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Anthropoid apes,
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ANTHROPOID APES
BT
ROBERT HARTMANN
PROFESSOR IN THE UNIYERSITY OF BERLIN '
WITH SIXTY-THREE ILLUSTRATIONS
NEW YORK
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
1, 8, and 5 BOND STREET
1886CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
I.	The Development of our Acquaintance with
Anthropoid Apes
II.	The External Form of Anthropoid Apes
III.	The External and Anatomical Structure of
Anthropoid Apes, compared with the Human
Structure ...
IV.	On Varieties in the Form of Anthropoids
V.	Geographical Distribution, Habits in a State of
Nature, and Native Names of Anthropoids ...
VI.	Life in Captivity
VII.	Position of Anthropoids in the Zoological System
VIII.	A Summary, together with some Further Con-
siderations of the Anthropomorphism ofr the
Gorilla, Chimpanzee, Orang, and Gibbon
Appendix
PAGE
1
11
55
210
225
257
285
290
309
Index
... 321LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS.
FIO.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
1G.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
PAGR
Aged male gorilla ...	...	...	...	...	14
Ear of a male adult gorilla	...	...	...	17
The young male gorilla, from the specimen in the Berlin
Aquarium of 1876-77	...	...	...	...	22
The same animal at a still earlier age	...	...	23
Ear of chimpanzee	...	...	...	...	31
Young chimpanzee ...	...	...	...	33
Head and shoulders of an aged male orang-utan ...	38
Ear of the orang-utan ...	...	...	...	39
Adult male orang-utan	...	...	...	...	40
Head of the white-handed gibbon	...	...	47
Ear of the white-handed gibbon	...	...	...	48
Left hand of Hylobates albimanus	...	...	49
Left foot of the same animal	...	...	...	50
A wauwau in the left foreground (Hijbbates agilh); in
the background to the right, two slender apes (Semno-
pithecus entellus)	...	...	...	...	51
Skull of an • aged male gorilla in profile	...	...	56
Front view of the skull of an aged male gorilla	... 57
Skeleton of an aged male gorilla	...	...	65
Skull of an aged male chimpanzee	...	...	...	69
Skull of a very young female chimpanzee	...	73
Skeleton of the forearm and hand of the Central African
bam-chimpanzee	...	...	...	...	74
Skeleton of foot of the Central African bam-chimpanzee 76
Skull of middle-aged female orang	...	...	...	77
Skeleton of young orang-utan ...	...	. ...	79
The Zulu king, Ketchwayo, in fighting array, with two
of his men ...	...	...	...	... 85vm
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
pro.
25.	Aidanill, hairless Australian
26.	The same in profile	...	...	...	...
27.	Dewan, Aidanill’s sister
28.	Human ear
29.	Magot (Innuus ecaudatus)
30.	Capucin ape (Cebus capucinus)
31.	Hand Of a very aged male gorilla ...
32.	Hand of a Hammegh from Roseres, on the Blue Nile
33.	Satan’s ape (Pitliecia Satanas). Shows the formation
and mode of using the feet in apes of the New World
31. Human skull
35.	The Neanderthal skull
36.	Lower jaw of Moulin-Quignon
37.	Naulette lower jaw
38.	Lower jaw of chimpanzee ...
39.	Sagittal section through the skull of a bam-chimpanzee
40.	Human skeleton ...
41.	Skeleton of an aged male gorilla
42.	Skeleton of human hand, back view
43.	Section through a platycnemic tibia from Cro-Magnon
44. Section through the tibia of a male gorilla ...
45. Section through the tibia of a male chimpanzee ...
46.	Skeleton of the human foot, seen from above
47.	Coaita (Afefea paniscue)
48.	Muscles of the head and face of a European
49.	Head muscles of a Monjalese negro ...
50.	Head-muscles of gorilla presented in Fig. 3 ...
51.	Palmar muscles of man	...	...	...
52.	Palmar muscles of gorilla ...
53.	Muscular system of the back of a gibbon’s hand ...
54.	Muscular system of the human foot
55.	Muscles on the upper side of chimpanzee’s foot ...
56.	The brain of an orang, seen from the side
57.	Brain of the chimpanzee, seen from above
58.	Brain of gorilla, side view ...
59.	Brain of orang, seen from above
60.	Longitudinal section of a gorilla’s brain
61.	Mafuca ...	...	...	...	...
62.	The home of the gorilla ...
63.	Climbing orang-utan, seen from behind ...
PAGE
88
88
90
93
94
98
103
104
106
108
115
119
120
120
123
132
133
136
13S
138
138
140
142
151
152
153
168
169
170
177
178
191
192
193
194
196
216
230
244ANTHROPOID APES,
CHAPTER I.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF OUR ACQUAINTANCE WITH
ANTHROPOID APES.*
Our first acquaintance with the great anthropoid
apes dates from the times of remote antiquity. The
West Coast of Africa, which is the abode of
these animals, was known to the Carthaginians as
early as B.c. 500. In b.c. 470 Hanno set out with
sixty fifty-oared galleys, laden with colonists and
merchandise, on a grand expedition across Morocco
to Upper Guinea. The object in view was partly
mercantile, partly undertaken with the purpose of
establishing a colony. It seems that at that time
pioneering expeditions had previously taught them
how far the coast was adapted for colonization.
The Carthaginians met with “gorillai” on the
lower range of the mountains of the Isle of Sherboro,
* A list of the numerous authorities for the substance of this
chapter is placed at the end of the volume.2
ANTHROPOID APES.
and in the mountainous district of Sierra Leone (1).
These are described as hairy sylvan creatures who
replied to the attacks of the seafarers by throwing
stones at them. Three of these monsters, of the
female sex, were captured, hut they bit and scratched
so furiously that it was necessary to kill them on
the spot. Pliny relates that at the time of the
Roman invasion, b.c. 146, two of the skins obtained
on this occasion were still preserved at Carthage, in
the temple of Astarte (2). It was subsequently
shown that chimpanzees, not true gorillas, were
described in these “gorillai.” The latter animals
are not now found so far north.
An old representation of the chimpanzee, in mosaic,
was found on the pavement pf the temple of Fortuna
at Praeneste (now Palestrina). This mosaic is now
in a museum at Rome, and has been described by
several authors. It represents a scene in tropical
Africa, probably on the Upper Nile. I find it
difficult to recognize the chimpanzee on the mosaic
amid the giraffes, hippopotami, crocodiles, and the
other representatives of the animal world of tropical
Africa (3). But it is well known that these large
apes are found on some of the streams of the Upper
Nile, as in Niam-Niam and Uganda. Pliny writes
of these animals : “ On the Indian mountains to the
south, in the land of the Catharcludi, there are
satyrs. These are the swiftest of creatures, some-
times going on all fours, sometimes upright like
men, and they are so active that they can only be
captured when old or sick ” (4). These satyrs have
been identified with the orang-utan, but the gibbonOUR ACQUAINTANCE WITH ANTHROPOID APES. 3
may also be intended, which is swifter and more
agile, when in an upright position, than the orang-
utan.
Subsequent to the remote period which we have
cited, there is a long silence respecting these re-
markable animals. Only at the time when
Portugal became subject to the power of Spain, we
hear something about them from Congo and Angola.
The sailor Eduardo Lopez gave an account of the
chimpanzee, which was published by Pigafetta in
1598 (5). There are later accounts of very large
apes in the writings of Pedro da Cintra (6), Father
Merolla of Sorrento (7), Froger (8), and William
Smith (9).
Smith gives a representation of the chimpanzee
under the erroneous name of the mandril (Cyno-
cephalus Maimon). The illustration is bad, but
it may be recognized by his description. In 1641
the Dutch anatomist N. van Tulpe (Tulpius) gave
a better illustration of this anthropoid (10). This
naturalist observed that the animal in question,
Homo sylvestris or orang-utan (Satyrus indicus), is
called quojas morrou by the Africans. An
anatomical description of the chimpanzee, which is
still of great value, was given by Tyson in 1699
(11). The anatomical illustrations included in this
work are remarkably well executed for that time.
Our biological acquaintance with the West
African anthropoids is considerably increased by
the account given in the sixteenth century by
the adventurer Battel, of Leigh, in Essex. This
man passed through the forests of Lower Guinea, as4
ANTHROPOID APES.
sergeant of the Portuguese troops under the command
of the Governor of Angola, Don Manuel Silveira
Pereira. In 1613 Battel’s account was published by
his neighbour Purchas in his Pilgrims (12). Battel
speaks of two kinds of large apes, the engeco and
the pongo, which inhabited the forest on the banks
of the Banna and the Mayomhe. The engeco
corresponds to the ndjeko or nsehego (chimpanzee),
the pongo to the n’pungu of Loango, or the gorilla.
Battel’s description of the habits of these animals
affords some characteristic touches which will
concern us presently. We may date our earliest
acquaintance with the largest of all the anthropoids
from this adventurer’s career.
The Dutch physician Oliver Dapper published
in 1668 a detailed description of Africa (13), in
which there is much of value, and he mentions the
large apes, called quojas morrau or morrou, which
inhabit the kingdom of Congo (14). By these he
apparently means the chimpanzee.
Some account, unfortunately rather vague, of the
gorilla has been recently given by Bowdich in his
very interesting work on the “ Mission of the Anglo-
African Company to Ashanti ” (15). He says that
there are several remarkable species of apes in the
territory of the Gaboon, among which the ingenu
(gorilla) is the strangest. The natives asserted that
this animal is much larger than the orang-utan,
generally five feet tall, and four feet broad from
shoulder to shoulder.
In 1847 Dr. Savage, a Protestant missionary on
the Gaboon, reported to the distinguished anatomistOUR ACQUAINTANCE WITH ANTHROPOID APES. 5
Owen that there was an ape in that country larger
than the chimpanzee. In addition to this informa-
tion, he sent some drawings of skulls by the wife of
an English missionary, Prince, in which the supra-
orbital arch is strongly developed. Savage gave
to the animal the name of Troglodytes Gorilla, to
distinguish it from Troglodytes niger, the chim-
panzee. Owen also described two skulls of gorillas,
sent to him from the Gaboon (16). The skull of
a gorilla, sent to Boston by the missionary Wilson,
was drawn and described by Professor Jeffreys
Wyman, and with it the notes of the donor were
also published (17). In 1851 the skeleton of a
gorilla reached Philadelphia through the medical
missionary H. A. Ford, who also published the latest
accounts of the new anthropoid (18). In 1849
some remains of a gorilla reached Paris through
Gautier Laboulaye, and this valuable contribution
to natural history was received by de Blainville
and Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. In 1851 and
1852 more perfect remains were presented to the
Museum in Paris by Dr. Franquet and Admiral
Penaud. In the finely illustrated works by de
Blainville (19), Is. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (20), and
Duvernoy (21), they are represented with great care.
A splendid illustration of one of these specimens,
excellently stuffed, consisting of an adult male,
adorns the Photographie zoologique, by L. Bousseau
and A. Deveria, which has, so far as I am aware,
been published without any text (22). This illus-
tration is so true to nature that I made use of it in
one of my earlier publications (23).G
ANTHROPOID APES.
Paul Belloni du Chaillu, born in North America
of French parents,and reared in his father’s mercantile
house on the Gaboon, spent the years 1855-65 in
roaming through the lands bordering on the Gaboon,
the Ogowe, and the Fernao Yaz; he professed to
have taken part in gorilla-hunts, and he published
several books about his travels (24). Critical light
has been thrown upon these works, especially by
A. E. Brehm and Win wood (25); the illustrations
are defective, and the text is full of tales of ad-
venture. Du Chaillu’s information respecting the
African anthropoids was published in the Proceed-
ings of the Zoological Society of London (26). His
remarkable collection of the remains of apes has
been described by Jeffreys Wyman (27), to whom
we are also indebted for a notice of the materials
collected by Savage (17).
Owen has published instructive anatomical treatises
on the gorilla and the chimpanzee, in addition to
those already cited. This English professor had
the opportunity of dissecting a young male gorilla,
imperfectly preserved in spirits of wine (28). The
travellers Burton (29), de Compiegne (30), Savon-
gnan de Brazza (31), Lenz (32), the members of the
German-African Loango Expedition (33), and Yon
Koppenfels (34) have also contributed some infor-
mation respecting the gorilla in a wild state. Other
works on the zoology and anatomy of this animal
have been published by Duvernoy, already cited,
Dahlbom (35), Haeckel (36), Flower (37), Issel (38),
Giglioli (39), Chapman (40), Mivart (41), Maoalister
(41a), Von Aeby (42), Lucae (43), Ecker (44),OUR ACQUAINTANCE WITH ANTHROPOID APES. 7
Bolau (45), Pansch (46), Lenz (47), A. B. Meyer
(48), R. Meyer (49), Bischoff (50), Ehlers (51),
Virchow (52), Von Bar (53), by the author of this
work (54), etc. Duvernoy, Chapman, Bischoff, Bolau,
Ehlers, and I have, like Owen, been able to dissect
perfect specimens of the gorilla. Two of the speci-
mens which came into my hands were unquestionably
in the besta condition, since I obtained them imme-
diately after their deaths in Berlin. A larger
specimen of a female, 1000 mm. tall, was in worse
preservation, yet still quite available for the purposes
of study.
The list of anatomical treatises on the gorilla is
not yet exhausted. Valuable information may be
found in the anthropological works by C. Vogt (55),
in the writings of Pruner-Bey (56), and Magitot (57),
in Darwin’s works (58), in Histoire Naturelle des
Mammif'eres, by Gervais (59), in Huxley’s Anatomy
of Vertebrated Animals (60), in Flower’s Osteology of
the Mammalia (61), in Giebel’s Odontographie (62),
and in many other handbooks and treatises on natural
history, which want of room forbids me to mention.
In 1860, so far as I am aware, the first living
gorilla reached England. It survived its arrival
seven months, and a good illustration of this
creature, accompanied by a brief description, has
been recently published in the Proceedings of the
Zoological Society of London (63). In 1876, to-
wards the end of June, Dr. Falckenstein brought
the second living gorilla from Loango to Berlin.
It had been kept in confinement in that country
at the German station Chinchoxo since 1874, and8
ANTHROPOID APES.
it died on November 13, 1877, at the Berlin
Aquarium. Dr. Hermes obtained a third specimen
in September, 1881, which died soon after its arrival
in Berlin. In 1883 a fourth still survived in the
Berlin Aquarium.
The chimpanzee became the more general object
of zoological and anatomical study at an earlier
period, since the species occupied a wider area than
the gorilla, and is more easily captured. I have
already mentioned Hanno’s observations on the
subject, and the animal described by von Tulpe. In
1740 Buffon had seen a young specimen of the
chimpanzee, and another was in existence in London
at the same time. In vol. 35, pi. 2, of his Natural
History, Buffon gives an illustration of the chim-
panzee, and pi. 3 represents an orang-utan, not very
true to nature, but still recognizable (64). It is
commonly supposed that the Dutch traveller Bosman,
cited by Buffon, was acquainted both with the gorilla
and the chimpanzee. He speaks of an ape about
five feet high, living near Fort Wimba “ d’une
couleur fauve ” (65). Although Buffon was ac-
quainted with the names chimpanzee and chimpezee,
as well as with Battel’s surmises about the pongo
and the enjeco, yet he regarded the jockos, pongos,
and orangs as animals all belonging to one species.
The young African animals observed by him and
von Tulpe (chimpanses) must have been young
pongos (66). The name pongo was afterwards ap-
plied to the old misshapen orang-utan. The skin
and skeleton of the chimpanzee observed by Buffon
when still alive, was preserved in the ZoologicalOUB ACQUAINTANCE WITH ANTHROPOID APES. 9
Museum in Paris as late as 1842 (67). There is a
beautiful illustration of a young female which lived
in the menagerie of the Jardin des Plantes in Paris
in 1838 in the catalogue of this noble institution
(68). This illustration, in which the animal is re-
presented on all fours, has since been frequently
copied. Copies have also been made of the drawings
of the same individual in a walking position, and
swinging by one arm, which originally appeared in
Velins’ famous catalogue of the Museum of Paris.
Is. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Dahl bom have given
good illustrations of the head and body of an old
male chimpanzee (69). Numerous, and for the most
part correct, pictures of the chimpanzee have been
given in several modern works and illustrated papers
(70). Undoubtedly the best representations of the
chimpanzee, corrected from photographs taken from
life, are found in my osteological treatise on the
gorilla which appeared in 1880, and also in the
little book which preceded it (71). The form and
mode of life of this species of ape are fairly well
described by Bischoff (72), as well as in the books
already mentioned, and especially in those by Tem-
minck (73), Gervais, Reichenbach, and Brehm.
Recently the opportunities of describing the bodies
of chimpanzees have been frequent. Remarks on the
anatomy of this animal may also be found in the
works of Tyson (11), Vrolik (74), Champneys (75),
Briihl (76), and Schroeder van der Kolk and
Yrolik (77), as well as in the works we have already
mentioned by Owen, Duvernoy, Bischoff, Issel, Gig-
lioli, Lenz, etc. Du Chaillu (26), Duvernoy (78),10
ANTHROPOID APES.
Bischoff (50), Gratiolet and Alix (79), A. B. Meyer
(80), and the author of this work (81) have treated
of the external form and internal structure of new
species of apes, and varieties of the chimpanzee.
Much has been written about the orang-utan since
Vosmaer’s (82) day, among others by Bademacher
(83), Wurmb (84), Griffith (85), Temminck (86),
Schlegel and S. Muller (87), Is. Geoffroy Saint-
Hilaire (88), Brooke (89), Abel (90), and Wallace
(91). Camper (92), Owen (93), J. Muller (94),
Schlegel and S. Muller (95), Heusinger (96), Du-
mortier (97), Briihl (98), Bischoff, Langer (99), etc.,
have studied the anatomy of this animal. Good
illustrations of the orang-utan are found in Velins’
catalogue, copied byChenu (100) and Gervais (101),
and in Wallace; also in the designs by Miitzel (102)
and Max (103), and in my work on the Gorilla,
already cited.
It had been already shown by Tilesius (104) and
Cuvier (105) that Wurmb’s young pongo is identical
with the orang of Linmeus. We now know cer-
tainly that the name pongo (n’pungu in Loango)
should only be applied to the gorilla.
The fourth and smallest species of anthropoid
apes, the Indian long-armed apes or gibbons, have
been recently ^escribed, with reference to their form
and mode of life, by various travellers and naturalists,
especially by Duvaucel (106), Bennet (107), Martin
(108), Lewis (109), S. Muller (110), Diard (111);
also by Buffon (112), Is. Geoffrey Saint-H ilaire (113),
and Blyth (114), etc. Gulliver (115), Bischoff (116),
and the author of this work have studied the
anatomy of these creatures.. CHAPTER II.
THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES.
In the gorilla, the chimpanzee, and the orang-utan
the external form is subject to essential modifica-
tions, according to the age and sex. The difference
between the sexes is most strongly marked in the
gorilla, and these differences are least apparent in
the gibbon.
When a young male gorilla is compared with an
aged animal of the same species, we are almost
tempted to believe that we have to do with two
entirely different creatures. While the young male
still displays an evident approximation to the
human structure, and develops in its bodily habits
the same qualities which generally characterize the
short-tailed apes of the Old World, with the exception
of the baboon, the aged male is otherwise formed.
In the latter case the points of resemblance to the
human type are far fewer; the aged animal has
become a gigantic ape, retaining indeed in the
structure of his hands and feet the characteristics
of the primates, while the protruding head is some-
thing between the muzzle of the baboon, the bear,12
ANTHROPOID APES.
and the boar. Simultaneously with these remark-
able alterations of the external structure there occurs
a modification of the skeleton. The skull of an
aged male gorilla becomes more prognathous, and
the incisor teeth have almost attained the length of
those of lions and tigers. On the upper part of
the skull, which is rounded in youth, great bony
crests are developed on the crown of the head and on
the occiput, and these are supported by the high,
spinous processes of the cervical vertebrae, and thus
supply the starting-point for the powerful muscles
of the neck and jaw. The supra-oi'bital arches are
covered with wrinkled skin, and the already savage,
and indeed revolting, appearance of the old gorilla
is thereby increased. A comparison of the two
illustrations (Figs. 1 and 3) which accompany the
text, will make this clear.
These distinctions are not so striking in the
female as in the male gorilla. Although there is
much which is bestial in the appearance of an aged
female, yet the crests, so strongly marked in the
male, the projecting orbits, and strong muscular pads
are absent in the female, as well as the prognathous
form of the skull and the length and thickness of
the canine teeth. The aged female gorilla is not,
in her whole structure, so far removed from the con-
dition of the same sex in youth as is the aged male.
The structure of the female has on the whole more
in common with the human form. It has been said,
and indeed on good authority, that the female type
should take the foremost place in the study of the
animal structure, since it is the more universal.THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 13
Eut H. yon Natlmsius maintains that we must take
both sexes into consideration in the study of
domestic animals, since both are needed to determine
the breed.* I accept this condition in the scientific
study and description of wild animals also, of every
kind and species. All that is said of the universal
type of the female animal is and must remain in my
eyes a mere phrase. Only the accurate observation
of males and-females, and of young individuals of
both sexes, can throw sufficient light on the history
of the race. The male animal is the larger, and
predominant with respect to the complete develop-
ment of certain peculiarities of form in the specific
organism, since these are doubtfully present in the
adult female, and are either altogether absent in the
immature young, or only rudimentary.
Let us now consider, in the first place, the proto-
type of the species, the aged male gorilla in the
full strength of his bodily development (Fig. 1).
This animal, when standing upright, is more than
six feet in height, or 2000 mm. The head is
300 mm. in length. The occiput, appears to be
broader below than above, since the upper part
slopes like a gabled roof towards the high, longitu-
dinal crest of the vertex. The projecting supra-
orbital arches start prominently from the upper
and central contour of the skull. In this species,
as in other apes, and indeed among mammals
generally, and especially in the case of the car-
nivora, ruminants, and multi-ungulates, eyebrows
* Vortrdge iiber Viehzucht und Eassenlcenntniss, i. 61: Berlin,
1872.
214
ANTHROPOID APES.
Fig. 1.—Aged male gorilla.THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 15
are present. In the gorilla these consist of a rather
scanty growth of coal-black bristles, about 40 mm.
in length. Beneath the projecting supra-orbital
arches are the eyes, opening with somewhat narrow
slits, and with lids which display many and deep
longitudinal folds. The upper lid is set with longer
and thicker eyelashes than the lower. The dark eyes
glow betweeiwthe lids with a ferocious expression.
The bridge of the nose rises gradually outwards
from between the inner corners of the eyes, and is
keel-shaped in the centre. This part of the head
is from 70 to 80 mm. in length, longer and narrower
in one individual, shorter and wider in another.
The skin in this region is covered with a network
of wrinkles of varying size. The end of the nose
and the nostrils are high, conical, and very wide at
the base. This part of the nose, attached to the
very projecting forehead, has the effect of an alto-
gether snout-like muzzle. It is intersected by a
central longitudinal furrow, which divides the whole
tip of the nose into two symmetrical halves. This
furrow is more strongly marked in the case of
adult auimals than in the young. The aperture
of the nostrils is large and triangular, with the
cartilaginous point turned upwards, and the edges
applied to the bridge of the nose and to the cheeks
have a somewhat retreating appearance. The lateral
margins of this part of the nostril take an arched
form, first diverging in different directions, then
gradually converging again towards the upper lip.
The lip is short, and this, combined with the large
nose, gives a certain resemblance to the mouth of16
ANTHROPOID APES.
an ox. This resemblance is the more striking, as
the whole of this region is covered with glandular
skin of a deep black colour, which is either glabrous
or provided with a few scattered hairs, but furnished
with small flattened warts.
Below the eyes the cheeks are broad and very
round, dwindling away and becoming depressed in
the lower part of the face. They are seamed with
curved wrinkles of varying depth, which tend down-
wards in the same direction as the wrinkles on the
lower eyelids. The short upper lip is provided with
oblique folds which converge outwards in the
centre. The points of the strong canine teeth, which
in many individuals are from 38 to 40 mm. long,
and 20 mm. wide, diverge a little from each other,
and stretch the upper lip in an oblique direction,
so that this part of the face takes the form of a
triangular, bevelled surface, with its prominent base-
line between the canine teeth. It may also be ob-
served that in many individuals of this species the
nose is not very deeply set on the upper lip; that in
others, again, the nose is decidedly raised, and the
lip only presents a small hem below the nose. In
many such cases the prognathism of the face is
strongly marked, so as to give a baboon-like effect.
In other specimens, again, this debased type is not
allied with strongly marked prognathism.
If we take a front view of the skull of an aged
male gorilla we see that the upper edges of the
great supra-orbital arches are bevelled off below and
at the sides. This bevelled form is repeated in the
broad cheek-bones, as we see them in front. The frontTHE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 17
view of the head, and indeed of the whole animal,
presents a strongly projecting contour, an impres-
sion which is strengthened by the puffed cheeks,
with their lateral pads of fat. The lower jaw, with
its scarcely indicated chin, retreats in the centre and
dwindles into a triangular form. This contour is
characteristic of the species. The whole skin of the
face is glossy? set with few hairs, and of a deep
black colour.
Fig. 2.—Ear of a male adult gorilla.
The ear (Fig. 2) averages 60 mm. in length, and
from 36 to 40 mm. in width. It seems to be fastened
to the head by the back and upper part, is generally
of an oval shape, and furnished with a strongly
marked helix. The helix varies in width in different
individuals, and often terminates on its inner edge
in the projecting peaked excrescence described by
Darwin, of which I shall have more to say presently.
The anti-helix, tragus, and anti-tragus, and the cleft18
ANTHROPOID APES.
which lies between these two latter parts (incisura
inter tragica) are generally fully developed; the
lobule is more rarely present. Individual variations
in the special structure of these parts may frequently
be observed.
The strong trapezoid muscles are prominent on
the neck, and when the head is stretched they
stand out like pillars on the sides of the neck.
Owing to the great development of the spinous pro-
cesses of the cervical vertebrae and of the muscles
attached to them, and to the occipital bones of the
skull, the neck is very powerful, almost like that of
a bull. The shoulders are remarkable for their
breadth, and the pectoral muscles for their large
size. The nipples of the breast, which are not sur-
rounded by any visible areolse, stand out in youth,
and afterwards assume a horny texture which stiffens
into a kind of bone. When one of these animals is
gorged with food the navel is still apparent on the
tun-shaped, rounded belly, of which the sides fall
in when the stomach is empty.
On the upper and forearms the plastic form of
the strongly developed flexor and extensor muscles
is very apparent, testifying to the enormous strength
of the upper extremities. The hands are large, and
very wide, with short, thick fingers. The thumb,
of which the extremity takes a conical form, is short,
extending little beyond the middle of the second
metacarpal bone. The extremities of the other-
wise broad fingers are somewhat laterally compressed.
The fore-finger is not materially shorter than the
middle finger. The third finger is sometimes shorterTHE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 19
than, sometimes of the same length as, the first, and
the fourth is decidedly shorter. The back of the wrist
is covered with deep oblique folds. A network of
wrinkles, oblique or curved, also covers the skin on
the back of the fingers, on which there are
callosities up to the first joint. The gorilla closes
the fingers when going' on all fours, and turns the
back of the hand on the ground, thus producing
this thickening of the upper skin on the joints.
Callosities of the same nature, although not so ex-
tensive, are not rare on the second finger-joints.
The palm of the hand is covered with a hard, horny
skin, generally beset with warts, especially at the
roots of the fingers. In spite of the blackness of
the skin which covers them, these characteristics are
still apparent.
The fingers are united by a strong web, remind-
ing us of the membrane found on the otter and other
web-footed animals, and reaching nearly to the first
finger-joint. A thick coat of hair extends to the
root of the fingers, although on the backs of the
fingers there are only a few isolated hairs.
The trunk of the body of a gorilla, seen from
behind, somewhat resembles a trapezium in form, of
which the longer of the two parallel sides extends
between the shoulders, and the shorter between the
two halves of the pelvis. The longitudinal sides,
which are not parallel, correspond to the sides of the
back. The arrangement of all the lower part of the
trunk, on which the bones of the pelvis stand out
prominently in an oblique direction, somewhat re-
sembles a four-sided pyramid with its apex reversed.20
ANTHROPOID APES.
The gluteal muscles are not strongly developed.
The tuberosity of the ischium projects in a somewhat
angular form.
While the external sexual organs of the male are
so covered by the wrinkled skin of the abdomen
that they ai-e not prominent in their passive condi-
tion, those of the female are, on the contrary, very
apparent; the external lips of the vagina, provided
with large nymphse, and a large clitoris, are only
apparent when the sexual instinct is excited.
The thighs are covered with strong muscles, which
appear to be smoothed off on the inner side, and
somewhat arched on the outside. The lower part of
the leg is also muscular, and its section is of a long-
oval form; the region of the calf is more strongly
developed than in other anthropoids. The bones of
the foot are not at all prominent, and the same
remark applies to those of the hand. The contour
of the back of the long, broad foot is flat; the sole is
convex, covered with strong muscles, and padded
with layers of fat. When the animal puts the sole
of the foot on the ground, its muscles go back to the
region of the heel, and forward into the inner side
of the foot, thus presenting the primitive formation
of a heel.
The great toe, as in all apes, is detached like a
thumb from the other toes, and can be used as such.
The metatarsus serves as a base for its projection, in
the same manner as the thumb starts from the fore
part of the contour of the wrist. The great toe
sometimes extends as far as the joint between the
first and second phalanges of the second toe, some-THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 21
times nearly as far as the middle of the second
phalanx. This characteristic varies in different
individuals. At the point of union of the first
metatarsal bone with the hinder extremity of the
first phalanx of the great toe, there is a round pro-
jection on the inner side of the foot. The great
toe is very broad at its root, then becomes smaller,
and widens again into a broad final phalanx. With
its strong lateral ridges of skin, which cover the
sinews and cushions of fat, all this part of the foot
appears to be wide and flattened off from the back
to the sole.
The second, third, fourth, and fifth toes are more
slender than the great toe. The second toe is in
most cases rather shorter than the third. The third
and fourth toes are almost of the same length, and
only a little longer than the second toe.* The fifth
toe is considerably shorter than the fourth. The
last phalanges of the toes taper in front, and are fur-
nished on their lower surface with long, laterally
compressed pads. The section of such a phalanx is
almost trapezoidal, with a long upper parallel side.
The upper part of the foot, although generally flat,
rises a little in the neighbourhood of the first meta-
tarsal bone, and slopes thence to its outer edge.
The hair grows thickly on the back of the foot as
far as the extremity of the metatarsal bones, more
sparsely on the back of the toes. There are strongly
marked oblique furrows on this part of the foot,
especially on the joints, often combined with horny
* Comp. Is. Geoifr. Saint-Hilaire, table v.; also Hartmann, Der
Gorilla, p. 14, An in 4.22
ANTHROPOID APES.
callosities, since the animal sometimes doubles up
the toes and runs upon the back of them. The nails
of the hands and feet are black, like the whole of
their skin-covering, distinctly grooved, very much
arched, and generally somewhat wider at the base
than in front.
Fig. 3.—The young male gorilla, from the specimen in the Berlin Aquarium of
1876-77.
On the sole of the foot we find the region of the
heel, the ball of the great toe, in this case resem-
bling the ball of a thumb, the roots and tips of the
toes, together with pads consisting of muscles, ten-THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 23
dons, and skin. The several divisions of these padded
balls are separated from each other by furrows which
are longitudinal, oblique, and transverse, and more
or less distinct from each other. The black skin
which covers the sole of the foot is thick and horny,
but provided with a series of papillae. The whole
skin of an aged animal is of a deep black colour,
somewhat glossy, and covered with intersecting
wrinkles.
Fig, 4.—The same animal at a still earlier age.
The young male gorilla does not essentially differ
from the old male in its general and external ap-
pearance. Its skull is, however, without the crest
which characterizes the latter animal, and is still of
a rounded form in the region of the crown and occi-
put. At this age the head is not so high at the
back and on the top as in aged males. The orbits
are less prominent, the general aspect of the face is24
ANTHROPOID APES.
not so decidedly prognathous, and the bridge of the
nose is shorter. The lines of the body in the young
male are softer and less exaggerated, and the expres-
sion of the face is less ferocious than in an aged
male. The horny callosities on the hands and feet
are altogether wanting or only faintly indicated, and
the hands, fingers, and toes have not arrived at the
powerful development which we observe in the older
animal. (Comp. Figs. 3 and 4.)
Considerable differences may be observed in the
whole structure of the adult female gorilla. The
animals of this sex are smaller and weaker than
males of the same age. The skull of the female is
smaller and more rounded than that of the male,
and the great bony crests are also absent. The orbits
are less prominent, and a front view of the head
gives the impression of a trapezoidal form. The
coronal arch rises above this trapezoid. In the
male, on the contrary, the crown seems to lengthen
above and behind into a pyramidal form. In
the aged female the bridge of the nose is gene-
rally shorter than in the aged male, but even in
this particular there is great variation in different
individuals. Sometimes the bridge of the nose in a
female is much depressed, and then the interval
between the orbits and the end of the nose is
shorter: I intentionally avoid the term tip of the
nose, on account of the blunted form of this organ.
Even when the bridge of the nose is more promi-
nent, the interval between its end and the orbits is
sometimes very short.
The aged female gorilla usually has wider cheeks,THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 25
a smaller nose, and a higher upper lip. This last,
peculiarity is shown in the correct and well-stuffed
specimens in the museums at Paris and Liibeck.
Although in the process of drying, the shin of the
nose may have shrunk a little, yet there is still room
for the upper lip, provided with folds which are either
vertical and parallel or diverge like a fan. Owen
and Miitzel Vhave given satisfactory illustrations of
these parts. In the aged female the shape of the
neck is not, as in the aged male, strong and bulging,
so as to resemble a cowl. Yet it is enlarged in
conformity with the not inconsiderable development
of the spinous processes of the cervical vertebras,
and with that of the powerful cervical muscles.
Even in a young male, of the age of the specimen
which was kept in the Berlin Aquarium, between
July, 1876, and November, 1877, this enlargement
of the neck was present in a marked degree. In
still younger individuals, however, under a year old,
in which the spinous processes of the vertebrae have
not yet been developed, there is no such enlarge-
ment, but, on the contrary, this region of the neck
takes a concave form.
In conformity with the smaller size of the body,
the shoulders, arms, and thighs of the adult female
are smaller than those of the full-grown male, but
they are still very powerful. While giving suck,
the breasts of the female are swelled in the form of
a half-cone, instead of assuming the convex shape
which is observed in many European women, and
still more frequently in those of the negro, Indian,
* Owen, Memoir, etc., plate ii. ; Brehm, Thierleben, i. 56.26
ANTHROPOID APES.
and South Sea races. The nipple is cylindrical
rather than conical in shape, and covered with
finely wrinkled black skin, which is sometimes hard
and horny. When not giving suck, the breasts hang
slackly down, like short empty pouches. The belly
swells in the neighbourhood of the crest of the ilium,
and increases in thickness at the groin. The ex-
ternal sexual organs, in the period of excitement,
swell in a manner resembling the lips of a woman’s
pudenda.
In a young female the cranium is rounded, and
the face is only slightly prominent. In aged
specimens, especially in those of the male sex, there
is a somewhat typical prolongation of that part of
the face which lies between the eyes and the end
of the nose, and this is to a slight extent apparent
in the young female. Variations in form and in the
extent of the prolongation are, however, apparent
even at this early period. The trunk and limbs
are more slenderly built than in a male of the
same age.
The hairy coat of the gorilla consists of long,
thick, straight or stiffly curved bristles, and also of
shorter, thinner, and curled woolly hair. On the
crown of the head the hair is somewhat stiff, from
12 to 20 mm. in length, and it becomes erect under
the influence of anger. While the sides and fore-
part of the chin are only clothed with short, stiff
hairs, they grow thickly on the back part of the
chin, like a beard or forelock. The hairs which
turn outwards from the sides of the face and on the
neck are 30 or more mm. in length. On theTHE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. *27
shoulders the hair is from 130 to 150 mm. long,
hanging down on the upper arms and the back. In
the middle of the upper arm the hair is from 50 to
70 mm. long, growing downwards as far as the bend
of the elbow. At this point it generally begins to
grow in an upward direction. On the back of the
forearm it again grows downwards. In the middle
of the forearm on its inner side, a parting of the
hairs takes place, as one portion goes in front of
the radius, while the other portion turns behind
the ulna. On the back of the wrist a tuft of
curved hair turns upwards; a middle tuft goes
directly back ; and the lower tuft, also curved, turns
outwards. On the back of the hand the hairs turn
towards the fingers. On the breast and belly the
hairs are shorter and grow more sparsely. On the
breast their direction is as a rule upwards and out-
wards. On the belly they converge from the ribs
towards the centre and the navel. On the thighs
the hairs are about 160 mm. long, and here, as on
the lower part of the leg, they tend outwards, while
on the back of the foot they grow towards the toes.
On the back, shoulders, and on the thigh and
leg, the bristles are slightly curved. This quality
increases the general impression of shagginess and
fleeciness which is produced by the hairy coat of
these creatures. The woolly hair does not grow very
thick, and is not much matted.
The colour of the hair not only differs on different
parts of the body, but also in different individuals.
On the crown of the head it is of a reddish brown,
or rarely of a decided brown or black. The hairs in28
ANTHROPOID APES.
this region are sometimes dun-coloured at the root,
greyish white in the centre, and brownish red,
shading into the dark brown tip. The hair on the
lips is sometimes of a blackish brown, sometimes
whitish, or both colours are found together. The
hair growing at the sides of the face is grey below,
dark brown or almost black above. On the neck
and shoulders the hair is of a grey colour at the
root, and gradually becomes lighter towards the tip.
In the centre it is brown, shading into a lighter
colour at either end, but this ringed form of colour
is not universal. The tips of the hair are dark,
sometimes brown or reddish. The hair on the
back, on the upper arms and thighs, is whitish or
light grey for half its length, with a blackish brown
ring towards the tip, which is of a dark grey colour.
Many of these hairs on the back have two brown
rings on them. The forearms, hands, shanks, and
feet are covered with hairs which are grey at the
root, brownish grey, dark brown, or black at the tip.
Round the posteriors there is a circle of white, grey,
or brownish yellow hairs from 10 to 20 mm. in
length. In both sexes variations from the colour of
the coat here described are not rare. It has been
already observed that the brownish red colour of the
hair on the head is sometimes exchanged for another
shade. In many individuals the neck, shoulders,
and back are of a dark grey, brown, or even black
colour. In others the forearms, hands, shanks, and
feet are covered, like the rest of the body, with grey
and brown hair intermingled.
The second species of anthropoid apes is theTHE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 29
chimpanzee. In this case also we must consider
successively the aged and young male, and the aged
and young female animals.
The full-grown chimpanzee is smaller than the
adult gorilla. In this species also the male is larger
than the female. The chimpanzee is, speaking
generally, of a slighter build than the gorilla.
The head *of the aged male chimpanzee funda-
mentally differs from that of the aged male gorilla,
since the skull of the former has a depressed crown,
and the transverse occipital ridge is only faintly
indicated. Since the orbits are also less strongly
developed than in the aged male gorilla, and the
spinous processes of the cervical vertebrae do not
assume the same elevated form which is characteristic
of the latter species, the countenance of the chim-
panzee is not of a square shape, and there is not space
for the strong muscular system arching over the neck
like a cowl, which is so characteristic of the gorilla.
The head of the chimpanzee displays, both in aged
and young specimens, the concave neck which is
common among apes, that is to say, a depression
between the head and the throat. In an aged male
the crown of the head presents a rounded, arched
contour, since, as we have already said, the prominent
bony processes are wanting. Although the supra-
orbital arches are not so excessively prominent as in
a gorilla of the same age, they are strongly developed,
covered with wrinkled, skin, and in this case also
there is a species of eyebrow, stiff and bristly, with
shorter hairs between. The large, wrinkled lids
are furnished with thick eyelashes. The innerso
ANTHROPOID APES.
angle of the eye somewhat resembles that of the
gorilla.
A general physiognomical distinction between
the gorilla and the chimpanzee consists in the fact
that the bridge of the nose is shorter in the latter
than in the former. In the chimpanzee this part
of the organ is depressed, yet the depression is
of a conical and convex form, and is covered with
a network of wrinkles of varying depth. In the
chimpanzee the interval between the inner angle
of the eye and the upper lateral contour of the
cartilaginous end of the nose is shorter than in the
gorilla. There is also some difference in the form
of the nose: it is on the whole flatter, the tip is less
apparent, the nostrils are not so widely opened nor so
thickly padded. (Fig. 3.) In the chimpanzee, as
well as in the gorilla, a central and vertical furrow
directly divides the triangular nostrils, and these
are likewise divided from the rest of the face by the
broad pear-shape furrow which surrounds them. The
upper lip is generally high, sometimes as high as
30 mm.; but in some individuals it is much lower.
As in the gorilla, the chin forms a triangle of equal
sides, with its apex reversed.
The external ear of the chimpanzee has on the
whole less resemblance to the human ear, and its
contour is larger than that of the gorilla. But this
organ varies so much in individuals that it is difficult
to lay down any rule for its average size. It ranges
from 59 to 77 mm. in length, and from 42 to 80 mm.
in width. Many individuals have a distinct lobule
to the ear, others not. (Fig. 5.) In this exampleTHE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 31
the helix and anti-helix are developed, in others
they are wanting. The tragus and anti-tragus are
more or less apparent in different individuals, as
well as the other modifications of the external carti-
lage of the ear.
An aged male chimpanzee has broad, rather
rounded shoulders, a powerful chest, long muscular
Fig. 5.—Ear of chimpanzee.
arms, reaching to the knees, and a long hand, which
seems to be very slender in comparison with that
of the gorilla. The thumbs vary in length, for the
most part reaching as far as the metacarpal pha-
langes, but not in all cases. The middle finger
is longer than the other three; the first and third
fingers are shorter by the length of the last phalanx,32
ANTHROPOID APES.
the third is a little longer than the first, and the
fourth is again shorter. A web, which reaches to
the middle of the first row of phalanges, stretches
between the bases of the four lingers. There are
horny callosities on the back of the hand of the
aged male, since the chimpanzee, like the gorilla,
supports himself on the backs of his closed fingers.
The fingers are laterally compressed, but slightly
arched on the back of the hand, and more decidedly
so on the palm. A net-work of furrows covers the
back of the hand, and these are more deeply im-
pressed on its palm. The thumb is separated from
the palm by a distinct furrow; and from four to
sis furrows of varying depth cross the centre of the
palm. The finger-nails are short, wide, and arched,
very convex at their free edges.
In the aged male the sides of the belly are com-
pressed, the thighs are broad and muscular, and
somewhat flattened both on the inner and outer
sides. The knees are rather prominent, the shanks
are somewhat laterally compressed, and the calf of
the leg is very slightly developed. As in the
gorilla, the long, wide feet have a thumb-like forma-
tion of the great toes, which are of considerable
size. They extend, when drawing anything towards
them, as far as the second phalanx of the second toe.
The four other toes are more slender and only a little
longer than the great toe. The heel is but slightly
developed, and slopes away below. The joint be-
tween the first phalanx of the great toe and the first
metatarsal bone is marked by an angular projection
on the inner edge of the foot. The back of the footTHE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 33
is very slightly convex. The last phalanx of the
great toe is very much sloped off on its upper surface
Fig. 6.—young chimpanzee.
but this is less apparent in the other parts of this
member. The last phalanges of the other laterally34	ANTHROPOID APES.
compressed toes are strongly arched on the under
surface. Considerable convexities may also be ob-
served under the metacarpo-pbalangeal joint of the
great toe and under its last phalanx. The shape of
the toe-nails resembles that of the fingers. Large
callosities are not unfrequently found on the hacks
of the toes, since the animal sometimes supports
himself on these parts. A connective web is found
between all the toes except the great toe and its
neighbour, but it does not extend so far as that
between the roots of the fingers.
Although the young male chimpanzee is dis-
tinguished from the aged male of the same species
by differences in the structure of many of its parts,
yet these distinctions are not so characteristic as
those between the young and aged male gorillas.
The skull of the younger animal, which is altogether
devoid of the prominent bony crest and ridges, is
shaped almost like a truncated cone in the region
of the crown; in some individuals of only a few
years old, the bony development of the orbits has
already begun, starting from the principal part of
the frontal bone, and covered with pads of wrinkled
skin. The short and depressed bridge of the nose
becomes longer and higher, the cartilaginous end
of the nose becomes larger, and the prognathism
of the face increases with each successive stage of
growth. The strength of the trunk and limbs is
early developed. The sexual characteristics are
gradually and plainly developed; but the male
gorilla far exceeds the chimpanzee in demoniacal
ferocity.THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 35
The adult female is smaller, and has a smaller
head, with an oval crown to the skull. The orbits
are not so strongly developed as in the aged male,
the nasal parts are less prominent, and the teeth are
not nearly so strong. The body of an animal of
this sex is rounder in all its parts; and the belly,
with its wider pelvis, is more tun-shaped than in
the aged male. Neither do the limbs display the
same angular formation of muscles.* The hands
and feet of the female are also smaller and slenderer.
In a young female the characteristics here described
are presented in the mitigated form which corre-
sponds with its youthful condition. But the female
sometimes becomes a very strong and even violent
creature. This was often proved in the Hamburg
Zoological Garden, where a female specimen, in
splendid condition, survived for several years under
the faithful care of old Siegel.f
The skin of the chimpanzee is of a peculiar light,
yet muddy flesh colour, which sometimes verges upon
brown. Spots, varying in size and depth of colour,
s imetimes isolated, sometimes in groups, and of a
blackish brown, sooty, or bluish black tint, are found
on different parts of the body of many individuals,
especially on the face, neck, breast, belly, arms and
hands, thighs and shanks; more rarely on the back.
* Comp. Hartmann, Der Gorilla, fig. 8. This is undoubtedly
one of the most successful illustrations of the chimpanzee, its
habits, expression, and disposition.
+ Comp. Hartmann, Der Gorilla, fig. 27, representing the Ham-
burg animal in middle age. Fig. 6 gives the wild Paulina of
the German Loango expedition. The inscription, by an error of
the press, states that it is a male, not a female chimpanzee.36
ANTHROPOID APES.
The face, which is soon after birth of a flesh colour,
merging into a yellowish brown, assumes a darker
shade with the gradual development of the body.
The hairy coat is sleek, or only in rare cases slightly
curled, and the coarser and bristly hair is generally
stiff and elastic. The parting on the forehead is
often so regular that it might have been arranged
by the hairdresser’s art (see Fig. 6). Close behind
that part of the head at which the projecting supra-
orbital ridges of the gorilla generally meet, there is
in the chimpanzee an altogether bald place, or only
a few scattered hairs. Round the face the growth
of hair streams downwards like a beard. On the
neck it is from 60 to 80 or 100 mm. in length, and
it falls in the same long locks over the shoulders,
back, and hips. The hair on the limbs is not so
long, and takes a downward direction on the upper
arm, and an opposite direction on the forearm, while
there is often a longitudinal parting on the centre
of the inner surface of this part of the limb. On
the back of the wrist the hair grows in a kind of
whorl; the upper hairs turn upwards and backwards,
the middle ones turn backwards, the lower ones
backwards and downwards. The backs of the hands
and the roots of the fingers are hairy. On the
front of the thigh the hair takes a downward direc-
tion, while behind it grows backwards. On the
shank it grows downwards in the region of the
tibia, and turns back on the inside of the leg.
The back of the foot and the roots of the toes are
likewise hairy. There is a shorter growth of these
scattered hairs on the face, chin, and ears. On theTHE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 37
8upra-orbital arches there are from eight to twenty,
or even more, stiff, scattered hairs, after the manner
of eyebrows ; and eyelashes are likewise present.
In most cases the hair of the true chimpanzee is of
a black colour. Short whitish hairs may be observed
on the lower part of the face and chin, as well as
round the posteriors. Sometimes the colour of the
hair is shot throughout with reddish or brownish
black.
The orang-utan, the chief representative of the
anthropoids in Asia, differs from the African forms
of this group, almost at the first glance, in the
height of his skull, of which the fore-part is com-
pressed and shortened in a backward direction. In
the aged male it is, however, provided with high
and erect bony crests, which give a prognathous ap-
pearance to the countenance. We take an aged
male as the type of our description.
The forehead is high and erect, not retreating
like that of the chimpanzee; it is open, and has
moderately convex frontal eminences. From the
centre of the forehead a round or bluntly oval
eminence sometimes projects. The supra-orbital
ridges are strongly arched, yet not so prominent as
that of the aged male chimpanzee, setting aside
that of the gorilla. The eyes are not widely opened,
nor are their lids large and furrowed, but on the
lower lids there are deep wrinkles. The small
bridge of the nose is generally much depressed, but
sometimes assumes a slightly conical form as it
issues from the central longitudinal depression of
the face. The end of the nose, further removed
338
ANTHROPOID APES.
from the eyes than is generally the case in the
chimpanzee, is not so broad as it is in the latter
animal and in the gorilla. The wings of the nose
are narrow and highly arched in their upper part,
divided from each other by a vertical furrow, and
the nostrils are small and oval, separated by a thin
partition. The upper lip is high, broad, and projec-
Fig. 7.—Head and shoulders of an aged male orang-utan.
ting, and seldom much wrinkled. It is divided from
the cheeks and from the upper part of the face by
a deep depression; and behind the cheeks two large
and long-shaped or sometimes triangular pads of fat
often project forwards and downwards.
The very mobile lips are furrowed, and not
remarkably thick. The chin is very retreating,
but somewhat uniformly rounded in front (Fig. 7).THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 39
The small ear averages 55 mm. in length, and
12 mm. in width, and has a general resemblance in
structure to the human ear (Fig. 8). On the fore-
part of the short, thick neck there are irregular,
and in some places very deep
circular folds of skin. The
throat-pouch distends part of
this slack, wrinkled skin, which
hangs down in front like a great
empty wallet (see Figs. 7 and 9).
The structure of the other
parts of the body lacks even to
some extent the powerful and
symmetrical formation which we Fig. s.-Earof the
observe in the gorilla, and in-
deed in the chimpanzee. The trunk, with broad yet
rather angular and sloping shoulders, with flattened
breast, rounded back, and still more rounded belly,
is tun-shaped, and gives the impression of a want
of proportion. In lean individuals the gluteal
region resembles the projecting rump of a fowl,
and this may also be observed in the young gorilla
and chimpanzee. The long, muscular arms reach
to the ankles when the animal is in an erect posi-
tion, and are altogether out of proportion with the
rest of the body. The powerful upper arm is
shorter than the lean forearm. The hand is long
and narrow. The thumb, which reaches as far as
the metacarpo-phalangeal joint, has a displeasing
and almost rudimentary effect. A web unites the
fingers, sometimes extending along a third of the
first phalanx, sometimes along half. The middleANTHROPOID apes.
w	# _
finger is some.bst longer th» the 6,St end tb.r
t.ig 9,—Adult male orang-utan.THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 41
fingers, and the third is next to it in length. The
fourth finger is comparatively long. The palm of
the hand is flat, only marked by a few deep furrows.
The long, slender fingers are laterally compressed,
and the nails on their tapering ends are arched.
The thighs, somewhat compressed on the inner
side, are, however, very muscular, but become much
smaller on their back side. The calf of the leg is less
developed than in the gorilla, or even than in the
chimpanzee. The feet are, like the hands, long and
slender. The narrow, flat heels project very slightly
behind. The great toes are short, with wide ex-
tremities, rounded above, and provided on the sole
with thick, fatty skin. In old age these animals not
only often lose the nails of their great toes, but some-
times even the last phalanges themselves. This is
not merely a disease produced by confinement, as is
the case with sea-cat monkeys, hyenas, etc., which in
this condition lose portions of their tails or toes, but
it also occurs among orang-utans in their wild state.
The middle toe is the longest, and the fourth toe
is the shortest. Layers of fat may be observed on
the under side of all but the great toe, where
they rarely occqr. The backs of the hands and
feet are covered with very ribbed and wrinkled skin,
and on the hands there are callosities.
This animal, of a quieter and more phlegmatic
disposition than the gorilla and chimpanzee, has
a very strange appearance, with its projecting head
and short neck ; its face widening in the middle and
tapering towards the forehead and chin ; its tun-
shaped trunk, long, thin extremities, and shaggy42
ANTHROPOID APES.
coat. It differs widely from the chimpanzee and
gorilla in these particulars. In the young male the
compression of the forehead is less marked than in
aged animals, and the bony crests which conduce to
raise the coronal arch in its upper and hinder part are
also absent. The supra-orbital arches are less strongly
developed, the jaws are less prominent, and the layers
of fat upon the cheeks are absent. The head is more
detached from the neck, the structure of the whole
body is slenderer, the expression of the countenance
is milder. A small, conical nail, blunted at the end,
may generally be observed on the great toe.
In the adult female, as I have pointed out else-
where, the physical characteristics of the young
male are repeated in an exaggerated form. The skull,
displaying only very small bony crests, is indeed
high, but more rounded than in the aged male; the
face is prominent, but the head is more detached
from the neck than in the latter case. On account
of the greater width of the pelvis, the body is still
more tun-shaped than in the aged male. When
giving suck, the breasts are distended in the form of
a half cone, but when this condition ceases they fall
together and only present two short, wrinkled,
slightly prominent folds of skin ; the small, horny
nipples are almost cylindrical; and the areola, of
which the traces are scanty at all times, altogether
disappears. The throat-pouch is less strongly de-
veloped than in the aged male, but the limbs are as
fully developed. The head of the young female is
still more rounded, with a more flattened though
still projecting face, and the limbs are slenderer, andTHE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 43
thus still more out of pj-oportion with the thick
trunk than is the case with a young male.
The orang-utan’s skin is of a greyish blue colour,
sometimes mixed with brown, but the greyish blue
shade is predominant. A yellowish or brownish
grey is less common. Round the eyes, nostrils,
upper lips, and chin there is often a ring of a dirty,
yellowish brown colour, forming a strange contrast
with the general bluish grey tone of the face. The
arms, legs, hands, and feet are black or greyish
black, more rarely brown or reddish brown.
The hairy coat of the orang-utan consists of long,
curved, waving bristles, and some scanty downy
hairs. On the back of the head, on the shoulders,
back, and hips I have measured hairs from 220 to
235 mm. in length. In other individuals they were,
however, much shorter—20, 40, or 60 mm. long.
There is often a natural parting of the hair of the
head, which falls asunder on either side. In some
cases there is no parting, and the hair streams wildly
down; and in others,again,it stands upright,stiffening
from the sides and top of the head in a demoniacal
manner (Figs. 7 and 9). A beard frequently en-
circles the cheeks and chin. The hair grows up-
wards and outwards on the neck and fore-part of the
throat, on the shoulders, back, breast, belly, upper
arms, and thighs, while it takes the opposite
direction on the forearm. On the wrist the hair
grows in the manner described in the case of the
gorilla. There is only a scanty growth of hair on
the breast and belly, and it is also short and weak
on the face, ears, and backs of the hands and feet.44
ANTHROPOID APES.
I have not observed eyebrows on the animals I have
seen, but they may occur, and the eyelashes are
fully developed.
The hair is of a reddish brown colour, something
like burnt sienna, and the hair-tips on the back
parts of the body are generally brown. In some
individuals the hair is darker, of a russet or blackish
•brown; in others it is lighter, and in the latter case
the breast and belly are of a yellowish white. The
beard is sometimes dark yellow. Some individuals
almost devoid of hair have been observed.
The gibbons, or long-armed apes (Hylobates), con-
stitute the fourth group of anthropoids. Many
kinds of this group are known, and I feel bound to
describe, at any rate, a few of them, in order to be able
to give an idea of their structure. With respect to
these animals, I caDnot only rely on the materials
which are accessible to me, but must also make use
of the descriptions given by others.*
The gibbons have as a rule very long arms, reach-
ing to their ankles when they stand upright. The
face is not very prognathous, the crown of the head
is rounded off, and the nails are flat. There are
small callosities on their posteriors, which are absent
in the gorilla, the chimpanzee, and the orang-utan.
The largest species of these animals, which inhabit
part of the continent and of the islands of Asia, is
* While writing these words I obtained a dried specimen, Hylo-
bates lenciscus (Kuhl),injected with Wickersheiner’s fluid; a large
Hylobatesoi the same species, preserved in spirits of wine ; another
Hylobates albimanus (Is. Geoffr. Saiut-Hilaire), preserved in the
same way; and the skeletons of Hylobates syndactylus (F.
Cuvier), and of Hylobates agilis.THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 45
t.li e si am an g (Ihjlohates syndactylus, F. Cuvier).*
According to Diard, its arms are not quite so long
as those of the wauwau (II. agilis, F. Cuvier). This
animal’s head is small, with a somewhat retreating
forehead, a long, moderately arched crown to the
head, and a slightly arched occiput. The base of
the nose is depressed, the region of the jaws is only
slightly prognathous in the aged male. According
to Diard, the eyes are deeply set, the nostrils are
very wide, the cheeks fall in below the zygomatic
arch, the mouth opens widely, the chin is of in-
significant size. It is the only one of the gibbons
which possesses the throat-pouch, already described
as common to the other forms of anthropoids, and in
aged animals it hangs slackly down, almost bare in
front. The second and third toes are connected to-
gether by a thin web, reaching to the last joint in
the male, and to the penultimate joint in the
female. The hairs on the forearm turn their points
upward, and form a kind of whorl on the wrist. The
animal is of a glossy black colour, with a thick and
tolerably long coat of hair on the body and limbs.
According to JBock, the face is encircled by a grey
or white beard. This animal is about a metre in
height, and inhabits the woods of Sumatra.
The lar (Eylobates Lar, lllig) is another species of
gibbon. The structure of the body is much more
* A very good illustration of this animal may be seen in Ed.
Poeppig’s Illustrirter Natwrgeschichte des Thierreiclis, vol, i. fig.
24 (Leipzig, 1847), which is taken from some English source with
which I am not acquainted. Another woodcut of this animal is in
Bock’s Unter den Kannibcden auf Borneo, p. 342 : Jena, 1882.46
ANTHROPOID APES.
slender than that of the animal just described ; the
head is round, the eyes are large, the nose projects
from its depressed surroundings with only a very
slight ridge, and the cartilaginous end is shaped like
a triangle with unequal sides. This triangular end
is divided by a longitudinal furrow, and the small
nostrils converge downwards and inwards, and are
divided from each other by a thin partition. The
structure of the upper lip is peculiar. In the
centre, just below the base of the nasal partition, it
is depressed, and divided into two symmetrical
lateral halves by a vertical furrow. Each of these
halves forms a rounded edge, overhanging the small
lower lip. Above the upper lips, between them and
the zygomatic arch, which slopes away below the
lower eyelids, there are the flat, depressed cheeks.
The small chin presents itself below the central cleft
of the upper lips and their convex rims. The face
of this gibbon, of which the general appearance is
very singular, is surrounded by a circle of thick
hair, which resembles the circular hood of an
Eskimo. This characteristic form of the head, both
generally and in detail, is not confined to the lar,
but applies to other species of gibbons, including
the siamang (see Eigs. 11 and 15). It is a feature
which distinguishes the long-armed apes, almost at
the first glance, from the other forms of anthropoids
already described. The colour of the lar’s face is
reddish brown or tawny; the hair which surrounds it
is of a light grey: the body is of a dark grey, with
short, light grey hair on the backs of the hands and
feet. The black ears are almost hairless. The larTHE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 47
has up to this time seldom found a place in our
zoological collections. It is found in Malacca and
Siam.
The white-handed gibbon (Hylobates albirnanus,
Vigors and Horsfield) is often confounded with H.
Lar. But H. albirnanus has a black face, and the
general colour of the skin is black, including the
inside of the hands and feet. Thick white hair
encircles the face, and the backs of the hands and
Fig. 10.—Head of the white-handed gibbon.
feet are covered with short white or light grey-
hairs, while the rest of the coat is quite black. The
hair of the forearm grows downwards, towards the
wrist. The ears of these apes are almost of the shape
of an equilateral triangle. The helix of the ear runs
like a flap round its free outer edge. The anti-helix
passes through the centre of the slightly depressed
external surface of the ear, of which the whole
arrangement does not essentially differ from that of48
ANTHROPOID APES.
the ear of other anthropoids. The cartilaginous sub-
stance of the organ is a good deal inflected, broad
behind and in the upper part, dividing into two
limbs in front and below. There are indications
of the tragus and anti-
tragus. The detached
lobule of the ear is
absent (Fig. 11). This
structure of the external
ear is common to other
species of gibbons, al-
though in many cases
the upper part of the
Fig. 11.—Ear of the white-handed gibbon, helix is Wlinkled, and
the anti-helix is some-
times more fully developed, and more like that of
the human ear.
The face in this species is small. The supra-orbital
arches are strongly developed, and almost join in the
centre. The eyes are large, dark, and have a mild
and placid expression. The cheeks are prominent
in the region of the zygomatic arch, and depressed
below it. The bridge of the nose is imbedded
between the cheeks, which, especially when seen in
profile, take a slightly conical form. The nose is
covered with cross-folds. Its cartilage is of the shape
described in the former species, and so are the
upper lip and chin (Fig. 10). Long, bristly hairs
stand out on the supra-orbital arches and upper lip,
and short, thin hairs cover the end of the nose. The
white hairs which encircle the face grow like a
beard on the chin. The whole face has a melancholy,THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 49
almost tearful expression. The neck is short, the
trunk drawn out. On the long, narrow hand there
is a short thumb, laterally compressed, which does
not quite reach to the metacarpo-phalangeal joint.
The hall of the last phalanx
forms a thick, rounded
pad, which is repeated in
a lesser degree on the
under side "of the first
phalanx of the thumb,
and on its ball. The
thumb-nail is bent back,
as unlike a claw as the
flattened, long, and narrow
nails of the other fingers.
The middle finger is only
a little longer than the
first, and the fourth not
much shorter than the
third finger (Fig. 12).
The foot is neatly made,
short and narrow, with-
out a projecting heel.
The great toe is very long,
reaching almost to the last
phalanx of the second toe.
The sole of the foot, and the under side of the great
toe, especially its last joint, are provided with thick,
rounded pads. The middle toe is not much ‘longer
than the second, the fourth is shorter again, and the
fifth is only half as long as the fourth. There is
only a very short web between the roots of the
Fig. 12.—Left hand of Hylobates
albimanus.50
ANTHROPOID APES.
fingers, but it extends much further on the toes
(Fig. 13). This species of ape is found in Further
India.
The wauwau (Hylohates agilis, F. Cuvier, Fig. 14),
an ape of a rare species, may, according to Duvaucel,
be recognized by his prominent supra-orbital arches,
sunken eyes, a moderately fiat nose, and large nostrils
with lateral openings. The face of the male is hairless,
and of a bluish black; that of the female is brown.
The face is encircled by thick, whitish hair, through
which the ears are only partly visible. There are a
Fig. 13.—Left foot of the same animal.
few black hairs on the chin. In the male the head,
belly, inner surface of the arms and of the thighs
are dark brown. The neck and shoulders are of a
lighter shade, and the hair on the heels is dun or
whitish. The backs of the hands and feet are dark
brown. The sides of the posteriors and the backs of
the thighs are brown, chestnut, or white. In the
female the white hair which encircles the face is
shorter, and verges on dun . colour. The young
animals are light yellow or brown. This animal
inhabits the island of Sumatra.THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 51
The grey gibbon (Hylobates leuciscus, Kuhl) is
covered with a thick, long, and woolly coat, with
scattered hairs which are curly, and have two or
three rings of dark colour on a light ground. The
upper part of the head is black ; light, or sometimes
white, hair encircles the blackish face. The general52
ANTHROPOID APES.
colour is dun. The front of the throat, the breast,
and belly are of a lighter shade; while the back of
the neck, the shoulders, upper arms, and thighs are
darker. A brown or black stripe runs down the
breast and belly from the armpits. The insides of
the hands and feet are black. The colour of young
specimens is more uniformly grey or dun. This
animal is found in Java and Sumatra.
The hulock, otherwise called yulock or yoluck
(Hylobatus Hooloclc, Harlan), has, in its adult con-
dition, a prognathous face with prominent sup a-
orbital arches, a long, low bridge to its nose, with high,
narrow nostrils, and a very small upper lip. In aged
animals there are two oblique folds over the eyes,
of a light grey colour. The rest of the hairy coat,
the face, hands, and feet are black, or, in the younger
animals, brownish black, with grey extremities. A
line of grey extends from the breast downwards over
the belly. This animal inhabits the mountainous
district of Assam.
The unko (Hyl abates Bajjlesii, Is. Geoff. Saiut-
Hilaire.) is of a black colour, shading into reddish
brown on the back and sides. Hair, of a grey colour
in the male and white in the female, encircles the
face. This ape is a native of Sumatra.
The dun-coloured gibbon (Hylobates entelloides, Is.
Geoff. Saint-Hilaire) is so called from its coat, which
is thick and woolly, and furnished with long hairs
of a greyish yellow or dun colour. This coat is
somewhat darker on the inner surface of the arms
and on the neck, where it shades into reddish
yellow. The growth of hair surrounding the face isTHE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 53
lighter, verging upon white. The female is generally
more yellow in colour than the male, and the hair
on her face is of a reddish yellow rather than white,
but not without a trace of white hairs. The face
and the bare places on the hands and feet are black.
Between the second and third toes there is a con-
nective web reaching as far as the first joints. This
animal inhabits the Malacca peninsula. The name
of the species is derived from its assumed likeness
to the Indian hanuman (Semnopithecus Entellus, F.
Cuvier), of which an illustration is given in the
background to the right of Fig. 14.
The white-bearded gibbon (Hylobates leucogenys.
Ogilby *) is remarkable for the long, erect hairs
which grow on the upper and back part of the scalp,
and for the long white beard on the cheeks and
chin, which joins the thick growth above the eyes.
The rest of the body is dark black. Its native place
is doubtful.
The general colour of the tufted gibbon (Hylobates
pileatus, J. E. Gray) is black, shading into grey
on the shoulders, back, and thighs. A white ring
surrounds the hands, feet, face, and scalp; and there
is also a patch of white on the sexual organs, and
often a patch of black on the breast. The whiskers
are black. In other respects the animal varies
according to its sex and age. It is found in Siam
and Kambodja. f
* A specimen of Hijlobates leucogenys (Ogilby) may be seen in
the British Museum. Comp. J. E. Gray, Catalogue of monkeys,
lemurs, etc. ; London, 1870.
t A good woodcut of Hylobates pileatus (J. E. Gray) appears in
Huxley’s work, Man’s Place in Nature.54
ANTHROPOID APES.
The dark grey gibbon (Hylobates funereus, Is.
Geoff. Saint-Bilaire) is of an ashen grey colour on
the upper and outer side of its limbs, verging into
brown ; and on the under side it is dark brown.
There is a narrow strip of light grey round the face,
with a darker band round the back of the head. It
is found in the island of Sulu.*
In addition to these species of gibbons of which
we have given a brief account, there are several
others—as, for example, Hylobates concolor (Harlan),
from Borneo; H. Muelleri (L. Martin), from the
same place; H. cliorornandus (Ogilby), from India,
and many others. But since our space is limited,
the description given above must suffice for a diag-
nosis of the species.
* A very good coloured illustration of Hylobates funereus,
probably taken from life by Werner, may be seen in Is. Geoff.
Saint-Hilaire’s Description des mammiferes nouveaux, ou impar-
faitement connus de la collection du Museum d’histoire natiurelle.
Archives du Museum, v. 26.* CHAPTER III.
THE EXTERNAL AND ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OP
ANTHROPOID APES, COMPARED WITH THE HUMAN
STRUCTURE.
In order to complete as far as possible the descrip-
tion which we propose to give of the general natural
history of these remarkable animals, it is necessary
to examine their anatomical structure. Yet it is
not so much our aim to give a detailed and
exhaustive description of their anatomy, as to
glance rapidly at those peculiarities of their inner
structure which catch the eye. It seems to me
expedient in this case to follow the method of
systematic and descriptive anatomy, and to take
the several natural organs in succession. This
method, which has long prevailed for studying the
structure of the human body, should also be our
guide in our researches in comparative anatomy.
Our readers need scarcely be told that the anatomy
of anthropoids is only a small branch of the com-
parative anatomy of vertebrate animals in general.
I begin by considering the bony structure of
anthropoids, and, in particular, of the gorilla. And56
ANTHROPOID APES.
it will be well to note tbe important differences
between tbe structure of the skull of a young and
aged male, and of a young and aged female gorilla.
The skull of the aged male animal is large and
heavy. Its average weight is one and a quarter
kilogrammes. The longitudinal diameter, from the
alveolar point of tlie upper jaw to the occipital
point, may be as much as 294 mm. The over-
hanging orbits are high in front, and flattened off
behind, and their upper edges unite to form a ridge
in the middle of the face. To these the back parts
of the orbits are attached, in shape like a trun-
cated cone, round and prominent in front, and nar-
rowing into bony capsules in the direction of the
brain-pan. They open directly in front, and the
aperture is generally in the form of a regular square.
The edgi-s are seldom so blunted off as to present a
figure somewhat approaching to a circle (comp.ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 57
Figs. 15,16). The frontal bone, which in the young
of both sexes is high, broad, and arched, becomes
depressed in the centre in the aged male. The
temporal ridges, thickened to a hem, pass over this to
the coronal crest.
Fig. 16.—Front view of the skull of an aged male gorilla.
This crest is highly characteristic. It begins in the
region of the frontal bone, and, rising abruptly, unites
itself with the transverse occipital crest. It is of
varying height,* but is rarely altogether absent in
an adult male animal. On the top of this coronal
* The coronal crest has attained to a quite uuusual height in
the fine specimen of the skull of an aged male gorilla, No. 92, in
the Natural History Museum in Paris.58
ANTHROPOID APES.
crest we may see the two well-developed bony ridges
which almost touch each other, and which indicate
the upper limits of the temporal muscles on either
side. In young animals these ridges tend down-
wards over the sides of the head, below the vertex
of the skull. Their position and direction vary
with the growth of the skull, and correspond with
that of the coronal crest. The transverse occipital
crest is of considerable height in the case of aged
and vigorous animals, and is frequently somewhat
concave in front, and convex at the back. The fore
surface of this crest is formed of the two parietal bones,
the hinder surface of the squamose portion of the
occipital bone. The lambdoidal suture is on the
top of this occipital crest, and in this case, as in
that of other mammals, including man, it unites the
parietal bones with those of the occiput. The point
of union between the coronal and occipital crests
divides the latter into two symmetrical lateral halves,
curving outwards and downwards. The high, wide
squamose portion of the occipital bone is somewhat
flattened behind, or more rarely arched, while it is
abrupt, at its base and in some degree in front. Six
curved lines, three on either side, opposite each
other, sometimes mark the limits of the attachments
of the cervical muscles on the head. The mastoid
process of the temporal bone is present, but Bruhl
could find no trace of a styloid process on the skulls
of gorillas and chimpanzees.
The squamous portion of the temporal bone is
often connected with the frontal bone by the pro-
cess termed Virchow’s frontal process of the tern-ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 59
poral bone. The nasal bones are high, very narrow
in their upper part, and widening below. When
they are united in the centre of the nasal bridge, a
sloping, keel-shaped projection may often be observed.
The inferior turbinated bones of the nasal cavity aTe
remarkable for their size. In the skulls of young
animals the inter-maxillary bones, which are in all
anthropoids early united with those of the same
region, stand up high and peaked between the nasal
bones and those of the upper jaw.
The crowns or prominent external surfaces of the
enormous canine teeth project in the centre of the face
on either side like pillars, just below the nostrils, and
extend above and below the row of teeth in the two
upper jaws (see Fig. 16). In this way the crowns of
the canine teeth form a retreating triangular space,
of which the base-line of the equilateral triangle
corresponds with the row of teeth. The chin part
of the lower jaw, in a front view, also takes the
form of an equilateral triangle. In the latter case
the base-line is covered by that section of the row of
teeth containing the incisor teeth. The sides of the
triangle are covered by the converging canine teeth
(see again Fig. 17). The incisor teeth, enclosed
between the latter, in that part of the lower jaw
already described, are retreating. The rami of the
lower jaw are high and very wide. The angle of
the lower jaw is obtuse (Fig. 15). The front or
coronoid process and the back or condyloid process of
the ramus of this bone are separated from each
other by a deep, hollow cleft. The condyloid process
projects abruptly above, but is less marked behind.60
ANTHROPOID APES.
When we consider the internal form of the skull
of an aged male gorilla, the first thing that strikes
us is the marked development of the frontal
sinuses, and especially their width in the region of
the nasal portion of the frontal bone. We next
observe the wings of the sphenoid bone, and that
these large concave apophyses are provided with
spaces only slightly separated from each other.
These sinuses are not only plainly connected with
each other, but with the sphenoidal sinuses. There
is a broad sinus in the malar bone, provided with
vestibules, and this has a deep communication with
the maxillary sinus, or antrum of Highmore, em-
bedded in the body of the upper maxillary bone.
There are, finally, sinuses at ti e point of junction
between the coronal and occipital crests.
The maxillary region of the cranium of the young
male gorilla is already somewhat prognathous, and
the keel-shaped elevation of the bridge of the nose
is also very apparent, but the development of these
parts is not nearly so advanced as in the aged male.
The whole contour of the cranium is oval, and with-
out the high crests so characteristic of the aged
male animal. It is well known that the Swedish
anatomist and anthropologist Anders Retzius has
classified the skulls of different races of men as long-
headed (dolichocephali) and short-headed (brachy-
cephali). In the former class, the length is consider-
ably greater than the height; while in the latter, the
difference is either slight or non-existent. The
skulls of the dolichocephali are long and oval; those
of the hr achy eephali are short, round, or square. InANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 61
addition to this division, which is of great value in
the rapid and superficial, yet sound classification of
racial skulls, Eetzius has constituted another. He
has characterized skulls of which the profile is
straight, or nearly straight, as orthognatlious (recht-
zahnige) ; and those of which the maxillary region is
very prominent, as prognathous (schiefzdhnige). These
orthognathous and prognathous skulls may be either
dolichocephalic or brachycephalic.*
In applying this classification by Eetzius to an-
thropoids, the gorillas and chimpanzees have been
characterized as dolichocephalic and prognathous,
the orang-utans and the gibbons as brachycephalic
and prognathous. Several scientific men have
sought to establish the noteworthy distinction that
dolichocephalic anthropoids are found in Africa,
and brachycephalic anthropoids in Asia. This dis-
tinctive characteristic is held to agree with the
geographical and ethnological conditions of the
continents in question.! "Virchow remarks in a later
work that the skull of a gorilla becomes longer with
every year of life, but that this is not so much due
to the cranium as such, as to its bony outworks, such
as the strongly developed supra-orbital arches, the
enlargement of the frontal sinuses, etc. Measure-
ments rather tend to show that the young gorilla
* Ethnologische Schriften, nacli dem Tode des Verfassers gesam-
melt von dessen Sohne Professor Gustav Retzius, p. 33 : Stockholm,
1864.
f Zvur Kenntniss des Orangslcopfes, etc., p. 3. Virchow observes
(Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft, March
18, 1876) : “ The fact that the gibbon, as well as the orang-utan,
ie brachycephalous is of great geographical interest.”
462
ANTHROPOID APES.
is brachycephalic, but that this characteristic
diminishes with increasing age, at any rate, if the
external excrescences are taken into account. But it
is quite otherwise when the furthest point of measure-
ment is taken from the frontal arch, not from the
nasal prominence. In such a case the increase of
the brachycephalic condition is established.*
In the skulls of such young males as those here
mentioned, the temporal ridges, -which in aged animals
are in close proximity in the region of the developed
bony crests, have already in some cases begun to
approach each other, but they are still far apart. In
young specimens we can distinguish, on each side
of the parietal bones, two temporal ridges, opposite
each other, and taking a nearly parallel course.
The upper ridge, which loses itself on the external
surface of the mastoid process, which is already
developed, corresponds to the junction of the fascia
of the cranial muscles (Galea aponeurotica musculi
epicranii) with the fascia enclosing the large tem-
poral muscles. The lower ridge, which is gradually
merged in the upper edge of the zygomatic process
of the temporal bone, forms the demarcation of the
fleshy origin of the temporal muscle. This corre-
sponds to the spot at which the two layers of the
temporal fascia unite. In a very young male these
temporal ridges can be only faintly traced; they be-
come more strongly marked as his growth advances,
and as they approximate more closely to each other
on the vertex of the cranium, I have examined a
* Monthly report of the Royal Academy of Sciences, Berlin,
June 7, 1880.ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 63
skull of which the sutures were still open, and could
already trace the development of the coronal crest
in two divisions, separated from each other by a
longitudinal furrow. The upper edges of these
divisions corresponded to the two temporal ridges,
which were in close proximity to each other. If the
animal had not died at this stage of its development,
it is probable that, with advancing growth, the two
divisions of the crest would have been welded into
one structure. Such a condition only characterizes
a transitory stage of development, repeated in each
individual.
In the centre of the vertex of the cranium, where
the longitudinal crest of which we have so often
spoken is subsequently developed, we may often
observe on the sagittal suture of the cranium of
a young male a longitudinal swelling, which increases
very gradually. In the region of the two upper
semicircular curved lines (lineae semicirculares s.
nuchas supremos), on the squamous occipital portion,
or between these and the two central cervical lines,
a transverse swelling is early developed; this swell-
ing sometimes extends to the lambdoidal suture,
or, at any rate, to its neighbourhood. This bony
excrescence, of which the anatomical term is Torus
occipitalis transversus, corresponds to the first layer
of the transverse occipital crest so characteristic of
the old male gorilla (see Fig. 15).
In several skulls of young gorillas, in the region
of the coronal suture, a small, insulated, intermediate
bone may be observed (Virchow’s os epiptericum)
between the squamous portion of the temporal bone64
ANTHROPOID APES.
and the greater wing of the sphenoid, with which it
is sometimes completely welded. In this case there
is, above the os epiptericum, a direct connection
between the temporal and frontal bones by means
of the frontal process (Virchow’s processus frontalis
squamae temporalis), which is not rare in anthro-
poids.* This process often owes its origin to the
os epiptericum, which is in its early stages attached
to the temporal bone. I shall have to refer again
to this frontal process.
The orbits are more rounded in young than in
aged skulls ; in the latter they are always angular,
although the angles, especially the upper and
external angles, may be more or less blunted.
Virchow remarks that in the skull of a very young
gorilla the height of the orbit exceeds its width,
and that at that age the skull is therefore high,
In the aged male gorilla the height of the orbit,
according to the several measurements I have taken,
varies between 39 to 52 mm., and the width between
37 to 45 mm.
The rest of the skeleton of the aged male gorilla
corresponds in its powerful and massive form with
the general structure of the body, which is remark-
able for its height and strength (see Fig. 16). In
* Virchow, Ueber einige Merkmale niederer Menschenrassen am
Schadel, p. 41: Berlin, 1875. Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, xii. 23 :
1880. Monatslericht der Koniglichen Akademie der Wissen-
schaften zu Berlin, p. 523: 1880. The os epiptericum may be
observed in cranium No. 92 of the Paris collection. It is plainly
seen in Fig. 4, p. 127, in Barwinismus und Thierproduction
(Munich, 1876), in which I refer to this skull. See also Bischoff,
Schiidelicerk.ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 65
* This illustration is from Duvernoy’s Des caracteres anatomiques
des gravities singes pseudo-anthropomorphes, plate ii. It is an
excellent illustration of the characteristic spinous processes of the
vertebral column, and of the relative position of the limbs.66
ANTHROPOID APES.
the skeleton of the trunk there are seven cervical,
thirteen dorsal, and four lumbar vertebrse, thirteen
ribs, and, even in aged animals, a sternum composed
of several pieces of bone. The cervical vertebrae
display long spinous processes, which are most
strongly developed between the fourth and seventh
vertebrse. The extremities of this colossal struc-
ture, combined with the elevation of the occipital
region, present a convex outline when seen from
behind. This structure provides the point of inser-
tion and support for the powerful cushion of cervical
muscles. The dorsal vertebrse, which increase in
height, width, and depth as they stand lower on the
column, taper, and are keel-shaped at their junction
with the cervical vertebrae. The central parts of the
widely arched ribs, which are thirteen or sometimes
fourtten in number, are very thick and powerful in
the aged male. Only seven pairs of ribs are attached
by the costal cartilages to the sternum, and two
other costal cartilages are in proximity with them.
The other cartilages are only rudimentary, and the
terminations in the muscular system of the belly
are free. There are, indeed, variations from the type
here established, and from ten to eleven ribs are
sometimes attached to the sternum by thread-like
strips of ligament or cartilage.
The formation of the pelvic girdle in this animal
is of special interest. The chief parts of this por-
tion of the skeleton—that is, the hip, pelvic, or
innominate bones—are high, tapering in their lower
part, and broad and flat above, where they terminate
in the crest of the ilium, which describes a quarterANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. G7
of a circle. There is, for the most part, only one
small superior iliac spine, and the ischii are some-
what turned outwards, and furnished with broad,
rounded tuberosities, and for the most part with only
a single large sacro-sciatic notch. The horizontal
rami of the pubes are narrow, while the descending
rami are wide. The os sacrum is narrow, and shaped
like a protracted cone, turning abruptly outwards,
and resembling the basal joint of a true tail. The
coccyx appears to be the rudiment of a genuine tail.
The bones of the shoulder-girdle present interest-
ing peculiarities. The clavicles are long and slender,
with a leaf-shaped, flattened end articulating with
the scapula, and a thickened end articulating with
the sternum. The scapula is a very large triangular
bone, resembling the human scapula in its general
form, and the supra- and infra-spinous fossae are not
strongly marked. The long and powerful humerus
has its head inclined at an angle of sixty degrees
towards the axis of the shoulder. Frequently, but
not invariably, the lower, flattened extremity of the
humerus is pierced on one or both'sides above its
rounded eminence, and this is termed by Darwin
the intercondyloid foramen.
The radius has a powerful head, and a shaft con-
siderably curved outwards while it is, on the other
hand, curved backwards and inwards at the elbow.
The bones of the carpus, metacarpus, and phalanges
are remarkably long, broad, and deep. The develop-
ment of the femur corresponds to that of the whole
skeleton. Its middle piece or shaft is curved in
front and flattened behind. The shaft of the tibia68
ANTHROPOID APES.
is generally rounded off, but is sometimes rather
laterally compressed.
The os calcis of the foot is slender, curved out-
wards in the centre and inwards behind the astra-
galus. The head, with its cuneiform extremity, is
of a transverse oval shape, turned inwards. The
scaphoid bone, which is generally in connection with
this projection, takes the same direction towards the
inner side of the foot. This peculiar contortion
causes the tarsus of the gorilla to appear almost as
if it had been subjected to a deviation or fracture
of its longitudinal axis.
In young and adult males, as well as in young
females, the structure of the bones is generally
less massive than in aged males. In the female
skeleton the strongly developed depressions and
ridges, especially in the bones of the extremities,
are absent. The head of the ulna is, for example,
less deeply set in the case of a female, and its pro-
jections are smaller than in the male animal. In
the female, also, the head of the radius is smaller,
and the triangular shape of its shaft is less strongly
marked. The pelvic bones of a female gorilla are
wider, flatter, and less concave on their very pro-
jecting inner surface. They diverge more widely
from each other, and this is also the case with the
tuberosities of the ischium. The pubic arch is less
depressed than in the male gorilla. Although the
spinous processes of. the vertebrae attain to some
length and thickness, their development in the
female is not so great as it is in the male sex.
The bony structure of the chimpanzee offersANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 69
many points of resemblance to that of the gorilla,
while it differs in certain particulars from the
structure of other anthropoids. And first, the size
of the skeleton is smaller than that of the gorilla,
which is in agreement with the smaller relative size
of the body of the chimpanzee.
We must begin with a general view of the skull
of the chimpanzee. In both sexes the frontal
regions are smaller, while the coronal region is more
rounded than in the gorilla. The high bony crests
and prominent supra-orbital arches are wanting in
the chimpanzee ; the peculiar character of the bony
ridges, projecting like tubes from the other parts
of the skull, is less marked, and they belong more
directly to the frontal region (see Fig. 18). The
bony bridge of the nose is more concave in the70
ANTHROPOID APES.
chimpanzee; the jaw-hones are smaller and less
compressed in the centre than they are in the
gorilla.
When we undertake to describe the skull of the
chimpanzee in detail, it becomes necessary to consider
separately the skulls of aged and young males, and
of aged and young females; for in this case also
the distinctions of sex and age are very evident.
On the skull of an aged male chimpanzee the
temporal ridges are not much developed on the
coronal arch. They meet on this arch from 60
to 90 mm. behind the orbits, and form only a
small coronal crest. The transverse occipital crest
is somewhat developed, and at its point of union
with the coronal crest the temporal ridges divide to
form its upper edges. This is the case not only
with the Rio Quillu skull, from which Fig. 18 is
taken, but with that of the so-called troglodyte
Tscbego given by Duvernoy.* In some other speci-
mens belonging to aged male animals the presence
of a coronal crest cannot, however, be detected. In
these the temporal ridges are very small, and more
or less distant from each other. While the trans-
verse occipital crest maintains an almost uniform
height on the gorilla skull, like a detached ridge,
it is only slightly elevated behind in those chim-
panzee- skulls in which the crest is partially de-
veloped. In the gorilla male this ridge divides the
squamous occipital portion, which is sometimes
bevelled, sometimes slightly convex ; in the male
chimpanzee this part is more decidedly arched, and
* Duvernoy, table vi. fig. B.ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 71
takes the form of a half-oval. The mastoid processes
are also present in the chimpanzee. The external
occipital crest and the curved lines are generally
apparent. The styloid processes are more plainly
traced than in the gorilla. In the latter, as well as
in the chimpanzee, there is a blunt, tubular process
of the temporal bone, opposite to another bony
process, issuing from the occipital bone. This has
been observed by Virchow, and is termed by him
the carotid process (Processus caroticus).
The orbits of the chimpanzee are generally more
rounded, with a distinctly circular rim, while the
nasal bones are as long and narrow as in the gorilla.
The region of the jaws is very prognathous; the
external nasal openings are rounder and smaller than
in the gorilla. The crowns of the canine teeth pro-
ject in the same pillar-shaped form (Fig. 18). The
triangular space enclosed by these and by the row
of teeth in the upper jaw is often very wide and
projecting, even more so than in the gorilla. But
whereas in the latter the canine teeth are shaped
almost like a three-sided pyramid, in the chim-
panzee they are more rounded and conical. In the
general structure of the teeth of both species there
are certain differences of which we shall. speak
presently.
The brain-pan of a young male chimpanzee is
still more arched than it is in aged animals. The
temporal ridges are still far apart. The transverse
occipital crest displays near the mastoid process
well-defined wing-shaped indentations. In the skulls
of very young males the transverse occipital swell-72
ANTHROPOID APES.
ing of which we have spoken (Torus occipitalis
transversus) is already developed. The orbits are
distinctly detached from the skull; the bridge of
the nose is depressed; the crowns of the canine
teeth are, in conformity with the still slight develop-
ment of the teeth themselves, less marked, and the
triangular space enclosed by the teeth is less convex
than in older animals.
The skull of the adult chimpanzee is, in its
coronal and occipital parts, more uniformly arched,
narrower, and more elongated than in aged males.
The transverse occipital ridge usually develops
itself in the region of the upper curved lines, or
in the bony parts enclosed between these and the
central lines. The nasal and upper maxillary region
is depressed. That section of the upper jaw which
contains the incisor and canine teeth is small. In
the skulls of all chimpanzees, of whatever sex or
age, the body of the lower jaw is comparatively
small, with two low but wide rami, of which the
coronoid and condyloid processes are divided from
each other by a comparatively wide cleft. The
rami of the chimpanzee’s lower jaw are still more
abruptly retreating than is usually the case in the
gorilla.
The skull of a very young female gorilla is shaped
almost like a half-sphere. The orbits are scarcely
detached from the forehead; the want of elevation
of the orbital arch, and the slighter prognathism of
the jaw, is marked by the deep depression between
it and the nose and forehead (Fig. 20).
The cancellous texture of the bones of the chim-ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 73
panzee’s skull admits of a whole system of cavities
communicating with each other, which are of the
nature of the so-called sinuses
present in the frontal, sphenoid,
ethmoid, and maxillary bones of
the human skull. In the chim-
panzee, however, the sinuses are
more extensive than in man, or
even than in the gorilla. The' Fig. 20.—suuii ufa very
1	...	n 1 nil young fernule chimpanzee.
large cavities ol the forehead
communicate with those of the nose and jaws. -The
sphenoidal sinuses and ethmoidal cells are large
and deep. The greater wings of the sphenoid bone
and its pterygoid processes are provided with con-
siderable cavities. The mastoid cells of the tem-
poral bones are in connection with the cells of the
greater wings and pterygoid processes of the sphe-
noid bone, and also extend through the squamous
portions and zygomatic processes of the temporal
bones, losing themselves in their upper part in the
smaller cells of cancellous bone which are found
between the outer and inner walls of the skull.
These are of more uniform shape and size.
The skeleton of the chimpanzee, in accordance
with the smaller size of the species, is relatively
of a slenderer build than that of the gorilla.
The spinous processes of the seven cervical ver-
tebras are more slightly developed, and have
undivided extremities. The transverse processes of
the fifth and sixth cervical vertebrae are almost of
the same shape as cervical ribs. There are thirteen
dorsal vertebrae, somewhat laterally compressed:74
ANTHROPOID APES.
Fig. 20.—Skeleton of the
forearm and hand of the
Central African bam-
cbimpanzce. a, Ulna, b,
Radius. c, Scaphoid bone.
d, Semi-lunar bone, e,
Cuneiform bone. /, Pisi-
form bone, g, Trapezium.
h, Os magnum, j, Tra-
pezoid. k,Unciform bone,
l. Phalanges of thumb, m,
Metacarpal bones. n,
Phalanges.
this compression is greater than in
man and in the gorilla. The four
lumbar vertebrae of the chimpanzee
are furnished with long, thin, rib-
like transverse processes. The so-
called mammillary processes of
the final vertebra are strongly de-
veloped in the male. The inter-
vertebral foramina are small, as
they are also in the gorilla and
orang-utan. The thirteen ribs of
the chimpanzee remind us of the
human structure. The collar-bone
is slightly curved, as in tho gorilla.
There is a marked difference
between the sexes in the struc-
ture of the scapula which is
broad and three-sided in the male,
small and leaf-shaped in the fe-
male.
The humeri have slender shafts,
with well-developed condyles and
ridges. The bones of the forearm
are much curved, so that the in-
terval between them is, as in the
gorilla, somewhat wide. From the
wrist to the final phalanges the
hand is more slender than in the
gorilla.
The pelvis in this species of ape
has high, narrow ilia, spreading
in their upper parts, and pro-ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 75
jecting forwards, so as to form the cavity of the
abdomen, and, especially in the male sex, the anterior
spines of the ilium are more strongly developed than
in the gorilla and orang-utan. The ischiatic tube-
rosities are of a spreading form, and diverge con-
siderably from each other. The pubic arch is deeply
hollowed, but the point of juncture is elevated.
As in the, gorilla, the os sacrum resembles the
basis of a tail, but it is less developed and less
conical in form.
In the chimpanzee, as well as in other anthropoids,
the coccyx gives altogether the impression of a
laterally compressed and rudimentary tail. This is
especially the case in young animals, in which the
coccyx always appears to be very narrow and pro-
longed. In older animals this part gradually
widens, yet without losing its resemblance to a
rudimentary tail.
The head of the femur resembles a section of a
sphere, of which the upper part is sometimes want-
ing. Its shaft, which is curved in front, is much
slenderer in the female than the male. The patella
is oval. In the tibia the narrow shaft is laterally
compressed, and bent inwards. The bones on the
inner side of the foot take a backward direction,
while those on the outer side, attached to the
fibula, turn outwards.
In the ankle-joint the head of the astragalus is
much arched, and turned inwards. The scaphoid
bone is thick and deeply hollowed. The metatarsal
bones and phalanges have a considerable upward
convexity (Fig. 21).76
A.NTHU0P01D APES.
The skeleton of the orang has also its special
characteristics. We have already remarked, in
describing the external form of the
heads of these animals, that the
skull is high and projecting, and
retreating in its hinder part. In
the old male orang this part of
the bony structure is of smaller
size than in the old male gorilla.
The arch of the cranium is shorter
and rounder than in that animal
and in the chimpanzee. The cen-
tral longitudinal crest of the vertex
is present, but in accordance with
the more spherical shape of the
coronal part of the cranium, this
crest is more arched above than
in the gorilla, in which it slopes
gently upward to the transverse
occipital crest, which rises high
and peaked from the back of the
head. This latter crest is indeed
developed in the orang, but it is
not so high, and is more retreating. In consequence
of this formation, the upper posterior part of the
gorilla-skull appears in profile to be much more
abrupt and peaked than that of the orang. In the
latter, also, the orbital arches are not so high and
abrupt, and not so much detached from the rest of
the skull. In the orang the squamous occipital
portion declines abruptly in front and below, yet
it is generally more arched than in the gorilla.
Fig. 21.—Skeleton of foot
of the Central African
bam-chimpanzee. a, As-
tragalus. b, Os calci8. c,
Scaphoid bone, d, e, f,
Cuneiform bones, g, Cu-
boid bone, li, First meta-
tarsal bone, j, Second to
fifth metatarsal bones, k,
Phalanges.ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 77
The orbits of the orang, which are sometimes
rounded, sometimes more square, are divided from
each other by a narrow partition. The space be-
tween them and the anterior nares is not so
great as in the gorilla. While in the last-named
animal the space between the root of the nose and
the teeth of the upper jaw-bone is convex, in the
Fig. 22.—Skull of middle-aged female orang.
chimpanzee it is generally vertical, and in tne orang
it is depressed (Fig. 22). The maxillary parts,
furnished with strong canine teeth, are very prog-
nathous, yet hardly to the same extent as in the
chimpanzee. The body of the lower jaw is high,
and its rami are high and wide. The bony crests
of which we have spoken are absent in the female.78
ANTHROPOID APES.
The coronal part and the squamous occipital parts
are arched; the upper jaw is smaller, and the lower
jaw is also less massive, than in the male animal.
In very young animals the predominance of the
strongly arched cranium over the countenance is
apparent, and the increase of size in the latter
occurs gradually (Fig. 23).
The anterior nares are narrow at the top, and
wide at their base. They are more decidedly pear-
shaped (Apertura pyriformis) than those of the gorilla
and chimpanzee. In the latter animals these aper-
tures are generally wider and more uniformly rounded.
Bischoff justly observes that the bony part below
the orbits, which in the gorilla is wide above,
tapering away in the lower part of the face, is
narrower and more vertical in the orang. The
nasal bones of the orang are high and of moderate
width. Briihl mentions the styloid process of the
orang’s skull, which is, however, somewhat abortive
when we compare it with that of the human skull.
It has its origin in a tolerably deep groove. On the
other hand, Briihl, as we have already observed, can
find no trace of the styloid process in the skulls of
the gorilla and the chimpanzee ! *
There are many large-celled bony cavities in the
orang’s skull. These may be observed in the greater
wings and pterygoid processes of the sphenoid bone,
in the mastoid and squamous parts of the temporal
bones, in the lachrymal bones, in the body, and in
the condyles of the occipital bone, and in the zygo-
matic arch. The larger fore-cells on the squamous
* Bruhi, Zur Kenntniss des Oranghopfes, pp. 2, 3.ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 7980
ANTHROPOID APES.
part of the temporal bones are connected by a wide
aperture with the sinuses of the greater wings and
pterygoid processes of the sphenoid bone. A sinus
which may be observed on the greater wing gene-
rally communicates by a large round hole with the
temporal cells. Theje is generally, but not always,
a communication between the sinuses of the greater
wing and pterygoid process and the nasal cavity.
These cavities sometimes communicate with each
other through a wide aperture at the base of the
nose. The squamous part of the temporal bones
has a cellular sinus, which communicates with the
cells of the mastoid process, in its lower part with
the tympanum, and in its fore-part with the ossicles
of the lower wall of the tympanum. The maxillary
sinuses are in connection with the cells of the
lachrymal bone. There is nothing in the orang’s
skull corresponding to the Vidian canal of the
sphenoid bone, but it may be traced in the gorilla
and the chimpanzee.
The vertebral column of the orang has not the
same colossal spinous processes which distinguish
that of the gorilla. It differs also in many other,
though less striking, particulars both from the
gorilla and the chimpanzee. In the orang there
are generally twelve dorsal vertebrae, tapering in
their lower parts; w’hile their long, thick, transverse
processes, which are full of knots, take an upward
direction. The upper articular processes of the four
lumbar vertebrae present short and rather insig-
nificant mammillary processes. The sternum of the
young orang is generally formed of one largeANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROrOID APES. 81
upper bone, with six smaller bones below. In older
animals the body of the sternum appears to consist
of a tier of three bones connected together. The
ribs resemble those of the human skeleton, the
lavicle is long and straight, and the scapula also
resembles that of a man in form. The flat
pelvic bones of the orang also turn outwards; the
ischiatic boqps are short, with spatula-shaped tube-
rosities ; the pubic arch is high, and the obturator
foramen is narrow and oval. The sacrum and
coccyx do not resemble a rudimentary tail so much
as in the case of the anthropoids we have already
described. We are reminded of the human structure
in the humerus, of which the shaft is much curved
behind, and on its outer side. The ulna is very
slender, and provided with a protracted, jagged
styloid process. The neck of the radius is tapering,
while its shaft is arched like that of the ulna, and
the anterior border and oblique line are sharp. The
wrist, metacarpus, and fingers are long and narrow.
The femur of the orang is remarkable for its
large head, shaped like a section of a sphere, and
its slender shaft. The latter is less bent than in the
gorilla. The patella, which, in my opinion, should
be classed among the so-called sesamoid bones, is in
this case of an irregular form. The shank and foot-
bones are remarkably slender. The scaphoid is
tapering; the head of the astragalus does not turn
inward so much as in the gorilla. The hinder sur-
faces of the metatarsal bones and of the phalanges
turn decidedly outwards.
We have now to consider the bony structure of82
ANTHROPOID APES.
gibbons, in which there are many specific variations
which our space will not allow us to consider in
detail, but a slight sketch of their organic system
must be given. The brain-pan of this animal’s
skull is of an oval shape, without the crests so
characteristic of other anthropoids, and even in the
aged males of this species their development is so
slight as to be scarcely perceptible. The occipital
bone of male animals is, indeed, generally rounded,
and the whole occipital portion is somewhat com-
pressed in a downward direction, while the coronal
region is at the same time flattened. The cranium
gradually widens behind, so that, when seen from
above, its form is somewhat pear-shaped. In aged
males the orbits project from the low, retreating
frontal bone, and are surrounded by a bony, circular
rim.
The face is not very prognathous, and the short
wide nasal-bones form a wide, depressed partition
between the orbits. The edges of the jaw-bones
describe a parabolic curve and are considerably
elongated. The palate is consequently long and
narrow. fhe rami of the lower jaw are wide and
low, and their coronoid processes are only slightly
developed. In aged males the teeth, and especially
the canine teeth, are long and projecting; yet, com-
paratively speaking, they never attain to the great
development of those of other anthropoids.
The number of vertebrae seems to be subject to
considerable variation even in the same species, and
various estimates are given by different naturalists.
Muller, for example, has said that in severalANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. S3
species (Hylolates syndactylus, H. leuciscus, H. varia-
gatus, and H. concolor) there are thirteen dorsal, five
lumbar, six sacral, and four coccygeal vertebra?.
Cuvier counted in the siamang, thirteen dorsal, five
lumbar, four sacral, and three coccygeal vertebrae.
In Hylolates agilis I counted thirteen dorsal, six
lumbar, five sacral, and four coccygeal vertebrae.
Hylolates syndactylus has long coccygeal bones, and
an elongated os sacrum, which gives the impression
of serving for the application of a short tail, or,
indeed, of being in itself a rudimentary tail. In
other respects the cervical, dorsal, and lumbar
vertebrae differ little in structure from those of man.
The ribs on the sternum, which widens abruptly
outwards, are strongly arched. The lowest of these
project, owing to the width of the shaft. In the
sternum there is a want of proportion between the
smallness of its body and the size and width of its
extremity. The ensiform appendix of this bone
is long and wide, and spatula-shaped at its lower
extremity. In the shoulder-girdle the clavicles are
very slender, and much arched. The scapula?,
on the other hand, are high and narrow, spatula-
shaped, and provided with a steeply projecting
acromion process, a strongly developed coracoid
process, and deep glenoid cavities. The upper
limbs are, in conformity with the general structure
of these apes, very slender; the shafts of the bones
of the upper and forearm are elongated, with small
extremities. The condyles are small, especially
those of the elbow. The bones of the wrist, the
metacarpus, and the fingers are also long and slender.84
ANTHROPOID APES.
In the pelvis we note that the ilia are narrow
below, and expand in the form of a spatula above,
and that their position is almost vertical. Their
inner surfaces are only slightly concave, and are
directed somewhat forwards. The ischiatic bcnes
are low, with wide, flattened, rugged tuberosities,
and rounded foramina obturatoria. The ischiatic
rami project forwards in an almost horizontal direc-
tion. There are large prominences on the pubic
arch of the siamang.
The leg-bones are much shorter than those of the
arm. The heads of the femurs stand out plainly
from their short necks and large trochanters, as
segments of perfect spheres. In this case, as in
that of other anthropoids, the third trochanter (tro-
chanteres tertii), often so apparent in the human
femur, is barely indicated. The shank-bones are
arched. The tibia is often laterally compressed,
so that its transverse section forms a scalene triangle.
The malleoli are compressed from before backwards.
The elongated heel-bones appear to be laterally
compressed. The canal between the astragalus and
the os calcis (Sinus tarsi) is very wide. The meta-
tarsal bones and phalanges have large bases, long
slender shafts, and heads projecting on the under
side. Even the final phalanges are long and
slender.
We shall now find it profitable to compare the
external characters of anthropoids with those of
man. We are sometimes disposed to see the true
likenesses of anthropoid apes in dark-skinned, naked
savages. These savages are often insufficiently fed,ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 85
the skin is wrinkled, the face, even at an early age,
is deeply furrowed, and their general appearance is
neglected. The dark silhouette of such people
stands out so distinctly against a clear background,
their habit of life is so rude, their attitudes impress
us so disagreeably, that we are involuntarily led to
5
Fig. 24.—The Zulu king, Ketchwayo, in fighting array, with two of his men.86
ANTHROPOID APES.
makesuch a comparison. Thistendency unfortunately
gives a wide field for exaggeration among dilettanti
naturalists, and suck as are zealous to establish a pre-
conceived theory. A conscientious inquirer must,
however, be cautious, and avoid too great generaliza-
tion in such comparisons. For instance, much has
been said of the pithecoid structure of all African
negroes, yet this only applies to some peculiarly
hideous races, in a state of physical degradation.
There aremanynegro tribes in different partsof Africa
which are remarkable for their well-formed bodies,and
for a not ignoble bearing. The warlike demeanour
of the natives of Ashanti, Dahomey, and Ibos is well
known. Although the Hausanese are flat-nosed and
thick-lipped, yet when armed and dressed in uniform,
as we see in the photographs of Captain Glover’s force,
their military bearing is very apparent. The tribes
of Schilluk, Nuehr, Bari, Niam-Niam, and A-Bantu
present examples of distinguished warriors, however
rude and savage. Dabuhimanzi, commander of the
Zulus at the butcheries of lsandlkwana and Ulundi,
and his chiefs, give me, in a photograph in my pos-
session, the impression of gallant warriors, however
uncivilized. In all these cases it is difBcult to establish
the resemblance to anthropoid apes (see also Fig. 24).
The Papuans, especially on the Australian con-
tinent, are generally classed witli the African negroes
in such comparisons. We admit that a horde of
Australian blacks, degraded by hunger and fatigue,
emaciated and dirty, may, as they roam through the
shadeless woods, the steppes and thick scrub of their
native country, present a strange and brute-like ap-ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 87
pearance. And if the foreign intruder takes a
coarse pleasure iD giving drink to these savages,
their immodest gestures may afford a revolting im-
pression of their bestial nature. Yet the habits even
of these dark-skinned savages are altogether different
under more favourable conditions. Although of
small stature, they are not badly proportioned, and
their manners and bearing are capable of im-
provement, so that they can act as native police,
messengers, etc. This was the case also with the
natives of Queensland, Australia, whom I saw in the
Zoological Gardens, Berlin, throwing the boomer-
ang. Even in these tamed savages, however, we
must note the projecting orbits, the deep depression
between the forehead and nose, and the flatness of
the latter organ. There are aged, wrinkled bush-
men, negroes, Papuans, Malays, Japanese, and
Mongols of inland Asia whose countenances are
altogether pithecoid. And such a cast of face may
even be found in Europe.
Some years ago, Mr. Bond, a land-surveyor in
British India, asserted that he had found the
missing link between man and apes in the moun-
tainous district of the Western Ghauts. And
indeed, the race he describes seems to have a strong
resemblance to apes. “The forehead is low and
retreating. The lower part of the face projects
like the muzzle of an ape; the legs are short and
bent outwards. The trunk and arms are compara-
tively long. The hands and fingers are contracted
so that the latter cannot be freely extended; a
thick skin covers the hollow of the hand and the88
ANTHROPOID APES.
fingers, especially their tips; the nails are small
and imperfect; the feet are broad, and covered
both on their backs and soles with a thick skin.
This tribe seems to worship nature. They have no
fixed dwellings; they live chiefly on roots and
honey, and exchange the latter, together with wax
and other productions of their forests, for tobacco,
clothes, and rice.” *
Nothing more, so far as I am aware, has been
published concerning this race. The description
given above leaves much to be desired. The asser-
tion respecting the contracted fingers is obscure,
and such a condition is directly opposed to any
resemblance with the flexible hand of apes.
Let us turn from a tribe of which the existence
is still dubious, to consider the portraits we subjoin
of a man and woman, aborigines of Queensland,
in a district watered by the Ballone. These are
Aidanill, the brother, and Dewan, the sister,
* “ The Missing Link,” Engineering and Mining Journal, xx. 3:
New York.
Fig. 25.
Aidanill, hairless Australian.
Fig. 26.
The same in profile.ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 89
members of a hairless family. The indefatigable
Miklucho-Maclay went to Gulnarber, 140 miles
from Tulba, in order to examine them, and took
the photographs from which our illustrations are
taken.*
A likeness to the chimpanzee, when deprived of
its hair, may be traced in the keel or roof-shaped
form of the skull; in the prominence of the supra-
orbital arches; in the deep depression between the
forehead and nose, of which only the centre of the
bridge has a slight vertical elevation ; in the broad,
flattened nostrils, bounded by deep furrows ; in the
wide, fleshy mouth, and the large, laterally project-
ing ears. Gratiolet and Alix give such a head in
their treatise on Troglodytes Aubryi (Figs. 25, 26,
27). When we add to this the dark brown skin,
the deeply furrowed countenance, and the dark
brown eyes, as they are described by Miklucho-
Maclay, the external resemblance between many of
the Australian aborigines and apes becomes more
marked.
Projecting ears are common among men of dif-
ferent races, and I have observed them in Europeans
who are otherwise well formed. Even in this latter
case the effect is ape-like. Much has been said of
the resemblance which may often be observed be-
tween the human ear and that of apes. It is ad-
mitted that hardly any part of the organism varies
so much in its characteristics as the external ear.
This is the case with anthropoids, and almost more
frequently with men. Individuals of all nations
* Report of Anthropological Society, Berlin, April 16, 1881.90
ANTHROPOID APES.
are found with defective development of this or
that characteristic helix, angle tragus, notch concha,
and fossa, with lobules imperfectly formed or alto-
gether absent. I have
frequently observed
such misshapen ears,
which vary from the
perfect type, and bear
a certain resemblance
to the ear of apes,
among the hard-
featured peasantry of
Germany, Switzerland,
Fiance, Italy, and Po-
land, wtio cannot be said to count beauty as part of
their inheritance. In Africa I found this defective
formation more common among the Maltese, Greeks,
and Turks who were living in the country, than
among the fellaheen, Berbers, and negroes. The
latter have been unjustly charged with the possession
of “hideous ape-like ears,” whereas, among the African
races, these organs are, in the majority of cases,
of a pleasing form. With respect to the Australian
blacks, and to the Malay, Mongolian, and Indian
races, I cannot rely on my personal observation.
According to my very limited experience, there is
much individual variation among these races, and
ears of the hideous, ape-like formation might be
sought for with success. The specific resemblance
to apes can, indeed, only be ascertained by one who
is accurately acquainted with the organism of these
animals. These and similar ideas are often expressedANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 91
by the unlearned, who do not really understand the
characteristics in question.
Darwin speaks of the anthropoid form of the' ear
in the chimpanzee and orang.* “ The ears of the
chimpanzee and orang are curiously like those of
man, and I am assured by the keepers in the Zoolo-
gical Gardens that these animals never move or
erect them, so that they are in an equally rudimen-
tary condition, as far as that function is concerned,
as man. Why these animals, as well as the pro-
genitors of man, should have lost the power of
erecting their ears, we cannot say. It may be,
though I am not quite satisfied with this view, that
owing to their arboreal habits and great strength
they were but little exposed to danger, and so
during a lengthened period moved their ears but
little, and thus gradually lost the power of moving
them. This would be a parallel case with that of
those large and heavy birds, which from inhabiting
oceanic islands have not been exposed to the attacks
of beasts of prey, and have consequently lost the
power of using their wings for flight.
“The celebrated sculptor, Mr. Woolner, informs me
of one little peculiarity in the external ear which he
has often observed both in men and women, and of
which he perceived the full signification. His at-
tention was first called to the subject whilst at
work on his figure of Puck, to which he had given
pointed ears. He was thus led to examine the ears
of various monkeys, and subsequently more care-
fully those of man. The peculiarity consists in a
* Darwin’s Descent of Man, p. 21.92
ANTHROPOID APES.
little blunt point, projecting from the inwardly
folded margin, or helix. These points not only pro-
ject inwards, but often a little outwards, so that
they are visible when the head is viewed from
directly in front or behind. They are variable in
size and somewhat in position, standing either a
little higher or lower; and they sometimes occur on
one ear and not on the other. Now the meaning
of these projections is not, I think, doubtful; but
it may be thought that they offer too trifling a
character to be worth notice. This thought, how-
ever, is as false as it is natural. Every character,
however slight, must be the result of some definite
cause; and if it occurs in many individuals de-
serves consideration. The helix obviously consists
of the extreme margin of the ear folded inwards;
and this folding appears to be in some manner con-
nected with the whole external ear being per-
manently pressed backwards. In many monkeys,
which do not stand high in the order, as baboons
and some species of macacus, the upper portion
of the ear is slightly pointed, and the margin
is not at all folded inwards; but if the margin
were to be thus folded, a slight point would neces-
sarily project inwards and probably a little out-
wards. This could actually be observed in a speci-
men of the Ateles beelzebuth in the Zoological Gardens;
and we may safely conclude that it is a similar
structure—a vestige of formerly pointed ears—which
occasionally reappears in man.”
I subjoin an illustration of the human ear, in
which the pointed tip mentioned by Darwin may beANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 93
easily discovered. This point may also be perceived
in the ears of anthropoids, and especially in those of
the orang-utan. Meyer has at-
tempted to show that this Dar-
winian pointed tip is only due to
the abortive development of part
of the helix, and in this case we
should not regard the occurrence
as an ape-like pointing of the
helix, but rather as its partial
interruption owing to the patho-
logical condition of that organ.*
In a later edition of his work,
Darwin admits,in reply to Meyer,
that this explanation may apply
to many cases in which there
are several very small points, or when the whole of
the helix is sinuate. In one case, photographed by
Darwin, the prominence was so large that, if we were
to assume with Meyer that the ear would have been
normal if the cartilage had been uniformly developed-
along the whole extent of the helix, the latter must
have occupied a third part of the ear. Two cases
were mentioned to Darwin in which the upper edge
of the ear had no inner fold, and was so pointed
that it was very like that of an ordinary mammal.
The ear of the fcetus of an orang given in Darwin’s
illustration appears to be pointed, although in the
adult animal that organ is very like the human ear.
The Darwinian tip may also be seen in the foetus of
an orang described and illustrated by Salvatore
* Virchow’B Archiv. fur Pathologisehe Anatomie, liii. 485 : 1871.
Fig. 28.—Human ear.94
ANTHROPOID APES.
Trinchese in the Annali del Museo civico di Storia
Naturale di Genova (1870). The tip of the helix is
pointed in very young individuals of the gibbon
exists, instead of this, only a rudimentary apparatus,
the caruncula lachrymalis. In some individuals it
attains to a considerable size, as I have observed in
the fellaheen, Berbers, Shillook, and other tribes.
On the other hand, the conversion of the caruncula
into a true, although only rudimentary, plica semi-
lunaris has not been observed by me in the human
eye. Miklucho-Maclay describes the caruncula
in Melanesians (the Papuans of New Guinea), in
the Orang-Sakay (of the Malay peninsula), and in
the Mikronesians (of the island of Japan and of the
Palau archipelago), as two or three times as wide
as that of the average European.*
* Report of Anthropological Society, Berlin, March 9, 1878.
species, especially in
Hylobates Lar. Among
the lower apes the
pointed ear is very
common (see Fig. 29).
The eyelids of an-
thropoids greatly re-
semble those of man in
their structure. In adult
gorillas and chimpan-
zees there is always a
semilunar fold (plica
semilunaris) correspond-
ing to the membrana
nictitans, or third eyelid
of birds. In man thereANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 95
The eye of the young male gorilla which was
kept alive in the Berlin Aquarium from 1876-77
was carefully examined by me in June, 1877. I
found that the sclerotic membrane of the eyeball
was whitish, surrounded by a dark brown ring. A
second darker ring, sharply defined, surrounded the
cornea. The iris was of a yellowish brown. The
sclerotic membrane, however, gradually deepens in
colour so as fo give the effect of a uniform dark brown.
The iris retains a light brown colour for a longer
period, but it darkens with age. In an aged animal
there is no brightness in the eye, except from reflected
light. In the chimpanzee the iris is light brown, verg-
ing on yellow; and this is also the case in the orang.
The expressionless, indifferent look of anthropoids
has often been observed, and undoubtedly chimpan-
zees and orangs generally gaze placidly before them.
I have, however, observed an animated expression
in the eyes of the former species, and W. L. Martin
has also observed a flash and brightening of their
eyes. I shall never forget the expression of
malicious anger in the eyes of the female animal
Mafuca, at Dresden, as soon as she was teased. The
expression of the eyes of the gorilla in the Berlin
Aquarium also changed frequently, especially when
he was about to perform some mischievous trick, or
when he was provoked to anger. The expression of
this animal was very human, but necessarily it could
only recall the darkly coloured eyes of negroes and
other black races. In 1876 there were two very
young orangs in the Berlin Aquarium, one hairy and
the other hairless. These animals clung together in96
ANTHROPOID APES.
a close embrace. If they were separated, their eyes
became bright and restless, and they again sought
to embrace each other while uttering plaintive cries.
On tickling one of the animals under the chin, it
made a most absurd grimace, and its eyes brightened,
as Martin has observed in similar cases. The eyes
of the gibbons which I have observed had a
thoroughly mild and placid expression, rarely
animated by any fire.
The instance we have mentioned of hairless
Australians is the more remarkable since these
aborigines are for the most part distinguished for
their luxuriant growth of hair. The Australian
blacks and the Ainos of Yedo are, as a rule, perhaps
the most hairy races in the world. It is known,
however, that in all countries and climates excep-
tional cases are found of individuals whose bodies
are wholly or partially covered with hair, and these
conditions sometimes affect whole families. Inte-
resting historical and morphological researches
respecting these hairy men have recently been made
by von Siebold, Ecker, Virchow, Bartels, and Orn-
stein. In many of these cases we are presented
with decidedly brute-like phenomena. The Mexican
woman Julia Pastrana displays the strongest resem-
blance to apes. Other hairy men remind us at the
first glance of some of the canine species. In all
races the women are less hairy than the men. Dar-
win states that in the females of some species of
apes the under side of the body is less hairy than in
the males, and this is also the case with anthropoids,
especially with the chimpanzee.ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 97
The beard is, as we know, common to man and
apes. Among apes it is more strongly developed in
the male than in the female, and this is also the case
in the human species. Darwin points out that the
growth of the beard both of men and apes occurs at
the period of their sexual maturity, and also that
there is a remarkable parallel between men and apes
in its colour. For when the human beard varies in
colour from the hair of the head, which is frequently
the case, it is, without exception, of a lighter, and
.generally of a reddish hue. Darwin observed this
in England, and Hooker found no exception to the
rule in Eussia. J. Scott carefully observed the
numerous races which are to be found in Calcutta,
as in other parts of India, namely, the two Sikh
races, the Bhoteas, Hindus, Burmese, and Chinese.
Although most of these races have very little hair
on the face, Scott found that in all cases without
exception, in which there was any difference in
colour between the hair of the head and the beard,
the latter was of a lighter shade. In apes the
colour of the beard often differs widely from that of
the hair of the head, and in such cases it is always
of a lighter shade, often white, sometimes yellow or
reddish.
“ It is well known,” says Darwin, “ that the hair
on our arms tends to converge from above and below
to a point at the elbow. This curious arrangement,
so unlike that in most of the lower mammals, is
common to the gorilla, chimpanzee, orang, some
species of Hylobates, and even to some few American
monkeys. But in Hylobates agilis the hair on the98
ANTHROPOID APES.
forearm is directed downwards or towards the wrist
in the ordinary manner; and in Hylobates lar it is
nearly erect, with only a very slight forward inclina-
tion ; so that in this latter species it is in a tran-
Fig. 30.—Capucin ape (Cebus capucinus).
sitional state. It .can hardly be doubted that with
most mammals the thickness of the hair and its
direction on the back is adapted to throw oft the
rain; even the transverse hairs on the forelegs of aANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 99
dog may serve for this end when he is coiled up asleep.
Mr. Wallace remarks that the convergence of the
hair towards the elbow on the arms of the orang
(whose habits he has so carefully studied) serves to
throw off the rain, when, as is the custom of this
animal, the arms are bent, with the hands clasped
round a branch or over its own head. We should, how-
ever, bear in mind that the attitude of an animal
may perhaps*be" in part determined by the direction
of the hair; and not the direction of the hair by the
attitude. If the above explanation is correct in the
case of the orang, the hair on our forearms offers
a curious record of our former state; for no one sup-
poses that it is now of any use in throwing off the
rain, nor in our present erect condition is it properly
directed for this purpose.” *
Darwin also remarks that it is erroneous to deny
that apes have eyebrows. In fact, long bristly eye-
brows are present in all anthropoids—not growing
thickly together like those of men, but scattered
among the shorter and thicker growth of hair which
clothes the parts above the orbits; nor do they
maintain any definite direction. In the white-handed
gibbon,theseeyebrows are remarkable for their length
and stiffness. A growth of hair corresponding to
eyebrows may, indeed, be observed above the upper
eyelids of all mammals, including seals and pachy-
dermata. On the upper lip of gorillas, chimpanzees,
and orangs we may also observe a number of some-
what longer, stiff, and bristly hairs which stand apart
from the otherwise short hairs on the lips, and give
* Darwin’s Descent of Man, vol. i. p. 192.100
ANTHROPOID APES.
the impression of a cat’s “ whiskers.” In Hylobates
albimanus I observed that these vibrissse attain to a
considerable length (Fig. 10).
The external form of the trunk of anthropoids,
taken as a whole, does not greatly differ from that
of man. We have not, indeed, the well-formed
human torso, with its graceful lines; and the forma-
tion of the posteriors, together with a want of expan-
sion about the hips, displeases us in its departure
from the human type (see Figs. 1 and 6). We shall
not be disposed to compare the torso of the Apollo
' Belvedere, or of the Olympian Hermes with that of
a gorilla or chimpanzee. Yet the torso of a power-
ful male gorilla, from which the hair has been
removed, may be favourably compared with that of
one of the large-bellied, lean-armed weaklings who
are everywhere to be found as living caricatures of
the human species.
The neck of anthropoids is generally short
and thick. In the gorilla that part of the body
has a great backward convexity, owing, as we have
said, to the great development of the spinous pro-
cesses of the cervical vertebras, and of the muscles
attached to them. A short, thick throat, and con-
siderable development of the neck, a bull-neck, as it
is called, is also not unfrequent in man. This pecu-
liarity is sometimes supposed to be one of the national
characteristics of the African blacks. Burmeister
says that “ the negro’s thick neck is the more striking,
since it is generally allied with a short throat. In
measuring negroes from the crown of the head to
the shoulder I found the interval to be from nineANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 101
and a quarter to nine and three-quarter inches. In
Europeans of normal height, this interval is seldom
less than ten inches, and it is more commonly eleven
inches in women, and twelve in men. The shortness
of the neck, as well as the relatively small size of the
brain-pan, and the large size of the face may the more
readily be taken as an approximation to the simian
type, since all apes are short-necked, and the relative
distance of these animals is somewhat further from
the negro than that of the negro from the Euro-
pean. This shortness of the neck in the negro
explains his greater carrying power, and his prefer-
ence for carrying burdens on his head, which is
much more fatiguing to the European on account of
his longer and weaker neck.*
Burmeister’s assumption on this subject is, how-
ever, much too general. It does not apply to
many of the negro races—at any rate, not to those
of the Upper Nile valley. A long, thin neck is
the characteristic of the Funje, Shillooks, Denkas,
Baris, and other large tribes of those regions.
Among these people the interval between the top
of the head and the shoulder is from ten to
eleven, and even from eleven to twelve inches (240 to
260 mm., and 260 to 286 mm.). Burmeister has
been thinking exclusively of the Brazilian blacks.
Yet I am unable to trace the typical short neck,
either in the well-known portraits of slaves by
Maurice. Bugendas,f or in the collection of photo-
,• i	_
* Oeologische Bilder zur Qeschichte der Erde und ihrer Bewohner,
ii. 120 : Leipzig, 1851-53.
f Voyage pittoresque dansle Brasil: Paxis, 1839.102
ANTHROPOID APES.
graphs of Brazilian negroes which is in my posses-
sion. This characteristic is also absent, even in
many portraits of West African and Mozambique
blacks, tribes from which the slave population of
Brazil has been chiefly drawn. Many Mongolians,
Malays, Papuans, and Polynesians have short, thick
necks, but this characteristic is more rare among
the American aborigines and among Europeans. If
we are to recognize an approximation to the simian
type in this formation, it is one common to several
nations, and it is not confined only,- nor even chiefly,
to the negro races.
The remarkable elongation of the upper limbs of
anthropoid apes cannot be compared with the length
of the corresponding limbs in men. For although
among negroes and the members of other primitive
peoples we may occasionally observe unusually long
arms, yet these are individual peculiarities which
are also found among Europeans, and cannot be
counted among racial characteristics.
The hand of the orang and the gibbon is too long
and narrow to be directly compared with the human
hand. The chimpanzee and the gorilla, especially
the latter, have hands more like those of man. In
the case of an adult male gorilla the first glance at
this member reminds us of the knotty fist of a black
dock labourer or lighterman, like those w'ho, at Rio
de Janeiro, Bahia, or La Guayra, lift the heavy bags
of coffee and place them on their heads or on their
herculean shoulders. Much has been said of the
enlargement of the connective skin between the
bases of the fingers of a negro hand, and of theANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 103
pointed extremities of the fingers. Van der Hoeven,
in his well-known treatise, De Natuurlijlie Geschie-
denis van den Negerstam, has described and drawn
the hand of an Ashanti boy, formed in this manner.
Fig. 31.—Hand of a very aged male gorilla.
Hence there is a disposition to recognize in this
peculiarity an important characteristic of the negro
race. As in the hand of the gorilla, the connective
web between the bases of the fingers is also extensive,104
ANTHROPOID APES.
and the ungual phalanges taper at their extremities,
there is also an inclination to ascribe an expressly
anthropoid character to the negro hand. Yet this
structure of the fingers is by no means universal
Fig. 32.—Hand of a Hammegh from Roseres, on the Blue Nile.
among the negroes. An enlargement of the connec-
tive web is not indeed uncommon, but its extent
varies considerably. Nor is it wanting in the fingers
of.other races. An attentive observer will be ableANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 105
to trace it in the labouring population of country
districts in Europe. I have myself frequently
observed this characteristic in Canton Wallis, and in
the Lombard and Genoese provinces, through which
I travelled on foot in 1869 and 1871, when I devoted
special attention to this point. In Fig. 32 I give a
negro hand of a type which seems to be common
among the blacks in the inland districts of North-
eastern Africa. It can hardly be denied that the
form of this hand, which is certainly not flattered,
possesses the characteristics of a thoroughly human
organization.
With respect to other primitive peoples besides
negroes, we have not at present sufficient informa-
tion, and we ought therefore to beware of pre-
mature generalization. The thin shanks, with
imperfectly developed calves, found among many
primitive races, and especially among the African
and Australian blacks, are often and not unjustly
adduced as an instance of their ape-like formation.
In fact, the general uncomeliness of these parts in
the races in question is one of their significant
characteristics.
The anthropoid foot resembles in structure those
of other apes, including those of the New World,
and as a rule it differs from the human foot
in the flexibility of the great toes. It has, how-
ever, been justly observed that many individuals of
different races have been able to use the great toe
almost as if it were a thumb. Such persons may be
found everywhere. Men who have been born without
arms, or who have been deprived of them during life,106
ANTHROPOID APES.
have been able to use their feet like hands, as some
compensation for this privation. The most surpris-
ing instance of our time has occurred in the violinist
without arms, whose performances are heard in
various continental capitals. Another, mentioned
Fig. 33.—Satan’s ape (Pithecia Katanas'). Shows the formation and mode of using
the feet in apes of the New World.
by Bar, was able to write with his feet. But even
people who have the full use of their upper limbs
can often grasp with the great toe as if it were a
thumb, so as to pick up small objects from theANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 107
ground, or draw them towards them. Constant
practice in such feats produces a certain dexterity.
Negroes, Malays, Polynesians, and Indians make
use of their outstretched great toes in climbing
with as skilful a gripe as our schoolboys and sailors
are also able to do in gymnastics, or in climbing up
the masts. Among such people the distinction
between the foot of man and apes is less marked,
since, even when at rest, the great toe is apt to be
somewhat detached from the others. This may be
seen in A. Buchta’s excellent photographs of indi-
viduals of the Central African tribe, the Makraka.
Haeckel justly observes that there is no marked
physiological distinction between the hand and foot
which can be established on a scientific basis. In
order to make such a distinction it is necessary to
consider their morphological characteristics.*
Structure of the skeleton.—In comparing the skulls
of anthropoids with those of men, we should, in the
case of the gorilla, chimpanzee, and orang-utan,
content ourselves with young specimens rather than
with the skulls of adults. In aged apes of these
species, the colossal development of the bony crests
of the skull, as well as that of the jaws, the promi-
nence of the orbital rim, and the flattening of the
occipital bone, present distinctions of such a search-
ing character that we are greatly hindered in the
pursuit of the comparative method. But during
the process of development the anthropoid skeleton
admits of a direct comparison with that of man.
In a young animal the rounded skull suggests a
* Antliropogenie, p. 482 : Leipzig, 1874.108
ANTHROPOID APES.
parallel between it and the human head. It must
be admitted that we find, especially in primitive
peoples, many human skulls which in their whole
plastic form differ little from the skulls of young
Fig. 34.—Human skull, a, Nasal bone, b, Upper jaw. c, Lower jaw. d, Occi-
pital bone, e, Temporal bone. /, Parietal bone, g, Frontal bone, h, Malar
bone.
gorillas, chimpanzees, and orangs. Even in the
way the occipital bone is rounded off, young anthro-
poids and men are often found in a similar stage
of development. The squamous occipital portionANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 109
in a young negro, Papuan and Malay, is indeed often
flatter and more bevelled than it is in a young
gorilla or chimpanzee.
We must not, however, assume that the two
individuals brought into comparison are of precisely
the same age, since such a point cannot easily be
ascertained, even when subjects for examination are
afforded by ong of our larger museums. Savages
are seldom able to give their precise age, and the
attempt to do so often relies on insufficient data.
The direct examination of the skull will afford some
information on this point; but the conditions of
growth in anthropoids are not so well known as to
admit of an accurate estimate. We have to rely on
the state of the teeth, on the stage at which the
development of the bony crests has arrived, etc., in
order to form an approximate estimate of the age
of the skull.
On the squamous occipital portion-the arrangement
of the curved lines which are the boundaries to
the attachments of the cervical muscles, is common
to men, to anthropoids, and to other apes. Only in-
dications of these lines are to be found in the lower
order of mammals. In the human skull there is some-
times a formation belonging to the squamous occipital
portion which has a distinctly pithecoid or ape-like
character. This is the occipital swelling we have
already described (Torus occipitalis transversus), which
may be either enclosed by the two upper curved
lines, or lie between these and the central curved
lines, or may be altogether in the region of the
latter. This swelling extends in a gradual manner
6110
ANTHROPOID APES.
above and below its bony support. Its edge may be
more or less sharp, more or less like a crest in its
development, wider or narrower, with or without a
central eminence, but its appearance is always
striking. In young male and female gorillas, orangs,
and chimpanzees this formation represents the com-
pletely formed transverse occipital crests, which are
found for the most part in aged male animals of
these species. These swellings may also be observed
on the skulls of adult men of all times and all
nations. They are by no means rare in the skulls
which are in ordinary use at the Berlin School of
Anatomy, and they are remarkably common in
many groups of skulls. They are frequent among
the skulls, for the most part without their lower
jaws, which the late Dr. Sachs disinterred in
a Mohammedan burial-ground of the thirteenth
century, near Cairo. These are the remains of
Mohammedans of different ranks, but, for the most
part, of the peasantry or fellaheen. Ecker was able
to trace the sagittal crest in the skulls of Australian
males, while it is absent in the females. Similar
indications of the bony crest have been observed by
me in the roof-shaped or scaphocephalic skulls of
many negroes, but in these cases I am not aware
whether there is a corresponding distinction of sex.
It can hardly be denied that this bony prominence
is a human characteristic.
Broca has given the term pterion to the H-shaped
connection formed by the sutures between the parietal
bone, the greater wing of the sphenoid bone, the
squamous portion of the temporal bone, and theANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. Ill
frontal bone. One of the most common disturbances
in the symmetry of the connecting suture, as we
have already briefly mentioned, arises from the
insertion of a frontal process of the squamous portion
of the temporal bone between the lower angle of
the parietal bone, the fore-part of the frontal bone,
and the greater wing of the sphenoid bone. This
process of the. temporal bone varies in size, and may
occur on one or both sides. A similar formation is
common among gorillas, chimpanzees, macacas,
magots (Inuus), and baboons.* It is less frequent
among orangs,t gibbons, marmosets, and American
species (howlers, hooded apes, etc.).
Virchow and W. Gruber have agreed in repre-
senting this frontal process as theromorphological—
that is, as a characteristic of the lower animals, and
more especially of apes. Virchow has found this
abnormal formation of the skull to be more com-
mon in some races than others. None of those in
whom it occurs appear to belong to the Aryan
races, and the existence of this process and steno-
crotaphy, or temporal stenosis, seem to be due to a
defective development of the greater wing of the
sphenoid bone, and to the compression of the bones
in its vicinity, by which the whole temporal region
is contracted. This is a characteristic of the lower,
hut by no means of the lowest, races of men.
Stieda, Hyrtl, Gruber, and Calori have sought to
* It appears to be very common among Japanese apes (Inuus
speciosus).
t Briihl has noted the intermittent occurrence of a connection
between the greater wing of the sphenoid bone and the temporal
bone.112
ANTHROPOID APES.
controvert the fact that this temporal process is a
characteristic of the lower races. Stieda asserts
that it may occur exceptionally in all races of men.*
He himself, aided by Anutschin, has ascertained the
existence of this anomalous pterion on more than
10,000 human skulls, and he has also received
information from others. He considers the frequency
of this frontal process in man to be theromorpho-
logical, or indeed pithecoid. According to Anutschin,
this anomalous condition is not equally common in
all races. In the dark-skinned and woolly-haired
races (Australians, Papuans, and negroes) the frontal
process is most widely diffused ; it is less frequent
among Mongolians and Malays; and among Ameri-
cans and white men its occurrence is from five to
six times more uncommon than in the black races.
Sometimes the frontal process occurs on the inter-
calary bone (Ossa epipterica), which is fused into the
squamous portion of the temporal bone ; and some-
times the process grows out of the squamous portion
of the temporal bone. These imperfect processes or
intercalary bones are not regarded by Anutschin as
pithecoid, since they are more rare in apes than in
men. Schlocker has sought to show that the frontal
process of the squamous portion of the temporal
bone, the less common temporal process of the frontal
bone, and the temporal intercalary bone (Ossa epip-
terica) are of equal value from the genetic point of
view.j This author regards the frontal process and
* Archiv. fiir Anthropologie, p. 121: 1878.
t Schlocker, TJeber die Anomalien des Pterion. Inaugural
dissertation. Dorpat, 1879.ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 118
the immediate connection of the frontal and squa-
mous portion of the temporal bones, as theromor-
phological characteristics, but he does not believe
the occurrence of this process to be restricted to the
lower races.* This is also the opinion of Ten Kate.
However this may be, the establishment of this
theromorphological formation is important. Its im-
mediate value as a contribution to the theory of the
origin of species remains, as we shall presently see,
even if we cannot trace it through intermediate and
lower types.
In the great prominence of the supra-orbital ridges
which has been observed in some pre-historic human
skulls, a likeness to the corresponding feature in
anthropoids has been traced. And indeed there is
such a likeness, especially to the female chimpanzee,
in the well-known Neanderthal skull, which is very
dolichocephalic, with prominent supra-orbital arches,
only divided from each other by a shallow depression.
In the same skull the development of the supra-
orbital ridges is related to that of the frontal sinuses.
In this pre-historic specimen—which, by the kindness
of Professor Schaafhauser, I was able to examine
closely at the congress of anthropologists at Berlin
in 1880—the forehead retreats in a marked manner
towards the flattened region of the crown. De
Quatrefages and Hamy say that the skull is both
flattened and long (dolichoplatycephalic). The tem-
poral ridges are not only very marked, but they
approach each other in the region of the coronal
* Zur Kraniologie der Mongoloiden; Beobaehtungen und Mes-
sungen, p. 56. Dissertation. Heidelburg, Berlin, 1882.ANTHROPOID APES.
114
arch (Fig. 35). This also occurs in the adult female
chimpanzee, as well as in the young male gorilla,
in the aged female orang, and in the gibbon.
It may here be observed that our men of science
differ widely in opinion respecting the origin and
ethnological significance of the Neanderthal skull,
of which I will cite only a few instances. Pruner
regards it as the skull of an idiot.* * * § Virchow
considers the specimen, and the similar one from
Kailykke in the Copenhagen Museum, as an alto-
gether individual formation,! a typical form modified
by disease,! in other words, a pathological skull.§
King regards the skull as one belonging to one
of the primitive races.|| Schaaffhauser has, indeed,
endeavoured to make an artistic portrait of such
a primitive man. Spengel holds that skulls which
are “ Neanderthaloid ” in form are to be found
chiefly in Europe, f Huxley says decidedly that
the Neanderthal skull can by no means be regarded
as the remains of a human being which was a link
between man and apes. At most this discovery
only proves the existence of a man whose skull
reverted in some respects to the simian type, just
as a carrier or tumbler pigeon may sometimes
* Bulletin de la Soci6t6 d'Anthropologie, iv. fig. 305.
t Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologie,
p. 164 : 1872.
X Die vierte allgemeine Versammlung der deutschen Gesellschaft
Jiir Anthropologie, p. 49.
§ Die Urbevolkerung Europas, p. 46.
|| Quarterly Journal of Science, January, 1864. Comp, also
Fuhlrotfc, Der fossile Mensch aus dem Neanderthal: Duisburg, 1865.
^ Archiv.fiir Anthropologie, viii. fig. 63.ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 115
display the plumage of their original ancestor, the
rock-pigeon (Columbia livia). And although the
Neanderthal skull is more like that of the ape than
any other human skull with which we are acquainted,
yet it is by no means so isolated as it at first appears,
but is rather the ultimate expression of a series
which may be gradually traced back from the116
ANTHROPOID APES.
highest and most fully developed type of human
skulls. On the one side it approximates to the
flattened Australian skulls, from which other
Australian forms gradually lead to skulls which
rather resemble the type afforded by the Engis
skull. On the other side, it is still more closely
allied with the skulls of certain ancient races
which were either contemporaries or successors of
those which dwelt in Denmark during the Stone
Age, people whose kitchen middens have been dis-
covered in that country.*
Huxley justly observes that some of the skulls
drawn by Busk, and taken from the tumuli of
Borrely, resemble the Neanderthal skull, especially
in the abruptly retreating forehead. Some other
European skulls may, within certain limits, be
compared with the Neanderthal skull, as, for instance,
those found at Briix, Staengenaes, Olmo, Louth,
Clichy, Bougon, Cro-Magnon, Grenelle, Eurfooz,
Engisheim, Cannstadt, and Toul. These all present
interesting peculiarities of structure—strongly de-
veloped supra-orbital arches, a retreating forehead,
a flattened crown, etc., although none of them are so
remarkable in these particulars as the Neanderthal
skull. It has not, however, yet been proved that
this skull represents a definite racial type, and it
seems more probable that it was simply an indi-
vidual form.
The skulls of the Australian aborigines are, as
Spengel justly observes, distinguished from the
Neanderthal skull, and from others of like character,
* Zeugnisse, etc., 157.ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 117
by their pronounced scaphocephalism. On the
other hand, they have the prominent supra-orbital
arches, the retreating forehead, the skull compressed
in the temporal region, the prognathous countenance,
relatively shorter than that of Europeans, and in all
these respects the skulls of the Australians greatly
resemble those of anthropoids. If, for instance, we
turn to the illustration given by de Quatrefages and
Hamy of a skull procured from Camp-in-Heaven,
Arnhem’s Land, North Australia, and also Dr.
Schadenburg’s negro skull, the most determined
sceptic must be struck by their resemblance to the
anthropoid skull.*
Similar characteristics to those which we have
already mentioned as distinguishing the structure
of the Australian skull, enable us to determine the
anthropoid character of the skulls of many in-
dividuals belonging to the dark-skinned African
races. These consist chiefly in the retreating fore-
head, the flatness and compression of the coronal
arch, the pronounced prognathism, and the obtuse
angles of the lower maxillary bones, which may be
noted in so many negro skulls. On the other hand,
the prominence of the supra-orbital arches is, as a
rule, less marked in African races than in anthro-
poid species. There are specimens, however, as, for
instance, the Congo skull given by de Quatrefages and
Hamy,f which give an overwhelming impression of
anthropoid characteristics. And we find the same to
# Crania Ethnica, plate xxvi.; Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie, series
12, plate viii. fig. 2.
t Crania Ethnica, plate xxxvi.1]8
ANTHROPOID APES.
a surprising degree in the skulls of intelligent, war-
like, and light-skinned races of Central and Western
Africa, and as the Monbuttre, Haussaua, Bakale,
Fan, etc. This character may be discovered in all
races of men, and especially among the Papuans
and some African negroes.
A mutual approximation of the temporal ridges
in the coronal region may be observed in the skulls
of various nations. This formation is most frequent
in the long-headed negro and Papuan skulls. In
these cases it is generally allied with the shortness
of the interval between the sides of the skull, taken
in its transverse diameter (stenocephalism).
In an adult female chimpanzee, the parietal bones
often rise abruptly towards the sagittal suture, and
in its vicinity there arises a longitudinal bony
prominence, of which the sides pass gradually into
the external surface of the parietal bones. The
sagittal suture sometimes remains intact, and is
sometimes included by this process. This produces
a modified development of the so-called keel-shaped
skull (scaphocephalies). Such a formation may be
often observed in negroes and Papuans, and more
rarely in the skulls of other races. The occur-
rence of a divided malar bone in human skulls,
especially in those of the Ainos and Japanese, has
been considered to be theromorpbic, since it is
occasionally observed in the skulls of apes.* I have
# Ten Kate, loc. cit. pp. 17, 42. Virchow is of opinion that
the facts are not sufficiently clear to enable us to judge how far
this formation affects men (Monatsbwicht der Ahademie der
Wissenschaft zu Berlin, p. 258 : 1881). The detachment of theANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 119
myself, in a very few instances, found obscure traces
of such a formation among anthropoids.
In 1869 Boucher de Perthes found at Abbeville
half of a human lower jaw deposited in a black layer
of clay and sand mixed with iron, and lying on
the chalk. As far as we can judge from illustrations
which are for the most part imperfect, there was
nothing remarkable about it except its abruptly re-
treating ramus (Fig. 36), but the specimen aroused
great attention at the time, and it was assigned by
many intelligent observers to the primitive men of
the diluvial period. Unfortunately it was after-
wards proved to be a gigantic imposture.*
This is not the case with the lower jaws of
Naulette, Aurignac, and Arcy, which are un-
doubtedly genuine and of great antiquity. The
Naulette jaw is, indeed, very imperfect, yet we can
trace the construction of the symphysis of the chin,
malar bone from the spheno-maxillary fissure of the orbit has up
to this time been too rarely observed in anthropoids to merit
serious consideration in this work.
* Joly, Man before Metals: London.120
ANTHROPOID APES.
which provokes comparison with the lower jaws of
many anthropoids, especially those of the gorilla
and chimpanzee (Fig. 37). The resemblance consists
chiefly in the uprightness of the anterior surface,
and especially of the body of the maxillary bone.
In anthropoids this surface of the bone retreats from
the row of teeth backwards and downwards to the
lower edge of the body of the maxillary bone (Fig.
38); and in the Naulette specimen, as well as in
the lower jaws of some modern Papuan skulls (of
New Hebrides and elsewhere), there is a certain
approximation to the simian type. A fossil ape
(Dryopithecus Fontanii) has been found in the Middle
Miocene of Saint-Gaudens, assumed to be one of the
higher anthropoids, and in this case the jaw is onlyANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 121
slightly retreating. Gaudry considers that the Dryo-
pithecus was about the size of a man. The incisor
teeth were small. The cusps of the back molar teeth
were less rounded than in Europeans, and more like
those of Australians. It has been surmised, although
the fact cannot be established, that the last molar
teeth were only cut after the canine teeth, as is the case
with the human wisdom teeth. Gaudry gi vesthe illus-
tration of the lower jaw of a Tasmanian, from eleven to
twelve years old, together with that of Dryopithecus
Fontanii. In the human jaw the first molar tooth is
larger than in the Dryopithecus, while the canine tooth
and the pre-molars are much weaker. This distinc-
tion is important, since the smaller size of the front
teeth is connected uith the slight projection of
the face, which is always a sign of human superiority.
Although the canine tooth of the Dryopithecus is
broken, we can see that it must have been consider-
ably higher than the other teeth, and indeed the
canine teeth of the male animal must have been very
powerful. There is also a slight prominence in the
teeth of this ape, which is absent in those of men.
Mesopithecus, from the Miocene of Pikermi, Attica,
was an ape less closely resembling the anthropoids.
In the structure of the head it resembles the slender
ape (Semnopithecus), and in the structure of the limbs
it is like a macaca (Macacus). Gaudry believes that
Sansan’s Pliopithecus was related to the gibbon. An
ape of the size of the orang-utan, which belongs to
the slender apes (Semnopithecus sub-himalayanus),*
* Gaudry, Les endiainements du monde animal, p. 232: Paris,
1878.122
ANTHROPOID APES.
was found by Baker and Durand in the Miocene of
the Sewalik mountains.
In the comparative study of the human organiza-
tion, and that of anthropoid apes, it is important to
examine sections, and especially longitudinal sections,
of characteristic skulls.* Virchow has caused draw-
ings to be made, from specimens in the Berlin
Museum, of a gorilla, a chimpanzee, an orang-utan,
and an Australian woman. The gorilla’s skull,
when compared with the Australian’s, is so narrow
that it looks as if compression had been applied to
it; and yet the Australian skull is extremely small
in comparison with that of men in general, since its
cubic space is only 1150 ccm. In the gorilla t—at
least in the old male, from which the drawing is
taken—the immense size of the frontal sinuses, and
the swellings which cover them, together with the
strongly developed jaw, increase the impression of
size. But, as Virchow observes, “all which adds to
the size of the skull is bestial, and not human.” It
is much the same in the orang-utan. Only in the
chimpanzee the cubic space of the skull may be
somewhat more favourably compared with that of
the human skull. It approaches in size to that of a
microcephalic native of the Bhein-Pfalz (of which
an illustration is also given), which ranks a good deal
below the Australian skull, and approximates more
closely to the simian type. The internal space
of the skulls of an adult female gorilla or orang
* Hartmann, Der Gorilla, pp. 68, 109.
f Correspondenzblatt der Deutscher Anthropologischen GeselU
schaft, p. 148, with illustration : 18V8.ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 123
may also be more favourably compared with those
of men.
We have already mentioned the presence of
extensive sinuses and cells in the skulls of anthro-
poids, exceeding those of human skulls, and this
is apparent in the accompanying illustration of
a longitudinal section of the skull of a chim-
panzee carrigd through its centre (Fig. 39). The
length of this skull between the nasal partition and
the most prominent part of the occipital bone is
128 mm.; that of the internal space is 108 mm.
10 mm. of this difference is due to the depth of the
Fig. 39.—Sagittal section through the skull of a bam-chimpanzee.
frontal sinuses, and the rest is owing to the thick-
ness of the bony part of the skull. In an aged male
gorilla, the first measurement is 153 mm., the second
115 mm. In another aged gorilla the measurements
were respectively 183 mm. and 117 mm. In a
still more aged male orang they were respectively
140 mm. and 114 mm. The comparative thinness
of the centre of the squamous occipital portion is to
be noted in the aged gorilla 'male. In the adult
chimpanzee the large cells of the squamous portion124-
anthropoid APES.
of the temporal bone extend into this bone, and
indeed without interruption into the parietal bone
adjoining it. For such investigations the thin
and light bones of individuals which have lived
a wild life are more suitable than the heavy and
fat specimens which have died after prolonged
confinement.
Zuckerkandl has observed that among Europeans
the orbital part of the nose, or that part which is
between the orbits, is longer than the infra-orbital
or lower part. In anthropoids the infra-orbital por-
tion is considerably the longest, although only in
adult animals. There are stages in the period of
development in which these animals display the
characteristics of an adult European, or indeed of
a child. The proportions of the skulls of Malays
take a middle place between those of Europeans and
of apes. The growth of the infra-orbital part of the
nose in the Malay does not equal that of apes, but
in many cases it differs essentially from that of
Europeans. Zuckerkandl makes a skilful attempt
to establish this statement by statistics.
The same inquirer makes some interesting
remarks on the comparative height and width of
the orbits. He observes that the skulls of adult
apes and men differ more in these respects than
the young specimens of these organisms. The
orbits both of a child and an adult, especially in the
case of a European, are much more like those of a
young ape than of an aged animal of the same
species. In the chimpanzee and the orang-utan the
proportions are the same as in men; that is, the widthANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 125
of the orbit exceeds its height. In man, this seems
to arise from the exceptionally strong development
of the supra-orbital ridge. It is most probable
that in very young anthropoids the width of the
orbit exceeds its height.* Zuckerkandl goes on to
say that in anthropoids the height of the orbits is
greater than their width, and that this difference
increases with age. But this is not absolutely cor-
rect, for even in aged animals the proportions vary,
and the height and width of the orbits sometimes,
although rarely, remains the same.
In comparing the vertebral column in men and
anthropoids, Rosenberg has sought to show in the
embryo, that the first sacral vertebra assumes the
form of a lumbar vertebra, and that in a later stage
of development it is enclosed by the ilia, and
anchylosed with the sacrum. The same author has
proposed a theory of the homologous or genetic
equivalents of the vertebrae, which we must now
consider. According to this theory, as Welcker has
observed, f the twentieth vertebra of an animal A is
homologous to the twentieth vertebra of an animal B,
the thirtieth vertebra of one animal to the thirtieth
of another, although in one case it may be a lum-
bar vertebra, in another a pelvic vertebra, and in
a third a coccygeal vertebra. The dorso-lumbar
vertebrae of the lower apes have, in the case of men,
their descendants, undergone a threefold metamor-
# Zur Morphologie des Gesichtsschadel, pp. 73, 85, 89 : Stuttgart,
1877.
t Welcker on His und Braune, Archiv. fur Anatomie, 1881.
Rosenberg, Gegeubaur’s Morphologisches Jahrbuch, i. 172.126
ANTHROPOID APES.
phosis, and, after their modification into sacral verte-
brae, have assumed their fourth form as coccygeal
vertebrae.
Froriep, a follower of Rosenberg, remarks that the
lumbo-saoral vertebrae, i.e. those constituents of the
vertebral column which form the transition from
the lumbar to the sacral vertebrae, are invested with
fresh interest by Rosenberg’s hypothesis. Accord-
ing to their position in the vertebral column, they
are to be regarded as lumbar vertebrae, introduced
too early or too late into the structure of the sacrum.
If the twenty-fourth vertebra is assimilated with the
sacrum, so as to form an upper promontory or out-
work, this variety offers a point of transition to a
future formation (?) in which this vertebra normally
becomes the first sacral vertebra, and the column will
now display twenty-three free vertebras. If, again,
this transition occurs in the twenty-fifth vertebra of
the series, which thus becomes the chief sacral verte-
bra, this is, in Rosenberg’s opinion, a characteristic
survival of the racial development, an atavism.*
According to Welcker’s theory, the chief sacral
vertebra in one animal corresponds to the same
sacral vertebra in another animal, whatever their
number may be. The cervical vertebrae of one
animal, which may be five, seven, or even eleven in
number, correspond to the cervical vertebrae of
another animal. The vertebral column of one
animal corresponds to the vertebral column of
another, taken as a whole, but not to two-thirds or
three-fourths of that column. In accordance with
* Beitrage zur Geburtshiilfe, p. 161.ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 127
the requirements of a given animal, that part
of the bone which belongs to the sections of the
breast and loins is more or less abundant, and the
vertebrae are homologous in accordance with their
region, and not with their number.
Holl has asserted that one vertebra is in close
connection with the ilium, joined with it through-
out its extent, and that this vertebra at the same
time always appears to support the pelvis. This
vertebra is, in normal cases, the first sacral vertebra,
and the twenty-fifth of the series. It may be termed,
as Welcker suggests, vertebra fulcralis. Such a
main support is found, according to Holl, in every
vertebral column, however anomalous its other con-
ditions may be, and the only irregularity consists
in its number in the series. This bone serves as a
natural starting-point in our division of the vertebral
column. The vertebra fulcralis must always be
regarded as the first sacral vertebra. It begins the
series of sacral vertebra, and, on account of its sub-
sequently important position, it must be regarded as
primary. Holl finds that it is followed by four lower
vertebra:, which are afterwards included with it in
the sacrum. When in its primary condition the ver-
tebra fulcralis is twi nty-fiith in the series, the twenty-
fifth to the twenty-ninth vertebrae are included in
the sacrum. When the fulcralis is the twenty-sixth
vertebra, the sacrum includes the thirtieth. Hence
it follows that the sacrum is, from the first stages of
its development, a formation which begins with the
twenty-fifth or twenty-sixth vertebra, and includes
four other vertebrae. Holl considers that the lumbo-128
ANTHROPOID APES.
sacral form of the last lumbar vertebra, which stands
between the lumbar and sacral vertebrae, does not
indicate a gradual transition into a sacral vertebra,
but rather an arrest in its development.'*
When we examine a human sacrum we see that its
first vertebra, the twenty-fifth of the series, is formed
like the lumbar vertebrae in its upper part, setting
aside those portions of it which form part of the
lateral masses of the sacrum. These lateral masses,
which serve as a support to the ilia, owe most of
their substance to the first sacral vertebra. Thus,
since it has to support the whole weight of the pre-
sacral vertebras, it is in fact a true vertebra fulcralis.
Holl justly says that there are few instances in
which the human os sacrum consists of less than
five vertebrae, and in no case are there less than
four. In such a case the first sacral vertebra defines
the pre- and post-sacral segment of the vertebral
column.
In anthropoids the lower segment of the lumbar
vertebral column is deeply sunk between the high,
wide, and flattened ilia, which converge closely
towards the vertebral column. In man these bones
are not so much higher than the base of the sacrum,
and their crests diverge more widely from the ver-
tebral column. In the large apes the lateral masses
of the sacrum are comparatively deeply set below
their anchylosis with the pelvic bones. In an aged
male gorilla, for instance, the transverse processes
of the two lower lumbar vertebrae often extend to the
* Sitzungsberichte der Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Wien,
lxxxv. fig. 1 : 1882.ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 129
hinder borders of the ilia, although the second of
the lower lumbar vertebras is somewhat higher than
the top of the crest of the ilium. This is still more
remarkably the case in an old male chimpanzee, in
which the lowest lumbar vertebra seems to be wedged
in between the two ilia. In a young male chim-
panzee, and in the adult female, both the lower
lumbar vertebrae are almost compressed between
the upper segments of the ilia. In the orang the
lowest lumbar vertebra is placed between the ilia.
Out of the five sacral vertebrae the first and second
are articulated with these bones.
In the gorilla the highest sacral vertebra, the
twenty-fifth of the series, is the fulcralis. In this
animal the first to the third sacral vertebrae form
part of the connection with the crests of the ilia.
In the chimpanzee the twenty-fifth is also the ver-
tebra fulcralis, and from the first to the third are
likewise connected with the ilia, but the third only
to a limited extent; and in young males and in old
females the connection is generally confined to the
first and second sacral vertebrae. In the orang-utan
the twenty-fourth vertebra is generally the fulcralis.
In the gibbon the twenty-fifth vertebra is usually
the fulcralis. In the siamang I found that the fifth of
the five lumbar vertebrae was between the ilia.
Out of the five sacral vertebrae the first and second
were articulated with the said pelvic bones. In
Hylobates agilis the fifth and sixth of the six lumbar
vertebrae were between the ilia, and the first and
second of the five sacral bones were articulated with
these.130
ANTHROPOID APES.
In the vertebral columns of the gorilla, the chim-
panzee, and the orang we may observe an incon-
siderable forward projection between the penultinate
cervical and the second and third dorsal vertebrae.
In the region below the second lumbar vertebra a
similar forward projection may sometimes be observed.
The so-called promontory at the entrance of the
pelvis, that is, in the region developed between the
lumbar and sacral vertebrae, which is remarkable in
man, is only faintly apparent in anthropoids. The
vertebral column is arched behind, since there is a
dorsal curvature (see Figs. 17 and 23).
Aeby observes that the bodies of the vertebrae
are tapering in the gorilla, and this is, in fact, the
case. In climbing, or when he goes on all fours,
the dorsal curvature of an anthropoid maintains its
position. This curvature is still more apparent
when the animal, in climbing, withdraws his body
from the tree, mast, or whatever it may be, and
bends forward his head. A similar dorsal curvature
of the vertebral column may be observed in men
who stiffen their hands and feet to climb up a tree
or mast. If an anthropoid holds himself so erect
as to be able to place his hands behind his head,
the dorsal curvature of his spine is necessarily
straightened, and indeed it becomes rather a ven-
tral curvature.
The bony pelvis of anthropoids, with its high,
narrow, and projecting ilia, and the lowest lumbar
vertebrae deeply embedded between them, together
with the sacral and coccygeal vertebrae, which
directly remind us of the vertebrae of a rudimentaryANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 131
tail, present the points of unlikeness with the human
skeleton in this part of the skeleton of tiiese animals
in the strongest light (comp. Figs. 40 and 41).
The bony thorax of anthropoids is distinguished
from the human thorax in normal cases by the
abrupt way in which it widens outwards. The
thorax of the gorilla, and the widely diverging
pelvic bones, which enclose the belly and give it a
tun-shaped form, contrast with the graceful moulding
of the corresponding parts of the human form.
Certain peculiarities in the structure of the bones
of the shoulder-girdle and of the extremities of
anthropoids, in which they differ from corresponding
parts in the human structure, have been already
mentioned.
With reference to the humerus of the gorilla, Aeby
asserts that the head of the bone forms a cycloid,
placed transversely, while in man its shape is that
of the segment of a sphere. But I have pointed
out in my treatise on the gorilla that there is a not
inconsiderable variation in the form of the head of
the humerus in these animals, and it is sometimes
cycloidal or vertically-cycloidal, sometimes a seg-
ment of a true sphere. In the chimpanzee, orang,
and gibbon this part of the humerus is always a
segment of a sphere, while in man its form is
not equally invariable. Aeby further observes that
the transverse-cycloidal form of the head of the
humerus in the gorilla justifies the inference that
this animal, in the use of its fore-limbs, is accus-
tomed to turn them transversely on their axis. But
the direct observation of a living anthropoid, asFig. 40.—Human skeleton.—a, Parietal bone, b, Frontal bone, c, Cervical vertebras, d, Sternum, e, Lumbar vertebra. /, Ulna, g, Radius.
k, Carpus, i, Metacarpus, k, Phalanges. I, Tibia, m, Fibula, n, Tarsus o, Metatarsal bones, p, Phalanges, q, Patella, r, Femur
s. Os innominatum. t, Humerus, u, Clavicle.Fig. 41.—Skeleton of an aged male gorilla.134
ANTHROPOID APES.
well as the examination of its dead body, make it
clear that the action of the ball and socket is remark-
ably free, and this theoretical surmise is contradicted
by the perfection of the natural mechanism.
The excessive curvature of the forearm which we
notice in the gorilla and the chimpanzee in their
natural condition is rare in man, and when it does
occur it must he regarded as an abnormal and
pathological phenomenon.
The orang-utan always displays a ninth carpal’
bone, corresponding to de Blainville’s os intermedium
and Gegenbaur’s os centrale carpi. In a very young
animal 1 found that this small hone was furnished
with a peculiar point of ossification. The bony
structure of the wrist is developed in the following
succession :—First, the os magnum and unciform
bones; second, the scaphoid bone; third, the
trapezium; fourth, the semi-lunar bone; fifth, the
cuneiform bone; sixth, os centrale carpi; seventh,
the trapezoid hone. The pisiform bone and the
sesamoid bone, between the trapezium and the sca-
phoid bone, of which we shall speak presently in
their relation to the muscular system, are at first
simply cartilaginous.
Up to this time my search for this ninth carpal
hone in the gorilla and the chimpanzee has been fruit-
less, since its occurrence is only exceptional. In the
gibbon it is plainly inserted between the scaphoid,
semi-lunar, trapezoid, and os magnum. Gegenbaur
considers the os centrale to be a true constituent of
the wrist, dating from an earlier condition, but he
has nothing to suggest as to its subsequent survival.ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 135
Rosenberg has lately given an incontestable prooi
of the presence of this bone in the human embryo.
It is generally absorbed again, but sometimes it
persists, and may be found in an adult as a well-
formed ninth carpal bone. Cases of the persistence
of the os centrale in man have been chiefly collected
and published by the diligence of the Russian
anatomist, Gruber. It is now suggested that there
may also be indications of os centrale in the carpus
of embryos of the gorilla and chimpanzee, but up
to this time materials for such researches have been
wanting.
I cannot accept the theory that os centrale carpi
is merely a detached portion of the scaphoid bone.
In a very young chimpanzee this bone is undoubtedly
superficially indented with two transverse furrows,
but the three segments display only one uniform
development'of bone. The distinct formation of os
centrale, and its occasional appearance in man, testify
that it has an independent existence. Rosenberg
holds that this bone is not merely the os centrale of
mammals, but that it is homologous with the two
ossa centralia of the fossil Enaliosauria. It has
become abortive in proportion to the reduction in
size which has taken place.* There would be no
great difficulty in tracing back this bone to remote
types of vertebrate animals, even as far as the
Vrodela (Wiedersheim) of Eastern Asia.f The per-
sistence of this bone in man must be regarded as
a reversion, not as an arrest, of development.
* Hartmann in Archiv. fur Anatomie, etc., by Reichert and Du
Bois-Reymond, pp. 639-643 : 1876.
f Wiedersheim, Morphologisches Jahrbuch, ii. 421.136
ANTHROPOID APES.
On the femur of several mammals, especially in
the horse, ass, rhinoceros, and tapir, and more slightly
indicated in the carnivora and 'other families, there
is, in addition to the two great and small trochanters,
a third, termed by Waldeyer trochanter tertius*
Fig. 42.—Skeleton of human hand, back view, a. Scaphoid bone, h, Semi-lunar
bone, c, Cuneiform bone, d, Pisiform bone, e, Trapezium, f, Trapezoid bone.
a. Os magnum, h, Unciform bone. L-l , Metacarpal bones, m-m* and nn.
Phalanges.
Such a formation, low, blunt, and generally placed
at the top of the outer ridge of the superior bifurca-
tion of the linea aspera, may be observed in human
skeletons of all races, but is either absent in anthro-
poids or only faintly indicated. Virchow justly
# Archiv.fiir Anthropologie, p. 463 : 1880.ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 137
regards its presence as tlieromorphic, but not as
a characteristic of savage or lower races.*
The human tibia displays in some instances a
compression or lateral flattening of its shaft or
centre-piece, so that its transverse diameter is quite
out of proportion to its depth. Such a tibia is
termed sword-bladed, or platycnemic. Bones of
this form have been chiefly discovered in ancient
deposits, as, for instance, at Gibraltar, at Perthi-
Chwareu, in Wiltshire, in Lozere, at Clichy, at
Saint-Suzanne (Sarthe), and especially at Cro-
Magnon (Pig. 43), Janischwek, etc.
A similar formation has also been observed among
men belonging to cultured races, both of ancient
and modern times. Yirchow, for example, dis-
covered such bones in Transcaucasia (of the third
and fourth century of the Christian era) and at
Hanai-Tepe in Troas. All the large schools of
anatomy in Europe contain specimens of tibiae,
which are to some extent platycnemic. These are
also observed in the skeletons of primitive peoples
of our time, as for example in the Negritos, Kanakas,
and other African races. While some scientific men
regard these bones as the result of an unhealthy
condition, and the effect of rachitis, others more
justly ascribe them to a vigorous exercise of the
muscles in a one-sided direction. The idea expressed
by Busk and others, that the platycnemic tibiae
discovered in ancient sites of Europe have belonged
to a degraded race diffused over the whole continent,
* Alttrojanische Grdber und Schddel. Aus der Abhandlungen
der Konigl. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, p. 47 : 1882.138
ANTHROPOID APES.
is contradicted by the wide diffusion of this charac-
teristic, even in modern times. And it is doubtful
whether platycnemy is absolutely restricted to the
lower races. At Janischewek, Virchow found an
extremely platycnemic tibia, exhumed from a kuja-
wish grave of the Stone Age, which belonged to
a skull remarkable for its unusual beauty and size,
so that, taken by itself, the impression which it
gave to an anatomist was that of a highly organized
race.*
It is important to remark that platycnemy has
Fig. 43.
Section through a
platycnemic tibia
from Cro-Magnon.
Fig. 44.
Section through the tibia
of a male gorilla.
Fig. 45.
Section through the
tibia of a male
chimpanzee.
been regarded as a pithecoid structure, and for this
reason the attempt has been made to establish the
degraded position of those peoples which are most
remarkable for platycnemy. But, as Boyd-Dawkins
has already observed, although the tibiae of the
gorilla and the chimpanzee are to some extent
platycnemic, they are much less so than the platyc-
nemic bones of the human skeleton. The tibia of
* Sitzungsbericht der Berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft:
April 17, 1880.ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 139
a male gorilla in the College of Surgeons Museum
has an index width of 681, that of a female of 65-0,
while the index of the chimpanzee’s tibia is 61'1,
which is about the average of the tibias of Perthi-
chwareu. It is unnecessary to indicate the other
marked distinctions between the tibiae of men and
apes ; if platycnemy is to be regarded as genetic, it
must be admitted that man has in this particular
far exceeded alpes.* Neither the gorilla, the chim-
panzee, the orang-utan, nor even the baboon pos-
sesses a tibia which is flattened in its upper or middle
part. In all these apes the middle of the bone is
more or less rounded, almost as if it had been rounded
by a turning-lathe. According to my experience,'
the degree of platycnemy in anthropoids is subject
to certain variations. It appears to me to be least
marked in the aged male gorilla (Fig. 41), and in
the gibbon (Hylobates agilis, syndactylus), in which
latter animal the transverse section of the tibia
represents an almost equilateral triangle. The
platycnemy was more marked in an almost adult,
female gorilla, still more decided in an aged male
chimpanzee, which came from the river Kiulu, and
again in an aged female chimpanzee. On the other
hand, the centre of the shaft of the tibia in another
aged male chimpanzee which came from Loango,
was rounded, and not platycnemic. In the tibia of
an adult orang-utan which I examined, the platyc-
nemy was very marked. But I agree with Boyd-
Dawkins in never having met with an anthropoid in
which the platycnemy is so considerable as it is,
* See Spengel’s Caves and Primitive Inhabitants of Europe.140
ANTHROPOID APES.
for instance, in the Cro-Magnon tibia, and in another
found at Troy.
If we give a cursory glance at the lower limbs of
apes, we see that all the same characteristics are
present in their tarsus that we
find in the human tarsus. In
each case there is an astra-
galus, an os Calais, a scaphoid
bone, three cuneiform bones,
and a cuboid bone. There are
undoubtedly several peculiari-
ties in which the tarsus differs
from the corresponding part
of the human foot. The first
metatarsal bone is joined to
the first cuneiform bone by
an articular facet which ex-
tends from the back to the
sole of the foot. This joint
plays a part resembling that
of the thumb of the human
hand (see Figs. 20 and 46).
In Huxley’s opinion, the
hinder limbs of the gorilla
terminate in a true foot, with
a very movable great toe. It
is undoubtedly a prehensile
foot, but in no sense a hand.
It is a foot which does not
differ from the numan foot in any essential cha-
racteristics, but only in relative circumstances, in
the degree of flexibility, and in the subordinate
Fig. 46.—Skeleton of the human
foot, seen from above, a, As-
tragalus. b. Os calcis. c, Sca-
phoid bone. d, e,/, Cuneiform
bones, g, Cuboid bone, h,
Metatarsal bones, ii, Pha-
langes.ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 141
arrangements of its parts. Huxley adds that it
must not be supposed that he wishes to undervalue
differences which, however, he does not regard as
fundamental. They are important enough of their
kind, since in any case the structure of the foot
is in close correlation with the other parts of the
organism. Although it cannot be doubted that the
increased division of labour in man, which relegates
the function of support entirely to the legs and
feet, is a significant advance in structure; yet, re-
garded as a whole from the anatomical point of
view, the points of agreement between the human
foot and that of the gorilla are much more striking
and significant than their differences.
The differences in the foot of the orang are still
greater; in the very long toes and short tarsus, the
short great toe and the removal of the heel from the
ground, in the great obliquity of the joints which
connect the foot with the shank-bones, and in the
absence of a long flexor muscle to move the great
toe, the orang’s loot differs still more from that of the
gorilla than the latter differs from the human foot.
In some of the lower apes the hands and feet are still
further removed from those of the gorilla than in the
case of the orang. In the American apes the thumb
can no longer be opposed ; in the ateles it is reduced to
a mere rudiment, covered with skin ; in the sahius it
is bent forwards and provided with a curved claw like
tire other fingers. In all these cases there is no doubt
that the hand differs more from that of the gorilla
than the gorilla’s hand differs from that of man.*
* Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals, p. 481:
London, 1871.142
ANTHROPOID APES.
Flower remarks that the chief distinction between
the foot of a man and an ape consists in the fact
that the latter is transformed into a prehensile
organ. The tarsal and metatarsal bones, and the
Fig. 47.—Coaita (Ateles paniscus).
phalanges are of the same number in both orders,
and in the same relative position, only in the foot
of the ape the facet for articulation of the first cunei-
form bone with the great toe is saddle-shaped, andANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 143
obliquely directed towards the inner or tibial side
of the foot. Thus, the great toe is separated from
the others, and so placed, that when it is bent, it
is directed downwards towards the sole, and is op-
posed to the other toes, much more opposed to them
than is the case with the thumb of the human hand.*
Owen also speaks of the characteristic transformation
of the great toe of an ape’s foot into a thumb, opposed
to the other toes, and adapted for grasping, t
K. E. von Bar does not agree with Huxley in
considering that there is less difference between
man and the gorilla than that which exists be-
tween different species of apes. “ There are,” Von
Bar remarks, “ differences of various kinds among
apes. In some the thumb is only a stump; in
others, as in the orang-utan, the fingers of the
hinder extremities are so long and curved that they
cannot be extended on flat ground; in many of the
smaller apes this member is still more like a band
than in the larger species, and the fingers can be
easily spread out on the ground. In this case the
foot is of a much blunter form, and is more flexible,
so that the sole, which is properly turned inward,
can lie flat on the ground. The heavier the body of
the animal, the more sharply cut the structure of the
foot must be, so that it does not admit of the free
movements which are possible in the hand. But
all these are only modifications of a climbing foot,
* An Introduction to the Osteology of the Mammalia, p. 310:
London, 1870.
t On the Anatomy of the Vertebrates, ii. 551. Also see my
own works in Archiv. fwr Anatomie, p. 648 : 1876.144
ANTHROPOID APES.
or prehensile member—that is, of a hand, not modi-
fications of a foot resting firmly on the ground and
supporting the whole weight of the body.
“ It must not be forgotten that the structure of
the skeleton is subject to mechanical laws, which
may be traced through the whole series of the
animal world. This is readily apparent when we
turn to the human structure.
“ The human foot rests for the greater part of its
length on the ground, that is to say, with the heel
and centre of the foot, which form together a firm
arch. The tarsus consists of the astragalus, and
also of the os calcis, which in man form a very
prominent part, taking a backward and downward
direction, and of five other bones. The metatarsus
consists of five bones, on which the five toes are
inserted. In man these metatarsal bones are con-
siderably longer than the separate phalanges. Thus,
the arch on which man is supported in an erect
position extends from the heel to the extremities
of the metatarsal bones. The several bones are
slightly movable, but they are so firmly connected
that they can diverge but little from each other,
unless muscular power is exerted. In order to press
the toes upon the ground, it is again necessary to
exert the muscles. The arched instep has this ad-
vantage, that the foot can take a better hold of the
slight inequalities of the ground. In a profile view
of the skeleton of a human foot, the shortness of
the toes, in comparison with the length of the
arched instep, is very apparent. In any natural
position, even when man is not walking or standing,ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 145
the sole of the foot is not turned inwards, but down-
wards. . . . The toes of the gorilla take the form
of a hand, since the great toe stands separate like a
thumb, while the other toes are turned outwards. In
the gorilla the tarsus is short, and the heel is bent
inwards. The several bones of the human foot are
undoubtedly present in the hind hand of a gorilla,
but the orgjm is changed into a prehensile organ or
hand. The conditions are the same as in the parts
of the mouth in insects which in some cases form
movable mandibles, while in others they are at-
tenuated into a proboscis. When it is asserted that
apes are not quadrumanous, it is as if we were to
say that flies have no proboscis, but attenuated
mandibles.” *
All apes, including anthropoids, occasionally
make use of their hinder extremities in order to
snatch at objects. They also grasp with them in
climbing. On such occasions, when they wish to
secure the fruit they have seized from the voracity
of their fellows, they take it between the toes of one
hinder extremity, in order to be able to get away
more quickly by means of the other, and by the
use of both hands.
From what we have said, it will be seen how
difficult it is to reconcile the views of different
observers with respect to the fitting term to be
given to the hinder extremities of apes. Against
those who uphold the designation of hind hands we
must oppose the anatomical structure, and also the
* Studien aus dem Gebiete du Naturwissenschaftev, ii. 316:
St. Petersburg, 1876.146
ANTHROPOID APES.
fact that a true hand ought to possess the power of
rotation in a degree which exists in the fore, but
not in the hind, extremities of apes. On this account
I have already adopted, as more suitable and equally
distinctive, the term of prehensile foot for this
member.* I agree with Haeckel in rejecting the
common designation of apes as four-handed or
quadrumanous.
The bands or ligaments which connect the dif-
ferent parts of the anthropoid skeleton together,
and convert the detached elements into a movable
machinery, do not on the whole differ much from the
same structure in man. A detailed account of these
ligaments would, for several reasons, he out of place
in this work, and I shall only mention a few special
and more interesting distinctions. Such, for ex-
ample, is the uncommon strength of the ligamentum
nuchse in the gorilla, which is quite in harmony with
the great development of the spinous processes of
the upper cervical vertebrae, and with the flattening
of the squamous occipital portion. Since the sacral
vertebrae are deeply inserted between the high ilia,
the ilio-lumbar ligaments (ligamenta iliolumbalia)
and the sacro-iliac ligaments (ligamenta iliosacralia)
are of considerable size. In agreement with the
projection in a downward direction of the high,
narrow ischial bones, the sacro-sciatic ligaments
which extend between these and the sacrum are
very long in the chimpanzee. Although in this case
the ischial spine is only represented by a roughness
of the bone, yet there is on either side between this
* Hartmann in Archiv. filr Anatomie, etc., p. 653 : 1876.ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 147
and the sacrum a powerful lesser sacro-sciatic liga-
ment (ligamentum spinoso-sacrum).
The well-known anatomist, J. F. Meckel, has
asserted that the depression in the head of the
femur (fovea capitis), which serves for the insertion
of the round ligament (ligamentum teres), is absent
in the chimpanzee and orang, and he adds that
it is also absent in the gibbon. In a skeleton of
a young chimpanzee which had not shed its milk-
teeth, and of which the ligaments were also pre-
served, Welcker found a fully developed round
ligament inserted almost in the centre of the head
of the femur. This agrees in every particular with
the same formation in man. On the other hand,
no trace of a round ligament was to be found in
the hip-joint of a young orang-utan. The cartila-
ginous envelope of the head of the femur was smooth
throughout, without any indication of a place for in-
serting the ligament. Welcker again found no such
depression in thefemurof an aged maleorang-utan,nor
was there any trace of it in another aged male orang,
designated as Simia Morio. Welcker believes that
he has established the fact that the round ligament
is wanting in the orang-utan, but that it is present
in the gorilla, chimpanzee, and gibbon. The same
naturalist remarks that, although we may certainly
assume that the round ligament is absent wherever
there is no depression in the head of the femur, yet
the existence of such a depression in the acetabulum
(_fovea acetabuli) is not enough to prove that a round
ligament was inserted in it. The innominate bones
of an adult orang-utan were examined by Welcker,148
ANTHROPOID APES.
and displayed a small, but well-defined depression,
as if destined for a receptacle for this ligament,*
running from the cotyloid notch down to the bottom
of the acetabulum, between the two horns of the
semilunar-shaped articular cartilage.
In a subsequent paper, Welcker states that the
absence of the round ligament in the orang-utan,
and its presence in the chimpanzee, had been pre-
viously established by Camper and Owen.f In
three specimens of orangs which he had obtained
immediately after death, Owen found that the
round ligament was imperfectly developed on both
sides. The chimpanzee differs from the orang in
possessing a depression on the head of the femur.
In the gorilla, as Owen observes, this depression
has almost the same depth and relative position as
in man. At Welcker’s request, Professor Dippel
ascertained the presence of the depression in the
femur of a gorilla skeleton which is preserved
in the natural history collection at Darmstadt.
St. George Mivart saw the skeleton of an orang in
which the femur was marked with a slight but
plainly indicated depression, just where the round
ligament is usually attached. Welcker thinks it pro-
bable that in some specimens of the gorilla the
round ligament is only slightly developed, and that
in others it is altogether wanting. On several
# Welcker in His and Braune’s Archiv. Jahrgi. p. 71.
t Camper, (EuvreSy i. 152; Naturgeschichte des Orang-utan,
etc.; Owen, Transactions of the Zoological Society of London,
i. 365-368; Ibid., v. 15; Welcker in His and Braune’s Archiv.
Jahrg., ii. p. 106.ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 149
femurs of gorillas, this naturalist observed only
doubtful traces of the depression in question. Duver-
noy found the round ligament fully developed in
the gorilla and chimpanzee. Vrolik failed to find
it in the orang-utan, but ascertained its presence in
the chimpanzee. Gratiolet and Alix saw that it was
fully developed in Troglodytes Aubryi.
In addition to these somewhat conflicting asser-
tions, I have myself observed, in the gorilla innomi-
nate and femur bones examined by me, more or less
distinct indications of the depression which receives
the round ligament. The ligament itself has been
preserved with the body of a gorilla. The same
remark applies to the skeletons and bodies of chim-
panzees. In the case of the skeleton of an orang,
slight indications of a depression were observed on
the head of the left femur, and these indications
were absent in the femurs of other specimens. In a
large orang-utan which died in the Berlin Aquarium,
only short, filamentous tufts of streaky fibres were
apparent in the right acetabulum, and these were
intermingled singly or in groups with the cartila-
ginous cells, somewhat resembling the cartilaginous
corpuscles of the synovial membrane. From these
facts we may conclude that the round ligament is
generally but not invariably present in the gorilla
and chimpanzee, and that it is altogether absent in
the orang-utan. In the gibbon it is present in the
majority of cases. I have myself observed it in
Hylobates agilis, leuciscus, and syndactylus. Owen
asserts that the unsteady gait of the orang is partly
due to the absence of this ligament, but the truth150
ANTHROPOID APES.
of this surmise is rendered doubtful by the fact that
the ligament is not unfrequently absent in other
anthropoids. Moreover, the gait of all these arboreal
and climbing animals is extremely ungainly.
The muscular system of anthropoid apes is very
interesting. I must necessarily refrain from giving
a detailed account of it, and will only mention
some points in connection with this organic system,
and their relation to corresponding points in the
muscular system of man. I rely partly on the
researches of others, and partly on my own. The
amount of ' material which has been collected up
to this time is, unfortunately, too scanty to enable
us to draw satisfactory conclusions in all cases.
We are often unable to decide whether the con-
ditions presented to us in the case of anthropoids
are normal or exceptional. Nor are the statistics of
muscular variations in the human subject by any
means firmly established. My own labours in this
direction are not yet concluded. The assertions on
the subject which have been published to the world
and accepted as authoritative have already been
shown to be to some extent untrustworthy. Even
the little which I am now able to produce may not
altogether stand the test of subsequent research.
Briihl justly remarks that in no department of
anatomy more than in that which treats of the
muscles, is it more essential that we should not
decide whether a form is normal or exceptional until
it has been repeatedly examined.*
The cranial muscles of anthropoids are formed
* Wiener medicinische Wochenschrift, p. 4: 1871.ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 151
like those of men, except in a few unimportant parti-
culars (comp. Figs. 48 and 50). I have not observed
in anthropoids the muscular fibres which in man
branch out from the orbicular muscle of the eye,
and overlap the cheeks and temples, and which are
considerably developed in the head of a Monjalo
negro which was dissected by me (Fig. 49, 3,3r In
Fig. 48.—Muscles of the head and face of a European. 1, 1', Occipito-frontalis.
2, 3. Orbicularis palpebrarum. 4, Pyramidalis nasi. 5, Levator labii superioris
alasque nasi. 6, Compressor naris. 7, Levator labii superioris. 7', Zygomaticus
minor. 8, Levator anguli oris. 8', Zygomaticus major. 9, Orbicularis oris.
9', Levator menti. 9", Depressor labii inferioris. 10, Depressor anguli oris.
11, Masseter. 12, 13, Risorius and the buccinator by which it is covered.
15, Trapezius. 16, Attrahens. 17, 19, Attollens. 20, Ret.rahens aurem. 21,
Sterno-mastoid. 22, Splenius. A. Tendinous aponeurosis. C. Malar bone (the
parotis is removed). F. Skin of neck.
apes that portion of the orbicular muscle which
covers the supra-orbital ridge is very marked.
There is generally a considerable layer of muscle
on the nose and upper lip. I have dissected it in
detail in anthropoid and other apes, including those152
ANTHROPOID APES.
of America; i.e. the zygomatic muscles, the levator
labii superioris, and the levator labii superioris
alseque nasi. This has also been done by Duver-
noy, Alix, and Gratiolet, in the case of anthropoids
dissected by them, as well as by Macalister and
Bischoff.
Bischoff was only able to identify a wide zygo-
matic muscle in the orang with the small zygomatic
Fig. 49.—Head-muscles of a Monjalese negro. 1, 2, Occipito-frontalis. 3, 3',
Orbicularis palpebrarum. 4, Pyramidalis nasi. 4', Levator labii superioris. 6,
Levator labii superioris alseque nasi. 6', Compressor naris 7', Levator anguli
oris. 8, 8', Zygomatici major et minor. 9, Orbicularis oris. 9', Levator meDti.
9", Depressor labii inferioris. 9"', Depressor anguli oris. 11, Masseter. 13,
Buccinator. 14, Platysma. 15, Trapezius. 17, 18, Attollens and attrahens
aurem. 19, Embedded temporal muscle. 20, Retrahens aurem. 21, Stemo-
ma^toid. 22, Deeply set muscles of neck. A, Tendinous aponeurosis. C,
Zygoma. E, Parotis. *, Stensonian duct.
in man. In the orang, the gibbon, and the baboon,
as well as in Innus sinicus and Ateles, I myself was
quite able to trace a division into a large and small
zygomatic. In the gorilla dissected by me theANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 153
levator labii superioris alseque nasi was very wide
(Figs. 50, 6). In the case of a gorilla, Ehlers dis-
sected the small zygomatic muscle, together with
the levator labii superioris alseque nasi, in the
manner introduced by Henle as a single square
muscle of the upper lip (Musculus quadratus labii
superioris). In the gorilla I observed a levator
alacque nasi, together with the already mentioned
Fig. 50.—Head-muscles of gorilla presented in Fig. 3. 1, 2, Occipito-frontalis.
3, 3', Orbicularis palpebrarum. 4, PyramidaUs nasi. 5, Levator al® nasi. 6,
Levator labii superioris alasque nasi. 7, Zygomaticus minor. 7', Levator
anguli oris. 8, Zygomaticus major. 9, 9', Orbicularis oris. 10, Risorius.
11, 16, Masseter. 1', Buccinator. 12, Depressor anguli oris. 13, Buccinator.
14, Platysma. 15, Trapezius. 17, Temporal. 18, 19, 20, Attrahens, attollens,
and retrahens aurem. 21, Lesser muscle of helix. A, Tendinous aponeurosis.
B, Cartilage ot nostril. C, Zygoma. D, External ear. *, Stensonlan duct.
levator labii superioris; but I failed to find any
separate levator labii superioris. The very wide
cartilage of the nose is occupied by a considerable
amount of muscular tissue. All these muscles are154
ANTHROPOID APES.
present in the orang, but they are of small size and
separated into detached bundles. The pyramidalis
nasi may be traced in every instance, especially in
the gorilla (Figs. 50, 4) and in the orang. It is not
so strongly developed in the chimpanzee and gibbon,
but is not absent in these apes, nor in those which
are not anthropoid, such as the baboon, and ateles,
or climbing ape.
I myself follow the original division of the muscles
into those which belong to the nostril and upper
lip, in accordance with the principles of Duchenne,
Darwin, Gamba,* and others, and I do so the more
readily, since it is impossible not to perceive the
manifold and lively mimetic action which takes place
in this particular region of an ape’s head. The
distinct action of the levator labii superioris alseque
nasi, the dilation of the nostrils, the function of a
strongly developed levator anguli oris, are especially
characteristic of the gorilla; but they are also per-
ceptible in the chimpanzee and gibbon. The orang’s
face is the least mobile. I observed that in the
gorilla the risorius was very long, branching slightly
in the fore-part of the corner of the mouth, and
behind into three distinct wide bundles. The lowest
bundle covered the platysma myoides, but could
not be regarded as part of the latter. In one chim-
panzee I found that the risorius was slightly de-
veloped, and in other animals of that species I failed
to trace it at all. Alix and Gratiolet represent the
* Duchenne’s Mdcanisme de la physiognomie humaine. Darwin’s
Expression of the Emotions. Gamba’s Lezioni di anatomo-Jisiologia
applicata alle arti belle.ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 155
Aubry chimpanzee (Plate ix. Fig. 1, 15) with the
risorius strongly developed. I have not observed
this formation either in the orang or the gibbon,
but it was apparent in one of the atelcs (Ateles
leucophthalmos). In this case the muscle covered
the platysma myoides and Stenson’s duct, i.e. the
duct leading out of the parotid gland (Fig. 50, *).
For some time I was disposed to regard the risorius .
of this ape as only a radiation of the platysma
myoides, but my opinion upon this point is again
shaken.
In the gorilla a faint depressor anguli oris and an
equally faint depressor labii inferioris may be ob-
served, the latter partly covered by the large and
predominant orbicularis oris (Fig. 50). In the chim-
panzee the two depressors are plainly apparent, and
in the gibbon the one first' named was at any rate
developed. The platysma myoides, the depressors
just mentioned, and the crescent-shaped orbiculares
are in this animal in close connection with each other.
Froriep’s suggestion becomes ever more probable,
that these muscles of the lower lip owe their origin
to the intersection of the opposite portions of the
skin-muscles of the neck which overlap the face. The
buccinator muscle in anthropoids resembles on the
whole that of man, and in both cases is pierced by
Stenson’s duct (Fig. 50). The form of the mas-
seter muscle is common to both (see Fig. 50, 11,16).
In the external ear of anthropoids there is an attra-
hens, attollens, retrahens (Fig. 50). Compared with
that of a white man, and still more with that of
a negro (see Figs. 48, 19, and 49,17), the attollens is156
ANTHROPOID APES.
only slightly developed. The muscles attached to (he
cartilages of the ear are extremely scanty or partially
wanting-, which is also sometimes the case with man.
The muscles of the helix are most strongly marked
in the gorilla (see, for example, Fig. 50,21). Tiede-
mann, BischofFs brother-in-law, carefully observed
two living chimpanzees in Philadelphia for six
months without detecting any movement of the
ears. My own observation confirms his assertion
and the remarks of Darwin, which I have already
quoted, to the effect that anthropoids are incapable
of moving their ears. I know of no individual
exceptions. This is the more remarkable since
some men have retained the power of voluntarily
moving their ears, and the same power is also found
in some species of apes, such as the sea-cats, baboons,
macac.as, and magots.
It will not here be out of place to say something
of the characteristics, previously mentioned, of the
physiognomical expression of anthropoid apes. Thus,
for example, when the gorilla is agitated, he can
move the skin of his head and bristle the hair which
covers this region. The chimpanzee can also move
the skin of the head, but with no very apparent
bristling of the hair. The large male orang, which
was in the Berlin Aquarium in 1876, bristled his
hair and the skin of his head when he was much
enraged. It is known that in some instances man
also possesses this povrer.
I have already spoken of the expression of the
eyes of these animals. I will only add that when
anthropoids of every species are in great pain orANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 157
seriously ill, the expression of their eyes is often
most affecting.
The forehead of these animals is frequently
marked by transverse furrows, and especially, as
Darwin justly observes, when they raise their eye-
brows. The same great observer considers that the
countenances of anthropoids are, in comparison with
those of men, generally inexpressive, and indeed,
chiefly in consequence of the fact that they do not
wrinkle the forehead when they are excited. The
wrinkling of the forehead, which is one of the most
significant forms of expression in man, is due to
the action of the corrugatores supercilii, by which
the eyebrows are drawn down and closer to each
other, so as to form vertical folds on the forehead.
It has been asserted that the orang and chim-
panzee possess these muscles, but they seem to be
rarely exercised—at any rate, to any remarkable
extent,.* When Darwin brought a chimpanzee
out of his dark chamber into bright sunshine,
he only once observed a slight wrinkling of the
forehead. When the same observer tickled the
nose of a chimpanzee with a straw, its face was
slightly wrinkled, and faint vertical furrows appeared
between the eyebrows.f Darwin never observed any
wrinkling of the forehead in an orang. I myself
have observed a contraction of that region of the
* Macalister, in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History,
vii. 342 (1871) asserts that he was unable to distinguish the
corrugator from the orbicular muscle, and I have been equally
unsuccessful.
t Darwin's Expression of the Emotions.
8158
ANTHROPOID APES.
brows which is covered with bristly hairs, and a
wrinkling of the skin which covers the bridge of
the nose in the gorilla and the chimpanzee, and
have illustrated this expression by a drawing.
Darwin goes on to say that when a young chim-
panzee is tickled, to which, as in the case of children,
their armpits are peculiarly sensitive, he generally
utters a chuckling or laughing sound, although
sometimes the laugh is silent. The corners of the
mouth are then drawn back, and this sometimes
causes the eyelids to be slightly wrinkled. This
wrinkling, which is so characteristic of the human
laugh, is still more apparent in some of the other
apes. In the chimpanzee the teeth of the upper
jaw are not exposed when he utters this laughing
sound, and in this respect he differs from man.
Darwin further observes that when the tickled
young orang ceases to laugh, an expression passes
over his face, which, according to Wallace, may be
called a smile. Darwin has observed something
similar in the chimpanzee.*
My own observation confirms what has been said
of the chuckling of a tickled chimpanzee. When
Dr. Hermes, the director of the Berlin Aquarium,
played with the chimpanzee which was kept in that
establishment, a contortion of the corner of the
mouth, resembling a somewhat sardonic smile, at
once appeared. No specimen displayed this smile
with so much effect as the lively Augustus, who
delighted visitors by his inexhaustible humour in
1879. The gorilla, of which an illustration is given
* Darwin, Expression of the Emotions.ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 159
in Fig. 3, also drew down the corner of his mouth
when he was pleased, by means of the muscular
system which we have just described.
When the gorilla is provoked, he displays both
rows of teeth, and opens his mouth to utter sounds
of fury, while making ready to fight. It is well
known that anthropoids are able to pout and project
their lips; .and Darwin says that they do this, not
only when they are slightly teased, and are sullen
or disappointed, but also when anything occurs to
make them uneasy.
I have often observed in chimpanzees a slight
wrinkling of the region of the nasal cartilage, and
even a vibration in a lateral and upward direction.
In any case, the muscles which we have described
as acting on the nose and upper lip are exercised.
The platysma myoides, which extends in man from
the lower row of teeth to just below the clavicle,
occupies about the same area in the gibbon and in
other apes (Fig. 50). In the chimpanzee, however,
this muscle extends as high as the zygomatic arch,
or even higher. In the gorilla also I observed that
this part extends comparatively high on the face.
In chimpanzees, orangs, and gibbons the upper
fibres of this muscle seem to form the risorius.
In one case the platysma myoides sent forth a
fasciculus, about 18 mm. in width, to the begin-
ning of the lower temporal ridges. In the gorilla
I saw that the uppermost fibres of the platysma
myoides were partly covered by the risorius (Fig.
50, io).
From the corresponding muscle in the orang the160
ANTHBOPOID APES.
lower fibres tend far backward, and are in connection
with the deltoid muscle covering a segment of the
capsular ligament. This muscle wrinkles the skin
of the neck, and helps to draw down the lower jaw.
In cases in which it extends far in an upward direc-
tion, as in those we have cited, it affects the lateral
extension of the middle and lower skin on the faces
of these animals, as well as the grinning contortion
of the corner of the mouth. It may also have to do
with the grumbling sound issuing from the throat-
pouch, which is uttered by the animal when agitated,
as he rapidly opens and closes his mouth.
The strong sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle found in
these animals, and especially in the orang and
gibbon, can be divided without difficulty into a
sternal and clavicular portion. The two portions
diverge from each other in a downward direction.
As Bischoff justly states, a muscle not hitherto ob-
served in man may be traced in all four species of
anthropoids, a muscle which extends from the ex-
ternal part of the clavicle to the transverse process
of the first cervical vertebra. Bischoff has called it
the musculus omocervicalis. It is found in other
apes, although the site of its origin varies, some-
times occurring on the spine of the scapula. Our
Munich anatomist differs from Huxley in regarding
this muscle as “ a brilliant proof of the relation of
all apes with each other.” I give this assertion
without further comment.
The muscles which extend between the head,
sternum, and clavicle, together with the muscles of
the acromion process of the scapula, make an ex-ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 161
ternal covering to the throat-pouch, which I shall
describe presently. The pectoralis major of the
gorilla, as well as that of man, divides into two
portions, one attached to the clavicle, the other to
the cartilages of the true ribs. The former is divided
from the deltoid by a wide interval, filled with
connective tissue and fat. But both portions of
the pectoralis major are divided by a tolerably
wide space, into which, in BischofFs opinion, the
throat-pouch is inserted. This, however, I do not
believe, since that organ would be compressed and
strangulated between the two portions of muscle
whenever they were exercised. It may, however,
be supposed that room for an enlargement of the
throat-pouch when the animal is bellowing is
afforded by the existence of these spaces. Bischoff
is right in the assertion that the clavicular portion
of the pectoralis major is wanting in the orang-
utan. The upper part of this muscle springs
directly from the sternum. The lower sternal ribs
give origin to the pectoralis minor. The chim-
panzee and gibbon display clearly in this muscle
the separation we have mentioned into a clavicular
and a sternal portion.
The structure of the pectoralis minor in these apes
is full of interest. In the gorilla it divides into an
upper portion of firmer tissue, less easily separable
into digitations, which arises from the third to the
fifth ribs, and a lower portion, separable into three
digitations, of which the upper segment laps con-
siderably over the lower segment of the upper portion.
In the chimpanzee an upper portion of less firm162
ANTHROPOID APES.
texture extends from the second to the fourth, and
a lower with three digitations from the fourth to the
seventh ribs. This second lower portion is sometimes
absent. I have seen the upper portion attached to
the coracoid process of the scapula, and the lower
portion to the ridge of the greater tubei-osity of the
humerus. In the orang an upper portion, separable
into three digitations, extends from the second to
the fifth ribs, and is attached to the coracoid process.
A lower portion, also separable into three digitations,
extends from the fifth to the seventh ribs, and is
also attached either to the greater tuberosity of the
humerus or to its edge ; this latter portion projects
below over the pectoral is major. In the gibbon
(Eylobates albimanus), the upper portion starts from
the second, the lower from the third to the fifth
ribs. It may here be remarked that the pectoral is
minor is in man also sometimes separable into digita-
tions, which may be connected both with the cora-
coid process and with the capsular ligament of the
shoulder-joint. In anthropoids the tendon of inser-
tion of this muscle is remarkably slender.
According to Duvernoy, in the gorilla a fibrous,
hood-like fascia covers the whole region of the occi-
put and neck. In adult males this fascia is 20 mm.
in thickness. In a female dissected by me the rudi-
ments of a similar hood-like cervical fascia were
present. Duvernoy is justified in supposing that
this is not yet developed in the young gorilla, and
that a layer of connective tissue and fat is substi-
tuted for it. In a young gorilla I saw the trapezius
divided into distinct bundles of flesh by layers ofANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 163
fat (Fig. 50, 15). The fascia corresponds to the
great development of the trapezius, and the same
characteristic development exists in other anthro-
poids. The adult male gorilla displays a powerful
ligamentum nuchse in connection with the long spinous
processes of the cervical vertebras, as well as powerful
inter-spinales muscles, spinales colli, and semi-
spinales colli and dorsi. The great development
of the spinSus processes of the dorsal vertebrae of
gorillas (Fig. 17), and also chimpanzees and orangs,
involve the development of powerful semi-spinales,
as well as of strong, fourfold spinales and inter-
spinales muscles. The whole of the fleshy forma-
tion of the neck of an adult male gorilla which
is covered by the trapezius is very voluminous, and
especially the splenius capitis and colli, the long
cervical muscle (Musculus longissimus cervicis), and
the long head-muscle (Musculus longissimus capitis),
which have also been regarded by me as parts of
the long spinal extensor, and finally the oblique and
vertical muscles at the back of the head. With
Ohappuy, I am disposed to regard the latter as
modifications of the spinales and inter-spinales.
The levator anguli scapula is divided in anthro-
poids as in man. The subclavius is slender, except
in the gorilla, and in the latter animal it sends a
tendon obliquely to the coracoid process.
In all anthropoids the deltoid is stroDgly de-
veloped. In the gorilla it projects forwards and
outwards in order to attach itself to the humerus,
almost in its centre. Here it is separated from the
brachialis anticus in a manner with which we are164
ANTHROPOID APES.
only imperfectly acquainted. It extends nearly as
far in the gibbon and orang, while in the chimpanzee
its attachment is higher up. Bischoff observes, and
it was previously suggested by Vrolik, that in the
chimpanzee the coraco-brachialis muscle possesses
at its origin a moderately large second portion,
which tends downw'ards over the lesser tuberosity of
the humerus, and adheres to its edge. But I have
seen both portions of the muscle in question attached
to the coracoid process of the scapula in apes of
this species. In the gorilla, orang, and gibbon the
position of this muscle corresponds to that in man.
Chapman and Bischoff speak of a muscle common
to all apes which starts from the tendinous attach-
ment of the latissimus dorsi on the edge of the lesser
tuberosity of the humerus, and tends downwards on
the inner side of the humerus, and to this muscle
they give the name latissimo-condyloideus. Bischoff
goes on to say that this muscle goes in some cases
into the fascia which covers the biceps; and in
others, as in the baboon, it is attached to the inner
inter-muscular septum and to the internal condyle
of the humerus. In the gibbon it only extends as
far as the centre of the humerus, but in the orang it
reaches to the condyle, where it is pierced by the
ulnar nerve. Bischoff adds that this formation is
wanting in man.
This structure is indeed remarkable in anthro-
poids. The muscle starts in a lateral direction from
the insertion point of the latissimus dorsi. In the
gorilla alone I observed that it started from the
coracoid process of the scapula, together with theANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 165
two portions of the pectoralis minor; it was con-
nected for a space with the coraco-brachialis, and
finally it was attached, in the upper part of the lower
third of the humerus, to the inter-muscular septum
which is found between the brachialis anticus and
the triceps. In the chimpanzee, on the other hand,
it has its origin in the latissimus dorsi, and divides
into an anterior and posterior portion ; the former is
attached to the inner condyle of the humerus, while
the latter is connected either with the middle or
inner head of the triceps. In the orang the same
division of this muscle may occur. In one of these
animals I observed an anterior portion, very thin and
semi-membranous, attached by an extremely slight
tendon to the coracoid process of the shoulder-blade,
while the hind portion issued from the latissimus
dorsi. They were both in connection with the triceps
and brachialis anticus. In other instances the
muscle consisted only of the posterior portion,
issuing from the latissimus dorsi. In the white-
handed gibbon, the muscle issued from the region
in which the tendons of the latissimus dorsi and of
the teres major are united, and was inserted into
the fascia which is found between the bicipital and
the brachialis anterior. This attachment may also
occur in the centre of the shaft of the humerus.
Chapman and Chudzinsky have observed anomalous
instances of this formation in coloured races.*
It is well known that in man the biceps is in-
serted into the tuberosity of the radius by means of
* Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila-
delphia, 1879. Revue d'Anthropologie, 1873, 1874.166
ANTHROPOID APES.
a flattened round tendon. This tendon, however,
opposite the bend of the elbow, gives off a broad
expansion, which passes into the fascia of the
forearm, and is termed Aponeurosis bicipitis. In
the gorilla this aponeurosis is carried on as strong
fibrous bundles of the fascia of the forearm into
the palmar fascia. In the gibbon the short head
of the muscle does not always start from the lesser
tuberosity of the humerus, nor from the tendon of
the pectoralis major (Huxley), but sometimes from
the edge of the lesser tuberosity, which is here
connected with the latissimus dorsi, as w'ell as with
the sub-scapularis, the brachialis anticus, which is
more to the side, and with the triceps. In the
gibbon, as Bischoff justly observes, the supinator
longus only reaches as far as the centre of the radius,
instead of extending to the styloid process of that
bone, as it does in other anthropoids, and in man.
The palmaris longus is wanting in the gorilla,
but not in other anthropoids. The long flexor
muscles of the fingers and the lumbricales resemble
those of man (Figs. 51, 52). The flexor longus
pollieis is absent in the gorilla. Duvernoy con-
siders that it is replaced by a tendon of the long
flexor of the fore-finger, but I have been unable to
verify the existence of this tendon. The same
muscle is also absent in the chimpanzee and the
orang, but it may be traced in Hylobates albimanus.
Chapman states that in the gorilla the pronator
radii teres only sends forth one head,* but I have
* Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila-
delphia, 1879.ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 167
found it to be bicipital in animals of this species.
The lower or hinder head issues, as in man, from
the coronoid process of the ulna. Both in the
gorilla and in the chimpanzee it extends far in a
downwards direction on the radius (Fig. 52). The
flexor carpi radialis starts in the chimpanzee with
one head from the inner condyle of the humerus, and
with the other from the radius. Bisehoff describes
the structure of the long abductor of the thumb in
the orang, the baboon, the pithecia, and the liapale
as resembling that of man. But in the gorilla, the
chimpanzee, and the macaca the tendon divides into
two parts. Nor does one tendon belong, as in man,
to a short extensor of the thumb, but the latter is
wholly absent, and the division of the tendon only
implies a continued division of the attachment to
the trapezium, as well as to the metacarpal bones of
the thumb. This division of the tendon also occurs
in the gorilla, which likewise possesses a short ex-
tensor of the thumb. In this point, again, apes
display a greater likeness to one another than to man.
According to my own researches, the long abduc-
tor of the thumb in anthropoids forms a muscle not
more considerable than one in proximity with it, of
which the origin and more central direction recall
the short extensor of the human thumb. In all
four species I found that the abductor had two
tendons, and was attached to the trapezium. The
muscle in its vicinity is inserted above the base of
the first metacarpal bone. I have not been able to
discover an extra extensor of the thumb in the
gorilla. The question now arises what we should168
ANTHROPOID APES.
think of the second muscle, which is found in these
animals in the vicinity of the abductor. In my
Fig. 51.—Palmar muscles of man. a, Ligaments of wrist, especially the anterior
ligament, c, c', Sheathing ligaments, d, e, f, Oblique fibres of the ligaments
of the sheath of the flexor tendons. 1, 2, Tendons flexor sublimis, and of the
flexor profundus muscles of the fingers. 3, The reciprocal perforation of these
tendons. 4, Continuation of the tendons of the flexor profundus of the fingers.
5, Tendon of the flexor longus pollicis. 6, Abductor pollicis. 1, 8, 9, Flexor
brevis, adductor, and opponens pollicis. 10, 11, 12, Flexor brevis, abductor,
and opponens minimi digiti. 13, Lumbricales. 14, First dorsal intcr-osseous
muscle.
opinion, it may be confidently accepted as a short
extensor of the thumb, since it always effects an
extension of the metacarpal bone of that member,ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 169
and in this act of extension it is supported by the
long extensor which acts upon the phalanges. It
Fig. 52.—Palmar muscles of gorilla, a, Anterior ligament, b. Remains of the
skin of palm, here covered with a very sinewy skin, c,/. Oblique fibres of
the ligaments of the sheath of the flexor tendons of fingers. 1, 2, F*lexor
tendons. 3, Spaces between the heads of the flexor brevis pollicis, whence
in man the tendon of the flexor longus pollicis issues (comp. Fig. 51, 5).
4, 3, 3', 5, Abductor, flexor brevi?, abductor pollicis. 6, 1, 8, Opponens, flexor
brevis, abductor, minimi digiti. 9, Dumbricales. 10, Supinator longus. 12,
Flexor sublimis digitorum. 13, Flexor minimi digiti. 14, Flexor carpi ulnaris.170
ANTHROPOID APES.
must be remembered that tbe comparatively short
thumbs of anthropoids have not to be employed in
so many different ways as the human thumb, and
that we cannot therefore be surprised that the de-
velopment of the short extensor is less complete.
A special extensor muscle of the index finger is
either altogether absent in the gorilla or very
slightly developed, while it is very apparent in
Eylobates albimanus (6, Fig. 53). In the chimpanzee
Fig. 53.—Muscular system of the back of a gibbon's hand. 1, The extensor carpi
radialis longior and brevior. 2, Abductor longus pollicis. 3, Extensor primi in-
ternodii pollicis. 4, Extensor secundi intemodii pollicis. 5, Extensor communis
digitorum. 6, Extensor indicis. 7, Extensor minimi digiti. 8, Extensor carpi
ulnaris. 9, First dorsal inter-osseous muscle. 10, Continuation of the same
to index finger. 11, 12, The other inter-osseous muscles of this region. A, The
posterior annular ligament.
this muscle sends a tendon to the middle finger.
In the orang there is one extensor common to the
four fingers. In the gibbon’s hand, this, as well as
the other extensor and flexor muscles, is remark-
able for its excessive slenderness. The manifold
connections of the extensor tendons with each other
are an interesting peculiarity (Fig. 53).
In the chimpanzee I observed a superficial flexor,ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 171
common to the fingers, and enlarged in the region
of the third and little fingers. A superficial flexor,
belonging to the index finger, started from the
inner condyle of the humerus, and from the back of
the inter-muscular septum. The deep finger-flexor
was attached to the four fingers. In the orang the
first of these flexors forms a two-tendoned belly
for the index finger, as well as one for the other
three fingers. The deep flexor only displayed two
bellies. In the gibbon, on the other hand, the
superficial flexor displays four bellies.
In the carpus of the chimpanzee there is, so far at
least as my experience goes, a so-called sesamoid
bone. It is in this instance in connection with
the scaphoid and trapezium bones, just where the
fibres of the anterior and posterior ligaments of the
wrist pass into each other. In the chimpanzee the
tendon of the long abductor muscle of the thumb
sends some fibres into this sesamoid bone, while the
other fibres of the tendon of this muscle, which
divides into several strips, are inserted in the
trapezium bone, and a few also in the base of the
first metacarpal bone.
The short flexor muscle of the thumb, of which
Bischoff has denied the existence, is certainly
present in these animals. In the chimpanzee the
lower fibres of the short abductor muscle of the
thumb have their origin in the sesamoid bone.
The middle fibres, of the same muscle issue from
the strips of ligament attached to the sesamoid
bone. On the other hand, the upper part of the
muscle has its origin in the anterior annular liga-172
ANTHROPOID APES.
ment. In the orang, the lower fibres of the short
abductor of the thumb likewise have their origin
in the sesamoid bone, while the central fibres
again start from the anterior annular ligament.
The upper fibres are strong, and are inserted into
the base of the first metacarpal bone. In a dissec-
tion of the orang the flexor longus pollicis sent
a thin, tendinous expansion on to the bone. This
sesamoid bone is also found in the gorilla, although
Duvernoy and Rosenberg do not appear to be aware
of its existence.*
In the palm of the gorilla’s hand there is a short
abductor, a short bicipital flexor, an opponens, and
an abductor of the thumb. The longer belly
of the short flexor extending in a more radial direc-
tion, and in connection with the opponens, is only
slightly developed. In the muscular system of a
gorilla’s little finger we may observe an abductor,
a short flexor, and an opponens. The palm of the
chimpanzee displays a short abductor, an opponens,
a short bicipital flexor, and an adductor of the
thumb; also an abductor, a short flexor, and an
opponens of the little finger. In the orang I observed
a short abductor, a short flexor with two bellies,
an opponens, and an adductor of the thumb. In
addition to the short flexor of the thumb, Langer
and Bischoff describe another short, independent
muscle, representing the long flexor, and attached
to the second phalanx, but I have not myself ascer-
tained the existence of this muscle. The same
* Hartmann in Archiv. fur Anatomic, by Reich art and Du Bois-
Reymond, p. 743 (1875); p. 636 (1876).ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 173
anatomists mention an adductor between the third
metacarpal bone and the first joint of the thumb,
and another between the second metacarpal bone
and the second joint of the thumb, passing on into
the extensor tendon. I am myself convinced of the
existence of a twofold adductor, but not of the
fact that the tendon of one of the muscles (termed
by Langer the second opponens) passes on into the
extensor ten3on. In the little finger of the orang
there is an abductor, a short flexor, and an opponens.
In the gibbon there is a short abductor, a faintly
indicated opponens, a short bicipital flexor, and an
adductor of the thumb. In Uyhbates allimanus
this adductor divides into four or five portions,
which are attached to the whole of the first meta-
carpal bone. In the little finger there is an
abductor, a short flexor, and an opponens. In the
same animal the first inter-osseous muscle is attached
by one portion to the second metacarpal bone, by
the other to the base of the second phalanx of the
index finger (Fig. 53, 9, 10).
Bischoff has described the muscles which Halford
terms Contrahentes digitorum (contractors of the
digits), which lie deep in the palm of the hands
and feet of the chimpanzee and gibbon, the mandril,
baboon, and other apes.* They rest upon the inter-
osseous muscles, and are covered by the tendons
* Halford, Not like man, bimanous and biped, nor yet quad-
rumanous, but cheiropodus: Melbourne, 1863. Lines of demar-
cation between Man, the Gorilla, and the Macaca: Melbourne, 1863,
I only know these two treatises from Bischoff’s quotation.
Anatomie, etc., des Hylobates leuciscus, pp. 23, 21.174
ANTHROPOID APES.
of the long flexors of the digits, as well as by the
lumbricales muscles. I have been unable to trace
these Musculi eontrahentes in the gorilla. In a female
chimpanzee I observed a Musculus contraliens for
the fourth, and another for the fifth finger, and the
same for the fourth and fifth toes. In the orang I
observed a Musculus contraliens for the fourth, and
one for the fifth fingers, and two faintly indicated
Contrahentes for the fourth and fifth toes. Similar
muscles of the second, fourth, and fifth fingers, and
of the fourth and fifth toes, may be observed in
the white-handed gibbon.
In correspondence with the height of the pelvic
bones, the gluteus maximus of these animals only
displays a moderate width in comparison with its
length. The tendon which attaches it to the
femur extends low down, almost as far as the knee-
joint. The gluteus medius and minimus are also
long, in correspondence with this structure of the
pelvis, although they are attached to the large tro-
chanter, and to the posterior inter-trochanteric line.
The climbing muscle (Musculus scansorius), which
extends between the hip-bone and the condyles of
the femur, was discovered by Troill in the chim-
panzee, and by Bischoff in the orang, and is described
by them as strongly made; it appears to be absent
in the gorilla and the gibbon. The pyriformis
generally forms portions of the neighbouring muscles.
The tensor vaginae femoris, which is strong and wide
in most anthropoids, is either greatly reduced or
altogether absent in the orang. The sartorius is
not, as in man, attached to the inner surface of theANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 175
tibia, just below the internal tuberosity, but it is
inserted much lower down on this surface. In the
gorilla it has a tricipital attachment, one to the
deep fascia of the thigh, and two others to the in-
ternal border of the tibia. In the chimpanzee and
the gibbon the muscle extends equally low down.
In the orang it does not go so far, but the gracilis
and semi-tendinosus are in the same relative position.
The biceps of the femur is very apparent in the
orang; its long head divides in two parts, of which
the lower is inserted in the fibula, and is here united
with the short head.
Bischoff at first denied the existence of the
plantaris in the chimpanzee, and Briihl had pre-
viously done the same, but it is as normally present
in that animal as in man, in whom also it is some-
times absent. I, however, as well as other observers,
have failed to discover it in the gorilla, orang, and
gibbon. The popliteus is developed in every in-
stance. The tibio-fibular muscle (Musculus peroneo-
tibialis), covered by the popliteus, of which the
existence was ascertained by Gruber, has not been
observed by me in any of the anthropoids, with the
exception of the chimpanzee. But it was very
apparent in a red sea-cat monkey (Cercopithecus ruber).
The gastrocnemius, which is easily separable into
two hfeads, and the peroneal muscles have not
the same relative width in anthropoids and man,
since in the former case the calf of the lower limb
is small, and it lacks the pleasing roundness which
characterizes this part of the human structure.
These muscles, especially in the orang and gibbon,176
ANTHROPOID APES.
appear to take a lateral direction. The Tendo
Achillis is present, but it has not the prominent
development in height and width which we observe
in man. The long extensor, flexor, and tibial
muscles are in all cases fully developed. The
peroncus tertius, as it is termed, although it should
only be regarded as a part of the extensor longus
digitorum, is absent in anthropoids.* I myself am
not disposed, with Huxley, Bischoff, and others, to
regard this muscle as an abductor. Briihl perceived
in a chimpanzee a fourth rudimentary peroneal
muscle (Musoulus peroneus intermedins), extending
between the peroneus and the little toe, a muscle
sometimes found in man, and which I have myself
only observed in one adult chimpanzee. In the
gorilla and the chimpanzee the extensor longus
digitorum passes through a remarkably strong trans-
verse ligament, formed of fibrous cartilage, which
covers the tarsus. It acts upon the four outer toes
(Fig. 55). Biiihl has described the characteristic
contraction and extension of the tendons of the long
and short extensors of the toes in the chimpanzee,
but I have myself found some difficulty in producing
this action. In Fig. 55 I have endeavoured to repre-
sent this condition in the most natural way. The ex-
tensor proprius pollicis is in all cases developed. The
extensor brevis digitorum produces a large, oblique
belly for the great toe (Fig. 55). In the gorilla there
is for the great toe an abductor, a bicipital flexor, an
adductor, and an opponens (comp. Fig. 54).
* Ruge also considers this muscle to be part of the extensor
longus digitorum.ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 177
From the extensor brevis digitorum the belly for
the great toe rises with a certain independence.
On the right foot of a chimpanzee I observed a fifth
belly of this muscle, going to the little toe (Fig. 55).
Fig. 54.—Muscular system of the human foot. 1, Tibialis anticus and extensor
proprius pollicis. 2, Extensor longus digitorum. 3, Tendon of peroneus ter-
tius. 4, 6, Peroneus longus and peroneus brevis. 4\ 6', Tendons of the same.
6, 7, Tendons of the extensor longus and extensor brevis digitorum.
As my illustration is taken from this specimen,
I have represented the foot with, or in spite of, this
interesting anomaly, which, as we know, sometimes
occurs in man.
The flexor brevis digitorum displays perforated178
&NTHROPOID APES.
tendons, belonging to the second and third toes.
The flexor longus digitorum displays perforated
tendons for the fourth and fifth toes. The flexor
longus pollicis divides into two tendons, one of which
goes into the toe itself, while the other is connected
Fig. 55.—Muscles on the upper side of chimpanzee’s foot. 1, Tibialis anticus
muscle. . 2, Extensor proprius pollicis. 3, Extensor communis digitorum.
4, 5, Peroneus brevis and peroneus longus. 6, Tendon Achilles. 7, Extensor
brevis digitorum. 8, Slip of the same for great toe. 9, First dorsal inter-
osseous muscle. 10, Adductor pollicis. 11, Abductor minimi digiti.
with the flexor longus digitorum, and displays per-
forated tendons for the third and fourth toes, while
the perforated tendons of the second and fifth toes
have their origin in the other flexor
In the gorilla the lumbricales muscles of the footANATOMICAL STRUCTUKE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 179
are powerful. The first inter-osseous muscle is like-
wise well developed and bicipital. There is a short
flexor and an abductor for the little toe. I have
not yet been able to assure myself of the existence
of an opponens for that toe. In the chimpanzee
the muscular system of the great and little toe
does not essentially differ from that which we
have described in the gorilla. The flexor brevis
digitorum forms the perforated tendons of the
second and third toes. The flexor longus digitorum
provides the fourth and fifth toes with perforated,
and the second and fifth toes with perforating,
tendons, while those which belong to the third
and fourth toes have their origin in the flexor
longus pollicis. As in the gorilla, the latter
muscle produces a fibrous investment for the tendons
of the flexor longus digitorum. In the orang there
is an abductor of the great toe, a very slightly
developed opponens, a short bicipital flexor, and an
adductor. One of the long flexors of the toes
appears to represent the flexor longus pollicis in
man. It provides the second and fifth toes with
perforating tendons, while those of the third and
fourth toes have their origin in the other flexor longus
digitorum. There is no long flexor tendon on the
great toe. The perforated tendons in this case
generally belong to the short flexor muscle. In
addition to the perforated tendons of the fourth toe,
there is the long flexor already described.
In a gibbon’s great toe I observed an abductor,
a short bicipital flexor, and a slightly developed
opponens, to which a wide fan-shaped adductor is180
ANTHROPOID APES.
attached. The first dorsal inter-osseous muscle
is, as in the same animal’s hand (Fig. 53), attached
to the first phalanx of the second toe. The flexor
longus digitorum provides the third and fourth
toes with perforating tendons, and also gives off
a tendon for the great toe. On the little toe
there is a remarkably slender perforating tendon.
While the first of the two long flexors represents
the human flexor longus pollicis, the flexor longus
digitorum is in this instance limited to the little
toe. In the gibbon, as well as in the orang, the
gorilla, and the chimpanzee, the two muscles are
connected together by an aponeurosis. It may be
here mentioned that in the human foot the flexor
longus pollicis occasionally gives off a flexor for the
second and even for the third toes. In the gibbon,
as Bischoff justly observes, a muscle covers the
flexor longus digitorum, which is still undivided, but
already enlarged. From this 'muscle perforated
tendons issue for the third and fourth toes. The
second toe is provided with such a tendon from the
flexor brevis digitorum. The muscle we have men-
tioned seems to represent the Quadratus plant®,
which is often developed in the other anthropoids,
although only to a slight extent. With respect to
the muscles of the small toe of the orang and gibbon,
I need only say that in the latter species the opponens
seems to be absent (Fig. 55).
It will be seen from the foregoing account that,
in spite of several apparently important pecu-
liarities, in spite of great and manifold variations
which are established, even although our authoritiesANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 181
do not always agree together, the muscular system
of anthropoids is on the whole very like that of
man. It displays, especially in the lower limbs,
peculiarities of structure which render them capable
of walking in an upright position, and others again
which they have in common with the lower animals,
but on the whole the anthropoid characteristics of
the muscular,system of these animals are predomi-
nant.
The digestive system of anthropoids likewise
affords interesting points of comparison. The cavity
of the mouth is, as we have seen, bordered by large
and flexible lips. The mucous membrane of the
mouth and the gums are flesh-coloured; they
assume a darker colour in older animals, and are
then sometimes marked'with spots of a bluish or
brownish grey. Ehlers describes, as a peculiarity
in the mucous membrane of the mouths of the
gorilla and chimpanzee, that there are what he calls
buccal folds, which pass on both sides from the fore
surface of the upper and lower jaw into the mucous
membrane of the cheeks, and are of the height of
the canine teeth.* I have myself only observed
these folds in the gorilla, of which an illustration is
given in Fig. 3, and not in any other specimen. I
have observed scarcely any indications of these
folds in other anthropoids, and then only of such a
doubtful nature that I am not disposed to regard
the circumstance as of any special significance.
A small band on the upper and lower lips, sometimes
* Beitrdge zur Kenntniss des Gorilla und Chimpanse, p. 32, plate
ii. fig. 3.
9182
ANTHROPOID APES.
only slightly developed, but always perceptible, is
present in all anthropoids.
The tongue is small, and not provided at its base
with several great concave follicles as in man; these
are at least only faintly represented, and not easy
to observe. Around them there rise pock-like,
tufted warts, very close together, which in an aged
gorilla are apt to become hard and horny. These
are also prominent between the follicles of the
tonsils. The cireumvallate papillae of the tongue
are less numerous than in man, and often, especially
in the chimpanzee, they take the form of a cross, or
of the letter T, or in the gorilla of a V.
The uvula and palate present no special variation
from the human type. On the hard palate there
are a number of folds, or rather swellings, which
extend laterally from the central suture of the
palate, towards the row of teeth in the upper jaw;
these are sometimes simple, sometimes complex,
and vary in their details in individual cases.
They are particularly marked in the adult chim-
panzee, and are also very apparent in the gibbon,
and they are arranged with a somewhat ornamental
regularity. These inequalities are not altogether
insignificant in the human palate, but this subject
has not been much studied since Gegenbaur directed
the attention of scientific men to them, and special
light has been thrown upon it by Bischoff and
Ehlers, as far as anthropoids are concerned.
The teeth afford us important material for com-
parison. In the case of anthropoids the formula for
the teeth of the slender-nosed or Old-World apesANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 183
(Ccitarrhina) will generally apply: i f c j p f m §,
The following is the formula for the milk-teeth:
« } c } m §. Magitot and Giglioli* have shown
that the milk-teeth are cut in the same order as
those of man—first, the lower; second, the upper
incisor teeth; third, the front pre-molars; fourth,
the back pre-molars; fifth, the canine teeth. Ac-
cording to the same authors, the permanent teeth are
cut in the following order:—first, the first molar
teeth; second, the lower, and then the upper incisor
teeth; third, the pre-molars; fourth, the canine
teeth; fifth, the second molar teeth; sixth, the
third molar teeth. In the skull of a male gorilla,
Giglioli found that the permanent canine teeth were
cut almost simultaneously with the third molar
teeth, and after the appearance of the second molar
teeth. The cutting of the canine teeth appears to
be a longer process than that of the other teeth.
In anthropoids the structure of the permanent
teeth varies with the species, and even with the sex.
In the gorilla the two upper central incisor teeth are
wide, chisel-shaped, and much larger than the pair
of lateral incisors. The four lower incisor teeth
are of about the size of the upper lateral in-
cisors, and, like these, are chisel-shaped, but not so
wide. The powerful upper canine teeth of an aged
male are curved in their lower part, both outwards
and inwards. Their form is that of a three-sided,
cuneiform pyramid. The anterior surface is rounded,
and near its inner edge a deep furrow may be ob-
* Bulletin de la Soci6t6 d’Anthropologie de Paris (1869), pp. 83,
113.184
ANTHROPOID APES.
served, extending from the neck of the tooth almost
to its point. The outer and inner sides of the
tooth meet in a sharp angle, somewhat convex in
front, and level or slightly concave behind. The
inner side is concave, and furnished, nearly in the
centre, with a deep longitudinal furrow. The lower
canine teeth of an aged male are shorter than the
upper, curved on their upper and outer surface, and
somewhat behind. Their form is also that of a
three-sided pyramid, rounded in front. The longi-
tudinal furrow which traverses their inner segment
is much shorter than that on the upper tooth. The
outer side is somewhat convex, and at the same time
somewhat retreating, and is provided on its posterior
segment with two longitudinal furrows, or more
rarely with one, reaching from the neck to about
the centre of the tooth. The inner side, like that
of the upper teeth, is somewhat concave. The lower
canine teeth project like pillars over the upper ones
(Figs. 15, 16). The canine teeth of a young male
gorilla are less sharp in their angles, although
they already present the form of a three-sided
pyramid. The canine teeth of the adult female
gorilla are much smaller than those of the adult
male, and are laterally more compressed. The
three-sided pyramidal form is only slightly marked.
The outer surface is convex and furnished with a
scarcely apparent central longitudinal ridge. On
the inner surface, or that which is turned to the
cavity of the mouth, there are from two to three
longitudinal furrows reaching from the neck to the
centre of the tooth. The lower teeth are of aANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 185
three-sided, pyramidal form, presenting an interior,
posterior, and inner superficies.
The pre-molars of an aged male gorilla are wide,
and are furnished with a large outer, and a smaller
inner, cusp. The three four-cusped upper molars
display a more regular and symmetrical arrange-
ment of their cusps than is the case with the
female, in which the position of the cusps is rather
variable. Except for the difference of size, the
relative conditions of these teeth are the same in
male and female. The first pointed lower pre-
molars are in the male of the form of a four-sided
pyramid, convex on the anterior and outer surface,
flat on the side directed to the cavity of the mouth,
and marked with furrows on the posterior surface.
The small second and lower pre-molars have two
anterior and one posterior cusp. The last is gene-
rally worn away at an early age. Each molar tooth
has two outer and two inner cusps, opposite to each
other, and one posterior cusp. We cannot here fail
to notice the likeness to the conditions of the human
teeth, a likeness which is still more striking in the
female.
In the chimpanzee, also, the upper central
incisor teeth are broadly chisel-shaped, while the
upper and lower lateral incisors are smaller. In
the male there is often a considerable gap be-
tween these and the canine teeth. The latter
present the form of a three-sided pyramid, of wThich
the anterior edge is blunt and tends outwards, while
the posterior angle is sharp, scooped out in its
upper third, and terminating at the base of the186
ANTHROPOID APES.
crown in a posterior cusp. The pre-molars have an
external and an inner cusp; the molars have two
external and two inner cusps, connected with each
other by their enamel. The lower canine teeth of
these animals are likewise of the shape of a three-
sided pyramid, of which the anterior angle is very
blunt, while the inner and posterior angles are
sharply cut. The anterior surface is not grooved
like the upper canine teeth. The lateral angle is
much rounded. The back teeth plainly display
the posterior fifth cusp, which may also be observed
in man. In the orang-utan the characteristics of
the upper incisors are such as we have described in
the case of other anthropoids. The upper canine
teeth are shaped like a three-sided pyramid, and
are furnished with a longitudinal furrow on the
anterior side. A similar furrow is found on the pos-
terior superficies of the lower canine teeth. The
back teeth display no special characteristics when
compared with those of other anthropoids.
The canine teeth of these anthropoids are much
worn down by age on their posterior surface. Deep
transverse grooves of varying size characterize the
teeth of anthropoids, owing to the unequal distribu-
tion of the coating of enamel. These are developed
with their advancing growth. In addition to these
incised furrows, longitudinal marks, with raised
edges, also appear, and especially on the anterior
surface of the incisor teeth.
In the gibbon the anterior surface of the incisor
teeth is smooth; in this animal the upper central
incisor teeth are the largest, while the lower centralANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 187
incisors are the smallest. The long and strong
upper canine teeth, which are laterally compressed,
display a sharp posterior angle, and an anterior and
inner longitudinal furrow.
It has sometimes been said that the grooves
found on the external contour of the back teeth of
anthropoids, extending to their roots, constitute a
not unimportant distinction between their structure
and that of the human teeth, in which the grooves
do not extend to the roots. But the corresponding
human teeth do sometimes exhibit very deep and
extensive furrows. I cannot, therefore, ascribe any
peculiar significance to this assumed distinction.
The development of the canine teeth, like those
of beasts of prey, seems to me much more important.
A supernumerary back tooth may sometimes be
observed both in man and in anthropoids, including
also the gibbon.*
The stomach and intestines of these animals pre-
sent only a few striking differences from the same
organs in man. The length of the intestines varies
in man as well as in anthropoids. I have only
observed the valvulse conniventes to be somewhat
clearly developed in the gorilla and the orang. The
caecum of these apes is long, broad, placed with the
power of free movement in the peritoneum, and
furnished, especially in the case of the orang, with
a large, very long, and spirally coiled vermiform
appendix.
The liver is divided into two principal lobes, but
# As, for example, in Hylobates syndactylus. Comp. Giebel,
Odontographia, p. 2 : Leipzig, 1855.188
ANTHROPOID APES.
in the orang this division is not very clearly marked.
I have not myself observed a subdivision of these
lobes, occurring on their edges, which is mentioned
by Bolau and Auzoux in the case of the gorilla.
Bischoff notices in the gorilla the absence of the
H-shaped arrangement of the fissures on the under
surface of the liver, so noticeable in man ; and the
same remark applies to other species of anthropoids.
Moreover, the fissures on this part of the liver are
not incised on the substance with the same uniform
depth. The gall-bladder of the gorilla and the
orang is not remarkable for its size ; in the chim-
panzee I found that this organ is large and twisted,
and it is also large in the gibbon.
The spleen is elongated in the gorilla, chim-
panzee, and gibbon, shorter and wider in the orang.
On its left contour it is uniformly bevelled off. There
is nothing in the pancreas which calls for remark.
The larynx of anthropoids possesses on the whole
a structure resembling that of man. This is es-
pecially the case at the entrance to that organ.
The anterior and specially vocal portion of the
glottis is short, about as long as the respiratory
portion. In the chimpanzee there is a deep cavity
in the body of the hyoid bone. In the gorilla, chim-
panzee, and orang the throat-pouches or air-sacs
correspond to Morgagni’s sacs. These are the thin-
skinned elastic sacs, closely united with their sur-
roundings by connective tissue. The right laryngeal
sac appears to be of larger diameter than the left.
According to Duvernoy’s and Ehlers’ accurate ac-
count only the upper portion of this organ occursANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 189
in the gorilla. In that animal, and in the orang,
a lower projection is displayed, extending behind
the sterno-mastoid as far as the shoulder, and
another extending to the pectoralis major muscle.
In the chimpanzee only the posterior segment is
developed. It has been asserted that in several
cases there is found a single, irregular laryngeal
sac, communicating with the two Morgagni sacs,
but I agree with Ehlers in thinking this impro-
bable. In such instances it seems likely that, owing
to the great want of symmetry in this organ, one
of the sacs has been overlooked. In an aged orang
the throat-pouches, fastened together by connective
tissue, and covered by the external skin of the
throat, hang down slackly and heavily over the
middle of the breast (see Fig. 9). According to
Sandifort, the siamang is the only one of the gibbons
which displays a single throat-pouch; while Broca
asserts that it has two detached sacs, placed close
to the larynx.* The halves of the thyroid carti-
lage are generally connected with each other by an
intermediate piece.
The trachea of anthropoids generally includes from
sixteen to eighteen cartilaginous rings, but in the
siamang there are twenty-one. They ramify into
branches which are, as a rule, wider on the right than
on the left side.f There is a further lateral ramifi-
* Ortleetlcundige Beschryving van een volvassen Orang Oetan.
Verhandelingen ovei' de natuurlijlce geschiedenis der Neederlandsche
Bezittingen : Leiden, 1840. Bulletin de la Bociktt d’Antkropologie
de Paris, iv. pp. 368-371: 1869.
t Comp. Aeby, Der Bronchialbaum der Saugethiere und des
Menschen, p. 7, table v. fig. 11: Leipzig, 1880.190
ANTHROPOID APES.
cation on the right side, situated above the artery.
Huxley and Ehlers hold that the lungs of a gorilla
are cleft like those of the human organism, the
right divided into three, and the left into two
lobes. I have myself observed this type, and
in one instance I found three lobes on the left.
In the chimpanzee I saw that the right lung was
divided into three, and the left into two lobes.
Bischoff observed an instance of a chimpanzee
which had four lobes on the right and two on the
left side. In an orang dissected by me I found
only one lobe on each side, with thin, slightly
indented notches on the anterior edges of the right
lobe, and two on the left, and there was at the same
time a strongly marked indentation between the
lobes. The lungs of a gibbon are described as
having four lobes on the right, and only one or two
on the left. I myself have examined a gibbon in
which there were three lobes on the right, and two
on the left. It appears that there are not unim-
portant individual variations of this structure in
every species of anthropoids; and indeed, human
lungs are by no means exempt from them.
The male sexual organs correspond on the whole
with the form and arrangement of these organs in
man. I must not omit to mention that the penis
of the swine-snouted baboon, and of other dog-
headed apes, is much more like the penis in man
than is the case with anthropoids, with the excep-
tion of the gorilla. In the last-named animal the
scrotum is short and tightly stretched. The right
testicle is a little higher than the left, and is dividedANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 191
from it by a wide raphe. The internal female organs
are also like those of the human organism, with
only slight variations. Bi sell off is correct in the
assertion that the external lips of the pudendum and
the mons veneris are almost wholly absent. Bolau,
Ehlers, and Hermes have ascertained that there is
a menstruation which occurs periodically, at any
Fig. 56.—The brain of an orang, seen from the side (Vogt, from Gratiolet).
F, Frontal lobe. P, Parietal lobe. 0, Occipital lobe. B., Fissure of Kolando.
S, Fissure of Sylvius. C, Cerebellum.
rate, in the case of the chimpanzee, and the other
species cannot be exempt from the process. At such
times there is a blush and enlargement of the
external parts, and a protusion of the external lips of
the pudendum, which are at other times scarcely
apparent. The nymphse and the clitoris are of
considerable size and importance. There is often
an excessive enlargement and reddening of these192
ANTHROPOID APES.
parts, as well as of the posterior callosities in the
chimpanzee, and also in the baboon and macaca,
during the period of sexual excitement.
Nervous system.—In this part of the organism we
are especially interested in the structure of the
I
Fig. 57.—Brain of the chimpanzee, seen from above. The upper part of the
right hemisphere is removed so as to lay hare the lateral ventricle (Vogt, from
Marshall). L, Longitudinal fissure (other indications the same as in Fig. 56).
c s, The corpus striatum in - anterior cornu of the ventricle, c a, Hipppo-
campus major in descending cornu, h m, Hippocampus minor in posterior
cornu.
brain. Bastian justly remarks, with reference
to the brain of apes, that this family possesses
many cerebral characteristics in common, by which
their close connection with each other may be
verified. Distinct stages of development have beenANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 193
observed, which, however, cannot be classified in a
consecutive series. Starting from the brains of
lemurs, which do not greatly differ from those of
rodents, we can advance by means of very distinct
transition forms to the more highly developed cere-
bral hemispheres of the large anthropoid apes, the
chimpanzee, the gorilla, and orang-utan.*
Fig. 58.— Brain of gorilla, side view (from Bolau and Pansch). I., Frontal lobe.
II., Tissue of Rolando. III., Parietal lobe. IV., Temporal lobe. C. Cerebellum.
f s, Fissure of Sylvius, s c, External fissure parieto-occipital.
Very opposite views prevail among anatomists
with regard to the question which species of anthro-
poids possesses the most highly developed brain.'
Some regard the chimpanzee’s brain as the simplest,
and that of the orang as the most highly de-
veloped. In all these apes the lateral halves of
* The Brain as an Organ of Mind. International Scientific
Series.194
ANTHROPOID APES.
the cerebrum, always divided from each other by
a deep longitudinal fissure, overlap the cerebellum
as far as a minute posterior segment. In this
respect I find the brain of the gorilla a little behind
the other anthropoids. Up to this time, I have only
observed the projection of the cerebellum through
the cerebrum in the case of an orang * (see also
Fig. 56). Eetzius asserts that the cerebellum of
Lapps is incompletely covered, while the covering is
Fig. 59.—Brain of orang, seen from above (Duncan, from a specimen in the
Museum of Royal College of Surgeons). F, frontal lobe. 0, Occipital lobe.
generally complete in the case of Slav and Tartar
races. In German and Latin races the cerebrum
overlaps the cerebellum. In Mongolian, Indian,
* PanBch writes of a gorilla’s brain: “ The cerebellum ought,
in a horizontal position, to be somewhat overlapped by the cere-
brum.” I do not understand what he means by the expression
ought.ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 195
and Negro races the covering appears to be generally
imperfect.
While the ground form of the gorilla brain
approximates to a long oval, and in this respect
resembles the human brain, the brain of chim-
panzees and orangs is of a round-oval form. This
is especially the case with the chimpanzee (Fig. 57).
In my opinion, the gorilla brain is distinguished
from that of the chimpanzee, but not from that
of the orang, by its very complex convolutions
(Fig. 56).
In the gorilla, chimpanzee, and orang, the island
of Reil in the fissure of Sylvius is generally—at least,
according to my experience—overlapped by the
operculum, although there are instances in which
this is not the case. In these three anthropoids, as
Bastian justly observes, the fissure of Sylvius is
much less horizontal than in man, and occupies a
position more like that which it takes in the black
sea-cat monkey, the wanderers, and other macacas.
In the gorilla its direction is more horizontal than
in the two other species of anthropoids. The central
fissure, termed fissure of Rolando, is very marked,
especially in the chimpanzee (Fig. 57 R); but it
may also be easily traced in other species of anthro-
poids (Fig. 58, II., 56, R). The so-called simian
fissure between the parietal and occipital lobes of
the cerebrum (Meynart’s elongated external occi-
pital fissure), presented in Fig. 58 s o, is very marked
in the chimpanzee (Fig. 57, d). The frontal lobes
of the gorilla brain are high, while those of the
chimpanzee are short and low. It is said that those196
ANTHROPOID APES.
of the orang, which are high and short, terminate
in a beak-shaped curvature, but this is not invariably
the case.
In the anthropoids we have been considering, and
also in several of the lower species of apes, there
are three other fissures of less importance in addition
to those we have mentioned, namely, the fissure
parallel to the fissure of Sylvius, and placed behind
it, the corpus callosum fissure, placed immediately
above the corpus callosum on the inner side of the
Fig. 60.—Longitudinal section of a gorillaVbrain (Bola and Pansch). 8.cm,
Colloso marginal fissure, f, p, Internal parieto-occipital fissure. /> c, Calcarine
fissure, the posterior part of the hippocampal fissure.
hemisphere of the cerebrum, and the calcarine fissure
(.Fissura calcarina) (Fig. 60). The latter ends near
the point of junction of the inner and lower sur-
faces of the posterior division of the hemisphere.
The upper temporal convolution, termed by several
anatomists Gyrus supramarginalis, is said by Gra-ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 197
tiolet to be absent in anthropoids; but Eolleston,
Bastian, and myself have all found it well deve-
loped * (Fig. 56, orang, and Fig. 58, gorilla).
Bischoff asserts that the third frontal convolution
(Broca’s convolution) is very slightly developed in
the chimpanzee, orang, and gibbon. “Its great
development in men,” Gewahrsmann writes, “con-
stitutes one of the most_marked distinctions between
*
the brains of apes and of men.” f In most of the
other species of apes this convolution is altogether
absent, but Pansch is justified in the assertion that
it is fully developed in anthropoids. I cannot wholly
agree with Pansch in his analysis; but I must
accept his statement on this point (see the orang,
Fig. 59). Gratiolet remarks that the so-called
annectant gyri (phis de passage) which serve
as a covering or operculum for the posterior lobes
in apes, are only superficially apparent in man. In
the chimpanzee the upper of those convolutions
is absent, while it is large in the orang, and likewise
large and undulated in man. In the orang the
second annectant gyrus is covered, but this covering
is absent in man.):
In considering the inner structure of the brain
of these animals, we are first struck by the shortness
of the corpus callosum. The soft and thick anterior
commissure of the third cerebral ventricle and the
thin posterior commissure have also been justly
* Natural History Review, p. 201: 1861.
f Sitzung der Mathematisch-physikalischen Elasse der konigl.
bairischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, p. 100 : Feb. 4, 1871.
J Gratiolet, Mem. sur les plis c6r6braux de Vhomme et des
primate#.198
ANTHROPOID APES.
noted. In the lateral ventricles more of the charac-
teristics described in the human brain are absent.
The four eminences resemble those of man ; nor does
the fourth cerebral ventricle present any remarkable
differences of form. Neither does the base or lower
surface of the brain display any important deviation
from the human type. The transverse section of
the nerves at their intersection appears to me, how-
ever, to be somewhat more oval than is the case in
man.
There has recently been an attempt to recognize
a pithecoid character, or atavism, in microcephalia
men, the smallness of whose heads is allied with
a greater or less degree of idiocy. A pithecoid
structure of the brain has also been traced in several
individuals who are not microcephalous, but subject
to pathological affections. We will first consider
those who belong to the latter category. Krause
examined the brain of an ape-like boy aged seven
years and a half, which, as the author remarks,
approximated in structure to the pithecoid type,
although without displaying microcephalic charac-
teristics. The two cerebral hemispheres were wanting
in symmetry; they diverged from each other in the
region where the parieto-occipital fissure occurs on the
left cerebral hemisphere, and they formed an edge
which curved outward and backward so that the
cerebellum remained uncovered. On the lower
surface of the frontal lobes there was a strongly
marked ethmoidal prominence. Neither of the
fissures of Sylvius were closed, the left less so
than the right; the operculum was only slightlyANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 199
developed ; and the island of Beil and its fissures were
almost uncovered. This formation is almost the
same as that of the brain of anthropoids. The two
central fissures of Bolando were close together, or
less deeply impressed on the edge of the hemi-
spheres than is normally the case, and forming no
joint angle. Large and deeply marked pre-central
fissures seqjned to represent the central fissures.
The intra-parietal fissures, diverging outwardly
further than in man, received the parieto-occipital
fissure, a structure in conformity with the typical
brain of apes. The transverse occipital fissure
became in this case a deep fissure like the simian
fissure, crossing the occipital lobes, and almost
completely dividing them from the parietal lobes.
The so-called Fissura calcarina, to which we have
referred above, had its origin on the upper surface
of the occipital lobe, then joined the parieto-
occipital fissure, and went directly into the hippo-
campal fissure (Fissura hippocampi) on its right
side. This abnormal structure is also in conformity
with the typical brain of apes. The first occipital
convolution is divided from the upper parietal lobes
by the parieto-occipital fissure. Gratiolet asserts
that this formation occurs in many species of apes.
The upper temporal convolution was remarkably
reduced on both sides, possessing only an average
width of 5 mm. This characteristic reminded
Krause of the brain of the chimpanzee. In that
animal the upper temporal convolution is always
reduced. Krause therefore asks whether some human
brains may not possess the typical structure of apes200
ANTHROPOID APES.
without being microcephalic. The brain we have
described scarcely differed from the normal weight;
it possessed all the convolutions and fissures, and
indeed, the convolutions were perhaps more numer-
ous than in the normal structure, yet it was different
in every respect, and approximated in its whole
structure to the simian rather than to the human
type. Krause adds that if the brain had been
placed before him without any intimation of its
origin, he should have been quite justified in con-
cluding that it belonged to an anthropoid ape,
which stood somewhat nearer to man than the
chimpanzee.
It is an unquestionable fact that some human
beings, whether children or adults, who are endowed
with a defective bodily structure, and who are
affected with more or less pronounced physical
incapacity and mental weakness, by their appear-
ance, ungainly tricks, and helpless and aimless
motions, impress us in the most forcible way with
their resemblance to apes. Different degrees of
idiocy affect individuals of limited intellect, and
remind us of an absolutely brutish condition.
Krause describes the “ ape-like ” boy of seven and
a half years old, whom he had examined, as cheerful
and inclined to play and dance, but as passionate
when he was teased. The child was very supple,
fond of climbing, and with great strength in his
arms and hands, of which the latter had a horny
appearance, reminding him of the hands of a
chimpanzee. He could sit on the ground with his
legs wide apart. His gait was uncertain, and heANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 201
was apt to tumble, falling with bis knees bent
forward and bis legs doubled under bim; be was
fond of bopping, and at such times looked still more
like an ape. The great toes of both feet were at
an angle to the foot, and thus gave the impression
of a prehensile foot. At first Krause supposed that
this deviation was produced by the child’s endeavour
to supply a broader basis of support for his uncertain
gait; but be subsequently changed his opinion,
since he did not find the same peculiarity in other
children of diseased brain, as, for instance, in those
suffering from water on the brain. The boy could
say very little, only papa and mamma, and it was
long before he could pronounce these words in two
syllables; for the most part, he only uttered a sound
resembling a grunt. He imitated the barking of
a dog, with the sound of rolling r’s. He often
stamped his feet and clapped his hands together,
making a grunting noise as Krause had observed
in the case of gorillas and chimpanzees. The boy
was smaller than other children of his age, and had
weak eyes; his head was sore, and his forehead
narrow. His imitative tendency was strongly
marked, and his whole nature and all his move-
ments strikingly resembled those of apes. He had
been much neglected by his parents.*
When I was a student at .Berlin I had the oppor-
tunity of observing a similar being of twelve years
old, in what was at that time the Weinbergswege,
near the Kosenthaler Gate. This was a boy with
* Correspondedzblatt der deutschen Anthropologischen Gesell-
scha/tf p. 133 : 1878.202
ANTHROPOID APES.
a large head, a low retreating forehead, glazed eyes,
a morose expression, a thin neck, prominent belly,
crooked legs, large hands and feet. The boy was of
a slouching appearance, and his gait was unsteady :
saliva often dribbled from his wide mouth; and
as he walked he held on to the furniture, walls,
etc., and often he fell powerless on his side, and
so remained in a crouching position. It seemed to
give him peculiar pleasure to creep on his hands
and knees, and at such times he would stamp with
the closed fingers of one or the other hand upon
the ground, as if in triumph. This habit, his gait,
and the gurgling sound which was all that the boy
could utter, constituted the points of his resem-
blance to apes. All the other conditions of life
were those of a being whose mental and physical
growth was arrested, and who, although not epilep-
tic, was to a certain extent idiotic. I am ignorant
what afterwards became of him.
In the course of a discussion on the instance
adduced by Krause, Virchow asks whether the
psychological conditions of such a brain are indeed
simian. He is convinced that whoever has studied
the microcephalic child Margaret Becker (of
Burgel, Hanau) will find that psychologically she
had nothing in common with an ape. In her case
all the positive faculties and qualities of the ape
were wanting ; the simian psychology was altogether
absent, and there was only the psychology of an
imperfectly developed and deficient young child.
Every characteristic was human. Virchoff had the
child in his room for hours together during a periodANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 203
of two months, and was constantly occupied about
her, without observing anything in her nature
which reminded him even remotely of the psycho-
logical conditions of apes. She was a degraded
specimen of humanity, differing in no respect from
the human type.*
I also examined Margaret Becker, as well
as another microcephalic girl, who was in the
Berlin Asylum in the years 1868 and 1869. With
respect to the former and more animated being, I
have nothing essential to add to the information
published by Virchow. Ida X----------------, the other
individual whom I examined at Berlin, was at the
time of my researches aged thirteen years and five
months. Her figure was slightly made and well
proportioned, while her profile reminded me to a
modified extent of that of the microcephalic Aztec,
and also of the heads represented in ancient sculpture
of Mayapan, Palenque, and Copan. I must not omit
to say that Ida had light blue eyes and fair, glossy
hair. She was altogether impassive ; could only
utter the syllables da-da ; and once betrayed a slight
sign of displeasure when the cold metal of the
measuring-rod was placed against the inner side
of her thigh, for the sake of obtaining the dimensions
of the different parts of her body.
Virchow’s information respecting Esther Jacob-
witz, of Waschahel, is also extremely interesting.
She was a microcephalic girl of the age of fourteen,
and a Hungarian Jew by race.f Virchow remarks
* Verhandlungen der bei'linerAnthropologischenGesellschaft, 1877.
f Ibid., p. 25 : 1878.204
ANTHROPOID APES.
that, in his opinion, all Esther’s most striking charac-
teristics presented the strongest contrast to those of
apes, since only negative traits have hitherto been
established, while all which characterizes the positive
development of the psychical life of apes was absent
in this case. The same remark applies to Ida X-------.
Virchow goes on to say that there was undoubtedly
something brute-like in the defects in question,
but that in order to reproduce the animal in its
actual form and nature, so as to show that the
microcephalic child was really theromorphic, the
positive side of animal life must to some extent be
presented to us, and this was absolutely wanting.
Virchow also had the opportunity of examining
a pair of twin children, one of whom was quite
normally developed, while the other (Karl R----------)
was microcephalic. This was a very significant
case, since two individuals of the same birth were
under consideration, so that the question could be
asked with greater confidence—Is this atavism, or
a morbid condition? From this point of view, it
was of special interest to establish the fact that the
microcephalic child had, in fact, displayed positive
signs of a morbid condition.*
When I go through the accounts collected by
G. Vogt of the lives of well-known microcephalic
beings,f I can find nothing which specifically
reminds me of the actions and habits of apes,
although we have an intimate acquaintance with
their ways. These individuals give the general
* Vehandlungen der berlincr Anthropologischen Qesellschaft.
p. 28: 1878.
t Archiv. fur Anthropoidgie, p. 129 : 1867.ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 205
impression of human beings whose bodily and
mental development has been arrested. According
to Virchow’s experience, all the cerebral disturbances
are concentrated in the cerebrum in these micro-
cephalous cases. The anterior portions of the
cerebrum are affected to the greatest, and the
posterior to the least, extent. Those parts which
are developed latest suffer the most, while those
which are the first to be developed generally escape
disturbance.*
Klebs, Schaaffhausen, and others have sought to
show that the mothers of microcephalic children
have suffered from severe pains of the uterus during
pregnancy. All scientific men consider that spasms
of the uterus distinctly affect the development of the
brain of the offspring. Flesch thinks it possible that
these spasms of the uterus may have something to do
with the origin of microcephaly.f But he also asks
whether this morbid condition of the uterus may not
have been produced by a previously diseased con-
dition of the offspring. This observer is, moreover,
still more inclined to make the influence of the
father responsible for the occurrence of microcephaly.
In view of the fact that there is much reason to
suppose there has been a compression of the uterus,
and in default of any better suggestion, Flesch feels
justified in looking for a compression which has
* Verhandlungen der lerliner Anthropologischen Qesellschaf
p. 283 : 1877.
t Correspondenzblatt der deutschen Anthropologischen Qesell-
schaft, p. 134: 1877. H. Gerhartz, Ueber die TJrsachen der Micro-
cephalie. Inaugural dissertation. Bonn, 1874.
10206
ANTHROPOID APES,
perhaps resulted from some growth on the ovary.
Hence ensues a disturbance, probably inflammatory,
of the organ of nutrition.*
Aehy also regards microcephaly, not as an ex-
pression of atavism, but as the result of a morbid
degeneration. “ Microcephalic subjects do not
point back to the milestone which man left behind
him in hoar antiquity, and it is not through them
that the chasm between man and animals can be
bridged over, nor even rendered less wide.”
Virchow’s researches led to the following con-
clusions, which we must here subjoin:—1. There is
no species of apes which presents that precise con-
figuration which is found in a microcephalic brain.
2. Psychology offers the strongest arguments against
men-apes. 3. The instinctive side of psychical
activity, which is almost wholly absent in micro-
cephalic subjects, is very prominent in anthropoids
as well as in other animals.!
In addition to these remarks, it may also be ob-
served that among savage races the medicine-men,
shamans, sorcerers, rain-doctors, etc., often assume
ape-like attitudes in the contortions, leaps, dances,
and other gestures which are inseparable from their
trade. Owing to their state of excitement, in which
they are not always mentally responsible for their
acts, this imitation may be often partly or wholly
* Anatomische TJntersuchung eines Microcephalen Knaben. Re-
print of a paper written for tlie celebration of the three hundredth
year of the University of Wurzburg, p. 27.
f Verhandlungen der berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft,
p. 248: 1877.ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 207
unconscious. It is very common among the inspired
Arabs termed Haschascb, who, sometimes as der-
vishes, sometimes as poets or beast-tamers, roam
through the country and extend their wanderings
from the interior of Africa to the latticed gates of
Dolma Bakhtsche. To them belong also the dancing
mendicant monks of Islam, who display their ape-
like gesture in the market-places and streets of
Bokhara, as well as in the other chief cities of
Central Asia. In this case, indeed, many gestures
are conventional, and even adopted as the means of
stimulating the proposed effects, but at the same
time they impress us with the idea that a man under
such conditions of life and work involuntarily adopts
the gestures of anthropoids. When we see a Zikr,
an Islamite rite of worship, accompanied by obli-
gatory howls and contortions of body, we are tempted
to imagine ourselves in the midst of a troop of wild
apes. And the illusion is still stronger if the per-
formers in the Zikr are black fakirs, dressed as
warriors.
The peripheral nervous system of anthropoids
has not, up to this time, been analyzed with the
completeness we could wish. As far as the observa-
tions of Vrolik, Gratiolet, and Alix go, together with
my personal experience in this department, no
marked distinction can be established between the
structure of these organs in anthropoids and those of
the nervous system in man.
H. von Ihering has studied the relation of the
nervous lumbo-sacral plexus to the vertebral column
of men and animals, and has come to the conclusion208
ANTHROPOID APES.
that there is the most complete agreement between
men and animals with respect to the relations
of the vertebral column to the peripheral nervous
system. According to this author, man, from the
anatomical point of view, stands so completely within
the class of anthropoids, that the attempt to assign
to him any other place in zoology is open to the
charge of being biassed by considerations which
have nothing to do with facts.*
The organs of the senses in anthropoids do not
present any noteworthy points of difference from
these organs in man. I have written, but not yet
published, a treatise on the eyes of these animals,
showing their general agreement with the conditions
of the human eye. On the skin of the fingers and
toes of anthropoids developed corpuscles may be
detected which are connected with the sense of
touch.
The vascular system of anthropoids has not up to
this time been studied in any exhaustive manner.
The heart strongly resembles that organ in man. In
the gorilla, the chimpanzee, and the orang the great
arterial branches have the same relative conditions
as in the human organism. A common origin from
one branch of the subclavian artery, and of the
right and left carotid arteries, often occurs in the
orang and with a certain constancy in the gibbon, so
far as we can judge from the researches which have
been made up to this time. But we know that this
form of deviation from the common type is not
* Das peripherische Nerversystem der Wirbelthiere, p. 2X9:
Leipzig, 1878.ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 209
altogether rare in man. Bischoff and others have
justly maintained that the resemblance to man which
is found in these animals in the arrangement of the
heart and larger blood-vessels appears to be con-
nected with their mode of life. For although their
habits are arboreal, this very fact implies that they
are for the most part in an upright position.
The division of the femoral arteries displays a
somewhat interesting deviation from the normal
human type. High up near the femoral arch an
artery, accompanied by veins and a large nerve,
diverges from the femoral artery, which extends,
together with its accompanying parts, as far as the
back of the foot. In the gorilla this branch pierces
the sartorius.210
ANTHROPOID APES.
CHAPTER IV.
ON VARIETIES IN THE FORM OF ANTHROPOIDS.
Up to recent times it was generally supposed that
there was only one species of gorilla, and the differ-
ences in the structure of the skeleton and of the
external body which were observed in the several
specimens under examination, were either regarded
as the expression of a purely individual variation
or as due to differences in age and sex. Not long
ago Alix and Bouvier obtained from Landana on the
Congo the skeleton and skin of an aged female
gorilla, which had been killed by Lucan and Petit
in the village of the negro chief Mayema, on the
Kuilu river in 4° 35' south latitude. This speci-
men was of less bulk than the common gorilla
(lGorilla Gina), and its head was comparatively small.
The occipito-temporal crest, or transverse crest of the
occiput, was much more strongly developed in this
animal and the temporal fossae were deeper. That part
of the pkull which extends behind the supra-orbital
arches was narrower, and so also was the space between
the eyes. The keel-shaped prominence rising in the<5n varieties in the form of anthropoids. 211
centre of this space is more marked, the nasal bones
are arched and not flattened, the orbital aperture
is larger in comparison with the general size of
the skull, and the frontal processes of the malar
bones are wider and more arched. One interesting
characteristic consists in a small, vertical, styloid
prominence on the posterior surface of the orbital
process. On the vertebral column the spinous pro-
cesses of the first, second, and third cervical vertebrae
are only slightly developed in height, while the
spinous processes of the three lower cervical vertebrae
are as high and large as those of Gorilla Gina. The
transverse processes of the first lumbar vertebrae are
remarkable for their length, and in their transverse
extension reach almost to the angle of the last rib.
In this supposed variety of the gorilla the iliac
crest is more convex, the tuberosity of the ischium
is somewhat more everted, the neck of the femur
is more oblique, the os calcis is slenderer, and
its lower surface is more arched. The clavicle
appears to be shorter and less curved: the scapula
is more arched near its inner border; its outer
border is distinctly concave, while in Gorilla Gina
it is prominently convex. The base of the acromion
process is larger, and the olecranon fossa of the
humerus is perforated. The bones of the forearm
and hand, as well as of the shank and foot, are more
slender, and their prominences and inequalities are
less marked. The smaller bulk of the fore and hind
limbs corresponds with the comparative smallness of
the head.
The colouring, grey and brown on the trunk,212
ANTHROPOID APES.
black on the limbs, with red patches on the head,
and reddish in the pubic region, does not essen-
tially differ from that which has been described
by different authors in the case of other skins which
have indeed been artificially restored. But the
hide essentially differs from that of other specimens
in the sharp division of the brown colouring of the
belly from the grey of the back, by the reddish tint
of the hair which clothes the pubic region, and also
in the abundant growth of hair which so closely en-
circles the cheeks and chin. But, according to our
authorities, the most remarkable difference consists
in the fact that the whole of the back is covered
with long, thick hair, while in Gorilla Gina this
part is either bare or only covered with short hair,
partly worn away. Hence these authors conclude
that this species, which they assert to be new, and
have named Gorilla Mayema, from the negro chief of
that name, does not rest its back against a tree so
often as the Gorilla Gina, but leads a more arboreal
life, climbing from tree to tree.*
I admit that if I were to take into account all
the individual differences of the gorilla skulls and
skeletons of the sa,me sex and of about the same
age, I should be able to produce a half-dozen or
more species of gorillas. I have observed such
differences in the case both of male and female
individuals of about the same age, and have given
an exact description of them in my osteological
work on the gorilla to which I have so often referred.
I cannot, however, refrain from regarding these
* Bulletin de la Soci6t6 Zoologique de France, p. 1: 1877.ON VARIETIES IN THE FORM OF ANTHROPOIDS. 213
differences as of a purely individual character.
Much in the description by Alix and Bouvier—as,
for instance, their remarks on the comparative
smallness of the head, on the slenderness and
smoothness of the limb bones—appears to me to
point to the youthfulness of this Landana specimen.
The unlearned may be struck by what is said of
the small spinous processes of the upper cervical
vertehrm in this specimen, but in the common gorilla
the processes of the three upper vertebrae are also
small (see Fig. 17). Individual and sexual varia-
tions in the general development of the cervical
spines may be observed, not only in this case, but in
the chimpanzee, and even in man. I think it very
doubtful whether a characteristic of species can be
founded only or chiefly on this distinction. What
is said of the colouring of the coat of the so-called
new species appears to me still less worthy of con-
sideration. I have spoken above in detail of the
many individual varieties of the colour of the hair
in different specimens of gorillas. I have also
observed long, thick hair, not always short, scanty,
and worn away, on the backs of many gorillas of
different sexes. The condition described by Alix
and Bouvier must refer to the hides of aged and
sickly animals, or to those younger individuals
affected by the kind of mange which is widely
diffused in Africa. Every gorilla delights to rub
his back against the trunk of a tree, and leans
against it in a contented mood, and so also does the
chimpanzee. This is the habit of many other mam-
mals, such as cats, lions, boars, deer, and elephants.214
ANTHROPOID APES.
Man himself will sometimes adopt such an attitude.
Without more convincing proofs that Gorilla Mayema
Mix et Bouvier constitutes a distinct species, I should
prefer to leave the matter in suspense.
I frankly admit that I am more doubtful how to
decide the question whether we can at present
assume that there are several or only one species of
chimpanzees. Troglodytes niger has always been
regarded by me as to a certain extent a typical form
of this animal, and in the second chapter of this
work I selected it as the subject for my general
description. It is this type of chimpanzee which
has usually reached Europe from the West Coast
of Africa. The face of this animal is moderately
prognathous; the head, even in aged males, is round,
the ears are large and of somewhat the form pre-
sented in Fig. 6, the skin is of a dirty flesh-colour,
and the hair is black. Eeichenbach’s Pseudan-
thropos(Troglodytes)leucoprymnus*is only so specified
on account of the whitish hair which clothes its
posterior—a character observed in all true chim-
panzees, and therefore without specific value.
Lainier, the keeper of the Museum at Havre, has
had an illustration made from a damaged skin of a
large (probably male) chimpanzee ; but we can only
form an imperfect opinion of its general external
appearance from this figure.f There is as little
certainty about Gray’s Troglodytes vellerosus from
* Die Vollstandigste Naturgeschichte der Affen, p. 191 : Leipzig
and Dresden.
f See Chenu, Encyclopedic d'Historie Naturelle, Quadrumanes,
p. 34s.ON VARIETIES IN THE FORM OF ANTHROPOIDS. 215
the Kamarum mountains.* Duvernoy’s remarks on
Troglodytes Tchego, which he asserts to be a new
species, relate to an aged male specimen of which
the form is also doubtful.
From the materials brought home by Du Chaillu,
Jeffries Wyman has sought to establish two new
species of anthropoids, the Nschiego Mbouve (Troglo-
dytes calvus) and the Koolo-Kamba (Troglodytes
Koolo-Kamta). I have vainly endeavoured to obtain
a satisfactory account of these two supposed new
species from the descriptions which are intended to
establish them. The whole matter is unfortunately
rendered more confused by the illustrations he sub
joins. That of the Nschiego Mbouve is only taken
from a very badly stuffed skin of a chimpanzee,
that of the Koolo-Kamba from the skin of a female
gorilla. But we may come to the general conclusion
that there are, in fact, not inconsiderable, and per-
haps even specific, variations from the ordinary type
of chimpanzee.
Much was said in the years 1875 and 1876 of the
female apeMafuca (often erroneously termed Mafoca),
which was brought from the Loango coast and placed
in the Zoological Gardens at Dresden. This was
a wild, unmanageable creature, 120 cm. in height,
reminding us in many respects of the gorilla. The
face was prognathous; the ears were comparatively
small, placed high on the skull, and projecting out-
wards; the supra-orbital arch was strongly developed;
the end of the nose was broad; and there were rolls
# Catalogue of Monkeys, Lemurs, and Fruit-eating Bats in the
British Museum, Appendix, p. 127 : London* 1870,216
ANTHROPOID APES.
of fat on the cheeks. The creature was, moreover,
strongly built, and the region of the hips and the
belly were contracted, while the hands and feet
were large and powerful. When I first saw this
Fig. 61.—Mafuca.
savage creature, early in September, 1875, it was
full of vigour, and I was almost convinced that I
saw a female gorilla, not quite adult, an opinion
shared by such zoologists as K. Th. von Siebold and
others, while it was vehemently opposed by Bolau
and A. B. Meyer. At that time I made a drawing
of its profile, which is given in Fig. 61, and which
was taken at a moment when the animal happenedON VARIETIES IN THE FORM OF ANTHROPOIDS. 217
to be resting from its wild gambols. In spite of some
slight errors,* the illustration faithfully reproduces
its general and quite original character, and espe-
cially the expression of its countenance. From the
structure of the brain Bischoff attempted to show
that this animal was simply a chimpanzee. No
rational explanation can be attached to this sug-
gestion.
If, while Mafuca was still alive, I had examined
the dead body of the female gorilla of which I have
already spoken, and which was of about the same
age, I should have been still more disposed to regard
Mafuca as a true gorilla. The general physio-
gnomical resemblance between these animals was
very great. As I have mentioned in detail in my
earlier works, the female gorilla had a high upper
lip, and a somewhat small nose. Mafuca’s upper
lip is undoubtedly still higher, but otherwise the
physical correspondence between the two animals
is very great. The hands of the female gorilla are
still broader than those of Mafuca; and indeed,
Brehm proposes to classify the latter animal as
a new slender-handed species of anthropoid. The
assumption which I have already contested in the
earlier pages of this work, that the female type
should be placed in the foreground in describing
the species, is especially untenable in the case of the
* For example, the ears are represented as somewhat too
small. Although the growth of hair on the crown of the head
makes them look larger, the want of proportion must be admitted.
It might easily hare been altered, but I preferred to reproduce
the original sketch as it stood.218
ANTHROPOID APES.
gorilla, in which the male character is extremely
predominant.
To what species, then, did Mafuca belong? A
cross between the gorilla and the chimpanzee was
often suggested at the time. I was myself inclined
to take this view, and it was advocated by C. Vogt
in his contemporary treatise on the subject, as
well as in the magnificent work which has lately
appeared, remarkable for the beauty of its illustra-
tions and the genius of its style.* H. von Koppenfels
heard much of such crossings when he was on the
Ogowe, nor is their occurrence by any means
impossible, and indeed they have been directly
observed among other species of apes while in con-
finement. Koppenfels also affirmed that he had
shot two such cross-bred animals, which were asso-
ciating with a troop of gorillas. The traveller
sought to kill others of the troop, but, when creeping
on hands and knees through the thick bushwood, he
was constrained to retreat by the attacks of some
stinging ants (Anomma arcens). The skins and
skeletons of the supposed cross-breds were brought
to the Natural History Institution in Dresden.
A. B. Meyer observed that the traveller was mis-
taken in these instances, and that the remains
sent by him to Europe were undoubtedly those of
chimpanzees.f It must be remembered that Kop-
* Die Saugethiere in Wort und Bild., by C. Vogt and Speoht,
p. 11 : Munich, 1882.
t Mafoca Betreffendes. Reprinted from the reports of the
Gesellschaft fur A atur und HeUkiinde zu Dresden, Sitzung, xxvii.
p. 9: 1876.ON VARIETIES IN THE FORM OF ANTHROPOIDS. 219
penfels was a clever hunter, and on the whole a
good observer of nature, but that he was no zoologist,
and may have been mistaken as to the nature of
the animals he had shot. At the same time the
possibility of the existence of such cross-bred
animals cannot by any means be disputed. Meyer
must bq convinced that his assertion cannot be
generally accepted: “ Any consideration of the
question as’ to cross-breeding is like fighting with
windmills—that is, making difficulties where none
exist.”
If the trophies of von Koppenfels’ hunting are
merely chimpanzees, it is, at any rate, very interesting
to learn that these animals were found in the company
of gorillas. We must hope that scientific travellers
will in future feel bound to devote their special
attention to this question.
In the end of June, 1876, von Falkenstein, who
was attached to Gussfeldt’s Loango Expedition,
brought from Chinchoxo to Berlin a female chim-
panzee, Paulina, which varied a good deal in coun-
tenance from the chimpanzees we have commonly seen.
The ears projected widely in a lateral direction, the
supra-orbital arches were prominent, the nose was wide,
the colour of the skin dark and blending into russet.
I have seen chimpanzees, both living and dead,
which reproduced these characteristics of Paulina
rvith more or less distinctness. I have nothing to
urge against those who wish to regard such indi
viduals as the representatives of a special variety.
I would only warn them against the risk of accept-
ing as such the species entitled by Du Chaillu and220
ANTHROPOID APES.
Wyman, Trolodytes Koolo-Kamba, which appears to
be ill-established.
An attempt has been made, chiefly by the
unlearned, to regard Paulina as the image of Mafuca.
There is, however, a considerable physiognomical
difference between the two animals. For me and
many other naturalists Mafuca remains up to this
time an enigma, which is slurred over by others with
the help of a few phrases. Paulina, on the other
hand, and animals of the same character, display
much to remind us of the illustration given by
Gratiolet and Alix of their Troglodytes Aubryi,
although the drawing was taken from a specimen
dissected by the French naturalists which had lost its
hair through maceration in an impure preserving
fluid. The growth or the lack of hair involves
considerable external differences in specimens of
these animals, yet I repeat my assertion that there
is a resemblance between Paulina and her fellows,
and Aubry’s chimpanzee.
The certain special characters presented by chim-
panzee forms here mentioned (Paulina and Trog-
lodytes Aubryi) remind us of the bam found on the
Niam-Niam in Central Africa, which was probably
first discovered by A. de Malzac, and was after-
wards more exactly described by Schweinfurth.
In Cassell’s Natural History (i. 39) the Nschiego-
Mbouve (Troglodytes Tschego Duvernoy ; Troglodytes
calvus Du Chaillu et Wyman), is described and
drawn by Duncan, but only in profile, from a stuffed
specimen. In this there is much to remind us of
the profile of Mafuca, including the very shrivelledON VARIETIES IN THE FORM OF ANTHROPOIDS. 221
nose. An illustration is given in the same work of
the anthropoid Koolo-Kamba, here given as a distinct
species, and identified in the systematic catalogue
as Troglodytes Koolo-Kamba, together with Troglo-
dytes Aubryi ; here we see a full-grown chimpanzee
of the ordinary kind, to which a front view of the
head of the Aubry chimpanzee, as it was published
by Gratiolet and Alix, has been affixed. Honest
research should stand aloof from such confusion.
By Brehm, the Mafuca was given as the represen-
tative of the species already established by Duver-
noy, Troglodytes Tschego or Anthropopithecus, and this
assertion is accepted by Martin.* The latter remarks
that this ape cannot be classified either with the
chimpanzee or the gorilla, and gives some reasons
for his assertions.
In my opinion it is a difficult question to decide
whether there are several or only one species of
chimpanzee. As things are at present, my convic-
tion is strengthened that it is only possible to make
a provisional settlement, and I am able to admit
a certain constancy in the varieties of chimpanzees.
First, The original representative of the species
(Troglodytes niger, Is. Geoff. Saint-Hilaire). This
animal has a round head, and the supra-orbital arches
are strongly developed in the male, more slightly in
the female; the countenance is not very prognathous,
and has an angle of 70 degrees; the ears are
from 75 to 78 mm. in height; and the whole height
of the body varies between 1100 and 1300 mm.
* Thierleben, ii. 80, 81. Illustrirte Katurgetchichte des Thier-
reichs, i. 11: Leipzig, 1880.222
ANTHROPOID APES.
The face, hands, and feet are of a dark reddish flesh-
colour, or rarely of a blackish brown or speckled
general colour. The hair is either wholly black or
black shot with reddish brown. Second, Another
variety, bam or mandjaruma (Troglodytes niger
varietas Schweinfurthii GigUoli). The head of this
animal is somewhat long, the supra-orbital arches are
only slightly developed, the nose is wide, and the
upper lip rather low in comparison with the other
variety; the ears are somewhat smaller, and the face is
more prognathous, with an angle of 60 degrees. The
limbs of this variety are slenderer, yet still strongly
■developed. The skin is of a dark reddish flesh-
colour in youth, and with the increase of physical
development it becomes a reddish brown, dark
brown, or blackish. The hairy coat is black, shot
with reddish or dark brown, or sometimes of a
reddish brown colour, tipped with tawny or yellowish
grey, especially on the back. To this variety the
mandjaruma belongs, of which an illustration is given
by von Issel, and also the portrait taken from life
of Paulina of Loango, which is given in my osteolo-
gical work on the gorilla,* as well as Troglodytes
Aubryi (?), and similar animals, of which I have
given illustrations in the Archiv. fur Anatomie. t
The question might now be raised whether we
may assume that there is any distinct species of
anthropoids intermediate between the gorilla and
the chimpanzee. As such, we may perhaps regard
* Der Gorilla, vi. p. 25. The inscription to this fine cut errone-
ously gives this as a male instead of a female specimen.
f Series for 1876, plate vii. figs. 2, 4.ON VARIETIES IN THE FORM OF ANTHROPOIDS. 223
Du Cliaillu’s Troglodytes Koolo-Kamba, Duvernoy’s
Troglodytes Tschego, the large stuffed animals in the
Museum at Havre, and the heads of which I have
given illustrations in the Arehiv fur Anatomie,
plate vii. fig. 1 (1875); and in the Zeitschrift fur
Ethnologie, p. 121 (1876). Perhaps Mafuca and the
ape which Livingstone found in Manyema might
also be included.* Duvernoy’s name for the species,
Troglodytes ‘Tschego, seems to me not quite suitable,
since the West African chimpanzees in general
are distinguished by that Latinized specific name.
However, this scientific term may be accepted in
default of a better, until we are enabled by the
possession of more abundant materials to establish
the existence of such an independent species.
With respect to the orang the unity of species is
also not yet ascertained. The Malays of the country
to which they belong assert that there are different
forms of this animal, which go by the general name of
meias. The descriptions current among that people
respecting these varieties are surprising. We are
tempted to believe in the existence of different
species, and some zoologists,- Bruhl among others,
hold that there are, at any rate, two such species.
Wallace, who is intimately acquainted with the
species, says nothing on this point in his work on
the Malay Archipelago, but it seems to appear from
his general remarks that he is disposed to recognize
only one species of this animal. There are, perhaps,
constant varieties, limited to different places, and the
* Livingstone3s Last Journals in Central Africa from 1865 £o his
death, ii. 52-55 : London, 1874.224
ANTHROPOID APES.
future will throw more certain light on this question.
It is better, therefore, to leave it in abeyance, instead
of indulging in peremptory and unnecessary nega-
tions. With respect to the gibbon, the question of
variety of species has been long decided.CHAPTER V.
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION, HABITS IN A STATE OF
NATURE, AND NATIVE NAMES OF ANTHROPOIDS.
The gorilla inhabits the forests of West Africa,
between lat. 2° N. and 5° S., and long. 6° and 16° E,
They are most widely diffused in the northern part
of this territory, on the rivers Ogbwe, Gaboon, and
Danger. Ford asserts that these apes are chiefly
found in the chain of mountains which extends for
about a hundred miles from the coast of Guinea,
between the Camaroon and Angola, and which is
known as the Serra do Cristal. They have also been
found at the source of the Danger (Muni, Mooney).
In Ford’s time, about 1851, he saw them half a day’s
journey from the mouth of that river. In the years
1851 and 1852 gorillas were seen in large numbers
on the sea-coast, probably driven thither from the
interior by a scarcity of food. At that time four or
five specimens were obtained in the course of.a few
months. After this they again completely dis-
appeared from the neighbourhood of the coast, so
that an American merchant captain offered 6000226
ANTHROPOID APES.
dollars for a live specimen without being able to
obtain it. According to H. von Koppenfels, the
gorilla inhabits the district which lies between the
mouth of the Muni and that of the Congo.
According to Pechuel-Losche, the gorilla is rare
on the Loango coast. In this district it inhabits the
mountainous forests or the strip of country in their
immediate vicinity. Some years ago these apes
were found on the Luemme and Kuilu, even down
to the mouths of these rivers, and also in the ravines
of the plateau of Buala; but they now only come to
the coast at Banya, where the same authority be-
lieves that he once heard gorillas. Neither Pechuel-
Losche, Falkenstein, nor Giissfeldt have ever seen
the species in its wild state.* The specimen brought
to Berlin by these travellers in 1876 was obtained
by Falkenstein in October, 1875, at Ponta-Negra on
the Loango coast, where it was presented to him
by the Portuguese trader Laurentino Antonio dos
Santos. This animal, which was then extremely
young, had been brought from the Kuilu district by
a negro, who had shot its mother.!
In earlier accounts given by Owen, the district
most frequented by gorillas was in the region of the
Gaboon, which presents a pleasant variety of hill
and dale. Here the high ground is clothed with fine,
tall trees, while the valleys are rich in grass, with a
scattered growth of underwood. There are a num-
ber of trees and shrubs, bearing fruits which the
natives find inedible, but which are greedily de-
* Die Loango Expedition, Abth. iii. p. 248: Leipzig, 1882.
t Ibid., Abth. ii. p. 150.DISTRIBUTION, HABITS, AND NATIVE NAMES. 227
voured by gorillas. They show a special preference
for the following fruits:—First, those of the oil
palm (Elaeis guineenis), of which they also devour
the developed, folded leaves, called the palm-cab-
bage ; second, the grey plum tree (Parinarium
excelsum), which bears a mealy and insipid stone-
fruit ; third, the melon tree (Carioa Papaya) ; fourth,
the pisang (Musa paradisiaca, Musa sapientum);
fifth, two softs of scitamines (Amomum granurn para-
disi s. Afzelii, Amomum malaguetta), the last of which,
according to Lindley, produces the malaguetta
pepper; sixth, Amomum grandiflorum; seventh,
a tree bearing a walnut-like fruit, of which the
gorilla cracks the shell with a stone (this is pro-
bably one of the Sterculiacese, like the Kola-nut);
eighth, another tree with which we are not yet
botanically acquainted, bearing a cherry-like fruit.
Du Chaillu asserts that these animals are also very
fond of sugar-cane and the wild pine-apple. Although
they live in places far from human habitations, yet
they rob the cane-plantations and the rice-fields of
the negroes in the harvest-time, and this is a fact
confirmed by Koppenfels. Savage reports that
gorillas also devour the bodies of animals killed in
hunting, and even human bodies, and this does not
sound improbable. Like most species of apes, the
gorilla preys Upon the smaller mammals, upon birds
and their eggs, and upon reptiles. The gorillas
which have been kept in confinement at Berlin have
been quite omnivorous, and have displayed a special
taste for animal food.
In the little village of Ntondo, near the Kuilu,228
ANTHROPOID APES.
Gussfeldt saw a fetish called Bunsi, constructed ol
the skulls of animals, and quite peculiar to Babunya-
land. It consisted of a pile of the skulls of animals
which had been slain in hunting, and which were
brought as an offering to the fetish by the hunter
in order that his good luck might be maintained.
The heap consisted for the most part of the skulls
of antelopes, buffaloes, and wild boars, but there
were also many skulls of gorillas. Among these
Giissfeldt saw two fine specimens with high bony
crests. When he inquired where gorillas were
found and killed, the natives of Ntondo pointed to
a neighbouring forest.*
Giissfqldt describes the character of the forest of
Mayombe, where gorillas are also found, somewhat
as follows :—This forest does not correspond to our
idea of a primeval tropical forest, and would perhaps
perplex a South American traveller, since it is more
like the forests of mountainous districts in Germany.
The luxuriant growth of lianas is characteristic of
a tropical primeval forest: they form a second
roof of leaves above the green masses of the closely
set trees. But in this case the parasitic vegetation
is scanty, although not wholly absent, as the
kautschukranke (Landolphia jlorida) shows, which
was at one time very abundant, but is now nearly
extinct. Its growth no longer obstructs the view of
the tall and slender trees, somewhat resembling
beeches. The underwood of our German forests is
here chiefly supplied by the large linear leaves of
the scitamines, of which the most common variety is
# Die Loctngo Expedition, Abth. i. p. 123.DISTRIBUTION, HABITS, AND NATIVE NAMES. 229
termed matombe by the natives. Ferns, or rather
tree-ferns, are not wanting, and the ground is
covered with dead leaves. The trees of this forest
have been untouched by the axe, except in places
cleared for the construction of a new village.
Where a tree falls there it lies, encumbering, as it
may for years, the narrow path which leads through
the thicket. # An eternal twilight always prevails
here, and on cloudy days it might be supposed
that the sun was eclipsed. The atmosphere is close
and damp, like that of a hothouse, and its weight
is most depressing to mind and body. The dense
stillness is rarely broken by the wailing cry of
a bird, and no wild creature can be seen. Those
who wander in these forests are always going up
or down hill, since there is no level ground, and
by paths scarcely wide enough for a white man,
which are covered with smooth and slippery roots,
while the feet and clothes are constantly caught by
boughs and lianas, which also sting the face, so that
the traveller longs for free, unimpeded motion, for
light and air, and rejoices to see the cleared space
on which the village of Bayoma stands, surrounded
by palms and bananas.* In the work I have quoted
on the Loango Expedition, a fine water-colour
drawing, by Pechuel-Losche, of a forest frequented
by gorillas is reproduced, and I subjoin a copy of
this interesting illustration (Fig. 62).
The gorilla lives in a society consisting of male
and female and their young of varying ages, and
the family group inhabits the recesses of the
* Die Loango Expedition, p. 103.
11Fig. 62.—The home of the gorilla.
230	ANTHROPOID APES.DISTRIBUTION, HABITS, AND NATIVE NAMES. 231
forest.* According to von Koppenfels, they frequent
the same sleeping-place not more than three or
four times consecutively, and usually spend the
night wherever they happen to be when night
comes on. Koppenfels differs from other narrators
in the assertion that the gorilla constructs a bed for his
night lair upon the trees. He chooses for this pur-
pose a full-grown tree, not more than 0-30 m. in thick-
ness, breaks and bends the branches together at a
height of from five to.six metres from the ground, and
covers them with the twigs he has torn off, or with
the leaf-moss, which grows scantily in this part of
Africa. The male animal spends the night crouching
at the foot of the tree, against which he places his
back, and thus protects the female and their young,
which are in the nest above, from the nocturnal
attacks of leopards, which are always ready to
devour all species of apes.
In the daytime the gorillas roam through the
tracts of forest which surround their temporary
sleeping-places, in order to seek for food. In walk -
ing they place the backs of their closed fingers on
the ground, or more rai’ely support themselves on
the flat palm, while the flat soles of the feet are also
in contact with the ground. The toes are generally
extended, and a little separated from each other,
but occasionally they are doubled under. Their
* The account given by H. von Koppenfels, whose early death
we must all deplore, is taken from his article in the Qartenlaube
(1877, No. 25) ; from his correspondence with his family, which
I have been allowed to see j and from a long paper addressed to
Professor Bastian from Adalinalonga, dated March 26,1874.232
ANTHROPOID APES.
gait, as Huxley justly observes, is tottering; the
movement of the body, which is never in an upright
position as in man, but bent forward, rolls to some
extent from one side to another. As their arms are
longer than those of the chimpanzee, they do not
reach out so much; but the gorilla also throws his
arms forward, sets his hands upon the ground, then
gives a half-swinging, half-springing motion to his
body. When assuming the position for walking,
the body is much sloped, and its great bulk is so
balanced as to bend the arms upwards. In spite
of his apparently clumsy and unwieldy form, the
gorilla, like the bear, displays great bodily dexterity.
He is a very skilful climber, and, as Koppenfels
asserts, when ranging from tree to tree, he will
go to their very tops. He first tries whether the
branches will bear his weight, and if one branch
is not strong enough, he makes use of three or four
at once. He will also run along the branches on all
fours, stepping warily. Koppenfels saw a full-
grown animal, as danger approached, spring down
from a tree which was thirty or forty feet high,
and then hastily crash through the brushwood. All
Huxley’s informants concur in the assertion that
there is only one adult male attached to each group.
As soon as the young male reaches maturity, a conflict
for the mastery takes place, and, after his rival is
killed or driven away, the stronger animal becomes
the head of the community.
I have already spoken of the diet of the gorilla.
Koppenfels once observed a male and female with
two young ones when they were feeding. The headDISTRIBUTION, HABITS, AND NATIVE NAMES. 23S
of the family remained at his ease, while his wife
and children plucked fruits for him from a small
tree which stood by, and if they were not sufficiently
nimble, or if they took too large a share for them-
selves, the old gorilla growled furiously and inflicted
a box on the ear.
The gorilla is regarded as a dreadful and very
dangerous animal by the negroes who inhabit the
same country, and who themselves are often deficient
in spirit, while their tales of exaggerated horror
serve to increase their scanty fame as hunters. And
what even the luxuriant fancy of negroes could not
paint as sufficiently terrible has been exaggerated
by Du Chaillu for the benefit of his readers. We
will not here repeat these bloodthirsty tales, of
which Brehm justly says that they seem to have
been devised by an indifferent romance-writei-, who
has given his pen free play.* In the letters to
Bastian, which are in my hands, Koppenfels has
endeavoured to modify the accounts of the alleged
ferocity of the gorilla. This appears in the frag-
ment of poetry given by that esteemed traveller in
one of his letters.
The same author writes in another place: “ As
long as the gorilla is unmolested he does not attack
men—and indeed, rather avoids the encounter.”
These apes generally utter deep guttural sounds,
sometimes protracted like Tth-eh, kh-eh, sometimes
roaring or growling. When the animal is scared by
man, he generally takes to flight screaming, and he
only assumes the defensive if wounded or driven
* Illustnrtea Thierleben, i. 17 : Hildburghausen, 1864.234
ANTHROPOID APES.
into a corner. At such times his size, strength, and
dexterity makes him a by no means despicable
enemy. He sends forth a kind of howl or furious
yelp, stands up on his hind legs like an enraged
bear, advances with clumsy gait in this position
and attacks his enemy. At the same time the hair
on his head and the nape of the neck stands erect,
his teeth are displayed, and his eyes flash with
savage fury. He beats his massive breast with his
fists, or fights the air with them. Koppenfels adds
that if no further provocation is given, and his
opponent gradually retreats before the animal’s rage
has reached its highest point, he does not return to
the attack. In other cases he parries the blows
directed against him with the skill of a practised
fighter; as is also done by the bear, he grasps his
opponent by the arm and crunches it, or else throws
the man down and rends him with his terrible
canine teeth.
The native hunter stalks the gorilla and kills him
with his firearm. Savage states that the hunter
awaits the approach of his prey with levelled gun,
and if he cannot take a sure aim he allows the
animal to seize the barrel of the gun, and fires
when, as is commonly the case, he tries to carry it
to his mouth. If the weapon does not go off, the
barrel, which is not strongly made, is crushed be-
tween his teeth. When hunters of the Ogowe are
attacked by a gorilla, they will sometimes make
a last attempt to defend themselves from the animal’s
fury with the axe used for felling trees. Buchholz
told me that he had seen the skin of a male gorillaDISTRIBUTION, HABITS, AND NATIVE NAMES. 235
which was injured in the region of the arms, pro-
bably in this way. But such a duel generally ends
in the death of the hunter.
Pechuel-Losche talked with two Loango hunters
who had killed gorillas. They stated that they had
not gone in search of the dreaded animals, but that
they chanced to encounter them in the forest.
Only if they met a solitary animal did they venture
to creep close to it and shoot it, and then they
escaped as quickly as possible in order to be safe
from the fury of any of its companions which might
be lingering near. After several hours they would
return in a larger company to carry off their prey.
In Loango the flesh of these animals was not eaten;
but, according to Ford and Savage, it was cooked
by the negroes, in the Gaboon territory, and con-
stituted one of their favourite dainties.
Up to this time Europeans have been rarely
successful in killing gorillas. Du Chaillu asserts
that he has been one of the luckiest, but this
assertion has been disputed by others. Fruitless
attempts were made by Winwood Reade, de Com-
piegne, Buchholz, Lenz, and de Brazza. In the
letters quoted above from Koppenfels to Bastian, he
mentions that he had already, up to March, 1874,
four gorillas. In the number of the Gartenlaule shot
which we have mentioned above, he describes some
of his hunting adventures, and goes into details
scarcely adapted for the readers of such a publica-
tion. On December 24, 1874, Koppenfels, accom-
panied by a young Galloa, was on the shores of Lake
Eliva, observing a gorilla family, consisting of the236
ANTHROPOID APES.
parents and two young ones. The female climbed
up an iba, or wild mango tree, and shook down its
fruits. The male went to the water’s edge’ to drink,
and was then shot by Koppenfels, while the female
and her young swiftly escaped. Another time this
traveller was in the neighbourhood of Busu, in the
Bakalayan country, which is on the Eliva Sanka,
and is bounded on the south-east by the mountains
of Aschangolo and by extensive primeval forests.
It was here that he observed the troop of chim-
panzees and gorillas of which we have already
spoken, feeding on the kola nuts, of which they are
very fond. He shot a large and a small specimen
of the chimpanzee; and again in the Aschangolo
mountains he shot a male gorilla, 1090 mm. in
height. The bullet pierced the animal’s heart, and
it sprang into the air with outstretched arms, and
then crashed down upon its face. It dragged down
in its fall a liana of great strength with all its dry
and green branches.
Adult male gorillas attain to a height varying
between 1500 to 2000 mm., and very rarely exceed
that height. The height of the females is about
1500 mm. An ape of this species, examined by
Ford, weighed 170 lb. without the viscera. The
gorilla shot by Koppenfels in the Aschangolo moun-
tains was more than 400 lbs. in weight. By the
people of Mpongwe, Orungu, Kamma, Gallon, and
Bakalay the gorilla is called Njiua, Njei'na, or
Indjina, and by the people of Fan it is called
Nguyala. On the Loango coast it is called N’Pungu
or M’Pungu.DISTRIBUTION, HABITS, AND NATIVE NAMES. 237
As I have already remarked, the chimpanzee
occupies a much wider area than the gorilla. In
West Africa it is found in the latitude of the Portu-
guese territory, which ranges from Caclieu in the
north down to the Coanza in the south. The species
is known to exist in certain districts of north and
south Central Africa, and its presence is surmised in
East Africa^ to the south of Abyssinia, in the Djuba
territory, and, as the missionary A. Nachtigall asserts,
even in the remote district of Sofalla in the south-
east of Africa, but I cannot pledge myself to the
truth of this fact.
The chimpanzee is also a denizen of forests. They
subsist on wild fruits of various kinds, but they will
also visit forsaken plantations, and even those which
are still under cultivation, and in some cases it seems
that they do not reject animal food. Pechuel-Losche
says that on the Loango coast they frequent the
mountains and their vicinity. They are found in the
district of Luemme as far as the lagoon of Tschis-
sambo, and in those of Kuilu and Banya, as far as
the coast.
The chimpanzee either lives in separate families
or in small groups of families. In many districts,
as, for example, in the forest regions of Central
Africa, its habits are even more arboreal than those
of the gorilla. Elsewhere, as, for instance, on the
south-west coast, it seems to live more upon the
ground. The bam-chimpanzee of Niam-Niam in-
habits the galleries, as they were called by Piaggia
and Schweinfurth; that is, the forest trees growing
one above the other in stages, of which the growth is238
ANTHROPOID APES.
so dense that it is difficult to get at them. Here
the pisang plantain rises from the soil. The power-
ful stems, thickly overgrown with wild pepper, bear
branches from which hang long streams of bearded
moss, and also a parasitic growth of that remark-
able fern to which Schweinfurth gave the name of
elephant’s ear. The large tun-shaped structures of
the tree-termites are found on the higher branches;
Other stems, rotten and decayed, serve as supports
for the colossal streamers of Mucuna urens, and form
bowers overhung with impenetrable festoons, which
are as large as houses, in which perpetual darkness
reigns.*
When the chimpanzee goes on all fours, he
generally supports himself on the backs of his closed
fingers rather than on the palm of the hand, and he
goes sometimes on the soles of his feet, sometimes
on the closed toes. His gait also is weak and
vacillating, and he can stand upright on his feet for
a still shorter time than the gorilla. At the same
time he seeks support for his hands, or clasps them
above his head, which is a little thrown back, in
order to maintain his balance.
These animals send forth loud cries, which echo
plaintively through the great tropical forests.
Pechuel-Losche says that the horrible wails, the
furious shrieks and howds, which may be heard
morning and evening, and often in the night, make
these creatures truly hateful to travellers. “ Since
they are really accomplished in the art of bringing
* Schweinfurtli, Im Herzen von Afrika,p. 335: New edition,
Leipzig, 1878.DISTRIBUTION, HABITS, AND NATIVE NAMES. 239
forth these unpleasant sounds, which may be heard
at a great distance, and are reproduced by the echoes,
it is impossible to estimate the number of those
who take part in the dreary noise, but often we
seemed to hear more than a hundred. They generally
remain upon the ground among the dense under-
wood and thickets of scitamine, and only climb trees
for the salje of obtaining fruit. Their track may be
plainly discerned on soft ground: they stop short
wherever the amomurn grows, of which they are very
fond, and the red husks of its fruit may be seen
scattered all around.” The same narrator observes
that the mischievous and active sea-cat monkeys,
which abound on the Loango, frequently provoke
the defenceless chimpanzees by their malicious
tricks until the tormented creatures cause the forest
to echo with their discordant cries.
These animals wander about, always in search of
fresh feeding-grounds. They also construct nests
and, as Koppenfels states, the male passes the night
below the nest of his family, which is placed on
a forked branch. Du Chaillu asserts that the
Nschiego-Mbouve also builds a pent-house. An
illustration of this structure, which is only mode-
rately successful, and has undoubtedly been em-
bellished in London, is given by him. Koppenfels
believes that the so-called pent-house is only the
family nest, under which the male places himself;
while Reichenfels thinks it possible that some
parasitic growth, perhaps a Lorantlius, gave rise to
the belief that such a pent-house is erected.
When chimpanzees are provoked they strike the240
ANTHROPOID APES.
ground with their hands, but they do not, as the
gorilla does, beat their breasts with the fist. They
generally take to flight at the sight of men, but if
driven to extremity, or wounded, they defend them-
selves with their hands and teeth. The direct
conflict with a full-grown chimpanzee demands, in
order to obtain the mastery over him, all the
strength and presence of mind of a strong and
courageous man. I shall always remember the large
female animal at Hamburg, which was able to stand
up against a powerful man. Great daring was
required to control the fury of Mafuca. The Soko
also, which Livingstone found in Manyema, to the
west of Lake Tanganyika, bravely defended itself,
when attacked.
The native hunters shoot chimpanzees with fire-
arms or arrows, and also kill them with javelins.
The Niam-Niam tribe go in hunting-parties of
twenty or thirty men, to track the bam in the wood-
land galleries so closely interwoven by the liana, and
when they have thrown nets over these, they kill
the animals with lances. Their flesh is eaten in
different parts of Africa, and their skulls sometimes
serve for fetishes. In a Niam-Niam village, by the
stream Diamwonu, Schweinfurth saw the skulls of
men, chimpanzees, sea-cat monkeys, baboons, ante-
lopes, wild boars, etc., hung on the stump of a tree.
In the Gaboon district, as we have already said,
the chimpanzee is called Nsehego, Nschiego,
Ndjeko, and the same names serve for the people
of Mpongwe, Galloa, Kamma, and Orungu. By
the people of Aschira and Malimba the animal isDISTRIBUTION, HABITS, AND NATIVE NAMES. 241
called Kulu. The natives of Niam-Niam call the
chimpanzee Ranja or Mandjaruma. The traders
who speak Arabic adopt the name Bam or M’Bam.
The orang-utan is found in the large Asiatic
islands of Borneo and Sumatra, more frequently in
the former island. It is particularly common a few
days’ journey to the west of Sungi-Kapajan, on the
river San^piet, in Kotaringin, and in other remote
districts on the southern and western coasts.* The
Dyaks of Long-Wai told the traveller Bock that the
orang was also found further to the north, and at
Teweh, as well as in Dusem, to the west of Kutai.f
Wallace states that this animal is widely diffused
in Borneo, inhabiting many parts of the south-west,
south-east, north-east, and north-west coasts, but that
it is restricted to the low-lying marshy forests. It
seems at first sight inexplicable that this ape should
be unknown in Sarawak, while it abounds in Sambas
on the west, and in Sadong on the east, but a closer
acquaintance with the habits and mode of life of
the orang enables us to discern sufficient grounds
for the apparent anomaly in the physical conditions
of Sarawak. In Sadong, where Wallace observed
the orang, he only found it in low marshy districts
which were at the same time covered with pri-
meval forests. Many isolated hills rise from these
marshes, upon which the Dyaks have settled, and
have planted them with fruit trees. These are a
* Duirentuin : Illustrated description of the mammals and
birds kept in the Zoological Gardens, Amsterdam. Published
in the Dutch language about 1862.
f Unter den Kannibalen auf Borneo, etc., p. 31.242
ANTHROPOID APES.
great attraction to the orang, which devours the
unripe fruits, and then retires again to the marsh.
He cannot live on high and dry ground. Thus, for
example, he comes in troops into the low parts of
the Sadong valley ; but on reaching the limits where
the ebb and flow of the tide are perceptible, and the
ground, though flat, is dry, the orang is no longer
found. The lower part of the Sadong valley is
indeed marshy, but it is not covered throughout
with a growth of tall trees, only for the most part
with the Nipa palm ; and near the town of Sarawak,
the country becomes dry and hilly, interspersed
with scattered tracts of primeval forest, and with
jungle which was formerly cultivated by the Malays
and Dyaks.
The oraug is more rare in Sumatra than in Borneo,
and in the former island is chiefly found in the
north-eastern districts of Siak and Atjin. Kosenberg
states that the orang only frequents the flat, marshy
forests on the coast between Tapanoli and Singkel,
living in thick woods which, on account of their
impenetrability, are seldom trodden by the foot of
man.
The chimpanzee also frequents the marshy forests
which are not too thickly overgrown, while the
gorilla prefers such tablelands as are not wholly
devoid of water.
Wallace declares that a large area of unbroken
and tolerably high primeval forest is necessary for
the well-being of the orang. Such forests are like
open ground to them, since they can move to and
fro in every direction, with the same ease that theDISTRIBUTION, HABITS, AND NATIVE NAMES. 243
Indians cross the prairie and the Arabs the desert;
they go from the top of one tree to the other with-
out ever touching the ground. Those tracts of country
which stand high and dry, being more frequented by
men, and more often traversed by clearings, and
subsequently covered with a low-growing jungle,
are unsuitable to the motions characteristic of this
animal. He is, in these tracts, more exposed to
danger, and more frequently constrained to descend
upon the ground. It is also probable that in the dis-
trict frequented by orangs there is a greater variety
of fruits, since the low hills, which stand like islands
in the marshy plain, serve as gardens or plantations
in which the trees of the hill country flourish.
Wallace observes that it is strange and interest-
ing to watch an orang passing at his ease through
the forest. He goes with circumspection along one
of the larger branches in a half-upright position,
which is rendered necessary by the great length of
his arms and the shortness of his legs. He seems
always to choose such trees as have their branches
interwoven with those which surround them, and
when these are within reach he extends his long
arms, seizes the boughs in question with both hands,
as if to try their strength, then swings himself care-
fully on to the next branch, and goes on as before.
The woodcut we subjoin, taken from a photograph
by Hermes, in the Berlin Aquarium, may help to
explain this ape’s mode of climbing * (Fig. 63).
* This illustration confirms the remark already made, that the
posterior of this ape somewhat resembles the rump of a bird in
structure.ANTHROPOID APES.
244
As Wallace further remarks, the orang never
leaps or springs, seems to he in no haste, and yet
Fig. 63.—Climbing orung-utun, seen from behind.
makes his way through the forest almost as fast as
a man can run on the ground below. His long,DISTRIBUTION, HABITS, AND NATIVE NAMES. 24.5
powerful arms are of the greatest use, enabling him
to climb the highest trees with ease, to seize the
fruits and young leaves from branches which would
not bear his weight, and to collect the young leaves
and boughs with which he forms his nest. This
structure, which serves for his nocturnal refuge, is
generally placed on some low, small tree, which
stands only from twenty to fifty feet from the
ground, probably because such a situation is warmer
and less exposed to the wind. It is said that the
orang makes a fresh layer for himself every night,
but Wallace thinks this improbable, since, in this
case, the deserted nest would be more frequently
found; this author saw some such nests in the neigh-
bourhood of the coal mines of Simunjon, but since
many orangs must have been there every day, in
the course of a year their forsaken layers would be
very numerous. The Dyaks say that when the
orang is wet he covers himself with pandanus-leaves
or large ferns, and this has perhaps led to the
belief that he builds himself a hut in the trees.
The orang only leaves his layer when the sun is
tolerably high, and the dew has dried off the leaves.
He feeds throughout the middle of the day, but
seldom returns two days running to the same tree.
These animals seem to be much afraid of man.
Wallace never saw two full-grown specimens together,
but both male and female are often accompanied by
their half-grown young, and three or four young
animals may be seen going about together without
their parents. The orang generally lives on fruit,
but occasionally also on leaves, buds, and young246
ANTHROPOID APES.
shoots, as, for instance, on the bamboo. They are
particularly fond of the durian, of which the smell
is so offensive and the taste so good (Duric
zibethinus). They destroy much more than they
consume, and leave many fragments below the
trees on which they have been feeding. I do not
know whether orangs, as well as gorillas and chim-
panzees, display any taste for carnivorous food.
Huxley, who has collected much information about
anthropoids which is not accessible to others, states
that it is not known whether the orang destroys
living animals.
The same naturalist terms the orang’s gait on all
fours laborious and unsteady. If chased, he runs
faster than a man, but is soon overtaken. The very
long arms, which are only slightly bent in running,
raise the body in a remarkable way, so that the
orang almost assumes the position of a very old
man, bowed by age, who supports himself with a
stick. When walking, this ape places the closed
fingers, or rarely the open palm, of the hands upon
the ground. The toes of the feet are also curved
inwards, so that the outer edge of the foot is turned
downwards. More rarely the toes are completely
closed, or the whole of the sole of the foot serves as
the support. The use of the outer edge of the foot
in walking, as Huxley justly observes, is such as to
bring the heel more upon the ground, while the
curved toes partly touch the ground with the
upper surface of their first phalanges, and the surface
of the outermost toes of each foot rest altogether
on the ground.DISTRIBUTION, HABITS, AND NATIVE NAMES. 247
Wallace says that the orang seldom comes down
upon the ground, and indeed only when he is driven
by hunger to seek for the juicy young shoots on the
banks of rivers, or when in very dry weather he goes
down to the water, of which he generally finds a
sufficient supply in the hollow of leaves. This
traveller on only one occasion saw two half-grown
orangs on the ground in a dry hole at the foot of
the Simunjon hills. They were at play together,
standing upright and alternately seizing each other
by the arms. This observer also considers that the
orang is only able to stand upright when he
has some support for his hands, or when he is
attacked.
Like other anthropoids in a state of nature, when
the orang drinks, he crouches down to the water’s
edge and sucks in the liquid with his lips. Occa-
sionally, also, he draws water in the palm of his hand,
and gulps or licks it off; at any rate, he does this
when in captivity. In an old number of the Penny
Magazine there is a woodcut of an orang which is
very true to nature, in which he is represented as
squatting down by the water, washing his bands,
and this is really his habit.
Muller and Schlegel * state that the adult males
live alone except during the pairing season. Aged
females and young males are often seen together in
parties of two or three, and the mothers generally
keep the;r young with them. Pregnant females
generally live apart, and continue to do so for a
* Verhandelingen over de natuurlijke geschiedenis der Neder-
landsche overzeesche Bezittingen: Leiden, 1840-45.248
ANTHROPOID APES.
good while after the birth has taken place. The
young, which are slow in coming to maturity, live
long under the protection of their mother, who,
when she is climbing, carries her little ones in her
bosom, while they cling to her long, shaggy hair.
It is not yet ascertained at what age the orang
becomes capable of propagating his species, nor how
long the females continue to bring forth young.
This animal is slow, phlegmatic, and has none of
the agility of the chimpanzee, nor even of the
gibbon. Hunger alone seems to prompt his actions,
and when appetite is appeased the animal relapses
into repose. In sitting, the back is so bent, and the
head so depressed, that the orang’s eyes are directed
downwards to the earth. Sometimes he holds on
with his hands to the higher branches, but generally
his arms fall idly by his sides. In such positions
the orang will remain for hours in his place, almost
motionless, and only occasionally sending forth a
note of his deep, gruff voice. By day he is ac-
customed to go from one tree-top to another, and he
only comes down to the ground at night. When
anything occurs to scare him, he conceals himself
in the underwood. When not hunted, he remains
long in one place, and indeed, for several days to-
gether on the same tree. He seldom passes the
night on a high tree, which he finds too cold and
windy, and when night approaches he scrambles
down to the lower and more sheltered parts, or to
the top of some low, leafy tree, such as the Nibong
palm, the pandanus, or the parasitic orchids which
are characteristic of the primeval forests of Borneo.DISTRIBUTION, HABITS, AND NATIVE NAMES. 249
He constructs his nest out of small branches and
leaves, laid crosswise, and lined with fronds, or with
the leaves of orchids, Pandanus fasaicularis, Nipa
frutioans, etc. The nests observed by Muller were
some of them still quite fresh, placed at a height of
from ten to fifteen feet from the ground, and were
from two to three feet in diameter. Sime of them
had a lining of pandanus leaves several inches thick.
In others the branches intertwined for a foundation
were united in a common centre, forming a uniform
surface.
The Dyaks say that the orang generally leaves
his lair about nine a.m., and repairs to it again about
five p.m., or a little later, when it is growing dusk.
He sometimes lies on his back, or, by way of change,
on his side, drawing his legs up to his body, and
supporting his head on his hand. When the night
is cold, windy, or rainy, he covers his body, and
especially his head, with pandanus or nipa leaves,
or with* fronds of fern.
Although the orang lives in the daytime on the
branches of large trees, he seldom crouches on a
thick bough, as other apes, and especially the
gibbon, are in the habit of doing. He keeps rather to
the slender, leafy branches, so that he really reaches
the tree-top. He has not the sessor-callosities found
on other apes, including the gibbon, and the hips
are not so wide and prominent as in those species
provided with callosities.
The orang is a slow and deliberate climber. He
is particularly careful about his feet, and seems
much more sensitive to any injury to them than is250
ANTHROPOID APES.
the case with other apes. In climbing he alter-
nately uses one hand and one foot, or else, as soon
as he has taken a firm hold with his hands, he draws
up both feet together. In his passage from one
tree to another, he always looks out for a place
where two branches come close together, or inter-
twine. Even when hotly pursued, he displays
wonderful caution, trying the strength of the
branches, and pressing them down by the weight of
his body, so as to make a bridge from tree to tree.
On this point the accounts of the Dutch naturalists
essentially agree with those of Wallace.
There is an eager search for these apes in their
native place. Bock states the Malays of Samarinda,
in the south-east of Borneo, capture them near the
small brooks and streams which flow into the
Mahakkam close to that town. These animals come
down to the river-bank in the early morning and
return in the course of the day to the thicket.
When the natives take an orang alive, they sell him
for three dollars to the Chinese, who at first feed
the animal on fruit, and afterwards on rice, but are
never able to keep him alive for any time in
captivity.*
Although, in the ordinary course of his existence,
the orang shows himself to be melancholy, slothful,
and indifferent, yet in moments of danger he becomes
angry and able to defend himself. When pursued,
he is said to pelt his aggressors with broken branches,
and the thick, thorny outer husks of the durian fruit.
This is the more probable since the Tscheladas
* Tinier den Kannibalem auf Borneo, p. 31.DISTRIBUTION, HABITS, AND NATIVE NAMES. 251
(Cynocephalus Gelada), the Hamadryas (Cynocephalus
Hamadryas), and other baboons are in the habit of
hurling branches, stones, and hardened clods of
earth with great adroitness at those who attack
them. In a hand-to-hand fight, the orang seizes the
arm of his opponent, biting and scratching it when-
ever he can get at it Wallace says that no wild
animal ventures to fight with these powerful crea-
tures, and that they can even obtain the mastery
over crocodiles and gigantic snakes.
The name orang-utan is derived from the words
orang, man, and utan (belonging to woods), and is
therefore merely wood-man. It is an error to write
orang-utang, which, according to Yon Martens,
signifies an indebted man.* The Malay name, meias,
is often used, and they are distinguished as meias-
pappan or zino, meias-kassu, and meias-rambi. Ac-
cording to Kosenberg, the orang is called mawas
in Sumatra, and Bock says that the Dyaks of Dusun
call it keu.
The gibbon in all its movements, and especially
in those of its long arms, has a very singular
appearance. In the second chapter of this work I
have already described the geographical distribution
and grouping of the species of these remarkable
animals. Although they occasionally come down
upon the ground, they are for the most part arboreal
in their habits. They prefer the tropical forests of
high and even of mountainous districts to any others.
Many find shelter in the bamboo thickets, especially
* Die Preussiche Expedition nach Ostasien. Zoologische Abtheilung,
Yol. i. p. 249 : Berlin, 1876.252
ANTHROPOID APES.
in those formed by the gigantic stems of Bambusa
macroculmis and Bambusa gigantea.
The siamang, properly Si-Amang, since Rosenberg
asserts that the first syllable is merely the article,
lives gregariously in Sumatra, and possibly in
Malacca. Martens saw one of these animals in
Sumatra, swinging himself from tree to tree, right
across the path, about fifty feet in front of him.
Diard states that a powerful old male acts as leader
to each troop. They raise a fearful clamour at sun-
rise, and keep quiet during the day, always on the
watch, and scampering off at the slightest noise.
They find it easy to get away on trees, but, accord-
ing to some accounts, when surprised upon the
ground, they show no agility, and are readily
captured. Rosenberg says that in Sumatra the
siamang and unko inhabit mountainous forests
3000 ft. above the sea, keeping to the trees which
grow on the mountain-side, and rarely descending
to the ground. At the slightest sign of danger
they hasten down the mountain with speed which
rivals the flight of birds, in order in a few moments
to disappear in the dark ravines. In the forests
which partly enclose Tobing, as well as on the
mountains of Barissa, the siamang is not rare. Bock
says that in the recesses of the Sumatran forests,
this animal subsists chiefly on the leaves of a plant
called Baun simantung. This ape makes a horrible
roaring noise.* When a young one is wounded, its
mother turns in a threatening manner towards the
aggressor, yet without being able to do him any
* TJnter der Kannibalen auf Borneo, p. 327.DISTRIBUTION, HABITS, AND NATIVE NAMES. 253
serious injury. The mothers seem to act with great
tenderness towards their young, taking them down
to the water to wash and dry them, etc. Diard affirms
that before they are able to run alone the young
animals are always carried by the parent of the
same sex, the male by the father, the female by the
mother. The siamang must fall an easy prey to
tigers and panthers (Felis macroscelis). The species
is considered by the natives to be slothful and
unintelligent; and Bock adds that, although the
Malays are skilled in the care of animals, they are
unable to keep these stupid and slothful apes alive
in captivity for any length of time.*
Harlan states that the hulock is found on the
Garrau mountains, near Gulpara, in Assam. These
apes prefer the adjoining hilly ground to the
mountains themselves, which are several hundred
feet higher, and exposed to the winds. Their
favourite food is a fruit called propul, which is very
abundant in this district. A traveller named Owen
encountered troops of these animals, from 100 to
150 together, near the Naga and the Abors in the
wooded hills to the east of Assam. The noise they
made was deafening. On one occasion, when Owen
crossed their path, he was threatened by them, and
pursued with angry gestures and piercing howls.
They had also attacked a native of the district.
Snakes of considerable size (Python reticulatus)
were torn to pieces by them.
The wauwau, or, as Martens calls it, the uwa-uwa,
* Sir Stamford Raffles Baw a perfectly white specimen of this
3pecies (Transactions of the Linncean Society, xiii. 241).
12254
ANTHROPOID APES.
appears to live more commonly in pairs than in
troops. We learn from Duvaucel that these animals
move through the trees with great swiftness, grasp-
ing the slenderest and most flexible branches. They
swing two or three times to and fro, and then spring
with outstretched arms so that the flat surface of
the body resists the air like a parachute, and in this
way they can pass through spaces of forty feet, and
go on for hours without fatigue.
Gibbons are generally more capable than other
anthropoids of walking upright. Some species,
such as the lar, the white-handed, and the slender
gibbon, display special dexterity and endurance in
maintaining this position. They press the flat soles
of their feet upon the ground, turn out their knees
and toes, hold their bodies fairly erect, draw the
shoulders together, and place their half-bent arms
by their sides, with the slender hands hanging
slackly down. Others walk with their raised arms
crossed above the head. When a gibbon is walking
on perfectly flat ground, he sways his arms to
and fro like balancing poles. On irregular ground
they seize any projection in the way with their out-
stretched arms, and, holding on to it, swing the
body strongly forwards. In this way they make
better progress over wide tracks of country, since
every such effort enables them to pass more readily
over difficult ground. When in great haste, they
go upon all fours without closing either fingers
or toes. In repose, these animals take a sitting
position upon their posteriors, cross their long arms
and stare at whatever is before them with an airDISTRIBUTION, HABITS, AND NATIVE NAMES. 255
of indifference. When seated on the branches of
trees, they lay hold of the higher branches above
them for the sake of security (Fig. 14). In this
position some gibbons (Hylobates lav, Hulock, Albi-
manus) have recently been photographed in the
Zoological Gardens, London. Although they are for
the most part content with a vegetable diet, gibbons
sometimes eat animal food, such as lizards; and
Bennet saw a siamang seize and devour one of these
animals whole. I do not at this moment remember
Huxley’s authority for the statement that gibbons,
when they drink, dip the hand in water and lick it
off, but I have myself seen this done by a captive
animal. They sleep in a sitting position without
building nests : like other anthropoids, they digest
their food quickly.
In the case of gibbons, as of anthropoids generally,
the length of the period of gestation is still a matter
of uncertainty. The young are of slow develop-
ment, and are not fully mature before their four-
teenth or fifteenth year. Neither is the duration
of their lives accurately known, since observations
made on captive specimens only lead to vague con-
clusions. If we observe the processes of osseous
development in the skeletons of aged specimens of
gorillas in order to make an approximate estimate,
we may infer that the duration of the life of anthro-
poids, at any rate in their larger forms, hardly falls
short of the average length of human life. But up
to this time the question remains undecided.
These creatures do not appear to be free from
morbid conditions in the wild life which is in con-256
ANTHROPOID APES.
formity with their nature. In addition to the
injuries to the hide and skeleton which may often
be observed, and which have been caused by the
weapons of man, or by the teeth and claws of their
own kind, there are often- traces, especially on the
skulls of chimpanzees, of the decay of teeth and
maxillary necrosis, as well as of curvatures, ex-
crescences, and united fractures of other parts of the
bony structure.
This brief description is enough to show that
anthropoids in their free life develop an intelligence
which sets them high above the other mammals.
They do not, however, display the keenness of scent
and quickness of sight which distinguish some
animals of a lower order, such as canine beasts
of prey and ruminants manifest in many different
ways. The structure of their nests is rude in com-
parison with that of some other mammals—as, for
example, of rodents. But we must not forget that
several of the lower races of men, such as the
degraded Bedja, the Obongo, the Fuegians, many
aborigines of the Brazilian forests, and the Australian
blacks, scarcely rise above the inartificial structure
of an anthropoid’s nest in the construction of their
huts.CHAPTER VI.
LIFE IN CAPTIVITY.
The accounts given by the earliest observers of
gorillas would lead us to expect that the attempt
to tame even young apes of this species must be
fruitless. Du Chaillu tells us that he obtained a
young male gorilla, a creature of from two to three
years old, which was quite as furious and unmanage-
able as any adult specimen could have been. The
negroes of the district between the Rembo and
Cape Santa Catharina had surprised the mother
and her young one in the forest, and after killing
the former, they succeeded, with great difficulty, in
capturing the latter by throwing a cloth over his
head. By means of a wooden slave-fork, fixed upon
its neck, the animal was transported to the village
in which Du Chaillu was staying at the time.
Young as he was, the gorilla displayed extra-
ordinary strength, and after he had been success-
fully fastened into his cage, he contrived to attack
his new master again, tearing his trousers, and then
retreating sullenly into a corner. He would only258
ANTHROPOID APES.
eat the wild berries and fruits collected for him in
the forest, and also the soft parts of pine-apple
leaves. He escaped from his cage, and was only
recaptured, after many fruitless endeavours, by
throwing a net over him. The traveller adds that
he had never seen so furious a creature as this
gorilla. He flew at every one who came near him,
bit the bamboo lattice-work of his cage, and showed,
on every possible occasion, that he was of a tho-
roughly malicious and unkindly nature. He broke
loose a second time, and was again captured, and at
the end of ten days he died suddenly.
Somewhat later Du Chaillu obtained a young
female gorilla, which clung affectionately to its
mother’s dead body, so that all the spectators were
affected by its grief. The creature was too young
to be fed on anything but milk, and since this was
unattainable, it died three days after its capture.
Eeade, Lenz, and Buchholz were more fortunate
in their experience with the gorillas captured by
them, and Lenz wrote to me as follows about one
of these animals :—“ On my return to the Gaboon
from a journey to Okanda, I was attacked by a some-
what serious fever which hung about me for a long
while. A living gorilla, which was brought to the
German factory on the Gaboon, was some compen-
sation to me for this involuntary idleness. The
creature came from Kamma (Fernand Yaz), the
place from which Du Chaillu also obtained his
specimens, and was captured out of a troop of eight
animals. A small dog, which had been somewhat
injured by an old gorilla, afterwards killed, pre-LIFE IN CAPTIVITY.
259
vented the young one from escaping until a negro
came up, seized it by the neck, and got another
man to bind its hands. In this way the gorilla was
conveyed to the basket-factory of the house, and
there, as is unfortunately done in most cases, the
two large canine teeth were filed off for fear of his
using them to bite his captors.
“ This gorilla is a young, male specimen, probably
two years old, and has reconciled himself to cap-
tivity and to intercourse with men with no great
difficulty. A long, slender iron chain is fastened
round his neck, which gives him plenty of room to
move about; but for the greater part of the day
he sits in a cask, and makes himself very comfort-
able in the straw. He is very susceptible to cold,
wind, and rain, and a thick sail-cloth is wrapped
round the cask at night. He generally adopts a
squatting position, with his arms folded across his
breast, and he is always observant of surrounding
objects. He always seats himself so as to have
nothing at his back, but to keep his enemies before
him. When asleep, he stretches himself at full
length on his back or side, using one hand as a kind
of pillow; and he never sleeps like other apes, in a
squatting position. He goes upon all-fours with
the soles of his hindhands on the ground, while
the forehands are closed, so that he goes upon the
knuckles, and he has the lateral gait characteristic
of the species. At this moment he suffers terribly
from the so-called dissous or sand-fly; both his fore-
hands are full of blisters, which contain the eggs of
this annoying little insect.260
ANTHROPOID APES.
“ In any attempt to transport the gorilla, the ques-
tion of food is necessarily the most important. We
have already offered him rice, bread, milk, etc., such
things as may he obtained on board ship, as well as
in Europe, but with indifferent success. He has
occasionally eaten some bread, and has taken ship’s
biscuit more readily, and once he ate some rice,
but for the most part he does not touch it. His
favourite food is a red fruit, very common here, of
which he eats the inner kernel; he is likewise fond
of bananas and oranges, and above all, of sugar-
cane, which he takes from my hand with evident
pleasure, and chews. He will also take a glass of
water from my hand, carry it steadily to his mouth,
and drink it up. Only on rare occasions, when he
was much excited, I have heard him utter a growl-
ing noise; generally he is quite dumb.” This
animal died on the voyage to Europe, and its body,
preserved in rum by Pansch and Bolau, was used by
me in some of the researches of which I have given
an account.
Falkenstein gives an attractive description of the
gorilla represented in Figs. 3, 4, during the first
months of his captivity: “ When this animal reached
the station (Chinxoxo, in Loango) it was our first
care to procure all the forest fruits within reach,
as well as a she-goat, in order to restore the young
anthropoid’s failing strength. It can easily be sup-
posed that we watched his attempts to eat with
great interest, and were very much relieved when
he not only readily drank milk, but ate various
fruits with evident increase of appetite, and es-LIFE IN CAPTIVITY.
261
pecially those of Anona senegalensis, which are of
about the size of a walnut, with a rough husk, and
grow in the savannahs. In spite of this, however,
he remained for a long while so weak that he would
fall asleep while eating, and he passed great part of
the day crouching asleep in a corner. He gradually
became accustomed to cultivated fruits, such as
bananas, guavas, oranges, and mangoes, and as he
became stronger, and was more often present at our
meals, he began to demand for himself whatever
he saw us eating. Since he was thus gradually
accustomed to eat all kinds of food, the likelihood
of transporting him successfully to Europe was
increased.”
This is perhaps the only way in which other
and possibly older specimens can be rendered fit to
endure the passage to Europe. Every attempt to
embark them immediately after their capture, with-
out previously weaning them from their old modes
of life, and adapting them slowly and systematically
to their altered conditions, has invariably resulted,
sooner or later, in sickness and death. Falkenstein
also recommends, relying on the experience he has
had of apes in a state of nature, that this species
should be supplied with some form of animal food.
He gives this further account of the captive
gorilla: —
“ In the course of a few weeks he became so accus-
tomed to his surroundings, and to the people whom
he knew, that he was allowed to run about at
liberty, without fear that he would make any at-
tempt to escape. He was never chained, nor con-262
ANTHROPOID APES.
fined to a cage, and was watched only in the way
that little children are watched when they are at
play. He was so conscious of his own helplessness
that he clung to human companionship, and dis-
played in this manner a wonderful dependence and
trustfulness. He showed no trace of mischievous,
malicious, or savage qualities, but was sometimes
self-willed. He expressed the ideas which occurred
to him by different sounds, one of which was the
characteristic tone of importunate petition, while
others expressed fright or horror, and in rare in-
stances a sullen and defiant growl might be
heard.
“ In his moods of exuberant satisfaction and
simple pleasure, he might be seen to rub his breast
with both fists, while raising himself on his hind
legs. Moreover, he often expressed his feelings
after quite a human fashion, by clapping his hands
together, an action which no one had taught him;
and he executed such wild dances, sometimes over-
balancing himself, reeling to and fro, and whirling
round, that we were often disposed to think that
he must be drunk. Yet he was only drunk with
pleasure, and this impelled him to display his
strength in the wildest gambols.
“ His dexterity in eating was particularly remark-
able. If any of the other apes chanced to enter
his chamber nothing was safe from them; they
snatched greedily at everything, only to throw it
away with a certain aversion, or carelessly to let
it drop. The gorilla behaved quite differently : he
took up every cup or glass with instinctive care,LIFE IN CAPTIVITY.
263
clasped the vessel with both hands, and set it down
again so softly and carefully that I cannot remember
his breaking a single article of our household goods.
Yet we never taught the creature the use of our
vessels and other manufactured articles, since we
wished to bring him to Europe, as far as possible in
a state of nature. His behaviour at meal-times was
quiet and mannerly; he only took as much as he
could hold with his thumb, fore, and middle finger,
and looked on with indifference when any of the
different forms of food heaped up before him were
taken away. If, however, nothing was given him,
he growled impatiently, looked narrowly at all the
dishes from his place at table, and accompanied
every plate carried off by the negro boys with an
angry snarl or a short, resentful cough, and some-
times he sought to seize the arm of the passer-by
in order to express his displeasure more plainly by
a bite or a blow. In another minute he would play
with the negroes as with his fellows, and this dis-
tinguishes him altogether from other apes, and
especially from baboons, who appear to feel an in-
stinctive hatred against many of the black race, and
take a peculiar pleasure in displaying their animosity
against them.
“ He drank by suction, stooping over the vessel
without even putting his hands into it or upsetting
it, and in the case of smaller vessels, he carried them
to his mouth. He was a skilful climber, but some-
times his high spirits made him careless, and he
once fell to the ground from a tree, which was
fortunately not very high. His cleanliness was264
ANTHROPOID APES.
remarkable, for if by accident he touched a spider’s
web, or rubbish of any kind, he sought to brush it
off with absurd horror, or held out his hands to have
it done for him. There was no offensive smell about
him. It was his favourite amusement to play and
paddle about in the water, nor did the fact that he
had just taken a bath prevent him from amusing
himself by rolling in the sand with other apes
immediately afterwards. His good-humour and
shyness, or rather roguishness, deserves special men-
tion as his strongest characteristic. When he was
chastised, as it was necessary to do at first, he never
resented the punishment, but came up with a be-
seeching air, clinging to my feet, and looking up
with an expressive air which disarmed all dis-
pleasure. When he was anxious to obtain anything,
no child could have expressed its wishes in a more
urgent and caressing manner. If in spite of this he
did not obtain what he wanted, he had recourse to
cunning, and looked anxiously about to see if he was
watched. It was just in these cases, when he ob-
stinately pursued a fixed idea, that it was impossible
not to recognize a deliberate plan and careful calcu-
lation. If, for example, he was not allowed to leave
the room, or, again, was not allowed to come in, he
would, after several attempts to get his own way
had been baffied, apparently submit to his fate and
lie down near the door in question with assumed
indifference. But he soon raised his head in order
to ascertain whether fortune was on his side, edging
himself gradually nearer and nearer, and then, look-
ing carefully round, he twisted himself about untilLIFE IN CAPTIVITY.
265
he reached the threshold; then he got up, peered
cautiously round, and with one bound galloped ofl,
so quickly that it was difficult to follow him.
“He pursued his object with equal pertinacity
when he felt a desire for the sugar or fruit which
was kept in a cupboard in the eating-room; he
would suddenly leave off playing and go in an
opposite diipction, only altering his course when he
believed that he was no longer observed. He then
went straight to the room and cupboard, opened it,
and made a quick and dexterous snatch at the sugar-
box or fruit-basket, sometimes closing the cupboard
doors behind him before beginning to enjoy his
plunder, or, if he was discovered, he would escape
with it, and his whole behaviour made it clear that
he was conscious of transgressing into forbidden
paths. He took a special, and what might be called
a childish, pleasure in making a noise by beating on
hollow articles, and he seldom omitted an oppor-
tunity of drumming on casks, dishes, or tin trays,
whenever he passed by them—-a noisy amusement to
which he was much addicted during our homeward
voyage on board the steam-vessel, in which he was
at liberty to roam about. He very much disliked
strange noises. Thunder, the rain falling on the
skylight, and especially the long-drawn note of a
pipe or trumpet threw him into such agitation as to
cause a sudden affection of the digestive organs, and
it became expedient to keep him at a distance.
When he was slightly indisposed, we made use of
this kind of music with results as successful as if we
had administered purgative medicine.”266
ANTHROPOID APES.
My personal observations enable me to add but
little to this excellent and exhaustive account. It
is well known that this ape throve in the Berlin
Aquarium. His skin, especially on the extremities,
was at first covered with dry, cracked patches, which
the late veterinary surgeon Gerlach believed to be
due to mange; but these gradually disappeared, and
as they scaled off the skin became smooth and of a
dark black colour, and there was a fresh growth of
hair. The creature generally slept in the bed of his
keeper Viereck, covered himself up in an orderly
manner, and ate at the man’s table of plain but
nourishing food, cooked by the keeper’s wife. He
sometimes ate fruit, and bananas were occasionally
provided for him. When taking his meals, drink-
ing, etc., I saw that he always behaved with good
manners. He often moved freely about in an office-
room of the Aquarium, and he was as obedient to
the Director as to his keeper. He was generally
good-tempered, fond of play, but rather mischievous,
and he would snatch roughly, and occasionally try
the sharpness of his teeth. Sometimes he tried to
seize from visitors things which attracted his
curiosity, such as the trimmings of ladies’ bonnets,
lace falls, and the like. But on the whole he be-
haved with propriety, playfulness, and good temper,
and there was much which resembled man in his
look and bearing.
Early in 1876, before leaving Africa, this ape
suffered from malaria, and he subsequently suffered
from other complaints, from which he recovered.
He died in November, 1877, of a galloping con-LIFE IN CAPTIVITY.
267
sumption.* The gorilla now living in the Berlin
Aquarium is also very playful and affectionate.
The chimpanzees which have up to this time been
observed in captivity, have been, while in good
health, lively and amusing animals, and generally
good-tempered. Buffon in 1740 possessed a speci-
men about two years of age, and this ape always
walked upright, even when he carried heavy loads.
It is known that other apes can also be trained to
adopt this posture. Buffon’s chimpanzee had a
serious and melancholy expression, moved slowly,
was gentle and patient, and obedient to a word or
sign. He offered people his arm, walked with them
in an orderly manner, sat down to table like a man,
opened his napkin and wiped his lips with it, made
use of his spoon and fork, poured out wine and
clinked glasses, fetched a cup and saucer and put in
sugar, poured out tea, let it get cold before drinking
it; but, while doing all this, he did not seem happy.
He ate all the ordinary food of men, but preferred
fruit, and he was not so fond of wine as of milk, tea,
and sweet liqueurs. He was friendly with every one,
coming close to them, and taking pleasure in then-
caresses. He took such a fancy to one lady, that
when other people approached her he seized a stick
and began to flourish it about, until Buffon intimated
his displeasure at such behaviour.
Dr. Traill, of Liverpool, obtained a female chim-
panzee which likewise came from the Gaboon, and
which, as soon as she came on board, reached out her
* G. Broesike, Sitzungtbericht der Gesellschaft natwrforschender
Freunds zu Berlin : December 18, 1877.268
ANTHROPOID APES.
hand to some of the sailors, and remained on good
terms with the whole crew, including the cabin-boy.
When the sailors were at meals the ape regularly
appeared, and begged for her portion. When angry
she made a baying noise like a dog, and on another
occasion she wailed like a spoiled child, scratching
herself vehemently. She was lively and cheerful in
warm regions, but the nearer the vessel approached to
northern latitudes the more inert she became, and was
glad to wrap herself in a warm coverlet. She seemed
uneasy in an upright position, and when she assumed
it she rested her hands on her thighs. Her -hands
were very strong, and she could hold on to a cord and
swing for a long while without interruption. She
gradually acquired a taste for wine, and once stole
a bottle and uncorked it with her teeth. She was
fond of coffee and sweetmeats, ate with a spoon, drank
from a glass, and took pleasure in imitating the be-
haviour of men. She was attracted by shining metals,
pleased with articles of clothing, and often put on
a hat. She was unclean, and of a timid disposition.
According to the account of Captain Grandpre, a
female chimpanzee on board his vessel would heat
the oven, taking care that no coals fell out, and
carefully watching until it was of the right heat, of
which she would inform the baker. She fulfilled all
the duties of a sailor, such as drawing up the anchor,
furling and making fast the sails. She patiently
endured maltreatment by a brutal mate, stretching
out her hands imploringly to ward off his blows.
But after this she refused all food, and died in five
days of grief and hunger.LIFE IN CAPTIVITY.
269
A chimpanzee in Brosse’s possession was sick,
and twice blooded. When he again fell ill, he held
out his arm as if to demand another venesection.
In reading these accounts, which have gone the
round of various old-fashioned books on natural
history, the question arises what we are or are not
to believe, for many particulars appear to be ex-
aggerated. ^Dr. Hermes, the director of the Berlin
Aquarium, disputes the assertion made by others
that the female chimpanzee, Molly, which was kept
for a long while in that establishment, poured out
wine for herself at an evening party, and clinked
glasses with a neighbour.*
There is, however, an account given by Broderip
of a male chimpanzee, which was brought from the
Gambia, and placed in the London Zoological
Gardens in 1835, which appears to be simple and
faithful. The creature, clothed in a little jacket,
nestled for the most part in the lap of an old female
keeper. When he had nothing else to do, he played
with his toes, just as a child does under like cir-
cumstances. He took Broderip’s hand without fear,
and touched the ring on one of his fingers with his
teeth, but without bending it. He tried all artificial
substances with his teeth. He held fast to his
keeper’s gown when she proposed to leave him, and
he played with Broderip like a child. He displayed
great terror when an anaconda was brought into the
room in a basket, and did not dare to take an apple
from off the closed lid of the basket; but as soon as
* Verhandhmgen der berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft,
March 18,1876, p. 93.270
ANTHROPOID APES.
the snake and its basket were removed, he ate the
apple and became cheerful again. He willingly
placed himself in a swing, and held on to the cords
with both hands. He generally slept in a sitting
position, leaning forwards with folded arms, or some-
times resting his face on his hands. But he would
also sleep upon his belly, with his feet drawn up,
and his head on his arms.
A male chimpanzee, which was kept in the Berlin
Aquarium in 1876, was remarkable for his excessive
liveliness. He had contracted a friendship with a
fellow-captive, a young female orang, and their
intimacy was confirmed by their games together,
accompanied by many tender embraces. The small
orang, a good-tempered, phlegmatic creature, allowed
the chimpanzee to do what he pleased with her, and
the former betrayed remarkable intelligence. In
consequence of a general repair of his cage, Dr.
Hermes, the director of the institution, to whom we
owe this account, was obliged to keep the chimpan-
zee in his office, in company with himself and other
officials. The chimpanzee soon accustomed himself
to his new surroundings, and was on particularly
friendly terms with Dr. Hermes’ two-year-old boy.
When the child entered the room, the chimpanzee
ran tb meet him, embraced and kissed him, seized
his hand and drew him to the sofa, that they might
play together. The child was often rough with
his playfellow, pulling him by the mouth, pinching
his ears, or lying on him, yet the chimpanzee was
never known to lose his temper. He behaved very
differently to boys between six and ten years old.LIFE IN CAPTIVITY.
271
When a number of schoolboys visited the office, he
ran towards them, went from one to the other, shook
one of them, bit the leg of another, seized the jacket
of a third with the right hand, jumped up, and with
the left gave him a sound box on the ear; in short,
he played the wildest pranks. It seemed as if he
were infected with the joyous excitement of youth,
which induced him to riot with the troop of school-
boys.
One day when Hermes gave his nine-year-old son
a slight tap on the head, on account of some mis-
calculation in his arithmetic, the chimpanzee, who
was also sitting at the table, gave the boy a smart
box on the ear. If Hermes pointed out to him that
some one was staring or mocking at him, and said,
“ Do not put up with it,” the creature cried,
“ Oh! oh! ” and rushed at the person in question
in order to strike or bite him, or express his dis-
pleasure in some other way. As he made dis-
tinctions in the age of human beings, so also with
animals. He was gentle and considerate in his
behaviour to young dogs and apes, while with older
.animals he was as boisterous as he was with the
schoolboys. When he saw that Hermes was writing,
he often seized a pen, dipped it in the inkstand, and
scrawled upon the paper. He displayed a special
talent for cleaning the window-panes of the aquarium.
It was amusing to see him squeezing up the cloth,
moistening the pane with his lips, and then rubbing
it hard, passing quickly from one place to another.
Mafuca was a remarkable creature, not only in
her externa] habits, but in her disposition. At one272
ANTHROPOID APES.
moment she would sit still with a brooding air, only
occasionally darting a mischievous, flashing glance
at the spectators; at another she took pleasure in
feats of strength, or she roamed to and fro in her
spacious enclosure like an angry beast of prey. She
would insert the index finger of her right hand in the
opening of a vessel which weighed thirty pounds,
climb up the pole with it, and let it fall with a crash
and clatter from a height of six feet. This ape would
sometimes rattle the bars of her cage with a violence
which made the spectators uneasy. She was fond
of playing with old hats, which she set upon her
head, and if the top was quite torn off, she drew it
down upon her neck. Mafuca clawed at people who
entered the vestibule of her cage and tried to tear
their clothes. She hardly obeyed any one except
Schopf, the director of the Dresden Zoological
Gardens, and when in a good humour she would sit
on his knee and put her muscular arms round his
neck with a caressing gesture. In spite of this,
Schopf was never secure from Mafuca’s roguish
tricks, since her good-humour was of short duration.
She was rather fond of the keeper, but not always,
obedient to him, and the whip was often in request,
even at feeding-times. Mafuca was able to use a
spoon, although somewhat awkwardly; and she could
pour from larger vessels into smaller ones without
spilling the liquor. She took tea and cocoa in the
morning and .evening, and a mixed diet between
whiles, such as fruit, sweetmeats, red wine and
water, and sugar.
Mafuca, for a while, was pleased with the com-LIFE IN CAPTIVITY.
273
panionship of a pretty sea-cat monkey, but she teased
the creature so much that a special refuge was set
apart for it, into which she could not enter. She
was so scared and terrified by a heavy thunderstorm
that she seized her sleeping playfellow by the tail
and dashed it to the ground. She chased the mice
which ran about her cage with deadly fury. She
was much afraid of snakes, which is not usually the
case with chimpanzees. If she was left alone for
any time she tried to open the lock of her cage
without having the key, and she once succeeded
in doing so. On that occasion she stole the key,
which was hanging on the wall, hid it in her
axilla, and crept quietly back to the cage. With
the key she easily opened the lock, and she also
knew how to use a gimlet. She would draw off
her keeper’s boots, scramble up to some place out
of reach with them, and throw them at his head
when he asked for them. She could wring out wet
cloths, and blow her nose with a handkerchief.
When her illness began, she became apathetic, and
looked about with a vacant, unobservant stare. Just
before her death, from consumption, she put her
arms round Schopf’s neck when he came to visit
her, looked at him placidly, kissed him three times,
stretched out her hand to him, and died.* The last
moments of anthropoids have their tragic side !
We owe to Wallace an interesting account of
young orangs in a state of captivity. This observer
shot, near Simunjon, in Borneo, a large female ape
* See also Nissle, Die Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologiej pp. 56, 57 :
1876.274
ANTHROPOID APES.
of this species, which had a young one about a foot
long. As Wallace carried this creature home, it
took such a firm hold of his beard that he had much
difficulty in getting free, for the unequal phalanges of
the fingers in these animals are hook-shaped. At
that time the creature had not a single tooth, but
the two lower front teeth were cut a few days later.
Unluckily, there was no milk, nor any female animal
to give suck to the little ape. Wallace was obliged
to give it rice-water from a bottle, with a quill in-
serted in the cork, from which, after some attempts,
it learned to suck very well. Sugar and cocoa-milk
were added, to make the pap more nourishing.
When Wallace put his finger in the creature’s
mouth, it sucked at it vigorously, then pushed it
angrily away and began to scream, as a child does
in like circumstances. When it was fondled and
caressed, it was quiet and content, but began to
scream again as soon as it was laid down; and for
the first two nights it was very noisy and restless.
Wallace arranged a little box for the creature’s
cradle, with a soft mat which was changed and
washed every day. The little ape itself liked to be
washed. As soon as it was dirty it began to scream,
and never stopped until carried to the spring by its
master, when it became quiet at once, although it
struggled when first touched by the cold water, and
made absurd grimaces when water was poured over
its head. It was extremely fond of being dried and
rubbed, and appeared to be perfectly happy when
Wallace brushed its hair, lying quite still with
extended arms and legs while the long hair on itsLIFE IN CAPTIVITY.
275
back and arms was brushed out. At first it clung
helplessly by all-fours to -whatever it could get hold of,
and Wallace had to be always on the watch to save
his beard. When restless, it worked its hands above
in the air, in search of something to hold, and if it
got hold of a stick or piece of cloth with two or three
of its hands, it was perfectly happy. In default of
anything else, it nursed its own foot, and after a while
it often folded its arms, and seized with each hand the
long hair which grew below the opposite shoulder.
The strength of the creature’s gripe soon diminished,
however, and Wallace had to invent expedients for
giving it exercise and strengthening its limbs.
With this object he made a short ladder of three or
four rounds, to which he suspended the young orang
for a quarter of an hour at a time. At first it was
pleased, but finding itself unable to assume a com-
fortable position when holding on by all four hands,
it let go with one after another and at last fell to
the ground. Often, when only hanging by two
hands, it let go with one, in order to cross it over
the opposite shoulder, and get hold of its own hair,
and on finding this much more agreeable than the
piece of wood, it let go with the other, and so fell to
the ground, where it lay on its back with folded
arms, quite content and apparently none the worse
for its numerous tumbles.
When Wallace saw how fond the creature was of
hair, he endeavoured to construct an artificial mother
by stitching together a piece of buffalo hide which
he suspended about a foot from the ground. At
first this seemed quite successful, since the small276
ANTHROPOID APES.
orang could cling round it and always find some-
thing hairy to which it held fast with great per-
sistency. Wallace now hoped that he had made
the little orphan happy, and so it was for a while,
until it remembered its lost mother and tried to
suck. It raised itself so as to be quite close to the
hide, and hunted about for promising places ; but
when its mouth was only filled with wool and hair
it was much displeased, cried vehemently, and gave
up the attempt after two or three endeavours. On
one occasion it got some wool into its throat, and
Wallace was afraid it must be choked; but after a
good deal of cough it threw it up, and he destroyed
the mock mother and relinquished the last attempt
to give the little creature some occupation.
At the end of a week Wallace began to feed the
ape with a spoon. He mixed soaked biscuit with
egg and sugar, and sometimes with sweet potatoes.
It took this food readily, and made droll grimaces
in order to express its satisfaction or displeasure
with what was offered. The little being licked its
lips, drew in its cheeks, and screwed up its eyes with
an expression of extreme content when it had a
mouthful of anything it particularly liked. On the
other hand, when the food was not sufficiently sweet
and savoury, the orang turned it about in its mouth
for a moment, as if to taste it thoroughly, and then
spat it out. If the same food was presented again, it
screamed violently and threw its arms about like a
passionate child.
Three weeks after Wallace obtained the young
orang, a macaca (Macacus cynomolgus), likewiseLIFE IN CAPTIVITY.
277
young, was brought to him. The two animals
became at once the best of friends, neither showing
the least fear of the other. The small macaca had
not the slightest scruple about sitting on the other’s
body, and even on its face. When Wallace fed the
orang, the macaca sat by to pick up any morsels
which dropped, and when the meal was over it
licked off whatever remained on the orang’s lips,
and even tore open its mouth to see if anything
remained there ; then it lay down on the poor crea-
ture’s body as if it were a comfortable cushion. The
small, helpless orang endured all these insults with
the most unexampled patience, only too glad to
have something warm to cling to and encircle fondly
with its arms. But it had its revenge, for when the
other little ape wished to get away, the orang held
on as long as possible to the movable skin of the
back or head, or to its tail, so that it cost the macaca
many violent struggles to escape.
Wallace carefully observed the different behaviour
of these two animals, which were of nearly the same
age. All the observations hitherto made show that
very young anthropoids display a helplessness re-
sembling that of children of about the same age,
although other families of apes, in common with most
young mammals, kittens, puppies, etc., early attain
to greater activity and independence.
When Wallace had kept the orang for about a
month, and placed it on the ground, its legs strag-
gled outwards, or it overbalanced itself and fell
heavily forwards. When lying in its box, it would
hold on to the edge, and once or twice it fell out
13278
ANTHROPOID APES.
in consequence. If allowed to be dirty or hungry,
or otherwise neglected, it would cry loudly until it
received attention, or sometimes would cough or
struggle like an adult animal. If there was no one
in the house, or if no one paid attention to its cries,
it would be quiet for a time, and only renew them
when a step was heard.
At the end of five weeks the two upper front
teeth were cut, but throughout that period the
creature had not grown, and remained of the same
size and weight. This was doubtless owing to the
want of milk or other nourishing food. Cocoa-milk
seemed to produce diarrhoea, of which it was cured
by castor-oil. A week or two later it sickened of
what appeared to be intermittent fever, and died
within a week*
In 1837 the Zoological Gardens in London received
an orang of two or three years old. He was for the
most part sluggish and inert, but had occasional fits
of better humour and playfulness. When angry he
would attack strangers, but he generally sat cross-
legged on a low stool, or on the ground before the
fire, wrapped in a woollen rug. When the giraffes
of the establishment inquisitively stretched their
long necks over the bars of the ape’s cage, the
creature evinced no fear, but tried to seize the long-
legged animals by the muzzle. This orang answered
to his name, and was obedient to his keeper, often
searching in his pocket for the dainties concealed
there. He was uneasy when separated by the cage-
bars from his master ; and when confined in an enclo-
* Wallace’s Malay Archypelagoy vol. i.LIFE IN CAPTIVITY.
279
sure of cane interwoven with wire, he bent the wire
asunder and squeezed himself through the hole, so
that the cage had to be made stronger. The creature
presented an absurd appearance dressed in a jacket
and breeches. When he desired any dainty that he
saw, he looked alternately at it and his keeper, and
protruded his lips like a snout. In drinking, this
animal took £he vessel in his hand, brought the rim
to his lips, and then drank with an air of gravity.
I may here observe that when anthropoids drink in
this way, they generally take the vessel in one hand,
and support it with the back of the fingers of the
other.
When the orang we have just described was dis-
appointed in his desire to obtain anything, he threw
himself on the ground, howling and screaming until
he got his own way. He sometimes had furious fits
of passion, in one of which he tried to destroy the
bars of his cage by hitting them with the stool.
As he did not succeed in this attempt, he gave vent
to his fury in a loud outcry, which only ceased on
the return of his keeper.
An orang brought by Montgomery to Calcutta in
1827, was less phlegmatic than animals of this species
usually are. He played with those who carried him
when they stooped over him, caught them by the hair,
and so on. He tried to scour his tin vessel with a
cloth, throwing one end over his shoulder, as he had
seen the servants of the house do. He was particu-
larly fond of milk, tea, wine, and pandanos fruit.
He was very inquisitive, and tried everything that he
could reach, first with the fingers, then with the280
ANTHROPOID APES.
lips, and finally with his teeth. He was fond of
biting off the coat-lappets of his visitors. His
absurd gestures, combiued with his air of solemnity,
excited laughter even in the grave natives. He was
oncedrinkingtea, when some one filled the emptymug
with water; he emptied it out upon the floor, threw
himself on his back, screamed, and struck his breast
and belly with his hands. His gait was clumsy and
unsteady when he tried to walk upright. When he
went on all-fours, he sometimes supported himself
on his hands and swung himself forward with his
feet. If he lost his balance in walking upright, he
fell upon his head, and then went on by turning
somersaults. As soon as he was unchained, he went
into the house and tried to get a portion of his
master’s breakfast. In spite of his usual inquisi-
tiveness, he was not at all excited by the sight of
his melancholy countenance in the glass.
The large orang which was in the Berlin Aqua-
rium in 1876 was a sullen companion, and looked
like an old Bedouin as he crouched down and peered
from under the covering which was thrown over
him. His keeper could only trust him when he
brought him an orange, and if he approached the
bars of the cage without food, the ape flew at him,
gnashing his teeth. He was sluggish whenever he
was not excited by hunger. Then he started from his
usually sitting position, and devoured the food which
was cautiously passed through the door. If kept wait-
ing, he threw himself on his back in a rage. When
his hunger was satisfied, he played with the straw,
the cord, or with his blanket. When it was neces-LIFE IN CAPTIVITY.
281
sary to change his straw, he was lured away by
holding out an orange at the top of his pole, and the
change was effected while the ape was tearing open
the rind and sucking out its contents. In the even-
ing he never omitted to clear out a hole in the
straw, and to roll himself in his blanket. Gabriel
Max has drawn a striking likeness of the resigned
attitude of a.sick orang.
Gibbons have often been observed in a state of
captivity. Of the slothful and inanimate siamang
there is nothing of much interest to report. The
other species are, with few exceptions, phlegmatic,
shy, and timid, but hardly ever averse from human
society. Within a month Harlan was able to make
a hulock so tame that he would hold on with one
hand to him, while putting the others on the ground,
and so walk about with his keeper. He came to
his master’s call, seating himself close to him on
a chair, shared his breakfast, and took an egg or
chicken-bone off the table so neatly as not to soil
the cloth. He was fond of cooked rice, bread soaked
in milk, bananas, oranges, coffee, tea, chocolate,
milk, etc. Generally he only dipped his fingers
in the drinking vessels and licked off the liquid,
but he could drink in human fashion. He searched
the house for spiders and other creeping things,
and brushed away flying insects with his right
hand. The creature was very affectionate, and
when Harlan came to him in the morning, he
greeted him with a joyful sound like a bark, which
went on for about a minute. He came to a call even
when at a distance, and was pleased to be combed,282
ANTHROPOID APES.
brushed, and fondled. Two other hulocks taken by
Harlan behaved in the same way.
The Hylobcites albimanus of the Berlin Aquarium,
which I have already mentioned, was, as described
bv Hermes, and also according to my own observa-
tions, a very peaceable creature, although, if com-
pelled to do what he did not like, he sometimes
tried to bite a little, especially when just taken
from his warm bed. But as soon as he was taken
by the hand or lifted up, his anger was appeased.
Although much less lively than the chimpanzee
which was his companion, and less inclined to play,
he was pleased with children, and watchfully ob-
served their movements. His dexterity was won-
derful. He was almost always present at dinner
and supper, when the table was covered with dishes,
and he ran up and down it, in order to go from one
person to another, without touching, still less up-
setting, the smallest article. His food consisted
chiefly of white bread, milk, sweet cocoa, fruit, and
Kiel sprats, of which he was particularly fond, as
well as of sweet grapes. Before taking any liquid,
he cautiously touched it with his tongue, to ascer-
tain that it was not too hot; then he drank it up,
without taking the cup or vessel in his hand, as the
chimpanzee did. He did not like cold or moist food,
and would seldom touch a peeled pear, while willing
to eat it from Herme’s hand. Grapes were his
favourite dainty, and if hungry when he saw them,
he uttered a gentle noise which resembled the cry
of a wood-pigeon. He often repeated this noise,
Hu, Hu, to express pleasure, surprise, or curiosity,LIFE IN CAPTIVITY.
283
or when the same sound was uttered by others; and
it was in this way that he greeted Hermes when he
came to his bed in the morning. He was happiest
when seated on a woman’s arm, with his long arms
wound round her neck, and would sit quiet in this
position as long as he was permitted to do so, and
when taken away would scream like a child. When
Frau Hermes left the room, he would run after her,
and try to scramble up as soon as he reached her;
if she took his hand, he went with her quietly.
This gibbon may be compared favourably with other
anthropoids, on account of his extraordinary clean-
liness. He always returned to the place first used
for his necessities, and never made his bed or the
room unclean. There was not a trace of smell about
him, so that he was quite an agreeable companion ;
and he shared the bed of one of Dr. Hermes’ chil-
dren without causing the least disturbance or discom-
fort. He was fond of swinging to and fro by a
cord, to which he held with one hand.
A specimen of Hylobates funereus was kept in Paris
for about a year. It was very intelligent, yet less
so than other anthropoids. It knew its keepers and
frequent visitors, and was pleased to be fondled;
but it showed no preference for one person more
than another, not even for its keeper.
Martin describes how in 1840, in Paris, a live
bird was let into the cage of an Hylobates agilis.
After watching its flight, the ape swung himself on
to a distant bough, which he seized with one hand
and the bird with the other. Its objects, both
the bird and the bough, were attained with as much284
ANTHROPOID APES.
certainty as if only one object bad arrested its
attention. He bit off the bird’s head, plucked out
the feathers, and then threw it away.
Another female specimen of Hylobates agilis
suddenly attacked her keeper, sprang upon him,
scratched him with hands and feet, and bit him on
the breast, so that it was fortunate. for the man that
the creature had shortly before lost her canine
teeth. It was said that the same ape had killed
a man in Macao.
Anthropoids when kept in confinement suffer from
caries of the teeth and jaws, from chronic and acute
bronchial and intestinal catarrhs, from inflammation
and consumption of the lungs, from inflammation of
the liver, from pericardial dropsy, from parasites of
the skin and intestines, etc. When ill, as we learn
from many sources, these animals display much
resemblance to men. Among others, Bock observed
an aged male orang-utan in Sumatra, suffering from
consumption, which lay nearly all day wrapped in
a coverlet, and was constantly racked by a violent
cough.*
On the skulls of wild gorillas and chimpanzees
we find traces of caries of the teeth and jaws, by
which, therefore, these animals may be affected in a
state of nature, as well as by parasites on the skin
and intestines.
* Unter den Kannibalen auf Borneo, p. 31.CHAPTER VII.
POSITION OF ANTHROPOIDS IN THE ZOOLOGICAL
SYSTEM.
The racial history of apes can only be traced with
any certainty up to the Miocene period. The fact
of the contemporary existence of apes and pachy-
dermata has been frequently asserted, but it is still
too far from being established to merit further con-
sideration here. Traces of the slender ape (Semno-
yithecus) have, however, been found in the Miocene
of Greece, Wurtemburg, the mountains of Sewalik,
and in the region bordering on the Himalayas. The
name given to one of these fossil species (Semnopi-
thecus subhimalayanus) seems to establish its locality.
The numerous remains of Mesopithecus Pentelici in
Attica have, however, given rise to controversy.
Gaudry and Beyrick were disposed to assign these
specimens exclusively to the slender ape, but Gaudry
has since declared that, while the structure of the
skull and teeth is that of Semnopithecus, the struc-
ture of the limbs is that of a macaca. He regards,286
ANTHROPOID APES.
therefore, Mesopithecus as an interesting form of
apes, and this is expressed by its scientific name.*
The separation of these two species of apes (Sem-
nopitliecus and Macacus) must, he considers, have
occurred rather late. Pliopithecus, from the fresh-
water mar], Sansan, is assigned by Gaudry and
others to the gibbon. Lartet and Quenstedt believe,
however, that it is nearer to the next neighbour on
the south, the magot (Inuus), on account of the five
fangs of its last tooth. Kollner thinks the connec-
tion with Semnopithecus not improbable.
Dryopithecus Fontanii, of which I have already
spoken, seems, as I judge from a cast taken by Fric
in Prague, to be of an expressly anthropoid cha-
racter; but the scantiness of the materials do not
allow us to form any precise conclusions as to the
zoological position of this extinct animal. The
structure of the back teeth, as we have already
said, is certainly anthropoidal. Quenstedt, always
cautious in his judgments, is of opinion that the
ape’s teeth found in the ironstone of the Suabian
Alps in the secondary mammal formation, are of
a decidedly anthropoid character, and the animals
to which they belonged must therefore have been
of the same type. Fossil remains of the African
stumpy ape (Colobus) have also been found at Stein-
heim. f Macacus prisons of the valley of the Arno
seems to be allied with the African macaca.J Owen’s
* Enchainements, p. 235.
t Fraas, Wurtembergische Jahresheft, xxvi. plate iv. fig. 1: 1870.
X Forsyth, Atti della Societd Italiana di Scienze Natwrali, xiv.:
1872.PLACE OF ANTHROPOIDS IN NATURE. 287
Macaeus pliocenus from Essex is closely related to
Maeacus sinicus. Fossil apes have also been ob-
served in America. Protopithecus was a very large
animal, related to Mycetes. Another fossil species,
found in South America (Laopitliecus), must have
been closely related'to man. This latter fact is
the more remarkable, since it has generally been
assumed, and indeed with reason, that there is a
marked division between the apes of the Old and
New Worlds.
The species now found in tropical America of
the silky apes (Hapale), the Sahui (Jacchus), the
leaping apes (Gallithrix), the bellowing apes (My-
cetes), and the rolling apes (Gebus), were already
represented in the diluvial period of that continent.
It does not appear that any extensive generic diffu-
sion of apes has taken place since that period. It
is otherwise with the development of species, which
seems, at any rate to a partial extent, to have
occurred late. This may be inferred from the
physical characteristics of gorillas and chimpanzees,
which, with all their differences, have much in com-
mon with each other. In the fourth chapter we
have described forms of apes lying between the
gorilla and the chimpanzee, and it seems possible
that these are a reversion to one or the other form.
The numerous varieties of form among anthropoids
point to a continuance of the process of severance
in this family of apes, and little more than an
isolating influence is needed to produce the gradual
conversion of varieties into constant species.
On account of their external bodily character-288
ANTHROPOID APES.
istics, of their anatomical structure, and their highly
developed intelligence, anthropoids not only stand
first among apes, hut they take a still higher place,
approximating to the human species. In accord-
ance with what I have said in the second and third
chapters, I set aside the order of the Quadrumana,
and accept the Linnaean order of the Primates, both
for men and apes. I would include men as Erecti
with anthropoids as Anthropomorpha in a sub-family
of the Prirnarii. In the case of apes (Simiina) I
should retain the convenient distinction between
those with a narrow and those with a wide nasal
aperture (Catarrhina and Platyrvhina). The semi-
apes (Prosimii) should constitute a separate order of
mammals. The following systematic scheme shows
the classification I suggest:—
I. Mammals (Mammalia).
A. Monodelphia, Blainv. (Placentalia, Owen).
I. Order : Primates, Linnaeus.
1. Family: Prirnarii.
(1)	Sub-family : Erecti (Homo sapiens).
(2)	Sub-family : Anthropomorpha, Linnaeus.
(а)	Dasypoga, i.e. Anthropomorpha, without the sessor
callosities.
(a) Genus: Troglodytes, E. Geoffroy.
Species: The gorilla (Troglodytes Gorilla, Savage
and Wyman). The chimpanzee (Tr. niger,
E. Geoffroy).
The other speeies are not accurately known.
(fi) Genus : Pithecus, E. Geoffroy.
Species: Orang-utan (Pithecus Satyrus, E. Geoffroy).
(б)	Tylopoga, i.e. Anthropomorpha, with sessor callosities.
(7) Genus : ffylobates, Illig.
Species: see p. 45.PLACE OF ANTHROPOIDS IN NATURE. 289
(2) Family: Apes proper (Simiina).
(1)	Sub-family: Catarrhina.
Genera: Semnopithecus, Colobus, Oercopithecus, Inuus,
Macacus, Cynocephalus.
(2)	Sub-family: Platyrrhina.
Genera: Mycetes, Lagothrix Ateles, Ctbus, Pithecia,
Nyctipithecus, Gullithrix, Chrysothrix, Papule.290
ANTHROPOID APES.
CHAPTER VIII.
A SUMMARY, TOGETHER WITH SOME FURTHER CON-
SIDERATIONS OF THE ANTHROPOMORPHISM OF
THE GORILLA, CHIMPANZEE, ORANG, AND GIBBON.
Huxley’s statement, that the lowest apes are further
removed from the highest apes than the latter are
from men, is, according to my experience, still per-
fectly valid. It cannot be denied that the highest
order of the animal world is closely connected with
the highest created being.
In the third chapter I have sought to show in
what way the pithecoid characteristics of men may
be proved. From the latter chapters, also, much
may be learned with respect to the anthropoid
characteristics of anthropoids. The external form
first provokes the comparison. There is much in
the bodily structure which spans the apparent
chasm between men and apes, and this is evident
to the simplest understanding. The head, and the
general form of the body, especially in young male
and female gorillas, chimpanzees, and orangs, and
even in gibbons, if we exclude the length of theirSUMMARY.
291
arms, display many points of resemblance with man.
It is shown even in separate organs of the body—as,
for instance, in the ear. The illustrations given in
the second chapter of the ears of apes, including
that of the gorilla, were intentionally taken by me
from such specimens as had least resemblance to
man, and yet even in these a certain likeness must
be recognized.
I have already observed that the old males of
an anthropoid species are always further removed
from man than the young, and this is especially the
case with the gorilla. The head of an aged male
gorilla, with its great cranial crests and powerful
jaw, displays striking differences from the human
type. This is an important fact, since in the case
of man we almost without exception regard the fully
developed male adult as the typical form.
In considering the limbs, the differences between
the arms and hands of man and those of anthropoids
are apparent, but less striking than in the case of the
lower limbs. For the prehensile foot of apes has in
it something abnormal which distinctly differs from
the human foot, adapted for walking. Nor can the
prehensibility of the human toes in certain cases be
directly compared with the prehensibility of an
ape’s foot, in which the great toe has the action of a
thumb. Haeckel remarks that newly born children
can also take a strong grip with the great toe, and
if a spoon is inserted they can hold it with the foot
as firmly as with the hand.* This power is, however,
only partial and subordinate, compared with the
* Antfvropogenie, p. 482: Leipzig, 1874.292
ANTHROPOID APES.
manifold and developed prehensibility of an anthro-
poid’s foot. The possibility of walking upright to a
certain, although sometimes to a very limited, extent
is no exclusive privilege of anthropoids, since this
power may be acquired by training in the case of
other apes, as well as of dogs, pigs, horses, etc.
Many apes of the New World, such as the tailed and
climbing apes, as well as some semi-apes, bears,
ichneumons, scaled and rodent animals, can go for
some distance in an upright position, quite as readily
as anthropoids, and without being trained to do so.*
The structure of anthropoids is, indeed, better adapted
for going on all-fours, or for climbing. The pro-
jection of the coccyx in the form of a rudimentary
tail has, as is well known, been observed in some
isolated cases in the human species. This pecu-
liarity is supposed to be hereditary in the case of
some non-European peoples, such as the Niam-Niam
of Central Africa, and some of the Southern Malays.
But this surmise has not yet been confirmed.
It has already been said that when we compare
men and anthropoids, the profile of the coloured man
presents a striking likeness to that of anthropoids.
This is believed by the coloured people themselves,
who, especially among negro races, regard the large
apes as accursed individuals of their own species, as
dumb and hairy men, and so on. It should, however,
be noticed that anthropomorphism plays an important
part in the religious life of rude peoples, and that it is
comparatively easy for uncivilized men to place them-
selves on the same level as animals, while civilized
* We do not here include the leaping and running mice.SUMMARY.
293
races reject such ideas with self-conscious pride. I
may add that civilized men are revolted by the prover-
bial ugliness of apes, and therefore reject with abhor-
rence any admission of actual relationship with them.
We must, however, remember that men are by no
means generally endowed with physical beauty, and
especially with beauty of feature. Among all nations
we find individuals whose ugliness is little inferior
to that of anthropoids, and which sometimes even
exceeds it. A claim to a widely diffused physical
beauty may be made by the peoples of classical
antiquity; by the Teutonic, Roumanian, and Slav
races; by the Circassians, Armenians, Tartars, Turks,
Senites, Berbers, Bedja; and by some of the Indians,
Polynesians, American Indians, and negroes: but
such attractions are rare among other peoples of the
world, such as the Mongols, the majority of negroes,
Papuans, Guaranis, and Malays. We have already
shown that among some of the lower races it is
impossible not to recognize a purely external and
physical approximation to the simian type.
Some men, again, altogether on psychical grounds,
shrink from admitting any relationship between
men and apes, since the mental organization of the
former seems to them to be allied by no connecting-
link with the anthropoids of which they think so
meanly. Yet it should not be forgotten that the
modes of living in degraded races differ little from
those of anthropoids. I may here refer to what
I have said of the Australian aborigines, whose
brutal instincts demand our whole attention when
we undertake such comparisons. A horde of Boto-294
ANTHROPOID APES.
cudos, mentioned by the intelligent observer Prince
Maximilian of Neuwied,* and a village on the upper
Yupura, inhabited by the Mirenhas, and described
by Martius,f left upon the travellers a grisly impres-
sion of their brutal degradation. This impression
might be further strengthened if we could inspect
a hutted encampment of the Obongo or the Doko.
It has been observed that the rudest savage is in
a condition to show pity and loyalty to his own
fellows. Thus, for example, in the winter of 1881-82,
when some Fuegians were exhibited in Europe,
one of them fell sick, and was cared for by his
savage companions with affection, and even with
a certain appearance of tenderness. But, as we
have seen, anthropoids take care of and defend the
members of their family in the same way, and
display mutual dependence and loyalty ; this has
been especially noticed in the case of several orang-
utans which have tended each other. Love for
their young, and not rarely love for their mates
expressed in the strongest manner, is, speaking
comparatively, deeply rooted in the animal world.
It is well known that both rude and civilized peoples
are capable of showing unspeakable, and as it is
erroneously termed, inhuman cruelty towards each
other. These acts of cruelty, murder, and rapine
are often the result of the inexorable logic of
national characteristics, and are unhappily truly
human, since nothing like them can be traced in
* Reise nach Brasilien, ii. 177 : Frankfurt-am-Main, 1821.
t Beitrage zur Ethnographie und Sprachenkivnde Amerikas, etc.,
i. 534 : Leipzig, 1867.SUMMARY.
295
the animal world. It would, for instance, be a grave
mistake to compare a tiger with a bloodthirsty
executioner of the Reign of Terror, since the former
only satisfies bis natural appetite in preying on
other mammals. The atrocities of the trials for
witchcraft, the indiscriminate slaughter committed
by the negroes on the coast of Guinea, the sacrifice
of human victims made by the Khonds, the dis-
memberment of living men by the Battas, find no
parallel in the habits of animals in their savage
state. And such a comparison is, above all, impos-
sible in the case of anthropoids, which display no
hostility towards men or other animals unless they
are first attacked. In this respect the anthropoid
ape stands on a higher plane than many men.
A great chasm between man and anthropoids is
constituted, as I believe, by the fact that the
human race is capable of education, and is able to
acquire the highest mental culture, while the most
intelligent anthropoid can only receive a certain
mechanical training. And even to this training
a limit is set by the surly temper displayed by
anthropoids as they get older. They are interesting
subjects of study in the menagerie, but they never
become, like our ordinary domestic animals, useful
members of the household economy. I myself hold
that all human races are capable of culture, while
differing in the degree to which it is possible for
them to attain. I do not, for example, suppose
that a tribe of Queensland Australians can be so
educated as to be placed on a level with the highest
intellects of our own nation. But how many ages296
ANTHROPOID APES.
it has taken to raise ns so far above the Papuans!
It is indeed manifest that even very rude savages
may be constituted serviceable members of human
society, as we may see from the changes which have
taken place among the Sandwich Islanders, the
Tahitians, and the Maoris in the course of the last
eighty years. In our days the envoys of the Queen
of Madagascar have understood how to move in the
highest Berlin circles with high-bred demeanour,
and we must recognize this fact as significant,
without, however, deluding ourselves by too wide
deductions from it.
The remark has often been made that the African
blacks, Indians, etc., display great docility when
young, and are very receptive of wisdom and cul-
ture, but stop short at a certain point, as if unable
to advance beyond it, and sometimes, indeed, like
apes in advancing age, relapse into their originally
savage state. It may, however, be inferred that
these attempts to educate young savages are
generally wrecked by mistaken methods of instruc-
tion. The young sons of nature are often too much
indulged, their childish performances are over-esti-
mated, their minds are over-taxed, the due develop-
ment of mind and body is checked; they become
arrogant, and then people are surprised that, as
self-consciousness increases in their immature brains,
a greater or less amount of conceit is developed.
There are cases in which a savage, who has been
with much labour educated and civilized, relapses
into barbarism, and comes to a violent end as the
enemy of his former protector, as a robber or aSUMMARY.
297
rebel; yet, even to the end of his life, he has de-
veloped qualities and conditions which recall to
him better times. We see an example of this in
some of the civilized Maoris who afterwards joined
the revolted tribes, and who introduced among their
countrymen the strength of a firmer organization
against the English supremacy. The bearing of
these relapsed savages always has in it something
higher than we can trace in the savage obstinacy
of a morose old chimpanzee or orang.
Nor have the attempts to educate savages been
uniformly unsuccessful. The great Indian chief
Tekumseh; the presidents Benito Juarez, and Ramon
Castilla ; the negro Toussaint l’Ouverture; the Hova
king, Eadama I.; the Polynesian rulers, Kameha-
meha II., Pomare I., Georges, and Kokabau, show
what may be made of such materials under favour-
able circumstances. The poor Indian from Oaxaca ;
the steadfast leader Perus, who belonged to a needy
Arriero family ; the Haytian who was formerly driver
on a plantation, are as far removed from aboriginal
savages as the Malagasy and Polynesians educated
by European missionaries.
It is well known that nations, in the earliest
periods of their existence, have to pass through
certain rude conditions of their development, and
the most highly civilized nations are not exempt
from this law. The transition period of the Stone
Age is necessary for all, and with the use of metals
a higher and more cultivated life has been gradually
developed. Even for those who do not recognize
any sharp line of demarcation between the stone298
ANTHROPOID APES.
and metal periods, yet, speaking generally, they will
admit that the times in which stone instruments,
and those in which bronze and iron instruments
were chiefly used, present tokens of actual epochs in
historical culture. As we know, there are also
certain phases of development in the Stone Age. In
its earliest stages the rudely shaped and unworked
tool could not procure for its owner any regular
shelter: he lived in caves, clefts, or under a scanty
covering of leaves, and made use of his tool in
killing wild animals; in cutting wood ; in preparing
skins, tendons, and gourd-vessels ; in dismembering
the prey obtained in hunting; and in extracting
marrow from bones. With the art of shaping and
sharpening these stone tools, a progressive improve-
ment in the conditions of human life went hand in
hand.
We can picture to ourselves the physical and
psychical conditions of the first and earliest men of
the Stone Age as those of extremely rude savages,
but who were endowed with the gift of working out
for themselves higher conditions of life.
In the year 1868 Colonel Laussedat, of the Berlin
Academy of Sciences, exhibited the lower jaw of a
rhinoceros, found in the Miocene at Billy, Allier, in
which there was a notch which must, in the opinion
of many naturalists, have been made by the hand of
man. The Abbe Delaunay found in the Miocene of
Pouance, Maine-et-Loire, the rib of a Halitherium,
which was notched, and which likewise appeared to
have been subjected to human manipulation.
Garrigou is of opinion that certain bones found atSUMMARY.
299
Sansan were broken by the band of man, and
Diicker expressed a similar belief about the fossils
of Pikermi. These ideas have been strongly opposed.
Many of the marks on these bones have been re-
presented to bear traces of the teeth of carnivora,
rodents, etc. The Abbe Bourgeois found flints in
the Miocene of Thenay, near Pont-Levoy, Loir-et-
Cher, of which he ascribes the working to beings
of a higher intelligence than the animals of that
period. This opinion is shared by eminent anthro-
pologists, such as Vibraye, Worsaae, Mortillet, de
Quatrefages, and Hamy. Gaudry does not doubt
the accuracy of the account given of their position
at Thenay, by so experienced a geologist as
Bourgeois. The illustrious observer of the quater-
nary epoch is only concerned with the question
whether these flints at Thenay were artificially
worked or not. The stones were found in a layer of
the same kind of rubble. When a number of such
flints are placed together, only a few people can
discover an incontestible distinction between the
artificially shaped and the unshaped stones. The
alleged presence of shaped flints in the Miocene Age
still demands careful examination. The epoch of
the Middle Miocene is very ancient, and Leberon
distinguishes between fauna found in the limestone
of Beauce and Faluns and those of the Upper
Miocene, of Eppelsheim and Pikermi. According to
this author, the next in succession was the Lower
Pliocene of Montpellier; then the Pliocene of
Perrier, Solilhac, and Coupet. Next came the fauna
of the forest bed at Cromer, and then those of the300
ANTHROPOID APES.
boulder clay. To judge from the Norfolk strata,
these latter were of very loDg duration. Above the
fauna of the boulder clay are those of the diluvium,
followed by the fauna of the reindeer period and of
our own time.
Whatever may be thought of the many changes
which have taken place, whether they are regarded
as the result of distinct and independent creations
or as the result of transformations, no geologist can
doubt that an immense tract of time was required
for the production of these forms. In the Middle
Miocene there is not a single species of mammal
which corresponds to any of our extant species. If
we start from the standpoint of simple palaeontology,
it would be difficult to assume that the being which
shaped the flints at Thenay can have remained un-
altered in the midst of all these changes. If, as
Gaudry remarks, it can be shown that the flints
collected by Bourgeois in the Beauce limestone
were really artificially shaped, he as a geologist
would not hesitate to recognize in the Dryopithecus
the author of this handiwork.*
But, speaking provisionally, the Dryopithecus which
is assumed to have used these flints, and of which we,
unfortunately, know only the little which can be
gleaned from a few fragments of bone, must remain
the object of an interesting hypothesis, so far as his
advanced anthropomorphism is concerned. No an-
thropoid now in existence has shown itself capable
of adapting stones, etc., to his personal use. More-
over, the most fanatical advocates of the doctrine of
* Les Enchainements du monde animal, p. 240.SUMMARY.
301
descent are becoming ever more convinced that man
cannot be the issue of any extant form of anthro-
poids. It is true that a close, and in many respects
a very close, physical connection may be traced
between men and anthropoids, but not the possi-
bility of a direct descent from the one to the other.
This is especially shown from the physical develop-
ment of the larger apes, which only strongly resemble
men in their youthful stages, and lose this character
more and more as they grow older. The absolute
deficiency of any capacity for the further develop-
ment of the intellectual qualities of our modern
species of anthropoids is another proof of this fact;
their intelligence is, indeed, higher than that of
other mammals, and also of other apes, but they are
still far behind the intelligence of man, which is
capable of still further development.
In the process of physical growth, as I feel my-
self compelled often to repeat, anthropoids con-
stantly diverge further from the human organization.
C. Vogt justly observes: “ When we consider the
principles of the modern theory of evolution, as it is,
applied to the history of development, we are met
by the important fact that in every respect the
young ape stands nearer to the human child than
the adult ape does to the adult man. The original
differences between the young creatures of both types
are much slighter than in their adult condition :
this assertion, made long since in my lectures on the
human race, has received a striking confirmation
from recent autopsies of young anthropoids which
have died in the Zoological Gardens of Europe. In
14302
ANTHROPOID APES.
proportion to the age of the specimen, the charac-
teristic differences in the form of the jaw, the
cranial ridges, etc., become more evident. Both
man and apes are developed from an embryonic
condition, and from the period of childhood in a
diverging or almost opposite direction into the final
type of their species, yet even adult apes still retain
in their whole organization features which corre-
spond to those of the human child.” * Quenstedt
also says: “ However much Homo sapiens is raised
by his intelligence above all other animals, however
important the physical differences are which divide
him from apes, yet the scene of their existence in the
world is by no means so wide that, as time goes on,
the narrow limits between them may not approxi-
mate more closely.” f
In these words the opinion I have already
expressed is set forth, an opinion which continues
to gain ground; namely, that man cannot have
descended from any of the fossil species which have
hitherto come to our notice, nor yet from any of the
species of apes now extant. It is more probable
“ that both types have been produced from a com-
mon ground-form, which is still more strongly
expressed in the structure of young specimens,
because the age of childhood is less advanced ”
(Yogt).
This supposed progenitor of our race is neces-
sarily completely hypothetical, and all the attempts
hitherto made to construct even a doubtful repre-
* Die Saugethiere in Wort und Bildy p. 49.
t HancLbuch der Petrefactenkunde, 3rd edit., i. 38 : Tubingen, 1882.SUMMARY.
303
sentation of its characteristics are based upon the
trifling play of fancy.
Darwin came to the conclusion that man has, at
any rate, descended from a highly organized form.
He goes on to say:
“ The grounds upon which this conclusion rests
will never he shaken, for the close similarity be-
tween man and the lower animals in embryonic
development, as well as in innumerable points of
structure and constitution, both of high and of the
most trifling importance, the rudiments which he
retains, and the abnormal reversions to which he is
occasionally liable—are facts which cannot be dis-
puted. They have long been known, but until
recently they told us nothing with respect to the
origin of man. Now, when viewed by the light of
our knowledge of the whole organic world, their
meaning is unmistakable. The great principle of
evolution stands up clear and firm, when these
groups of facts are considered in connection with
others, such as the mutual affinities of the members
of the same group, their geographical distribution
in past and present times, and their geological
succession. It is incredible that all these facts
should speak falsely. He who is not content to
look, like a savage, on the phenomena of nature as
disconnected, cannot any longer believe that man
is the work of a separate act of creation. He will
be forced to admit that the close resemblance of
the embryo of man to that, for instance, of a dog;
the construction of his skull, limbs, and whole
frame, independently of the uses to which the parts304
ANTHROPOID APES.
may be put, on the same plan with that of other
mammals; the occasional reappearance of various
structures—for instance, of several distinct muscles,
which man does not normally possess, but which are
common to the Quadrumana; and a crowd of analo-
gous facts;—all point in the plainest manner to the
conclusion that man is the co-descendant with the
other mamtoals of a common progenitor.” *
“The most ancient progenitors in the kingdom
of the vertebrata,,” observes the same great English
naturalist in another place, “ at which we are able
to obtain an obscure glance, apparently consisted of
a group of marine animals, resembling the larvae
of existing Ascidians. These animals probably gave
rise to a group of fishes as lowly organized as the
lancelet; and from these the Ganoids, and other
fishes like the Lepidosiren, must have been de-
veloped. From such fish a very small advance
would carry us on to the amphibians. We have
seen that birds and reptiles were once intimately
connected together; and the Monotremata now, in
a slight degree, connect mammals with reptiles.
But no one can at present say by what line of
descent the three higher and related classes, namely,
mammals, birds, and reptiles, were derived from
either of the two lower vertebrate classes, namely,
amphibians and fishes. In the class of mammals,
the steps are not difficult to conceive which led from
the ancient Monotremata to the ancient Marsupials;
and from these to the early progenitors of the
placental mammals. We may thus ascend to the
Darwin’s Descent of Man, 1st edit., vol. ii. p. 385.SUMMARY.
305
Lemuridse, and the interval is not wide from these to
the Simiadse. The Simiadse then branched off into
two great stems, the New World and Old World
monkeys; and from the latter, at a remote period,
Man, the wonder and glory of the universe, pro-
ceeded.” *
Setting aside for the present this long pedigree
of man, let us consider some of the isolated phases
which have been established in the still incomplete
condition of modern science. As far as semi-apes
are concerned, whose near relation to men and
apes has of late been strongly urged, I agree with
those who, like Vogt, consider that their order, with
its variety of forms, points to a complex origin,
probably from marsupial animals, with which their
organization presents many common features ; hence
it appears that some of their forms belong to the
earliest Tertiary mammals with which we are well
acquainted. “ In conclusion,” he writes, “ it appears,
from these facts, that any very close connection
between the semi-apes and apes, and hence with
man, cannot be proved. With the exception of the
opposing thumb, which is and was a widely diffused
characteristic common to many species, the semi-
apes have not a single anatomical feature in common
with apes. Their jaw, the most permanent charac-
teristic, places them in the insectivorous class; to
enroll them among the ancestors of man is to set
at nought all the principles of scientific research.” f
That purely hypothetical being, the common
* Darwin’s Descent of Man, i. p. 212.
t Die Saugethiere in Wort und Bild, p. 67.306
ANTHROPOID APES.
ancestor of man and apes, is still to be found, and
this is the task assigned to palaeontology. Whether
this science, to which a great future belongs, will
ever accomplish the task, is a question which con-
cerns itself. Meanwhile, considering the great
palaeontological achievements of our day, the dis-
covery of the Odontornithes, JEtosauri, PJia mphorynchi,
Holoptychia, etc., we need not despair of the possi-
bility of discovering the true link between the
world of man and mammals. This purely specula-
tive side of research, this purely scientific mode of
treating the descent of man, is no longer satisfied
with unproved assertions, but will rather trust to
the strenuous labour of future times, and this need
not disturb any religious or political convictions.
Even if the assumed ancestral type should really be
discovered in some geological stratum, yet research
will have to overcome immense difficulties, if it is to
explain the development of the understanding and
of speech, and the growth of independent human
intelligence. Yet we must not, on this account,
refuse to recognize the possibility of achieving some
new discoveries in this direction. To do so would
be to stifle the impulse to scientific research, and
this would be unworthy of our former intellectual
achievements. Let us therefore labour on with
courage.
In matters which concern ethnology we are con-
stantly shown that even those races of men which
are very remote from each other, and of whom it
cannot be supposed that they were in earlier times
united in one nation, have made the same technicalSUMMARY.
307
discoveries, and have adopted similar manners and
customs and similar religious observances. This
allows us to infer that there is a physical and
psychical unity of human nature which indeed
separates into races and varieties, but not into
distinct species. Certain tokens of what is hypo-
thetically the primeval type will predominate even
in the progeny which has been modified by a distinct
and separate development, and we need not be
surprised by reversions to the animal structure,
even in man, the ultimate scope of organic develop-
ment. Nor will the developed culture of man offer
any hindrance to such reversions. The theromorphic
conditions which we have pointed out in the third
chapter of this work, such as the frontal process of
the squamous temporal portion, the transverse
enlargement of the occipital bone, the pointed
ear, etc., occur both in the higher and lower races
of man ; just as, for example, both in primitive and
high-bred races of horses there are reversions to
fossil forms in hind toes, cloven hoofs, etc.
Not only the physical, but the mental develop-
ment of man advances uniformly, and not per saltum.
Physical qualities and defects may occur in a given
number of negroes and Papuans, and may be absent
in an equal number of Europeans, and conversely
may occur in the one and be absent in the other;
yet, in their mental condition, negroes and Papuans
must always be regarded as in a lower order than
Europeans. And if physical superiority is more
widely diffused in European peoples than elsewhere,
owing to higher culture, less exposure, and better308
ANTHROPOID APES.
nourishment, a more regular mode of life, and often
also to the sexual selection prompted by aesthetic
considerations, yet the reversion to such animal
characteristics as do not exercise any modifying
influence on the bodily development of the indi-
vidual, occurs both in these and other races. I
conclude these remarks with the reproduction of the
fine passage with which Darwin ends his work on
the descent of man.
“ Man may be excused for feeling some pride at
having risen, though not through his own exertions,
to the very summit of the organic scale ; and the
fact of his having thus risen, instead of having been
aboriginally placed there, may give him hopes for
a still higher destiny in the distant future. But we
are not here concerned with hopes or fears, only with
the truth, as far as our reason allows us to discover it.
I have given the evidence to the best of my ability :
and we must acknowledge, as it seems to me, that man,
with all his noble qualities; with sympathy which
feels for the most debased ; with benevolence which
extends not only to other men, but to the humblest
living creature; with his god-like intellect, which
has penetrated into the movements and constitution
of the solar system ;—with all these exalted powers,
man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible
stamp of his lowly origin.”APPENDIX.
It was after I had finished this treatise that Mohnike’s
Bliclce auf das Pflanzen-und Thierleben in den indischen
Malaienlandern (Munster, 1883) came into my hands.
The author, who was for several years physician
and medical superintendent in the Dutch Indies, has
given an interesting account of the orang-utan. It
appears that this animal is only found in the northern
part of Sumatra, and is more common on the western
than on the eastern coast. Even there the orang is
only occasionally captured. The Dyaks of Borneo are
fond of the flesh of this ape, which they shoot, especially
in the interior of the island, with poisoned darts,
projected from a blow-pipe. The wounded part is
then carefully cut out.
Mohnike states that in Borneo Hylobates concolor is
called Ouo-ouo by the Malays, and Kalawet by the
Dyaks. Dark specimens of Hylobates variegatus are in
the Malay dialect called itam, or black Unko, and light
specimens are called pair, or white Unko. A good illus-
tration of Hylobates leucogenys is given in the Proceedings
of the Zoological Society, p. 680, Plate 42 : London, 1877.
It should be added to what I have said in the text,310
APPENDIX.
that the uvula of the orang-utan is often absent (Bischoff,
Beitrage zur Anatomie des Gorilla, p. 37; and Kiickart,
Der Pharynx ah Sprach-und Schluch apparat, p. 24,
plate iii. fig. 10: Munich, 1882. I have, however,
examined a specimen in which the uvula was quite
perceptible, as well as the palate and arched root of the
tongue.
In addition to the lower jaw from Naulette, of which
I have spoken above, the fragment of a lower jaw
has lately been found in the Schiplca cave, Moravia,
declared by Schaaffhausen to be that of an ape-like child.
Virchow has carefully examined this fragment, aiid
considers that it belongs to an adult of the mammoth
age, who suffered from retention of the teeth, and that
there is nothing pithecoid about it. The same author
subjected the Naulette jaw, which he has repeatedly
examined in Brussels, to a close analysis, and is some-
what disposed to admit the pithecoid character of this
specimen (Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic, p. 277 : 1882).
R. Baume, on the other hand, considers that both the
Naulette jaw and that from the Schipka cave are
pithecoid forms. He finds in these two specimens the
actual proof of the existence of man-apes in the diluvial
period, since they differ widely, in the form of the lower
jaw, from any living specimens. This author is of
opinion that in the diluvial period there must have
been races of men far inferior to the lowest races now
in existence (Die Kieferfragmente von La Naulette und
aus der Schiphahohle, Leipzig, 1883).
See Hartmann, Sitzungsbericlit der Gescllschaft natur-
forschender Freunde zu Berlin, November 19, 1878, for
remarks on the tendon, the blood-vessels of the shoulder
and thigh in anthropoids, in addition to those given in
the text.AUTHORITIES FOR CHAPTER I.
(1)	“ Hinc (i.e. ®eu>v o^fia) tridui navigations tor-
rentes igneos prastervecti in sinum venimus, qui Noti
Ceras dicitur (Notou Kepas). In sinus reeessu insula erat
priori, illi sirnilis; nam laoum habebat, in quo insula
erat altera, referta hominibus silvestribus. Erant
autem mnlto plures mulieres hirsutis corporibus, quas
interpretes Gorillas (TopiAAos) vocabaut. Nos perse-
quentes viros quidem capere non potuimus, omnes enim
effugiebant quum per praecipitia scanderent et saxis se
defenderent; sed feminas cepimus-tres, quaa mordentes
et lacerantes ductores sequi nolebant. Atque occidimus
eas et pelles detraotas asportavimus Carthaginem.
Neque enim ulterius navigavimus, quum annona de-
ficeret ” (Hannonis Carthaginiensis Periplus. Geo-
grapbi Grfeci Minores, ed. C. Muelleri, vol. i.).
(2)	Comp. Temminok, Esquisses zoologiques sur la
cote de Guinee (Leiden, 1853), p. 3.
(3)	Marc, de Series first directed the attention of
naturalists to this mosaic. Comp. Froriep, Notizen zur
Natur-und Heilkunde, book 42. It has been frequently
said that the original of this mosaic is in the Museum
of Antiquities at Berlin. Undoubtedly the mosaic in
question also consists of a landscape with hippopotami,
crocodile, etc., but it cannot be compared with that of312
AUTHORITIES FOR CHAPTER I.
Palestrina, which is to my knowledge in the Barberini
palace at Rome.
(4)	See the Natural History of the younger Pliny,
ii. 172; vii. 2.
(5)	Regnum Congo: hoc est Vera Descriptio Regni
Africani quod tam ab incolis quam Lusitanis Congus
appellatur, per Philippum Pigafettam, olim ex Edoarilo
Lopez acromatis lingua ltalica excerpta, nunc Latio
sermone donata ah Aug. Cassiod. Reinio. Iconibus
et imaginibus rerum memorabilium quasi vivis, opera
et industria Joan. Theod. et Joan. Israelis de Bry,
fratrum exornata (Francofurti, mdxcviii.).
(6)	Abhandlungen derKonigl. Bayrischen Akademie
der Wissenschafton (iii. cl. ix. div. 1).
(7)	A voyage to Congo and several other countries
in Southern Africa, Church collection of voyages and
travels (London, 1744), i. 651.
(8)	Relation d’un voyage fait en 1695-97 aux cotes
d’Afrique, etc. (Paris, 1699).
(9)	Nouveau voyage en Guinee, p. 74.
(10)	Observationes Medic® (Amsterdam), § 56. I
have recently had occasion to doubt whether Tulpe’s
representation of an ape is not founded on that of an
orang-utan of average size. At any rate, the head of
the animal given by this anatomist reminds me more
of an orang than of a chimpanzee.
(11)	The Anatomy of a Pygmy, compared with that
of .a Monkey, an Ape, and a Man. With an Essay con-
cerning the Pygmies, etc., of the Ancients (edit, i,,
London, 1699; edit, ii., 1751).
(12)	Purchas, His Pilgrims. I have made use of
the edition published in London in 1625 (vul. ii. 982).
(13)	Besehryvinge des Afrikaensche gewesten van
Egypten, Barbaryen, Lybien, Biledulgerid, Negrosland,
Ethiopien, Abyssinie, etc. (Amsterdam, 1688 ; edit. ii.
1679). I have made use of the German version of 1760.AUTHORITIES FOR CHAPTER I.
313
(14)	The name Quojas Morrou is also -used by
Tulpe. A living specimen of these animals was given
by Dapper to Prince Frederick Henry of Orange, and
is perhaps the one described by Tulpe.
(15)	Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashanti
(London, 1819: trans. Weimar, 1820; Vienna, 1826).
1 have made use of the latter translation.
(16)	Trans, of the Zoolog. Sue., vol. iii., 1848: On a
new species of Chimpanzee, by Professor Owen.
(17)	A description of the external characters and
habits of Troglodytes Gorilla, by Ph. S. Savage, and
of the osteology of the same, by Jeffreys Wyman
(Journal of Nat. Hist., Boston, 1847, vol. v.).
(18)	Th. Savage: Notice of Troglodytes Gorilla, a
new species of Orang on the Gaboon (Boston, 1847).
Comp. Kneeland in Proc. of the Boston Soc. of Nat.
Hist., 1850, 1852.
(19)	Osteographie (Paris, 1839-64). Atlas, vol. iv.,
Mammiferes, plate i.
(20)	Archives du Museum d’Histoire Naturelle de
Paris, vol. x.
(21)	Ibid., vol. viii.
(22)	An impression on steel: A mode of photo-
graphic illustration used by Niepce de St. Victor,
which has since been materially improved.
(23)	Der Gorilla, etc. A coloured illustration by
G. Miitzel, plate i.
(24)	Adventures and explorations in Equatorial
Africa (London, 1861). A journey to Ashango Land
(London, 1867). The country of the Dwarfs (London,
1872).
(25)	Beade, Savage Life : being the narrative of a
tour in Equatorial, South-Western, and North-Western
Africa, etc. (London, 1863). Brehm, Thierleben, edit, i.,
i. 16. See also Hartmann, Der Gorilla, p. 4.
(26)	Observations on Du Chaillu’s papers on the314
AUTHORITIES FOR CHAPTER L
new species of mammals discovered by him in Equa-
torial Africa: Proceed, of the Zool. Soc., London, 1861.
(27)	Proceed, of the Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist., 1860.
See also Du Chaillu’s Adventures and Explorations,
chap. 22; and Beichenbach’s Vollstandigste Natur-
geschichte der Affen (Dresden and Leipzig), p. 196.
(28)	Description of cranium of an adult male gorilla
from the River Danger, indicative of a variety of the
great chimpanzee (Troglod. Gorilla) : Trans, of Zoolog.
Soc., London, vol. iv., 1853. Memoir on the Gorilla
(London, 1865):	well illustrated. Odontography
(London, 1840-45). Article on Teeth, by Todd and
Bowman, in the Cyclopedia of Anatomy and Physi-
ology, vol. iv. part ii. Lectures on the comparative
anatomy and physiology of Vertebrata (London, 1866-
68, vol. iii.).
(29)	Burton’s Two Trips to the Gorilla land, and
the cataracts of the Nile (London, 1876).
(30)	Compiegne’s L’Afrique Equatoriale (Paris,
1875; Gabonais, p. 260).
(31)	De Brazza’s Le Tour du Monde, Annee 1878,
No. 936.
(32)	Lenz’s Skizzen aus Westafrika (Berlin, 1878),
p. 171.
(33)	Die Loango Expedition, pt. ii., by Falkenstein,
p. 149.
(34)	Koppenfels’ Die Gartenlaube (1877), No. 25.
(35)	Zoologiska Studier, Andra Haftet. (Lund, 1857).
(36)	Revue d’Anthropologie (1876), p. 1, eto.
(37)	The Medical Times, 1872.
(38)	Descrizione di una scimmia antropomorfa pro-
veniente dall’ Africa centrale, in den Annali del Museo
Civico di Genova, i. 53.
(39)	Studii craniologici sui Cimpanze. Ibid., iii. 3.
(40)	Proceedings of the Academy of Nat. Sciences
(Philadelphia, 1879), pt. iii. p. 385.AUTHORITIES FOR CHAPTER I.
315
(41)	On the Appendicular Skeleton of the Primates:
Philosophical Transactions (1867), 299.
(41a) Macalister’s Muscular Anatomy of the Gorilla :
Proceedings of the Eoyal Irish Academy of Science,
2nd series, vol. i.
(42)	Ueber die Schadelform des Menschen und der
Affen, Leipzig, 1867.
(43)	Die Hand und der Fuss. Ahhandlungen der
Senokenbergischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft, vol.v.
(44)	Arckiv. fur Anthropologie, viii. 67.
(45)	Abhandl. aus dem Gebiete der Naturwissen-
schaften, herausgeg. vom Naturwis. Verein zu Hamburg-
Altona (Hamburg, 1876), pp. 74-83.
(46)	Ibid., p. 84, etc.
(47)	Die anthropomorphen Affen des liibecker Mu-
seums (Liibeck, 1876).
(48)	Mittheilungen aus dem konigl. Zoolog. Museum
zu Dresden (1877), No. 2, p. 225.
(49)	Der Gorilla, mit Beriicksiehtigung des Unter-
schiedes zwischen Menschen und Affen, etc. Denk-
schriftdes Ofifenbacher Vereins fur Naturkunde (Offen-
bach, 1863).
(50)	Ueber die Yerschiedenheit in der Schadelbildung
des Gorilla, Chimpanse und Orang-utan, etc. (Miin-
chen, 1867). Yergleichende anatomische Untersuch-
ungen iiber die aussern weiblichen Geschlechts-und
Begattungsorgane des Menschen und der Affen. Ab-
handl. der konigl. bayrischen Akad. d. Wissensch., cl.
ii. vol. xiii. plate ii. Beitiage zur Anatoinie des
Gorilla. Ibid. cl. ii. vol. xiii. plate iii.
(51)	Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Gorilla und Cliim-
panse. Abhandl. der K. Gesellsch. der Wissensch. Got-
tingen, vol. 28.
(52)	Ueber den Schadel des jungen Gorilla. Monats-
berichte der konigl. Akademie der Wissensch. zu
Berlin (June 7, 1880), p. 516.316
AUTHORITIES FOR CHAPTER I.
(53)	Studien ans dem Gebiete der Naturwissensch.,
plate ii. (Petersburg, 1876), v. 235.
(54)	Various works on the gorilla under the follow-
ing titles :—Beitrage zur Kenntniss der sogen. anthro-
pomorphen Affen, Zeitsohrift fur Ethnologie, series iv.
198; viii. 129; ix. 117. Ueber das Hiiftgelenk der
anthropoiden Affen. Sitzungsber der Gesellsch. Natur-
forsch. Freunde zu Berlin, April 17, 1877. Ueber den
Torus occipitalis transversus am Hinterhauptbeine des
Menschen; Ibid., Nov. 26,1880. Die menschenahnlichen
Affen, No. 247 of the Sammlung gemeinverstandlicher
wissensch. Vortrage, by Virchow and Holtzendorff,p. 11.
(55)	Vogt’s Vorlesungen iiber den Menschen (Giessen,
1863).
(56)	L’homme et les singes. Bulletin de la Societe
d’Anthropologie, vol. iv. series ii., 1870.
(57)	Magitot, Bulletin de la Soc. d’Ethnographie de
Paris, 1872.
(58)	Gesammelte Werke. A. d. Engl, von J. V. Caras,
v. 1, 2 (Stuttgart, 1875).
(59)	Gervais’s Hist. Nat. des Mammiferes (Paris,
1854), vol. i. p. 27.
(60)	Huxley’s Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated
Animals (London, 1871).
(61)	Flower’s Introduction to the Osteology of the
Mammalia (London, 1870).
(62)	Giebel’s Odontographie. Vergleichende Dar-
stellung des Zahnsystems der lebenden und fossilen
Wirbelthiere (Leipzig, 1855).
(63)	Proceed, of the Zoolog. Soc (London, 1876).
(64)	Hist. Nat. generate et particuliere, vol. 35
(Paris).
(65)	I quote here the passage which Bosnian has
taken from the foregoing work by Buffon: “ Les singes
que l’on appelle smitten (forgerons) en flamand, sont
de couleur fauve, et deviennont extremement grands:AUTHORITIES FOR CHAPTER I.
317
j’en ai vu un de mes propres yeux qni avait cinq pieds
de haut et de bien moins grand que l’homme. Ils sont
mechants et tree forts; un marchand m’a conte, que dans
le yoisinage du fort de Wimba, le pays est occupe par
un tres-grand nombre de ces singes, qui sont de force
a attaquer l’homme, ce dont on citait des exemples.”
Bosnian goes on to speak of another species of ape in
the same district, which is as hideous as those of the
larger kind (Bi schrijving van Guine (1737), p. 34;
Voyage de dfuinee, p. 258).
(66)	Comp, on this point Huxley’s very lucid re-
marks in his work on the position of man in nature.
(67)	Le Jardin des Plantes, by Bernard, Couailhac,
Gervais and Lemaout (Paris, 1842), i. 82.
(68)	Ibid., p. 83, together with the illustration.
(69)	Copied by Chenu, Enoycl. d’Hist. Nat. Quad-
rumanes (Paris, 1851), plate i. fig. 36. By Gervais,
Hist. Nat. des Mammiferes (Paris, 1854), i. 16, 22.
By A. B. Beiehenbach, Praktische Naturgesch. des
Menschen und der Saugethiere (New edit., Leipzig),
plate i. fig. 4. H. G. L. Beiehenbach, Die Voll-
standigste Naturgesch. der Affen (Dresden and Leip-
zig), plate xxxiv., fig. 466; etc.
(70)	J. B. Brehm’s Thierleben (Leipzig, 1876), i.
46, 68.
(71)	Hartmann, Der Gorilla, etc. Woodcuts, Nos.
vi., vii., viii., xiii.
(72)	Beobachtungen an zwei lebenden Chimpanse, by
H. Tiedemann, Philadelphia. Nach brieflichen Mitthei-
lungen bearbeitet by L. Bisclioff (Bonn, 1879).
(73)	Temminck’s Esquisse Zoologique, pt. i., etc.
(74)	Vrolik, Bechercbes d’anatomie comparee sur le
Chimpanse (Amsterdam, 1841).
(75)	On the muscles and nerves of a Chimpanzee,
etc. (Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, series ii.
1871, p. 176).318
AUTHORITIES FOR CHAPTER L
(76)	Briilil, Myologisches iiber die Extremitaten des
Chimpanse (Wiener Medicin. Wochenschrift. Jahrg.
1817).
(77)	Ontleedkundige nasporingen over de hersenen
van den Chimpanse (Amsterdam, 1849).
(78)	Des caracteres anatomiques des grands singes
pseudo-anthropomorphes, Archives du Museum, vol. viii.
Yergleiohung der Anatomie des Gorilla mit derjenigen
des Chimpanse : very well illustrated.
(79)	Eecherches sur l’anatomie du Troglodytes
Aubryi (Nouvelles Archives du Museum d’Histoire
Naturelle. Memoires, vol. ii.).
(80)	Mittheilungen aus dem konigl. Zoologischen
Museum zu Dresden, No. 2 (Dresden, 1877).
(81)	Comp, the works cited in note 54. Also Hart-
mann, Beitrage zur Zoologischen und Zootomischen
Kenntniss der sogenannten anthropomorphen Affen.
Archiv. fur Anatomie, Physiologie, etc., by Reichert
and Du Bois-Reymond. Series for the years 1872-76,
with many plates, some of them chromo-lithographs.
(82)	Description de l’espece de singe aussi singulier
que tres rare, nomme Orang-Outang, de l’isle de Borneo.
Apporte vivant dans la menagerie de M. le Prince
d’Orange. Description d’un recueil exquis d’animaux
rares, etc. (Amsterdam, 1804). The plates, represent-
ing the orang, which accompany this work are not
badly done.
(83)	Yerhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genoot-
schap. Tweede Deel. (Derde Druk, 1826).
84. Beschrijving van der groote Borneosche Orang-
outang of de Oostindische Pongo. Ibid. Also Briofe
des Herrn v. Wurmb und des Herrn Baron v. Wollzogen
(Gotha, 1794).
(85) General and particular descriptions of the ver-
tebrated animals; order quadrumana (London, 1831) :
with coloured plates.AUTHORITIES FOR CHAPTER L
319
(86)	Monographies de Mammalogie, vol. ii.
(87)	Verhandelingen over de natuurlijke geschiedenis
der Nederlandsche overzeesche besittingen (1839-46).
Zoologie, p. 1.
(88)	Description des mainmiferes nouveaux ou im-
parfaitement connus de la collection du Museum
d’histoire naturelle. Nouv. Archives du Museum, etc.,
ii. 485.
(89)	Annals and Magazine of Natural History (1842),
ix. 54.	*
(90)	Calcutta Government Gazette, Jan. 13, 1853.
Asiatic Researches, xv. 489, 491.
(91)	Wallace’s Malay Archipelago.
(92)	Naturgeschichte des Orang-Utan und einiger
anderer Affenarten. Herbell (Diisseldorf, 179]).
(93)	On the Comparative Osteology of the Orang-
utan and Chimpanzee : London and Edinburgh Philo-
soph. Magazine, vi. 457 ; x. 259. Trans, of the Zoolog.
Soe. of London, i. pt. iv.
(94)	Archiv. fur Anatomie, Physiologie, etc., 1836,
p. 46 ; 1839, p. 209.
(95)	L. s. cit.
(96)	Yier Abbildungen des Schadels der Simia
Satyrus von verschiedenem Alter zur Aufklarung der
Eabel vom Oran-Utan (Marburg, 1838).
(97)	Note sur les metamorphoses du crane de l’Orang-
Outang, Bulletins de l’Academie de Bruxelles (1838).
Annales des Sciences Naturelles (1839), p. 56.
(98)	Zur Kenntniss des Orangkopfes und der Oran-
garten (Wien, 1856).
(99)	Die Muskulatur der Extremitaten als Grundlage
einer vergleichend-myologisehen Untersuchung.
(100)	L. s. c., Eig. 42, plate vii.
(101)	L. s. c., plate i. p. 30 (left figure).
(102)	Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic (1876), vol. 15.
Brehm’s Thierleben, i. 83.320
AUTHOKITIES FOR CHAPTER I.
(103)	Copied in Cassell’s Natural History, i. 8 (52),
with the erroneous title, “ Sick Chimpanzee.”
(104)	Naturhistorische Friichte der ersten kais.
russischen Erdumsegelung (Petersburg, 1813), p. 130.
(105)	Le regne animal (nouv. edit.), i. 88.
(106)	Is. Geoff. Saint-Hilaire et F. Cuvier, Hist.
Nat. des matnmiferes (Paris, 1819-35), plate iii. fig. 4.
(107)	Wanderings in New South Wales (London,
1834), vol. ii. chap. viii.
(108)	Man and Monkeys (London, 1840), p. 423.
(109)	Boston Journal of Nat. Hist., i.
(110)	See work cited in note 83.
(111)	See work cited in note 63, p. 140.
(112)	Hist. Nat, des Singes (Paris, an. ix.), p. 154
(113)	Archives du Museum d’Hist. Nat., v. 529.
(114)	Blyth in Journal of the Asiatic Soc., 1846, xv.
172; Ibid., 1847, xvi. 730.
(115)	Proceed, of the Zoolog. Soc. of London, xiv. 11.
(116)	Beitrage zur Anatomie des Hylobates leuciscus.
From the Proceedings of the Bavarian Academy of
Science, 2nd series, vol. x. plate iii.INDEX
A
A-Bantu, 86
Abel, 10
Abors, 253
Aeby, 6, 130, 131, 206
Africa, 90
African negroes, pithecoid struc-
ture of, 86
Aidanill, 88
Ainos, 96
Alix, 9, 149, 207, 213
Angola, 225
Anthropoid apes, development of
acquaintance with, 1; external
form of, 11; external and anu-
tnmical structure of, compared
with the human, 55; ears of,
and men, 89; neck of, 100;
trunk of, 100; carpus of, 102 ;
hand of, 102; upper limbs of,
102 ; skull of, 107; vertebral
column of, and men, 125;
humerus of, 131; tibia of, 137 ;
hinder extremities of, 145;
muscular system of, 150; skin
of head of, 156; clavicle of,
160; digestive system of, 181;
teeth of, 182; tongue of, 182;
vertebral column of, 182; liver
of, 187 ; stomach and intestines
of, 187; spleen of, 188; sexual
organs of, 190; brain of, 192;
nervous system of, 192; peri-
pheral, 207; vascular system
of, 208; structure of, 210;
varieties in the form of, 210;
geographical distribution,habits
in a state of nature, and native
names of, 225 ; life in captivity
of, 257; position of, in the
zoological system, 285.
Anthropomorphism of gorilla,
orang, chimpanzee, and gib-
bon,_ 290
Ascliangolo, 236
Aschira, 240
Ashanti, 86
Astarte, temple of, 2
Authorities for Chapter I., 311
Australian blacks, 86, 96
B
Baboon, 11, 92
Baker, 122
Ballone, river, 88
Bam (Troglodytes nujer), 222, 237
Banya, 237
Biir, K. E. von, 6, 143
Bari, 86
Bartels, 96
Bastian, Ch., 192, 197
Battel, 3, 8
Bennet, 10
Beyrich, 285
Biceps of anthropoids, 165
Bischoff, 6, 78, 152, 167, 188INDEX.
322
Blainville, D. de, 4,134
Blyth, 10
Bock, 45, 241, 284
Bolau, 7,188, 260
Bond, 87
Borneo, 241
Bosnian, 8
Boucher de Perthes, 119
Bourgeois, 299
Bouvier, 210
Bowdich, E., 4
Brain of apes, 192
lirazza, De, 6, 235
Brebm, A. E., 6, 9, 217
Brooke, 10
Brosse, 269
Briihl, 10, 58, 78, 150, 176
Broca, 110
Broderip, 269
Buala, plateau of, 226
Buchholz, 235, 258
Buchta, 107
Bufifon, 8, 267
Burmeister, 101
Burton, B., 6
Bushmen, 87
Busu, Bakalaya, 236
O
Cacheu, 237
Camaroon river, 225
Carpus of anthropoid apes, 102
Catharcludi, land of, 2
Champneys, 9
Chapman, 6, 164
Cbenu, 10
Chimpanzee, 2, 8, 29, 33, 58, 91,
219, 237, 267; anthropomor-
phism of, 290
Cliimpeze'e, 8
Chinehoxo, 7
Chudzinsky, 165
Clavicle of anthropoids, 160
Colobus, 286
Compiegne, A. de, 6, 235
Congo, 226
Cuvier, G., 10, 45, 50
D
Dabulamanzi, 86
Dahlbom, 6, 9
Dahomey, 86
Danger, river, 225
Dapper, O., 4
Darwin, 7, 91, 97, 157, 303, 308
Delaunay, 298
Deve'ria, A., 5
Diard, 10, 45, 252
Digestive system of anthropoids,
181
Dippel, 148
Dryopithecus, 2S6
Du Chaillu, 6, 215, 227, 257
Duchenne, 154
Diieker, Von, 299
Dumortier, 10
Duncan, P. M., 220
Durand, 122
Duvaucel, 10, 50, 254
Duvernoy, 6, 149, 172, 215
Dyaks, 245; of Dusun, 251
E
Ears of anthropoids and men, 89
Ecker, 6, 96
Ehlers, 6, 7,153, 188
Eliva, lake, 236
Engeco, 4
Eyelids of anthropoids and of
man, 94
F
Fan, 236
Falkenstein, 7, 219, 260
Femur of mammals, 136
Flower, 6, 142
Foot of anthropoids, 22
Ford, 5, 225
Fortuna, temple of, 2
Four-handed, rejection of the
term, 146
Frnnquet, 5
Froger, 3
Froriep, 126INDEX,
323
G
Gaboon district, 5, 226, 210
Galloa, 240
Gamba, 154
Garrau mountains, 253
Garrigou, 298
Gaudry, 285, 299
Gautier Laboulaye, 5
Gegenbaur, 134
Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 5, 9
Geograpliical distribution of an-
thropoids, 225 ,
Gervais, 7, 9
Ghauts, 87 .
Gibbon, antbropomorpliism of, 290
Gibbon, skeleton of, 81
Gibbon (Kylobat.es), 11, 45, 251,
281
-----H. cilbimanus, 49, 282
-----K. entelloidei, 52
-----K. funereus, 54, 283
-----B. Boolocle, 52, 282
-----B. Lar ayilis, 45, 50, 283
----- 11. leuciscus, 51
-----II. leucogenys, 53
—— //. pileatus, 53
-----H. Itofflesii, 52
Giebel, 7
Giglioli, 6, 9
Glover, 86
Gorilla, 12, 26, 55, 60, 210, 225,
257; skull of an aged male, 56;
skull of young male, 60 ; skele-
ton of aged male, 65; skeleton
of female, 68
Gorilla, anthropomorphism of, 290
Grandpre", 268
Gratiolet, 9, 152, 199, 209
Gray, 214
Griffith, E., 10
Gruber, 111, 135, 175
Gulliver, 10
Gulnarber, 89
Giissfeldt, 228
H
Habit of anthropoids in a state of
nature, 225
Haeckel, 6, 107, 146, 291
Hair, growth of, in man and an-
thropoids, 96
Hamadryas (Cynocephalue), 251
Hand of anthropoids, 102; muscles
of, 166
Hanno, 1
Harlan, 253, 281
Hausanese, 86
Head, skin of, 156; musoles of,
151
Henle, 153
Hermes, 7, 243, 269, 283
Heusingcr, 10
Hoeven, Van der, 103
Holl, 128
Hooker, 97
Human foot, skeleton of, 140
Human structure compared with
that of anthropoid apes, 55
Humerus of gorilla, 131
Huxley, 111, 143, 176, 190
Hyrtl, 111
I
Ibos, natives of, 86
Ihering, H. von, 207
Issel, 222
J
Japanese,-the, 87
Jeffreys Wyman, 5, 215
Jockos, 8
K
Kamma, 240
lilebs, 205
Kolk, Van der, 9
Koolo-Kamba, the anthropoid, 221
Koppenfels, H. von, 6, 219, 231
Kotaringin, 241
Krause, K., 192, 202
Kuilu, 226, 237324
INDEX.
L
Lainier, 214
Lambdoidal suture, 58
Langer, 10, 173
Laopithecus, 287
Lartet, 286
Larynx, 188
Laussedat, 298
Lewis, 10
Lenz, H., 6, 9, 235, 258
Life in captivity of anthropoid
apes, 257
Ligaments of anthropoids, 146
Ligaments, 187
Limbs of anthropoids, 102
Liver of anthropoid apes, 187
Livingstone, 223, 240
LoaDgo, 7, 226, 237
Lopez, Ed., 3
Lucae, 6
Lucan, 210
Luemme, 226, 237
M
Macacu, 92
Macalister, 152
Mafuca, 95, 215, 240
Magitot, 7
Mahakkam, 250
Malays, 87, 250
Malacca peninsula, 53
Malimba, people of, 240
Malzac, A. de, 220
Mammals, femur of, 136
Mammals, systematic scheme of,
288
Mandril, 3
Mandjaruma, 222
Martens, Von, 251
Martin, W. L., 221
Marti us, Von, 294
Max, G., 10, 281
Maximilian of Neuwied, Prince,
294
Mayombe, 228
Meckel, J. F., 147
Meias, 251
Merolla, 3
Meyer, A. B., 6, 216
Meyer, B., 93
Meyer, R., 6
Miklucho Maclay, 89, 94
Mivart, F., 6
Mpongwe, 236, 240
Miiller, 10, 247
Muni (Mooney), 225
Mirenhas, 294
Muscular system of anthropoid
apes, 150
Miitzel, 10, 25
N
Naga, 253
Nathusius, H. von, 13
Native names of anthropoids, 225
Ndjeko (nschego), 4, 215, 220, 239
Niam-Niam, 86, 240
Nervous system of anthropoids, 192
Neck of anthropoids, 100
Ntondo, village of, 227
Nuehr, 86
O
Obongo, 294
Ogowe, 6, 225
Orang-utan, anthropomorphism
of, 290
Orang-utan, 8, 11, 41,-43, 91, 223,
242, 273; skull of, 76; skeleton
of, 76, 79
Ornsteiu, 96
Orungu, 240
Owen, R., 7, 25, 143, 226, 286
P
Pansch, 6, 197, 260
Pechuel-l.osche, 226, 229
Papuans, 87
Pedro da Ciutra, 3
Pelvis of anthropoids, 130
Penaud, 5
Petit, 210INDEX.
325
Pigafetta, P., 3
Platysma myoides. 159
Plinius, 2
Pliopithecus, 286
Pongo, 4
Ponta-Negra, 226
Primarily 288
Prince, Mrs., 5
Protopithecus, 287
Pi'uner-Bey, 7, 114
Q
Quatrefages, 117
Quenstedt, 286, 302
Quojae morrau, 4
R
Rademacher, 10
Reade, W., 235, 258
Reich enbach, 9
Retzius, 60, 104
Rolleston, 197
Rusenberg, 126, 135, 172, 242
Rousseau, 5
S
Sachs, Dr., 110
Sadong, 241
Sambas, 241
Sarawak, 241
Satyrs, 2
Savage, Dr., 4, 227
Schaaffhausen, 205
Schilluk, 86
Schlegel, 10, 247
Schweinfurth, 220, 238
Scott, J., 97
Semnopiihecus, 285
Sexual organs of anthropoids, 190
Siam, 53
Siamang 252
Siebold, 9
Simiina, 28
Skeleton of human foot, 140
15
Skeleton of aged male gorilla, 65;
of female gorilla, 68; structure
of, 107
Skeleton of chimpanzee, 73
Skin of head of anthropoids, 156
Skull of adult chimpanzee, 72
Skull of aged male gorilla, 56; of
young male gorilla, 60
Skull of orang-utan, 77; of anthro-
poids, 107
Smith, W„ 3.
Soko, 240
Spengel, 114
Spleen of anthropoids, 188
Stieda, 111
Structure of anthropoid apes. 210
Stomach of anthropoid apes, 187
Sumatra, 241, 252
Simgi-Kapajan, 241
T
Tapanoli, 242
Teeth of anthropoids, 182
Temminck, 10
Teweh, 241
Throat pouch, 161
Thorax of anthropoids, 131
Tibia of anthropoids, 137
Tiedemann, 150
Tilesius, 10
Tongue of anthropoids, 182
Traill, Dr., 267
Trinchese, Salvatore, 92
Troglodytes Gorilla, 5
Trunk of anthropoids, 100
Tscheladas(Ct/nocrpft«!us Gtled«),
250
Tschissambo, 237
Tulpe, N. von, 3, 8
Tyson, E., 3, 9
U
Unko, (Ht/lobates Eafflesii), 52,
252326
INDEX.
Y
W
Vascular Bystem of anthropoids,
208
Velins, 10
Vertebrae, cervical, of chimpanzee,
73
Vertebral column of anthropoids
and men, 182
Virchow, R., 6, 58, 96, 111, 114,
138 202
Vogt,C., 7, 204, 218, 301
Vosmaer, 10
Vrolik, 9, 207
Waldeyer, 136
Wallace, 10, 99,158, 223, 244, 273
Wau-wau (Hylobates agilii), 45,
50, 253
Welcker, 126, 147
Wilson, 5
Wimba, Fort, 8
Woolner, 91
Wurmb, 10
Z
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