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SUBMARINE BOATS.

BY

G. W. HOVGAARD,

LIEUTENANT IN THE DANISH NAVY.

 

E, & F, N. SPON, 125, STRAND, LONDON.
NEW YORK: 35, ce it STREET.
1887. 6"
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UNIVERSITY)
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PREFACE.

—0 See

So much has been done of late towards develop-
ing the submarine vessel, that it appears that at
present we are not very far from the practical
solution of this interesting problem. Many en-
gineers, as well as naval men and business people
and others, must be interested in this matter, but
as yet no work on this subject has appeared by
which people, without spending too much time
upon it, may be able to form an idea of what has
already been done in this line, how the matter
stands at the present moment, and what may
probably be done in the future. It is the object
of this little book to supply this want, and this,
together with the interest I feel for this problem,
must be my excuse for venturing to write on so
difficult a subject.

The book has been divided into three chapters,
viz. :-—

I. The strategical value of submarine boats ; in
iv PREFACE.

 

which chapter I endeavour to show what part
such boats may play in future wars, if properly
developed.

Il. The history and development of submarine
boats ; where I have collected all the material it
has been possible for me to get access to.

Ill. The construction of submarine boats ; where
I have given a detailed description of how I think
such boats ought to be constructed, and which
principles ought to be the guiding ones. Special
attention has been paid to previous experiences,
and the conclusions arrived at are the result of
very careful study and calculations. In fact, the
design, as described in its main features, is one
worked out in the course of three years, while I
studied Naval Architecture at the Royal Naval
College in Greenwich. The design must, however,
be regarded merely as an illustration.

I have to acknowledge the assistance received
in collecting the historical part of my work from
Mr. Nordenfelt’s paper read before the United
Service Institution last year.

I also acknowledge the information got from the
work of Admiral Paris, ‘L’Art Naval en 1867 ;’
from Admiral Porter’s work, ‘The Naval History
PREFACE. Vv

 

of the Civil War,’ and from the excellent paper,
‘Mittheilungen aus dem Gebiete des Seewesens,’

I have, as far as possible, throughout the book
mentioned the sources from which information has
been drawn.

It is unavoidable that in a work like the
present errors should creep in, especially as
regards the historical part. I shall be thankful
for any corrections that may be made, and for
all information which will make this work appear
in a-more complete form in an eventual second
edition.

G. W. HOVGAARD.

Copenhagen, Fune 1887
CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

\ PAGE
‘1 THE STRATEGICAL VALUE OF SUBMARINE BoaTS .. « I

CHAPTER II.

THE HIstoRY AND DEVELOPMENT OF SUBMARINE BOATS 12

CHAPTER III.

THE CONSTRUCTION OF SUBMARINE BoaTs.. .. «» « 53
; :
SUBMARINE BOATS.

CHAPTER I.

THE STRATEGICAL VALUE OF SUBMARINE BOATS.

WE have endeavoured to make our war vessels
strong enough, and we have failed. They are
neither strong enough to resist the guns, the ram,
nor the torpedoes.

There has therefore of late been a growing
tendency among the leading naval officers and
constructors to build smaller, faster, and better
subdivided vessels, with less armour, comparatively
small but powerful and quick-firing guns, and many
torpedoes. But in spite of this it must be admitted
that the big vessels armed with powerful artillery
and properly protected will, with their high speed
and sea-going qualities, always be more powerful
than any other vessels. If the two classes of ships
are combined to form a fleet, where the small swift

vessels, such as those of the Archer and Grasshopper |
_B
2 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

class, play a similar part as the cavalry does on
shore, they form the most powerful combination
known at present, at least in the open sea.

It is quite impossible to take up the battle against
such a fleet with any chance of success, if not
nearly even in strength, other things being equal.

But if by some means we could get at the vital
parts of the big vessels through the unprotected
bottoms, and with little chance of oneself being
destroyed, who can doubt the result ?:

This is what has been attempted by both passive
mines and torpedoes, but while the former are
necessarily very limited in application, and not
difficult to destroy or counteract, the latter have
the drawback, that they must always be fired from
some visible vessel or boat ; and it is a great ques-
tion, who gets the worst of it, the ship or the
torpedo-boat. For it is often known when to
expect an attack, from whence it comes, and under
what circumstances. The ships may be very effi-
ciently protected by nets, and the best of all
existing torpedoes, the Whitehead, can hardly be
said to be very reliable, when fired at even a
moderate distance.

It has been found necessary to increase the size
of torpedo-boats, in order to enable them to follow
the great sea-going squadrons, but this has made
them better targets for machine gun fire, and the
SUBMARINE BOATS, 3

 

attempts which have consequently been made to
protect the boats by light armour, have been ac-
companied by a still greater development of the
machine gun. It is not difficult to foresee that, as
in the case of the big ironclads, the gun will win
the race.

An attack with a torpedo-boat, every one must
admit, is nothing less than an act of self-devotion,
and although there is no doubt that every country
can find as many naval officers as they want, as
well as engineers, stokers and sailors, who would
with pleasure undertake the task of making a
desperate attack ; still we will always if possible
rather avoid the losses of boats and men, however
heroically these losses may have been brought
about ;'and if we can construct an indestructible
torpedo-boat, why not do so?

Hence the numerous attempts which have been
made from time to time, and more especially during
the last few years, to construct submarine vessels
practically useful in time of war, and great strides
have already been made towards the solution,
although it cannot be said that the problem has
always fallen into the best hands, or to have had a
really fair trial till lately.

Before considering in detail the difficulties con-
nected with the construction and use of submarine
boats, let us make certain moderate assumptions,

B2
4 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

as to what may be expected from them, and on
this basis let us try to draw some conclusions as
regards their use as war-vessels.

Suppose then, that we have succeeded in con-
structing a vessel which will move on the surface
of the water, something like the Polyphemus when
stripped of her upper light structure, and suppose
that she can dive down at any moment and con-
tinue her course under water for some considerable
time at moderate speed, say in 12 to 24 hours at
6 to 8 knots.

Let us also assume that she can stay under
the water, say, rest at the bottom for several days,
if needed ; and that she can do all this with perfect
safety and facility.

Let us also grant her tolerably high speed,
when moving along the surface, awash; ordinary
manceuvring power in the horizontal direction,
whether submerged or not, and the power of
moving safely upwards or downwards at will.

As regards the navigation, let us imagine that
going under water is like going in a very dense
fog, so that it will be necessary, when making an
attack, to go up to the surface now and then, in
order to correct the course. In other words she is
not to be a purely “submarine” boat, but much
more a “diving” boat. Indeed the term “syb-
marine boat,” which has now taken root, appears to
SUBMARINE BOATS. 5

 

be very misleading, as properly speaking no such
boat has ever been built, and it has no doubt con-
tributed to frighten people from the whole idea.

A boat fulfilling the above conditions will be
eminently adapted for the defence of sea-ports ; in
fact it is difficult to imagine how men-of-war can
at all attack ports defended in this way. The
mere knowledge of the existence of such boats
about a place, must prevent any prudent com-
mander from approaching it ; for neither his speed,
or his machine guns, or torpedo-hunters, can
prevent the submarine boat from an attack, if a
bombardment or a blockade is to be carried out
effectively. This was demonstrated by the fate of
the Housatonic off Charleston duing the Civil
War.

Even in broad daylight such boats must be con-
sidered a far more dangerous enemy than ordinary
torpedo-boats at night, for they have only just to
peep up now and then, and no one can tell where
the small conning-tower or cupola, which is all they
need show, will turn up next time, to be visible
perhaps for a few seconds only.

It may be objected that submarine vessels, if
they are to attack by means of Whitehead torpedoes,
are no better off as regards penetrating the torpedo-
nets than ordinary torpedo-boats. But on the
other hand, it must be admitted that the submarine
6 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

vessel may succeed in destroying the net, before
firing the torpedo, more easily than an ordinary
torpedo-boat could do it, for which it is an absolute
necessity to get away as soon as detected. Further,
we may imagine spar-torpedoes to be used with
success in spite of the nets; or if circumstances
permit, passive mines may be dropped underneath
the vessel, and even ramming may be used in case
of light-built vessels.

It is indeed very likely that the Whitehead
torpedo will be abandoned in its present form as a
weapon in submarine vessels, after being thoroughly
tried and experimented upon, for the recent ex-
periments made in France and England on the
effect of explosions on modern ships’ bottoms, seem
to show these to be much stronger and more
effective than had generally been anticipated, and
the same may be said as regards the protection
afforded by Bullivant’s torpedo-nets.

Speaking on ordinary torpedo-boats as compared
to submarine boats,* Major-General Hardinge
Steward, R.E., says :—

“It is all very well to say that you can do a
great deal of business with an ordinary torpedo-
boat, that runs 20 knots, or even with the second
class boats, but unfortunately we have not got

* United Service Institution. Discussion on Nordenfelt’s
paper on “ Submarine Boats.”
SUBMARINE BOATS. 7

 

enough of these boats. If under fairly favourable
circumstances you are going to attack vessels lying
in the offing a few miles from the entrance of a
port, you must expect a loss of 30 per cent. of the
boats you use, and even then you run the chance
of being beaten off. But as a member of the
Council of the Naval and Volunteer Defence
Association, I have to consider with others the
defence of commercial harbours, and I have also to
deal with the defence of Colonial ports. Iamina
position to state that many of our ports do not
possess even the proportion of boats that is to go
to the bottom. It comes to this, that if you want
to economically defend a port, it is better to have
a boat that does not show at all. . 4

“Then, another thing one must remember, and
that is, that the moral effect of a submarine boat
would be enormous. I am perfectly certain, that
foreign war-vessels would not lie off a port to
intercept outward and homeward bound vessels, if
they knew that there was a submarine vessel
inside, that could come out without being seen. I
certainly think that 10,000/ would be very well
spent in providing a vessel of this class.”

Although the chances may be very small at the
present moment for an attack upon any of England’s
sea-ports, still it is certainly a possibility, which
cannot be and is not left out of consideration. The
8 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

possibility being small, it is only natural that the
expenses should be small also, and it is evident
that submarine boats will be much cheaper than
forts, or men-of-war and ordinary torpedo-boats, and
they will moreover be much more efficient, if only
by their moral effect. The bigger and more
powerful vessels are, the less they can afford to be
sent to the bottom. In the colonies the chances
for an attack on open towns are much greater, and
will no doubt be carried out by any enterprising
enemy. Not only may the narrow entrances to
ports and rivers be defended in this way, but great
inlets and passages such as the Strait of Gibraltar
and Bosporus, certain parts of the Channel, the
Sound, and the Storebelt, and many others may
also be made quite unsafe to pass by means of these
boats. At night such waters would become very
dangerous traps for big vessels.

Great transports of troops will become a very
precarious matter, and it is not difficult to foresee
the panic that would arise on board a transport
steamer, in case such a boat were even suspected to
be near. Submarine boats will moreover be par-
ticularly adapted for running blockades as despatch
vessels. :

Whether submarine boats can be constructed,
which can follow the sea-going fleets, or be carried
on board of big vessels like our present second class
SUBMARINE BOATS. 9

 

boats, is of course difficult to tell. The former
problem will perhaps be more readily solved than
the latter, for, as will be shown later on, small size
is a very great obstacle in such a boat, but one that
may be overcome,

What then will be the result of the extended
application of such boats in the above suggested
directions ?

The safety of otherwise defenceless commercial |
sea-ports will be immensely increased. Blockades
cannot be carried out effectively.

The value of thick armour, heavy ordnance, and
big sized vessels will under certain circumstances
be diminished.

The sea will more than ever form a barrier,
difficult and dangerous to pass for an army.

As the submarine boat is at present, it is essenti-
ally a weapon of defence, but a very powerful one.
However much it may be developed, even if it
becomes a weapon of offence as well as of defence,
still it will always be of advantage to such powers
as England and Denmark, who depend for their
existence to a great extent on their insular position.

It has often been stated that it is unfair to use
such means as submarine boats, and even that it
would be a cowardly way of fighting. No doubt,
it is far better and nobler to meet one’s enemy
openly, face to face, and no one will deny that it is
‘4

10 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

unfair to strike an enemy without his being able to
see you or hurt you, but it is doubtful whether an act
which requires the highest degree of cool courage
and ability, can properly be called a cowardly one.

It must also be remembered that underwater
attacks are, after all, made in several other ways at
present, and that it is only one out of the many
horrible things that take place in warfare. Is an
ambush fair ? Is it fair to use mines for the defence
or attack of a fortress ?

But one of the most horrible things in war is
undoubtedly the bombardment of towns, open or
fortified, whereby even women and children become
exposed to the fire of the enemy, and the results of
art, science, and industry are recklessly destroyed,
while the enemy perhaps lies at a safe distance,
thoroughly enjoying the useful practice of shelling
a town in the most scientific manner.

The merciless projectiles, which bring death and
destruction to every one and everywhere, are cer-
tainly as cruel and unfair as the submarine torpedo-
vessel which may try to defend such a town against
an otherwise invulnerable enemy.

That even open towns will be attacked in time of
war is unfortunately very probable, if one is to judge
from the views expressed from time to time by
various leading naval authorities throughout the
world.
SUBMARINE BOATS. II

 

To defend all sea-port towns effectively by means
of forts and armoured vessels is next to an impossi-
bility, but the submarine boat, if properly developed,
affords a cheap and powerful weapon against the
excesses of modern warfare.
12 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

CHAPTER II.

THE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT
OF SUBMARINE BOATS.

ALTHOUGH it is nearly three centuries since the
first submarine torpedo-boat was built, the problem
has until lately remained practically unsolved.

This seems very strange, for the idea is
forcibly suggested to us in nature by the fishes,
and the usefulness of such boats is vividly brought
before us through the fact that the most vulnerable
part of a vessel is below the water, which moreover
affords a natural protection to the submarine boat.
A great many attempts have indeed been made,
and one of the reasons why they have failed is, pro-
bably, that they have been made at different times
by different persons, who acted to a great extent
independent of previous experiences, guided only
by theoretical ideas, which do not appear to have
been always quite sound.

In many cases the failure was brought about
through want of means for carrying on the experi-
ments beyond the first necessarily imperfect stage.
The great development which has taken place in
SUBMARINE BOATS. 13

 

all branches of engineering, has quickly brought us
much nearer to the solution.

In this chapter will be described all the sub-
marine vessels built hitherto, as far as it has been
possible to gather any information about them.
Especially will the results of the experiments be
described ; for it is clear that only by experiments
is it possible to approach a problem so difficult and
essentially practical as that of free motion in a fluid.

The first boat on record* was constructed in the
beginning of the 17th century, during the reign of
James I., by a Dutchman, Dreddell. It was tried on
the Thames, but no particulars are known about it. .

In 1774 a submarine boat was designed by
an Englishman, Day ; but it went down with him
in Plymouth Harbour, and was only found a long
time afterwards.

About the same time a submarine boat was built
by an American, David Bushnell, born in Say-
brook (now Westbrook) in Maine. He called it a
“diving boat”; it was built of wood and shaped
like two turtle shells stuck together, so that the
deck was highly curved. It was propelled by a
screw, worked by hand, and another screw was to
give vertical motion. Water might be pumped in
and out by means of a pump, worked by the foot,
and a gauge indicated the immersion. It carried

* ¢Mittheilungen aus dem Gebiete des Seewesens.’
14 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

200 Ibs. of detachable ballast. The boat must have
been very small, for the one man, who was to work
it, had only air sufficient for half an hour.

The boat was built for destroying British ships of
war during the War of Independence, by mines of
gunpowder, which were to be fixed to the bottoms
of vessels, and exploded automatically, after the
lapse of a certain time, by means of clockwork,
The mines contained 150 lbs. of gunpowder.

This boat did not do any service, which, of course,
cannot be wondered at on account of its small size,
but it is interesting to see how, after all, the later.
boats are built on quite the same principles, the
improvements that have taken place being mostly
due to the general progress, of exfgineering.

About the year 1800, Robert. Fulton, the famous
American engineer, taking up the idea of Bushnell,
proposed to General Bonaparte, who was then
Consul, to construct a submarine vessel. Bonaparte
supplied him with the necessary means, and the
boat was tried during the summer of 1801 in Havre
and Brest. At the first trial, Fulton went down to
a depth of 25 feet, where he remained for one hour;
then he went down with three persons to the same
depth, where he remained four hours, Compressed
air was used for respiration. Fulton succeeded in
propelling the boat through long distances under
water, and in any desired direction. He also
attached a torpedo containing gunpowder to the

  
SUBMARINE BOATS. 15

bottom of a vessel lying in Brest, and blew it up in
the presence of Admiral Villarez and many spec-
tators.

The boat has been thus described in ‘ The British
Navy,’ by Sir Thomas Brassey: “ Robert Fulton’s
‘plunging boat’ was something similar to that of
Bushnell, and was called by him the Nautilus.
Propulsion and steering were provided for by the
movement of two horizontal and parallel screws.
The boat could be made to sink or rise in the float-
ing medium, by working a vertical screw. The
torpedo consisted of a copper case capable of con-
taining from 80 to 100 lbs. of gunpowder. To this
was attached a gun-lock, which could be fired at
any given moment. The lock was in connection
with a line sixty feet long, led through a block
secured to the side of the boat. To attack and
blow up an enemy’s vessel this line was bent to a
kind of harpoon. The boat was then directed to-
wards the ship attacked, and, when near enough,
the harpoon was launched so as to stick in the hull
of the enemy. At the expiration of an interval of
time previously resolved on, which was measured
by a clockwork arrangement, the lock was set in
action and the explosion took place. The torpedo
was arranged so as to be sunk twelve or fourteen
feet below the surface of the water, and when so
used was fitted with a catch, which could be freed
on the slightest shock and so cause an explosion.”
16 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

Fulton proposed to attack the English war-vessels
cruising outside Brest harbour, but in vain; the
French Government refused to supply him with
further means. Further experiments are said to

have been made by Fulton in England and America
later on, but without result.”

In 1821 a boat was built on the Thames by a
Mr. Foknson, but turned out a failure.

For many years the problem remained now un-
touched, until the construction of ironclads revived
the idea.

During the Sleswig-Holstein war, 1849, a sub-
marine boat was constructed in Kiel,* by a non-
commissioned officer of the Bavarian Artillery,
named Bauer. It was intended for blowing up the
Danish ships of war lying at Sundeved. This boat
was small, and was propelled by a screw aft. At
the fore end was a sort of tube with round windows |
and a hatch to permit the entrance and the egress
of the crew. Attached to this were india-
rubber gloves, with which the person manceuvring —
the boat might fix the torpedo under the enemy’s
vessel. The ignition of the charge was effected by
a voltaic battery. The sides were formed of cast-
iron plate, but these as well as the pumps seem to
have been deficient in strength. On February Ist,
1851, the boat was tried experimentally and

* Sir Thomas Brassey, ‘The British Navy,’
SUBMARINE BOATS. 17

 

failed, it was made to go down, but could not be
raised again. The vessel was never taken into use.

At the beginning of the Civil War in America,
the Federals tried to produce a submarine torpedo-
boat. A Frenchman undertook to construct the
boat, and received 10,0007, when it was finished,
with promise of 5000/. more for every successful
attack made with the boat. But when the trial
was to come off, the designer had disappeared,
and the matter was dropped.

The Confederates, however, built several such
boats, some of which were to go awash only, others
to be “diving boats” as well. Thus the torpedo-
boat which tried to blow up the Jronszdes was
really only a surface boat going awash, while the
boat that succeeded in blowing up the Housatonic,
a fine new vessel of 1240 tons displacement, was a
submarine boat. It was built of boiler plates, and
propelled by hand by eight men at a maximum
speed of four knots. The air space is said to have
been sufficient for the crew of nine men for two
hours. Two side rudders were used for sinking
and raising the boat, when in motion; when not
moving, the vertical motion was produced by
pumping water in and out.

The Confederates had to pay heavily for their
experiences with this boat, and the final success
must be ascribed more to their perseverance and

Cx
18 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

reckless courage, than to the properties of the boat.
Indeed the boat was destroyed along with its enemy.

On one of the first trial trips the boat sank,
unknown for what reason, and the eight men were
drowned, but the officer, Lieutenant Payne, was
saved. The boat was taken up, and Lieutenant
Payne offered at once to try again; he got easily a
fresh crew, but one night, off Fort Sumpter, the boat
capsized, and only Lieutenant Payne and three
men escaped.

The boat was again got up, and one of the con-
structors of the boat, a Mr. Aunley, made a trip
with it. It sank and all hands were lost.

The boat was taken up for the third time, and
Lieutenant Dixon, who made the attack with it on
the Housatonic, got command of it. He had no
difficulty in getting another crew.

The following account is given of the attacks on
the lronsides and Housatonic by Admiral David
Porter, U.S.N., in his work, ‘The Naval History of
the Civil War,’ 1887 :—

“During the operations before Charleston there
was no vessel in the fleet so heartily dreaded by
the Confederates as the Jronsides. Her well drilled
crew and expert gunners made her anything: but
welcome, when she brought her broadside to bear _
upon any of the forts. Several attempts were made
to destroy her with torpedoes, but without effect. |
SUBMARINE BOATS. 19
f

 

On the night of the 5th October, 1863, however,
they very nearly succeeded.

“An ingenious torpedo-boat—for the day—was
fitted out at Charleston, and placed in charge of
Lieutenant W. T. Glassell of the Confederate Navy,
with orders to operate against and destroy as many
of the ironclads as possible. Glassell was assisted
by Captain Theodore Stoney as first officer, J. H.
Toombs, engineer, and Charles Scemps and Joseph
Ables as assistants. The vessel belonged to a class
known as Davids, and was shaped like a cigar,
being supplied with a small engine and propeller,
and was of the following dimensions :—Length,
50 feet ; beam (or diameter), 9 feet. For offence a
torpedo was carried at the end of a stout spar,
extending some 15 feet ahead of the sharp bow.

“When the attempted destruction of the /ronsides
occurred, that vessel was anchored off Morris
Island, and the time, 9.15 P.M., was one at which
a ship’s deck is apt to be deserted except by the
look-outs. A small object on the dark water, close
at hand, was suddenly discovered by the sentinels
and hailed by them and the officer of the deck,
Acting Ensign, C. W. Howard. No response being
made, the officer ordered the sentries to fire into the
object. The sentries delivered their fire, and
simultaneously, the ship received a severe shock
from the explosion of a torpedo, which threw a

C 2
20 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

large column of water into the air, whence it
descended upon the spar-deck, and into the engine-
room. Acting Ensign Howard was mortally
wounded by a shot from the torpedo-boat, dying
five days later. The proximity of the David, and
the limited target presented by its only visible
part—a hatch ten feet by two—precluded the use
of great guns upon it; but a brisk musket fire was
kept up on it by the marines, until it drifted out of
sight. Two of the Monitors soon came under the
stern of the /ronsides in pursuit of this new device |
of the enemy, but, although two boats were lowered
to assist in the search, nothing was seen.
“Fortunately, no damage to the /ronsides resulted
from this explosion, and her salvation was, no
doubt, due to a miscalculation of the distance of
the torpedo from the hull. Lieutenant Glassell
was afterwards picked up by a coal schooner, and
stated that the explosion had swamped the torpedo- -
boat, and that he and the two officers with him had _
been obliged to leave her and swim for their lives,
“ Here was a new danger for the fleet to contend
with, and even more than the customary watchful-
ness would have to be observed. The North, with
all its resources, had not then developed a torpedo-
boat (nor are we yet, in 1886, possessed of an
efficient one), while the fleet at Charleston should
have been supplied with at least twenty of them!
SUBMARINE BOATS. 21

 

They would have removed all obstructions faster
than any energetic enemy could have put them
down, and the way to Charleston would have been
open to the fleet.

“The Confederates, however, did not drop the
idea of such submarine or surface-boats, and fitted
out another David after the plan, with improve-
ments, of the one that had attempted to blow up
the Jronsides. The first attempt was such a com-
plete failure, that the Federal officers on the out-
side blockade had grown somewhat careless.

“ As early as January 14, 1864, the Navy Depart-
ment had written to Rear-Admiral Dahlgren, who
was in command of the South Atlantic Squadron
off Charleston, informing him that it had received
notice that the Confederates had on foot a plan to
blow up his fleet, and that it considered it of suf-
ficient importance to notify him of it. Dahlgren,
however, did not think that such a plan would be
carried out against the vessels blockading outside -
of the harbour, but only against the ironclads on
the inside, but, at the same time, thought it advis-
able to give notice to the officers on the outer
blockade, so that they might be on their guard.
Notwithstanding these precautions, the Confederates
managed to get one of the torpedo-boats over the
bar, and on the night of the 17th February the fine
new ship Housatonic, while lying at anchor off
22 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

Charleston, in a most convenient position to be
attacked by torpedo-boats, was destroyed under
the following circumstances.

“At about 8.45 P.M., the officer of the deck on
board the Housatonic, Acting Master F. K. Crosby,
discovered something in the water, about one
hundred yards away, moving towards the ship.
All the officers in the squadron had been informed
of the character of the Davids, and what they
looked like on the water. The commander-in-chief
had had printed full descriptions of these infernal
machines, and directions as to the best manner of
avoiding them. He had attached more importance
‘to torpedoes than persons generally did at that
time, and considered that they constituted the most
formidable difficulties in the way of getting to
Charleston. He felt that the whole line of blockade
would. probably be attacked with these cheap, con-
venient, and formidable weapons, and that officers
should adopt every means to guard against them.

“When this machine was first seen by the officer
of the deck, it had the appearance of a plank
moving along on the water. It came directly to-
wards the ship, and within two minutes of the time
it was first sighted, was alongside. The chain was
slipped, the engine backed, and all hands called to
quarters. But it was too late—the torpedo struck
the Housatonic just forward of the main mast on
SUBMARINE BOATS. 23

 

the starboard side, in a line with the magazine.
The man who steered her knew where the vulner-
able spots of the steamer were, and he did his
work well. As the after pivot-gun was pivoted
to port, it was found impossible to bring a gun
to bear on the daring intruder, while those on
board of her were coolly making their arrange-
ments to knock a hole in the ship’s bottom, for
the David lay alongside a full minute. When the
explosion took place, the ship trembled all over,
as if by the shock of an earthquake, and seemed
to be lifted out of the water, and then sank stern
foremost, heeling to port as she went down.

“Tt must have been a large hole in the bottom
that could sink her so rapidly. There was, of
course, great consternation on board at this un-
looked-for event, for there is nothing more appalling
than to have: a torpedo exploded under a ship’s
bottom. A hundred pounds of powder on a pole
is enough to blow the bottom through the heaviest
ironclad—how destructive must it have been then
to a wooden vessel! Most of the crew flew up the
rigging for safety, and all order was at an end on
board the Housatonic. Her captain (Pickering)
was stunned and somewhat bruised by the concus-
sion, and the order of the day was ‘sauve qui peut.’
A boat was despatched to the Canandaigua not far
off, and that vessel at once responded to the re-
24 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

quest for help, and succeeded in rescuing the greater
part of the crew.

“ Strange to say, the David was not seen after the
explosion, and was supposed to have slipped away
in the confusion, but when the Housatonic was in-
spected by divers, the torpedo-boat was found
sticking in the hole she had made, having been
drawn in by the rush of water, and all her crew were
found dead inher. It was a reckless adventure these
men had engaged in, and one in which they could
scarcely have hoped to succeed. They had tried it
once before inside the harbour, and some of the
crew had been blown overboard. How could they
hope to succeed on the outside, where the sea might
be rough, when the speed of the Davzd was not over
five knots, and when they might be driven out to
sea? Reckless as it might be, it was the most sub-
lime patriotism, and showed the length to which
men could be urged on behalf of a cause, for which
they were willing to give their lives and all they
held most dear.

“Torpedo practice was at that time cried down
by humanitarians, but the use of it in war was per-
fectly legitimate. What was considered un-Christian
warfare then, is now resorted to by all nations, only
in more destructive shapes. The torpedo which’
was so successfully used by the Confederates was a
very primitive arrangement. It has been so im-
SUBMARINE BOATS. 25

 

proved and enlarged in destructive ability that it
bids fair to become a great factor in keeping the
peace throughout the world; and those nations
which have built great ironclad fleets, with which
to dominate weaker nations, may well stop to con-
sider whether it is worth while to extend the system,
in view of the advances made by the locomotive
torpedo, which will likely put the smaller nations
more on a par with the stronger ones.”

The success of the Confederates again drew the
attention of the Federals to the idea of submarine
boats,* and already, in October 1864, experiments
were made on the Hudson river with a boat, the
Stromboli, built in Fairhaven, and designed by
Chief-constructor Wood. The results of the ex-
periments were so satisfactory that the Congress is
said at-that time to have intended the construction
of twenty such boats.

The boat was built of wood, and was 75 feet
long, 20 broad, and 7 deep. It was not properly
speaking a submarine or even a “diving boat,” but
by letting in water it was immersed until the deck
was under water, and only a sort of conning-tower,
a funnel and a ventilator projected about 3 feet
above the surface. The Stromboli was propelled by
a steam engine, which at 50 revolutions gave the
vessel a speed of 10 miles an hour. The torpedo

* “Mittheilungen aus dem Gebiete des Seewesens.’
26 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

was fitted as a 30-foot outrigger, containing up to
200 lbs. of gunpowder. The ignition of the mine
was effected by electricity.

On the 26th of November, 1864, we find the
Stromboli, under command of John L. Lay,
assistant engineer, on the way to Hampton
Roads, where he was to attack the Confederate
ironclads. He arrived there safely on the 6th of
December. Nothing is, however, known of its
further proceedings.

During the same period, experiments were made
in France with a submarine vessel, Le Plongeur.*
It was designed as early as 1858 by M. Burgeois,
then capitaine de vaisseau, and M. Brun, ingénieur
de la marine, and many experiments were made
with it at Rochefort, by M. Doré, then lieutenant
de vaisseau. See Plate I. Fig. 1.

The vessel was about 140 feet long by 20 broad
and 1odeep. The propelling force was compressed
air, stored up in a number of reservoirs.

The outside plating was 4 inch near the keel and
2 inch in the rest of the vessel. .

On the top of the ship was a superstructure witha
hollow to take a detachable boat. In the aft end of
this superstructure was a hatch, used when in har-
bour, and before this a conning-tower) which con-
sisted of a cylinder 4~5 feet high, with a lid on the

* ¢LArt Naval en 1867,’ par L’Amiral Paris,
SUBMARINE BOATS. 27

 

top, which afforded the only exit when on the sur-
face. Inthe upper part of the conning-tower were
eight glasses, protected by iron plates pierced with
four holes for each glass. Speaking tubes led to
the different parts of the ship.

Before the conning-tower was fitted a regulating
cylinder, which by the motion of a piston should
take in or expel water, and thus alter the displace-
ment-at will within some cubic feet.

The pressure inside the vessel should always ex-
ceed the outside pressure, and the excess of air was
expelled through a special valve into a sort of box,
which was perforated with holes through which the
air might escape. Special means were provided
for emptying this box of water before opening the
valve, which was very much like an ordinary stop-
valve in a steam-engine. Le Plongeur was never
under more than one atmosphere’s pressure, i. €. 33
feet below the surface of the water. When the ship
ascended quickly, and the air escaped through the
said valve, a dense fog was created inside the vessel,
which caused a deal of annoyance.

At first it was intended, in case of emergency, to
escape through simple holes closed by lids, and
placed in the top of the vessel, but M. Brun pro-
posed to fit a detachable boat. The size of this
boat was 25 X 6 xX 33 feet.

It should be able to take 12 men. In the
28 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

bottom were two holes which corresponded with two
holes in the hollow of the superstructure; the
holes were surrounded by packings, and the boat
was pressed down on them by means of screw-bolts.
There were three such screw-bolts. Several ex-
periments were made with the detachable boat, but
only when near the surface; they had no leakage
whatever due to this arrangement.

Forward of the detachable boat was another
regulating cylinder and a sort of skylight.

The vessel was divided in watertight compart-
ments by two longitudinal and five transverse bulk-
heads; of these the end and side compartments
could be filled with water in order to make the
vessel descend.

The air-reservoirs were at that time very difficult
to manufacture, although they were only to stand
a pressure of twelve atmospheres; at this pressure
they would lose one atmosphere in the first 24
hours. There were twenty-three of these cylinders,
three of them for reserve. The total capacity of
the reservoirs was 147 cubic metres. The energy
stored up in them was 66 horses in one hour.

In order to move in a vertical direction water
had to be pumped in and out. It was, however,
found to be very difficult to stop the boat in time
when descending. The bulkheads inclosing the
compartments which were to hold the water, were |
SUBMARINE BOATS. 29

 

not air-tight, so that when compressed air was let in
to expel the water, it escaped into the interior of
the boat, and they had to apply a great general
pressure throughout the boat to effectuate the ex-
pulsion of water and the ascension to the surface.

To overcome this difficulty some of the air-
cylinders were used instead of the compartments for
holding the water. A part of the great reserve
buoyancy was taken away by putting more weight
into the vessel, changing the iron ballast for lead,
which took up less room. A system of pipes
allowed of the trim being altered by blowing water
from one compartment to the other.

A special donkey pump was fitted for pumping
water, it was worked by compressed air or by hand,
but it was found that the men could not stand the
work more than about three or four minutes.

A very complicated system of pipes put all the
air-reservoirs in communication with the various
compartments, and with the machinery.

The engine was built in Rochefort, and developed:
80 horse-power when working with air at twelve
atmospheres ; it was designed by M. Brun, and was
ofa peculiar construction. It always worked well.

The vertical rudder was fitted as usual.

There were two horizontal rudders turned by
one spindle; they were very difficult to turn, be-
cause the leverage was small, the space aft being
30 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

very limited. The subsequent experiments showed
that it was necessary to improve the rudder me-
chanism, and to increase the area of the rudders
as they were found to afford the best means of keep-
ing a certain depth.

The compasses were found to be sufficiently re-
liable for ordinary navigation, but if the vessel was
to make an attack, it would be necessary to emerge
Srom time to time in order to correct the course.

The manometers showed the depth with con-
siderable accuracy, as might have been expected.

A mercury-differenciometer showed the longitu-
dinal inclinations, and it was found quite indispen-
sable to have such an exact instrument, because the
least difference in the distribution of weight would
incline the vessel enough to produce sensible varia-
tions in depth, even if the inclinations were very
small in themselves.

The transverse stability was quite sufficient.

Provisions were carried for 12 men in 48 hours.

The watertight floor in the centre compartments
formed the real bottom of the boat, the outside
bottom was only light plating, inside which the
water might circulate. In this space, between the
inner and outer bottom, were suspended a number
of old shot, which might be let go, one by one.

The total displacement of the vessel was about
200 tons.
SUBMARINE BOATS. 31

 

The greatest difficulty was the regulation of the
motion in a vertical sense. Operations com-
menced by closing all openings, and then water
was let into the two air-reservoirs and into the
watertight compartments, until only the top of the
conning-tower was above the surface. It was found
to be pretty easy to go like this, awash, along the
surface of the sea. It was expected that the depth
of immersion could be determined by small changes
in displacement, namely, by using the pistons in
the regulating cylinders, but the experiments
showed this to be quite impossible, and the vessel
would often touch the bottom even on 30 feet depth
before the motion could be changed. When strik-
ing tolerably hard bottom, such as sand, the vessel
would rebound like an indiarubber elastic ball. Thus
Le Plongeur would advance, striking alternately the
bottom and remounting to the surface. It was
more by the indications of the manometers than by
the shock that they learned when the bottom was
touched. This phenomenon is not difficult to
understand, considering that the velocity up and
downwards was always very small, and the impulse
is measured by the product of the mass of the ves-
sel into this velocity, which product must be much
smaller than for instance the weight of the vessel.

The horizontal rudders and the regulating cylin-
ders acted much too slowly. Most frequently they
32 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

had to resort to the donkey-pump or to air-
pressure to expel water, but then the ascension would
take place very violently, and when at the surface,
the vessel would be found to have a buoyancy of
several cubic metres.

A vertical screw was therefore fitted to regulate
the motion up and down; it was worked by hand.
In this way the equilibrium under water was kept,
but only for a very short time.

The result of the experiments was that it was
possible to make a submarine boat slide along the
bottom in the way described above, and also to
move steadily awash.

A model of Le Plongeur was shown at the Paris
Exhibition in 1867. This model is now to be seen
in the Naval Museum in the Louvre. It does not
appear that the authorities have been satisfied with
the attained results, for nothing has been later
heard of Le Plongeur.

Russia is perhaps the country where most has
been done for developing the submarine boat. In
1868 such a boat was run on the Neva, off Mr.
Winan’s railway works. It was of the so-called
Alexandrofsky type, and was propelled by com-
pressed air. It descended several times, but did
not seem to satisfy the authorities.

Several other types were tried in Russia, one
after the other. Nothing much is known about
SUBMARINE BOATS. 33

 

them, except that they cost a great deal of money.
Thus, one of these boats is said to have cost 60,000/.
It was lost in Transund Roads.

Also in the States were several such boats built
at that period. One of them was tried on the
Michigan Lake, and remained four hours under
water, but no further notice was taken of it. The
same fate befel another American inventor, Villeroi.
His boat was built of iron, and was some 30-40 feet
long. The most interesting point about it was
that the air was kept pure by chemical means.
The trial took place in Newcastle, Delaware, and
the inventor remained on the bed of the river with
eight men for fully five hours.

Mr. Garvett, of Liverpool, is said to have con-
structed two submarine boats. The first was found
too small, and a larger one—the Resurgam—was
designed in 1876, which was built at Messrs.
Cochrane’s, of Liverpool. It was 45 feet long, and
was shaped like a cylinder, with conical ends. It
had central rudders and displacement pistons. A
number of interesting experiments are said to have
been made with this boat, which was at last lost off
the Welsh coast. These boats probably form the
basis for the construction of the first Nordenfelt
boat.

In 1882 a submarine boat was built and tried in
St. Petersburg, by some described as of the Byevalsky

D
34 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

type, by others said to have been constructed by
Szevetzky, and by others, again, it has been stated
that it was built in Paris by Goudez, and was one of
the first of his boats, and that the Russian Govern-
ment had bought fifty such boats in 1883 !

However, the boat was 20 feet long, and of
2% tons displacement. It was shaped like a cigar,
and was propelled by a screw worked by four men
by foot. In the middle of the boat was a cupola of
glass, from which the boat was manceuvred. The
speed was 34 knots. In general the cupola was
above the water. Weights could be moved in a
fore and aft direction along an iron rod, so as to
give any desired inclination to the boat. Ina re-
servoir was compressed air for twenty-four hours,
and chemical means were used for purifying the air.
Torpedoes with indiarubber suckers were used, and
they were fired by electricity.

The later Goubet boat (see Fig. 2, Plate I.) has
been described in ‘Annales Industrielles,’ and sub-
sequently in ‘Engineering, Nov. 20th, 1885, from
where the present account has been taken. It is
about 2 tons of displacement, and the principal
dimensions are 16 feet 5 inches long by 5 feet
10 inches deep by 3 feet 34 inches beam. Its
shape gives it a very great stability, both trans-
versely and longitudinally, which is indispensable
in so small a boat, where the least motion of the
SUBMARINE BOATS. 35

 

men inside must disturb the equilibrium. In the
top of the boat is a hatch, which is covered by a
dome secured by hinges and bolts, a joint being
made by the edges taking into a recess lined with
indiarubber. There are seven glazed openings in
the hull (the glass is 4 inch thick)—one forward,
one aft, two on each side, and one at the upper part.
Outside the boat, at the stern, is placed a torpedo,
containing 110 lbs. of dynamite or other explosive.
This is fastened by a catch-joint, which can be
opened at the desired moment, and the mine is
fired by electricity.

Inside is a reservoir for compressed air, which
also serves as a seat for the two men who are to
work the boat. Further, there are the propelling
arrangements, consisting of electric accumulators,
an electric motor, and oars, which are to be used if
the motor breaks down or the accumulators become
exhausted.

When they want to dive, the hatch is closed, a
cock is opened to permit the compressed air to flow
into the boat. The air has to pass through the two
water reservoirs, £ and # on the drawing, by the
pipe f, in order to become saturated with humidity.
An air-pump is put in action to expel the vitiated
air. The man then starts the boat at the line of
flotation marked in the drawing, while the officer
directs its course by means of the screw-propeller

D2
36 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

which is movable with respect to the boat, having
a jointed coupling. When near the enemy water
is let into the reservoirs, # and %, until the desired
depth has been attained. When it has arrived
under the hostile ship, which may be seen through
the upper window of the dome, the torpedo is cast
off to ascend by its flotative power, and attach
itself to the vessel by means of a ring of spikes
which it carries at its upper part. This done, the
boat withdraws, paying out the conductor until a
safe distance has been gained. The torpedo is
then exploded.

A double-acting pump serves to maintain the
longitudinal equilibrium automatically. The
mechanism which controls this pump is very in-
genious, and consists of a pendulum which, by its
inclination one way or the other, caused by altera--
tions in trim, throws the pump into gear with an
electric motor to pump water between the extreme
reservoirs, A and A’, in such a way as to destroy ~
the existing inclination of the boat.

For the safety of the crew there is fitted an ex-
plosive signal Z, which is let go in case of acci-
dent. It ascends to the surface, and a fuse ex-
plodes. It may also carry a telephone wire if
desired.

A large weight X is placed at the bottom of the
boat, secured by a steel screw, which engages with
SUBMARINE BOATS. 37

 

a nut let into the body of the weight. When the
bolt is turned, it withdraws itself from the nut, and
the weight, which is otherwise free, will drop off.
Thus the buoyancy of the boat may be quickly
increased in case of emergency.

The buoyancy of the boat, when in the surface
condition, is 860 lbs. ; this weight is partly made up
of the crew and partly by water introduced in the
reservoirs,

The air for respiration is compressed to 50
atmospheres, and reckoning a supply of 20 cubic
feet per hour per man, there is sufficient for
two men for ten hours. 20 cubic feet is how-
ever rather scanty; but then 1500 lbs. of caustic
potash, distributed throughout the boat, serves to
absorb a part of the carbonic acid produced by
exhalation. A little free chlorine destroys the
organic matter that may be suspended in the air.

The motor, which is a Siemens machine, develops
at full speed a power sufficient to drive the vessel
at five knots an hour.

The weak point of this otherwise beautiful con-
struction is the arrangement of the torpedo, for it
is indeed difficult to see how it will at all be
possible to attach the mine to a vessel with iron
bottom, even if the vessel is at anchor in still
water.

It does not appear that much has been done to
38 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

ensure the keeping of a certain depth of immersion,
but possibly the inventor has not found any diffi-
culties in this respect during his experiments, his
boat being so stable.

It has not been possible to obtain any record of
the experiments made with this boat.

Of late experiments have been made in New
York with a submarine boat called The Peacemaker,
designed by the American Professor Tuck. Its
principal dimensions are 30 feet by 8 feet 6 inches
by 7 feet depth. Displacement 20 tons. Thick-
ness of shell plating is 2 inch. It is shaped like
two boats stuck together, and it has so much lead
ballast, that only a small cupola or look-out tower
projects above the water. Vertical motion is pro-
duced by letting in water and pushing it out again
by means of compressed air.

The vessel has two horizontal rudders, one on
each side, and an ordinary rudder aft.

The mines, it is said, are proposed to be attached
to the enemy’s ship by means of electro-magnets.

The crew consists of one officer and one engineer.
Originally this boat was propelled by electric
accumulators and motors, but as they did not
answer, they were taken out of the boat and re-
placed by a 14 H.P. Westinghouse engine, with
Honigmann’s natron boiler. With this new ma-
chinery the boat is said to have made 8 knots;
SUBMARINE BOATS. 39

 

and it is stated that a charge of 1500 lbs. of caustic
soda of 95 per cent. saturation will propel the boat
for 5 hours. It remained for 7 minutes on a depth
of about 40 feet, in which time it ran through a
distance of 1°5 mile, and passed underneath the
bottoms of two steamers, which were also under way.

Mr. Waddington, of Seacombe, near Liverpool,
has made a great number of experiments with a
submarine boat, the Porpoztse, which is 37 feet long
by 6 feet 6 inches diameter. It is propelled by
electricity, and carries forty-five of the Electric
Storage Co.’s cells, said to be sufficient for running
a distance of 250 miles at moderate speed. At
full speed, 8 knots, they will last 10 hours. The
capacity of the accumulators is 660 ampére-hours.
The maximum current taken by the motor was
66 ampéres ; the electromotive force being go volts,
we get a horse-power of 7°96, and the efficiency of
the motor is 81 per cent.

Two horizontal rudders are fitted at the middle
of the boat, so that they do not incline the vessel,
but only force her up and down. Propellers to
produce vertical motion when not under ‘way are
' fitted besides.

Compressed air is carried in two compartments
at the ends. There is sufficient air for two men for
six hours. This boat is intended for being carried
on board of big men-of-war.
49 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

The Nordenfelt Boats.*—The first of these’ was
built at Stockholm some years ago, and it was in
several respects a great step forward. It has been
thus described by Mr. Nordenfelt :—

The boat is of cigar shape (see Fig. 1). Its
length is 64 feet, and diameter 9 feet. The plates
are amidships 3 inch thick and at the ends inch.

Fic. 1.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The framing consists of angles 3 inches by 3 inches
by 2 inch placed thwartships 3 feet apart.

The conning-tower, 12 inches high, is fitted with
a cover, which can be easily swung round upon a
pivot to give easy ingress or egress to the three men
who form the crew. The cover has a glass cupola
protected by a shield.

The sponsons on either side form wells for the
protection of two propellers, so placed as to give
their effect in a vertical direction.

The boat, which is always kept horizontal, and
always buoyant, is by means of these propellers
submerged, and held at any desired depth or per-

* «Journal of the Royal United Service Inst., 1886, and
various other sources.
SUBMARINE BOATS. 41

 

mitted to ascend to the surface. Mr. Nordenfelt
lays particular stress on the fact that the boat is
submerged only by the mechanical power supplied
by these propellers.

In the stern is a four-bladed propeller, 5 feet in
diameter.

The rudder for port or starboard steering is
placed aft of this propeller.

In the bow on either side are balanced rudders
on one and the same axle. These rudders are
always maintained in the horizontal position by a
weight attached to an arm fixed at right angles to
the rudder axle. Thus when for instance the boat
takes up any position pointing downwards, it will be
at an angle to the rudders, which will then tend
to force the boat up again into a horizontal position.

The boat is calculated to withstand a pressure of
100 feet head of water, but it is by no means the
intention wilfully to descend to such a depth.

The machinery in the boat is driven by steam,
and consists first, of a main driving-engine, which
is compound surface-condensing ; secondly, of two
small engines, which are used to drive the blower
when on the surface, and to drive the vertical pro-
pellers when under water.

On the surface the steam is derived from an
ordinary marine boiler; but when the boat is sub-
merged, steam is supplied by means of the heat
42 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

which has been reservoired in water, whilst the boat
was on the surface. The hot water is carried in
two tanks as well as in the boiler, and amounts to
about 8 tons.

Amongst the various appliances of the boat is an
apparatus which automatically stops the vertical
propellers when the boat has arrived at a given
depth, and which starts them again as soon as the
boat rises from that depth.

It consists of a valve, which controls the steam
supply to the small 6 horse-power engine which
works the vertical propellers; this valve is held
open by a weight adjustable on a lever ; the piston
of the valve is also in direct communication with
the sea. When now a depth is reached at which
the pressure in the sea is greater than the pressure
of the weight, the valve closes, the engines stop,
and the buoyancy raises the boat until the outside
pressure diminishes, when the weight again opens
the valve. Thus the depth of immersion is
regulated.

Besides powerful pumping powers, the boat can be
lightened by blowing out the 8 tons of hot water.

The boat contains sufficient air-space in itself, so
that no extra appliances are needed for this reason.

The crew can very quickly get outside the boat
by swinging off the conning-tower lid, which can
be done, even if the boat be touching the bottom
SUBMARINE BOATS. 43

 

at any depth not exceeding that at which the men
could not in any case live outside by reason of too
great a pressure of water.

The boat is armed with one of Mr. Nordenfelt’s
controllable torpedoes and one Whitehead torpedo
to be ejected from a tube, to be placed outside on
the bow of the boat. It was also intended that a
single-barrelled Nordenfelt gun should be carried
in front of the conning-tower, to be fired by the
captain of the boat.

The engines will at full power indicate 100 horse-
power, and then drive the boat at nine knots. The
distance travelled on the surface without recoaling
is 150 miles.

A cold-water, tank is fitted at the centre of the
boat, it holds about four tons of water, used for
regulating the buoyancy.

In the surface condition the top of the boat is
about 3 feet above the water, and when going to
dive, the water in the cistern is brought up to a
temperature corresponding to 150 lbs. pressure, the
ash-pit and fire-door are then closed, the funnel,
which is telescopic, is withdrawn, and the horizontal
propellers are started. The heated water will now
be able to give off steam sufficient for a run up to
16 miles at a speed of 3 miles per hour. At the
end of such a run the pressure in the cistern is still
about 20 lbs.
44 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

In September 1885 this boat was shown to dele-
gates from most of the civilised nations. The ex-
periments took place in the Sound of Landskrona.

The following were the results of these experi-
ments :—

The boat was in the course of 3 hours closed

up, and moved about with the cupola above the

surface; its speed varying, but not higher than
4 knots. The boat was during this experiment
immersed and raised again several times, remain-
ing on the same spot. Last time it was down
5 minutes, and touched the bottom. These were
the experiments of the first day. The boat could
not move along under the water, as the horizontal
rudders had been damaged when being towed out
of Landskrona Harbour.

The next day the boat had a run in its light
surface condition, working as an ordinary steam-
vessel. It ran through a distance of 16 miles with
a speed which was estimated at about 5 knots.
The boiler leaked, so that the full power could not
be attained.

During the last day’s experiments the boat
moved for 3 minutes under the water at slow
speed. It was several other times immersed, but
only three-quarters of a minute at a time. The
whole experiment lasted 25 minutes. Unfortu-
nately the stoker had been wounded by some
SUBMARINE BOATS. 45

 

accident. The weather was. very unfavourable the
first day, so that, on the whole, the performance
at these experiments is hardly a fair measure of
what the boat can do.

The great advantage of this boat compared to
others lies in its use of steam for under-water pro-
pulsion, for it must be admitted that, whatever draw-
backs may otherwise follow this system, itis simple,
and does not require any special knowledge be-
yond what is possessed by every marine engineer.

Mr. Nordenfelt says:—“By using water as the
means of storing up energy, I am in possession of
a reservoir which can never get out of order, and
which can be replaced at any hour in any part of
the world, and without any extraneous assistance
from shore or other ships.”

As regards blowing out water of the boiler and
cistern to produce a sudden force of buoyancy, it
ought to be remembered that it would strain them
very considerably, and that if the boat should have
descended to great depths, the outside pressure
may become so great, that only a portion of the
water can be expelled, or perhaps the water will
even enter the boiler instead of being blown out.

Already in the beginning of the year 1886 this
boat was bought by the Greek Government, and
in April trials took place in the Bay of Salamis,
which were very satisfactory.
46 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

It should be added that the boat has shown itself
to be an exceedingly good sea-boat.

Nordenfelt’s Boats for Turkey—Shortly after the
first boat had been bought by Greece, Turkey
ordered two new submarine boats from Mr. Nor-
denfelt. In the beginning of 1887 these boats
were tried at Constantinople, where several suc-
cessful runs were undertaken, both on the surface
and under the water.

Fig. 3, Plate I, shows their construction and
general arrangement.

These boats* are 100 feet long, and of 12 feet
diameter. Displacement, 160 tons. Speed, on
measured mile, 12 knots; distance travelled with-
out recoaling, 100 miles; depth to which it can
safely descend, about 50 feet.

The engines are of the surface-condensing com-
pound marine type, and will at a pressure of
100 lbs. of steam indicate 250 horse-power.

The boiler is of the ordinary marine return tube
type, having two furnaces of about 750 square feet
of heating surface.

The hot-water cistern is rhomboidal, with spherical

ends,
Both boiler and cistern are made for a working

pressure of 150 lbs. per square inch. Two fish

* “Journal of the Royal United Service Institution.’
SUBMARINE BOATS. 47

 

torpedoes, 14 feet long, are carried outside on the
bow, and are discharged mechanically.

The sinking apparatus consists of two vertical
propellers, driven by two engines, which each indi-
cate 6 horse-power. Two main cold-water cisterns
placed at each end, and containing 15 tons of water
each, serve to regulate the trim and buoyancy,
while one containing 7 tons at the centre serves
alone to regulate the buoyancy. Eight tons of coal
are carried. The crew consists of 6 men. With
coal in the bunkers only, this boat can keep the
sea for five days or more.

Mr. Nordenfelt’'s latest boat has been built by the
Barrow Shipbuilding Company; the machinery is
built by Messrs. Plenty and Sons, in Newbury.
The vessel is designed by Mr. Garrett.

The principal dimensions are :—Length 125 feet
and diameter 12 feet. Displacement, fully im-
mersed, 230 tons; in light surface condition,
160 tons.

The engines, which are especially designed for
using steam at varying pressures, will indicate
1000 horse-power when working with steam at a
pressure of 150 lbs. The boat is at that power
guaranteed a speed of 1§ knots. When going
under water her speed will be 5 knots.

Several auxiliary engines are fitted for steering,

pumping, &c.
48 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

The crew consists of 9 men, all told.

The minimum metacentric height is 4 inches,

The boat carries 35 tons of cold water in her
tanks, and 27 tons of hot water in her boilers.
These latter are expected to store sufficient heat
for a run of 20 knots under water ; they may be
blown out in less than 5 minutes.

The coal bunkers hold 8 tons of coal, which at a
speed of 8 to 9 knots are expected to drive the boat
through a distance of 1000 miles ; 20 tons may be
carried additionally in the cold water tanks.

Two horizontal propellers, one forward and one
aft, keep the vessel submerged, and overcome the
retained force of buoyancy = 500 lbs.

There are four horizontal rudders or fins, two
forward and two aft.

There are two conning-towers, 2 feet 6 inches
diameter, and of 1-inch steel.

The armament consists of two torpedo tubes in
the bow, and two Nordenfelt machine guns.

The bottom plating is about half an inch thick,
while the turtle deck is one inch.

At the end of May 1887 a preliminary trial took
place in Southampton Water, in presence of several
authorities. The boat made a run hermetically
sealed, with the conning-towers awash, at a speed
of about 5 knots. She was almost invisible at a
distance of a few hundred yards, being painted
SUBMARINE BOATS. 49

 

with neutral tint. Next she lighted her fires, got
up steam to about 100 lbs. pressure, and made
a run to Calshot Castle and back at a speed of
14 to 15 knots. At future trials her sinking
power and performance under water, as well as her
maximum speed, will be tested.

A new submarine boat, the Wautilus, which was
designed by Mr. Andrew Campbell, and constructed
by him, together with Messrs. Edward Wolesley
and C, E. Lyon, has been thus described in
‘Engineering’ :—

 

 

 

The boat is about 60 feet long, is of circular sec-
tion and has amidships a diameter of 8 feet. It is
pointed at both ends like a cigar and has on the
top a superstructure, on the middle of which is a
conning-tower with four lenses of glass. The hatch
for access to the vessel is placed on the super-

structure.
E
50 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

The displacement when fully immersed is equal
to 50 tons. The motion in a. vertical sense is
effected by altering the displacement ; to this end
four cylinders opening out to the sea are fitted on
each side, and the motion of these can vary the
displacement within one ton. They work through
glands in the side of the ship.

The boat is built of 48; inch Siemens-Martin
steel plates ; the framesare 3 x 3 x 3 inch andare
1 foot 9 inches apart. It is to stand the pressure

_of 50 feet depth. It is driven by two screws by
two electric motors of the Edison-Hopkinson type ;
they develop up to 45 horse-power. In the cen-
tral part of the boat are 180 accumulators, of the
Elwell-Parker construction, arranged symmetrically.
Each of these accumulators is said to store an
energy of four horse-power-hours.

The two big motors also drive a pump and work
the eight displacement cylinders. The speed of
the vessel is estimated at eight knots by full
power, and then the machines run at 750 revolu-
tions. The store of electricity is sufficient for ten
hours.

Two rudders, one horizontal and one vertical,
serve for steering the boat in all directions. In
the middle part of the boat is sufficient room for
six persons. The air contained in the boat is
sufficient for six men for two hours, but compressed
SUBMARINE BOATS. 51

 

air is carried besides, and it is intended to construct
an apparatus by which the air may be renewed
throughout the boat very quickly, as soon as it
comes to the surface.

The fully equipped boat piojeats only 10 inches
above the water.

The armament consists of two impulse tubes for

Whitehead torpedoes.’
* The boat was tried in West India Docks, in the
presence of several authorities. It stayed for some
time at the bottom of the dock, and a short trial
took place.

‘Several experimental submarine boats have been
built by Mr. Fohn P. Holland of New York.* The
first of these was built in 1877. The experiments
with it showed the advantage of keeping a certain
amount of reserve buoyancy when diving, and of
being able to dive quickly.

The second boat was built in 1879, and proved
the desirability of employing pneumatic guns for
throwing torpedoes over as well as under the
water, and also the importance of speed, handiness,
and independence of station. About forty running
dives were made with this boat, its longest time of
submergence being two hours and a half. The
time of confinement was limited by the amount of
fresh air contained in the boat.

* Letter to ‘ Engineering,’ from the inventor.
E2
52 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

The third boat, a 16-inch working model, was
built to test a new apparatus for steering in a
straight line under: water, and also to test the
efficiency of a new projectile torpedo and a new
motor. The new steering gear is said to have
acted perfectly.

The fourth and last boat is 50 feet long and 8 feet
diameter. Its chief weapon is a g-inch pneumatic
gun, firing projectiles, weighing 120 lbs, at 150
yards over the surface of the water and 40 yards
in a straight line under water. A camera lucida
is used at intervals to ascertain the course ; it is
placed on a telescopic tube projecting above the
water. It is especially used for aiming.

The inventor says :—

“Towing, spar, locomotive, countermining, or
projectile torpedoes can be employed with equal
facility, although projectiles are preferred. Station-
ary mines can be planted, removed or destroyed,
and the most thoroughly defended harbour may
be entered without risk by this boat, and her three
tons of projectile torpedoes disposed of to the
greatest advantage.”

He further states that the new pneumatic gun
can have a mean firing pressure of 8000 lbs. per
square inch, this pressure being raised in a moment
from an initial of 2000 lbs.
SUBMARINE BOATS. 53

 

CHAPTER III.
THE CONSTRUCTION OF SUBMARINE BOATS.

THE clearest way of showing the ideas and
principles which ought to be the guiding ones in
such a construction, is to simply describe in detail
a complete design, all along giving the reasoning
why such or such an arrangement has been adopted.
This will illustrate the many practical difficulties of
the problem, and will in the most positive way
answer the numerous questions which naturally
occur to every one who takes the trouble to think
over the matter.

Before describing the details of the design, it will
be well to sketch out its main features, of which the
accompanying sketch (Fig. 5, Plate IT.) is an illus-
tration.

The essential point of this vessel is that it is
able to dive down at any time, and continue its
course under water for a considerable distance.
This is attained by giving the vessel two different
modes of propulsion, namely, steam and electricity.
The steam-power enables it to move along the
surface of the water, just as would do most of our
54 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

modern men-of-war, if we take away their light
upper part. When the vessel dives down, the
electric motors are thrown into gear, and thus she
may go on under the water, as long as there is any

electricity in her electric storage-cells. The cells
_ may be re-filled by using the ship’s own steam-
engine as motor, and the electric machines as
dynamos.

The transverse section is throughout the vessel
an oval with its greatest axis horizontal. This shape .
has been adopted partly because it is favourable as
regards strength, on account of the curved surface,
and partly because it gives small draught of water.
The vertical axis has been made just big enough
to give the necessary head-room, and thus reduce
the depth to a minimum ; and the breadth is what
is required to give the desired displacement and
room on the floor for the various fittings. The
longitudinal shape is, indeed, very unfavourable for
propulsion, when in the surface condition, which
must be regarded as the most important in this
respect ; but it has to be contended with in view of
the other requirements, as explained further on.

The vertical motion is given by two screws placed
amidships off the centre of buoyancy. Horizontal
rudders serve to maintain the equilibrium, when at
the desired depth.

The armament consists of two fixed Whitehead
SUBMARINE BOATS. 55

 

torpedo tubes and one outrigger torpedo, all fitted
in the stem, and two Whitehead torpedo tubes, one
on each side, in the steering room.

On the top of the vessel is a superstructure
forming part of the hull ; it serves to give sufficient
depth for the telescopic funnels and the ventilator,
and for a detachable boat. By this superstructure
greater freeboard is also gained when on the
surface, corresponding to a given amount of reserve
buoyancy.

In order to facilitate the navigation of the vessel
when on the surface, a platform, which otherwise
rests on the superstructure, is raised up well clear
of the water.

In the bottom is a big water-ballast tank, and
detachable weights are fitted as a sort of bilge
keels, which will also serve to support the vessel
when it is resting on the bottom, and thus prevent
it from heeling.

GENERAL STATEMENT OF WEIGHTS.

Hull «sss as we oe se os ©6410 tons,
Engines, boilers, and spare gear .. 100
CGA ces scales “Sate. aren ey Benes Wie AON V5
Electric machinery and accumulators 60 ,,
Water ballast .. .. «.. «. « 60
Detachable ballast .. .. .. «2 20 4
Stores and internal fittings .. .. 50 5

Total displacement .. .. 740 tons.
56 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

The details of the design may properly be
described under the following heads :—

1. The strength and construction, shape and
stability.

2. The propulsion and the pumping power.

3. The steering and navigation.

4. The armament.

5. The air-supply and the accommodation of
officers and crew.

6. Special fittings.

1. The Strength and Construction, Shape and
Stability.

Inasmuch as it is impossible to provide sufficient
strength to resist the pressure of the water at any
depth, there must for every boat be a limiting
depth, beyond which she must not go; in the same
way as a bridge has a limiting load. —

The boat must, therefore, either be used only in
water the depth of which is within the limit, or it
must be under such perfect control, that will justify
going in waters of a greater depth.

This may at first sight appear to put a too great
restriction on the freedom of the boat ; but as will
be shown, it is quite possible to construct a boat
strong enough to resist the pressure even at depths
of fifty fathoms and more. It must, however, be
SUBMARINE BOATS. 57

 

understood, that the boat is not supposed to go
down voluntarily to such great depths ; in fact, it
will never be necessary to go deeper than required
‘to clear the keel of a big ship, ie. about 5-6
fathoms, or a pressure of one or one-and-a-half
atmosphere. On the other hand, no one can deny
the possibility of such vessels being forced down
to greater depths against their will, as, for instance,
in case of a sudden leak, bad management, or other
unforeseen circumstances.

The submarine vessel must necessarily be pre-
pared for all such contingencies; and there must —
also be means of escape for the crew, for the vessel
may sink to the bottom, without being able to get
up again, if, for instance, the machinery and pumps
break down.

Now great strength means great weight of hull ;
in the present design a hull percentage of 56 per
cent. was arrived at, using best mild steel; but, as
will appear on consideration, there is plenty of
weight, but little room available in such vessels.

That this is so, may be readily seen by making
an imaginary experiment. Take, for instance, the
Inflexible, and keeping her water displacement
unaltered, imagine that she is cut over at the water
line, and that everything now above the water is to
be stowed down below the load water-line. It is
clear, that to get room for all these things would be a
58 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

very difficult task, and the weight would have to be
disposed of in form of ballast or shell-plating, if
there was to be any living space left at all. .

Suppose we want to design a boat for service
in the Channel, the seaports all round England.
and in the Baltic, then fifty fathoms would be about
all they will encounter in the greater part of those
waters. .

Let us then examine what will be the require-
ments of the structural arrangements in this case.
Fifty fathoms = 300 feet of water gives a pressure
of about 19,200 lbs. per square-foot or 8} tons.

It must be remembered that fifty fathoms is taken
as an extreme hypothetical figure, and we are,
therefore, justified in making a theoretical estimate
of the scantlings, in which we assume the best
possible conditions to be given as regards the
goodness of the material, its application and treat-
ment.

In order to be on the safe side, the strength of
plating and frames is everywhere calculated as if
they had no curvature.

The frames are put as close together as they can
conveniently be worked, say 18 inches, in order to
provide not only great local strength but also
general stiffness.

Although a cellular system might appear very
desirable as regards both stiffness and strength, it
SUBMARINE BOATS. 59

 

will take up too much room, and it will be imprac-
ticable to work the frames and longitudinals very
close, so that this system would carry with it an
enormous thickness of shell-plating. It is, however,
necessary to build a water-ballast tank in the bottom,
in order to have command over the displacement,
and since it is to have great depth, and the plating
in the bottom must in any case have great thickness
for local strength, this tank is built on the ordinary
cellular system, generally used in such constructions.

But elsewhere in the ship a frame spacing of 18
inches is adopted, and it now remains to be found
what the thickness of the plating must be between
the frames, next, what must be the scantlings of the’
frames to support the plating, and finally, what
must be the system and dimensions of pillars,
stringers, and bulkheads, which are to form the
ultimate struts intended to carry the enormous
compressive forces, acting on the outside plating,
when the vessel is deeply submerged. Fig. 4, Pl. II.

First as to the plating (see Fig. 3): take a strip,
1 foot wide, and let us assume that no support what-
ever is given to it by the adjacent material. Let
the width of the flange of the outer frame angle be
3 inches, then we have an unsupported length of
the strip, 14 inches. Assume the proof stress of the
material to be 10 tons per square inch. The load
is already given to be 8°5 tons per square foot.
60 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

Calculating the stress set up by bending this strip,
weatrive at a thickness of the plating of about
1 inch,

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fic. 3.
OUTSIDE SHELL PLATING
£ tt
Raiceses se (BP cesey
Becomes: IO eae, 4
TRANSVERSE ly} / TRANSVERSE
FRAME, —| 4 FRAME.

 

 

Now as to the frames (see Fig. 4): let us assume
a certain frame which can conveniently be worked,

Fic. 4.

\ ceesnmese's (2 ascumecessecy

 

 

4x 3%2"« fe"

| TRANSVERSE
4 FRAME.

be 3th" Yo"

say 12 inches deep plate with angles inside and out-
side of the dimensions shown on sketch; it then
remains to find what may be the greatest unsup-
ported length of such a frame, i.e. what must be
the spacing of our longitudinals, which are to run
inside the frames, and distribute the strains from
bulkhead to bulkhead, and to the system of pillars.

 

 

 

 
SUBMARINE BOATS. 61

 

The frame has all along to carry a strip of
plating, 18 inches wide, and we assume also here,
that there is no support given to this strip by the
adjacent frames and strips. Thus, the load on
the frame will be 1°5 x 8°5 = 12°75 tons per foot
run, We assume the frame to be straight, and the
load to be uniformly distributed. Taking proof

Fic. 5.

fess cbocten Ses sGye Luueeaeslcoseccssa J

TRANSVERSE BRACKET FRAME,

 

peewee BP ite ea Bhai eee

LONGITUDINAL
STAPLE SHAPED
“LONGITUDINAL.

INTERCOSTAL ANGLE
aes eine tine cinn a Clb e ciamiawc as

 

 

TRANSVERSE BRACKET FRAME.

 

 

stress to be 10 tons, it would be found, that on
these assumptions we may have a length of unsup-

ported frame up to 64 feet.
It has already been stated, that the shape of the
62 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

vessel is oval in section, and the reasons for this
hhave been given. This shape is not the best as
regards general strength, the cylindrical shape being
better in this respect, but, on the other hand, it lends
itself readily to pillaring. Suppose we take 8 feet
head-room, 3 feet deep water-ballast tank and 1 foot
frame; this will give us a depth of the vessel equal
12 feet, and let the maximum breadth be 22 feet.
It will hardly be advisable to make her broader,
as we should then get a very flat top and sharp
corners at the bilges.
Fic. 6.

TRANSVERSE BRACKET FRAME,

 

 

A
,
4 3
f 1 spe '
‘ a es)
' t 1
' 1 i
ms hd ! |
) y ' 1

— “vy J
‘ ae ey eG =
' z | =
1g 1 78
st a a
ae = |e
1 t
1 She-- Hiat\8
oe 1 '
' = 1 . '
' b-~-4--- 2 secthescag
'
1 ' 1
L ¢

 

TRANSVERSE BRACKET FRAME,

 

It will, of course, be most efficient to place the
struts at right angles to the surface we want to
support, but it is on the other hand unpractical to
have sloping pillars as these take up too much
SUBMARINE BOATS. 63

 

room. Near the middle line both these conditions
may be satisfied, and therefore two rows of vertical
pillars are placed, one on each side, and not more
than 6°5 feet apart. In the sides at about mid-
height we may conveniently give the support the
form of a very deep stringer plate or shelf. Finally
some sloping pillars support the upper bilge, if this
term may be allowed, while the lower bilges are
sufficiently supported by the side of the ballast
tank. These pillars are connected to the edges of
the side stringers, thus supporting these, should they
tend to bulge.

All pillars ought to rest on longitudinals, running
inside the frames, but not worked intercostally, on
account of the close spacing.

The diameter of the pillars must be calculated
with a very large factor of safety, say 10, and the
load on each must be taken to be equal to the
water pressure, acting on the area inclosed between
any four pillars in the neighbourhood. To save
room the pillars ought to be solid. In fact, every-_
thing must be done to save room on the deck,
for it must be remembered, that on this one deck
we want to place everything, that is in an ordinary
vessel of the same size placed on two decks and a
hold. It was found that many of the pillars would
have to be 6 inches in diameter.

The water-ballast tank (see Fig. 5) may be built
64 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

in quite the usual way. Let it be 3 feet deep amid-
ships, transverse frames 3 feet apart and the longi-
tudinals about 4 feet apart. We cannot very well
work the tank closer, but even with this arrange-
ment, it is evident that 1 inch plating will be in-
capable of resisting the assumed maximum pressure.
Tt will be found that only by running extra longi-
tudinal angles and increasing the thickness of the
bottom plating to nearly 14 inches, is it possible to
resist the maximum pressure. These extra angles
may be staple-shaped, and worked intercostally.
from transverse frame to transverse frame.

It will be well to show the way in which this
approximate strength calculation has been per-
formed. The method adopted, although not strictly
correct, is decidedly on the safe side. (See Fig. 6.)

Consider one of the unsupported rectangles of
plating 3 x 2 feet, and take the centre square
foot as forming part first of the 3 feet long longi-
tudinal strip, ABDC, and next of the 2 feet
long transverse strip, EGHF. In each case
calculate the maximum load per square foot
uniformly distributed, which the strip will carry
considered as a beam I foot wide and 14 inches
in thickness, and of mild steel. In so doing we
assume that the stresses at right angles do not
interfere with each other; and we neglect the sup.
port given by the four corner pieces, and the
SUBMARINE BOATS. 65

 

reduction in dimension due to the width of the
flanges of the angles. It will be found that on
these assumptions we get a maximum load carried
for the 3-foot strip of 3°33 tons, and for the 2-foot
strip of 6°49 tons per square foot, the sum of which
is much more than is required.

By thus almost armouring the bottom, we gain
great local strength, which is of extreme importance
in view of the fatal consequences of even a small
leak, when deeply submerged. It will now be
possible to bump on the bottom of the sea with-
out great risk as long as the bottom is not too hard.

As regards the transverse bulkheads, a thickness
of 4 inch will be sufficient, if properly supported by
deep angles. The distribution and number of such
bulkheads is seen from the sketch.

No longitudinal bulkhead is introduced except
in the boiler-room, where it will be desirable to
separate the two boilers on account of the forced
draught.

The stem ought to be exceptionally strong, for
even if ramming may be regarded as too hazard-
ous for such a vessel, collisions are not unlikely
to occur in a boat of this type. The stem should
therefore be one. big solid steel casting, so as to
admit of a most efficient connection to the adjacent
plates. These plates ought to be stronger than

the ordinary outside plating, say 2 inch.
F
66 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

The stern will necessarily be a very complicated
construction like that of the Whitehead torpedo,
It has to give support for the bearings and pintles
of the horizontal and vertical rudders, and at the
same time it must protect them. The reasons
why it is preferable to place all rudders aft will
be discussed further on. °

The construction adopted to suit the great
requirements as to strength has now been described
in its main features. Something remains to be
said on the shape.

The transverse midship section has already been
settled upon, and it is natural to keep this type of
section right through, in order to get tolerably clean
lines.

Fig. 4, Plate II, shows a section of same shape
and dimensions as the midship section as far as the
lower part of the vessel is concerned, but taken
through the superstructure in order to show this,
and the way the detachable boat is housed.

It has been found through several preliminary
designs that if the vessel is to fulfil the above-stated
conditions as to strength, coal endurance, and
living space, and especially if it is to have both
electric and steam power, and a tolerably good
speed, it cannot very well be smaller than 7-800
tons, and this gives a length of 140 feet approxi-
mately, taking a reasonable block co-efficient,

 
SUBMARINE BOATS. 67

 

As to the shape, the vessel ought to have fuller
lines forward than aft for the following reason :—

The steering qualities of such a vessel are a most
essential matter, for it must be borne in mind that
even small variations in the steering in a vertical
direction will very soon result in considerable
changes of draught, or rather depth of immersion.
Contrary to variations in a horizontal sense, to star-
board or port, which are as a rule, when keeping a
course, of no consequence if within a few fathoms,
a similar variation in a vertical sense, i.e. in
draught, may become a very critical matter, as ,
any sailor will admit, if he is asked whether he
would like to be on board a ship whose draught
was variable beyond his control with several
fathoms.

Everything must therefore be done to give good
steering, by which is meant, not a vessel which will
turn round and round willingly as soon as you give
her a little helm, without your hardly being able to
stop her motion, but a ship which has a tendency
to keep the course on which she is. at any given
instant. The two cases are in a way analogous to.
stable and unstable equilibrium.

To obtain such a ship we must do what we do.
with a rocket, and what nature has done with the
birds and the fishes—we must give it a heavy fore-.
body and a long, light, and broad after-body and.

F 2
68 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

tail. In other words, give her a full entrance, a
long fine run, and big horizontal rudders.

This point may be investigated approximately
by comparing the position of the centre of gravity
of the ship and that of the area of a horizontal sec-
tion through the axis of the boat. It is not there-
fore given that the vessel will be steady steering
because the latter centre of gravity lies aft of the
former, but the more aft it lies the more stable will
be the motion of the vessel in a vertical sense.

As regards the stability, we must consider this
property separately for each of the conditions

‘under which the vessel may have to work. It be-
comes therefore necessary first to make clear what
these conditions are.

It has been said above that the boat was a
“diving boat,” which means that under ordinary
circumstances she will have a greater or smaller
amount of surplus buoyancy, and only when she is
going to dive will her displacement weight be about
equal to that of the water displaced when fully
immersed. We may therefore speak of a total
displacement or immersed condition, and a light
displacement or surface condition. As this design
worked out, it was found that the greatest possible
variation in displacement was about 80 tons, but of
these 20 tons are applied as detachable ballast,
and some 20 tons must be carried as ballast in the
SUBMARINE BOATS. 69

 

extreme end tanks, in order to be able to regulate
the trim of the vessel when disturbed by consump-
tion of coal or the like.

Thus, only 40 tons are left. When the first
17 or 20 tons are pumped out, the superstructure
will be well above the surface, and a further in-
crease of buoyancy will only very slowly increase
the freeboard, although it may increase the stabi-
lity somewhat.

It is therefore supposed that the ordinary light
condition, that which she would use in time of war,
when it is important to be able to dive down
quickly, is with about 20 tons of reserve buoyancy,
i.e. the superstructure well out of the water. The
volume of the superstructure displaces really 17 tons
of water.

In the immersed condition she is absolutely
stable all round, and her stability is the same as
that of a pendulum 1°07 foot long and of 740 tons
weight—1-‘0o7 foot is, namely, the distance between
her centre of gravity and her centre of buoyancy,
which in a fully submerged body coincides with
the metacentre.

In the surface condition also she is absolutely
stable all round. The metacentric height is 1° 4 foot
transversely, and 3 feet longitudinally. If the vessel
were made to float with her bottom upwards, she
would have a metacentric height of 0*4 foot, but
70 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

then the centre of gravity will be 0°75 foot above ‘ \:
the centre of buoyancy, taking account also of the
shift of water-ballast; so that the metacentric
height will in this condition be negative, ie. it is a
position of unstable equilibrium.

These perfect conditions of stability are mainly
due to the exceedingly low position of the centre of
gravity, which, when fully immersed, lies 0°77 foot
below the central axis of the ship, but it is also
partly due to the existence of the superstructure.

The motions of this vessel would be very easy,
on account of the small metacentric height, both
transversely and longitudinally, and the great radius
of gyration. The movements would never become
large, and would soon be extinguished, on account
of the great resistance offered by the flat shape, the
big rudders, and the bilge keels.

A few words may here be said on the resistance
to propulsion of such vessels.

When submerged completely the skin surface
will ordinarily be somewhat greater than in surface
vessels of the same displacement, because we have
to add the area of the upper part of the vessel to
the wetted surface when floating on the water like
other vessels. On the other hand, when the vessel
is submerged to a considerable depth, there will be
none or very little wave-making on the surface of
the water.
SUBMARINE BOATS. 71

 

This means that the submarine vessel will be
more difficult to drive through the water at low
speeds than would be a corresponding surface
vessel at the same speed. For at low speeds, ie,
up to 7-8 knots for a vessel of size as the present,
the skin friction forms the greater part of the total
resistance.

At high speeds, i.e. above 10-12 knots, the wave-
making resistance becomes predominant, and here
the submarine vessel will perform as well or even
better than the surface vessel.

In fact, if ever exceedingly high speeds are to be
obtained in vessels driven through the water, and if
ever the present great difficulties in under-water
propulsion are overcome, it will be by means of
submarine vessels that it is accomplished.

The performance under water has, however, but
small importance for the “diving boat”; it is far
more essential that she should be well adapted for
going on the surface, as regards resistance of pro-
pulsion, as this will be the rule and the diving only
an exception.

The shape adopted for this design is certainly
not one favourable to speed along the surface, but
on the other hand much is gained in strength,
steering qualities, and reduced draught of water.
72 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

2. The Propulsion and the Pumping Power.

What we want in submarine vessels is a sub-
stance or mixture, which fulfils the following.
conditions :—

It must burn or produce heat without access of
air.

It must have about the same heating-power as
coal.

It must not be too expensive.

It must not corrode the boiler too quickly.

Whoever finds such a substance will have brought
the problem a great step forward.

It is natural to think of substances rich in
oxygen which might be mixed with coal; but, un-
fortunately, all such substances, such as chlorate
of potash and saltpetre, are too expensive.

It has, indeed, been tried by a Frenchman,
Docteur Payerne, and his boiler is described in
‘L’Art Naval en 1867.2 He used for combustion,
balls of wood, filled with an azotate, probably salt-
petre. He had first tried other combinations even
some containing sulphur, but the corrosion of the
boilers made him soon abandon them. He also
intended to use the energy of the gases developed
by combustion, as is done by gunpowder, but he
had to give it up, because cylinders and valves
corroded very quickly. He therefore had to use
SUBMARINE BOATS. 73

 

the combustion in the usual way, applying the heat
for generating steam. The smoke escaped into
the water through a special valve.

Another idea, which naturally suggests itself, is
to use a substance which burns when mixed with
water, but here also the substances of this kind
which we know are much too expensive. Possibly
Honigmann’s natron-boiler fulfils the above con-
ditions. .

Let us examine whether we may use any other
ways of storing up energy, and see how they
compare with coal.

Le Plongeur used compressed air. Let us take
one of the most perfect ways of storing com-
pressed air that we know of, namely, the reservoir
of a Whitehead torpedo. If the capacity is 5 cubic
feet, and the pressure 70 atmospheres, the energy
stored will not exceed 3200 thermal units ; but one
pound of coal contains more than 14,000 thermal
units, so that both as regards room, weight, and
expense, compressed air is objectionable ; for the
same volume will hold more than 200 lbs. of coal,
the air contained weighs about 30 lbs., and the
expense in compressing the air is enormous.

Another way in which energy is often stored up
is by means of steel springs. Imagine a steel
spring of rectangular section and of best kind bent
like a watch-spring, then the weight required to
74 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

supply 1 horse-power during one hour will be
9 tons; so that this method is quite out of
question.

In Nordenfelt’s boats hot water is used for storing
up energy. It has been stated that 8 tons of heated
water sufficed for driving the boat, the small one,
through a distance of 16 miles and at a rate of
3 miles an hour, so that the run must have taken
about five hours. We need not consider through
what distance 8 tons of coal would carry the boat
on the surface ; but this method certainly compares
better with coal than any of those mentioned
above.

Finally, we may store energy by means of electric
accumulators. As in case of many other inventions,
people expected too much of the accumulators to
begin with, and the consequent disappointment
brought them in such miscredit, that it is only
during the last few years that they have com-
menced to regain people’s confidence. This must
also be ascribed to the fact that through many
small, and apparently unimportant improvements,
the accumulators have gradually advanced and
become more durable, efficient, and cheap.

This confidence is best proved by the last year’s
sale of accumulators, which amounts to 60,000/,

The principal objections which may be made
against accumulators or storage cells, as they are
_ SUBMARINE BOATS. 75

 

now usually called, are the loss of energy by
leakage, their great first cost, and their deprecia-
tion.

The efficiency of cells may be taken to be about
70 per cent. ie. if you use 100 horse-power to
charge them, you will not get more than 70 horse-
power out of them.

Good accumulators will store 22 to 23 horse-
power per hour per ton weight, so that 8 tons of
cells will contain 36 horse-power in five hours,
which would drive the small Nordenfelt boat: at
much more than 3 knots.

It will be advantageous to have a great number
of cells, in order to get a powerful current without
exerting them too much. For if high efficiency is
to be obtained there must be a reasonable rate of
discharge. Mr. Reckenzaun says :*—

“ An accumulator is just like a horse, if you give
the horse its regular easy work to do, then he will
go along at a constant rate all day long; give him
too great a load, then he will gradually lose in
speed until he comes to a standstill; allow him to
“blow” for a quarter of an hour occasionally, and
he will get along with the great load at a good rate
during the regular intervals. But if we take the
time as well as the energy into consideration, then
we find that the steady easy work will turn out

* ¢ Electrical Review.’
76 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

more efficient than the great exertion with inter-
mittent rest.”

Electricity does not, however, carry a ship far, as
is easily seen from the proportion between weight
and power, and it can therefore only be used for
underwater propulsion.

It must be admitted that steam is more reliable
than electricity, but on the other hand heat will
leak out of hot-water reservoirs much faster than
electricity out of accumulators. We can use the
electric energy a fortnight after it has been stored
up, the energy contained in the heated water must
be used at once. We may easily imagine circum-
stances under which it would be desirable for a
submarine vessel to stay under water, say rest at
the bottom, for several hours or a whole day, and
then the vessel carrying accumulators is able to go
on at once, while the vessel depending on hot
water is, to begin with, quite helpless. This is, as
the accumulators are at present, the main point in
their favour, as compared to hot water for under-
water propulsion.

In the present design a combination of steam
and electricity is used ; namely, steam-power only
in the surface condition and electric power only in
the immersed condition.

The propulsion on the surface has been con-
sidered the most important, and therefore greatest
SUBMARINE BOATS. 77

 

power and weight of machinery has been given to
the steam propulsion, and in order to extend the
radius of action, a considerable amount of coal is
carried.

Thus the steam engine is to indicate 1400 horse-
power in 18 to 19 hours, which would give a dis-
tance steamed of about 250 knots, the speed being
estimated at between 15 and 16 knots an hour.
With reduced speed, say 10 knots, we may expect
a distance steamed of about 900 knots.

The electric motors, on the other hand, will give
out 120 horse-power on the shaft for 6 hours, and
with a speed of 7 knots. we get thus a distance of
42 knots. It must be remembered that 120 horse-
power on the shaft will correspond to about 140
indicated horse-power in a steam engine.

The steam is to be generated in two boilers of
the torpedo-boat boiler type, each to develop 700
horse-power.

The engine is an ordinary compound steam
engine, running at 200 revolutions per minute.
The screw propeller is placed aft of all the rudders,

‘and is partly protected, as shown in the sketch, by
the rudder framing.

Each boiler has a separate funnel and a separate
stokehold and fan, so that they are quite inde-
pendent of each other. The air is drawn from a
big ventilator through a passage in the boiler room
78 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

and then distributed to the two stokeholds. Both
the ventilator and the funnels are telescopic, and
are to be withdrawn before diving ; water-tight lids
are then placed on top of all the openings. The
ventilator serves as the only hatch when the ship
is under way. Before diving, the furnaces must
also be closed perfectly air-tight, to prevent smoke
from entering the stokehold.

The coal bunkers are to take: 4o tons of coal;
they are placed in the neighbourhood of the centre
of gravity of the vessel, so as to cause as little
disturbance in the trim as possible.

The electric power is given off by four motors
of the Reckenzaun type, and as they ought to go
with a great number of revolutions for efficiency
and room, the motion must be geared down about
seven times. The revolutions of the screw at
7 knots will be about 90 per minute ; and the speed
of electric machines should not exceed 650 revolu-
tions per minute on board a ship, in order to avoid
excessive vibrations and gyrostatic action.

The electricity is drawn from a great number of
cells, the nature and size of which may be best
settled upon by thorough experiments while build-
ing the ship. When the cells are exhausted,
they are refilled by means of the ship’s own steam
engine, which is made to drive the motors in the
reverse direction, as dynamos ; the screw propeller
' SUBMARINE BOATS. 79

 

is thrown out of gear during this process. That
this is possible is one of the great advantages of
combining steam and electricity in one vessel. The
only condition is that the machines must have a
constant magnetic field, in order to charge the
accumulators conveniently.

The cells must be stowed on shelves in such a
way that each one of them is easily accessible. To
fulfil this condition is very difficult, for it will be
found that much room is required ; and this indeed
puts the limit to the number of cells that can be
carried, and not their weight, as one might be
apt to think at first sight. The accumulator room
must be especially protected against the corrosive
effect of the acid which may be splashed about,
and particular precautions must be taken to prevent
any acid from finding its way into the tank or the
bilges.

To the use of accumulators on board ship is
objected, that they are too delicate, and that they
get easily out of order. It must, however, be
noticed that accumulators are known to have been
performing general domestic electric lighting for
more than two years without ever getting out of
order. Moreover, they have been much improved
of late, especially as regards their conservation
and more practical construction, and we may be
justified in expecting still better results from them
80 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

in the future. As it is, there is no doubt they must
be very carefully looked after when on board ship.

The reason why it has been proposed to distri-
bute the power among four motors is, that they stow
better in the narrow, flat part of the ship, where they
must necessarily be placed, since they must be aft of
the steam engine in order to make this independent.
Further, the armatures of small machines are more
readily drawn out and handled than those of big
ones. In case of a break-down of one or two of
them, it is still possible to propel the vessel by
means of the rest.

The pumping power must be very considerable in
a submarine vessel, for not only may the safety of
the ship depend upon it in case of a leak, but it
may often be desirable to undertake great changes
of displacement tolerably quickly.

The following pumps must be found on board :—
As many Downton’s or other hand pumps as can
be worked by the hand power available on board ;
in the present design four.

At least one powerful independent steam pump,
and several Friedman’s Ejectors.

The circulating pump must have a separate
bilge-suction.

But the steam pumps can only be used when on
the surface, and it is therefore necessary to fit
several other pumps worked by electricity, and, in
SUBMARINE BOATS. 81

 

order to drive them, the available motors may be
used. Thus the motor driving the horizontal pro-
pellers may be used for pumping when near the
surface: it will develop about 12 horse-power, and
may’ thus pump out a great amount of water so
long as the head is small. But should the vessel,
in spite of all, get down to very great depths,
it will be necessary to use pumps with smaller
cylinders, but of greater power, in order to force
the water out against the enormous head. For
this purpose the four motors may be used, which
are otherwise used for propulsion.

The vertical motion is, however, not to be brought
about by pumping in and out water, for even if ex-
perience did not now tell us that this method is
unpractical, it may be readily seen by considering
that enormous forces are soon set up in this way,
forces that would drive the vessel with a speed of
many knots, if they acted aft in the same way as
does the thrust of a propeller. One or two tons,
for instance, are soon pumped out. But, in spite of
this, the motion will be very small to begin with,
partly on account of the great resistance to lateral
motion, and partly because the vessel has not time —
to acquire any considerable velocity.

But when finally some velocity has. been got up,
and the vessel commences. sensibly to rise or sink,
it will take much longer before it can be stopped

G
82 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

again, and thus undue vibrations are produced,
which may be fatal to the safety of the ship.

The vertical motion ought therefore to be pro-
duced by means of a force which can be not only
destroyed but also reversed almost instantaneously ;
and not like the forces of buoyancy, require as long
time to be destroyed as was required to produce
them, and again as much time to be reversed.

This is the reason why propellers are preferable
to alterations in displacement. They ought to be
placed near the centre of gravity of the ship, so as
not to influence the trim, and one on each side;
not in sponsons which may be easily knocked off,
but in cylindrical wells, built in the side of the
vessel as shown in Fig. 5, Plate IT.

It would, so far, be simpler to use one propeller
instead of two, were it not, that if one is used, it
must be placed amidships, and it will here work
with greater friction on account of the long well,
and it will take up much vaiuable room.

The two propellers ought to go exactly at the
same speed, so as not to produce any heeling, and
this may be attained by putting them in mechanical
connection with each other.

Mr. Waddington is said to produce vertical
motion by two horizontal rudders, one on each
side. In this way an upwards and downwards
force may be- produced, and if the rudders are
SUBMARINE BOATS. 83

 

placed near the centre of gravity of the ship, no
sensible change of trim will be set up; but the
rudders can only be used when the vessel is in
motion, and they are in a very exposed position.

In order to be able to produce a sudden and
powerful force of buoyancy, in case of emergency,
a considerable weight ought to be available as de-
tachable ballast. This may conveniently be worked
as a bilge-keel, if possible in such a way that it
does not increase the draught, but that it will serve
as supports, if the ship is to rest on the bottom of
the sea.

This ballast ought to be fitted in several pieces,
and great care should be taken to make sure that
they do not fail when being disconnected.

The Steering and Navigation.

These are two very difficult points, of which the
latter cannot at present be solved in a quite satis-
factory way, as far as submarine navigation is
concerned. The steering is, so to speak, to take
place in three dimensions and within tolerably
narrow limits. Navigation under water is like
navigation in a fog of the worst description.

In the earlier vessels of this kind, it was found
especially difficult to keep the desired depth of
immersion.

When submerged, the usual state of things will

G2
84 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

be that the vessel is moving along at a certain
depth, only now and then going up to the surface
in order to have a look, and then diving down
again to the same depth.

Now, the motion up and down ought to take
place by means of the horizontal propellers only,
for reasons already stated above.

It will be a good plan to keep a little reserve
buoyancy when diving, and, like Mr. Nordenfelt,
to overcome this by always keeping the horizontal |
propellers going. This will not only add con-'
siderably to the feeling of safety, but will really
provide a margin for unforeseen accidents. The
desired depth must be kept by the combined action
of the rudders and the propellers ; the former keep
the vessel strictly horizontal, the latter move it
up- and downwards, according to circumstances,
just as in the Nordenfelt boats. Instead of placing
the rudders forward, as in Mr. Nordenfelt’s vessels,
it is proposed to place them aft, for reasons stated
above, and to work them indirectly by a pendulum
mechanism through an electric motor. The action
of this instrument should be that, as soon as the
vessel becomes inclined longitudinally one way or
the other, an electric motor will at once be set to
work to turn the horizontal rudders, so as to destroy
the inclination. This apparatus is seen to work
quite independent of the depth of immersion of the
vessel, and is only acted upon by its inclination.
SUBMARINE BOATS. 85

 

Now, such inclination may be brought about by a
cause which gives it a permanent character, such
as, for instance, the moving about of weights in a
fore and aft direction; and although the rudders
may soon bring the vessel back again to its hori-
zontal position, still the trim will again be changed
through the’ action of the moved weight, and so
on, as long as something is not done to restore
equilibrium. An electric motor should therefore
pump water from one end tank to the other in such
a way as to assist the rudders, this motor being in
connection with the pendulum mechanism, and set
in motion and reversed by this.

The pump should not be very powerful, but only
so great that if the vessel makes several subsequent
vibrations in the above described manner, the water,
which is each time pumped from one end of the
vessel to the other, will finally quite destroy the
moment to change trim.

The horizontal rudders are placed one on each
side of the screw shaft, they are turned by the
same shaft, and are very large. The centre of
gravity of these rudders ought to be brought as far
aft as possible, so as to give greater leverage, and
to make the steering of the vessel steady. The
area of the rudder is in this design 106 square feet ;
and it has been given the shape of a fish-tail to
bring its centre of gravity well aft. By giving the
rudder this shape we obtain a good protection of
86 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

the screw by the framing, which is to surround and
protect the rudder.

It may be of interest to see the result of a man
walking from one end of the vessel to the other.
Let the man weigh 160 lbs., it will then be found
that with the longitudinal metacentric height of
about one foot he will incline the vessel 2 of a
degree. If the vessel is moving at 8 knots an
hour, this inclination, if allowed to exist, will cause
a change of depth of immersion at a rate of about
9 feet per minute ; a change which could not be put
up with. On the other hand, the enormous hori-
zontal rudders will only need being carried at a very
small angle during a short time to place the vessel
horizontal, and 150 Ibs. of water pumped between
the end tanks will put an end to the disturbance.

A similar principle to that used for the horizontal
rudder ought to be applied in connection with the
two horizontal screws. Their motion must be
regulated by means of a piston, acted upon by the
pressure of the water outside, and vibrating about a
given position, determined by the load on a lever
acting on the piston rod. Like in Mr. Nordenfelt’s
mechanism, the motion of the piston rod is used to
govern the motor, which is here electric, and thus
the speed of the horizontal propellers may be in-
creased or diminished, or perhaps they may be
stopped, and the motion reversed, according to
CEPOL

SUBMARINE BOATS. 87

 

circumstances. When the piston is in the desired
position, i.e. when the vessel is at the desired depth,
the screws are working slowly downwards, thus
balancing the upward force of spare buoyancy.
This instrument is seen to be only acted upon by
the depth of immersion of the vessel, and if placed
amidships, it is quite independent of the inclinations.

If, however, the cause of the vessel’s sinking or
rising is of a permanent nature, such as, for in-
stance, water entering the vessel through a leakage,
or the vessel getting into water of different density
(the difference in displacement in salt and fresh
water is for this ship about 12 tons), this apparatus

‘is not in itself sufficient. It becomes therefore

necessary to go one step further, and arrange it
so that the cause of disturbance is also finally
destroyed. It is therefore proposed to put the
piston rod in connection with an electric motor,
making this work a pump, to pump water in or
out of the vessel, according to circumstances.

The action of the pump must not be too violent,
but only enough to destroy the cause of dis-
turbance within a reasonable time.

Both this pump and the pump for trim will thus
always be in action, as soon as the vessel is beyond
its correct depth of immersion, or is inclined to the
horizon.

By using this method of destroying permanent
88 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

causes of disturbance there will be no danger of
too great action, for the pumps may be readily
regulated to pump less water, and, moreover, the
action of the rudders and screws will be so quick,
that the vessel will be brought back again to its
correct position long before any considerable
amount of water can be pumped about. It is
only when the ship is time after time going out of
position and in the same manner that the inter-
mittent action of the pumps will, when summed
up, be of any consequence,

As regards the navigation under water, it must
be effected mainly by means of the compass, which,
when properly compensated for the local attraction,
will be sufficiently good to keep a certain course,
found by observation at the surface.

The speed may be ‘indicated by the excellent
instrument lately invented by Captain Rung, of
Copenhagen ; it shows the speed at any instant,
and only necessitates a small tube to be stuck out
from the ship’s bilge.

In the top of the superstructure are fitted two
conning towers, from which look-out may be kept
without exposing any other part of the vessel to
the enemy. The steering in horizontal direction
is effected by means of an ordinary vertical rudder,
placed aft, and well protected by forged iron bars.
It is placed underneath the horizontal rudders, so
SUBMARINE BOATS. 89

 

as to be well protected against collisions, &c., and
well immersed when the vessel is moving along
the surface, and possibly lifting her tail out of the
water in pitching. It does not otherwise present
any feature of interest. Its area is 38 square feet.

When in the surface condition, the navigation
should take place from a platform or bridge deck,
which, when the vessel is submerged, rests on the
superstructure, round about the detachable boat,
but may be lifted up to a height of nearly 12 feet
above the water, along with the funnels and the
ventilator.

4. The Armament.

If it were possible to construct the bow of the
vessel thus, that it could ram the bottom of other
vessels without taking any damage herself, this
would make the submarine boat a still more
dangerous enemy. Whether this is possible can-
not be determined except by experiments. In
that case the stem ought to be so bluff as to make
sure not to stick in the hole she had herself made
in the enemy.

As it is, however, it is safer to contend with the
use of torpedoes; but the stem ought, all the
same, to be made as strong as possible.

This vessel is armed with four fixed torpedo-
tubes, of which two are fitted in the stem to fire
right ahead, and two are fitted in the steering
go SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

room, one on each side, to fire athwartship;
further, with one outrigger torpedo, which is
placed on the end of two telescopic steel tubes,
that are to be pushed out for attack by means of
compressed air, The outrigger is again with-
drawn by means of a chain. A great number of
air-accumulators are fitted in the torpedo-room,
from which the compressed air necessary to work
the torpedoes is drawn.

Suppose the enemy’s vessel is lying at anchor.
Before the submarine vessel comes within sight of
the enemy, whose position is supposed to be
known, the funnels and the ventilator, together
with the platform deck, are lowered down, and all
the openings closed by watertight lids. The ship
goes on awash, until she is so near that there is a
danger of being discovered ; then she dives down,
but, according to circumstances, she must go up to
the surface now and then, in order to correct her
course; however, she only need show the small
conning-towers. Judging from the difficulty with
which, for instance, a buoy is kept in sight, even
in fine weather, it seems very unlikely that such
small objects as these conning-towers should be
detected before the submarine vessel is near
enough to go straight for the enemy under water.
With the compass, she is not altogether without
guidance as regards direction, as she will be able
SUBMARINE BOATS. go!

 

to keep any given course, once determined, just as
well as a ship on the surface.

If the water is quite clear, and in ordinary day-
light, it will, according to divers, be quite possible
to see a ship’s bottom as a large dark mass even at
a distance of several hundred feet. If once the
bottom of the enemy’s vessel is seen, the torpedoes
are fired against it, one at a time, so as to destroy
the net, if possible, by means of the first torpedo.
If these fail, she may still try to apply the out-
rigger torpedo.

At night it will be a mere matter of luck, if
such a vessel is discovered in time, as was proved
in the case of the Housatonic, but then the
torpedoes must be fired when at the surface, in
order to obtain the direction.

5. The Air Supply and thé Accommodation of
Officers and Crew.

The air supply is to be stored up in a large.
number of hollow steel cylinders, of the type now
used for the storage of compressed air for filling
the Whitehead torpedo. Each of these cylinders
takes 15 cubic feet of air at 70 atmospheres ; they
are tested to 150 atmospheres. A total of 36,700
cubic feet at normal atmospheric pressure may be
carried in this way. This enormous supply of air
is to be used for the torpedoes, and for respiration
92 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

when submerged. According to the experiences
from Mr. Nordenfelt’s boats, the fresh air which is
in the vessel to start with will go much further
than one would imagine. If, however, the vessel
is to wait for some time under the water, an extra
supply of air will be needed.

' By experiments it will be possible to decide
whether it is not cheaper and more practical to
procure the fresh air by chemical means; at any
rate, it appears to be so in theory.

Oxygen may be produced directly by heating a
mixture of chlorate of potash and black oxide of
manganese. A small quantity of these substances
mixed together, and heated by an ordinary spirit
lamp, will produce enormous quantities of oxygen,
and it only remains to purify the air by extracting
the carbonic acid produced by respiration, This
may be done by pumping the air through dry
lime. A little chlorine is always developed along
with the oxygen in the above process, but this will
probably help to destroy the injurious organic
matters which may be suspended in the air.

The great advantage of this method is clearly
seen from the fact that a man uses only 4°5 cubic
feet of oxygen per hour; but that if we want to
keep the air tolerably pure by ventilation, such as
is done in dwellings for instance (i.e. to keep the
percentage of carbonic acid at less than about
SUBMARINE BOATS. 93

 

0°06), more than 2000 cubic feet per head per hour
is required.* The total complement of men and
officers will be at least twenty, so that if really
fresh air were to be provided by ventilation alone,
the whole store of air carried in the accumulators
would not be sufficient for one hour.

On the other hand, the amount of oxygen
actually consumed may be got out of a few
pounds of the chemical mixture.

Two officers and two engineers have their cabins
in the steering room; the rest of the men must
find room for their hammocks in the same com-
partment, if it is possible, for here the ventilation
is best.

The ventilating shaft is a cylindrical tube, 4 feet
in diameter, made of thin plating in two pieces,
like the parts of a telescope. It is to be worked
up and down, either by steel wire rope pulleys or
by some other mechanical method. If otherwise
found convenient, the bridge deck may be attached
to the lower part of the funnels and ventilators,
which then have to move together, but it may be
that this will make the closing of the openings
more difficult, and it puts a restriction to the
height of the bridge deck.

A separate fan must be fitted to distribute the

* ¢ Air, its Relations to Life’ by Walter Noel Hartley,
1876.
94 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

fresh air to all the various compartments of the
ship.

Electric light ought to be fitted everywhere in
the vessel, as well as in the detachable boat, which
will have its own accumulators for that purpose.

Not too much care can be given to the im-
portant question of the accommodation of officers
and crew, which, as will be admitted by every
naval man, plays so considerable a part in the
fighting efficiency of a vessel. Even if the utmost
is done in this respect, the living space will always
be small in submarine vessels.

6. Special Fittings.

If, in spite of all precautions, the ship should
sink to the bottom, without being able to get up
again by its own means, as might happen by a
breakdown of the motors or pumps, or in the case
of a great leakage, it must be possible for the
crew to escape. This is the reason why a detach-
able boat ought to be fitted: In the present
design it has been placed in the top of the ship, in
a hollow built down into the superstructure. The
superstructure extends for a length of 32 feet, and
has a height above the top of the ship of 2 feet
3 inches. Thereby we gain headroom underneath
the boat in the steering room. The detachable
boat is designed to stand the same pressures as
SUBMARINE BOATS. 95

 

the vessel itself; it rests on a saddle-shaped pack-
ing, against which it is tightly pressed down by
means of a number of clips.

Inside this packing is a circular door in the
boat, and a corresponding and smaller one in the
ship, arranged in such a way that it is possible to
get up into the boat, close the lower lid in the ship,
and then the lid in the boat. This done, all the
handles on the clips are turned. The water will
probably now enter the space inside the packing,
and if not, it may be made to do, so through a
small pipe leading from the outside to this space,
and provided with a stopcock. The boat will now
have a certain buoyancy, but will hang on in two
main clips, placed one at each end of the detach-
able boat, and in mechanical connection with each
other, so that they can only be let go both at the
same time, thereby preventing jamming. When
these clips are opened, the boat will ascend to the
surface. Communication with the vessel, if some-
body should be left behind, may be kept up by
telephonic connections. ,

When the boat comes to the surface, the doors
in the upper part are opened. This boat is essen-
tially the same as that in Le Plongeur.

Two “conning-towers” or look-out stations are
placed in the superstructure forward of the boat, and
on the sides of the ventilator. They are water-
96 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

tight compartments, six feet deep, with small towers
projecting beyond the superstructure. The construc-
tion of these latter is shown in Fig. 7. The glasses
are only three inches high, and consist of seg-
ments fitted into a cast-iron frame in such a way

  
 
  

WATER MAY
Sig CIRCULATE INSIDE
So THIS SPACE.-

CL
AWE KKG

   
  
 

SHIPS SIDE.

 

 
 
  
   

Ae \L
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ao pees (OCS
ao Nites
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-

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ey 4
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io

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that the greater the pressure, the greater the
watertightness will be. The whole tower is sur-
rounded by a thin glass shade, inside which the
SUBMARINE BOATS. 97

 

water may circulate ; it serves to prevent churning
of the water when the vessel is moving along.
Watertight sliding doors must be fitted in the top
of the conning-towers, to be closed in case of
accident.

Glass prisms may be fitted all over the ship, so
as to'admit the daylight everywhere.

The superstructure is surrounded by light
plating, inside which the water may circulate.
This is to prevent churning and breaking of
the water, and to permit stowing various gear
inside, such as anchors, hawsers, davits, collapsing
boats, etc.

The anchors are worked by a steam winch,
placed in the steering-room; the cables will have
to be shackled out when not in use, in order to
allow the hawse-pipes to be closed watertight.

Manometers must be fitted, showing the exact
depth of immersion.

The design, such as it has here been described,
must be taken merely as an illustration of the
principles on which a submarine vessel ought to be
designed, and as a practical way of pointing out
where the difficulties lie in solving the problem.
‘By making the vessel so large, I only mean to
advocate size as the only way of fulfilling the

H
98 SUBMARINE BOATS.

 

claims to speed, strength, safety, and comfort,
which may justly be made to this sort of vessels
by those who are to use them. What more
especially brings up the size is the fitting of two
different modes of propulsion. The cost of such.
a vessel would be about 50,000/, including the
expense of the unavoidable great number of
experiments.

 

LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,
STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING cROss,
RUSSIAN GOVERNMENT.

 

 

 

 

 

    
 

  
 

po eA

=
[TI

 

 

 

 
1888.

BOOKS RELATING

TO

APPLIED SCIENCE,

PUBLISHED BY

FE. & F. N. SPON,

LONDON: 128, STRAND.
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A Pocket-Book for Chemists, Chemical Manufacturers,

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Students, etc., etc. By THOMAS BAYLEY, Assoc. R.C, Sc. Ifeland, Ana-
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additions, 437 pp., royal 32mo, roan, gilt edges, 55.

SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS:

, Atomic Weights and Factors—Useful Data—Chemical Calculations—Rules for Indirect
Analysis— Weights and Measures— Thermometers and Barometers— Chemical Physics—
Boiling Points, ete.—Solubility of Substances—Methods of Obtaining Specific Gravity—Con-
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The Mechanician: A Treatise on the Construction
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. Methods of Using and Grinding them ; the Construction of Machine Tools,
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Fust Published, in Demy 8vo, cloth, containing 975 pages and 250 Illustrations, price 7s. 6d.

SPONS’ HOUSEHOLD MANUAL:

A Treasury of Domestic Receipts and Guide for Home Management,

PRINCIPAL CONTENTS.

Hints for selecting a good House, pointing out the essential requirements'for
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Sanitation.—What should constitute a good Sanitary Arrangement: Examples (with
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Water Supply.—Care of Cisterns ; Sources of Supply; Pipes; Pumps; Purification
and Filtration of Water.

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Furniture and Decoration.—Hints on the Selection of Furniture; on the most
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The Larder.—Keeping Food fresh for a limited time; Storing Food without change,
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A Handbook of Formule, Tables, and Memoranda,

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Tabulated Weights of Angle, Tee, Bulb, Round,
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A complete Explanation of the London
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Openings—Public P Grounds—C ies— Mortuaries—Cattle and Ordinary Markets
Public Slaughter-houses, etc——Giving numerous Forms of Notices, Specifications,. and
General Information upon these and other subjects of great importance to Municipal Engi-
neers and others engaged in Sanitary Work.

Metrical Tables. By G. L. Moreswortu, M.I.C.E.
32mo, cloth, -Is. 6.
CONTENTS.

General—Linear. Measures—Square M es—Cubic M es—M es of Capacity—
Weights—Combinations—Thermometers.

Elements of Construction for Electro-Magnets. By

Count TH. Du Moncet, Mem. de I’Institut de France. Translated from
the French by C. J. WHARTON. Crown 8vo, cloth, 4s. 6d.

Practical Electrical Units Popularly Explained, with

numerous illustrations and Remarks. By JAMES SWINBURNE, late of
J. W. Swan and Co., Paris, late of Brush-Swan Electric Light Company,
U.S.A. 18mo, cloth, 1s. 6d.

A Treatise on the Use of Belting for the Transmis-

sion of Power. By J. H. Cooper. Second edition, z//wstrated, 8v0,
cloth, 155.

A Pocket-Book of Useful Formule and Memoranda

Sor Civil and Mechanical Engineers. By Guitrorp L, MoLEswortTH,
Mem. Inst. C.E., Consulting Engineer to the Government of India for.
State Railways. With numerous illustrations, 744 PP. Twenty-first
edition, revised and enlarged, 32mo, roan, 6s.

, SyNopsIS OF CONTENTS: ;

Surveying, Levelling, etc.—Strength and Weight of Materials—Earthwork, Brickwork,
Masonry, Arches, etc.—Struts, Columns, Beams, and Trusses—Flooring, Roofing, and Roof
Trusses—Girders, Bridges, etc.—Railways and Roads—Hydraulic Formula—Canals, Sewers,
Waterworks, Docks—Irrigation and Breakwaters—Gas, Ventilation, and ‘Warming—Heat,
Light, Colour, and Sound—Gravity: Centres, Forces, and Powers—Millwork, Teeth of
Wheels, Shafting, etc.—Workshop Recipes—Sundry Machinery~Animal Power—Steam and
the Steam Engine—Water-power, Water-wheels, Turbines, etc.—Wind and Windmills—
Steam Navigation, Ship Building, Tonnage, etc.—Gunnery, Projectiles, etc.—Weights,
Measures, and Money—Trigonometry, Conic Sections, and Curves—Telegraphy—Mensura-
tion—Tables of Areas and Circumference, and Arcs of Circles—Logarithms, Square and
Cube Roots, Powers—Reciprocals, ete.—Useful Numbers—Differential and Integral Calcu-
lus—Algebraic Signs—Telegraphic Construction and Formula.

 
8 CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS

 

Hints on Architectural Draughtsmanship. By G. W.

TuxForD HALLATT. Fcap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. 6d.

Spons Tables and Memoranda for Engineers;
selected and arranged by J. T. Hurst, C.E., Author of ‘ Architectural
Surveyors’ Handbook,’ ‘ Hurst’s Tredgold’s Carpentry,’ etc. Ninth
edition, 64mo, roan, gilt edges, 1s. ; or in cloth case, Is. 6d.

, This work is printed in a pearl type, and is so small, measuring only 2¢ in. by r¥ in. by
tin. thick, that it may be easily carried in the waistcoat pocket.

“It is certainly an extremely rare thing for a reviewer to be called upon to notice a volume
measuring but 24 in. by 1} in., yet these dimensions faithfully represent the size of the handy
little book before us. The volume—which contains r18 printed pages, besides a few blank
pages for memoranda—is, in fact, a true pocket-book, adapted for being carried in the waist-
coat pocket, and containing a far greater amount and variety of information than most people
would imagine could be compressed into so smalla space. .. .. The little volume has been
compiled with considerable care and judgment, and we can cordially recommend it to our
readers as a useful little pocket companion.” —Lngineering.

A Practical Treatise on Natural and Artificial

Concrete, its Varieties and Constructive Adaptations. By HENRY REID,
Author of the ‘Science and Art of the Manufacture of Portland Cement.’
New Edition, with 59 woodcuts and 5 plates, 8vo, cloth, 15s.

Notes on Concrete and Works in Concrete; especially
written to assist those engaged upon Public Works. By JoHN NEWMAN,
Assoc. Mem. Inst. C.E., crown 8vo, cloth, 45. 6d.

Electricity as a Motive Power. By Count Tu. Du
MoncEL, Membre de l'Institut de France, and FRANK GERALDY, Ingé-
nieur des Ponts et Chaussées. Translated and Edited, with Additions, by
C. J. WHARTON, Assoc. Soc. Tel. Eng. and Elec. With 113 engravings
and diagrams, crown 8vo, cloth, 7s. 6a. :

Treatise on Valve-Gears, with special consideration
of the Link-Motions of Locomotive Engines. By Dr. Gustav ZEUNER,
Professor of Applied Mechanics at the Confederated Polytechnikum of
Zurich. Translated from the Fourth German Edition, by Professor J. F.
KLEIN, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa. J//ustrated, 8vo, cloth, 125. 6d.

The French-Polisher’s Manual. By a French-

Polisher; containing Timber Staining, Washing, Matching, Improving,
Painting, Imitations, Directions for Staining, Sizing, Embodying,
Smoothing, Spirit Varnishing, French-Polishing, Directions for Re-
polishing. Third edition, royal 32mo, sewed, 6d.

Hops, their Cultivation, Commerce, and Uses in
various Countries. By P.L. SIMMONDS. Crown 8vo, cloth, 45. 6d.

Lhe Principles of Graphic Statics. By Grorce

SYDENHAM CLARKE, Capt. Royal Engineers. With 112 dllustrations.
4to, cloth, 12s. 6d.
PUBLISHED BY E. & F, N. SPON. 9

 

Dynamo-Electric Machinery : A Manual for Students
of Electro-technics. By SILvANUS P. THompson, B.A., D.Sc., Professor

of Experimental Physics in University College, Bristol, etc., etc. Second
edition, z//estrated, 8vo, cloth, 125, 6d.

Practical Geometry, Perspective, and Engineering
Drawing; a Course of Descriptive Geometry adapted to the Require-
ments of the Engineering Draughtsman, including the determination of
cast shadows and Isometric Projection, each chapter being followed by
numerous examples ; to which are added rules for Shading, Shade-lining,
etc., together with practical instructions as to the Lining, Colouring,
Printing, and general treatment of Engineering Drawings, with a chapter
on drawing Instruments. By GEORGE S. CLARKE, Capt. R.E. Second
edition, with 21 plates. 2 vols., cloth, 10s. 6d.

The Elements of Graphic Statics. By Professor
Kari Von OTT, translated from the German by G. S. CLARKE, Capt.
R.E., Instructor in Mechanical Drawing, Royal Indian Engineering
College. With 93 illustrations, crown 8vo, cloth, 5s.

A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture and Distri-
bution of Coal Gas. By W1tu1aM RicHarps. Demy 4to, with numerous
wood engravings and 29 plates, cloth, 285.

SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS :

Introduction— History of Gas Lighting-—- Chemistry of Gas Manufacture, by Lewis
Thompson, Esq., M.R.C.S.—Coal, with Analyses, by J. Paterson, Lewis Thompson, and
G. R. Hislop, Esqrs—Retorts, Iron and Clay—Retort Setting—Hydraulic Main—Con-
densers — Exhausters— Washers and Scrubbers — Purifiers — Purification — History of Gas

“Holder — Tanks, Brick and Stone, Composite, Concrete, Cast-iron, Compound Annular
Wrought-iron — Specifications—Gas Holders — Station Meter— Governor — Distribution—
''Mains—Gas Mathematics, or Formulze for the Distribution of Gas, by Lewis Thompson, Esq.—
.. Services—Consumers’ Meters—Regulators—Burners—F ittings—Photometer—Carburization
of Gas—-Air Gas and Water Gas—Composition of Coal Gas, by Lewis Thompson, Esq.—
Analyses of Gas—Influence of Atmospheric Pressure and Temperature on Gas—Residual
Products—Appendix—Description of Retort Settings, Buildings, etc., etc.

The New Formula for Mean Velocity of Discharge
of Rivers and Canals. By W.R. KUTTER. Translated from articles in
the ‘Cultur-Ingénieur,’ by Lowis D’A. JACKSON, Assoc. Inst, C.E.
8vo, cloth, 125. 6d.

‘ . a ,
The Practical Millwright and Engineer's Ready
Reckoner; or Tables for finding the diameter and power of cog-wheels,
diameter, weight, and power of shafts, diameter and strength of bolts, etc,

By THomas DIXon. Fourth edition, r2mo, cloth, 3s.

Tin: Describing the Chief Methods of Mining,
Dressing and Smelting it abroad ; with Notes upon Arsenic, Bismuth and
Wolfram. By ARTHUR G. CuHARLETON, Mem. American Inst. of
Mining Engineers. With plates, Svo, cloth, 125. 62, we
Io CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS

 

Perspective, Explained and Illustrated, By G. S.

CLARKE, Capt. R.E, With illustrations, 8vo, cloth, 35. 6d.

Practical Hydraulics ; a Series of Rules and Tables
for the use of Engineers, etc, etc. By THomas Box. Fifth edition,
numerous plates, post 8vo, cloth, 55.

The Essential Elements of Practical Mechanics;

based on the Principle of Work, designed for Engineering Students. By
OLIVER ByRNE, formerly Professor of Mathematics, College for Civil
Engineers. Third edition, wth 148 wood engravings, post 8vo, cloth,
7s. 6d.

CONTENTS:

Chap. 1. How Work is Measured by a Unit, both with and without reference to a Unit
of Time—Chap. 2. The Work of Living Agents, the Influence of Friction, and introduces
one of the most beautiful Laws of Motion—Chap. 3. The principles expounded in the first and
second chapters are applied to the Motion of Bodies—Chap. 4. The Transmission of Work by
simple Machines—Chap. 5. Useful Propositions and Rules.

Breweries and Maltings: their Arrangement, Con-
struction, Machinery, and Plant. By G. SCAMELL, F.R.I.B.A. Second
edition, revised, enlarged, and partly rewritten. By F. CoLYER, M.1L.C.E,,
M.I.M.E. With 20 plates, 8vo, cloth, 18s.

A Practical Treatise on the Construction of Fort-
zontal and Vertical Waterwheels, specially designed for the use of opera-
tive mechanics. By WILLIAM CULLEN, Millwright and Engineer. With
11 ~lates. Second edition, revised and enlarged, small 4to, cloth, 125, 6d.

A Practical Treatise on Mill-gearing, Wheels, Shafts,
Riggers, etc.; for the use of Engineers. By THomMas Box, Third
edition, with 11 plates. Crown 8vo, cloth, 7s. 6d.

Mining Machinery: a Descriptive Treatise on the
Machinery, Tools, and other Appliances used in Mining. By G. G.
ANDRE, F.G.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E., Mem. of the Society of Engineers.
Royal 4to, uniform with the Author’s Treatise on Coal Mining, con-
taining 182 plates, accurately drawn to scale, with descriptive text, in
2vols., cloth, 3/. 12s.

’ CONTENTS :
Machinery for Prospecting, Excavating, Hauling, and Hoisting—Ventilation—Pumping—=

Treatment of Mineral Products, including Gold and Silver, Copper, Tin, and Lead, Iron
Coal, Sulphur, China Clay, Brick Earth, etc.

Tables for Setting out Curves for Railways, Canals,
Roads, etc, varying from a radius of five chains to three miles. By A. |
KENNEDY and R. W. Hackwoop. J//ustrated, 32mo, cloth, 2s. 6d.
PUBLISHED BY E. & F. N. SPON. II

The Science and Art of the Manufacture of Portland
Cement, with observations on some of its constructive applications, With
66 délustrations, By Henry Rep, C.E., Author of ‘A Practical
Treatise on Concrete,’ etc., etc. 8vo, cloth, 18s.

The Draughtsman's Handbook of Plan and Map

Drawing; including instructions for the preparation of Engineering,
Architectural, and Mechanical Drawings. With numerous illustrations
in the text, and 33 plates (15 printed in colours), By G. G. ANDRK,
F.G.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E. 4to, cloth, gs.

CONTENTS:

The Drawing Office and its Furnishings—Geometrical Problems—Lines, Dots, and their
Combinations—Colours, Shading, Lettering, Bordering, and North Points—Scales—Plotting
—Civil Engineers’ and Surveyors’ Plans—Map Drawing—Mechanical and Architectural
Drawing—Copying and Reducing Trigonometrical Formule, etc., etc,

The Boiler-maker's and von Ship-builder’s Companion,
comprising a series of original and carefully calculated tables, of the
utmost utility to persons interested in the irontrades. By JAMES FopDEN,
author of ‘ Mechanical Tables,’ etc. Second edition revised, with e//ustra-
tions, crown 8vo, cloth, 55.

Rock Blasting: a Practical Treatise on the means
employed in Blasting Rocks for Industrial Purposes. By G. G. ANDRE,
F.G.S., Assoc, Inst. C.E. With 56 illustrations and 12 plates, 8vo, cloth,
10s, 6d.

Painting and Painters Manual: a Book of Facts
for Painters and those who Use or Deal in Paint Materials. By C. L.
Conpit and J. SCHELLER. J//ustrated, 8vo, cloth, Ios. 6d.

A Treatise on Ropemaking as practised in public and
private Rope-yards, with a Description of the Manufacture, Rules, Tables
of Weights, etc., adapted to the Trade, Shipping, Mining, Railways,

y. Builders, etc. By R. CHAPMAN, formerly foreman to Messrs. Huddart

"and Co., Limehouse, and late Master Ropemaker to H.M. Dockyard,
Deptford. Second edition, 12mo, cloth, 3s.

Laxton’s Builders and Contractors Tables; for the

use of Engineers, Architects, Surveyors, Builders, Land Agents, and
® others. Bricklayer, containing 22 tables, with nearly 30,000 calculations.

4to, cloth, 55.

Laxton’s Builders and Contractors’ Tables. Ex-
cavator, Earth, Land, Water, and Gas, containing 53 tables, with nearly

24,000 calculations. 4to, cloth, 55. ss
12 CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS

 

Sanitary Engineering: a Guide to the Construction
of Works of Sewerage and House Drainage, with Tables for facilitating
the calculations of the Engineer. By BALDWIN LATHAM, C.E., M. Inst.
C.E., F.G.S., F.M.S., Past-President of the Society of Engineers. Second
edition, with numerous plates and woodcuts, 8vo, cloth, 12. 10s.

Screw Cutting Tables for Engineers and Machinists,
giving the values of the different trains of Wheels required to produce
Screws of any pitch, calculated by Lord Lindsay, M.P., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
etc. Cloth, oblong, 2s.

Screw Cutting Tables, for the use of Mechanical
Engineers, showing the proper arrangement of Wheels for cutting the
Threads of Screws of any required pitch, with a Table for making the
Universal Gas-pipe Threads and Taps. By W. A. MaRTIN, Engineer.
Second edition, oblong, cloth, Is., or sewed, 6d.

A Treatise on a Practical Method of Designing Slide-

Valve Gears by Simple Geometrical Construction, based upon the principles
enunciated in Euclid’s Elements, and comprising the various forms of
Plain Slide-Valve and Expansion Gearing ; together with Stephenson’s,
Gooch’s, and Allan’s Link-Motions, as applied either to reversing or to
variable expansion combinations, By EpDwarp J. CowLING WELCH,
Memb. Inst. Mechanical Engineers. Crown 8vo, cloth, 6s.

Cleaning and Scouring: a Manual for Dyers, Laun-
dresses, and for Domestic Use. By S, CHRISTOPHER. 18mo, sewed, 62.

A Glossary of Terms used in Coal Mining. By
WILLIAM STUKELEY GRESLEY, Assoc. Mem. Inst. C.E., F.G.S., Member
of the North of England Institute of Mining Engineers. //ustrated with
numerous woodcuts and diagrams, crown 8vo, cloth, 5s.

A Pocket-Book for Boiler Makers and Steam Users,

comprising a variety of useful information for Employer and Workman,
Government Inspectors, Board of Trade Surveyors, Engineers in charge
of Works and Slips, Foremen of Manufactories, and the general Steam-
using Public. By Maurice JoHN SExToN. Second edition, royal
32m, roan, gilt edges, 55.

Electrolysis: a Practical Treatise on Nickeling,
Coppering, Gilding, Silvering, the Refining of Metals, and the treatment
of Ores by means of Electricity. By H1proLyTE FONTAINE, translated
from the French by J. A. BERLY, C.E., Assoc. S.T.E. With engravings.
8vo, cloth, gs.
PUBLISHED BY E. & F. N. SPON. 13

Barlow's Tables of Squares, Cubes, Square Roots,

Cube Roots, Reciprocals of all Integer Numbers up to 10,000. Post 8vo,
cloth, 6s.

‘

A Practical Treatise on the Steam Engine, con-
taining Plans and Arrangements of Details for Fixed Steam Engines,
with Essays on the Principles involved in Design and Construction. By
ARTHUR Rice, Engineer, Member of the Society of Engineers and of
the Royal Institution of Great Britain. Demy 4to, copiously illustrated

with woodcuts and 96 plates, in one Volume, half-bound morocco, 2/. 25.3
or cheaper edition, cloth, 25s.

_ This work is not, in any sense, an elementary treatise, or history of the steam engine, but
is intended to describe examples of Fixed Steam Engines without entering into the wide
domain of locomotive or marine practice. To this end illustrations will be given of the most
recent arrangements of Horizontal, Vertical, Beam, Pumping, Winding, Portable, Semi-
portable, Corliss, Allen, Compound, and other similar Engines, by the most eminent Firms in
Great Britain and America. The laws relating to the action and precautions to be observed
in the construction of the various details, such as Cylinders, Pistons, Piston-rods, Connecting-
rods, Cross-heads, Motion-blocks, Eccentrics, Simple, Expansion, Balanced, aud Equilibrium
Slide-valves, and Valve-gearing will be minutely dealt with. In this connection will be found
articles upon the Velocity of Reciprocating Parts and the Mode of Applying the Indicator,
Heat and Expansion of Steam Governors, and the like. It is the writer’s desire to draw
illustrations from every possible source, and give only those rules that present practice deems
correct.

A Practical Treatise on the Science of Land and
Engineering Surveying, Levelling, Estimating Quantities, etc., with a
general description of the several Instruments required for Surveying,
Levelling, Plotting, etc. By H. S. MERRETT. Fourth edition, revised
by G. W. Usit1, Assoc. Mem. Inst. C.E. 41 Alates, with illustrations
and tables, royal 8vo, cloth, 125. 6d.

PRINCIPAL CONTENTS :

Part . Introduction and the Principles of Geometry. Part 2. Land Surveying; com-
rising General Observations—The Chain—Offsets Surveying by the Chain only—Surveying
illy Ground—To Survey an Estate or Parish by the Chain only—Surveying with the
Theodolite—Mining and Town Surveying—Railroad Surveying—Mapping—Division, and
Laying out of Land—Observations on Enclosures—Plane Trigonometry. Part 3. Levelling—
Simple and Compound Levelling—The Level Book—Parliamentary Plan and Section—
Levelling with ‘a Theodolite—Gradients—Wooden Curves—To Lay out a Railway Curve—
Setting out Widths. Part 4. Calculating Quantities generally for Estimates—Cuttings and
Embankments—Tunnels—Brickwork—Ironwork—Timber Measuring. Part 5. Description
and Use of Instruments in Surveying and Plotting—The Improved Dumpy Level—Troughton’s
Level—The Prismatic Compass — Proportional Compass — Box Sextant—Vernier — Panta-
graph—Merrett’s Improved Quadrant—Improved Computation Scale—The Diagonal Scale—
Straight Edge and Sector. Part 6. Logarithms of Numbers — Logarithmic Sines and
Co-Sines, Tangents and Co-Tangents—Natural Sines and Co-Sines—Tables for Earthwork,
for Setting out Curves, and for various Calculations, etc., etc., etc.

Health and Comfort in House Building, or Ventila-
tion with Warm Air by Self-Acting Suction Power, with Review of the
mode of Calculating the Draught in Hot-Air Flues, and with some actual
Experiments. By J. Dryspae, M.D., and J. W. Haywarp, M.D.
Second edition, with Supplement, with plates, demy 8vo, cloth, 7s. 6d.
14 CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS.

 

The Assayer's Manual: an Abridged Treatise on
the Docimastic Examination of Ores and Furnace and other Artificial
Products. By Bruno Keru. Translated by W. T. BRANNT. With 65
illustrations, 8vo, cloth, 125. 6d.

Electricity: its Theory, Sources, and Applications.
By J. T. SpraGuE, M.S.T.E. Second edition, revised and enlarged, with
numerous tllustrations, crown 8vo, cloth, 15s.

The Practice of Hand Turning in Wood, Lvory, Shell,

etc., with Instructions for Turning such Work in Metal as may be required
in the Practice of Turning in Wood, Ivory, etc. ; also an Appendix on
Omamental Turning. (A book for beginners.) By FRANCIS CAMPIN.
Third edition, wth wood engravings, crown 8vo, cloth, 6s.

CONTENTS :

On Lathes—Turning Tools—Turning Wood—Drilling—Screw Cutting—Miscellaneous
Apparatus and Processes—Turning Particular Forms—Staining—Polishing—Spinning Metals
—Materials—Ornamental Turning, etc. ~

Treatise on Watchwork, Past and Present. By the

Rev. H. L. NEttTHRopp, M.A., F.S.A. With 32 illustrations, crown
8vo, cloth, 6s. 6d.
CONTENTS :

Definitions of Words and Terms used in Watchwork—Tools—Time—Historical Sum-
mary—On Calculations of the Numbers for Wheels and Pinions; their Proportional Sizes,
Trains, etc.—Of Dial Wheels, or Motion Work—Length of Time of Going without Winding
up—The Verge—The Horizontal—The Duplex—The Lever—The Chronometer—Repeating
Watches—Keyless Watches—The Pendulum, or Spiral Spring—Compensation—Jewelling of
Pivot Holes—Clerkenwell—Fallacies of the Trade—Incapacity of Workmen—How to Choose
and Use a Watch, etc.

Algebra Self-Taught. By W. P. Hiccs, M.A.,
D.Sc., LL.D., Assoc. Inst. C.E., Author of ‘A Handbook of the Differ-
ential Calculus,’ etc. Second edition, crown 8vo, cloth, 2s, 6d.

CONTENTS ;

Symbols and the Signs of Operation—The Equation and the Unknown Quantity—
Positive and Negative Quantities— Multiplication—Involution—Exponents—Negative Expo-
nents—Roots, and the Use of Exponents as Logarithms—Logarithms—Tables of Logarithms
and Proportionate Parts— Transformation of System of Logarithms—Common Uses of
Common Logarithms—Compound Multiplication and the Binomial Theorem—Division,
Fractions, and Ratio—Continued Proportion—The Series and the Summation of the Series—
Limit of Series—Square and Cube Roots—Equations—List of Formule, etc.

Spons Dictionary of Engineering, Civil, Mechanical,
Military, and Naval; with technical terms in French, German, Italian,
and Spanish, 3100 pp., and early 8000 engravings, in super-royal 8vo,
in 8 divisions, 5. 8s. Complete in 3 vols., cloth, 57. 5s. Bound in a
superior manner, half-morocco, top edge gilt, 3 vols., 62. 12s.
PUBLISHED BY E. & F. N. SPON. 15

 

Notes in Mechanical E ngineering. Compiled prin-
cipally for the use of the Students attending the Classes on this subject at
the City of London College. By HENRY ApDams, Mem. Inst. M.E.,
Mem. Inst. C.E., Mem. Soc. of Engineers. Crown 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d.

Canoe and Boat Luilding: a complete Manual for
Amateurs, containing plain and comprehensive directions for the con-
struction of Canoes, Rowing and Sailing Boats, and: Hunting Craft.

By Ww. P. STEPHENS, With numerous illustrations and 24 plates of
Working Drawings. Crown 8vo, cloth, 7s. 6d,

Proceedings of the National Conference of Electricians,
Philadelphia, October 8th to 13th, 1884. 18mo, cloth, 3s.

Dynamo - Electricity, its Generation, Application,

Transmission, Storage, and Measurement. By G. B. Prescorr. With
545 wWlustrations. 8vo, cloth, 12. Is.

Domestic Electricity for Amateurs. Translated from
the French of E. HosPrratier, Editor of ‘‘LElectricien,” by C. J.
Wuarton, Assoc. Soc. Tel. Eng. Mzmerous illustrations. Demy 8vo,
cloth, 9s.

ConTENTS:

x. Production of the Electric Current—2. Electric Bells—3. Automatic Alarms—4. Domestic
Telephones—s. Electric Clocks—6. Electric Lighters—7. »Domestic Electric Lighting—
8. Domestic Application of the Electric Light—g. Electric Motors—zo. Electrical Locomo-
tion—11. Electrotyping, Plating, and Gilding—r2. Electric Recreations—13. Various appli-
cations—Workshop of the Electrician.

Wrinkles in Electric Lighting. By Vincent STEPHEN.

With illustrations. 18mo, cloth, 2s. 6d.

CoNTENTS:

1. The Electric Current and its production by Chemical means—2. Production of Electric
Currents by Mechanical means—3. Dynamo-Electric Machines—4. Electric Lamps—
5. Lead—6. Ship Lighting.

The Practical Flax Spinner ; being a Description of
the Growth, Manipulation, and Spinning of Flax and Tow. By LEsiiz
C. MARSHALL, of Belfast. With illustrations, 8vo, cloth, 155.

Foundations and Foundation Walls for all classes of

di: Pile Driving, Building Stones and Bricks, Pier and Wall
: oon Mortars, Limes, Cements, Concretes, Stuceos, &e. 64 illus.
trations. By G. T. POWELL and F. BAUMAN, 8vo, cloth, Ios, 6d,
16 CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS

 

Manual for Gas Engineering Students. By D. LEE.

18mo, cloth 1s.

Hydraulic Machinery, Past and Present. A Lecture
delivered to the London and Suburban Railway Officials’ Association,
By H. Apams, Mem. Inst. C.E. Folding plate. 8vo, sewed, Is.

Twenty Years with the Indicator. By Tuomas PRay,

Jun., C.E., M.E., Member of the American Society of Civil Engineers,
2 vols., royal 8vo, cloth, 12s, 6d.

Annual Statistical Report of the Secretary to the

Members of the Iron and Steel Association on the Home and Foreign Iron
and Steel Industries in 1884. Issued March 1885. 8vo, sewed, 55.

Bad Drains, and How to Test them; with Notes on

the Ventilation of Sewers, Drains, and Sanitary Fittings, and the Origin
and Transmission of Zymotic Disease. By R. HARRIS REEVES. Crown
8vo, cloth, 3s. 6d.

Standard Practical Plumbing; being a complete
Encyclopedia for Practical Plumbers and Guide for Architects, Builders,
Gas Fitters, Hot-water Fitters, Ironmongers, Lead Burners, Sanitary
Engineers, Zinc Workers, &c. Ld/ustrated by over 2000 engravings. By
P. J. Davies. Vol. 1, royal 8vo, cloth, 7s. 67.

Pneumatic Transmission of Messages and Parcels

between Paris and London, vid Calais and Dover. By J. B. BERLIER,
C.E. Small folio, sewed, 6d.

List of Tests (Reagents), arranged in alphabetical
order, according to the names of the originators. Designed especially
for the convenient reference of Chemists, Pharmacists, and Scientists,
By Hans M. WILDER. Crown 8vo, cloth, 4s. 6d,

Ten Years’ Experience in Works of Intermittent:
Downward Filtration, By J. Baitey DENTON, Mem. Inst. C.E,
Second edition, with additions. Royal 8vo, sewed, 4s.

A Treatise on the Manufacture of Soap and Candles,
Lubricants and Glycerin. By W. LANT CaRPENTER, B.A., B.Sc. (late
of Messrs. C. Thomas and Brothers, Bristol). With illustrations. Crown
8vo, cloth, 10s. 6d.
PUBLISHED BY E. & F. N. SPON. 17

 

The Stability of Ships explained simply, and calculated

a ae Graphic method. By J. C. SPENCE, M.I.N.A. 4to, sewed,

Steam Making, or Boiler Practice. By Cuarves A.

SMITH, C.E. 8vo, cloth, 10s. 62.

ConTENTS:

x. The Nature of Heat and the Properties of Steam—2. Combustion.—3. Externally Fired
Stationary Boilers—4. Internally Fired Stationary Boilers—s. Internally Fired Portable
Locomotive and Marine Boilers—6. Design, Construction, and Strength of Boilers—7. Pro-
portions of Heating Surface, Economic Evaporation, Explosions—8. Miscellaneous Boilers,
Choice of Boiler Fittings and Appurtenances.

The Firemans Guide; a Handbook on the Care of

Boilers, By TEKNOLOG, foreningen T. I. Stockholm. Translated from
the third edition, and revised by KARL P. DAHLSTROM, M.E. Second
edition. Fcap. 8vo, cloth, 25.

A Treatise on Modern Steam Engines and Boilers,
including Land Locomotive, and Marine Engines and Boilers,’ for the
use of Students. By FREDERICK COLYER, M. Inst. C.E., Mem. Inst. M.E.
With 36 plates. 4to, cloth, 25s.

ConTENTS:

1. Introduction—2. Original Engines—3. Boilers—4. High-Pressure Beam Engines—s.
Cornish Beam Engines—6. Horizontal Engines—7. Oscillating Engines—8. Vertical High-
Pressure Engines—g. Special Engines—rzo. Portable Engines—z1. Locomotive Engines—
12. Marine Engines.

Steam Engine Management; a Treatise on the
Working and Management of Steam Boilers. By F. Colyer, M. Inst.
C.E., Mem. Inst. M.E. 18mo, cloth, 2s.

Land Surveying on the Meridian and Perpendicular

System, By WILLIAM PENMAN, C.E. 8vo, cloth, 8s. 6d.

The Topographer, his Instruments and Methods,

designed for the use of Students, Amateur Photographers, Surveyors,
» . Engineers, and all persons interested in the location and construction of
works based upon Topography. J//ustrated with numerous plates, maps,
and engravings. By Lewis M. Haupt, A.M. 8vo, cloth, 18s.

A Text-Book of Tanning, embracing the Preparation
of all kinds of Leather. By Harry R. Proctor, F.C.S., of Low Lights
Tanneries. W2th illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth, Ios. 6d,
In super-royal 8vo, 1268 pp., w7th 2400 illustrations, in 3 Divisions, cloth, price 135+ 6d.
each ; or 1 vol., cloth, 22. ; or half-morocco, 27, 8s.

A SUPPLEMENT

TO

SPONS’ DICTIONARY OF ENGINEERING.

EDITED By ERNEST SPON, Mens. Soc. ENGINEERS.

Abacus, Counters, Speed
Indicators, and Slide
Rule.

Agricultural Implements
and Machinery.

Air Compressors.

Animal Charcoal Ma-
chinery.

Antimony.

Axles and Axle-boxes,

Barn Machinery.

Belts and Belting.

Blasting. Boilers.

Brakes,

Brick Machinery.

Bridges,

Cages for Mines.

Calculus, Differential and
Integral.

Canals,

Carpentry.

Cast Iron.

Cement, Concrete,
Limes, and Mortar.

Chimney Shafts,

Coal Cleansing and

 

Washing.

Coal Mining.
Coal Cutting Machines,
Coke Ovens. Copper.
Docks. Drainage.
Dredging Machinery.
Dynamo - Electric and
Magneto-Electric Ma-
chines.
Dynamometers.
Electrical Engineering,
Telegraphy, Electric
Lighting and its prac-
ticaldetails, Telephones
Engines, Varieties of.
Explosives, Fans.
Founding, Moulding and
the practical work of
the Foundry.
Gas, Manufacture of.
Hammers, Steam and
other Power.
Heat. Horse Power.
Hydraulics.
Hydro-geology.
Indicators. Iron.
Lifts, Hoists, and Eleva-
tors.

 

Lighthouses, Buoys, and
Beacons.

Machine Tools.

Materials of Construc-
tion.

Meters.

Ores, Machinery and

Processes employed to
Dress,

Piers.

Pile Driving.

Pneumatic Transmis-
sion.

Pumps.

Pyrometers,

Road Locomotives.

Rock Drills,

Rolling Stock.

Sanitary Engineering.

Shafting.

Steel.

Steam Navvy.

Stone Machinery,

Tramways.

Well Sinking.

 

London: E. & F. N. SPON, 125, Strand.
New York: 35, Murray Street.
NOW COMPLETE.

With nearly 1500 illustrations,

Divisions 1 to 4,

in super-royal 8vo, in 5 Divisions, cloth.
135. 6d. each ; Division 5, 17s. 6d. ; or 2 vols., cloth, £3 105.

SPONS’ ENCYCLOPADIA

OF THE

INDUSTRIAL ARTS, MANUFACTURES, AND COMMERCIAL

PRODUCTS.

Epitep sy C. G. WARNFORD LOCK, F.LS.

Among the more important of the subjects treated of, are the

following :—

Acids, 207 pp. 220 figs.

Alcohol, 23 pp. 16 figs.

Alcoholic Liquors, 13 pp.

Alkalies, 89 pp. 78 figs.

Alloys. Alum.

Asphalt. Assaying.

Beverages, 89 pp. 29 figs.

Blacks.

Bleaching Powder, 15 pp.

Bleaching, 51 pp. 48 figs.

Candles, 18 pp. 9 figs.

Carbon Bisulphide.

Celluloid, 9 pp.

Cements, Clay.

Coal-tar Products, 44 pp.
14 figs.

Cocoa, 8 pp.

Coffee, 32 pp. 13 figs.

Cork, 8 pp. 17 figs.

Cotton Manufactures, 62
PP- 57 figs.

Drugs, 38 pp.

Dyeing and Calico
Printing, 28 pp. 9 figs.

Dyestuffs, 16 pp.

_Electro-Metallurgy, 13
PP-

Explosives, 22 pp. 33 figs.

Feathers.

Fibrous Substances, 92
PP: 79 figs.

Rinne otk 16 pp. 21

figs.
Food Preservation, 8 pp.
Fruit, 8 pp.

 

Fur, 5 pp.

Gas, Coal, 8 pp.

Gems.

Glass, 45 pp. 77 figs.

Graphite, 7 pp.

Hair, 7 pp.

Hair Manufactures,

Hats, 26 pp. 26 figs.

Honey. Hops.

Horn.

Ice, 10 pp. 14 figs.

Indiarubber Manufac-
tures, 23 pp. 17 figs.

Ink, 17 pp.

Ivory.

Jute Manufactures,
pp., 11 figs.

Knitted Fabrics —
Hosiery, 15 pp. 13 figs.

Lace, 13 pp. 9 figs.

Leather, 28 pp. 31 figs.

Linen Manufactures, 16
pp. 6 figs.

Manures, 21 pp. 30 figs.

Matches, 17 pp. 38 figs.

Mordants, 13 pp.

Narcotics, 47 pp.

Nuts, Io pp.

Oils and Fatty Sub-
stances, I25 pp.

Paint. 2 P

Paper, 26 pp. 23 figs.

Poraiin, 8 pp. 6 figs.

Pearl and Coral, 8 pp.

Perfumes, 10 pp.

II

 

Photography, 13 pp. 20
figs.

D'
Pigments, 9 pp. 6 figs.
Pottery, 46 pp. 57 figs.
Printing and Engraving,
20 pp. 8 figs.
Rags,
Resinous and Gummy
aaa, 75 pp. 16
S

gS.
Rope, 16 pp. 17 figs.
Salt, 31 pp. 23 figs.
Silk, 7
Silk Manufactures, 9 pp.
11 figs.
Skins, 5 pp.
Small Wares, 4 pp.
Soap and Glycerine, 39
pp: 45 figs.
Spices, 16 pp.
Sponge, 5 pp.
Starch, 9 pp. 10 figs.
Sugar, 155 pp. 134
figs.
Sulphur..
Tannin, 18 pp.
Tea, 12 pp.
Timber, 13 pp.
Varnish, 15 pp.
Vinegar, 5 pp.
Wax, 5 pp-
Wool, 2 pp.
Woollen Manufactures,
58 pp. 39 figs.

 

London: E. & F. N. SPON, 125, Strand.
New York: 35, Murray Street.
Crown 8vo, cloth, with illustrations, 55.

WORKSHOP RECEIPTS,

FIRST SERIES.

By ERNEST SPON.

Bookbinding.

Bronzes and Bronzing.
Candles.

Cement.

Cleaning.
Colourwashing.
Concretes.

Dipping Acids.
Drawing Office Details.
Drying Oils.

Dynamite.

Electro - Metallurgy —
(Cleaning, Dipping,
Scratch-brushing, Bat-
teries, Baths, and
Deposits of every
description).
Enamels.

Engraving on Wood,

Copper, Gold, Silver,
Steel, and Stone.
Etching and Aqua Tint.
Firework Making
(Rockets, Stars, Rains,
Gerbes, Jets, Tour-
billons, Candles, Fires,
Lances, Lights, Wheels,
Fire-balloons, and
minor Fireworks).
Fluxes.
Foundry Mixtures.

Besides Receipts relati

SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.

Freezing. , Paper.
Fulminates. . Paper Hanging.
Furniture Creams, Oils, Painting in Oils, in Water

Polishes, Lacquers, Colours, as well as
and Pastes, | Fresco, House, Trans-
Gilding. | parency, Sign, and
Glass Cutting, Cleaning, Carriage Painting.
Frosting, Drilling, | Photography.
Darkening, Bending, | Plastering.

Staining, and Paint-' Polishes.

ing. Pottery—(Clays, Bodies,
Glass Making. Glazes, Colours, Oils,
Glues. Stains, Fluxes, Ena-
Gold. mels, and Lustres).
Graining. Scouring.
Gums. Silvering.
Gun Cotton, , Soap.
Gunpowder. ' Solders.
Horn Working. : Tanning.
Indiarubber. ' Taxidermy.

Japans, Japanning,

and Tempering Metals.
kindred processes.

Treating Horn, Mother-

Lacquers. o’-Pearl, and like sub-
Lathing. stances.

Lubricants. Varnishes, Manufacture
Marble Working. and Use of.

Matches. Veneering.

Mortars. Washing.
Nitro-Glycerine. Waterproofing.

Oils. Welding.

 

ng to the lesser Technological matters and processes,

such as the manufacture and use of Stencil Plates, Blacking, Crayons, Paste,
Putty, Wax, Size, Alloys, Catgut, Tunbridge Ware, Picture Frame and
Architectural Mouldings, Compos, Cameos, and others too numerous to

mention.

 

Londoa: E.

New

& F. N. SPON, 125, Strand.
York: 35, Murray Street.
Crown Svo, cloth, 485 pages, with illustrations, 55,

WORKSHOP RECEIPTS,
SECOND SERIES.
By ROBERT HALDANE,

SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS,

Acidimetry and Alkali-| Disinfectants. Isinglass.

metry. Dyeing, Staining, and) Ivory substitutes.
Albumen. Colouring. Leather.
Alcohol. Essences. Luminous bodies,
Alkaloids. Extracts. Magnesia,
Baking-powders. Fireproofing. Matches.
Bitters. Gelatine, Glue, and Size.| Paper.
Bleaching. Glycerine. Parchment.
Boiler Incrustations, Gut. Perchloric acid.
Cements and Lutes. Hydrogen peroxide. Potassium oxalate.
Cleansing. Ink. Preserving.
Confectionery. Iodine.
Copying. Iodoform.

Pigments, Paint, and Painting: embracing the preparation of
Pigments, including alumina lakes, blacks (animal, bone, Frankfort, ivory,
lamp, sight, soot), blues (antimony, Antwerp, cobalt, caruleum, Egyptian,
manganate, Paris, Péligot, Prussian, smalt, ultramarine), browns (bistre,
hinau, sepia, sienna, umber, Vandyke), greens (baryta, Brighton, Brunswick,
chrome, cobalt, Douglas, emerald, manganese, mitis, mountain, Prussian,
sap, Scheele’s, Schweinfurth, titanium, verdigris, zinc), reds (Brazilwood lake,
carminated lake, carmine, Cassius purple, cobalt pink, cochineal lake, colco-
thar, Indian red, madder lake, red chalk, red lead, vermilion), whites (alum,
haryta, Chinese, lead sulphate, white lead—by American, Dutch, French,
German, Kremnitz, and Pattinson processes, precautions in making, and
composition of commercial samples—whiting, Wilkinson’s white, zinc white),
yellows (chrome, gamboge, Naples, orpiment, realgar, yellow lakes) ; Pazn?
(vehicles, testing oils, driers, grinding, storing, applying, priming, drying,
filling, coats, brushes, surface, water-colours, removing smell, discoloration ;
miscellaneous paints—cement paint for carton-pierre, copper paint, gold paint,
iron paint, lime paints, silicated paints, steatite paint, transparent paints,
tungsten paints, window paint, zine paints); Painting (general instructions,
proportions of ingredients, measuring paint work ; carriage painting—priming
paint, best putty, finishing colour, cause of cracking, mixing the paints, oils,
~ driers, and colours, varnishing, importance of washing vehicles, re-varnishing,
how to dry paint ; woodwork painting).

 

London: .E. & F. N. SPON, 125, Strand.
New York: 35, Murray Street.
JUST PUBLISHED.

Crown 8vo, cloth, 480 pages, with 183 illustrations, 55.

WORKSHOP RECEIPTS,
THIRD SERIES.

By C. G. WARNFORD LOCK.

Uniform with the First and Second Series.

SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.

Alloys. Indium. Rubidium.
Aluminium, Tridium. Ruthenium.
Antimony. Tron and Steel. Selenium.
Barium. Lacquersand Lacquering. | Silver.
Beryllium. Lanthanum. Slag.
Bismuth. Lead. Sodium.
Cadmium. Lithium. Strontium.
‘Cesium, Lubricants. Tantalum.
Calcium, Magnesium. Terbium.
‘Cerium. Manganese, Thallium.
‘Chromium, Mercury. Thorium.
Cobalt. Mica. Tin.
Copper. | Molybdenum, Titanium.
Didymium. Nickel. Tungsten,
Electrics. Niobium. Uranium.
Enamels and Glazes. Osmium. Vanadium.
Erbium. Palladium. Yttrium.
Gallium. Platinum. Zinc,
Glass. Potassium. Zirconium.
Gold. Rhodium.

 

 

 

London: E. & F. N. SPON, 125, Strand.
New York: 85, Murray Street.
WORKSHOP RECEIPTS,
FOURTH SERIES,
DEVOTED MAINLY TO HANDICRAFTS & MECHANICAL SUBJECTS.

By C. G. WARNFORD LOCK.

250 Illustrations, with Complete Index, and a General Index to the
Four Series, 5s.

 

Waterproofing — rubber goods, cuprammonium processes, miscellaneous
preparations,

Packing and Storing articles of delicate odour or colour, of a deliquescent
oe liable to ignition, apt to suffer from insects or damp, or easily
roken,

Embalming and Preserving anatomical specimens.

Leather Polishes.

Cooling Air and Water, producing low temperatures, making ice, cooling
syrups and solutions, and separating salts from liquors by refrigeration.

Pumps and Siphons, embracing every useful contrivance for raising and
supplying water on a moderate scale, and moving corrosive, tenacious,
and other liquids.

Desiccating—air- and water-ovens, and other appliances for drying natural
and artificial products,

Distilling—water, tinctures, extracts, pharmaceutical preparations, essences,
perfumes, and alcoholic liquids,

Emulsifying as required by pharmacists and photographers.

Evaporating—saline and other solutions, and liquids demanding special
: precautions,

Filtering—water, and solutions of various kinds,

Percolating and Macerating.

Electrotyping.

Stereotyping by both plaster and paper processes.

Bookbinding in all its details.

Straw Plaiting and the fabrication of baskets, matting, etc.

Musical Instruments—the preservation, tuning, and repair of pianos,

_ harmoniums, musical boxes, etc.

Clock and Watch Mending—adapted for intelligent amateurs.

Photography—recent development in rapid processes, handy apparatus,
numerous recipes for sensitizing and developing solutions, and applica-
tions to modern illustrative purposes.

 

London: E. & F. N. SPON, 125, Strand.
New York: 35, Murray Street.
JUST PUBLISHED.

 

In demy 8vo, cloth, 600 pages, and 1420 Illustrations, 6s.

SPONS’

MECHANICS’ OWN BOOK;
A MANUAL FOR HANDICRAFTSMEN AND AMATEURS.

CONTENTS.

Mechanical Drawing—Casting and Founding in Iron, Brass, Bronze,
and other Alloys—Forging and Finishing Iron—Sheetmetal Working
—Soldering, Brazing, and Burning—Carpentry and Joinery, embracing
descriptions of some 400 Woods, over 200 Illustrations of Tools and
their uses, Explanations (with Diagrams) of 116 joints and hinges, and
Details of Construction of Workshop appliances, rough furniture,
Garden and Yard Erections, and House Building—Cabinet-Making
and Veneering — Carving and Fretcutting — Upholstery — Painting,
Graining, and Marbling— Staining Furniture, Woods, Floors, and
Fittings—Gilding, dead and bright, on various grounds—Polishing
Marble, Metals, and Wood—Varnishing—Mechanical movements,
illustrating contrivances for transmitting motion—Turning in Wood
and Metals—Masonry, embracing Stonework, Brickwork, Terracotta,
and Concrete—Roofing with Thatch, Tiles, Slates, Felt, Zinc, &c.—
Glazing with and without putty, and lead glazing—Plastering and
Whitewashing— Paper-hanging— Gas-fitting—Bell-hanging, ordinary
and electric Systems — Lighting — Warming — Ventilating — Roads,
Pavements, and Bridges—-Hedges, Ditches, and Drains— Water
Supply and Sanitation—Hints on House Construction suited to new
countries.

London: E. & F. N. SPON, 125, Strand.
New York: 35, Murray Street.
 

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