the line of the solid ground ; e, the surface of the new ground ; f, the level of the terrace ; <7, rough stone- work ; and A, worked stone. Fig. 863 shows the bottom part of the gable post, seen in fig. 865, and which also serves as a pattern for the pendants from the verge boards. The scale of this figure is two inclies to a foot. Fig. 864 is a section across the eaves of the roof, in which are seen the face of the wall, i; the bed moulding, k ; the soffit, l; the situation of the bracket, m; the eaves moulding, n ; the rafter, 0 ; and the eaves board, p. The scale of this figure is two inches to a foot. Fig. 865 is a view of part of the barge board, and the gable post; in which are shown the sunk panel, q, of the pinnacle ; the gable post, r ; the pierced openings in the verge board, s s; the raised ornaments on the same, tt; the cross section of the verge board, m u ; and the cernent verge of the tiling, v v. The scale of this figure is two inches to a foot.FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 423 Fig. 866 is the front view of the entrance porch, and Fig. 867 is the side view of the same porch ; both are drawn to a scale of six feet to ah inch. Fig. 868 is a cross section of the oak coping of the wall of the porch* Fig. 869 is a view and sections of the bracket part of the post, and part of the arch, in the gable of the porch. In this figure, a is the commencement of the arch, whicb424* COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE* corresponds with the same letter in fig. 866 ; b b show the section of the moulded face of the arch ; c c c are the three ornaments shown at c in figs. 866 and 867; d, e, f are the ornaments shown as decoratiiîg the outer sides of the corner posts in figs. 866 and 867 ; and g is the side view of the brackets shown at g in the same figures ; h is a section of the face of the corner post, and of the impost over it ; i i, the front view of the bracket ; k, a front view of the impost over the bracket ; 7, the soffit of the arch ; and m, the inside view of the corner post, shown without ornament. . Fig. 870 is a baluster in the side of the entrance-porch, in which » is a section of the top rail.FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 425 Fig. 871 shows the gate-post, o, and a cross section of the top rail of the gâte, p. Fig. 872, bottom rail of the gâte, q ; and lower part of a baluster, under the rail, ri Fig. 873 shows a horizontal section of the gate-posts, s, and of the gate-head, t, Fig. 874 is a baluster of the gâte, different from that in the side rail, shown in fig. 870. Fig. 875 is the élévation of the external door of the house, to a scale of four feet to an inch ; below which are the plan, a, to the same scale ; and the section of the muntings, b ; the latter to the scale of a quarter of an inch to an inch. Fig. 876 is a horizontal section of part of a window, showing the stone window jamb, c, stone munting, d, and the cast-iron frames of the Windows let into them, e e e. Fig. 877 is a section of the stone drip mouldings, or labels, put over the Windows, to a scale of one inch to a foot. Fig. 878 shows three sections of different parts of the chimney shafts, to a scale of one inch to a foot ; / is a section of the head of the shafts ; g is a section of the base; and h is a section of the drip moulding under the base, shown at h in figs. 879 to 882. Figs. 879 to 882 are the élévations of the four different patterns of chimney shafts, below which are the plans, i i i i.426 COTTAGE, FAEM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. Fjg. 883 is a section showing the footings of the walls, and their depth under the original surface line, k k} of the ground on which they are built. 884 16 0 18 ; Fig. 884 is a section showing the relative height of the ground floor, Z, and the surface of the terrace, m. In this figure are also shown the joists of the ground floor, n ; the wall plate on which they are placed, o ; and the chain plate, p, which is continued round the whole building. Particidars of the several Works to be done in building a Bailiffs Cottage at Bury Hill, near Dorking, Surrey, for Charles Barclay, Esq., according to the Flans, Elévations, Sections, and Details, severally signed by the Parties undertaking the same. 849. Excavator's, Bricklayer's, and WelUdigger's Work. To dig out the earth for the basement story, and the several trenches for the foundations of the whole of the building, of the respective depths and widths required, and to fill in and well ram round the work. Surplus earth arising therefrom to be spread round the building, to form a terrace, as shown in the plan. To dig a well in the dairy scullery, 4 feet clear in diameter, 45 feet deep ; to steen the same in 4-inch brickwork, and to dôme it over in 9-inch brickwork. The soil and rubbish which may be made during the carrying on of the works to be taken out of the building, from time to time, as occasion may require. Ail the bricks to be used in the building, or brought upon the premises, to be Sound and good well- burned stocks. The mortar to be composed of the best well-burned grey lime, and clean sharp sand, well tempered together. The footings and foundations to be built of sand- stone, and below the ground line to be grouted with hot lime and sand. The remain- der of the walls above ground to be built of sandstone laid in neat random courses, with a fiat joint garreted on the external face ; the stones to be properly headed and prepared, and flushed solid in mortar; the whole of the coins, arches, and inverted arches to be of brickwork, and ail the walls to be built of the several heights and thick- nesses shown in the drawings, leaving the several apertures therein described. The chimney breasts, jambs, and backs to be of brickwork, with inverted arches under the lowest fireplaces, the flues to be properly gathered and pargeted (this operation is usually performed with loam and cow-dung ; but quicklime and pounded brick are found far better, and are now generally used by the best London builders), 12 inches in diameter in the clear. A strong iron chimney bar (see § 602, fig. 542) to be put to each of the fireplaces, and 4-inch brick trimmers to be turned where required. To build stone foundations for the porchways, stone underpinning for the partitions, brick foundations for the sink and to the dairy steps, and an area of 9-inch brickwork to the cellar window, paved with bricks, with sinkhole and drain to deliver the water into the main drain. To pave the cellar and passage adjoining with building bricks laid fiat in mortar ; and the pantry, store room, and kitchen with dressed paving bricks, bedded and jointed in mortar ; and to wheel in such sand as may be required for properly levelling and current- ing the same. To put hollow tile drains, 7 inches clear in the bore, where shown by dotted lines in the plan ; altogether a length of 200 feet ; and to provide and fix 6 cast- iron stink-traps, 8 inches square, one at each of the external apertures thereof ; the whole to be laid with a proper fall, and sufficient depth to deliver the water away from the lowest part of the building. To pave the drying-porch with pebbles ; to build brick steps, and to bed the oak nosings (the nosing of a step is the front part of the tread, between the line formed by the meeting of the riser with the tread) to the cellar stairs. To build the foundations, the enclosure walls, and an oven 4 feet by 3 feet 9 inches in the clear, properly domed, plastered, and paved ; and to find and fix the requisite iron- work and door for the same complété. To build brick benches, with 4-inch arches and piers, in the dairy, to receive a slate covering. To fill in the nogging partitions with brick nogging fiat. The bricklayer to find scaffolding and ladders, and to fix and refix the same as occasion may require, as well for his own work as for the other trades requiring the use of them ; and to allow the same to remain till the external part of the house and chimney shafts shall be completed. The walls to be carried up in an upright,FARM HOÜSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 427 substantial, and workmanlike manner ; and in tlie progress of the building no part of the work to be raised more than 4 feet above the other, except in the pediments, but the whiole to be carried up in a regular and equal manner. To fix the wooden bricks, and to bed ail the plates, bond timber, and lintels in loam. To eut ail the rakes and splays, and ail the chasings required for the lead flashings ; to make good and stop the same with Roman cernent ; to bed and point the door frames in lime and hair, and to underpin the sills. To cover the whole of the roofing with old sound plain tiles (old are preferred for their picturesque effect) laid on straw to a 7^-inch gauge, with heart of oak laths, the hips, ridges, and eaves in mortar : the straw to be of equal thickness throughout, and in sufficient quantity to exclude the light : 385 no crooked, cracked, or cornerless tiles to be used ; and the whole of the 1**»^ tiling to be done with particular care, so as perfectly to exclude the snow, rain, and wind. (The gauge of plain tiling is reckoned from the distance which the first and third laths are apart, measuring from centre to centre. For a 7g-inch gauge, the workman nails on a lath, and, with a measure or gauge 7 inches and a half long, finds the place of the third lath; and, having fixed that, nails another lath between. This arrangement, when the tiles are hung on, causes them to overlap, so as to show uncovered 3 inches and a quarter of each course. By this means the third tile overlaps the first 2 inches and a half, which makes the work imperviôus to rain. This will be rendered clear by the section fig. 885 ; in which a a are the tiles ; b b, the laths ; and c c, the wooden pegs, by which the tiles are hung on the laths.) The fillets, listings, and verges to be of Roman cernent. (The fillets are narrow strips of lime and hair, or cernent, put to cover the horizontal joints, where tiling abuts against walls ; the listings are the same upon an inclined plane. The verges are the external edge of the tiling in gables, which are covered with lime and hair, or Roman cernent.) The bricklayer to find ail the materials, ropes, boards, tackle, tools, workmanship, and ironwork, for the completion of his work, and the carriage thereof; to do the whole in the best and most workmanlike manner ; and to colour twice over in good stone colour, to match the stone part of the chimney shafits, the whole of the brick coins and brick part of the chimney shafts. To do ail the beam-filling, and wind-pinning required. The whole to be done subject to the pro- visions of the general particular at the end. 850. Plasterer's Work. To lath, lay, set, and colour stone colour, the gable of drying- porch. To lath, lay, set, and white the ceilings of basement story and scalding-room, and to lime-white the walls twice over. — Ground Floor and Chamber Story. To lath, lay, set, and white the whole of the ceilings, except the parlour, which is to be lath, lay, float, set, and whited. To lath, lay, and set the whole of the battenings and strings of the stairs ; and to render set the walls and nogging partitions, so as to fit them for colouring, and in the parlour for papering. Ail the timbers of the partitions to be diagonal-lathed. The plasterer to find ail materials, tools, tressels, boards, moulds, rules, carriage, and workmanship required for the completion of his work ; and to do the same in the best and most workmanlike manner, Subject to the provisions in the general particular at the end hereof. [The same person contracts for both the brick- layer’s and the plasterer’s work, and signs this particular in the following form : — ] I, the undersigned, hereby undertake to perform the foregoing bricklayer’s and plasterer’s work for the sum of four hundred and eighty-five pounds five shillings and eleven pence. S. B. 851. Mason's Work. To pave with Yorkshire stone paving, properly squared in courses, the porchway, the dairy, and the scalding-room ; the dairy floor to be rubbed ; with proper holes for stink-traps where required ; with Yorkshire steps and risers where shown in the plan, and with a solid Yorkshire step at the entrance door of the house. To put Yorkshire curb stones to the drying-porch and area, 5 inches by 4 inches, pro- perly cramped, and run with lead. To put plain Portland stone shelves, mantels, jambs, slips, and bases to the chambers ; and the same, with profiles, and reeded shelf and turned pateras (the représentation of a cup in bas relief, a common ornament in friezes), in par- lours, with Yorkshire stone hearths, and Portland stone slabs to each. The kitchen to hâve inch-and-three-quarters Portland stone mantel jambs and shelf. To put a Yorkshire stone sînk in the scalding-room, 5 feet long, and 2 feet 3 inches wide, with proper hole for washer. To put moulded window frames, labels, and chimney shafts of Bath stone, properly cramped and run with lead, according to the drawings, and properly to fix, and run with lead, the iron frames, lights, and stanchion bars. To put milled slate benches In the dairy, an inch and a quarter thick, with rounded edges, and milled slate skirting428 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 7 inches high, backed up, and set in Roman cernent, in tlie kitchen, dairy, pantry, and store room. The mason to find ail materials, carriage, and workmanship required for the completion of his work in the best and most workmanlike manner ; and to fix the whole complété, subject to the conditions in the general particular at the end hereof. [The mason contracting for this, afiixes his signature to the same form as before.] The terrace shown in the drawings (see the figures in p. 419 and p. 420) is not de- scribed in this particular, nor included in the estimate; as the expense dépends , upon whether the free sandstone, of which it should be built, can be obtained with facility or not. 852. Carpenter's and Joiner's Work. The whole of the materials to be provided and sawed out square free from wane, of the several scantlings and thicknesses herein spe- cified ; to be carted to the spot by the contractor, and to consist of the best yellow Dantzic or Memel fir, or English oak, free from sap, shakes, or large andloose knots. The whole of the carpentry is to be framed in a workmanlike manner, according to the drawings ; the carpenter finding labour, nails, and tools, and ail kinds of ironwork required for the purpose ; the whole to be done subject to the provisions of the general particular at the end hereof. The bond is to pass through the openings, and not to be eut out till the work has settled. To put a chain plate of oak, 6 inches by 4 inches and a half, round the whole of the building, and the middle wall in the centre of the same, at the height shown in the plan ; the whole to be properly halved, and bolted at the laps, and dovetailed at the angles. To put three tiers of bond in the ground floor story, and three tiers in the chamber story, of oak, 3 inches by 2 inches and a half; and an oak wall plate under each floor, 4 inches and a half by 3 inches, dovetailed at the angles, and halved and spiked at the laps. To put double oak lintels, 4 inches thick, to ail the openings, of the width of the respective walls or reveals, to lie 9 inches on the wall at each end. Oak wooden bricks to be provided in the jambs, for fixing the several linings where required, not exceeding 2 feet apart. — Parlour. To put oak joists, 6 inches by 3 inches, 12 inches apart ; the trimmers and trimming joists to be 6 inches by 4 inches. — Chamber Floor. To put fir joists throughout, 9 inches by 2 inches and a half, 12' inches apart. The trimmers and trimming joists to be 9 inches by 3 inches and a half, with one row of 1 inch and a quarter, fir keys (or strutting pièces) in each of the large chambers. — Ceiling Floor throughout. The ceiling joists to be 4 inches and a half by 2 inches, 12 inches apart, with binding joists, 5 inches by 3 inches and a half, and angle beams fixed with iron screw pins to the tie beams, 5 inches by 3 inches and a half, trimmed to the chimneys, and for a trapdoor over the landing to the stairs. — Roofing. Gutter plate, 8 inches by 4 inches. Tie beams, each in one length, joggled to the plates, 7 inches by 4 inches ; king posts, 9 inches by 3 inches, with three quarters of an inch iron screw pins 2 feet long, with nuts 3 inches long, mortised through the king posts. Struts, 4 inches by 3 inches ; framed principal rafters, 6 inches by 3 inches at bottom, and 4 inches by 3 inches at top ; purlins notched on the back of the principal rafters, 5 inches by 3 inches ; oak wall plate, 5 inches by 3 inches ; pôle plate, 4 inches and a half by 2 inches and a half ; 1 inch and a half sleepers, 5 inches wide, laid on the back of the rafters to form valleys, 1 inch and a half ridges and hips, 6 inches wide ; common rafters, 4 inches by 3 inches, 13 inches apart ; inch yellow deal gutter board and bearers, with feather-edged flanch board ; and the same to the chimneys. The middle gutter is to be 12 inches wide at the narrowest end, and to rise 2 inches in every 10 feet, with one 2-inch splayed drop ; proper valley boards are to be put for the lead valleys. The roof of the scalding-room, and of the porches and oven, are to hâve plates, rafters, ridges, valleys, and gutters, as before described, and the whole of the eaves are to hâve feather-edged oak eaves board, 4 inches and a half wide, and 1 inch and a quarter, and three quarters of an inch thick, with inch brackets to receive the eaves moulding and soffit. — Partitions for Nogging Fiat throughout. To put heads and sills, 4 inches and a quarter by 3 inches ; and common quarters, 4 inches and a quarter by 2 inches and a half, 18 inches apart ; door posts, principal quarters, and braces, 4 inches and a quarter by 3 inches ; and nogging pièces, 4 inches and a quarter by 2 inches. Ail the heads of partitions to be dovetailed into the plates. Ail the externai walls are to be battened inside with inch oak, 2 inches and a half wide and 12 inches apart. To make a proper barrel curb, for the well-diggers, and such centering as may be wanted for the archers and trimmers. 853. Joiner's Work. To be done according to the several drawings of details. Ail the stuff to be of the best well-seasoned (kept till so dry as to be in no danger of shrinking when used) yellow deal, listed, free from sap and shakes, and the whole to be neatly wrought and finished off in a workmanlike manner. — Floors. To lay inch straight joint floors, with proper borders to slabs in the parlour, passage, and bed-rooms. — Doors. To put inch and three quarters four-panel both sides square doors to ail the rooms and closets, and to the head of the cellar stairs, hung with 3 inches and a half butt hinges, and 6 inches iron rim brass knoblocks, with 1 inch and a half single-rebatedFARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 429 jambs, having framed grounds beaded on edge, with quirk ogee fillet and square, to form architraves. To put an inch wrought ledged and beaded trapdoor to go into the roof, with inch rebated linings. The external doors into the entrance-porch, and the drying- porch, to be of oak, with doorcase, hinges, and linings, &c., according to the drawing ; and to hâve a 10-inch iron-rim drawback lock, and two 8-inch bright rod bolts to each. The, cellar door to be inch proper ledged, with oak proper doorcase, 5 inches by 3 inches and a half, with lock andkey, and hung with 18-inches cross garnet hinges. — Windows. To préparé a wood model, and provide cast-iron lights, casements, frames, hinges, fastenings, and stay bars to the several openings, according to the drawings. To provide stanchion bars four to each light, of an inch square wrought iron, in the dairy, the pantry, and the store room. The dairy, the pantry, and the store room to hâve fly wire (wirecloth to exclude Aies) inside of the Windows, and the casements to open from the outside, with two panels of fly wire in the door between the pantry and the passage. The several Windows to hâve inch window boards with rounded edge, and also three quarters of an inch splayed jamb linings, and soflits with framed grounds, and moulding for architraves, to match the other doors, except those in the cellar, store room, pantry, dairy, and scalding-room. The kitchen and parlours to hâve 1 inch and a quarter square framed folding inside shutters, with back flaps, proper hinges, and iron bar fastenings. — Skirtings. To put inch torus skirting 7 inches high in the parlour, and three quarters of an inch square skirting throughout the chamber floor. Ail the skirtings to hâve narrow beveled grounds and backings. — Staircase. To put inch steps, risers, and carriage, housed into the string boards, and 1 inch and a half close string, with moulded planceer and raking skirting. Moulded handrail, and inch square bar balusters, with iron balusters, and turned newels. The spandril to be filled in with inch and quarter both sides square framing; and to put proper apron lining (the lining which cases the trimmer) and nosing to the landing. To put oak framed nosings to the brick steps of the cellar stairs, with oak wrought and rounded handrail and newel posts. To put inch and half oak pump cheeks and sills, and to case the same with inch deal, and proper cap, &c., and to fix the same in the scalding-room. To put proper staff beads to the angles of the chimney breasts. To préparé and fix with iron holdfasts, 150 feet run of inch and quarter shelf, 12 inches wide, and brackets in the pantry, store room, or elsewhere, as may be directed. To put 2 inches and a half oak carved verge boards with crown mouldings, and carved pendants, with three quarters of an inch wrought oak soflits to ail the pediments, and eavés moulding, and three quarters of an inch soflit and bed mould, also of oak, to ail the eaves. The entrance porch and drying porch also to be fitted up with oak, the whole according to the drawing of details. The carpenter and joiner to find ail the materials, tools, labour, nails, glue, and every description of iron- mongery, locks, bolts, bars, hinges, and fastenings, and the carriage and fixing thereof, and every thing required for the completion of his work in the best and most workman- like manner ; and to préparé and fix ail manner of beads, stops, fillets, grounds, linings, and backings required for the perfect execution of the work, whether the same may or may not be minutely specified in this particular. The whole to be done, subject to the provisions in the general particular at thé end hereof. [Signed, as before, by the person undertaking the carpenter’s and joiner’s work.] R. S. 854. Plumber, Painter, and Glazier's Work. Plumber. To put flashings of milled lead, 8 inches wide, 5 lbs. to the foot superficial, chased into the stonework, and fixed with wall hooks to each of the chimney shafts ; and to put gutters, 18 inches wide, of 7 lbs. cast lead, and aprons to such as require it. To cover the middle gutter, and gutter at the drying-porch, with cast lead, 7 lbs. to the foot superficial, to turn up 8 inches under the tiles on each side, and to put 3 inches lead rain-water stack pipes, with cistern heads to bring the water to the ground in the angle of the north front, and at the dry- ing porch. To cover the valleys with 7 lbs. cast lead, 15 inches wide. To put proper flashings of milled lead, 5 lbs. to the foot superficial, 12 inches wide, chased into the stonework where the roofs of the scalding-room and of the porchway abut against the same. To put a 5'-inch brass grate, and bell trap, and 2 inches and a half lead pipe to the sink. To put a good stout 4-inch lead pump barrel, weighing 2 qrs. 14 lbs., in the scalding-room, with 50 feet of 2 inches and a half lead suction pipe, with bucket, sucker, and iron handle complété. — Glazier’s Work. To glaze and back putty ail the lights and casements, with good second Newcastle crown glass. — Painter’s Work. The whole, of the iron frames, lights, and casements, and fly wire to be painted inside and out, four times, in good oil colour. The whole of the internai joiner’s work to be knotted, primed, and painted three times in oil stone colour. The oakwork is nottobe painted.— The plumber, painter, and glazier to find ail materials and workmanship ; and the car- riage thereof, and every thing requisite for the performance of his work ; and to do the430 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. same in a perfect and workmanlike manner, subject to the general particular at the end hereof. [Signed, as before, by the plumber, painter, and glazier.] W. B. 855. General Particular. The bricklayer’s work to be completed by the day of . The naked floors and roofing to be fixed and finished by the day of . The whole to be covered in by the day of . The plastering to be begun as soon as the roofing is covered in, and finished, as well as the mason’s work, by the day of . The whole of the joiner’s work to be finished by the day of ; and the painter’s by the day of The glazing to be done as soon as the lights and casements are fitted in. Each con- tracter shall be answerable for ail damage done to his respective work during the pro- gress, either by the inclemency of the weather or otherwise ; and shall make ail good, and leave the same perfect at the final completion of the work. The work to be paid for within one month after the certification of the completion of the contracts. —- The whole of the materials are to be found by the contractors, and are to be of the best of their several kinds, and fit for the purpose. The work is to be done in a substantial and workmanlike manner, under the direction and to the satisfaction of the Architect appointed for the purpose by the employer ; and every thing is to be performed that is necessary for completing the whole work in the usual and customary manner, notwith- standing the same may not be mentioned in the spécification. And, if any alteration shall be made by the direction of the employer, during the progress of the work, it shall not vitiate or annul the contract, but the value of such alteration shall be ascertained, at the customary prices of the neigfibourhood, by the Architect, whose decision between the parties shall be final. The full amount of the contracts to be paid when the several works are certified by the surveyor to be complété and finished. And, if any material shall be brought upon the premises which is disapproved by the surveyor, or any workman employed whose skill is considered insuflficient by him, the said materials or workman to be removed or discharged immediately, upon the contractor receiving notice from the surveyor so to do, either in writing or verbally. And further, if any or ail of the said works should be performed in any way inferior to the description or intention of the particular and drawings, or shall be deteriorated below a fair standard of good quality or sound workmanship, the same shall also be valued by the said Architect as aforesaid, and deducted from the amount of the contract by the employer ; and his decision in this case shall also be final. The several contractors to be responsible to make good ail latent defects arising from bad work or bad materials, notwithstanding the certification as aforesaid. The contractor or contractors are to sign an agreement, when required so to do, to perform the work according to the foregoing particulars and conditions ; which agreement shall contain such additional clauses as the soliciter to the employer shall deem requisite to secure and enforce the fulfilment of the same. [This general particular is signed by ail the different contracting tradesmen who hâve signed the separate particulars, in the manner before shown.] S. B., Bricklayer, Plasterer, &c. W. G., Mason. R. S., Carpenter and Joiner. W. B., Plumber, Painter, and Glazier. 856. Measurement and Estimate. Account of the quantities of the several works required in building a bailiff’s cottage, with an estimate of the expense of performing the same. 857. Bricklayer, Excavator, and Well-digger, a. m. (that is, finding Ail Materials). 102 cubic yards digging, filling, and ramming....................... 6 rods 265 feet reduced stonework below ground, grouted ......... 13 rods 7 feet reduced above ground with brick coins and garreted on face......................................................... 4 rods 183 feet reduced brick work in shafts and chimneys......... 25 squares 83 feet superficial, old plain tiles, with heart of oak laths laid in straw ; with the hips, ridges, and eaves in mortar...... 65 yards brick nogging fiat....................................... 27 yards stock paving fiat, in mortar............................. 34 yards dressed paving bricks, bedded and jointed in mortar...... 8 and a half yards pebble paving .................................». 92 feet run (lineal) splay ....................................... 60 feet cliase-cut and cernent stopping......................FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 431 78 feet verge (see fig. 865 v, p. 423), in cernent ........... 58 feet hip................................................... 100 feet ridge ............................................... 200 feet run hollow tile drain 7 inches bore, and digging and setting and filling in................................................ 1 sinkhole .................................................. 6 cast-iron stink-traps....................................... 2 door frames bedded and pointed, colouring brick shaft, and back at scalding-room, and square bases of the chimneys of the house, • and ail the coins............................................... 30 feet deep of well-digging, and labour to steening ......... 15 feet do. of do. (Extra depth)......... 6 strong iron chimney bars.................................... Ironwork to oven ............................................. £ 444 : 1 . 4 858. Plasterer's Work, a. m. 94 yards lime-whiting.............................................. 204 yards whitewashing to new work ................................ 7 yards stone colour .............................................. 245 yards render set............................................... 261 yards lath, lay and set........................................ 19 yards floated do................................................ £41 : 859. Mason’s Work, a. m. 190 feet superficial York paving squared in courses............... 182 feet do. rubbed............................................... 18 feet 9 inches Yorkshire stone hearth .......................... 23 feet 9 inches Portland stone slab ........................... 12 feet 9 inches inch-and-three-quarters Portland stone mantles, jambs, and shelf ............................................... 47 feet 5 inches seven eighths of an inch thick in chambers....... 63 feet 6 inches milled slate benches to the dairy................ 87 feet 7 inches milled slate skirting set in cernent............. 11 feet 3 inches superficial Yorkshire stone sink................. 28 feet 6 inches run Yorkshire curb 5 inches by 4 inches, cramps, and lead ........................................................... feet 6 inches Yorkshire stone step ............................. 24 feet rounded edges to slate shelves ........................ 4 feet 6 inches reeded edge....................................... 2 holes for stink-traps 8 inches square .......................... 2 turned pateras.................................................. 2 bases to do. ................................................. 4 three-light Bath stone window frames, and labels, as per drawings, figs. 876 and 877, p. 425....................................... 10 two-light do. (with iron frames and stanchion bars in ditto, and 3 light fratnes fixed only)....................................... 3 plain Bath stone chimney shafrs and bases..................... 4 enriched do. do.......................................... Yorkshire stone landing, and corbel, to secure the stack of chimneys. (A corbel is a projecting row of stones, or of pièces of timber, to support a superincumbent part of a wall ; it is here used to support the upper division of the shaft which overhangs its base)....................................................... 4 7 £234 : 12 : 1 860. Carpenter's and Joiner's Work, a. m. 154 feet cubic of oak in bond, plates, &c............................ 422 feet 9 inches foreign fir, framed, in roof, floors, and partitions... 11 square (a square is 100 superficial feet) 11 feet superficial, in oak battening 2 inches and a half wide, and 12 inches apart............ 180 feet superficial feather-edge flanch and valley board ........... 58 feet 6 inches yellow deal gutter and bearer......................... 36 feet 9 inches inch-and-quarter keys in floor........................ 40 feet inch-and-half sleepers for valleys...........................432 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 87 feet 2 inches inch-and-half hips and ridges................... 227 feet run oak eaves board..................................... 11 feet 5 inches cubic oak framed................................ 2 feet 4 inches oak wrought and framed ........................ 2 feet 4 inches do. do. circular ............................ 11 feet 7 inches do. wrought, framed, and moulded................ Oak wood bricks.................................................. 9 screw pins (wrought iron) to angle beams, and fixing......... 8 iron sçrew pins and nuts to king posts ...................... 1 gâte to the porch, of oak with turned balusters, and hinges com- plete............................................................. Joinev's Work. 105 feet superficial, three-quarters-inch splayed lining......... 109 feet three-quarters-inch square skirting..................... 244 feet three-quarters-inch wrought oak soffit.................. 3 feet inch rebated lining..................................... 48 feet window board rounded .................................... 52 feet 6 inches steps, risers, and carriage..................... 148 feet 8 inches framed grounds ................................ 2 feet 3 inches wrought beaded and ledged trapdoor............. 19 feet 6 inches proper ledged door ............................. 2 féet 3 inches apron lining .................................. 18 feet 5 inches wrought pump case .............................. 28 feet 3 inches torus skirting ................................. 15 feet raking do................................................ 9| squares of inch straight joint floor.......................... 97 feet 6 inches superficial inch-and-quarter closet front and door ... 42 feet square framed folding window shutters, including hinges .... 13 feet 4 inches, inch-and-quarter close string.................. 21 feet square framed spandril .................................. 150 feet shelf wrought, rounded, and fixed with brackets and hold- fasts ......................................................... 167 feet 3 inches, inch-and-half single-rebated jambs............ 9 feet 9 inches oak pump cheeks ............................... 7 feet 6 inches oak filling in to gable of porch eut circular.. 206 feet 8 inches inch-and-three-quarters both sides square doors.... 39 feet 6 inches oak Gothic doors................................ 208 feet superficial moulded work to oak verges, and fixing with pierced sinkings............................................... 74 feet superficial oak columns turned spiral, as shown in figs. 855 and 856, in p. 421............................................. 13 feet 6 inches oak wrought, framed, and weathered (beveled to throw ofFthe wet) ............................................. 35 feet 7 inches fly wire........................................... 435 feet run quirk ovolo and fillet.............................. 266 feet 6 inches narrow grounds................................. 10 feet moulded planceer....................................... 3 feet nosing.................................................. 120 feet angle staves............................................ 132 feet bar balusters........................................... 8 feet wrought and rounded rail................................... 15 feet moulded handrail......................................... 120 feet eaves moulding of oak .................................. 120 feet bed mould............................................... 24 feet 6 inches, inch-square wrought-iron bars ................... 2 feet 9 inches cubic oak in nosing to steps .................. 3 inches do. in newel.......................................... 3 feet 9-inch oak wrought, framed, and weathered............... 9 feet 9-inch posts, wrought, framed, and carved............... 4 feet 10-inch do., coping, wrought, framed, and beveled ....... 11 pair 3-inch and a half butt hinges, and fixing them......... 11 6-inch iron-rim brass-knob locks ............................. 4 closet locks ................................................ 2 10-inch iron-rim locks......................................... 4 8-inch rod bolts bright...................................... 2 pair of old formed hinges, as per drawing.........................FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 438 5 pair 2-inch butts ..............................,.......... 1 pair 18-inch garnets...................................... 1 cellar lock and key ....................................... 1 wooden pattern for casting the iron lights and casements.. 32 cast-iron frames.......................................... 32 casements with hinges and stay bars....................... 2 iron shutter bars ........................................ 4 newel posts turned ....................................... 1 hole for handle............................................ 1 cap to pump case........................................... Barrel curb for well......................................... 5 gable posts carved and fixed, 7 feet 6 inches long........ 8 pendants 4 feet long............................«.......... 4 caps and 4 bases to columns................................ 36 turned balusters.......................................... 4 carved caps to the posts in the porch...................... ,£485: 7:11 861. Plumber’s, Painter's, and Glazier's Work, a. m. 12 cwt. 2 qrs. cast lead............................................ 3 cwt. 2 qrs. milled lead......................................... 53 feet run 2^-inches lead pipe and joints.......................... 26 feet 3-inch lead rain-water pipe................................. 2 cistern heads..................................................... 1 5-inch brass grate and bell trap ................................. 1 stout 4-inch lead pump barrel complété, with iron handle, bucket, sucker, and fixing .............................................. 152 feet second Newcastle crown glass, small panes.................. 154 yards of painting thrice in oil, of stone colour ............... 146 feet run bar do................................................. 218 feet square skirting, 6 inches high............................. 48 feet 6 inches torus skirting, 7 inches high ..................... 26 feet handrail ................................................... 132 feet bar balusters.............................................. 90 feet angle staff................................................. 32 casements and frames both sides, 12 small squares in each........ 2 shutter bars .............................................«..... 862. Summary of Estimâtes for the JBailiff's Cottage, a. m. Bricklayer ........................................... Plasterer.............................................< Mason ................................................... Carpenter and Joiner..................................... Plumber, Painter, and Glazier....................?.... £ 68 : 18 : 10 1 : 4 : 4: 7 12 : 1 : 7 : 11 ; 18 : 10 £ 1274 : 4: 9 863. General Estimate, This cottage contains 22,842 cubic feet ; which, at the above sum, amounts to ls. \\d. per foot, which thus appears to be the proper sum, per cubic foot, for estimating dwellings of this description in the neighbourhood of London. 864. Remarks. Our readers, we think, will agréé with us in highly approving of this cottage, both for its internai accommodations and arrangements, and for its external effect. The parlour and kitchen are of good sizes, and are both well lighted ; and the cellarage, pantry, store room, and dairy are ample. The latter is large, because it is supposed to furnish supplies to the family residing in the mansion. It is very properly placed on the north side of the building, and both doors and Windows are protected by wirecloth from the entrance of Aies. The pump being in the dairy scullery is a great convenience. The drying-porch, judiciously placed on the south side of the building, is a most useful part of this house, and we could wish it appended to every dwelling in the country ; not only on account of the accommodation which it affords for drying things in wet weather, and for sitting or working under, but for its ornamental effect. It is a more social appendage than the véranda, because it allows of a party sitting round a table, either to work or to eat. In America such a porch would be a delightful place for husking Indian corn, as described by Cobbett ; or, in Savoy, for taking the skins off walnuts, to préparé them for being crushed for oil, as described in the interesting Travels434 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. in the Tarentaise, by the eminent geologist Bakewell. Ail the chimneys are in the interior wall, which brings the shafts exteriorly to the highest part of the general mass, and complétés what Hogarth, in his Analysis of Beauty, calls the painter’s pyramid. It is always more satisfactory to see chimneys issuing from the highest part of the roof, than from the side walls, or from any lower part ; because the rising sides of the roof seem to conspire in supporting what issues out of its apex, as the leaves of a plant seem to support the flower stem which proceeds from its centre, or the spreading lower branches of a fir tree do its spiry top. When it is known, also, how much this dis- position of the chimneys contributes to their drawing well, and to the general warmth of the house, its satisfactory effect cannot but be greatly heightened in every well regu- lated mind. Design II. — A Farmery in the Old English Style, chiefly calculated for Dairy Hus- handry, and conducted by a Bailijf, for the Proprietor of the Land. 865. Situation. This farmery, of which fig. 886 is the isometrical élévation, and fig. 887, the ground plan, is built a few yards to the north of the bailifFs house, which forms the subject of the preceding Design. Both, as before observed, were erected in 1831, at Bury Hill, near Dorking, for Charles Barclay, Esq., from the Design, and under the superintendence, of John Perry, Esq., Architect, of Godalming. 866. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 887, to a scale of forty feet to an inch, shows a cattle-shed, a ; waggon and implement house, with granary over, b ; hay-store, c ; calf- pen, d ; cow-house, e ; another calf-pen, f ; slaughter-house, g ; swiU-cisterns and tanks for holding liquid food, and bins for dry food, for pigs, h ; piggeries, i i i i i; passage between the piggeries and the fowl-houses, k ; fowl-houses, Il II', and two places for fuel, m m. There is a pigeon-house over the granary, as may be seen in the élévation, fig. 888. These buildings are placed on three sides of a cattle-yard, which is open toFARM HOÜSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 435 the south, and overlooked in that direction by the Windows of the bailiff’s house. There is no stable in this farmery, ail the field labour being performed by four pair of oxen, which stand in the cattle-shed. The surface water may be supposed to be con- veyed from the passage round the farm-yard by a gutter, forming a line of démarcation between that passage and the space for the dunghill in the centre, and having traps com- municating with an underground drain. The water from the roofs may be collected by gutters at the eaves, and conveyed to the same underground drain as that which carries off the surface water. Ail the liquid matter of the cow-house, cattle-sheds, and pigsties should be collected by gratings into covered gutters, and by them conveyed to two liquid manure tanks in the centre of the yard, over which should be placed the dunghill ; and, if the greatest economy of manure, and also a pattern to surrounding farmers, were, as we think they ought to be, leading objects, this dunghill ought to be covered with a roof. 867. Construction, The walls are built of local sandstone, with the exception of the south wall of the cow-house, and of the west wall of the granary ; both of which are of studwork, weather-boarded. The roof, over the cattle-shed and hay-store is to be covered with pantiles, and ail the other roofs with hoop chips. Hoop chips are the shavings made by the coppice cutters, when splitting and preparing* large hoops from long hazel and other rods grown in coppice woods : they are generally upwards of an inch broad, a quarter of an inch or more thick, and from 18 inches to 3 feet in length. They are laid on, and sewed to the laths, like thatch ; and, after a few years, are hardly to be known from a roof of that description. Their durability, when the roof is so steep as to throw off the water effectually, is equal to that of tiles, and they require less repair. Fig. 888 is the south élévation, in which may be seen the manner in which the oak gate- posts are kept firm in their places, by the underground braces, to the subsills, n n. Fig. 889 is the back élévation of the cow-house, in which are seen, to the right, the gable end of the granary, and its outside step-ladder. Fig. 890 is the front élévation of the cow-house and the slaughter-house ; showing the manner in which the former is ventilated by luffer-boarding under the eaves. Fig. 891 is an élévation of the waggon- house, with the granary over, in which is seen a side view of the outside wooden stair or step-ladder; and, under the ground line, the inverted arches, on the abutments of which the stone bases of the story posts are placed. These stone bases are shown in fig. 892, 890 892436 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. on a scale of half an inch to a foot. In this figure, o is the post ; p, the stone base ; and q, half of the plan of the same. Fig. 893 shows the élévation of the front of the fowl-houses, and the end of the slaughter-house ; and fig. 894 the front of the pigsties. In the last figure are seen, at r r, the ends of the cast-iron troughs, which project about a foot from the wall, for receiving the pigs’ food. They are seen in the ground plan, fig. 887, at s s s. Ail these élévations are to a scale of forty feet to an inch. Fig. 895 shows the construction of the roof of the cow-house, and fig. 896 that of the roof of the granary ; both to a scale of twelve feet to an inch. Fig. 897 shows a section, on a scale of twelve feet to an inch, through the piggeries and fowl- houses, in which t is the fowlthouse ; u, the passage between the fowl-houses and the piggeries; v, the pig- sties ; and w, the open yards in front of them. Other details of con- struction may be gathered from the following particulars of the work to be done : — Particulars of the several Works to be done in erecting certain Farm Buildings at Bury Hill, near Dorking, Surrey, for Charles Barclay, Esq., according to the Plans, Eléva- tions, Sections, and Details severaüy signed by the Parties undertaking the same. 868. Bricklayer, Excavator, and Weïï-digger. .To dig out the several trenches for the foundations, of the respective depths and widths required, and fill in and well ram round the work. To level and form the ground for the farm-yard and paving, and to spread the surplus earth, if any, wherever required so to do, any where within 50 yards of the farm-yard : if an additional quantity be considered necessary, it is to be carted to the spot by the employer. To dig a well, 4 feet clear in diameter, 45 feet deep ; to steen the same in 4-inch brickwork, and to dôme it over in 9-inch brickwork. Ail the bricks to be used in the work, or brought upon the premises, to be sound and good well burnt stocks. The mortar to be composed of the best well burnt grey lime, and clean sharp sand, well tempered together. The foundations of the walls to be built of sand- stone below the ground line, and to be grouted with hot lime and sand. The remainder of the walls above ground to be built of sandstone, laid m neat random courses, with a fiat joint garreted on the external face ; the stones to be properly headed and prepared, and flushed solid in mortar ; the whole of the coins, and arches, and inverted arches, to be of brickwork. The whole to be built of the several heights and thicknesses shown in the drawing ; leaving the several apertures therein described. The chimney breast, back, and shaft, for the copper in the slaughter-house, to be of brickwork, and the flue toFARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 437 be properly pargeted, with a second-size chimney pot, well flanched up with plain tiles and Roman cernent. The shaft and pot to be coloured stone colour. Ail the door and window frames to be properly bedded and pointed with good lime and hair mortar, and the sills to be underpinned. To build underpinning of stonework, with proper footings for the partitions where required, and foundations for the stone bases to the cattle-shed. To put a coping of semicircular bricks, 14 inches wide, to the fence wall, the back of the hay-store, and the front of the pigsties, set in Roman cernent, with proper stay irons at ail the coins. To fill in the nogging partitions with brick nogging fiat. To pave the four fowl-houses with paving bricks, fiat bedded and jointed in mortar. To pave the coal places, pigs’ lodgings, and slaughter-house with brick stock paving on edge in sand. The passage, cow-house, calf-pens, cattle-shed, hay-house, and pigs’ yards to be paved with pebbles laid in sand, properly currented and rammed. To build and pave proper swill cisterns of brick, set in Roman cernent, and rendered inside with the same, so as to be perfectly watertight. To colour twice over in good stone colour the brickwork of ail the coins, arches, and coping. To lime-white the inside of the slaughter-house and fowl- houses. To bed ail the plates, bond, templets (short pièces of timber laid under girders and beams, to distribute the weight), and lintels, in mortar. To cover the roof of the cattle-shed and hay-store with pantües jointed in mortar ; to build foundations for the posts, and to cover ail the other roofs with hoop chips from large hoops, finding straw, binders, rods, twine, &c., and laths. The bricklayer is to find ail the materials, càrriage, scaffolding, tools, workmanship, and ironwork for the completion of his work, in the best and most substantial manner. The whole to be done under the inspection and to the satisfaction of the Architect, subject to the several conditions contained in the general particular at the end hereof. [Signed by the bricklayer, in the same form as before.] S. B. 869. Carpenter and Joiner. The whole of the materials to be provided and sawed out square, free from wane, of the several scantlings herein specified ; to be carted to the spot by the contractor, and to consist of the best yellow Dantzic or Memel fir, or English oak, free from sap, shakes, or large loose knots. To frame the whoïe of the carpentry in a workmanlike manner, according to the drawings ; finding labour, nails, and ail kind of ironwork for the purpose, subject to the provisions of the general par- ticular at the end hereof. — Waggon-house with Granary over To put oak story posts (upright timbers supporting brestsummers or girders), 9 inches by 9 inches, and circular braces, 8 inches by 9 inches, wrought, framed, and chamfered; each post to hâve a square iron tenon let into the stone base. To put wall plates of oak under the floor and roof, 4 inches and a half by 2 inches and a half, with fir sills to the external partition, 12 inches by 6 inches. To put fir girders, 12 inches by 12 inches ; each girder to be fixed with a three quarters of an inch iron screw pin and nut to the sill, and to hâve an iron tie, with an S iron through the wall, properly spiked to the girder. The joists to be framed into girders, 12 inches by 2 inches and a half, 12 inches apart. The external partition to hâve principal quarters, 6 inches by 6 inches, with common quarters and braces, 12 inches apart, 6 inches by 3 inches and a half ; head, 6 inches by 6 inches, covered with oak or yellow deal weather-boarding and fillets, with flanch board and brackets at bottom. To lay the floor with inch and quarter yellow deal, wrought, ploughed, and tongued. To put 3 tiers of bond, 4 inches by 3 inches, in the walls of the granary. To put fir proper window frames, filled in with three quarters of an inch deal wrought luffer-boards housed into the frames ; with oak wrought and beveled drip sills to the front and back windows. To put an oak proper doorcase, 5 inches by 3 inches and a half, to the granary, with oak drip sill, 9 inches by 3 inches and a half, with inch and quarter deal proper ledged door, hung with strong hook and eye hinges, and with a strong iron-rim lock. To put a step-ladder of 2-inch oak, with the steps housed into the sides with three iron screw braces and nuts. The steps to be fixed with strong iron hook and eye hinges to the sill. — Roof. To put fir tie beams, 9 inches by 4 inches ; king posts, 9 inches by 3 inches, with three quarters of an inch iron screw pins 2 feet long, with nuts 3 inches long, mortised through the king posts ; struts, 3 inches by 3 inches; framed principal rafters, 6 inches and a half by 3 inches at bottom, and 5 inçhes by 3 inches at top, fixed at each end with screw pins to the tie beams. Purlins, 5 inches by 3 inches, notched on the back of the principal rafters. Pôle plate, 4 inches and a half by 3 inches ; common rafters, 13 inches apart, 4 inçhes and a half by 3 inches ; ridge pièces, 9 inches by 1 inch and a half, with oak eaves board. The joists, to receive the pigeon-house floor, laid on tie beams, are to be 6 inches by 2 inçhes and a half, trimmed for a trapdoor ; the floor is to be of inch deal, rough, with edges shot, ploughed, and tongued, with trapdoor and hinges, and step-ladder, complété. To put 1 inch and a quarter oak shelves and penthouse to the pigeon-holes, with oak cantilevers to support them. A rough partition to be put across in the roof, covered with weather-438 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. boarding, with a door, hinges, and lock, to go into the pigeon-house end. — Cattle-shed and Hay-house at the back of the Granary. To put fir posts, 7 inches by 7 inches, wrought, framed, and chamfered, with iron tenons and braces circular on plan, 6 inches by 3 inches ; fir plates, 7 inches by 4 inches ; pitching piece, 4 inches and a half by 3 inches ; tie beams, 7 inches by 4 inches ; principal rafters, 5 inches by 3 inches ; struts, 3 inches by 3 inches ; purlins, 5 inches by 2 inches and a half; common rafters, 13 inches apart, 4 inches and a half by 2 inches and a half, covered with pantile laths, with oak feather-edge eaves boards. To put oak proper door-case and sill to the hay-house, 5 inches by 3 inches, with 1 inch and a quarter yellow deal proper ledged door, hung with strong hook and eye hinges, strong Norfolk latch, and 8-inch stock lock. —Cow- house, Calf-pens, and Slaughter-house. To put oak sills to the external partition in front, 6 inches by 3 inches, with fir principal posts, 6 inches by 3 inches ; common quarters and braces, 5 inches by 2 inches and a half ; the head, 6 inches by 3 inches ; oak wall plates, 4 inches and a half by 3 inches. The front to be covered with weather-boarding at bottom, and with open filleting (slips of deal nailed at one or two inches apart), at top ; to put oak proper door-posts, 5 inches by 3 inches, with 1 inch and a quarter oak proper ledged doors, with strong hook and eye hinges and fastenings and the same to the slaughter-house. The calf-pens to be parted off with oak posts and arris rails (rails presenting two surfaces to the eye, which two surfaces unité in forming an edge or arris between them), filled in with oak slabs, with a small gâte hung on hook and eye hinges, with a hasp and staple. To put proper cow-bows (a contrivance for fixing the cow's head over the manger) and mangers for twelve cows. To put an oak proper 2-light window frame, and oak drip sill with iron casement, to the slaughter-house. To put tie beams, 7 inches by 4 inches ; struts, 3 inches by 4 inches ; principal rafters, 5 inches by 3 inches; purlins, 5 inches'by 2 inches and a half; common rafters, 4 inches and a half by 2 inches and a half; ridge pièces, 9 inches by 1 inch and a half, with oak eaves board. — Fowl-houses and Piggery. The roofing to be of the same scantlings with oak eaves board, as last described ; and the window frame in the swill-house the same as that in the slaughter-house. The door and doorcases the same as those in the cow-house, with 8-inch stock locks. The partitions of the fowl-houses to be framed for brick nogging fiat, with oak sills, and English fir puncheons (short pièces of timber used in framing partitions). The front of the pigsties to hâve oak sills with fir pun- cheons, 4 inches by 2 inches and a half, covered with weather-boarding. The division of the sties and of the back partition to be of oak posts, 5 inches by 5 inches, with arris rails, and filled in with oak slabs. The pigsty doors to hâve oak frames wrought and rebated, with inch oak wrought ledged doors, with strong hook and eye hinges, and hasp and staple fastenings. To find and fix five pig troughs of cast iron, 6 feet long each. To put a proper wrought framed and beveled oak curb to the swill cisterns, 6 inches by 2 inches and a half. — The three Gates. To put oak posts wrought and chamfered, 9 inches by 9 inches, with proper sills, subsills, and braces, to the wide gates. To put cast-iron moulded and beveled caps, as in fig. 898, to the posts. To put yellow deal, 2 inches and a half, wrought, framed, and braced gates, 898 filled in with inch yellow deal, wrought, ploughed, tongued, and beaded, with proper strong wrought-iron hook and staple hinges; the Staples to be fixed with nuts and screws, and bar fastenings; the large gâte to be a folding one. Ail the gates to hâve wrought, beveled, and moulded capping, and strong Norfolk latches. To put 1 inch and a half oak pump cheeks and sill ; to case the same with inch deal, with proper cap, and fix the same where required. To make a proper barrel curb for the well. [Signed by the contracter, as before.] R. S. 870. Plumier, Glazier, and Painter. To put lead lights and glass to the window frames in the slaughter-house and swill-house. To put a lead flashing, 5 pounds to the foot superficial, to the roof of the cattle-shed and hay-store, 12 inches wide, worked into the joint of the stone wall of the granary and coping, and also to the shaft of the chimney to the slaughter-house. To put a good stout 4-inch lead pump barrel, weighing 2 quarters 14 pounds, with 50 feet of 2 inches and a half lead suction pipe with bucket, sucker, and iron handle complété. To paint ail the gates, doors, and window and door frames, inside and out, and ail the weather-boarding outside four times in good oil colour. The work to be done, finding ail materials, workmanship, and carriage, subject to the provision of the general particular at the end hereof. [Signed, &c., as before.] W. B. 871. Stone- Mason. To provide and fix Portland stone bases, properly tooled and beveled, for the story posts of the granary and the cattle-shed, and to fix iron tenons inFARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 439 them run with lead. To be done subject to the provisions in the general particular at the end hereof. [I, the undersigned, hereby, &c., as before.] W. G. 872. General Particular. See that at the end of the particulars of the cottage, § 854. 873. Measurement and Estimate. Account of the quantities of the several works required in building the farm-yard at Bury Hill, with an estimate of the expense of performing the same. 874. Bricklayer, Excavator, and Weü-digger. a. m. 176 cubic yards and a half, digging, filling, and ramming in again ; the surplus éarth to be wheeled to any distance not exceeding 50 yards....................................................... .. 10 rods 248 feet reduced of stonework grouted. ................... 21 rods 73 feet, ditto, above ground, with garreted joint.... .... 92 feet reduced of brickwork...................................... 45 feet ditto ditto, set in Roman cernent................ 205 feet ditto of brickwork, in dry steening, without labour...... 8 squares 83 feet superficial pantiling pointed .................. 63 squares and a half superficial hoop chip thatch, with chips from large hoops, including laths and every thing................... 178 yards lime-whiting............................................ 8 yards stone-colouring........................................... 27 yards brick nogging fiat....................................... 41 yards rendering in Roman cernent............................... 29 yards paving bricks fiat bedded and jointed in mortar....... 7 yards paving bricks in cernent; two courses of bricks, and one course of plairi tiles (in swill-cisterns) .................... 63 yards stock paving on edge in sand............................. 226 yards pebble paving........................................... 94 feet, run one half round, 14 inches brick coping set in cernent ... 30 feet verge in cernent....................................... 30 feet deep of well-digging, and labour to steening.............. 15 feet ditto ditto (extra-depth)................ 1 chimney-pot and flanching, with tiles in cernent................ 3 stay irons to coins of coping................................... 6 window frames bedded and pointed................................ 16 door frames ditto...................................... Forming cattle-yard, with dish and current........................ Colouring the coins, arches, and coping stone colour.............. £ 570: 19: 11 875. Carpenter’s and Joiner's Work. a. m. 37 feet 1 inch cubic Dantzic fir in bond plates, &c.................... 943 feet 8 inches cubic ditto, framed in roofs, floors, and partitions... 5 feet cubic proper doorcase and window frames......................... 40 feet 6 inches cubic oak in plates, &c.........;..v.................. 20 feet 5 inches cubic ditto, framed................................... 80 feet 7 inches cubic, wrought, framed, and chamfered................. 33 feet 6 inches cubic, ditto, ditto, eut circular .................... 3 feet 11 inches cubic drip sill, wrought, framed, and beveled......... 3 feet 9 inches cubic wrought, framed, and beveled curb to pigsty ... 33 feet 1 inch cubic oak proper doorcase............................... 25 feet superficial three quarters yellow deal lining.................. 93 feet 4 inches superficial three quarters luffer-boarding..,......... 18 feet 5 inches superficial inch yellow deal wrought pump casing... 9 feet superficial inch ledged flap.................................... 46 feet 10 inches superficial inch oak proper ledged door.............. 7 squares 82 feet superficial inch weather boarding.................... 7 squares 79 feet superficial inch yellow deal floor rough, edges shot, and ploughed, and tongued............................................ 7 squares 79 feet superficial lj-inch yellow deal floor, wrought, ploughed, and tongued................................................ . 247 feet 9 inches superficial l^-inch proper ledged door............. 20 feet 3 inches superficial 1^-inch wrought oak shelves to the pigeon house................................................................ 9 feet 9 inches superficial 1^-inch oak pump cheeks.................... 23 feet 10 inches superficial 2-inch oak wrought sides to ladder ......440 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 37 feet 2 inches superficial 2-inch oak wrought and beveled............. 32 feet 3 inches superficial lJf-inch yellow deal ridge................. 76 feet superficial 2^-inch yellow deal wrought, framed, and braced folding gates, filled in with inch deal, wrought, ploughed, and tongued.............................................................. 96 feet superficial slab filling in..................................... 51 feet superficial rough partition and boarding with ledged door....... 8 squares 62 feet superficial pantile lathing............................ 3 squares 22 feet superficial partition for nogging fiat............. 2 squares 47 feet superficial partition to the front of the pigsties. 4 squares 7 feet superficial enclosure of posts, arris rails, and slabs ... 30 feet run throating in oak............................................ 433 feet 6 inches run oak eaves board................................... 14 feet 6 inches run fir beveled and moulded capping ................... 80 housings to luffer-boarding.......................................... 34 ditto to steps....................................................... 2 oak cantilevers eut.............................................. 1 step-ladder, made complété, to go into the loft over the granary.... 6 posts, prepared and fixed.............................................. 4 arris rails, ditto................................................. 5 cast-iron pig troughs, 6 feet long................................. 1 hole for the pump handle, in oak...................................... 1 cap to pump case...................................................... 1 barrel curb for the well........................................ 876. Ironmongery and Fixing. a. m. 10 square iron tenons................................................... 3 f-inch iron screw pins and nuts to the girders..................... 3 iron ties, and 3 irons to ditto.................................... 6 iron screw pins to the principal rafters........................... . 3 ditto to the king posts............................................... 3 iron screw bars and nuts to the step-ladder........................ 1 iron casement......................................................... 6 cast-iron beveled and moulded caps to the gate-posts............... 1 bar gâte fastening.................................................... 1 pair of strong hook and eye hinges for the granary door .............. 1 strong lock for ditto................................................. 1 pair strong hook and eye fastenings to the granary ladder............. 1 pair 16-inch cross garnet hinges...................................... 1 pair 18-inch ditto................... .......................... 17 pairs of hook and eye hinges to hay-store, cow-house, fowl- houses, &c.......................................................... 4 strong Norfolk latches............................................. 13 fine plate stock locks .............................................. 7 hasps and Staples.................................................. 5 pairs hook and eye hinges to pigsty doors.......................... 4 pairs strong hook and staple hinges, with nuts and screws.......... £ 383:19:5 877. Plumber's, Painter's, and Glazier's Work, a. m. 24 feet superficial lead lights and glass ........................... 3 cwt. of lead in flashings ......................................... 50 feet run of 2j-inch suction pipe.................................. 1 stout 4-inch lead pump barrel complété, with bucket, sucker, and iron handle, and cistern head..................................... 223 yards superficial painting four times in oils.................... 3 lights, in four oils, on both sides................................ £ 30 : 18 : 10 878. Stonemason's Work. a. m. 24 feet 8 inches cubic of Fortland stone.............................. 79 feet 8 inches superficial of sunk tooled work....................... 10 mortises for iron tenons run with lead ............................ £ 12: 6: 8FARM HOUSES AND FARMER1ES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 441 879. Summary of Estimâtes. Bricklayer..................................................... 570 : 19 : 11 Carpenter and joiner..................»........................ 383 : 19 : 5 Plumber, painter, and glazier.................................. 30 : 18 : 10 Mason.......................................................... 12: 6: 8 Total...........................................£ 998 : 4: 10 880. General Estimate. As the number of cubic feet in the buildings of this farmery is 73,383, it appears, from the actual cost, that 2>\d. per foot will give a near idea of the price of such buildings similarly eircumstanced. 881. Remarks. There is no great room for ingenuity of contrivance in a farmery of this description, on a small scale ; but the minutiæ of the construction, as given in the particular, will be found very useful to those connected with this départaient of build- ing. The appearance of the whole, as seen in the isometrical view, fig. 886, is neat, plain, and substantial ; the true characteristics of an English farm-yard. The practice of roofing such buildings with hoop chips is little known in Scotland, but is well deserving of imitation in that country ; and we should think it would be also found suitable for America and Australia. In some parts of the country the granary would hâve been supported by stone pillars, instead of oak posts; but it must be recollected that the necessarily increased diameter of the former, occasions a great loss of room in the cart- shed, since no cart can be introduced that will not pass between the pillars. Design III. — A Farm House and Farmery suitable for a Farm of Six Hundred Acres of Turnip Soil, executed at Halstone, in Dumfriesshire. 882. Accommodation. The ground plan of the house, and its kitchen court and offices, and of the farmery, and its courts and yards, is given in fig. 899 ; and the general effect of the whole is seen in the isometrical view, p. 443. In fig. 899 are shown, in the plan of the house, a drawing-room, a ; dining-room, b ; parlour, c ; bed-room, d ; store-room, e ; kitchen, /; two pantries, g g; kitchen scullery, with stair to servants’ bed-rooms over it, and the kitchen, h ; dairy scullery, i ; dairy, k ; ash-pit, l ; and coal-house, m. In the farmery are shown a steaming and boilihg house, n ; cow-house for eighteen cows, o ; hay-house, p ; two stables for six horses each, q q ; harness-room, r ; gateway from the hay-yard and the rick-yard, s ; cart-house, t ; barn, with a threshing-machine driven by water, u ; straw-house, v ; calf-house, w ; stable for a sick horse, or mare and foal, x ; potato-house, y ; eight cattle-hammels for feeding twenty head of cattle, zzz. A tumip- house, aa ; two cattle sheds and courts, bb ; hay and green wood house, cc ; piggeries, dd ; dung court, ee ; passage between the dung court and the buildings, ff ; kitchen court, gg ; garden, hh ; hay-yard, ii ; barn-yard, kk ; straw-yard, U ; grass field, mm ; and lawn and shrubbery in front of the house, nn. The letters ii to nn will also be found in the isometrical view, p. 443. It will be observed that in this Design there are regular foddering passages to the cattle and cow sheds, and to the hammels ; and that the hay and green food houses are judiciously placed adjoining them, for the convenience of having a supply of food at hand. In the stables the horses stand in separate stalls, and the cows are allowed a width of five feet each. lïg. 900 shows a plan of such parts of the buildings as hâve a second story, with the roofs of the other parts. In this plan, a and b are two best bed-rooms, with a dressing-closet, c, between them ; d is the chamber lobby, and staircase ; and e and / are two family bed-rooms ; g is a nursery or lumber room ; h h are two servant’s bed-rooms ; i is the open yard for ashes and rubbish, in which yard there is a privy ; k is the hay-house, or house in which food is stored for the cows ; 11 are the hay-lofts over the stables ; m is the corn-room, over the harness- room ; n is tne granary over the cart-house ; o, the barn ; p p pf the yards to the hammels ; q q, the yards to the cattle-sheds ; r r r r, the yards to the pigsties ; s, lobby for supplying food to the four fattening pigsties ; 11 are two sties for breeding pigs, with doors which open to the dung-yard, u ; v is the principal entrance to the farmery from the fields, and from the public road ; w is the covered entrance from the rick-yard ; x is an entrance from the straw-yard, in which straw is stacked to be given to cattle as wanted for food or litter ; y is the entrance from the kitchen court ; z is the kitchen-garden, and $*, the lawn. 883. Construction. The walls are of freestone found on the premises, squared, and regu- larly hewn at ail the angles and openings, with stone sills, jambs, and lintels. The roofs are povered with blue slates, and the whole of the court, passage, entrances, and kitchen court, is paved with granité. 884. Remarks. This Design was furnished us by Walter Newall, Esq., Architect, Dumfries, under whose superintendence it was erected on the extensive estate of the Duke of Buccleugh in that county. It is remarkably complété in point of accommoda-442 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE, 899 tioïi ; and, like ail the buildings erected on the duke*s property, is most substantially and durably executed. We observe that there is no poultry-house, and but a very small kitchen-garden ; which is characteristic of the Scotch farmers, who care little about the minor comforts. We could suggest some additions to the house, one of which no English- man, with a dining-room, drawing-room, and parlour, would be without, we mean a water-closet. We wonder, also, that to such a house and yard, there is neither a cliaise- house, nor a stable for saddle horses. Why not a green house ?FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STVLES. 413FARM HOÜSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 445 900 Design IV. — A Farm House and Farmer y, suitabïe for an extensive Turnip F armt executed at Gatestack, in Dumfriesshire. 885. Accommodation. In the ground plan of the house, fig. 901, there are a lobby, 1; two parlours, 2 and 3 ; two bed-rooms, 4 and 5 ; a store-room, 6 ; back lobby, 7 ; with a pantry, 8; kitchen, 9; with a small pantry adjoining; scullery, 10; ash pit, 11 ; wood and coal house, 12 ; open shed or cleaning room, 13 ; boiling-house, 14 ; dairy, 15 ; pig- houses, 16; feeding-house for çattle, 17 ; turnip or green food house, 18; cow-houses, 19 19; calf-houses, 20 20; hay-house, 21; potato-houses, 22 22; a stable for four horses, 23 ; a stable for eight horses, 24 ; cart-house, 25 ; barn, 26 ; straw-house, 27 ; cattle-sheds and courts, 28 ; and house for turnips, tares, or clover, 29. In one corner446 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. / Pt 10 0 30 40 60 80 100 Ft. of the dung-court, 30, is a pig-house, 31 ; the entrance from the rick-yard and the fields of the farm îs at 32 ; the rick-yard is at 33 ; the water-wheel for the threshing-machine is at 34 ; and the main entrance at 35. There is agarden at 36 ; and a lawn, with shrubs and ornaxnental trees, at 37. The three references 33, 36, and 37 are also introduced in the isometrical view, p. 444. Fig. 902 is the plan of the chamber floor of the house,FARM HOUSES AND l’ARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 447 and of the lofts and roofs of the farmery. 38 ancT39 are two best bed-rooms, with a dressing- closet between ; there are two other bed-rooms, 40 40, and a servants’ bed-room, 41 : 42 and 43 are the yards to the pigsties ; 44, the wool-loft ; 45, two hay-lofts ; 46, the granary ; 47, the upper part of the walls of the bam ; 48, the straw-house ; and 49 49 49 49, the yards to the cattle-sheds. The dung-court is indicated by 50 ; the kitchen- court by 51 ; the kitchen-garden by 52 ; and the pleasure-ground by 53. 886. Construction. The walls are of stone, and the roofs slated, with ridge stones of the free red sandstone of the district. Fig. 903 is a cross section of the cow-house, marked 19 in fig. 901 ; in which may be seen the feeding-passage, two feet and a half wide, a ; the partition of flag-stone, 6, which séparâtes this feeding-passage from the feeding-trough or manger, c ; the partitions between the stalls, formed by single flag- stones, d ; the level surface of the stall, e ; the gutter behind, /; and the passage, g. At h a vertical line is shown which indicates a round iron rod, half an inch in diameter, on which a ring runs, and to which' the cattle are fastened by halters or chains. Two stand together between each stall. Fig. 904 is a longitudinal section of a part of these448 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE, stalls, in winch the fastening rods, h, are more distinctly seen : i is the élévation of the manger ; k, the partition between the manger and the foddering-passage ; and l, the top of the side wall. The stalls for every two Ayrshire cows are five feet long from the manger to thé gutter, and five feet and a half wide from partition to partition, The manger is one foot and a half wide, and the gutter behind one foot two inches. Each séparation partition is a flag-stone four feet and a half long, three feet and a half broad, and six inches thick, let into the ground, to the depth of a foot. 887. Remarks. This Design, by Mr. Newall, which was also executed under his superintendence, on the Duke of Buccleugh’s estate, affords a very good specimen of a breeding and feeding farmery, where the produce is chiefly consumed in feeding cows for their milk to rear calves, but partly also in fattening cattle for the butcher. The wool-loft bears evidence that sheep form a part of the live stock ; and, from the number of stalls for horses, it may be concluded that about 500 acres are annualiy under the plough. Design V. — A Farm House and Farmery for a Farm of 150 Acres of Arable and Pos- ture Landf in JSuckinghamshire. 888. Accommodation. Fig. 905 shows the general appearance of the whole ; and in fig. 906 the ground plan is exhibited, containing a parlour, 1, with a cellar under it, into which the beer is let from the back kitchen by a pipe, and which is lighted by a window on the garden side : this parlour has a bed-room and attics over it. The front door and stairs are shown at 2 ; the front kitchen at 3, having a glass door into the garden, and containing the door to the cellar and pantry, with dry cupboards for groce- ries, &c., and bed-rooms and attics over ; 4 is a pantry under a lean-to, the floor of which is two feet under that of the kitchen ; the back kitchen, 5, has two coppers, a large oven, a well and pump, and a sink, with men’s bed-room over, and stairs to the same ; the dairy, 6, is three feet below the floor of the back kitchen. The pantry, oven, and dairy are ail under a lean-to roof. There is a wood and coal house, with a granary over, 7 ; the granary being entered by a swing step-ladder from the yard, as seen in theFARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 449 906 isometrical view ; 8 is a stable for six horses, with a hay-loft over ; 9 is a chaff or fodder bay at the end of the stable ; 10 is a hen-house fitted up with roosting-poles and laying- boxes three feet from the floor ; the poultry go out and in at a hatch-hole, three feet above the surface of the yard, by means of a short ladder fixed at a. The entrance to the potato-house, which is under 14, is at 11 ; 12 is a duck-house ; and 13 a goose or turkey house : both these houses, together with the hen-house, are under a lean-to roof ; and the potato-house is under the straw-house and barn, 14 and 27 ; 15 is a straw- house ; 16, store pigsties, the ends of the feeding-troughs shown at b b ; 17 are fattening pigsties ; 18, a meal-house, with five bins, c, for meal and dry food of different kinds, with a large hog-tub, d, for liquid food, and showing the end^s of three feeding-troughs ate ee; 19 is a cow-house, with calf-pens at one end, f, and a hay-bin or cupboard in one corner, g ; 20 is a cattle-shed, with a rack and manger ; 21 is a waggon and cart lodge, the entrances to which are outside of the yard ; 22 is the principal gâte of entrance, made of oak, nine feet wide with five bars, and a strong diagonal brace ; 23 is a circular open shed or hovel, for sheltering cattle while eating, with a rack under ; 24 is the rick- yard ; 25 is the gâte from the fields ; 26, small doors of the barns, with locks ; the large doors bolting in the inside in a manner which will be mentioned hereafter ; 27, wheat barn, consisting of a threshing-floor, h, and two bays, one at each side, i i ; 28 is the barley-barn, consisting of two bays on one side, A, and one bay on the other, Z, and a threshing-floor between, m ; 29 is the oat-barn, with a threshing-floor, n, a double bay for unthreshed corn on one side, o, and a single one on the other, p ; 30 is a water-trough for supplying the horses and cattle with drink, filled from the pump in the back kitchen by means of a spout through the wall; 31 is a light open fence or palisade; 32 is a fence of oak pales ; 33, a hedge ; 34, a lawn, with groups of shrubs and flowers ; 35, a kitchen-garden ; 36, a best privy ; 37, a privy for the female servants ; 38, wood-stack ; (these last three being represented some yards nearer the house than they really are, in order to bring them within the compass of the' plate) ; 39, orchard ; 40, privy for the men-servants ; and 41, hollow basin sloping on every side, to receive the waters of the yard and the dunghill. 889. Construction. The dwelling-house is built of brick, and is covered with plain tiles; ail the other buildings are of timber in frames filled in with studwork, and covered outside with weather-boarding ; their roofs are of plain tiles, with the exception450 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. of that of the cow-house, cart-house, and central hovel, which may be thatclied with straw, chips of wood, or spray. The walls of the cart-shed, 21, are frames filled in with studwork, into which branches of furze are thickly wattled, a species of covering which lasts several years, and is easily renewed. Where furze is not 907 abundant, common spray may be used. Fig. 907 is a section across the round hovel in the yard, to show its construction. Four posts are fixed in the ground, which at the height of ten feet support four horizontal pièces, each twelve feet long, and placed at right angles, as shown at 23, in fig. 906 ; on these, pôles of any sort are laid so as to form a circular flooring, on which faggots are built in such a manner as to form a cône, and these are slightly covered with straw or chips so as to throw off the rain. A round fodder-rack is formed on the ground, by placing four short posts in such positions as that they will form a circle with the four long ones, ‘ ' ' “ .................. 908 i% iü an inch and a half or two inches 909 as shown in the plan, fig. 908, in which q shows the long posts for supporting the roof ; r, the short ones for the frame of the rack ; s, the horizontal joists placed at right angles to one another; t, the rough pôles, placed diagonally to the joists ; and u u, the short pôles, or branches, laid on the others, to form a flooring for the faggots. Fig. 909 is a section of the wheat-barn, to show the framing of the principal timbers, six of which frames form the two ends, and the five intervening spaces called bays. The central bay is the threshing-floor, which is laid with joists or sleepers, across the potato-pit, or cellar, v, which, as before mentioned, is entered from one end of the barn, at 11, in fig. 906. The sleepers are generally of oak or beech, and they are covered with oak planking, thick, halved into one another along the edges, or tongued and grooved. Along the sides of the threshing-floor are what are called mowsteads, w ; which are generally frames of woodwork boarded, carried up to the height of two feet and à half or three feet, with a coping of wood, to separate the corn which is being threshed, from the unthreshed corn on one side, and the corn or straw on the other. Fig. 910 is a section across the porch of the barn, showing the doors removed, and the position of the barn-door lift. In this section, a is the sill of the door, six inches square, sunk level with the threshing-floor, and supported by two stout posts or wheel-pieces, b b ; c c are posts eight inches by six inches, framed to the sill at their lower end, and at the upper endto the top plate d, which issix inches square. The inner angle of the front of the posts is rebated one inch for the shutting of the doors, e e. These doors are made of inch deal, nailed to stout ledges or back boards, which lock into each other by means of their beveled ends, as shown by the dotted lines in e e. The doors are hung with strap hinges, on stout hooks driven into the posts ; and they shut against, and are fastened to, a movable bar, f which fits into mortises, one of which is a trap mortise, in the posts. To this bar the barn-cloth, g, is hung by loops of tape : it is let down when threshing is going forward, to prevent the corn, which Aies up in ail directions from the flail, from falling over the lift, h. This lift is made of inch deal ledged, two feet four inches high, and fits into grooves chiseled out of the spur pièces, i i, spiked to the sill and posts. The barn doors swing two feet above the level of the floor of the barn, in order that they may not be obstructed by the litter in the yard. The back door of a barn of this description has no porch, neither is it usually made so large as the front door : if it allows an empty cart or waggon to pass out, for which an opening eight feet wide and ten feet high will be sufficient, that is ail that is required ; for these doors are only used for taking out a cart after it has been unloaded in the barn ; it being dangerous to back a thill or tram horse on the threshing-floor, which, from its smooth- ness, is generally slippery. Such doors are also used for taking in corn by manual labour from the rick-yard. Fig. 911 is a view of the side of the barn-door porch, in which is shown the base of brick or stone work, k, with a coping of wood, l, forming a sill to the small lock-up door, m, which is shown at 26, in fig. 906. The thresher, on leaving his work at night, makes fast the large double doors by means of the movable bar f, and, passing out by the small door, locks it, and secures the whole. The wall or eaves plate of the barn, it is to be observed, is carried directly through the porch, for the greaterFARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 451 hog-troughs, t ; and in the background the end of the man’s privy, u. The hog-troughs are formed of two long boards, and two short ones, in the very simple manner exhibited in fig. 913. Fig. 914 is a section across the cow-house ; and fig. 915 is a longitudinal view of the cow-stall, in order to sliow the manner of fastening the cows to it. In these 913452 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. figures, a aa are upright pièces of oak three inches square, sunk in the ground at the lower end, and kept steady by braces, b, at their upper ends. At a foot from the ground, and also near the top, these posts hâve double ledges, or horizontal pièces, c c, nailed on behind, and in front, for the movable cheek-pieces to traverse in ; they being fixed with pivots at e e. These pièces lean back to admit the cow’s head at f and they are then moved to a perpendicular position, as shown at i, and kept in place by catch-pieces, g g, which hâve mortise holes which fall down on tenons on the ends of the cheek-pieces : these catch-pieces also move on pivots, which are fixed in the uprights. The calf-pens, h, at the further end of the cow-house, are enclosed by boards five feet high from the ground, with a door to each ; but the floor of the pen is raised one foot above the floor of the cow-house, and is formed of stout oak boards pierced with holes to allow the escape of urine : each pen has a door two feet wide. The drainage of the yard is to a hollow space between the pigsties and the central hovel ; this space being central to the piggeries, the stable, the cow-house, and the cattle-shed, which are the great sources of manure, and to the three barns, which are the great sources of litter. In this situation the dung- hill is at the farthest point from the house ; and, therefore, least likely to be offensive by its smells. There is an open gutter surrounding the interior of the yard, so as to receive the water from the eaves of the roofs, and conduct it out by the back gâte, there to irrigate a grass field. 890. Remarks. This Design was fumished us by Mr. Main, who informs us that it is very nearly a fac simile of the Warren Farm in the parish of Chalfont, Buckinghanishire. It does not exhibit the modem improvements of a threshing-machine, or a liquid manure tank ; but, considering it as a farm house and farmery of the old school, it is, perhaps, as complété a thing of the kind asjs any where to be met with. There is nothing super- fluous or extravagant, and yet nothing wanting, either for the business of the farm or the comfort of the farmer. As compared with the two spacious Scotch farmeries before given, we cannot help remarking the différence between the essential requisites in the appendages to an English and a Scotch farm house. Here, in a house for a farmer occupying only 150 acres, and that of poor flinty clay, we hâve every convenience for baking, brewing, and keeping ale and beer ; a large pantry, and a large dairy ; poultry- houses for three kinds of poultry ; and well contrived piggeries and calf-pens. Besides the lawn or flower-garden, and the kitchen-garden, there is an orchard; for apple puddings and damson pies are necessaries of life to the English farmer, though they are hardly ever seen on the table of a Scotch one, whose indulgence in this way lies in marmalades, jellies, and other sweetmeats. There are no less than three privies to this comparatively small establishment, while there is but one to each of the magnificent Scotch quadrangles, p. 442 and p. 446, the dwelling-house to one of which has three sitting-rooms. The propriety of the situation of the privies, in Mr. Main’s Design, is also worthy of notice : that of the workmen being placed in the most obscure corner of the yard, and that of the maid-servants being near the wood stack. In countries where the threshing-machine is in general use, the smallest of the barns would hâve sufficed ; and, in others where the importance of liquid manure was fully understood, there would probably hâve been a liquid manure tank under the dunghill, communicating by under- ground gutters with the stable, cow-house, and pigsties; and probably, also, the dunghill would hâve been covered with a roof: but these constitute the chief improvements which would probably be introduced, if this farmery were to be reconstructed at the présent day. Looking at it as a piece of Architecture, it will give no pleasure to the Architect, as an artist, because it does not display externally any thing of architectural style ; but that it has the beauty of fitness in an eminent degree, and that it is characteristic of an English farmery built of timber, we think no one will deny who has gone over the details. Design VI.—A Farm House and Farmery for a Farm of 600 Acres of Turnip Soit, in Ayrshire, under a Rotation of Five Years> and employed partly in breeding and partly in feeding Stock. 891* Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 917; and the ground plan in fig. 918. The ground plan of the house shows a common parlour, 1 ; best parlour or dining-room, 2 ; kitchen, 3 ; scullery, 4 ; pantry, 5 ; and dairy, 6. The chamber floor, fig. 916, contains two good bed-rooms, a, b ; two second-best bed-rooms, Ci d; a lumber-room, e; a maid-servant’s bed-room, f; and three closets,^ g g g- The farmery, fig. 918, exhibits a stable, 7, for eight horses in separate stalls, forty-eight feet by sixteen feet ; a hay-house, 8, eighteen feet by sixteen feet ; another stable, 9, for nine horses in separate stalls, fifty-four feet by sixteen feet ; a cart-house, 10, for seven carts, fifty-four feet by sixteen feet ; a tool-house, 11, eight feet by sixteen feet ; a cart-way, or place for backing a cart loaded withFARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 453 sixteen feet; a calf-house, 16, forty-nine feet by sixteen feet; another cow-house for eight cows, 17, thirty feet by sixteen feet; a house for a mare and foal, 18, seventeen feet by sixteen feet ; a potato-house, 19, twenty-five feet by sixteen feet; a boiler-house, 20, sixteen feet by sixteen feet; a poultry-house, 21, sixteen feet by ten feet; five cattle hammels, 22 to 26, two of them thirty-fonr feet by fifteen feet, with sheds and yards sixty-nine feet by thirty-four feet, and three of them with sheds thirty feet by fifteen feet, and yards sixty-nine feet by thirty feet ; these yards to the hammels hâve * each a fodder rack along the whole width of one side; a shelter shed, and yard for 3 c4>54f COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. young horses, 27, the former twenty feet by fifteen feet, and the latter twenty feet by seventeen feet ; and, finally, two ranges of pigsties, 28, each range containing three sties, six feet wide and twelve feet long, with a passage between, six feet wide. There is a paved way between the yards and the buildings, 29, whieh is eighteen feet wide. The rick-yard is placed to the north side of the farmery at 30, and the kitchen-garden to the south-west side at 31 ; the lawn is on the south front of the house, and the orchard, 32, is on the east side. 892. Construction. The walls are of rubblework, and the roofs are slated or tiled. The greatest width of any of the buildings, except the house, is sixteen feet within the walls ; and, the walls being eighteen inches thick, this gives nineteen feet for the tie beams of the rafters, supposing themto be placed on the wall plates ; but, as in buildings of this description, in the northern counties of the island, they are generally placed three feet higher, their length will be about fifteen feet. 893. Remarks. This Design has been sent us by Mr. Donaldson, land steward to the Marquess of Hastings, at Loudon Castle, Ayrshire, a scientific agriculturist, who studied the theory of his profession under the late Dr. Coventry, and its practice in Northumber- land. The following remarks accompanied the plans and élévations :—“ This plan may be altered to suit circumstances. If the stack-yard stand on the east or west side, the barn and cart-shed must be shifted to the wings ; but they should, if possible, be central. The granary is over the cart-shed, and has a communication with the barn by an inside stair. The stables hâve lofts to hold hay and straw ; and, having a communication by means of these lofts with the granary, corn, &c., may be discharged into the corn chests or bins in the stables, without any out-door carriage^ The grain in bags for the market is intended to be let down into the carts in the shed through a trapdoor in the floor, by means of a cord and pulley. The feeding-yards may be divided by a cross wall, if thought too large ; and shelter sheds may be erected on the sides, but not in front, as that would exclude the sun from the yard behind. Feeding cribs or racks may be erected in the shelter sheds, if thought necessary, to admit of the cattle eating under cover. In the calf-house each calf has its own apartment, with a slip or sliding board in the door, through which it receives the milk. The pigsties hâve a back door for discharging the jung made in them into the yards of the hammels ; and the floors of these pigsties are raîsed considerably above the level of the yards. They are designed on the plan of keeping swine for eating the offàl made on the farm ; but, if they are kept on a larger scale, the plan must be more extensive ; and perhaps the oval form, with a boiler in the centre, as recommended by the late Mr. Arthur Young, will be found the most convenient. The cattle yards and sheds, and the paved way, hâve an inclination to a point, where an iron grate receives the water, and conveys it to an arched conduit leading through the centre of the homestead or farmery ; which conduit discharges the water at some convenient place for irrigating grass land. Each of the open yards ought to be supplied with water from a pump, for the placing of which no particular directions can be given, as much dépends upon situation and circumstances. This dwelling-house and farmery are con- structed in a plain substantial manner, and nothing is done for show ; but décorations may be added according to the taste and ability of the proprietor.” The above plan we consider a most excellent one ; there is nothing that we should wish to add but a few conveniences and appendages to the house, which might be contrived in a small kitchen court between it and the farmery. Design VII. — A Farm House and Farmery for three Floughs, erected at Ingleston in Dumfriesshire. 894. Accommodation. The general appearance may be seen in the isometricai view, fig. 919, and the ground plan in fig. 920. The house contains a parlour, a; kitchen, b, with a closet under the stairs ; bed-room, c ; another bed-room, d ; scullery or back kitchen, e ; and dairy, /. The farmery contains a pigsty and yard, g, for store pigs ; two sties, h h, for fattening pigs ; a cattle shed and court, i ; a house for stirks, k ; stable for six horses, Z; cart-house, m, for four one-horse carts; barn, with a threshing- machine driven by water, n ; straw-house, o ; byre or cow-house, p; calf-house, q ; and dung yard, r. 895. Remarks. This Design, furnished us by our excellent contributor Mr. Newall, was erected under his superintendence, a few years ago, in Dumfriesshire, for what is considered in that agricultural county a small farm. The farmery is complété of its kind ; but the house wants pantries and closets ; and the pigsties are nearer to it than would be approved of in England. No poultry-house is shown ; but hens are probably kept over the calf-house. It is remarkable that such an establishment should be considered complété with only two small bed-rooms. On the whole, the horses and # cattle are much better provided for than the human beings. Extent without comfort is too frequently the characterîstic of modem Scotch farmeries.FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 455*p ? 4,56 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 921FARM HOU SES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 457 Design VIII. — A Farm House and F armer y for three Ploughs, erected at Alton in 2)um- friesshire. 896. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 921, and the ground plan in fig. 922. The ground plan of the house shows a parlour, a ; kitchen, b ; bed- room, c ; smaller bed-room, d ; lobby and stair to garrets, e ; scullery, /; and dairy, g. The farmery contains a house for store pigs, h ; two houses for fattening pigs, i ; stable for seven horses, k ; cart-house, l ; straw-house, m ; barn with threshing-machine, n ; cattle-shed with court, o ; another cattle-shed, also with court, p ; calf-house, q ; byre or cow-house for twenty cows, r ; spare stable, s ; dung-pit, t ; potato-house, u ; kitchen court, v ; and cleaning-shed, w. 897. Remarks. There is something like comfort in this dwelling-house, though a pantry is wanting, as well as certain conveniences in the kitchen court. In the small farm-houses, in Seotland, the dairy is commonly used as a pantry, to the injury of the milk and butter, as well as of the méat and bread. In making these remarks on the want of comfort and accommodation in Scotch farm-houses and farmeries, we hope it will not be for a moment imagined that we consider the fault in any degree owing to the Architect : the evil is much deeper seated, and belongs essentially to the State of civilisation. The Scotch farmers are not yet sufficiently free and independent to assert their rights to those comforts and enjoyments which belong to men with equal capital, intelligence, and responsibility, in almost every other couütry. Design IX. — A Farm House and Farmery for a small Farm for breeding Sheep and Cattle} erected at Holecleugh in Dumfriesshire. 898. Accommodation,. The general appearance is seen in fig. 923, and the ground plan in fig. 924. The latter shows, in the farm-house, a parlour, a ; kitchen, b ; bed-room, c ; scullery, d ; dairy, e ; cleaning-shed, f ; kitchen court, g ; potato-house, h ; green- meat house, i ; stable for four horses, k ; stable for two horses, 7; three pigsties, m; cattle-shed, n ; green-food house, o ; cart-house, p ; barn, with threshing-machine driven by water, q; cow-house for eight cows, r ; calf-house, s; cow-house for eight cows, t; and dung-pit, u. Fig. 925 shows a plan of the roofing of the farmery, and the four garret bed-rooms of the house. 899. Remarks. This is a compact and yet commodious farmery, and the house is not altogether without comfort, considering that there are a kitchen-court and a shed. In the cart-house, p, of this Design, and in the cart-house of preceding Designs, by the same most intelligent and experienced Architect, it will be observed that there is a space at one side, which, considering that the carts must be set back in a direct line with the openings between the piers, must be left empty. This space is purposely provided for harrows, ploughs, and other implements. It will be observed in this plan, as in most others, that there is generally a granary over the cart-shed ; and that the barn is two stories high. Some descriptions of implements, and also boards and other bulky articles, are generally kept under the roof of the cattle-sheds, being laid across thé tie-beams. These beams, or the beams of the cow-house, also form the roosting- place of the hens, where there is no poultry-house ; and the ducks or geese, when there are any, take shelter where they can. In Seotland, this description of stock is despised by the large farmer as an article of profit, and not prized as an article of table458 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. comfort. For this Design, and ail our others from Dumfriesshire, we are indébted to Mr. Newall : as they hâve 924 been, for the most part, erected on the property of one of the most wealthy men, and extensive land- owners in Britain, the Duke of Buccleugh, they may fairly be considered as specimens of the best érections of the kind in Scotland. As we exam- ined several of them, when in the west of Scotland in the summer of 1831, we can vouch for their sub- stantialness, and we hâve no fault to find with their arrangement. The accom- modation afforded, how- ever, is, we think, less complété than it might be ; there is no liquid manure tank, and no proper pro- vision made for making the most of the waste waters, and other matters suitable for manure, pro- duced in the dwelling- house. The dwelling- houses also want conve- niences both for cleanliness and decency. That the absence of ail these things, and of good gardens and orchards is entirely owing to the want of taste for them in the tenants, we had a decided proof in that part of the country; having stopped a day and night at the house of one of the Duke of Buccleugh’s tenants, who, being engaged in commercial pursuits, and having consequently mixed much with society, knew what comfort was. At this gentleman’s house we found not only a liquid manure tank, and a com- plété system of under- ground drainage to it, but every other rural comfort, and even luxury, both in the house, farmery, and gardens, that we could wish. The place we al- lude to is Woodhouselees, between Longtown and Langholme. That the Architect is not responsible for either the deficiencies in the farmeries, or in the dwelling-houses, is ren- dered certain by the villas which he has erected in various situations in the neighbour- hood of Dumfiies, containing every comfort, and modem refinement in convenience and arrangement, and at the same time displaying a high degree of architectural taste. Mr. Newall, indeed, has had and profited by every advantage that an architect can hâve, not only in Britain, but in France and Italy. This will be rendered obvious by some of his designs for villas, which will be given in the succeeding Book of this work.FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 459 Design X* A Farm House and Farmery for a Farm of two Ploughs, erected on the Grebten Estate in JDumfriesshir e. 900. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 926, and the ground plan in fig. 927. In the latter the dwelling-house exhibits a parlour, a ; three bed- rooms, b ; store-room, c ; kitchen, d ; scullery, e ; dairy, f ; coal-house, g ; wood-house, h ; potato-house, i, and kitchen court, k. The farmery shows a stable for a loose horse, or a mare and foal, l ; a four-stalled stable, m ; cart-house, n ; barn, o ; straw-house, p ;460 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE, oow-house for five cows, q ; calf-house, r ; cattle-shed, s ; cattle-court, t ; hammel for a loose cow, u ; plgsties for fattening pigs, v; sties for store pigs, w; dung-pit, x% garden, y ; road to the farmery, z ; and rick-yard, Fig. 928, is the front élévation, 928 by which it appears that the house is only one story high ; and fi g. 929 is the north- west élévation, in which, at a, may be seen the four vertical slits, two or three inches 929 a wide on the outside, splayed to one foot within, in the barn walls, for the admission of air and light : these slits are never above three inches wide on the external surface of the wall, but on the inside are spread out as much as a foot or eighteen inches, to pro- mote a free circulation. 901. Remarks. This is a compact Design, and the house, with its kitchen court, is more than usually commodious for one of the smallest size : as in most of the others, however, privies are wanting. Design XI.—A Farm House and Farmery, for four Ploughs, designed, and in part executed, in Dumfriesshire. 902. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 930 ; and the ground' plan in fig. 931. In the latter, the house exhibits an entrance-hall, a; lobby and stair- case, b ; dining-room, c ; drawing-room, d ; library and office, e ; store-room and pantry, f; kitchen, g ; scullery, h ; dairy, i, from which there is a véranda or covered way to the kitchen door ; coal-house, k ; kitchen court, l ; servants’ privy, m ; best privy, n ; ash-pit, o; steaming-house, p; feeding-house for cattle, q; loose stable, r ; pigsties, s ; stable for eight horses, t ; cart-house, u ; barn, v ; straw-house, w; horse-walk for threshing-machine, x ; cattle-sheds and courts y; cow-houses, z; potato-house, aa ; open courts, bb; rick-yard, cc; dung-court, dd; pleasure-ground, ee ; and kitchen-garden, ff. Fig. 932 is a plan of the second floor of the house, and of that part of the farmery which is carried up two stories high. In the house there appear four good bed-rooms, a ; a closet, b ; and three servants’ rooms, c. The farmery exhibits a hay-loffc over the stables, d ; a continuation of the barn, e ; a gra- nary over the straw-house, f ; and another granary over the cattle-shed, g. Fig. 933 is a front élévation of the house, with the south-east side of the farmery ; and fig. 934 is an élévation of the north-east side of the farmery and of thefarm house. 903. Remai ks. The house is commodious, and the covered way from the kitchen taFARM HOÜSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 46l462 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 933 the dairy, gives an idea that something is known about comfort, as the two privies do respecting cleanliness and decency. It is possible that one may walk about this farmery without being shocked on turning every corner ; but even in this respect it is not com- plété, as there should hâve been a third for the men-servants. It will be observed that the stable and cart-house, and the piggeries, and the three houses, p, q, r, are double buildings, use being made of both sides of the middle wall. This is aiways désirable when it is compatible with other arrangements, because not only a wall is saved, but guttering ; and both buildings are kept warmer in winter and cooler in summer. On comparing this farmery with the most improved mode of arranging farmeries in North- umberland, the cattle-sheds and courts appear to us too large ; it being found there that not only feeding-cattle, but even 'store beasts, aiways do better when three or four, or at most six, are together, than when a greater number are put into the same yard. Judging from the length of rack in the three cattle-sheds, y, one of them is calculated for two dozen, and the others for a dozen and a half each. There are no poultry-houses shown in the Design before us ; and we are surprised that the kitchen-garden is not sur- rounded by a wall, which it aiways is in Northumberland. Design XII.— The Villa Résidence and Farmery of Riddenwood, in the Parish of Kirk- mahoe, Dumfriesshire, in the Occupation of the Proprietor, James Kerr, Esq. 904. Accommodation, The general appearance is shown in fig. 935, and the ground plan in fig. 936. In the latter, the house contains an entrance-hall, a ; lobby, 5 ; par- lour, c ; dining-room, d ; drawing-room, e ; closet, f ; kitchen, g ; store-room, h •FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 463 m ; kitchen court, n; ash-pit, o; servants’ privy, p; best privy, q; pig-houses, r; steaming-house, s ; dung-pit, t ; cattle-shed and court, u ; cattle-house, v ; cow-house, w ; green-food house, x ; barn, y ; cart-house, z ; hay-house, a' ; stable for five horses, V ; stack-yard, c ; kitchen-garden, d! ; back entrance to the farm-yard, e' ; plantation, ff; lawn varied with groups of shrubs and flowers, tf ; and the approach-road to the house, II, Fig. 937 is a plan of the second floor of the house, and of such parts of the offices as are carried two stories high ; in which a a a a are four good bed-rooms ; b b b, three large closets ; c, the servants’ room ; d, turkey-house ; e, hen-house ; and f, granary. 905. Construction. The walls, like those of almost ail the buildings in Dumfriesshire, are of reddish sandstone, and the roofs of blue slate. Fig. 938 is an élévation of the south or entrance front ; fig. 939, an élévation of the east front ; fig. 940, an élévation of the north side of the house, and kitchen offices, from the farm-yard; fig. 941, a general élévation, from the west side. The racks and mangers of the stables in this Design are somewhat differently constructed from those in general use. Each stall is five feet wide, one corner of which to the extent of two feet is occupied by a manger two feet square, and one foot deep; and the remaining three feet by a deeper manger of the same width, which reaches to within one foot of the floor, and in which the clover,464* COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE, tares, potatoes, and other succnlent food given to horses, are placed. Above, at the usual height, and on the old plan, is placed a common hay-rack, projecting from the wall. Fig. 944 shows a plan of this corn and fodder manger, in which a is the corn-manger ; b, the fodder-manger ; and c, a rail across it, to prevent the horses from tossing out the fodder, chaff, &c. Fig. 943 is an élévation of the same manger, in which d is the corn- manger ; e, the fodder-manger ; /, the partition rail ; and g, the hay-rack. Fig. 942 is a section in which h is the corn-manger ; i, the fodder-manger ; k, the partition rail 5 and Z, the rack. 906. Remarks. This Design, by Mr. Newall, présents a handsome and commodious country résidence ; and one, judging from appearances, very suitable to what is called a gentleman farmer. It is a favourable circumstance for the effect of the house, that theFARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 465 ground on which it stands is somewhat above the level of that of the farraery. The pig- geries are very conveniently placed, with reference to the scullery and dairy ; but unies £ 1 940 a a □ □ mm D 0 they are kept very clean and sweet during summer, being so near the living-rooms, their smell will be offensive ; we may say the same of the dunghill, which we should hâve preferred in the situation of the cattle-shed, unless, indeed it be roofed over; a refinement, however, which we suppose is not yet introduced into Dumfriesshire. The foddering- 944 manger we consider a good.idea, and worthy of imitation ; indeed, we believe it is now frequently to be met with in the south of Scotland and the north of England. When the cheapest and best mode of feeding horses and cattle is better understood, ail the hay and straw given to them will be eut, by machinery, into short lengths ; then mixed with corn,, or with roots, or other succulent food, and water, and flavoured with sait ; and pro- bably,inthe caseof fattening cattle and sheep for the butcher, with the addition ofhighly aromatic herbs, to give a flavour to the méat. JWelilôtus officinàlis will one day be as important a plant to the British farmer as it now is to the farmer of Switzerland. 907. Spécification for Dumfriesshire Farmeries. The following detailed particulars of466 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. the mode of building farm houses and farmeries, such as we hâve given above, has been furnished us by Mr Newall : — Spécification of the Materials and Works required to build a Dwelling-house,, and a Steading of Farm Office Houses at agreeable to given Plans for 908. Higger and LeveUer. The whole of the surface mould is to be stripped from the site of the buildings, the dung and court yards, and to the extent of 2 feet beyond the respective outside walls of the buildings, and it is to be laid into the proposed garden. The site for the buildings is to be properly levelled, agreeably to the sections and plans ; and these levels are to be taken from the level of the principal floor of the dwelling-house, which is marked by a post fixed into the ground at the south corner of its site. The cellars under the parlour are to be sunk to the depth of at least 9 feet 6 inches below the level of the principal floor of the house. If it be found, after these levellings and excavations are made, that there are any soft parts in the ground along the lines of the foundations, trenches are to be eut through these parts for the footings of the walls, to a sufïicient depth to insure a proper foundation. Ail the earth, rubbish, &c., of these excavations and levellings, together with ail the rubbish that will accumulate during the building and finishing of the houses, are to be removed to such place or places as shall be fixed upon before entering into contract. 909. Hwetting-House.—Mason’s Work. Foundations. The foundations of the thick walls are to be laid with large suitable flat-bedded stones (stones level on the under surface), which are to be at least 6 inches thick, and so broad as to leave ofïsets on each side of the respective walls, as shown by the sections of the footings. 910. External Walls. The walls of the front and gables are to be built with coursed rubblework (courses of unequal hèight, but of hammer-dressed stones), neatly dressed, and closely jointed ; ail the other external walls are to be of good rubble building, neatly dressed ; and the inside thick ones to be likewise of good rubble building. Ail these walls are to be properly built in the heart (in the centre or middle of the walls) with good lime mortar ; and they are to hâve such a proportion of in-bonds (bond stones stretching across the wall) throughout the whole of them, that these shall not be more than 4 feet apart in any direction on either side of the walls : these in-bonds are not to be less than 18 inches in length, and 16 inches into the wall ; but they are not to be more than 9 inches in height. 911. Hewn Works. The whole of the window rybets (reveals), sills, and lintels; the entablatures over the Windows, and ail the other dressings round the front and gables ; the portico and doors, ingoings (jambs or sides), and stair of the front entrance-door ; the wall head cornice and gutter, with a 6-inch course under the cornice, are to be of neatly polished freestonework ; and ail the entablatures, cornices, and other dressings, are to be eut to the respective drawings. Ail the other door and window rybets, sills, and lintels ; the wall head tabling of the low buildings ; the chimney tops (or stacks), and the exter- nal corners, and base course, are to be of droved (a particular mode of hewing with a broad chisel, called a drove by masons, which leaves its marks, not unlike the squares on a chess-board, but smaller) freestonework. 912. Chimney-pieces, Hearth, 8çc. The chimney jambs and hearth are to be of fine polished freestonework, and those of the two parlours are to be eut to imitate marble ones, as shown by the drawings. The chimney flues are to be built oval, and neatly plastered. The hearths of the first (ground) floor are to be laid in mortar over a mass of dry whinstones (granité, or any local stone, not freestone), enclosed with rubble building. 913. Stair s. The stairs are to be of polished freestonework; and the fronts of the steps, &c., to hâve torus and fillet mouldings ; and the whole to be finished with polished stone skirting. 914. Stone Floor s. The floors of the entrance-lobby and passages are to be laid with fine polished pavement, at least 2 inches and a half thick. Those of the kitchen and scullery are to be laid with the hardest pavement that can be procured in the quarry ; and the flags are to be at least 3 inches and a quarter thick. Those of the dairy and cellars are to be laid with good droved pavement ; the flags to be 2 inches and three quarters thick. They are ail to be square-jointed at least 2 inches from the face, and set with lead and oil putty to a similar breadth. Preparatory to laying these floors, ail the earth, rubbish, &c., is to be cleared from the respective apartments, to the depth of at least 18 inches below the level of the floors; and these spaces are tobe filled with clean small whinstones to the depth of 12 inches, over the top of which a stratum of lime riddüngs (or any such mixture) is to be put, so compact that the sand (or mortar) in which the flags are laid will not pass through it. Ail these stone floors are to be finished round with polished stone skirting, at least 5 inches high. 915. Stone Tables. The dairy is to hâve polished stone tables (or shelves) round it, as shown by the plans, and they are to hâve polished stone skirting along the top of them, at least 6 inches high.FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 467 916. Catacombs, or Bins. The spirit cellar is to hâve two tiers of catacombs (bins) along the side of it, with divisions over the second tîer to form a third tier. These cata- combs are ail to be of plain droved work. 917. Partitions. The thin partition walls are to be constructed with hard-burnt bricks. 918. Dwarf Walls. Dwarf walls, 12 inches thick, are to be constructed to support the sleepers of the floors of the two parlours, bed-rooms, &c., on the ground (or first) floor. Stones of droved work, 8 inches thick, are to be built into the high walls, along the lines of the roofs of the low buildings that join the high ones, for the purpose of inserting lead aprons to cover the joinings of the slates, &c., with the high walls. Ail the rubble and brick buildings are to be built with strong well prepared lime mortar ; and ail the hewn works are to be set with lead and oil putty. 919. Carpenter's Work. Inside Lintels. The inside lintels of the door and window spaces are to be of British oak, free from sapwood : they are to be not less than 6 inches square, and to hâve at least 12 inches of bond (or wall-hold) on each end. 920. Roofs. The roofs are to be constructed as shown by the plans ; and the scantlings of the timber are to be of the sizes figured thereon ; the small couples (couples of the narrow houses) and half couples (hip and valley rafters) are to be placed at no greater distance from each other than 16 inches between their centres. The diagonal and alley beams are to be 9 inches by 2 inches. The slate laths are to be sawn ones, 1 inch and a half by five eighths of an inch. 921. Joists. The joists and sleepers of the principal part of the house are to be of Memel timber ; those of the chamber floor are to be 10 inches deep, and 2 inches thick ; and- they are not to be more than 14 inches apart; they are to hâve two tiers of bracing (strutts, nailed diagonally between the joists, to keep them firm) to the floor of each room, which bracing is to be 9 inches deep by 1 inch and a quarter thick. The sleepers are to be 5 inches deep, and 2 inches thick ; they are to be supported by the dwarf walls formerly specified, and they are not to be more than 14 inches apart. The joists over the kitchen, scullery, &c., are to be 9 inches by 2 inches, and placed 14 inches apart; they are to hâve two tiers of bracing, similar to those specified for the other floor. 922. Flooring. The flooring is to be at least 1 inch and an eighth thick when finished, and none of the boards are to exceed 6 inches in breadth ; they are ail to be feathered and grooved, and nailed through the feather edge, and the wood employed is to be perfectly sound and seasoned. 923. Partitions. Those partitions in the chamber floor that are to be constructed with timber, are to hâve the stiles 4 inches by 1 inch and a half, and placed at no greater distance from each other than 12 inches between their centres : they are to be properly braced. 924. Doorcases. The doorcases (or jambs) are to be constructed with timber 2 inches thick, but their breadth must be regulated by the thickness of the respective walls into which they are placed ; and their size is shown by the plans. 925. Stoothing (quartering). The whole of the insides of the external walls are to be properly stoothed (battened) ; the wall-straps (battens, or pièces of quartering on which to nail the laths) are to be 1 inch and a quarter thick, by seven eighths of an inch, and placed at no greater distance from each other than 12 inches between their centres; the wall docks (plugs of wood) are not to be more than 16 inches apart. N. B. If whinstones are to be employed in building the inside walls, and the insides of the external ones, bond timber must be used ; and large blocks of timber must be built into proper situations to receive the bell wires, &c. 926. Doors. The framings and mouldings, &c., of the doors are ail to correspond in size with their respective sections ; those of the first or ground floor are to be hung with 5-inch double-jointed hinges, and those of the chamber story are to be hung with 4^-inch double-jointed hinges. The locks of the principal rooms are to be 7-inch mortise ones, value each 10s. 6d. The entrance-door to haveone, value 15s. Ail the other doors are to hâve each a rim lock, value 6s. The spirit-cellar lock is to hâve a copper boit, and its value is to be 8s. Ail the press doors are to hâve suitable press locks, value each 3s. 6d. 927. Windows. The Windows, including the skylights, are to be good astragal (the bars with astragal mouldings) ones; the sash frames of those of the first floor are to be 2\ inches thick ; the frames of ail the others are to be 2 inches thick. They are ail to be glazed with second crown glass, and to be finished with three coats of lead and oil paint. They are ail to be double hung (each sash is to be hung) with axle pulleys, and best window line. The skylights to be hung on the upper parts, ends with pivot hinges, and each to hâve a hinged rack for holding them up or down. 928. Window Shutters. Ail the Windows are to hâve framed shutters ; the framings and mouldingssito correspond with their respective sections. Those in the principal rooms of the first floor are to hâve framed back-laps (parts of the shütter that fold behind the part seen) to correspond with the shutters. The shutters are to be hung with 3-inch hinges, and the back-laps with 1J inch back-lap hinges.468 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 929. Soffits, Ingoings, Scuncheon Linings, 8çc. Ail the Windows of the principal rooms of the first story, and those of the chamber story, are to hâve framed soffits and ingoings to correspond with the shutters. Those of the other parts of the house are to be plain. The scuncheons (the beveled parts, splays, or elbows, of the inside of a window opening, where the shutters are placed) of the two parlour Windows are to hâve framed linings to correspond with the shutters; ail the other Windows are to hâve plain linings, and those of the low buildings are to hâve plain soffits and ingoings. 930. Architraves, Facings, $*c. The doors and Windows of the two parlours are to be finished with double-faced architraves, and ail the other doors and Windows are to be finished round with moulded facings ; they and the architraves are to be made to corre- spond with their respective sections. The skylights are to be finished with suitable linings and facings. 931. Bases. The two parlours are to be finished with bases to correspond with their other finishing, the plinths of which are to be 6 inches and a half high. Ail the other apartments, passages, &c., that are floored with timber, are to hâve skirtings to correspond with the facings of the respective apartments, &c. Those of the first and chamber floors are to be 6 inches and half high ; and those of the kitchen buildings are to be 5 inches and a half high. The parlours are each to hâve a surbase to correspond with the base ; and the window architraves and facings, the bases and skirtings, and the surbases, are ail to hâve suitable grounds. Those of the Windows are to be dressed ; and those of the thin walls are to be built into them. 932. Jarnb Moulding. The chimney jambs, that are not made in imitation of marble ones, are to hâve jamb mouldings round them, and light entablatures over them. 933. Stair of Kitchen Buildings. The stair to the apartments over the kitchen, scullery, &c., is to be of timber ; the steps are to be 1 inch and an eighth thick ; it is to hâve a suitable plain rail. The stair to the chamber floor is to hâve a suitable hand- rail of wainscot, fixed upon plain iron balusters, three fourths of an inch square, which are to be batted (run with lead into holes chiseled out for their réception) into the steps, &c. 934. Press Shelving. Ail the presses are to hâve tiers of shelving ; and the store closet is to be fitted round with three tiers of shelving ; each tier to be 14 inches broad. 935. Slating. The roofs are to be covered with best second Lancashire ton slates (or others according to local situation), hung to the laths with Memel timber pins, and to be rendered (pointed inside) with good plaster. The slates are to hâve at least 3 inches of bond at the eaves ; but the bond may gradually diminish to 2 inches at the ridges. The ridges and piens (angles of the hips) are to be slated watertight before they are covered with the lead. The ridge and pien batten rods (ridge and hip rods) are to be 2 inches’ diameter, and they are to be covered with lead, 6 pounds to the square foot, which is to be at least 12 inches in breadth. The alleys are to be laid with lead, 7 pounds to the square foot, which is to be at least 14 inches in breadth. Ail round the chimney stalks (shafts), where they are intersected with the slates, coverings of lead, 12 inches broad, are to be inserted into the chimney heads, to cover the joinings, and these coverings are to be of lead, 6 pounds per square foot. Ail along the lines of the roofs that intersect the higher buildings, the joinings of the slates with the walls are to be covered with aprons (or flashings) of 6-pound lead at least 12 inches broad. The sky- lights are to be laid round with gutters of 6-pound lead, at least 12 inches broad. The aprons round the chimney stalks, and those that cover the joinings of the low roofs, are to be inserted into mortises or grooves, made in the stones as formerly specified ; and they are to be puttied into these mortises with lead and oil putty, mixed with fine sand, or dry pounded sandstone, well burnt (or roasted). This roasting is to destroy ail earthy matter, &c. 936. Plasterers’ Work. The ceilings of ail the apartments, passages, &c. of the first and chamber floors, and the walls of the entrance-lobby, passages, and staircase, are to be finished with good three-coat plaster. That of the ceilings to be on laths three sixteenths of an inch thick ; and each apartment to hâve a suitable cornice, finished agreeably to the sections. Ail the ceilings of the kitchen buildings, and of ail the other walls not specified above, are to be finished with fine two-coat plasterwork, to be properly straighted (made even or smooth with the edge of a board or float), &c. Behind ail the ingoings, soffits, bases, and skirtings, &c., the wall is to hâve one coat of plaster, without finishing. 937. Though a variety of the materials and works are described in the foregoing spécifications, yet it is not to be considered that the whole are specified, but it is to be distinctly understood that the whole are to be included in the estimate ; so that the house may be built and finished with materials and works of the quality and relative scantlings with those specified and figured on the plans, without any other charge than that in the estimate ; and the whole of the materials and works are to be done to the satisfaction of by the day of , under a penalty of £ .FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOÜS STYLES. 469 945 938. Office Houses. — Rubble Watts. The foundations of the thick walls are to be laid with large flat-bedded rubble-stones, and the whole of the walls are to be good rubble-work, properly built in the heart with good lime mortar ; and such a proportion of large bond stones to be used throughout the whole of them, that they shall not be more than four feet apart, in any direction, on either side of the walls. 939. Hewn Work, fyc. The door and window rybets, sills, and lintels are to be of droved freestonework ; they are ail to hâve canted corners (the sharp angle of the corner eut off). The scuncheons of the doors are to be splayed 4 inches wider insïde than at the rybet cheeks (see § 282, and fig. 262), and their inner corners are ail to be rounded. In-bond rybets with 12-inch heads are to be built at proper heights for fixing the crooks of the door hinges. The lintels are to be at least 12 inches square. The window sills are to be weathered (beveled so as to throw off the rain) at least 2 inches, exclusive of a sinking for the wood sills, as shown by the sections. Ail the external corners are to be of droved work. The wall-head tablings (copings beveled to throw off the rain) are to be of droved work 3 inches thick, and to project 5 inches beyond the line of the walls. The door scuncheons and lintels of the cart-house and loose cattle sheds are to be neatly draughted and scappled (stones are said to scappled or scabbled, when they are dressed with the pick end of the hammer ; they are called draughted and scappled when worked round the edges or joints with a chisel and hammer-dressed in the centre), and the corners canted with droved work. The pillars for the cattle are to be in one stone each, and to be finished in a similar manner with the scuncheons. The door scuncheons, sills, and lintels of the barn-ventilators, &c., are to be draughted and scappled. 940. Barge Stones over the States. Droved stones 4 inches thick, weathered on the upper side, are to be built into the walls of the high buildings, along the lines of the roofs of the low ones that intersect them ; these stones are to project at least 4 inches in front of the walls, to cover the ends of the slates, and to lie close upon them, fig. 945 ; and ragalets (grooves), 2 inches deep into the walls, are to be made under these stones, to receive the ends of the slates. In fig. 945, a is the wall, b the situation of the groove, in which the slate, c, is shown inserted ; d is the upper part of the wall ; e, the weathered stone inserted into it ; f, the rafter ; and g, the wall-plate. 941. Floors. The barn is to be floored with the hardest freestone pavement that can be procured in any particular quarry in the neighbourhood. The flags are to be square- jointed, and set with oil putty ; and they are to be laid on a préparation of whinstones, similar to that specified for the floors in the dwelling-house. There is to be a 6-inch skirting built into the walls at the level of the floor, so that the flooring may be jointed to it with putty. This is to prevent the operations of vermin. The floors of the pig-houses are to be laid with rough flags closely jointed ; and these floors are to hâve a current of at least 9 inches from. the back walls towards the doors. The stables, byres, and ail the other houses not specified above, are to be paved (pitched) with small whinstones set in sand, and ail the requisite sewers are to be made in the cattle-sheds, stables, &c. The byre is to hâve a freestone kerb along the sides of the grip (gutter), the stones of which are to be 16 inches deep and 4 inches and a half thick, and placed so that they will stand 6 inches above the bottom of the grip, ail as shown by the plans. 942. Partitions of Byre. The byre is to hâve stall partitions of freestone, each to be in one stone 4 feet 6 inches by 5 feet, which are to be sunk into the ground 1 foot, and on each side of these partitions there is to be an iron rod, with a sliding shackle (fig. 946 is a section across a stone partition, in which the iron rods at h h are the shackles) upon it, upon which the collar is fixed for binding the cow. The feeding-crib is fitted up with rough droved work, and the partition between it and the fotherum (foddering-passage) is to be of freestone flags set on end, and to stand at least 2 feet 6 inches high above the crib. Ail these are shown by the detailed plans and sections. 943. Cope of Court Walls, 8çc. The court walls of the pig-houses are to hâve a cope (coping) 6 inches thick, of draughted and scappled work ; but the joints are to be droved and jointed with oil putty. The cope is to be laid even with the walls on both sides. The walls of the kitchen-court, large court, dung-court, &c., are to be covered with a 3-inch cope of droved work jointed with putty. The cope is to be laid even with the walls, on the sides next the large court and cattle-sheds ; but it is to project 3 inches on the side next the kitchen court, 2 inches on the side next the dung-court, and 6 inches on the side next the garden, 946470 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 944. Stable Windows. The stable Windows are to be made ingoing ones (recessed from the inside), in order that corn-chests may be fitted into tbem. The upper sashes are to be astragal ones, glazed with third crown glass, and the under ones are to be sliding wooden frames, for ventilation, &c. The back wall ©f the barn is to be sunk suffi ciently deep for the wheel of the threshing-mill and the race (horse-course) from it. The hewn work is ail to be jointed with oil putty, and ail the rubble-work is to be built with good lime mortar. 945. Inside Lintels. The inside lintels of the door and window spaces are to be of British oak timber ; they are to be proportioned in size to the width of the respective spaces ; and they are ail to hâve 12 inches of bearing on each end (or bond). 946. Roofs. Ail the roofs are to be constructed, as shown by the plans, with trussed principals ; which are ail to bé of the dimensions figured on the respective sections. These principal couples (rafters) are to be placed at no greater distance from each other than 6 feet 6 inches between their centres. The purlins are to be 7 inches by 3 inches and a half, and placed no farther asunder than 3 feet 6 inches. The rafters are to be 2 inches andaquarter square, and placed no farther asunder than 16 inches between their centres.’ Ail the roofs are to hâve sawn laths 1 inch and a quarter by five eighths of an inch each. 947. Slating. The whole of the roofs of these office-houses are to be covered with second Lancashire slates (or as the case may be), hung with Memel timber pins ; and they are to be rendered with good plaster. They are to hâve 3 inches of bond at the eaves ; but the bond may gradually diminish to 2 inches at the ridges. The under eave- courses are to be laid full, and they are to be double-nailed at the shoulderswith 12-lb. nails. The ridges and piens are to be slated water-proof, before the pien and ridge-stones are laid over them. The gables are to be slated over, and the skew-stones (the coping- stones of the gables, called barge-stones in England) are to be laid over the slates, but to project 3 inches over the line of the walls, and to be pointed along the ends of the slates under them with Roman cernent. The eaves slates are to project 4 inches beyond the line of the tabling. The ridge and pien stones are to be of fine droved work ; they are to be made correctly to the angles of the respective roofs ; to be closely jointed with oil putty ; and, when perfectly dry, to be painted with three coats of oil paint, the same colour with the slates. 948. Joists. The joists of the granary floors are to be 12 inches by 2 inches and a quarter, and placed no farther asunder than 16 inches between their centres : they are to liave a tier of bracing along the centre of each floor, 11 inches by 11 inches. Those of the stable lofts are to be 8 inches by 2 inches, and placed no farther asunder than 18 inches between their centres. The flooring is ail to be 1 inch thick when finished, and none of the boards are to exceed 7 inches in breadth ; they are ail to be feathered and groôved. The granaries and haylofts are to be finished ail round with skirting, not less than 5 inches high ; the walls of the haylofts are to be plastered at least 9 inches above the skirting ; and the walls of the granary are to be plastered at least 2 feet above the skirting. 949. Doors. The whole of the doors of the office-houses are to be stout batten ones. The front boards are not to be less than seven eighths of an inch thick, and the battens are not to exceed 6 inches in breadth ; the back battens are to be 1 inch thick, those of the small door to be not less than 7 inches broad, and those of the large ones not less than 9 inches broad. These doors are ail to be hung with stout crooks and bands. The doors of the stables, barn, byres, granaries, calf-house, potato-house, and coal-house are each to hâve stock-locks, value 4s. each ; and the doors of the granaries and stables are to hâve likewise thumb latchets. Ail the other doors are to be secured with bolts, &c. Ail the hinges, &c., are to be proportioned in size to the size of the respective doors. 950. Stables. The stables are to be fitted up with stall partitions of 2-inch battens, fixed in oak posts 6 inches square, with canted corners ; and they are to be fixed under beams 6 inches square, which are to extend the whole length of each stable, under the joists of the hayloft. The feeding (or hay) cribs of the stables are to be constructed like mangers; but they are to be about 18 inches deep and 18 inches wide at the top ; and are to hâve two slanting iron bars rising from the front of them to the wall, at an angle of about 45°. The corn manger occupies about one third part of the width of the stall, and the feeding-crib the other two thirds (as shown by detailed drawings). The grà- nary windows are to be sliding-framed ones, or they may be made with shades similar to Venetian ones, proper for ventilation, &c. 951. Cattle-sheds. The cattle-sheds to be fitted up with feeding-cribs, the bottoms of which are to be raised 9 inches above the level of the floors ; they are to hâve 3 rails in front, fixed to the upright posts. The upper one is to be 4 inches by 3 inches, the middle one 3 inches by 1 inch and a half, and the under one 5 inches by 1 inch and a half. The bottom rails are to be 2 inches by 1 inch and a half, and placed no more than 1 inch and a half apart. The side next the fotherum is to be finished with 1-inchFARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 471 battens to the height of 2 feet 6 inches. Fotherums are not always introduced in cattle- sheds (sèe the sections, &c. ). 952. Feeding-houses. The feeding-houses are divided into stalls of 12 feet 6 inches each (either with stone or timber); and the hayracks are placed aloiig the tops of these partitions, nearly in the form of two sides of an équilatéral triangle, at the height of about 4 feet 6 inches from the floor. These racks extend from the feeding-cribs to the front of the covered part of the shed. The feeding-cribs are constructed similar to stable- mangers, but they are to be 18 inches wide and 10 inches deep, and are raised 9 to 12 inches above the level of the floor. The partition between the crib and the fotherum is to be of l^-inch battens. These cribs may be of wood, or they may be constructed of similar materials to those of the byres. The byre partitions may be of timber, where stone cannot be procured. 953. Gates. The gates of the court-yards, &c., are ail to be constructed as shown by the plans ; and they are to be hung with stout crooks and bands (hooks and strap hinges). The gates, and ail the outside doors, the stable and granary Windows, are to be finished with three coats of oil paint. Design XIII. — A Farm House and Farmery for 100 Acres of Land to be cultivatcd on the Norfolk System, with a Flour Mill driven by Wind, 954. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in tne isometrical view, p. 473. The ground plan, fig. 948, exhibits a dwelling-house, containing a parlour, 1 ; kitchen, 2 ; counting-house or keeping-room, 3 ; store-room, 4 ; pantry, 5 ; wash-house and brewhouse, 6 ; and dairy, 7. Over these are two large bed-rooms with fireplaces, and four other bed-rooms without fireplaces. The farmery contains a central building of two stories, in which, on the ground floor, are, a passage to the .mill, which serves also as a foddering-passage, 8 ; a place for turnips, 9 ; for calves, 10 ; for four cows, 11, over which there are a granary, and a retail shop for flour, lighted by glazed tiles (fig. 947) of cast iron (weight four pounds and a quarter, price, unglazed, 8c?., glazed, ls. 4c?. ) from the roof ; a house for six oxen, 12 ; for chaff, 13 ; the mill, 14; the barn, 15 ; the cart-house stable, with hayloft over, 16; lean cattle lodge or shed, 17; the harness-room, 18 ; piggeries, 19; cart lodge, 20; drive-way to the mill, 21; hackney stable, with hayloft over, 22; customers’ stable, 23 ; colt stable, 24 ; and gig-house, 25. There are two ample yards, 26 and 27, for the lean cattle and the colts ; and two also, 28 and 29, for the piggeries. 955* Remarks. This plan has been furnished us by William Thorold, Esq., Architect and Engineer, of Norwich, accompanied by the foliowing observations :—“ The capital required to carry on a mill must necessarily limit the size of the farm. We will, there- fore, take a farm of 100 acres of land, four fifths being arable, and the remainder in grass ; and we will suppose the mill competent to grind thirty quarters of corn per week, twenty of which would be manufactured into flour and sold, and the remaining ten used as grist for the reighbourhood ; the mill being supposed to be situated in a rural district. The mill should hâve a threshing-machine and hay-cutter attached to it ; the threshing- machine to be made capable of drawing, that is, of husking, trefoil, clover, and other small seeds. Pumps can also be added in situations where water is at a great depth, which will often occur in places proper for a windmill. A number of pigs may be kept, to eat up the offal of the mill ; and this will, of course, require buildings for their réception more extensive than the piggeries on a common farm, while the buildings for the other cattle are fewer in proportion. The mill is placed in the centre, for the sake of uni- formity and economy. It is necessary to hâve one side of it accessible to waggons, and also in case of repairs being done to the sails. The piggeries I hâve placed on the north side; knowing, from expérience, that they are intolérable in summer, if near the house. In constructing the mill, a horse walk should be added to it, in ordçr that the machinery of the mill may be occasionally worked with that power. There is stabling for four farm horses, and for two hackney or trade horses, besides a loose stable for customers’ horses : there is also a cow-house for four cows ; stalls for six grazing bullocks ; and a lodge for lean cattle. This will generally sufiice for milling and farming as it is carried on in Norfolk. The house contains a parlour and .kitchen, with a brewhouse and wash-house combined, on the ground floor ; and it has six sleeping-rooms in the upper story. It is kept low, in order that it may offer as little obstruction as possible to the wind. The fireplaces for the kitchen and for the office or keeping-room are contrived so that the chimneys may be conducted under the stairs, and form one stack with the other chimneys. The parlour window is to hâve French casements, opening in the middle. The mill will cost from £800 to ^1000, according to the quantity of machinery employed. The sails» 947472 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 948 as shown in the Design, are upon the principle generaUy adopted in Norfolk, called Cubitt’s Patent : they should never be horizontal, as such sails hâve only one fourth of the power of vertical ones. Norfolk is considered to be superior to any other county in England, as to windmills.” We consider this a remarkably well arranged Design, which will not surprise those of our readers who are aware of the expérience which Mr. Thorold has had as a farmer, as well as an Architect and Engineer. The entrance to the cattle- house, being near the dwelling-house, is convenient, on account of its supplying a covered passage to the mill-house and barn : and this passage is not merely a matter of conveni- ence as such, but it is essential to the cattle-house for conveying fodder from the straw- house at one end, and turnips from the turnip-store at the other to the oxen. It is always yratifying when a really useful object or arrangement can be rendered at the same time ornamental or agreeable. The back cart or waggon entrance to the mill is exceedingly well contrived, while it serves at the same time as the waggon court, which could not hâve been dispensed with in a farmery of this extent when combined with a mill. The Architecture of a building wontaining a windmill will be given in the next subsection.FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 473 XIII.474 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. XIV.FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYXES. 4sJ5 Design XIV.—A Farm House and Farmery for a Farm oftwo Plougks, in the County of Northwriberland. 956. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in the isometrical view» p. 474 ; and the ground plan in fig. 949. The latter shows, in thr dwelling-house, the parlour, a ; kitchen, b ; back- kitchen, c ; and dairy, d ; with two bed-rooms in the chamber floor, one over the kitchen, and the other over the parlour. The farmery contains a stable for four horses, e ; a hay- house, f ; two cattle-hovels, g ; a barn and straw-house, h ; foal-house, i ; calf-pens, k; cow-house for four cows, l ; cow-house for eight cows, m ; two fold-yards, n ; and stock- yard, o. 957. Construction. Fig. 950 shows a section across the house, in which appears the manner of roofing, and also that the floors are paved. Fig. 951 shows a section across the stable, in which is seen the manner of construct- ing the partitions between the stalls, p; and that the partition post, q, is let into a stone at the lower end, and at the upper end fixed to the tie-beam. The flooring of the stable is also shown per- fectly level, which is consistent with the most improved ideas on this subject. 958. jEstimate. The total expense of erecting this farm- house and farmery was £550 ; 10 5 0 yglwHHttl - i^ a sum which will appear remarkably low to a London Architect: but it must be recollected, that, in Northumberland, freestone is generally found for the trouble of476 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. working it, on the iarm ; and that the carnage of ail materialsis per- formed by the tenant 959. Remarks. The house has few conveniences, and there is no enclosed kitchen-garden shown : the stack-yard, however, is sur- rounded by à stone wall ; a com- mendable practice, if it were only for the air of neatness and finish which it gives to the whole. Design XV.— The Farm House and Offices at Cocklaw East Farm, on the Beaufroni Estate, Northumberland. 960. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in the isometrica! view, p. 474, and the ground plan in fig. 952. In this plan the farm house contains a kitchen, a » a parlour, b ; back-kitchen, c ; dairy, d ; coal-house, e ; and place for ashes, f. There is a garden, g, enclosed with a wall. The farmery exhibits a cart-shed, h ; foui* F= □ h f——»FARM HOUSES AND FARMER1ES XN VARIOUS STYLES. 477 961. Construction. Northumberland 953 being a county abounding in freestone, the walls are of that material, and the roofs of Baltic timber, covered with Westmoreland slates. Fig. 953 shows a cross section of the dwelling-house. A spécification, applicable to Northumbrian farms generally, will be given with a suc- ceeding Design. 962. Estimate. The contributor of this Design, John Green, Esq., Architect, Newcastle, having supplied us with the amount of the actual cost of the different buildings composing this Design, we hâve made out the following table, with a view oi Obtaining an approximation to the cost per cubic foot : — Contents of the foal-house, i, and stable and hay-house, h k Contents of two hovels, b b.............................. Contents of the barn, o, and straw-house, with a granary Contents of the farm-house, and kitchen offices, a, b, c, d, Cubic Feet. Per Foot. d. Estimated Cost. £ Actual Cost. £ 6,480 2 54 50 18,000 2 150 145 21,432 2 178 168 25,442 2 212 177 18,000 2 150 129 4,804 2 20 27 31,570 H 460 453 11,520 2} 132 130 d, 2d. per cubic foot is a fair sum for estimating farm buildings ; 3\d. for farm houses and their offices ; and 2|d. for cottages. 963. Remarks. The farm house in this Design is placed on one side of the farmery ; but that circumstance, we présumé, is owing to some local peculiarity in the surface ; since it must, when no obstacle is in the way, generally be désirable to hâve the house so placed as to command the whole of the farm-yard. In this instance there is not a single window of the living-rooms which looks in that direction. We observe that the fireplaces are ail made in the outside walls, which would be bad in a country where fuel is scarce and dear, but which is probably thought nothing of in Northumberland, where it is abundant and cheap. Design XVI. — A Farm House and Farmery for seven Ploughs, proposed to be executed in Northumberland. 964. Accommodation. The ground plan of the farmery is shown in fig. 956 ; and the ground plan of the farm house in fig. 954. The farmery contains a cart-shed, a; stable for eight horses, b ; hay-house, c ; hovels with yards, d, e, f; straw-house, g ; water- wheel and machinery for threshing- machine, and place for threshed corn, h h h; corn-barn for unthreshed corn, i ; tool-housé, k ; hovels with fold yards, U m, n ; foal-house, o ; calf-house, p ; cow-house, with stalls between every two cows, q ; stable for six horses, r ; hay bay in the stable, s ; turnip-houses, 11 ; roofed part of the pigsties, u u ; cribs for fodder in the fold yards, »»; kitchen court of the dwelling-house, w ; and stack-yard, x. Fig. 954 is the ground plan of the dwelling-house, in which may be seen a porch, a ; a sitting-room, b ; parlour, c ; dining-room, d; store-room, e; pantry, f; dairy, g; with a meat-safe indieated on one side at p ; kitchen, h ; back-kit- chen, i ; cleaning-shed, k ; privy, l ; place for ashes, m, and for coals, n. The surface drainage of the kitchen court, o, is to two iron traps, q q, as indieated478 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 956 by arrow-heads ; and the water thus collected passes under the privy into a drain, r, which also receives the water from the sink-stone, s. 965. Construction. The walls are of freestone ; the exterior angles, and ail the jambs of the doors and windows being worked, and the Hntels and sills of one piece. Fig. 955 is an élévation of the front of the house, in which a porch is shown, which is formed of stone pilasters. Fig. 957 is a cross section of the stable, showing the manger, a ; racks, b ; and the floor, perfectly level, c. Fig. 958 is a section across the division walls, d, and double cribs of the fold-yard ; by which it appears that the posts, e, into which are le.. the ends of the rails to which the spokes of the cribs are nailed, are of stone, and that the cribs are divided into short lengths by cross rails at top, let into the posts, e, and thé wall, d. Fig. 959 isa section across a single crib.FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES TN VARIOÜS STYLES. 4*7Q 957 159 A 966. General Estimâte. The actual expense of building this farmery, exclusive of the farm house, was ,£1200 ; and, as, it contains 168,560 cubic feet, the expense per foot is about 1 \d. The actual cost of the farm house, with the kitchen court and offices, amounted to the same sum ; and, as these contain 86,704 cubic feet, the average per foot is 3\d., or thereabouts. 967. Remarks. This Design, also by Mr. Green, is for a Northumbrian farm which pays a rent of from £1200 to £1400 a year ; the rent being partly paid in money, and partly in the value of the produce, chiefly corn, wool, and butchers’ méat. The circum- stance of the threshing-machine being drivèn by water is favourable for the tenant, as requiring fewer horses. The cribs for the cattle in the fold-ÿards seera remarkably well executed, the posts being of stone. These cribs are two feet vide, and into them the turnips are thrown at one period of the day, and the straw at another. The stables are, as usual, divided into single stalls, and they are lighted by glass Windows, which are always favourable for cleanliness. The house is spacious, and appears to contain most of the conveniences required. The connection of the dairy with the kitchen and back-kitchen is good ; but the idea of a safe for méat in the dairy cannot be considered as favourable (see § 730). The manner in which the draining of the surface water of the yard is indicated is highly commendable, and ought to be generally adopted. The first points which should be settled, in determining the heights of the ground floors of àny assemblage of buildings, are the levels of the underground and surface drainage. Design XVII.—A Farm House and Farmery for FourteenPloiighs, suited to the North- umbrian Husbandry. 968. Accommodation. Fig. 962 shows the general appearançe of the whole ; fig. 963 is the ground plan of the farmery ; and fig. 960 the ground plan of the dwelling-house. The ground plan of the farmery shows a gig-house, a ; harness-room, b ; a stable, c, with a loft over it, and a man’s sleeping-room over the gig-house and harness-room; a foal-house, d\ bull-house, e; two cow-houses, for sixteen cows, each pair separated by a partition,/ f ; five hovels with fold- yards, g ; calf-house for twelve calves, h; stable for a loose horse, i; straw-house, h ; barn, Z; steam-engine house, m ; boiler-house, n ; tool-house, o ; poultry-house, p ; outside stair to the barn, q ; cart-shed, r; cartwright’s shop, s ; blacksmith’s shop, t ; hay-yard, u ; stable for baiHff’s horse, v ; bailiff’s cottage, w ; turnip-houses, x ; pig-houses, y; kitchen-court of the farm house, z ; and rick-yard, §•. Fig. 960 is a ground plan of the dwelling- house, in which there are a lobby, a ; a dining-room, b ; drawing-room, c; parlour, d; office and library, e; passage, /; kitchen, g ; back-kitchen, h ; pantry, i ; dairy, k ; wash-house, l ; place for ashes, m ; for coals, n ; best privy, o ; and servants privy, p. Fig. 961 is a front élévation of the house. 969. Constructim. Native freestone, Baltic timber, and 'Westmoreland slate are, as usual, the principal materials ; and the details of construction are common to ail farmeries in Northumberland. We may remark, as not common, the practice of passing from one fold- 3 F 961 ' i i \m 7F o œFARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOÜS STYLES. 481 963482 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 964 c—? A 965 S yard to another, over the séparation wall, by ascending three steps on one side, and descending three on the other, as indicated by the section fig. 964. The fodder-cribs, fig. 965, hâve raised bottoms, grated, in order to let the dust and dirt from the turnips drop through. The hay, when there are cribs for the turnips, is given in racks, placed against the back wall of the hovels, as indicated in the plan, fig. 963. This practice seems a decided improvement. 970. Remarks. The threshing-machine here is driven by steam, which shows a great aavance on the practice of employing horses, and one particularly suitable to a coal country, where fuel must be so much cheaper than horse-food. It will be observed in the plan, that the boiler-house, the cart-shed, the cartwright’s shop, and the smithy are kept quite apart both from the fold-yards and the rick-yard ; which is highly proper, as it prevents ail risk from fire getting to straw, and ail waste of litter, none being required for this department of the farmery. Taken altogether, this farmery appears one of the most extensive and well-arranged things of the kind that we hâve seen, and does the highest crédit to its Architect, Mr. Green. One circumstance we cannot help remarking ; and that is, the commodiousness of the farm house, which contains twenty-eight Windows, and twenty-eight apartments; while the dwelling of the bailiff, or superintending hind, as he is called in Northumberland, consists of only one apartment, and one small window. The horses and cows, nay, even the swine, are incomparably better lodged, considering their scale in création, than the unfortunate occupant of such a cottage as is here shown : but the farmers of Northumberland, like those of Scotland, are under the dominion of an all-powerful aristocracy, and their servants are little better than serfs ; or, as it has been observed in the Mornihg Chronicle, the landlords are the slave-owners, the farmers the slave-drivers, and their servants the slaves. Design XVIII.-—A Farm House and Farmery for Ten Ploughs, Ten Cows, Twenty Young Cattle, and other Live Stock, adapted to the Husbandry of Northumberland. 971. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 966, and the ground plan in fig. 967. In the latter, the house contains a kitchen, a ; chning-room, b ; parlour, 966 f, separated from the dining-room by a large hall or lobby ; office, or place of business, d ; dairy, e ; covered passage, open in front, /; back-kitchen, and dairy-scullery, g ; privy for servants, h ; best privy, i ; kitchen court, k ; place for ashes, Z ; and walled kitchen- garden, m. The farmery contains in the barn a compartment for unthreshed corn, 1 ; another for threshed corn, 2 ; a space for machinery, 3 ; and a large straw-house, 4. At one end of the straw-house is a stair to a granary which extends over the straw-house and cattle- sheds 5 and 6. The cattle-sheds, or hammels, are of three kinds ; hammels for beeves upon turnips, 5 ; hammels for stirks, 38 ; and hammels for store cattle on straw, 6. Every hammel has its yard ; those for the cattle on straw, 39, being largest, becauseFARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VAR10US STYLES. 483 967 a number are put together ; and those for the beeves being smaUest, because they are understood to be fattening. The yârd for the stirks, 38, is also the yard for the stables. There are two hay-rooms, 7 7 ; and two stables for ten horses each, 8 8 ; a poultry-house, 9 ; pigsty, 10; calf-house, 11 ; foddering-bay for cow-house, 12 ; cow-house for ten cows, 13 ; yard to the cow-house, 14; vacant house, to be used as a slaughter-house, or for pickling wheat, or for various other purposes, with a dovecot over, 15; store pigsty, 16 ; house for a bull, 17 ; house for a stallion, 18 ; feeding-house for cows, 20 ; and yard for cow-house, 21. There are a boiling-house, which also serves as a wash-house for the family, 22 ; a coal or wood-house, 23 ; stable for a riding-horse, 24; an hospital, 25 ; a carpenter’s shop, 26 ; a tool-house, 27 ; cart-shed, 28 ; and six cottages for ploughmen, 29. Belonging to the cottages there are a place for such rubbish as Cannot be tumed into manure for the cottage gardens, 30 ; a privy for the women and children, 31 ; and a privy for the men and boys, 32. To complété the establishment, there are a blacksmith’s shop, 33 ; and a cow-house for the six cows of the cottagers, 34. Each cottage has a garden in the enclosure marked 35. To supply ail the animais with water, there are pumps at nnn, besides a pump in the kitchen court, and one at o, for the cottagers. There are a broad passage or roadway between those offices which are unconnected with working, feeding, or store animais, and the farm yard, 36 ; a yard for store turnips, 37 ; one for stirks, and for the stables, 38 ; two for cattle feeding on straw, 39 ; and an extensive rick- yard, 40. 972. Remarks. This Design has been sent us by one of the most extensive farmers in Northumberland, an enlightened and liberal-minded man, and a much valued con- tributor to our Encyclopœdia of Agriculture, Gardenefs Magazine, and Magazine of Natural History, accompanied by the following remarks :—“ This Design is sent to show you what we in Northumberland consider some of the essentials in the arrangement of a farm steading. It scarcely ever happens that a wliole homestead has to be built at once ; and the nature of the ground, or of the farm roads, frequently causes a variety of modi- fications in the different buildings here exhibited. In explaining what these essentials are, it may be necessary to state the reasons why the barn, in fi g. 967, is made thirty feet wide, instead of sixteen or eighteen feet, which is the usual width. This is done that there may be sufficient space for a stack of unthreshed corn, and also two bays for threshed corn, in order to supply work for the men and horses, in weather so bad, that ' corn would be injured in carrying it from the rick-yard to the barn ; and to contain a large quantity of threshed corn, when there may not be time, on account of out of doors work, to clean and measure it up, and raise it into the granary. The straw-house, 4, may484 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. also seem large ; but the advantage of having occasionally, or rather always, a store of dry straw is great ; and in a large straw-house the different kinds for the keeping or feeding of cattle may be kept separate without inconvenience. The hammels, as well as the other cattle-houses, it will be seen, are so situated as to be supplied with straw from the straw-house with the least possible labour ; they are also ail made to front the south ; as that aspect, in Northumberland, offers so much more warmth and comfort to the animais, as to render the food given much more effective in fattening them than it wôuld be in houses facing the north, or even the east or west. The cattle wing is placed on the west side of the quadrangle, near the dwelling-house, as being more convenient for the cows and calves ; and the stables are placed near the centre, with hay-houses, 7 7, at their farther end, to which access may be had through large folding doors in the straw- house. The hay, may, therefore, be carried to the feeding stock dry, and may be lodged under lock and key, and given into the charge of a fodderman ; under which circumstances, , it is considered much less liable to waste ; the expense of lofting the stables is also saved, and the stables are thus rendered more healthy for the horses. As a long range of buildings fronting the south might be exposed to a sweep of wind from the east or west, the stables are carried up close to the fodder-house, for the purpose of breaking such a current, and of rendering the folds more sheltered, particularly the middle one ; which, on this account, and from its being the most convenient for receiving the stable litter, is particularly eligible for the yearling cattle (stirks), which the Northumbrian farmers think are less liable to the quarter ill, when allowed to eat the refuse hay and litter. from the horses, of which they are very fond. The feeding cattle are now generally fed in sheds opening into a loose yard, three, five, and sometimes more, being placed together, with the exception, occasionally, of old cows, which are usually tied up ; for these there is a feeding-byre, 20, in the east wing, 'which, however, may also be converted into a feeding- hammel. Both a turnip-house, 19, and a turnip-yard, 37, are given ; the first is princi- pally useful during winter frosts, though excellent beeves may be fed with turnips which hâve been stored in the open yard, when they hâve been well covered with straw. The cart-shed, which more farmers consider necessary than can boast of having, is placed near the stables, and fronting the north ; that being considered the best aspect for preserving those implements. The tool-house is also near, and the remainder of this range to the west may be considered most conveniently situated. The dwelling-house is placed a little in advance of the west wing, and is as near the farm-yard as it well can be, without being subjected to its nuisances. The dairy is shown rather detached, because it is better at some distance from the heat of the kitchen ; and its window is to the north, as that is requisite for preserving the milk sweet during the hot weather of summer. The cottages are to the east of the south range ; and if built like Mr. Bardwell’s, § 477, fig. 423, with sleeping apartments above, they will be of sufficient size. They are better placed together than detached, as, by their vicinity to each other, a dishonest servant is prevented from pilfering, from the fear of being detected and exposed by his neighbours. Their cow-houses, and the blacksmith’s shop, are placed on the east, to complété the quadrangle, where also other conveniences may be added, if thought necessary. The wash-house, 22, at the west en/i, is intended either to boil horse or cow food ; or where many harvesters (reapers) are employed and fed, it may be used as a cooking-house.” We value this plan highly, knowing the competency of its author. We are gratified to observe that the cottages for the labourers are proposed to be formed, like Mr. Bardwell’s, with one large room and two closets on the ground floor, and two bed-rooms over. The worst point about the Northumbrian farmeries, as well as those of Scotland, is the boothies, or little booths, for the single men, and the houses of one room for the married servants. Design XIX. — A Farmer y for Five Ploughs, with Cows, Cattle, and other Stock in Proportion, suitable for the Northumbrian Husbandry. 973. Accommodation. No farm house is here shown, but merely the offices of the farmery ; the general appearance of which is exhibited in fig. 968, and the ground plan in fig. 969. The latter contains the barn bay for unthreshed corn, y; the bay for threshed corn, z ; the machinery, c ; and the straw-house, d : the stable, e, has separate stalls for ten horses ; and connected with it is a hay-house, f There are a tool-house, g ; straw- yards, and hammels, h, i, k,l; calf-house, m ; stable for a loose horse, n ; cow-houses, o, p ; hackney stable, q ; and four feeding-hammels, with yards, r, s. There are a vacant house for an hospital, and for various other purposes, t ; a cart-shed, u ; turnip-house, v ; a common yard, w ; and rick-yard, æ, There are pumps for supplying water, at a' a! ; and upright racks along the divisions between the fold-yards, at V b[, &c. 974. Remarks. On this Design, which has been sent us by the same experienced agriculturist as the preceding one, its author thus remarks : — « No dwelling-house or cottages are attached, nor a blacksmith’s nor carpenter’s shop ; because these may be addedFARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 485 where deemed most convenient. Many of the observations made on the preceding Design will apply also to this one : the cart-shed, however, fronts the east, which is the next désirable aspect to the north.” Design XX. — A Farm House and Farmery for Three Ploughs, adapted to the North- umbrian System of Culture. 975. Accommodation. Fig. 970 shows the general appearance ; and fig. 971 the ground plan. In the latter the dwelling-house shows an entrance-lobby and staircase, a486 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 971 a parlour, b ; kitchen, c ; dairy, d ; drying-shed, e ; back-kitchen and dairy-scullery, /; servants’ privy, g; best privy, h ; place for ashes, i; pigsty, k; poultry-house, l; and kitchen yard, m. The offices show a stable for six cart-horses, n ; hackney-stable, o ; cow- house, p ; calf-house, q ; hammels and yards, r ; house for a loose horse or bull, s ; bay of the barn for unthreshed corn, t ; threshed corn and machinery, u ; straw-house, v ; situation in which cattle-sheds may be extended, w, with yards, x. A pump, placed at y, will supply the whole of the farm-yard, and the kitchen court may hâve one in any con- venient angle. The rick-yard is at z. 976. Remarks. This Design, by the same contributor, is for what is considered in Northumberland a small farm. <£ It is chiefly intended for keeping cattle, and may be extended towards the east, as shown by the dotted fines, w, æ. The additional hammels, w, may bé covered by corn stacks, as roofs, and especially with beans, a very general practice in Northumberland. There is a dwelfing, but no buildings are shown, for ser- vants or workmen. The cattle-sheds are ail lofited, such lofts forming better granaries for keeping corn than those over close cattle-houses or stables ; because the corn is not injured by the breath of cattle confined below. The whole range of building on the north side of this yard is shown two stories high, for the sake of sheltering the fold-yards. The stables in this Design, and in the two preceding ones, ought to be between sixteen and eighteen feet wide ; and, if a recess with a small window in it were made behind each pair of horses, a convenient place would be formed there for keeping harness above, and for placing a corn or chaff bin below. The fight and the ventilation which would be afforded by the window would admit of keeping the stable much more sweet and clean than is usual ; for it is certain, as White observes, that ‘ there is nothing like fight for exposing a négligent servant.’ ” Design XXI.— The Farm House and Offices for a Farm of Six Ploughs, called HaUington New Houses, on the Beaufront Estate, in Northumberland. 977. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 972, and the ground plan in fig. 973. The latter shows the farm house, containing a kitchen, a ; parlour, b ; 972FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 487 973 back-kitchen, c, with four bed-rooms and a closet over. There are also a dairy, d ; coal- house and shed, e ; ash-house and privy,/; and garden, surrounded by a wall, g. The farmery contains a stable for nine horses, h ; a hay-house, i ; three hovels with their fold- yards, k ; a straw-house, with granary over, l ; a barn, m ; stack-yard, n ; stable for four horses, o ; foal-house, p ; cow-houses, q ; calf-house, r ; piggeries, s ; cart-shed, t ; and two cottages, u u. 978. Construction. The walls are of the freestone found upon the estate ; the timber is of Baltic fir, and the covering of the roofs of Westmoreland slate. There is nothing pe- culiar or spécifie in the fitting up of the buildings composing the farmery ; and the interior of the dwelling-house is finished in the usual manner, as appears by the section, fig. 974. As a specimen of the manner in which the particular, or spécification, of the work to be done in building a farm house and offices in Northumberland is made out, we are enabled, through the kindness of Mr. Green, to subjoin the following form, being that actually made for rebuilding this farm :— 979. Spécification and Description of the several works to new farm buildings interxded to be erected at Hallington New Houses, on the estate of J. Errington, Esq., of Beau- front, in the county of Northumberland, according to the plans, élévations, and sections hereunto annexed. 980. The Contractors shall, at their own cost and charge, provide ail and every kind of material ; labour, including the digging and quarrying stones ; workmanship ; tools ; travelling, lodging, and every other expense attendant on the works, except cartage, which is to be supplied by the tenant. Ail the materials to be of good quality of their severaj kinds ; and the mortar for building the walls to be composed of good well-burnt lime, mixed with clean sand ; using not less than one cart-load of lime to three cart-loads of sand, and having them well mixed and beaten together with water. The stones to be got from a quarry which is to be opened on the farm ; the contractor to find labour for opening and laying bare the stone; but the tenant to supply what cartage may be neces* 3 G488 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. sary. The timbers for ail the carpenter’s work; viz., roofing, lintels, bond timber, stoothings (studwork, or quartering ; that is, wooden framework for lath and plaster par- titions), ragglings (ceiling joists), joistings, external door-frames, posts and rails for stalls in stable, cow-byre, and calf-pens, to be ail sawn out of Memel, Dantzic, or red pine timber. The deals for the external doors, Windows, gates, stall partitions, mangers, and hay-racks, and for the steps and risers to stairs, to be ail of red wood from the Baltic. Ail the floors of the house and granary to be laid with white-wood battens from Christiania. Ail the other inside joiner’s workto be executed with deals, &c., eut out of Quebec yellow pine. The whole to be free from sap, shakes, loose knots, and every other defect. The materials of the présent old buildings to be taken for the use of the respective con- tractors ; and such of them as shall be deemed sound and good by the inspector, such as stones and timber, to be used in the new offices. The old buildings, however, are to be taken down only in such order of time as they can be spared by the tenant, so as he may not be put to unnecessary inconvenience thereby. 981. Dwelling-House. — Mason's Work. To open out, and lay bare the quarry where pointed out ; and to get from it ail the stones necessary for the mason-work ; to dig proper trenches for ail the walls, of the different thicknesses, and to the depth required for a good foundation* and also for sleeper walls to the parlour floor. To build stone footings to ail the walls, from good foundations, of the different thicknesses described on the drawing ; the first footing to be 3 feet, and the second ditto 2 feet and a half. To carry up ail the external walls 2 feet thick, and the internai walls, and walls of coal-house, privy, &c., 20 inches thick, to the heights required, as shown by the élévation and section. The front of the house to be built with good blocking courses of hewn stone (“ good blocking courses” does not mean, in Northumberland, hewri work, but only stones dressed with the pick end of the iiammer, and laid in regular courses, which courses are generally of such a thickness, as that two of them range with one course of coins, as in fig. 975). The jambs of the doors and Windows to be carried up in in and out tie (in and out tie, or in-bands and out-bands, are analogous to headers and stretchers in brick- work; and, in the case of Windows and other openings, will be understood by fig. 976, 975 976 977 978 in which a is the in-tie, in-band, or heading stone ; and 5, the out-tie, out-band, or stretching stone ; and c, the pulley style of the Windows ; the external élévation of in and out tie may be seen in fig. 977) ; checked (rebated) to receive frames ; the inside of the jambs to be splayed ; to hâve wooden bricks built in for fastenings of the beads, and recesses left for window seats. The gables of the house and back side to be built with good common walling; the whole of the walls to hâve a bond stone (binding stone) laid through the full thickness of the wall every superficial yard, and to be properly pointed outside. Windows and doors to hâve stone heads and sills, chiseled and set. The sills to hâve proper drips, and to project 2 inches from the face of the wall. The coins (corners) for ail the walls to be chiseled, and to be from 12 to 14 inches deep, 20 inches long, and 10 inches in the bed. Two courses of blocking in the front wall to range fair with one of coins. The chimneys to be carried up with gables, as shown in the drawing. The vents (flues) to be well pargeted inside, with hair and lime ; and the tops above the roof to be built with hewn stone, well jointed ; each joint to hâve a wrought-iron cramp, three eighths of an inch square, and 5 inches long, run with lead. Stone water-tables to be laid up the gables on each side, and to be wrought with saddle top, chiseled and set ; the first stone to be fixed with an iron stud, run with lead, into corbel coins (summer stones, as shown in fig. 977), also a stone ridge, wrought fair to a mould, well jointed and laid straight on the roof. To pave the two kitchens, dairy, pantry, passages, and closet under the stairs with flag-stones, 3 inches and a half thick, from Erring Craig : the whole to be dressed, jointed, and well bedded in sand. The front and back doors to hâve stone steps and thresholds, chiseled and set. The fireplaces in the front kitchen and back ditto to hâve stone jambs and mantels chiseled and set. The mantels not to be less than 15 inches deep, and the jambs the breadth required. Each firëplace to hâve a furnaeë pot (boiler) and oven (the front kitchen pot to contain 12 gallons of water ; the oven to be 20 inches in diameter) ; and standard grates, (kitchen grates supporting themselves by feet in front,) 20 inches wide, set with hewn stone fronts, coved behind for the pot mouth (boiler mouth, as in fig. 978 ; in which d is the pot or boiler ; c, the coving ; f, the jamb ; and g,FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 489 thebottom of the standard grates) ; the back-kitchen fireplace to hâve a standard grate, 20 inches wide, and the pot to contain 16 gallons of water. The whole to be properly set with cast-iron dampers and lire bricks ; to hâve end plates and a hook fixed for the top bar to fall down. The fireplaces in the bed-rooms and parlour to hâve polished stone jambs, mantels, and fire slabs, and side slips where required; each to hâve a sham stove of the value of 15s. each, the parlour fireplace to hâve métal cove plates (métal side pièces, coved to the jambs above the stoves, as in fi g. 979, in which h h are the cove plates), and the whole to be properly set. To pebble-pave the yard to the house, coal-house, ash-house and shed ; the privy to be flag-paved. The front and back doors to hâve flags laid in the front of the steps, 4 feet by 4 feet. To build the garden wall, as shown in the plan, with common walling, 20 inches thick, and 6 feet high, with coins at the angles, and to hâve the coins of the gâte openings scappled (broached ashlar dressed roughly with the pick end of the hammer). 982. Plasterer's Work. To plaster ail the walls of the house with two-coated plaster ; and also ail the jambs of doors and Windows. The soffits of the same to be lath-plastered where required. The ceilings of ail the rooms, passages, and of the staircase with stooth- ing partitions, to hâve two-coated lath-plaster ; also the partitions forming closets to hâve the same. The privy to hâve two coats of wall-plastering, and the ceiling to hâve two coats of lath-plaster. The lime for the whole of the above to,be well prepared, and mixed with a sufficient quantity of long beast’s hair ; the whole to be well smoothed off, and left free from blushes (blisters) and every other defect, when finished. The mason to eut ail the holes necessary for the carpenter’s and joiner’s work, and for the smith’s work, &c. ; also to provide lead for running in ditto. Grooves to be eut, when required, for the slating ; and the whole to be done to the satisfaction of Mr. J. Green, Architect, or whom he may appoint to inspect the same. 983. Carpenter and Joiner’s Work. To provide and eut ail the necessary wooden bricks ; lintels for door and window openings, and wall plates for joisting, of such scantling as will be hereafter specified. The joisting for the chamber floor to be laid level at top, and fair underside for the ceiling, and not to exceed 16 inches apart, middle and middle (from centre to centre). The joists to hâve 12 inches hold on the wall at each end, and to be laid on wall plates ; to be trimmed for the chimneys and staircase, as may be re- quired ; and to be of such scantling as will be hereafter specified. The joisting for the parlour floor to be laid on sleeper walls, not to exceed 18 inches apart, middle and middle. The fire hearths to be boxed with 1 inch and a quarter deal. The roof to be framed, as shown in the section, with four pair of principals (principal rafters); the common rafters to be laid so as not to exceed 18 inches apart, middle and middle, a course of five-eighths inch deal sarking (boarding), 9 inches broad, to be laid along the eaves and the ridge, on each side of the roof and chimney necks (shafts) ; also five-eighths inch deal sarking laid up the gables, 2 feet wide on each side, to meet the slate laths in the middle of the second spar from the gable. The beams to be laid on raising plates, (wall plates) with a proper bearing on the same. The ceiling joists to be fixed to the underside of the tie beams, and not to exceed 16 inches apart, middle and middle. A trap-door to be made and fixed in the ceiling where directed, to give access to the roof. Stoothing partitions to form rooms, pantry, closets, &c., to be fixed as shown on the drawing; the stoothings (quartering) not to exceed 16 inches apart, middle and middle, the scantlings to be hereafter specified. Partition door-frames to be beaded, rabbeted, and fixed with stoothings, where shown in the drawing. The closet door-frames to be beaded, and fixed with stoothings to form closets, as shown in the drawing. The chamber floors and parlour ditto to be laid with inch-and-quarter white-wood battens ; dressed and jointed, and well nailed to joists ; the battens to be dressed and jointed immediately after the contract is made, and horsed (set up on end in the open air to dry, against a horizontal spar or horse, the end of which is shown at i, in fig. 984), so as to be properly seasoned before laying down. The coal-house, shed, and privy, to be covered in with a pitched roof (a roof raised in the middle, and not at one side only, as in lean-to roofs), as shown in the drawing ; scantlings hereafter specified. — Scant- lings. Chamber flooring joists, 9 inches by 2 inches and a half, 16 inches apart, middle and middle; sleeper joists for parlour, 6 inches and a half by 2 inches and a half; 18 inches apart, middle and middle ; principal rafters, 9 inches by 3 inches ; tie-beams, 8 inches by 3 inches and a half; king-posts, 11 inches by 3 inches and a half; ridge- pieces, 7 inches by 1 inch and a half; ribs, 5 inches by 3 inches and a half; strutts, 5 inches by 3 inches; common rafters, 3 inches by 2 inches and a half; ragglings, 3 inches and a half by 2 inches ; stoothings, 3 inches by 2 inches and a half; wall plates under joists, 4 inches and a half by 1 inch and a half; raising plates under tie-beams, 6 inches and a half by 2 inches and a quarter ; lintels for doors and Windows, 4 inches 980 979490 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. thiçk, by the breadth required ; wall plate at foot of spars, 9 inches by 1 inch and a quarter ; partition door-frames, 4 inches and a half by 3 inches and a quarter ; closet door-frames, 3 inches and a quarter by 3 inches ; external door-frames to house, 4 inches and three quarters by 3 inches and a half ; principal rafters for shed and coal-house roofing, 6 inches and a half by 2 inches and a half ; common rafters, 2 inches and a half by 2 inches and a quarter ; ribs, 4 inches and a half by 3 inches and a quarter ; wall plates, 6 inches and a half by 1 inch and a quarter ; ridge pièces, 6 inches by 1 inch and a half; pan plate, wall plate, and lintel, 3 inches and a half thick. — Windows. Ail the Windows for the house to hâve boxed sash frames of red-wood deal. The frames to hâve 1-inch pulley stiles (hollow stiles, containing the pulleys, Unes, and weights, for balancing the sashes), outside Unings of three-quarters-inch deal; and beaded inside linings of half-inch deal, with the sash sill double sunk (see fig. 981), 3 inches and a half thick by the breadth required. The heads to be of 2 inch deal, boxed out the breadth of the side frames ; three-eighths- inch parting (separating) beads grooved into pulley stiles; inside beads, three quarters of an inch and seven eighths of an inch broad; the sashes to be 1 inch and three quarters, stuck (worked) with astragal and hollow ; sash bar, five eighths of an inch thick ; the stile of sashes to be 1 inch and three quarters broad. The whole to be single hung with cast-iron weights and proper sash line ; and to hâve cast-iron framed pulleys ; each window to hâve a brass sash fastener fixed, of the value of 1s. 9d. The low room (ground floor) Windows to hâve inside shutters framed of inch-and-quarter deal, in two panels, planted (inlaid) moulding, plain back flaps of three-quarters-inch dçal, clamped at the ends; shutters to be hung with two inches and a half métal butt hinges ; and the back flaps with 1 inch and a half wrought-iron ditto, and screws. Each shutter to hâve a plain brass knob, and a window shutter bar, 2 feet and a half long, fixed to each window. Ail the Windows to hâve inch-and-quarter deal bottoms, with plain backs and elbows (casings round the window seats) of 1-inch deal beaded; the upper edge and plain soffits to be of three- quarters-inch deal, grooved and tongued. The parlour window to hâve framed backs and elbows down to the floor, with a framed sofïit of inch-and-quarter deal, to corre- spond with shutters. The plinth to be fixed round the window, 4 inches and a half broad. Framed grounds 4 inches and a half by 1 inch and a quarter, beaded and splayed inside, to be fixed round the Windows in the parlour and in the two kitchens, with a three- quarters-inch ogee back moulding. The upper room Windows to hâve a three- quarters-inch angle bead fixed round the jambs and heads. The dairy and pantry Windows to be made with solid frames, 3 inches and a half by 3 inches ; to hâve sliding trellises inside, with glass above, one square in height ; and to hâve inch-and-quarter deal bottom made level with shelving. The jambs and heads to hâve a three-quarters- inch angle bead fixed. The dairy and pantry shelving to be fixed, as shown on the plan, by dotted lines ; to hâve three shelves in height ; their united breadths not to be less than 4 feet ; and to hâve proper framed bearers. Ail the external angles of the chimney breasts, jambs, and heads of door openings to hâve three-quarters-inch angle beads fixed, and on such other places as require them. The closets to be fitted up, as shown in the drawing, with 3 shelves in height, of 1-inch deal ; their united breadths not to measure less than 3 feet. The stairs to be fitted up in one flight, as shown on the plan, with inch-and-quarter deal steps and risers. The steps to hâve rounded nosings chimed (let in) at both ends into stringings, which are to be of inch- and-half deal, and 10 inches broad ; with a dressed and beaded upper edge to answer as skirting. A wrought deal handrail tô be fixed to stoothings on each side of the stairs. Moulded skirting to be fixed round the parlour of I-inch deal, 6 inches broad ; to be fixed to the wall with plugs. Plain skirting of three-quarters-inch deal, 4 inches and a half broad, to be fixed round the kitchen, back-kitchen, passages, bed- rooms, &c. The parlour fireplace to hâve a plain pilaster chimney-piece, 4 inches and a half broad, with shelf and frieze. The bed-room fireplaces to hâve a single fire moulding, with a plain shelf and frieze. The two kitchen fireplaces to hâve each a chimney shelf of inch-and-quarter deal, fixed with ogee brackets. Ail the room door-frames to hâve a three-quarters-inch quirk ogee moulding, planted (fixed) round on each side, also round the closet door-frames, to cover the plastering. The upper room doors, and the dairy and pantry ditto, to be framed in four panels of inch-and-half deal, finished and planted on one side. To be hung on frames, with 3 inches and a half butt hinges, and each to hâve a good Norfolk latchet (latch). The cheese-room door and pantry ditto to hâve iron-rimmed locks of the value of 2s. 6d. each, with escut- cheons. The low room doors to be also framed in four panels of inch-and-half deal finished, planted moulding, both sides hung on frames, with 3 inches and a half butts; the parlour door and kitchen ditto next to the stairs to hâve each an iron-rimmed lockFARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 491 • witli Scotch springs, and plain brass knobs of the value of 5s. 6d. each. The closet doors to be framed in four panels of inch-and-quarter dëal ; with planted mouldings on one side, to be hung with 3-inch butt hinges, and to hâve closet door locks of the value of 2s. 6d. each. The front door to be framed 1 inch and three quarters thick, in 6 panels, bead and flush outside ; and hung with 4 inches and a half butt hinges on frames beaded and rabbeted, with a light above. The back entrance door to be framed 1 inch and three quarters thick, in four panels, bead and butt, and hung on frames, beaded and rabbeted, with 4 inches and a half butt hinges. Each of the above doors to hâve a stock lock of the value of 6s., and a good Norfolk latchet. 20 feet run of pin rail (railing for hat or cloak pins) to be fixed in the kitchen where required. The trap-door, made for the ceiling, to be of half-inch deal, grooved and tongued, with beaded lining round the frame. The privy to hâve a boxed seat of inch-and-quarter deal, grooved and tongued, and a battened door of 1-inch deal, hung on frames, beaded and rabbeted, 4 feet by 3 feet, with T bands (hinges like fig. 982) 2 feet 9*2 long, and to hâve a Norfolk latchet, with a small boit inside. The coal-house door, and ash-house ditto, to be of inch-and-quarter deal, hung with bands (strap hinges) and crooks (hooks) run into stone cheeks (jambs), 2 feet 2 inches long, with two. screw-bolts and nuts in each band. (N.B. No doors or window shutters to be hung on mouldings fixed in any part of the house where the plastering is unfinished, except on the window grounds and skirting.) 984. Hardware (Ironmongery). To provide ail the nails, spikes, screws, &c., that may be necessary for the carpenter’s and joiner’s work ; also ail the hardware, as before specified; two dozen of iron crooks to be fixed in the ceilings of the kitchen, or in such other parts as shall be directed. To fix along the eaves of the roof on both sides half round métal spouts (see fig. 983), with two métal wall pipes. The whole to be fixed with a suffi cient number of iron stays and holdfasts. 985. Slater's Work. To cover the roof of the house with Welsh slates called countesses, laid with a sufficient overlap, and well nailed, with two nails to each slate, to Memel laths 1 inch and a half by five eighths of an inch ; the laths to be well nailed to spars (common rafters). The whole to be well pointed inside with good hair and lime mortar, and inserted into grooves at the chimney necks ; also to be well pointed up the gables and along the ridge ; the whole to be Sound, and left perfectly watertight when finished. 986. Glazier's and Painter* s Work. To glaze ail the Windows with the best Newcastlë second crown glass, to be well fitted and bedded in good oil putty. The Windows to be primed before glazing. Pantry and dairy windows to hâve glass above the trellises one square in height, also the same above the front door. To paint ail the outside joiner’s work, viz., doors, windows, &c., and ail the métal spouts, with three coats of good white lead and oil ; and ail the inside joiner’s work, viz. the doors, windows, mouldings, linings, skirtings, handrails, &c. &c., with two coats of white lead and oil, or with such other colours as may be required. The whole work to be^well puttied up, and knotted (the knots smoothed and filled up) previously to painting. 987. Farm Offices. — Mason’s Work. To dig proper trenches for the foundations of ail the walls to the new buildings, thé proper thicknesses, and to the depth required. To take off the covering, and pull down the walls of such of the old buildings as are to corne down; the old stones to be used for the inside of the walls to the new buildings; and the new stones wanted, to be from the aforementioned quarry. To build stone footings to ail the walls for the new buildings, as shown on the plans, 2 feet and a halfwide, from good and sufficient foundations. The walls above the foundations to be 21 inches thick, with good common walling carried up to the height required, as shown in the plan, élévation, and sections. A proper bond stone to be laid through the full thickness of the wall every superficial yard (measuring on the face of the wall), and the face of the external walls to be well pointed. The coins for ail the external angles of the walls to be scappled, jointed, and set; and to be 20 inches long, 12 inches deep, and 10 inches thick. Stone heads and sills to be chiseled for ail the windows, the frames to be built in with the walls. The external doors to hâve also stone heads and sills chiseled ; the jambs to be built in and out tie, scappled and cheeked ; (hammer-dressed, as above explained, with a rebate eut out for the door to shut against,) the in-tie to go through the full thickness of the wall, and to be 12 inches in the head ; the out-tie to be 20 inches long, and 10 inches in the head. Iron crooks to be- run into stone cheeks while building for the door bands, which the carpenter will provide ; the lead to be provided by the mason. The two byres at the west end of the présent old farm house to be converted into two hovels, as shown in the drawing. The présent slated cart-shed to be lengthened with a r»ew492 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. opening, arched, &c., as shown in the drawing. To build jambs and pillars to ail the hovels and cart-sheds, with hewn stone in and out tie both sides, well jointed and set ; the stones to be 20 inches long, 12 inches deep, and 10 inches and a half thick, and the space between the pillars to be carried up with good common walling. The arches to hâve pen stones (arch stones) to go through the full thickness of wall, and not to be less than 10 inches in the head ; ail the angles of the jambs to be eut off, making a 2-inch chamfer. The barn and straw-house to be flag-paved with flag-stones, 3^ inches thick, dressed and jointed, to be laid on a bed of rubblestones 8 inches thick, broken small; the flags to be bedded in sand, and the joints to be set with lime. To pebble-pave the byres and calf-houses with proper cribstone and saddle (the former, fig. 984, k, partitions off the crib; and the latter, Z, the gutter behind) ditto, as shown in the plans. The cribs to be flagged at bottom. To pebble-pave the new stable, fowl-house, hay-house and pig-houses, with the yards to ditto. The stable to hâve proper stones mortised, and set for stall-posts. To pebble-pave a causeway 4 feet broad, with proper edge stones, in front of ail the fold ; also aiong the east side of the east wing, as shown the ground plan. To build walls for the pig-houses, fold walls, stack-yard walls, and crib walls, as shown in the plan. Proper stone gateposts to be set into the ground, and those for the folds and stack-yard to hâve iron crooks run into the same with lead, for gates to be hung on; the whole to hâve scappled coins at the angles and gâte openings. The walls to be carried up 5 feet and a half high above the ground, in common walling, with sloped coping. The ridge stone to be worked fair to a mould- ing, and laid on ail the ridges and hips of the roofing. The first stone of each hip to be fixed with an iron spike. Stone water-tables to be laid on the pig-house gables ; the first stone to be run into a corbel coin. The stone spouts to be wrought, and fixed into the walls of the pig-yards. The crib walls in the folds to hâve stone posts grooved to receive deal fronts, and to be flagged at bottom with common flags. The old cottage at Hallington Hill to be taken down ; the byre to be converted into a cottage, and the barn into a hovel, opening into ditto. The latter to hâve jambs carried up with hewn stone and arch, as described for the other hovels. The chimney and fireplace in the cottage to be done as hereafter described for the new cottages. The flagging and plastering also to be the same. The walls for the fold and stack-yard to be done as before described for those at the farm house. 988. Cottages. To build two cottages adjoining the cart-shed, as shown in the drawing. The walls to be as before described. The chimneys to be carried up with proper vents 14 feet by 10 feet, and to be well pargeted inside with hair and lime ; each to hâve hewn stone jjambs, mantels, and chimney-top. The fireplaces to hâve each a cylinder oven, 15 inches in diameter; a furnace pot to contain eight gallons of water; and a pair (front and bottom bars) of common grates 17 inches wide : the whole to be set with hewn stone fronts, fire bricks, and dampers. The floors to be flag-paved with 3^-inch flags, dressed and jointed, and well bedded in sand. 989. Plaster er's Work. To plaster the cottages with two-coated plastering; the stoothing partitions of the dairy and lobby, in the new cottages, to be plastered with two coats of lath plaster. The granary and barn walls to be plastered with one coat wall plaster, 4 feet from the floor. The window-frames to be drawn about (pointed) with hair and lime mortar on both sides. The lime to be well prepared for ail the plastering, and to be mixed with a suflicient quantity of hair. The mason to eut ail holes for posts, iron crooks, grooves, and ail others necessary for carpenter’s and joiner’s work, and the slating also ; to clear away ail the surplus earth from the inside of ail the buildings, which are to bemade level; the earth to be wheeled out to a considérable distance for carting1 away. The mason, also, to provide lead for running the ironwork into the stone ; and to hâve the use of roofing timber, or any other old timber which may be spared, for scaffolding ; but in case any of the same should thereby be broken or injured, to replace them, or else allow the value thereof to the carpenter for damages. 990. The Carpenter1 s and Joiner's Work. To provide and eut ail the lintels for the doors and Windows, of such scantlings as are hereafter specified ; and so as not to hâve less than 12 inches hold on the wall at each end. The granary above the straw-house to hâve joisting laid 18 inches apart, mid and mid; and to hâve 12 inches hold on the wall at each end. — Flooring. The granary floor to be laid with inch-and-quarter white-wood battens, dressed and jointed : the battens to be laid loose, so as to take up and relay after pining (shrinking). The roofing for ail the buildings to be framed and hipped, as shown in the drawing, with tie-beams laid on raising plates (wall plates), the scantlings to be hereafter specified ; and the whole to hâve a suflicient number of principal s to make the openings between not exceed from 7 to 8 feet. — Scantlings. Tie- beams, 6 inches and a half by 4 inches ; principal rafters, 8 inches and a half by 2 inches 984 the buildings inside by dotted lines onFARM flOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 493 and a half ; hip rafters, 10 inches by two inches ; common rafters, 3 inches by 2 inchés and a half, not to exceed 18 inches apart middle and middle; binders (tie beams) 8 inches by 2 inches and a half; ribs, 6 inches by 3 inches and a quarter ; ridge, 3 inches and a quarter by 3 inches and a quarter ; granary joists, 10 inches by 2 inches and a half ; raising plates, 6 inches by 1 inch and a half ; lintels, 4 inches thick by the breadth required for the low buildings. The lintels for the granary windows, 3 feet and a half by the breadth required. Hinder posts to stalls, 5 inches by 5 inches ; fore posts, 5 inches by 3 inches. Sarking of five-eighths-inch deal, 9 inches broad, to be laid on the eaves and ridges of the roofing on each side. Gutter boards to the valleyS to be laid with three-quarters-inch deal, covered with sheet lead, 18 inches broad, 6 pounds to the foot, which is to be provided, and laid at the carpenter’s expense. — The stable to be fitted up with stalls, as shown on the plan and section. The stall partitions to be fitted up with inch-and-quarter deal, and to hâve a 9-inch batten placed horizontally about the middle of each side. The top and bottom rail, 4 inches by 3 inches and a quarter, to be grooved to receive the same. The rails to be tenoned intô the stall posts ; and the stall posts to be set into proper stones at the bottom, and fixed to girding pièces at top, 5 inches by 3 inches, nailed to the under side of the tie-beams. The hinder posts to be fixed at the top with a screw boit. Mangers to be fixed between the stall partitions, with fronts and bottoms of inch-and-half deal; the back to be of inch- and-quarter, and the fronts to hâve a roller 2 inches and a quarter in diameter, grooved and fixed : each manger to hâve a wrought-iron ring and staple fixed. The hay-rac^s to be made 2 feet and a half wide ; the rungs (spokes) of 1 inch and a half deal ; the rack sides, 3 inches and a half by 3 inches; a harness rail 12 feet long, with proper pins, to be fixed in the stables. — The cow-byres to be fitted up with partitions and stakes, as shown in the drawing. The partitions to be cleaded (clothed) with inch-and- quarter deal, and proper posts of the old materials, provided any of them can be found suitable. The stakes to be let into the cribstones at bottom, and to be fixed at the top to joists, 8 inches by 4 inches, laid through for that purpose. — The calf- house to be fitted up with pens, as shown in the drawing ; and the partitions to be formed with posts and rails, and paled. The posts to be 3 inches and a quarter square, let into stones at bottom, and fixed to a joist at top, laid through for that purpose. The partitions to hâve three rails in height, 3 inches by 1 inch and a quarter. The pales to be 4 feet high, 2 inches and a half by three quarters of an inch, and to be well nailed to the rails; each pen to hâve a small wicket, huhg with small bands and crooks, and each having a hasp and staple for fastening. — Doors. Ail the outside doors of the farmery to be battened of inch-and-quarter deal, grooved and tongued. The barn and straw-house ditto to be hung in two halves. The whole to be hung with bands and crooks, run into stone cheeks. To provide and fix on the same a common wrought-iron sneck (latch), fig. 985, and catch, with ring handle to hang down. The barn, straw-house, granary, and stable doors ail to hâve stock locks of the value of 5s. 6d. each, and proper iron bolts and Staples to be supplied for ail the other doors. The cottage outside doors to havé each a thumb sneck and catch, and a stock lock of the value of 4s. The cottage inside doors to be made of 1-inch deal, battened, grooved and tongued, and hung on frames with 3 bands ; and each to hâve a Norfolk latchet. The stable door to be hung in the middle with strap hinges, to allow the door to fall back against the wall. The door between the straw- house and barn to be of 1-inch deal, battened, grooved, and tongued ; hung on frames with 7 bands, 22 inches long, and tô hâve a sneck the same as the stable doors, with an iron boit and Staples. — Windows. The cottage windows to be made with case- ments, and iron bars, forming small panes, about 6 inches by 4 inches, to be fitted into solid frames, leaded and rabbeted ; 4 feet three quarters of an inch by 3 feet 7 inches inside of frames ; scantling of frame, 3 inches and a half by 3 feet : one casement in each to be made to slide. The above to hâve outside shutters of three-quarters-inch deal, grooved and tongued, hung on frames with small bands and crooks. Each window to hâve an iron cotteral (a spring wedge, fig. 986) and an iron turn (a fastening, see Index) to keep it back. The small windows for the cottage dairies to be made with inside sliding trellises, 22 inches square. The windows for the stable, granary, and foal-house to be made 3 feet high, 2 feet 10 inches wide; and to hâve inside sliding trellis frames, 3 inches by 2 inches and a half. The stoothing partition and ragglings to be fitted up so as to form a dairy and lobby in the cottages, with door-frames for ditto, 4 inches by 3 inches ; and stoothings, 2 inches and a half by 2 inches and a half. The dairies to be shelved, with two shelves in height, each 12 inches broad, of inch-and-quarter deal, with brackets. The cottage windows to hâve inch-and- quarter deal bottoms, and 1-inch deal backs. The jambs and heads of the doors and 986494 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. Windows to hâve a three-quarters-inch angle bead for plastering. A chimney shelf of 1-inch deal, with brackets, to be fixed above the fireplace in each of the cottages. The Windows in the granary to hâve inch-and-quarter deal bottoms, to project 1 incl. over the wall, and to be nailed to the window sill. — The hay-racks to be the same as those in the stable, and to be fixed in each hovel the full length ; as are the rack and manger in the foal-house. The hovel at Hallington Hill to hâve a partition put across it with posts and rails ; and the gates to bè hung with loops and crooks for young cattle. The stairs in the straw-house to be fitted up with inch-and-quarter deal steps and risers, and proper strings : the stairs to be partitioned off with stoothings, and three-quarters-inch deal cleading next to the straw-house ; with inch-and-quarter battened door at the bottom, hung on frames 4 inches by 3 inches and a quarter, with T bands, and to hâve a stock lock and sneck as before described. A rail to be fixed round the opening of the granary stalls, with skirting at the bottom of three-quarters-inch deal, 12 inches broad. The skirting to be fixed round the barn and granary of 1-inch deal, 4 inches and a half broad, and to be well nailed to plugs. — Gates. Nine gates to be made for the folds and stack-yards, including those at Hallington Hill. Each to hâve 5 bars, and to be braced. The bars to be 4 inches by 1 inch and a half, and the stiles to be 4 inches and a half by 3 inches and a half. Also, 5 wickets, with 5 bars and braces, for the inside of the folds, &c. &c. The bars to be 3 inches and a half by 1 inch and a quarter ; and the stiles, 3 inches and a half by 3 inches. The whole to be hung with proper iron loops, and crooks run into stone posts, in the coins of walls, where necessary ; and to hâve proper hasps and Staples. Crib-boards to be fixed in ail the stone cribs in the folds ; to be 10 inches broad, and 2 inches and a quarter thick ; and to be made to take out and in by grooves eut in the stone posts. Centres for the arches of the hovels and cart-shed to be provided, and posts for setting ditto. 991. Smith's Work, and Hardioare. To provide and fix ail spikes, nails, screws, &c., necessary for the carpenter’s and joiner’s work ; and ail the other hardware and smith’s work before specified. 992. Slater’s Work. To cover the roofs of ail the buildings of the farm offices, as shown on the plan, with slates of the same kind, and done precisely in the same manner, as before specified for slating the dwelling-houses. * 993. Glazier's and Painter's Work. To glaze the casements of the cottage Windows with second crown glass ; the panes to be 6 inches by 4 inches, neatly puttied on each side, and the casements to be primed before glazing. (N.B. The casements will be provided ; and are, therefore, not to be estimated. To paint ail the external doors and frames ; also, the granary Windows, the cottage ditto, and the stable ditto ; also, the inside doors of cottages, and the window backs, with two coats of white lead and oil, on both sides. The Windows to hâve one coat before being built into the walls.) 994. Ail the Works, as before specified, to be done in a sound and workmanlike manner, subject to the approbation of Mr. John Green, Architect, or whom he may appoint to inspect the same; and it is to be understood that, should it be deemed advisable that any of the work before specified, for the dwelling-house or farm offices, should be dispensed with during the progress of the building, the value of such work is to be deducted from the amount of the contract ; and, on the other hand, should any alteration or additional work be required, which is neither expressed nor understood by the plans and foregoing spécification, the expense of such alteration or additional work is to be paid to the contracter, and agreed for previously to its being done, or else lefit to the valuation of the inspecter. (N. B. The iron-barred casements for the cottage Windows will be provided ; therefore the joiner need only estimate for the outside frames for ditto, as specified.) 995. General Estimate. The following form was sent us with the foregoing spé- cification : — £ s. d. Building new farm-house, fig. 977, a, b, c, d.............................. 453 : 12 : 7 Building corn-barn, ........................................................ 95 : 11 : 2 Building straw-house with granary above, b............................... 125 : 3 . 1 Building foal-house, p ; two cow-byres, q q ; and calf-house, r............ 176 : 6 : 3 Building two stables, h and o ; and a hay-house, i....................... 189 : 3 : 10 Building one hovel, k....................................................... 48 : 13 : 11 Building two cottages, u ................................................ 130: 8: 0 We hâve formed a rough estimate of the cubic contents of the farm house, which, we find, contains 31,570 feet, which gives about 3 \d. per foot as the price of this descrip- tion of building in Northumberland. The cottages estimated in the samo manner cost 2fd. the cubic foot ; and the farm buildings 2c?. These prices are not much more than half what such farm houses and farmeries would cost in the neighbourhood of London,FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 495 as will be évident by comparing them with the estimate of the Bury Hill Designs, § 863 and § 880. One reason of this is, that in Northumberland stone is got for the working, and the carriage of the greater part of the materials is found by the tenant. 996. Remarks, This Design is another of those so obligingly furnished us by John Green, Esq., of Newcastle, the first Architect, as we are informed, for farm buildings, in the extensive counties of Northumberland and Durham. It is one of twenty plans and estimâtes which he made, in the year 1824, for renovating the farm buildings and cottages on the estate of Beaufront, lying on the river Tyne, between Newcastle and Hexham. By the advice of a kind friend, in the north of the county, we applied to this gentleman through our esteemed correspondent Mr. Falla, the eminent nurseryman at Gateshead, near Newcastle, and he has liberally permitted us to examine many of the plans (accompanied by their spécifications and estimâtes) which he has designed and executed on different estâtes. From these we have.selected seven, of which this is the last, and they will give a complété idea to the Architect of the mode of arranging farm houses, farmeries, and the dwellings of farm labourers, in that first of ail English agricultural counties, Northumberland. We must say, that, highly gratified as we hâve been with these farm houses and farmeries, we hâve been proportionately shocked by the scanty accommodation provided for the farm labourers. While the master is lodged in a house which is fit for any gentleman of independent fortune, and the horses and cattle hâve as ample accommodation as can be desired, the poor ploughman and hind are put into single rooms, each generally about 22 feet long by 16 feet wide, with one door and two small Windows. At one end of this room a closet or dairy, 5 feet by 5 feet, is partitioned oflÇ and lighted by one of the Windows ; and a corresponding space serves as a sort of lobby to the outer door. This reduces the room to 16 feet by 16j feet, which must serve the occupant for every purpose to which a dwelling-house can be applied. The reader may turn to the plan of two of these cottages, marked u u, in fig. 973, p. 487, which he may rest assured are fac similes of ail the cottages built in Northumberland for ploughmen and farm-labourers. Among Mr. Green’s plans, we hâve met with none with two rooms ; and only with two or three that hâve privies ot places for a pig. These last cottages, we are informed by Mr. Green, were built for labourers to be employed by the landlord in different parts of his estate. To the cottages marked u u, in fig. 973, there is attached no privy or exterior appendage whatever ; though this is not much to be wondered at, since there is none to the farm house. We are tempted to enquire by what strange circumstance it happens that the art of farming should be carried to such a degree of perfection as it is in Northumber- land, while the farmers, and more especially their servants, live in a State of comparative destitution of many of the comfbrts enjoyed by the same class in the south of England, where the art of agriculture is at the lowest ebb ; and we can only account for it from the general ignorance both of the labourers and their employers, and from the remaining habits engendered by the oppression of the feudal System. The truth is, that almost the entire produce of the land, beyond the mere subsistence of the farmçr and the labourer, is paid tothe landlord in the form of rent; because the landed capi- talists, like the great capitalists in trade and manufactures, enjoy a complété monopoly of the market, and they can command their own price for their land, as the others do for the use of their capital. Thus, in the country of great landholders, in the same manner as in the great manufacturing districts, the operative is scarcely able to exist. This evil can only be remedied by time, and a better System of government, which will effect a more equal distribution of land and capital. In submitting these remarks to the reader, we intend to make no reflections, in this or in any other case, on the Architect, who must necessarily conform to the customs of his locality ; but we conceive it to be the duty of an author, who is under no local influence, to express his opinion freely on this, as on every other subject that cornes within the range of his work. We may add, that the chief point in which the farmeries of Northumberland exceJ those of Scotland, is in the subdivision of the fold-yards into smaller yards; which, instead of being mere manufactories for manure, serve as enclosures for the growth, improvement, or fattening of cattle. Weak and young cattle always suffer much when many are placed together in the same yard ; and this, more especially, when the animais are brought from mountainous or partially enclosed districts ; or even districts where the enclosures are very large. Cattle fed loose in small enlosures or hammels of this kind hâve their hair sleek and unbroken, and their feet are never so tender as to prevent their travelling some distance to market. Nine tenths of the beeves or young cattle of Northumberland, we are informed by one of the most intelligent farmers m the county, are fed in small fold-yards, such as are represented in the ten preceding Designs, to the number of from three to six, or even more, together, accordingly as they are found to agréé. In the rich fiat pastures of Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, and other counties of England, the larger breed of cattle, from their constitution al tameness and docility, will496 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. fatten together in large open yards, by dozens ; but this not the case with Scotch cattle, more especially those from the Highlands. In looking over the spécification, § 979 to § 995, the reader will observe that many of the building terms used in Northumberland difier from those in use about London ; and some even from those employèd in the south of Scotland, as given by Mr. Newall in his spécification, § 907. We hâve shortly ex- plained these terms, each when it first occurs ; but there are some of them which will require to be more minutely defined, and compared with other local terms, in the' Glos- sarial Index. This spécification will be found of great use to ail persons intending to build farmeries where stone is employed, and it also shows the practîcal man what is considered, in a highly cultivated district, the best mode of finishing racks, mangers, cribs, partitions, &c. The construction of the cribs is worthy of notice ; the sides and bottom are formed of boards two inches and a quarter thick, which fit into grooves and notches in stone posts. This seems an excellent plan, because the boards may be taken out at any time, and cleaned, and at seasons when the cattle are not kept in the yards they may be taken out altogether, and placed under cover, in a dry airy situation, till again wanted. Ail the stables are fitted up with stalls and full-length partitions, so that every horse securely enjoys the food placed before him. There appear to be a few inches of slope from the head of the stall to the gutter behind, which is now generally disapproved of in the best stables in England and France, though still continued in the farm stables in Scotland, as appears by an article in the Highland Sociétés Transactions. Design XXII. — The Farmery at Calley in Kirkcudbrightshire, suitable for a GaUoway Crop and Pasture Farm of 400 Acres. 997. The Ohject of this Design is to afford accommodation for wintering young cattle, and fattening others, as much or more than for affording stable room for horses. In Galloway, we are informed by the contributor of this Design, Mr. Brown, the factor or land agent at Calley, that the half of the rents is generally paid from the corn crop, and the other half from black cattle ; so that a considérable proportion of the farmery is required to be laid out as cattle-sheds, for wintering the animais when young. The oldest and best Galloway cattle are generally wintered in the fields ; which, in Galloway, where the winters are very temperate, are mostly well sheltered by hedges and plantations. Cattle wintered in this way are less tender in the feet, hâve a finer skin in the spring, and are in better condition to go to the English markets at that season, than those wintered in sheds and yards. 998. Accommodation. in front, 5, are sufficient for the accommodation of forty or fifty-two head of cattle. There are a feeding-house, c, in which six cattle may be fed in stalls ; a cow- house, d, 32 feet long, in which ten Galloway cows may stand without stalls ; and at their heads there is a foddèring-passage, e, which communicates with the straw-house, f, the feeding-house, c, and thecattle-shedsand yard, a, b. There are a barn, gf with a threshing- machine driven by water; a room for horses’ corn and eut straw, h ; a stable, 33 feet by 17 feet, for six horses, i ; a cart-shed with a loft over, k ; a small office or couiit- ing-house, l ; a boiling or steaming house, m ; and a tool-house with a smith’s forge for occa- sional use, n. One part of the yard is left open, The cattle sheds here shown at a, in fig. 987, with the yard 987 bTTrnnm!------H H----!--3FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 497 and the other part is enclosed by a fence of pales, o, p, as a fold for the wintering of cattle. The general appearance of this Design is shown in the isometrical view, fig. 988. 999. Construction. The walls are chiefly of the slate-stone of the country, a cold and disagreeable stone for cottages and human dwellings, but less injurious for buildings for cattle and for sheds. The roofs are of Baltic fir, covered with slates ; a covering cold in winter, and too warm in summer ; and therefore, however fit for sheds, not to be commended for stables without lofts, or for cattle-houses. It is true that the prevailing préjudice, in the west of Scotland, is in favour of slates indiscriminately, from their durability ; but even if thatch should be found less durable, and this is not always the case with the thatch composed of chips, shavings, and spray, or heath, we consider the latter as decidedly préférable for ail buildings in which animais are to be lodged. But, in Galloway, improvement is not yet so general, that long heath and broom cannot be found ; and these, even the natives will allow, are nearly as durable as any slate or tile whatever ; or, at ail events, they are sufficiently so for constructions which are undergoing the progressive improvements and changes which those of agri- culture constantly are. 1000. Remarks. This Design has been furnished us by one of the most enlightened agri- culturists in the west of Scotland, and therefore it may be considered as a fair specimen of a farmery for the agriculture of that district. It would be easy to add a farm house ; but we hâve given so many good plans of this description of dwelling, that we consider it unnecessary to add one on the présent occasion. No arrangement for the collection of liquid manure is shown ; because the farmers of Galloway, as those of most other districts of Scotland, hâve not yet arrived at that degree of scientific refinement to be fully aware of the advantages to be obtained by this important part of a perfect farmery. Design XXIII.— A Farmery for a small French Farm, as given by Morel- Vindé. 1001. The requisiteFarm Buildings for a small Farm, our author observes, are the same as for a large one, almost the only différence being in their magnitude. The plan ex- hibited in the following figures is therefore to be considered as conveying the rudimental idea of ail farmeries whatever, where the objects of cultivation are those common to the temperate régions of both hemispheres. The same constructions, which in the annexed plans are only a width of two bays of ten feet each, by forty feet in length, might be ex- tended to many bays of the same size. The following is the general type of this building : — l.The stable and cow-house are in the same space without séparation ; because by this arrangement, on small farms where there are few or no servants and not much litter, the animais are more easily looked after ; the litter from the horses is with little trouble thrown under the cows, and the dung of both, being mixed, produces a better manure. 2. The poultry-house is placed alongside of the cow-house, and only separated from it by an open grating in order to admit the heat of the former to the latter. S. The barn is sufficiently large for containing one rick of 3000 sheaves, with addiaonal498 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 989 space, in order that a part of it may be used, if necessary, as a cider- house, for wine vats, or for storing roots. The space covered by the entire build- ing is eight hundred superficial feet. 1002. Details. Fig. 989 is the surface ground plan, showing the barn for unthreshed corn, a ; the cellar end of the same barn, b ; the threshing-floor, c ; the stable for three horses, d; cow-house for three cows, e; harness-house and general magazine, f ; poultry-house, g ; pigsty, h ; place for hatching poultry, i ; open shed for large im- plements, k ; and two porches, II. Fig. 990 is a plan of the foun- dations. Fig. 991 is a plan of the flooring over the barn, stable, &c., which is used for containing unthreshed corn. Fig. 992 is the side élévation showing the door of the porch. Fig. 993 is the éléva- tion of either of the ends. Fig. 994 is a longitudinal section ; and fig. 995 is a per- spective view. 991 990 992 1003. Construction. The foundations are of stone or brick, and the superstructure is framed of timber, in lengths not exceeding twelve feet, and not measuring more thanFARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 499 Ft.6 0 6 18 Ft. six inches on the side. The panels are filled in with studwork or quartering, and covered with weatherboarding or plaster. 1004. General Estimate. The actual cost, in the 'neighbourhood of Paris, was £150 ; that for the departments of France, £92. A bay may be added, in the neighbourhood of Paris, for £42 ; and in the departments, for £25. • 1005. Remarks. The great economy of this construction must be obvious. This economy results from the four cross walls being used on both sides; and from two short lines of eaves serving for the whole structure. To be con- vinced of this, it is only necessary to ima- gine the threshing- floor, corn-bay, stable, cow-house, the two implement-houses, the two poultry-places, and the pigsty, arrange d as separate buildings round a square or parallelogram farm-yard, as in Britain. Add to this, the great advantage of the accumulation of heat during winter, and the exclusion of heat during summer. The steepness of the roof not only renders that part of the structure more durable, by preventing it from ever being soaked with moisture, but it actually reflects off the heat more pqwerfully in summer, and receives it more effectually, because at a larger angle, during winter. If eaves-gutters are considered necessary, they are only required at the two ends, and even the tubes for conducting the water from these gutters to the ground are as short as it is possible to conceive them to be. We hâve examined ail the French and German works on Rural Architecture, and though we hâve found much to approve of in Lasteyrie’s Rural Architecture and the Landes Verschanerung, published periodically at Munich, which, through the kindness of our friend Count Hazzi, we receive regularly, we hâve found nothing at ail worthy of being put in compétition with the Architecture Rurale of Morel-Vindé. We say this with the more confidence, having seen most, or ail (for we cannot bear ail the circumstances exactly in our mind), of his designs rn actual execution, on his own beautiful estate, at Celle, in 1828. — In a wine or cider country, or on a farm where potatoes were raised in great quantities, a cellar might be made both under the threshing-floor and the bay for unthreshed corn. The two porches convey an idea of shelter and comfort, and, in fact, produce both in every building to which they are judiciously attached. We particularly recommend this Design to our American and Austraîian readers, and, indeed, to those of ail countries where timber is the principal building material. Design XXIV. — A Farm House and Farmery suitàble for a Farm of from Three Hun- dred to Five Hundred Acres in France. 1006. The object of the following Design, which is taken from the work of Morel- Vindé,is to show what is considered by one of the first agriculturists in France a model farm500 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. house and farmery for a large farm. Like ail Morel-Vindé’s de- signs, it will be found *- to be the resuit of ^ , much considération, both in point of ar- rangement and a commodation, and of* economyof construc- tion; altogether it is eminently worthy of ^ ^ imitation, in countries ^ where small timber forms the principal building material. 1007. General Ar- rangement. The farm- ery with its different courts, yards, and gar- dens stands on a space of about two acres: the general appear- ance is as in fig. 996, and fig. 997 is the general ground plan. This plan is arranged ^ in four divisions. In the first may be seen ® the dwelling-house, a ; go the whole way up the height of the ceiling. The front wall to be lined up with J-inch deal from the top of the manger to the top of the rack, and to be planed, grooved, tongued, and beaded. 1105. Stable Arches. Elliptical arches to be put across between the back posts and over the horses, with neat wood impost mouldings at the springings ; and a thin plate of wood bent round the soffit of the arches. 1106. Trivess (Partition) Boarding. The trivess boarding to be of the same height and thickness as in the other stables, and finished on the top with an ogee and sweep, and hard-wood cope. The joists to be of the same materials, and the workmanship the same as in the other stable. The stone wall next the west front to be lined with 1-inch deal, and finished the same as the other trivesses. The ceiling to be lathed from the beam- filling, round the couples, and back ; and the whole walls and ceiling to be finished with three-coat plaster. There are to be two wood pipes made 6 inches square, to go up through the ceiling, and 2 feet through the roof above the slates ; with a flashing of lead put round the pipes to cover their joining with the slates. The 2 feet of pipes above the slates to be bored full of holes on ail the four sides, and covered on the top with a moulded capital, on purpose to ventilate the stable. The bottom of these pipes to project below the ceiling of the stable, on purpose to admit of a shifting board to shut them up when required. 1107. Poultry-houses. A wooden stair to be put up from the turkey-house to the hen-house, as shown by the plan ; and this hen-liouse and the hayloft to be joisted and floored with the old materials, &c. The stair to be covered in round the sides up to the ceiling in the turkey-house, and a door to be put up on the foot of the stair to keep the two places separate. The hen-house to be fitted up with a wooden roost, and nests on the north and east sides ; and the tops of the nests to be covered with a sloping thin deal cover, on purpose to keep them clean from the roosts. The ceiling of the hen-house to be lathed from the top of the walls, round the couples (rafters), and back ; and to be finished with two coats of plaster ; and the walls both of the hen-house and of the turkey- house to be plastered with one coat of plaster. A skylight to be put in the roof of the hen-house, 3 feet by 2 feet, glazed, and made watertight with flashings of lead. 1108. Door s. The doors to be plain deal, and 1 inch and one eighth thick; the boards to be 6 inches and a half broad, and ploughed, tongued, and beaded on the joints, with three bars on the back of each ; to be ail hung with strong cross-tailed hinges (hinges like fig. 1058, which, of course, can only be used where there are wooden door- frames, or hanging posts, on which to nail the tail part, a, of the hinge) with an iron boit through the neck, 6, of each ; except the doors for the straw-barn, which are to be hung with strong crook and band hinges. The door-frames to be 6 inches by 2 inches and a half, and strongly batted into the cheeks of the rybats ; the whole to hâve keeps (stops) three quarters of an inch thick, and of proper breadth. 1109. The Servants (Bailiff’s) House to hâve a lath and standard partition on both sides, and two doors inside, 1 inch in thickness, with hinges and sneck (thumb latch). 1110. Glazier's Work. The Windows of the stables and byres to be glazed on the top half ; the under half to be made to open with boards, and hinges and snecks. The sashes to be 2 inches thick, with proper facings, keeps, and frames. The windows of the riding-stable, boiling-house, servants* house, corn-barn, engine-house, potato-house, and turkey-house to be made with sashes and cases ; and to be glazed with good crown glass. The whole to receive one good priming coat of white lead before being glazed. 1111. The Beams (Lintéls) for the Cattle Sheds to be 12 inches by 6 inches; to be ail clean-planed on the front and under sides, and to hâve 12 inches of wall-hold on each end. 1112. The large Entrance Gâte to be framed with 2§-ineh wood ; styles 6 inches and a half broad, with cross rails 9 inches, and cross angular (diagonal) braces to the same, to be covered on the face with 1-inch deal grooved, tongued, and beaded on the joint, and to be made in two leaves ; a wicket door to be in one of the leaves, to be framed in a similar manner. The gates to be hung with centre-point hinges at the bottom, and crook and band hinges at the top ; and fixed at top and bottom with a very strong sliding boit, and large thumb sneck. (Centre point, or swing hinges, appear to be of two kinds ; one with the pivot of the hinge turned down, to work in an iron socket let into a stone,FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 533 as in fig. 1059 ; the other with two pivots, working on two hooks, as in fig. 1060, in which a is the hanging style of the gâte, with the double pivot hinge attached, b b being the pivots ; c is the hanging gate-post ; and d d} the two pivots leaded into it. The £ 1061 object common to both is, to make the point of rest of tne gâte the same as the shutting point ; that is, the line in which the gâte remains when it is shut.) 1113. The Gig-house Door to be made with 1^-inch deal, with three bars across each half, 1 inch and a half thick, and with angular braces ; to hâve hinges and bolts of a proper strength, the same as the large gâte, and a good stock lock and sneck. This door to be made with an opening three quarters of an inch wide between each deal (board), for the admission of air, the deals not being more than 6 inches broad. 1114. The Byres to be fitted up as shown iq the drawings ; the sole trees to be ei ht inches by four inches ; the top tree six inches by three inches ; and the stakes to be of hard wood. 1115. The whole of the Doors to hâve good and sufficient locks, bars, and bolts, where necessary; and ail to hâve strong Scotch-made thumb snecks, with folding handles (handles to hang down, or fold aside) to the same. 1116. The Gates for the open courts to be hung on two leaves, and framed with 1 j- inch thick framing and angle braces; and to be covered on the outside with 1-inch thick deal, ploughed, tongued, and beaded on the joints ; and finished on the top with a cope 1 inch and a half thick. The gates to be hung with strong crook and band hinges (in fig. 1061, a is the band, and b the crook ; the former is used in the case ot boârded doors, which hâve no hanging styles ; the latter is either leaded into stone, or sharpened and . ■ driven into wood), and the hinges to be made so n q q" that the gâte may open on the outside, and fold back to the court walls ; and be fixed together, when shut, with a hardwood swivel bar, and iron bolts and Staples of sufficient strength. 1117. Granary Windows. The Windows of the granary to be fitted in with wooden frames and round iron rods three eighths of an inch in diameter, and three fourths ot an inch apart. The frames to be 2 inches and a half broad, and 2 inches thick ; the sole for the frame to be 3 inches and a half by 2 inches and a half, and to be washed off (sloped) on the outside to carry off the rain. There are to be inside shutters five eighths of an inch thick, ploughed, tongued, and beaded on the joints, with a water verge on the bottom (a slip nailed on, to throw off the rain), hinged on the two halves, and fixed inside with a cross shifting hard-wood bar, and iron Staples. There is to be a standard and deal partition put round the top of the stair in the granaries 3 feet high. Standards 3 inches square, and the boarding 1 inch thick, ploughed and tongued. 1118. The Hayloft to hâve a door 1 inch thick, with frames, hinges, and folding thumb sneck ; the openings for putting the hay down to the horses to hâve doors three fourths of an inch thick, with frames, hinges, and bars ; there is to be a light mov- able trap-ladder to go up to the hayloft by the front door of ditto ; and saddle-trees and pins to put up in the stable. 1119. The Gig-house is to be lathed on the ceiling, and to be finished on the walls and ceiling with two coats of plaster. The floors of the straw-barn, servants* house, potato-house, turkey-house, chaff-hole, and boiling-house to be ail laid with a composi- tion of lime, sand, and engine ashes (coal ashes), three inches thick ; to be laid on in due proportions, and properly rubbed and smoothed on the surface. Frames of wood =3534 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. are to be fixed to the inside of the front wall of the eart-stablé, opposite the openings of the ventilators, with shifting boards, to slide and close them as may be required. 1120. Beams. Two strong Memel planks will be required in the engine-house, to be built into the walls, and to be 9 feet long and 12 inches by 5 inches on the sides, for fixing part of the machinery. 1121. Plaster-work. The working-horse stable, granaries, corn-barn, and mill-loft to be finished with one coat of plaster on the walls ; and the corn-barn, mill-loft, and granaries to hâve a skirting of Roman cernent 8 inches round the floors. 1122. Slaters’ Work. The roofs to be covered with the best dark blue slate, from Mr. Bell’s quarry near Dunkeld ; to hâve a sufficiency of cover, to be well shouldered in haired lime (the lower part of each row bedded in lime) ; and to be nailed on with nails at 12lbs. per thousand, well steeped in linseed oil when in a heated State (to prevent, or at least diminish, oxidation) ; the slates to be ail close-mitred (when two planes meet against a diagonal line, they are said to be mitred) in the angles of the flanks. , 1123. The Ridge to be covered with lead 12 inches broad, and weighing 5lbs. per su- perficial foot ; the piens (hips) with lead 10 inches broad, and 5lbs. per superficial foot; and the flanks with lead 8 inches broad, and 5lbs. per superficial foot, to be ail properly dressed down to the slates, and firmly nailed to the wood battens. 1124. Description of Timber. The timber for the roofing, joisting, sarking, soles, lintels, sleepers, gates, Windows, trivess-boarding, racks and mangers, beams, and sole and top trees, feeding-troughs, &c., to be ail of the best Memel timber, and ail the flooring and doors, &c., to be of drawn (selected) battens. 1125. Feeding-troughs. The front of the feeding-troughs, in theopen courts, to hâve a plank of wood 9 inches by 3 inches set on edge ; and to hâve a post every 10 feet 4 inches by 3 inches, and put 2 inches into a stone in the bottom, and fixed at top with a long strong iron bat (stud) fixed into the stone sole, and a large screw-nut on the outside of the posts. The planks to be ail fixed to the posts, with two iron screw-bolts into each. 1126. The Tradesman to furnish the whole of the material and workmanship, as par- ticularised in the foregoing spécification. Also the sea carriage of the slates, whicli must be shipped to the harbour nearest Greendykes, and Mr. C. (the tenant) will furnish the whole of the land carriage. 1127. The whole Work, of every description and kind, must be finished in the most substantial and workmanlike manner, and be liable at ail times to the inspection of the proprietor, or Mr. C., or any other person they may choose to appoint for that purpose. The carpenter to furnish ail the centring and moulds for the mason-work. 1128. Estimate. The actual cost of this building, exclusive of the old materials, and the expense of carriage, was about ,£2000 ; but it is estimated that if ail the materials had been new, and the carriage had been included, the total amount would hâve been £3000; which, at 6 per cent, would hâve been equal to an addition of £180 a year to the rent of the farm. The expense of the farm house is not included in either of the above sums ; but as that for such a farmery would cost nearly £700, this, at 6 per cent, would give at least £200 a year of additional rent, or 12s. an acre. The total number of cubic feet in the farmery, including court and fence walls, is 208,600 ; which gives 2jd. per cubic foot as the guess price for estimating buildings of this description in East Lothian. 1129. Remarks. This Design was procured for us by our much valued contributor, Patrick Shirreflj Esq., of Mungoswells, near Haddington, wellknown as oneof the most scientific farmers in Scotland, as a specimen of one of the best farmeries in East Lothian. It was designed by-------Swinton, Esq., Architect, Haddington ; and built, under his superintendence, at Greendykes, for David Anderson, Esq., of St. Germains. It willbe observed that, considering its extent, the courts or fold-yards are fewer in number, and smaller in size, than those of the Northumberland Designs ; and that there are none of these courts which are entitled to the appellation of hammels or fold yards. Hammels, indeed, Mr. Shirreff informs us, are out of repute in East Lothian ; that is, what are called hammels in Berwickshire, which differ from those of Northumberland in being much smaller. “ My idea of a hammel,” says Mr. Shirreff, “ is a range of shed-build- ings divided by parallel partitions from ten to twenty feet asunder, and projecting beyond the building, so as to form courts two or three times the size of the space included within the building. Such hammels, within long narrow open courts, hâve gone out of use in Haddingtonshire, and in Scotland generally ; and justlÿ so, on account of the expense of litteiing them, supplying them with food, and removing from these long narrow spaces the accumulated manure. To a farmer who fattens short-horned cattle, so tame that several of them may be put together in a very small space, hammels may be of use ; but where, as with us, young active cattle from the Highlands and other northern districts are put up to feed, it is often a month or more before only two or three cattle, boughtFARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 535 XXXIV.536 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. XXXVI.FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 537 promiscuously in a market, agréé when put together into a hammel ; and the loss, in conséquence, is often considérable. In the neighboürhood of Haddington, there was a 'Set of excellent hammels erected about fifteen years ago, but open sheds with large courts are now substituted for them. Well sheltered courts are almost every where employed, in Haddingtonshire, for fattening cattle; but it must be remembered that with us, it is generally a difficult matter to convert straw into manure, from the abundance of it, and the dryness of the climate.” The ample details in the spécification of this Design will give a very complété idea, to the Architects of other districts, liow farm buildings are executed in the first agricultural district in the island ; and they cannot fail to observe the substantial and durable nature of the materials and the workmanship employed. There are two or three minor conveniences and comforts .which we could wish to intro- duce ; and that prominent feature, the chimney to the steam-engine, might, we should hope, be placed centrally with reference to the range or side to which it belongs. But, whetlier the shaft of the steam-engine can be placed centrally or not, we sincerely hope that the landed proprietors of Scotland will not suffer their country to be disfigured with the inélégant forms of engine-chimneys, which hâve hitherto been erected in those farmeries where steam has been adopted. We hâve little doubt that it will soon be pre- ferred to either horses or wind, on ail large corn farms on every part of the island. Tall engine chimneys, therefore, promise to be as common in the corn districts, as they are now in Lancashire, and we hâve only to point out the latter as beacons to be avoided. Under the head of Exterior Finishingof Farmeries, in Section III., we shallgive someto be imitated. Since it is so difficult to turn straw into manure in East Lothian, we could wish to see ail that is used for fodder eut into chaff, and mixed with succulent food, salted and watered ; and we could wish also to see the liquid manure collected in tanks, and pumped up daily, or twice a day, and distributed over a covered dunghill, in the manner which has been already described, § 1019. It will, no doubt, be considered presumptuous in us to find fault with any agricultural practice prévalent in East Lothian : let it be recollected, however, that great improvements hâve, within the last twenty years, taken place even in this district, and that farther advances may be made. The dryness of the atmosphère appears to us a strong argument in favour of covering the dunghills, as well as of collecting liquid manure to moisten them ; and feeding horses and cattle with eut straw and some liquid food, in order, among other advantages, to increase the quantity of liquid manure. It will be observed that several local terms are spelt differently in this spécification from what they are in those of Mr. Newall, § 907, Mr. Green, § 979, Mr. Ross, § 1053, and even the Committee of the Highland Society, § 1200. We hâve deemed it better to give the spelling, in each spécification, as we received it, hoping to be able to discover and insert that which is préférable, and also to généralisé many of the local terms in the Glossarial Index. Design XXXV. — A Farm House and Farmery at Elcho Castle, Perthshiref adapted for a Farm of Six Ploughs, under the Turnip Husbandry. 1130. The General Appearance is shown in the isometrical view, page 535; the ground and chamber plans of the house in figs. 1062 and 1063, and the ground plan of the farmery in fig. 1064. Figs. 1065, 1067,1068, and 1069 are geometrical élévations. 1062 1063 1131. Accommodation, The ground plan of the house, fig. 1062, shows two parlours a a; a family bed-room on the same floor, b; kitchen, c; wash-house, d; lobby and staircase, e ; pantry, /; coal-house, g ; dairy, h; and cellar, i. The chamber floor, fig. 1063, contains four good béd-rooms, h ; and a servant’s bed-room, 7.—In the farmery, fig. 1064, a and c are poultry-houses ; b is a boothy, or single men’s lodge, with a becU 3 n538 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE, Ft. 10 0 20 40 60 room over; ddd are houses for railch cows; e e e, stables, with hay ; above ; /, house for grass, or other green food for the horses ; g, ouse or e S > hf feeding-chamber ; i, straw-house ; k, corn- 'TtU llttlIIlliiT W ’ffiî 1065 room ; l, chaff-huose ; m, mill-shed ; n, cart- shed, and granarv above ; o, potato-house ; p, boiling-housej r r, cattle-sheds ; s s, turnip-houses ; 11, straw yards ; uuuu, pig- geries; v9 water-cistern ; w w, water-tank; x x x x, turnip cribs or boxes ; y y g y » straw racks, and z, watercourse for driving the water-wheel of the threshing-machine, when v/ater is abundant.FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 539 1132. Construction. The walls are of stone, eighteen inches thick, and those of the barn, and of ail the other buildings of two stories, two feet thick at the surface of the ground, and eighteen inches at top; the roofs are covered with slate. Fig. 1065 îs a front élévation of the farmer’s dwelling-house. Fig. 1066 shows the position of the house relatively to the farmery, in which a is the house ; b, the kitchen- garden ; c, a grass field planted with fruit trees as an orchard ; d, the farmery ; and c the rick-yard. Fig. 1067 is an élévation of the farmery from the south. Fig. 1068540 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 1068 is an élévation from the east, and fig. 1069 is a west élévation. Other particulars of construction will be found in the following descrip- tive particulâr, sent by W. M. Mackenzie, Esq. Architect, the author of the Design : — 1133. The Situation fixed upon was nearly level, and the straw-yard was eut out hollow in the centre, of a basin figure, that form being most advantageous for retaining the moisture among the manure. 1134. In the General Arrangement, the highest of the buildings front the north and east, as best suited for the purposes to whieh those parts of the steading are to be applied, and at the same time adding to the comfort of the cattle in the sheds and straw-yards, by sheltering them in the directions which are generally the coldest. The pigsties on thu south, and the byres, &c., on the west, being low buildings, do not shade the straw-yard and cattle-sheds, but admit the rays of the sun to ail parts of them. The farm house is situated on the south-west of the steading with the kitchen court adjacent to the cow- byre, calf-ward, &c. ; thus keeping the offices which are managed by the house servants in the one division, and those under the management of the farm servants in the other divi- sion, of the establishment. 1135. The Threshing Machinery being placed in a corner of the square, discharges the threshed corn into the clean-corn room, in the direction of the granary which occu- pies the upper story of that side of the square, and the straw is thrown from it into the straw-house, which is in the direction of the straw chambers, over the feeding-byre, stables, &c., on the other side of the square. By this arrangement the clean-corn room communicates with the granary, which cornes three feet over it, and extends from this point over the cart-shed and boiling-house. In this three feet of the granary which cornes over the corn-room is placed a trapdoor, through which the sacks are drawn up by means of a wheel and axle, and are then placed in a miller’s barrow, and wheeled into the granary. In this way the clean-corn room occupies a side of the square apart from the offices allotted for the bestial (beasts), and other apartments connected with them ; and, as the corn-room can be locked up the moment the operation of threshing is finished, no opportunity is left for the grain being pilfered or injur'ed. The granary, in this situation, has not only the advantage of the ventilators in the side walls, but it has also the benefit of the free air in the open cart-shed under it, which acts upon the grain through the joints of the floor. The cart-shed under the granary, besides being béné- ficiai to it for air, is convenient, parti cularly where a farm is situated at a considérable distance from a market town ; or, in the winter season, when the carts are required to be loaded on the evening preceding the market day, as it can be done before yoking, and without moving the carts from under their cover, by means of the trapdoor in the centre passage of the granary, which passage is at ail times kept clear from grain. In the straw- house a trapdoor is placed over the straw-rack, and when the lower part of the house is packed full, this trapdoor can be shut, and the straw carried along the upper floor to the straw-chambers over the stables and feeding-byre. These apartments will contain the straw of three large ricks, which will enable the farmer to keep different kinds under cover, and in separate divisions. A door five feet square is placed opposite the passage which extends along the centre of the straw-yard for taking out straw for the cattle-sheds, cow-byres, &c., if at any time required, but in general these are supplied from the low straw-house. The threshing-machine is one of six-horse power, and is im- pelled by water, but is so planned that horses can be employed if the water run short : in this Design, however, the horse-shed is not executed. 1136. The circular Feeding-byre, which will contain eighteen cattle, is by far the most commodious and convenient arrangement for a farm of this extent. The figure of the stalls being broad behind gives more space for the cattle when lying ; and, as a greater quantity of bedding (litter) is requisite, more manure, of course, will be made ; at the same time admitting a more abundant supply of fresh air, by having the advantage of one large ventilator in the centre of the circle serving the whole. The eighteen cattle are put up in double stalls in pairs ; they are bound up one on each side of the travis (partition, pro- bably from traverser, Fr. to cross), which is made high enough to prevent the hornedFARM HOUSKS AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 541 cattle from touching one another, at the same time keeping the heads of each pair at such a distance apart as not to be able to injure, or eat, one another’s turnips. The bands are fixed to upright iron rods about three quarters of an inch in diameter, which are screwed together through the travis. The lower part of the Windows in the back wall of the byre are filled with louvre (luffer) boarding, which can be opened to any degree for admitting air, or shut altogether, at pleasure. The feeding-ports (openings), which surround the feeding-chamber, hâve small doors hung with pulleys, lines, and weights, similar to a common window, which by moving upwards, do not interfère with, or occupy, any part of the feeding-chamber. The wall at the cattle’s heads, surrounding the feeding-chambers, is built to the full height of the joists, which keeps the turnip- barrow out of the view of the cattle, and does not disturb the one division of them while the man is in the act of feeding the other. This is important, as the quieter the cattle are kept the better, quietness being no doubt essential to quick fattening. 1137. A commodious Straw-chamber is got over the byre, in a connected range with the straw or hay chamber over the stable; the roof, which is of considérable height, serving the double purpose of covering the feeding-byre, and containing a very large quantity of straw immediately over it. Racks are placed over the several stalls, which are filled from the straw-chamber above. By this arrangement, the cattle hâve it in their power to eat straw and turnips alternately, if inclined. The access to the straw- chambers over the byre and stables is by a stair which is common to both, and upon the plate (first landing-place) of the stair is placed a door, which divides the stable from the ieeding-byre ; the upper flight of the stair is undërstood to be a hanging one, leaving a useful space under it for holding the byre implements. By the whole arrange- ment half the labour of feeding and attending the cattle will be saved. 1138. The Stabling consists of eighteen stalls, three of which are separated from the general farm stable, but are so situated as to admit of the racks being supplied from the general straw or hay chamber over the common farm stable. They are undërstood to hâve two sets of racks ; the upper one for hay or straw, and the under one for grass. Although the under racks appear the most natural for the horses to eat from, it is found that they do not eat the straw or hay so clean out of them as they do out of the upper racks ; but these under racks are the most convenient for the grass, as it should always be put in from the stall below, without passing through the hay-chamber ; being, in its damp State, very hurtful to the wood floor above. 1139. The Turnip-shed, which is right opposite the feeding-byre, is also conveniently situated for supplying the cattle in the straw-yard ; and, as it is not required for turnips in summer, it may be used for, and serve the double purpose of, a grass-house. 1140. The Cow-byres hâve ventilators placed over each line of heads; they cross the ridge, and are formed of lead of a triangular figure, the sill-piece being overlapped by the sides far enough to prevent the rain from getting in. The calf house and ward, and the cow-byres, which fall under the class of offices more immediately connected with the house, hâve doors facing the kitchen court, which makes the access tothem convenientand clean. The opposite doors are used for driving out the cattle, and for wheeling the dung into the straw-yard. The causewayed court in front of the byres, besides being con- venient for carting in the turnips, affords space for the cows to move about in, or to stand in for a short time; and, as the cattle always make dung when they are driven out, by allowing them to remain for a few minutes in this passage or court, the dung that might otherwise be wasted on the roads is preserved, and thrown into the straw-yard. 1141. The several Drains leading from the byres, stables, and straw-yard hâve such declivities as to discharge the liquid manure into the tank, which is constructed on one side of the straw-yard, in a central situation for the byres, stables, &c. It is twenty-one feet long, five feet broad, and seven feet deep ; and, if the nature of the soil be porous, it should be plastered over with Roman cernent, to prevent the thin liquid manure from escaping. Being of this long and narrow figure, the tank can easily be covered with pavemënt, which is much cheaper than arching, and takes up less space. The drains should hâve cast-iron plugs placed at about fifteen feet apart, and at these openings a jointed rod fifteen feet long could be put into the drain with a hough (hoe), or piece of plate iron the figure (shape) of the drain, fixed to one end of it ; by which means the drains may be cleaned without breaking up any part of the causewaying ; but, if the drains are properly constructed, they wül not require cleaning for several years. They should hâve a fall towards the tank of at least four inches to the ten feet, and be nine inches wide, six inches deep at the sides, and nine inches at the centre. By having this kind of triangular bottom, the smallest quantity makes a run (current) and forces every thing along with it. The drains through the straw-yard should hâve openings, with grates over them, situated in the lowest part of the straw-yard, to draw off the surplus water after falls of rain or snow. When these drains are not required, the grates may be542 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. easily covered over with dung ; and îf, at any time, the düng is found too dry, movable spouts may be attached to the pump which is placed in the tank, by which means the liquid manure can be regularly spread over the whole straw-yard. A waste drain extends from the tank to an open ditch in front of the steading ; by which means the liquid manure in the tank, if neglected, is carried off when it rises to that level, and is thus prevented from injuring the drains. 1142. The Cattle-sheds, from their situation, face the south, which is of great advântage to the cattle, though often overlooked in laying out farm buildings ; and they are divided in the centre by a passage adjoining the tumip-shed, and opposite the straw-house. This passage rises like an incüned plane, 4 feet from A to B, the side walls or parapets being built up to that height, and forms a fence to both yards. Ail the dung from the feeding-byre and stable is wheeled into the straw-yards by this passage ; which, from its central situation, admits of the stable dung being equally distributed through both yards, and this by the rising passage can be done without opening a door, which prevents the one class of cattle from intermingling with the other, or getting out. Straw-racks are placed in the sheds ; but, by also having them in the centre of the yard, and connected with this passage, they can be conveniently filled, and the cattle are induced to divide, which mixes the dung more generally through the yards. The racks on the extremities of the passage are understood to be movable, and can be laid aside when carting out the dung. The piggeries, from their situation, may be conveniently supplied from the kitchen or boiling-house, and are in both yards. Pigs are very bénéficiai to the dung, from their turning it over and mixing it : they also eat up any partiales of corn among the horses* dung that may not be digested. One small enclosure is provided in each yard, with a trough for feeding young pigs ; thus protecting them from the cattle while eating : but they hâve no house or sty, whicfi induces them to go out among the cattle, and to lie about the sheds. By this arrangement they hâve healthy exercise, enabling them at the same time to provide a part of their food, and be bénéficiai to the dung in both yards. Other two sties are provided for putting up two pair to feed. The gates to the straw- yard may either be of the common form, or be hung with stout ropes, pulleys, and weights. This last is perhaps the best plan, as it secures them from the risk of damage when the dung is being carted out of the yard, and they can be also raised as the straw in the yard rises. 1143. The Cistem-house is of such a height that pipes may be taken from it to the dwelling-house, boiling-house, calf-ward, &c. It may be either supplied from a fountain, if one can be found in the neighbourhood ; or a well may be dug, and a pump placed within the cistern-house. A water-trough is placed in the division wall between the straw-yards ; and a ball-cock is fixed in the centre of the said trough, and shut in by boarding, overlapped by the upper part of the wall, protecting it from injury from the cattle. The cock opens and increases running as the water falls low in the trough, and when the trough is fiill, the floatingball shuts the pipe. By this self-acting supply, the cattle at ail times hâve the command of water, and none of it is wasted ; if supplied from a fountain no attention is necessary, as the cistern will also shut itself in like manner, and the overflow, if any, will go off at the fountain head. Two troughs are placed on the outside for the horses, or the milch cows, and supplied with ball-cocks in the same manner. 1144. The Roof Water, in the inside of thé court, is carried round with eave spouts, and with rain-water pipes at the south extremities leading it into drains. It is a material object to carry off the roof water without allowing its admixture with the manure in the courts. 1145. The Dwelling-house consiste of the following apartments ; viz. upon the ground floor two parlours, a bed-room, kitchen, servants’ bed-closet, dairy, scullery or wash- house, with a small cellar, which may be got under the stair, and a coal-house. The upper floor consists of four bed-rooms and a servants’ bed-room ; but, in cases where more bed-rooms are required, an additional attic room could be got over the wash- house, having access from the same stair. The upper rooms go partly into the roof. 1146. Estimate. — Mason’s Work. £ s. d. 54 roods of rubble building, at 30s................................. 351 : 0:0 810 feet of rybats, soles, and lintels, at ls.......................... 40 : 10 : O 302 feet superficial of hammer-dressed pillars in cart-sheds, at 4d.... 5 : 4:0 60 feet lineal ofcart-shed arches, hammer-dressed, at ls. 6d........... 4 : 10 : 0 98 feet lineal of cattle-shed ditto, at 2s.............................. 9 : 16 : O 52 feet lineal of squares droved, at ls................................. 2 : 12 : 0 378 yards oi causeway in stables and byres, at ls.................... 18 r 18 : O 476 feet superficial of flag division at cattle’s head, at 8d.......... 15 : 17 : 4 1147. Wrighfs and Slater's Work. 1589 yards of wood roofing, at 5s. 3d. ........................ 417 : 10 : 0FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 543 51 roods 6 yards of slatework, at 75s....................................... 190 : 0:0 728 feet superficial of lead ridges, piens, and flanks, at ls................ 36 : 8:0 149 yards of sleepers in flooring in low barn, at 5s. 6d..................... 40 : 19 : 6 511 yards of joisting in granaries and stable lofts, at 6s. 6d............. 161 : 1 : 6 390 feet cubic for safe lintels (inside lintels) and beams, at 3s.......» 58 : 10 : 0 1523 feet lineal for skirting in granary and cow barn, at Ad......... 8 : 14 : 4 140 feet superficial of weather-boards in ventilating the byres, at 6d. 3 : 10 : O 108 yards of plain doors, witli 3 bars each, at 3s. 6d. ................ 18 : 18 : 0 192 feet superficial of luffer board Windows, at 6d. .................. 4 : 16 : O 126 feet superficial in straw-yard gates, at 6d......................... 3 : 3 : 0 24 feet cubic in framès of hung gates, at 3s. 3c?....................... 3 : 18 : 0 4 pulley chains and weights............................................. 2 : 5:0 36 feet cubic in beams at cattle heads, at 3s. 3c?. .......................... 5 : 17 : 0 32 stakes for binding cattle, at 1 s. 6d...................................... 2 : 8:0 50 feet cubic of trevis posts, at 3s. 3c?..................................... 8 : 2 : 6 693 feet superficial of trevis boards, at 6d............ ............... 17: 6:6 222 feet superficial of racks, at 4c?................................... 3 : 14: 0 185 feet superficial of mangers, at 6d.................................. 4 : 12 : 6 36 pairs of crooks and bands for doors, at 5c?................................ 9 : 0:0 3 pairs of cross-tailed hinges, at 2s. 6c?.................................... 0 : 7:6 22 stock locks, at 2s. 6c?................................................. 2 . 5:0 8 sliding bolts of a large size, at 2s. 6c?................................ 1 : 0:0 9 ditto of a smaller size, at 2s............................................ 0 : 18 : 0 45 feet superficial of three glazed Windows, at 2s. 3c?..................... 5 : 1:3 175 feet superficial of stair, at 6d.......................................... 4 : 7:6 46 yards of division walls in the poultry-house, piggery, and necessary, at 2s..................................................... 4 : 12 : 0 153 yards of plaster in granaries, at 5c?.........................•..... 3 : 3:4 46 feet cubic of anchor beams and posts in cart-shed at 3s.............. 6:18:0 ,£1478 : 3:9 1148. Remarks. This Design was procured us by our much esteemed friend Mr. Gorrie, who informs us that it is built exactly on the model of one which obtained a premium for its author from the Highland Society of Scotland. “ The farm of Elcho, where the above farmery stands,” Mr. Gorrie remarks, « is partly clay and partly black land, and may be considered as a fair medium average of Carse of Gowrie farms, as to size, soil, and mode of cropping. Many of the best farms in the Carse of Gowrie contain a proportion of black land, which admits of turnips being raised for feeding. On Elcho, and such Carse farms, the whole is under tillage ; clover, standing only one year in the course, admiting of little pasturage. On black lands, a pair of horses with a plough are equal to the labour of 40 acres; 6 ploughs with 12 horses, and a few supernumerary, are equal to the working of 240 acres. On farms wholly clay, 8 ploughs are necessary for the same extent, under the same rotation of cropping ; and, on such farms, feeding-byres and additional stabling would be requisite. In other respects the plan of Elcho farmery would be suitable, holding out many advantages. Several mills go by water near the northern banks of the Carse, and this element is available near the river Tay. Elcho is situated near the west end of the Carse of Gowrie, and on the south side of the Tay.” To us this Design appears decidedly the most perfect of upwards of a hundred which hâve been sent us from different parts of the country, and from which we hâve chosen those given in the présent section. Its excellence evidently dépends on two things ; first, on the Architect being a thinking and ingenious man, really intent on carrying improvement into every department of his profession ; and, secondly, on his kiwwmg thoroughly the uses of a farm yard. He is, or appears to us to be, among the builders of farmeries, what Mr. Fowler of London is among the builders of public markets, — an Architect of reason, and not a mere follower of precedents ; a man, in short, anxious to do something more than leave his art exactly where he found it. No Architect can improve the arrangement of a building of which he does not thoroughly understand the use ; for which reason, in ail our Designs, we hâve endeavoured to show the uses of ail their different parts ; and we hâve also enlarged on this subject when treating of Fundamental Principles and Model Designs, in a manner which, in a work professedly devoted to Architecture, must, no doubt, hâve surprised many. This we hâve done, because we are convinced that the knowledge of the uses of any building constitutes the essential foundation of ail architectural improvements in it, Deyond that of mere design and taste ; which, it must ,be remembered, are to an édifice anly what dress is to a man, not the man himself. In perusing Mr. Mackenzie’s description of his plan, we find in every sentence evidence of his intimate acquaintance544 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. with the business of the farm yard; and we cannot help being delighted with the im* provements which he has introduced. The circular feeding-house is a new and excellent idea, the whole arrangements of the barn and straw-house are admirable, and, as the author observes, must save a great deal of labour. The inclined plane, and its right and left level elevated branches, for wheeling the manure from the stables into the middle of the cattle courts, without the necessity of opening a gâte, is excellent ; as is the idea of the pump and general supply cistern being placed in a house, to protect them from the frost. In a country where flag-stone abounds, long, narrow, liquid manure tanks are, as shown, préférable to circular or square forms covered by arches, on account of their cheapness. On the whole, we strongly recommend the young Architect to make himself master of this Design in ail its details ; because there are several points in it which he may introduce in the very humblest of farmeries, and because most, or ail, of them should be included in ail extensive ones. Design XXXVI.—A Public House and Farmery ; the Publican being, at the same time, a small Farmer and a Butcher. 1149. Accommodation. The general appearance of this public house and farmery is shown in p. 536 ; the ground plan in fig. 1070 ; and we hâve received from the 1070 Ffc l2,U,Ji'o 12 ^ 36 Ft. author, William Thorold, Esq., Architect and Engineer, of Norwich, the foliowing explanatory details:—“ The words, ‘ Good entertainment for man and horse,*” Mr. Tliorold observes, u formerly appeared on the sign-board of every country alehouse ;FARM HOUSSS AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 5ê5 and, in order that we should maintain the character of ‘good,’it is necessary to make tlie accommodations and appearances correspond with modem refinement, which we hâve endeavoured to do in the présent Design. In fig. 1070, to a scale of 48 feet to an inch, the bar, a, is represented with a bow window, overlooking the road, and is surrounded on the other sides by the entrance lobbies and staircase, being warmed from the back of the kitchen range. The dining or club room, b, is proposed to be occasionally used as a magistrates’ petty sessions room ; the two small parlours, c and d, hâve cellars under them ; the kitchen, e, is approached from the yard, x, by a small porch ; and tliis kitchen should hâve a cooking-range, copper, oven, &c., and must be used also as a baek-kitchen ; but the family washing can be dune in the brewhouse, s. There is a dairy, f; pantry and store-room, g ; and there are six sleeping-rooms on the first floor. There is a butcher’s sale-shop, h ; a lock-up stable, i ; a coach and gig-house, j ; a slaughter-house, k ; and an open stable, l ; with hay-hôuses, m m. Two open lodges are shown at n », with stack staddles over their fiat stone roofs. There is a barn, o, with a wicket at each end to pitch in the stacks. There is a cart-house stable at p ; a loose box for a hackney, q ; a cow- house, r ; brewhouse, s ; cart-lodge, t ; place for fowls, fuel, and women’s privy, v ; a yard for driven cattle, w 1 ; a yard for farm cattle, w 2 ; and a paved yard, x, with pump and water-trough. The house and brewhouse are supposed to be supplied by underground pipes. There is an orchestra at y ; and two vérandas for playing at skittles, or for separate alcôves or pavilions for taking refreshments in, z z. There is a kitchen-garden, A ; a bowling-green and tea-garden, B ; a parish road, C ; and a turnpike road, D. 1150. Construction. The walls may be of rubblestone, bricks, or clay lumps; and the roofs covered with slate. 1151. Remarks. This Design is supposed to be in the plainest possible style; and it is intended to introduce drains, manure tanks, and every other economical arrangement, in its details.” We consider this a very complété Design of its kind ; its author is not only a scientific Arehitect and engineer of considérable practice, but he has also had much expérience in farming, in the county of Norfolk. Design XXXVII.—A House and Out-buildings for a Cheese Dairy Farm of from 300 to 350 Acres, in Cheshire. 1152. Accommodation. The ground plan of the house, which we hâve not given, con- tains a parlour, dining-room, kitchen, or, as it is called in Cheshire, a house-place, cc 1071 staircase ; pantry, with a cellar under ; dairy, with cheese bench ; situation for cheese- presses, and boilers, there are a milk-room, with a cheese-room over it; and a salting- house, also with a cheese-room over it. The farmery contains four cow-houses for six cows each, m ; and two for twelve cows each, o ; with foddering bays, », and cleaning- passages, p, between. There are in the barns two corn-bays, q>. and a threshing-bay, r, where the machinery would be placed if a threshing-machine were employed. There 3 o546 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. is a stable for six horses, t, an hospital for sick horses, u ; a wheelwright’s or carpenter’s shop, v, with a store-room over it ; a steaming-room, w ; a réservoir for liquid manure, æ, with a pump, y ; four inner pig-cots, z, with outer pig-cots and two poultry-houses, aa ; with a poultry-yard, bb. The stack-yard is in the situation, cc, and it contai ns sixty feet in length of hay-sheds, twenty feet wide, and twenty-two feet high, in one or more lengths, as may be most convenient. There are three calf-cots, dd, and sheds may be continued at ee, with a wall atff, so as to form an additional straw or fold yard to that in the centre of the farmery marked gg. 1153. Remarks.— This Design hasbeen made, at our request, by Alexander Ogilvie, Esq., of the Mere, near Knutsford, Cheshire. Mr. Ogilvie was a pupil of the late Dr. Coventry, and has since had extensive practice both as a land steward and as a farmer. We saw his crops and his dairy when we visited him at Mere, in July, 1830, and found them greatly superior to any in the neighbourhood. His dairy practice was also of an improved description ; and, at our request, he has fiirnished us with plans and élévations of his improved cheese-press,which we shall give under the head of Farm House Furniture. The plan of the farmery was accompanied by the following observations: —“ This plan is something near what I should think a house and set of offices ought to be on a farm of from 300 to 350 acres, in Cheshire : but I am sorry to say that the poor tenants of this district are obliged to put up with buildings of a very different description; partly owing to the landlords not liking to see a gentleman farmer in their neighbourhood, and partly owing to the class of men who, in this country, generally hâve the charge of landed property being incompetent to judge of the best System to be adopted for the ultimate and permanent benefit of the estate. There are several things of minor im- portance that hâve been omitted in this Design ; such as a coal-yard, &c. ; but these will not affect the general merits or demerits of the plan. If I occupied such a farm myself, with similar out-buildings, I should certainly hâve a threshing-machine, and that one to be moved by a steam-engine of about six-horse power, by which I could thresh my corn, eut my hay, straw, turnips, &c., and steam my potatoes and other articles. The machine would stand in the one corn-bay, on a loft or platform raised eight feet from the ground, with awinnowing-machine, &c., under it; then the threshing-bay, shown in the plan, would be the place where the straw would be deposited when thrown from the shaker of the machine, and the other corn-bay would become the straw-house. Behind the cow-houses there might be a straw-yard, if required, with sheds for young cattle and young horses during the winter months. This is shown by the dotted lines ee and//.” Design XXXVIII. — A Mixed Stock Farm, in a high (JdUy) Country, employing only One Pair of Horses. 1154. Accommodation. In the ground plan, fig. 1072, are shown a potato-house, a ; spare- house, or place applicable for different purposes, b ; house for young cattle, c ; cow-house, d ; 1072 larger cow-house, e ; small cow-house, /; corn-barn, g ; part of the bai n to be floored and lofted, h ; house for holding wool, to be floored with boards, i ; hay-house, k ; stable, l ; cart-shed, m ; poultry-house, n ; two sheep-sheds, o o ; two pigsties, p ; sheep-yard, q ; and yard for dung, r. 1155. Construction. The walls are of stone, and the roof is slated. The surface on which this farmery stands is supposed to hâve an inclination to one point, to which ail a FARM HOUSES AND FARMERXES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 547 the rain water which falls on the roofs of the houses and on the yards, and ail the liquid manure,, are drained by open gutters, or underground con- 1074 duits, formed in the manner shown in the section %. 1073, 1073 are ^ischarged ,into a tank, of which fig. 1075 is a ground plan, and fig. 1074, a longitudinal section. This tank is about forty-four feet long by twelve feet wide ; the water may enter at one end, and there may be a waste gutter at the other, in case it should at any time be allowed to overflow. “ The sédiment is supposed to settle in the basin. The chaff, or other dry substances, that it is wished to convert into manure, and that are difficult to rot, may also be put in here ; and it is intended that the width and slope of the basin should admit of carts passing through it for carrying off the sédiment. On one side, fig. 1075, u is supposed to be sunk about four feet deep below the bottom of the basin, and the water to be drained thence through a close grating, Sf. A pump is proposed to be put into the well, and to stand sufficiently high above the ground to throw the water into a barrel on a cart, which may tlien be taken to the field, and discharged on the soil, in the same way as the streets are watered in towns. If the grating should not make the water sufficiently free from mud, a small bundle of wheat straw, well drawn, and loosely tied, put up against it, will be found to answer the purpose. A hatchway, or manhole, should be made in the cover of the well, in order to admit of a person going down occasionally to clear it out.” (High- land Soc. Trans., vol. viii. p. 388.) The soil in which this tank or basin is formed is supposed to be rocky or gravelly, in which case a layer of clay puddle should be placed underneath the causewayed bottom, and a vertical stratum of the same material should be put at the backs of the side walls ; but in clay soils this will not be necessary. In fig. 1075, s s are the side walls ; 11, vertical strata of clay puddle; u, the well ; and Sf, the grating. In fig. 1074, v is the layer of clay puddle under the causeway ; w is the grating before the opening to the well ; x, the point at which the water enters ; y, that at which it escapes ; and z; the coping of the side walls. Fig. 1076 is a suitable plan for a gâte for this description of 1U76 màaam: farm yard. “ The right side pillar is intended for a situation where free- stone can be easily ob- tained ; and the left side represents the finishing in a situation where in- ferior stone only is to be got, or where the expense of better finishing is not approved of ; but, if it should be thought préférable, a round pillar may be formed of any kind of inferior stone. The gate-posts are supposed to be ten inches in diameter, circular, or in the octagon form, and sunk in the ground. As it frequently happens that gates into straw-yards are obstructed in their opening, when the courts are becoming filled with dung, it is proposed to hang this gâte about nine or ten inches clear of the surface ; and to make up the space between the surface and the gâte by laying a piece of coarse wood below the gâte, about six or eight inches in diameter, which can be taken out, so as not to obstruct the wheels of carts when the dung is removed from the court. A gâte put together in this way is very substantial; and is easily repaired, when any part of it fails. As a means of preserving the gates in spring, when the cattle leave the yards, they should be ail taken off, and put into the sheds, where they may remain till they are again required. 1156. Remarks. This Design, and those of the six following farmeries, hâve been taken from a collection published in the Transactions of the Highland Society of Scotland, vol. viii. These Designs were composed by Mr. Waddell of Berwickshire, an Architect of great expérience in the laying out of farm buildings, under the superintendence of the committee of the society ; and we are informed by our much esteemed friend, David Low, Esq., Professor of Agriculture in the University of Edinburgh, that he considers548 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. them, though capable of improvement, yet the best which hâve hitherto been published. In conséquence of our having received this opinion from such high authority as that of Professor Low, we hâve deemed it our duty to make a sélection, such as we consider will render our sériés complété. The Designs in the Highland Society's Transactions are prefaced by a general spécification, and some accompanying remarks, from which we hâve made the following extracts and abridgments. 1157. The Designs published by the Highland Society are contrived solely with a view to utility, and to correct the prevailing errors in this description of buildings; viz., that of crowding them together, under the idea of giving them greater compactness ; and that ôf not giving them a sufficient extent of shelter-sheds for the feeding of cattle. “ The last is a fault so universal, that it is only on the larger class of breeding and feeding farms, in the border counties of England and Scotland, that expérience has taught builders fully to avoid it.” “ In giving designs of the outhouses of a farm,” it is judiciously observed, that “ little more can be done than to présent useful examples. Although a certain similarity must exist in the form and arrangement of the parts of ail such buildings, yet these must be modified according to the circumstances of the farm itself, the nature of the soil, the situation with regard to markets, and the particular kind of management to be pursued. No one rule that can be given is of general application ; and the judg- ment of the Architect must be shown in adapting the size, form, and arrangement of the buildings to the nature of the farm, and the wants of the occupier. While every suitable accommodation should be afforded to the tenant, it is the province of the Architect ta take care that the heavy cost of such buildings be not unnecessarily enhanced, either by erecting buildings that are useless, or by giving unnecessary dimensions to such as are requisite. It may be particularly remarked, that the giving unnecessary breadth to the buildings adds materially to tKe expense, by increasing the dimensions of the timbers, and adding to the size of the roofs. At the same time, care must be taken that, in the cow-houses and stables, the animais shall not be cramped from the want of necessary room.” (Ibid., p. 368.) 1158. The most convenient Arrangement of a Farmery “ is in the form of a rectangle, the side to the south being open ; and the farm house being placed at some convenient distance in front of it. The most approved mode of keeping and feeding the larger and finer kinds of cattle is in small sheds, with open yards attached, each capable of holding two animais. In the Designs which follow, the sheds are of larger dimensions, but they can be subdivided where this mode of managing the feeding stock is adopted.” 1159. In arranging this, and the Eight following Designs, “ wherever uniformity and con- venience could not be combined, the preference has been given to the latter ; and nothing has been proposed but what has been found, from expérience, to be useful and practicable. But it is quite impossible, especially in the largest class of farm buildings, to get ail the apartments arranged so conveniently as could be wished, consistently with any degree of regularity ; nor does it seem to be possible to lay down a plan that will suit the wish of ail farmers, there being so great a diversity in the modes of occupation, kind of manage- ment, situation, soil, &c.” 1160. Drainage. “ It is recommended that the liquid manure from the stables, cow- houses, and yards should be carried off, by causewayed open channels, to a pond or tank near to the buildings. This mode of conveying away and receiving the urine and dung- water is conceived to be better in ordinary cases than conduits below ground, which, even when executed in the best manner, will be subject to be choked up from the want of necessary attention to cleaning : further, such sewers become nurseries for rats, not- withstanding every précaution that can be taken. Conduits may be made through the ranges of building, below the floors, at proper places, so as to discharge the liquid into a pond or tank exterior to the farmery.” 1161. Water. “ With respect to watering the cattle in the yards, no indication of the mode of doing so is given in the Designs, as this must dépend on whether the water is got from a stream, or from a well. If a stream cannot be obtained, there are few situations where water cannot be got by sinking a well ; and the best way is to raise the water into a cistern, which may be placed in any of the shelter-sheds or other houses, seven fèet above the ground ; or, if the water will not rise so high, a small apartment may be made for it, and from this it may be conveyed to cisterns with bail cocks, in the different yards and places where it is wanted ; care being taken to lay the pipes so as that they may be easily emptied on the approach offrost.” 1162. The Shelter-sheds and Yards “ should always be open to the south ; and the sheds, unless where they are very large, will be found to answer better with only one opening in front ; as by this means they afford more warmth to the cattle. The usual objection to this is, that one ill-natured beast will keep out the rest: this, however, seldom happens. A farmer of much expérience recently told Mr. Waddell that last year he built up ail the openings, except one, in one of his sheds, and that he knew a greatFARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 54>