ELEMENTARY DRAWING
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A SERIES OF
PRACTICAL PAPERS FOR BEGINNERS
WRITTEN AND ILLUSTRATED BY
ELISABETH MOORE HALLOWELL
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THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
LONDON: MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltd.ELEMENTARY DRAWING
A SERIES OF
PRACTICAL PAPERS FOR BEGINNERS
WRITTEN AND ILLUSTRATED BY
ELISABETH MOORE HALLOWELL
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THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
LONDON: MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltd.
1897
All rights reserved
GA' 1251Sj
Copyright, 1897,
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
NortoooB Iprrss
J. S. Cushing & Co. — Berwick & Smith
Norwood Mass. U.S.A.PREFACE
It is the purpose of this little book, which consists chiefly of a series of papers originally written
for The Art Amateur, to give to beginners in drawing a simple explanation of some matters usually con-
sidered too elementary for text-books. It is, however, not intended for very young readers, but for those
who are able to follow from one lesson to another, up to the point where the present volume ends, and
the general text-book begins.
Should it be helpful, even in small measure, to some who have felt at a loss where to begin, its
purpose will be fulfilled.
ELISABETH MOORE HALLOWELL.TABLE
OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER I Introductory : Why we have to Learn to Draw .	PAGE I	Light and Shade	CHAPTER VII	.	PAGE . 27
CHAPTER II Perspective : The Horizon		6	Color Values .	CHAPTER VIII		• 33
CHAPTER III The Vanishing of Lines; One Point Perspective .	. IO	Textures .	CHAPTER IX		• 38
CHAPTER IV Two Point Perspective		• 15	Out Door Sketching	CHAPTER X		. 42
CHAPTER V Circles and Ellipses			CHAPTER XI Working from Photographs .			• 47
CHAPTER VI Some Possible Difficulties		. 24	Some Closing Remarks	CHAPTER XII		• 52
viiELEMENTARY DRAWING
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTORY
WHY WE HAVE TO LEARN TO DRAW----MERE COPYING IS NOT DRAWING — IT FIXES BAD HABITS-WE MUST LEARN
“ TO SEE ” FOR OURSELVES
In beginning this Series of Practical Papers, it may be as well to have a definite understanding of their
purpose, so that time may not be spent upon them by art students who have advanced farther than the
subjects which are proposed to be dealt with therein. It may be said at once that the title, Elementary
Drawing, is meant to be taken in its most literal sense. This little volume is, in a word, addressed to students
who feel themselves in complete ignorance of the so-called “rules” of drawing; who perhaps do not know
what perspective means; and who, possibly, on attempting to study without the aid of a teacher, find that
every text-book seems to begin at a point which they have not yet attained.
It must be assumed that these workers have some ability and much love for the work; and granting this,
it will be the endeavor of the writer to bring such to a practical understanding of elementary drawing. We
will suppose our readers to be such as are earnestly interested in artistic matters, and not afraid to begin
at the beginning alone. This is not an easy undertaking, for it is especially difficult in the earlier stages of
drawing to work without the sympathy of fellow-students and the personal inspiration of a teacher; but it is
by no means an impossible task, and we may hope it will prove a pleasant one.
It may be supposed that there are many of our readers who have spent their time in copying pictures
B
IELEMENTARY DRAWING
2
made by others. Perhaps these copies are excellent ones, and the skill so shown has awakened much
admiration in the home circle. Or, again, the reader may be interested in sketching; and with a faculty for
making rapid and interesting sketches “ out of his head,” there is a disinclination for more serious study.
From such as these come the questions: “ Why should I study drawing at all ? Why not continue to copy
these beautiful drawings that others have made, since I am sure I can never do so well myself? Or, why
should I not continue to sketch roughly all these things which I like so much to draw, without settling
down to the steady drudgery through which I
is all this weary working over little blocks and
still-life groups, this endless amount of char-
We need, I think, to consider the sub- HB
just the same educational light as other
ing, of course, some natural ability for Jj,
much time wasted. Viewed from
work of the world, consider the J|£
may labor over a description
or scene, or individual, while
fixes the view before the
Which of us could have
alone any idea of the charm
scenes such as we have ob-
trations in our periodicals ?
see other art students going? Of what use
cones and pyramids, this rendering of
coal study from the antique ? ”
ject of drawing pure and simple in
branches of learning; presuppos-
A it, without which there may be
the point of helpfulness in the
great use of pictures. One
covering pages, about place,
one glance at a picture
mind as no words can do.
gained from explanations
of Old World cities and
tained simply from the illus-
And without entering at all upon the vexed question of “art for art’s sake” or
theorizing upon its moral influence, I am sure most of us can remember one or more powerful paintings
which have stirred our deepest feelings beyond the ability of language to do.
There are published in the illustrated magazines many fine engravings of such pictures; and often we
look at these and say: “ I like such a picture, but I do not know why I like it.” And here is partly where
the study of drawing should be of use to us. It should, by educating taste and intelligence, as well as hand
Fig. 1.—Study of elementary forms.INTRODUCTORY
3
and eye, teach what are the good points in a picture, and give a keener insight into the artist’s reason for
painting it. Now, copying another’s work can never do this. Copying is not drawing. It would seem to a
student in one of our large art schools almost unnecessary to say this; but many warm lovers of art are
living at a distance from such schools, or have not yet begun to study; and to such these words are addressed.
As a matter of learning rendering (which general expression covers such points as the method of laying on
paint, or the direction of line in a	pen or pencil drawing), there	may be considerable	use	in an occasional
copy; but otherwise it is generally	worse than useless to continue	in the practice, as it	fixes	bad habits more
frequently than good ones. The fewest and simplest lines that you make yourself are worth more in training
your eye to see truly than all the copies you can make.
As to the question why you should not go on making little free-hand sketches roughly, with no further
study than this can bring, I may say that unless you are a wonder, you have probably many bad habits of
which you are quite unconscious until study acquaints you with them. This is the case with each of us;
only as we advance can we realize what mistakes we have made and how little we know; and this realization
is one of the reasons why every artist, however great, always continues to study, as well as to w^ork.
It is pleasant to make quick little sketches, the imperfections of which we excuse by saying it is “ only
a sketch ”; it is pleasant also to play by ear a waltz on the piano or to read charming fairy stories all day;
and all these things are not unsuitable to the earliest stages of the graphic arts, music, and literature. But
just as it would be impossible to	render fitly the unspeakable	beauties of Beethoven or	Wagner without
months of previous drudgery, just	as it is out of the question to understand science	and	literature by the
reading of fairy tales alone, so it is impossible that these off-hand sketches, without study, shall lead to heights
of which at present we will frankly assume the student knows but little. The simplest illustration in a magazine
may hold in it a knowledge of perspective over which the artist has spent many hours of study. The sketches
of furniture and cosy corners which we often see in books or papers; the small tail-pieces of old books, jugs,
and jars, or such simple things, which we think must take but little time or thought; the group of old houses
which lends picturesqueness to the page — all these things seem so easy as to be hardly worth regarding as
matters involving study.ELEMENTARY DRAWING
4
Yet what, after all, are the drawings of tables and chairs, and, indeed, corners of rooms and houses, but
so many enlarged and elaborated blocks ? What but the same principle governs the drawing of books lying
open or closed on the table ? How shall we correctly represent the little collection of jugs and jars (Fig. 2),
without having first studied in the plain forms of plinth or cone the ellipses which so largely make up the
Fig. 2.—Study of objects involving a knowledge of elementary forms.
drawing of these objects ? If the simpler forms such as these cannot be drawn correctly, it is quite hopeless
to attempt anything more elaborate.
So with work “ from the antique,” with its “ blocking out in large forms,” of which the student hears so
much. Our eyes are not naturally made so that we see things correctly to draw them, any more than our
fingers are made so as to play scales rapidly at first, or our minds so constituted that we can go at one step
from the reading of children’s stories to the understanding of abstruse problems. As very little children, we
tried to touch any distant object as if it were near by, and reached out as quickly to grasp the moon as toCHAPTER II
PERSPECTIVE--THE HORIZON
The usual text-book on perspective is a complex thing. It is also frequently an admirable thing for
use after its reader has gained by practical work some knowledge of its terms, and is able to work out
from experience the problems which face him from the printed page; but it would, perhaps, be difficult to
find any such work that can be read understanding^ by one who stands in complete ignorance of practical
drawing. Yet the most elementary drawing holds in it some of the principles of perspective, and whether
understood as perspective or not, these principles must be clear in the student’s mind before real progress
can be made.
Being thus met at the outset with the somewhat paradoxical statement that one should be able to draw
before studying perspective, though the rules of perspective enter into everything one draws, the student may
well feel bewildered and inclined to give up the task at once; but let us go on a little farther. With some
thought and a little practice a child can understand enough simple perspective to draw correctly what he
sees before him. That point we will endeavor to reach together; and after this all honor to the deep text-
books, and let who will take up their study.
We will think, therefore, that we are not studying perspective at all, but that we are learning to draw;
and I should like to ask all who read these papers with a view to study, that for the present they will begin
no drawing of any kind, but will content themselves with the most active observation in every-day life of all
points to which their attention is here called.
The chief point to be understood in elementary drawing is this: that it is necessary to draw the object
as we see it, rather than as we know it to be. For example, we all know that the steel rails of a railroad
6PERSPECTIVE— THE HORIZON
7
track as they go away from us are parallel; that they will be no nearer each other a mile away, if we walk
along them that far, than they are at our feet here. If we make a drawing of them, then, on our paper
exactly parallel, this will be drawing them as we know them to be. But this drawing wall not look in the
least as those rails do, as we stand and watch them going far off across the country. As they go away
from us, the sides of the track appear to get nearer together as the track goes farther away; until, if we can
see so far, we can almost believe they come to a point of meeting in the distance. Now, if we draw them
so, we shall draw them as we see them, rather than as we know them to be.
If we stand upon a plain where no obstructing trees or houses cut off the view, and follow the lines of
track out as far as we can, we shall find they seem to meet at a point where the earth and sky appear also
to meet. This line, between earth and sky, or sea and sky, is called the horizon; and when we hear the
expression “ a horizontal line,” we know that it means a line running straight across our view, just as the
horizon does.
As we stand on the plain and look at the horizon, we shall find by holding a pencil up horizontally
across our eyes that it just shuts off the view of the horizon. So we may say that the horizon is on a level
with our eyes. But now comes a fact which it is needful to get well fixed in our minds before going
farther. I should like to ask each reader a question or two individually, and if I put these questions here,
and you will stop and think out the answers for yourselves, it will help you much more than merely to read
the answers as they follow on the page.
Suppose we climb a high hill that is near the place where we have stood, and again hold the pencil
across our eyes, will the horizon again be out of sight behind it, or will it be below ? Or, if we should go
down into a valley lower even than the plain on which we first stood, but from which we could still see out
to the horizon, and again test it with the pencil, would the horizon then be high up, where we seemed to
see it from the hill, or would it again be hidden by the pencil held before our eyes ? In other words, does
the horizon seem to remain stationary, no matter what we do, or does it seem to move as we move ?
One’s first impulse is to reply to such a question, “ The horizon remains fixed.” It is for this reason
that I would like you all to test the problem for yourselves; and I hope many of you are so situated thatELEMENTARY DRAWING
8
this can be done. For those, however, who are unable to do so, these three sketches of an actual light-
house, taken from different points of view, will serve, I hope, to explain the matter.
The approach to this lighthouse is by way of a high hill, from the top of which one may look down on
the little point of land where the lighthouse stands. In taking the first sketch from this point of view, the
horizon seemed to be as high as the hill on which the observer was standing; indeed, by holding up a
pencil it appeared to be on a level with the eyes of one standing on that hill, and far below, its top not
Fig. 1.	Fig. 2.	Fig. 3.
reaching the water line, appeared the lighthouse. After going some distance down the hill, and reaching a
flat plain, the second sketch was made; and it was noticeable while drawing that, having come part way down
the hill, less of the ocean could be seen, and the horizon line appeared considerably lower. In short, trying
it again with the pencil, it again appeared on a level with the observer’s eye. Still nearer to the lighthouse
there is another descent, so that one is brought rather abruptly among the rocks to the water’s edge, and
looking across the cove between, the third sketch was made. Now, noticing the horizon, we find it has once
more descended, and on making the pencil test again, our horizon line is still level with the observer’s eye.
There are other points of “ perspective ” about these little drawings to which I shall call your attention by.PERSPECTIVE— THE HORIZON
9
and by, but at present our concern is simply with the one subject with which we have been dealing; and if
this is clearly fixed on your mind it will be enough at present.
One reason for the horizon appearing to rise as we ascend is that we are by that means literally^ taller,
and more of the earth’s surface can so be seen. Many very interesting experiments may be made on this
subject, but it would hardly be possible in such elementary talks as these to enter upon experiments of that
kind, or even to give all the reasons for the points to which attention is directed. Our object is simply to
secure that attention, and help the student to see more correctly than before; and later on, any good text-
books on perspective should furnish reasons clearly enough. If sufficiently interested, the student will seek to
know the cause himself, after he has learned to see the effect of such cause.
I hope that by dint of careful observation you will fix in your minds these facts; that the horizon is not
a stationary line, — in fact, that it is not a real line at all, though so called for convenience, but is simply a term
used to express	the limit of	distance upon the earth’s surface which our eyes can see. We shall find, upon
trial, that if we	are low	down we can see	less of the earth’s surface; if	high up, we can see	more; that the
horizon line is, therefore, exactly opposite the observer’s eyes, wherever he stands, and consequently is not the
same to any two persons, unless their eyes happen to be at exactly the same height from the earth.
Therefore, if not so placed as to be able to see the real horizon (and it is seldom except by the seashore
or upon an open plain	that	this can be	done), we can never be at a	loss to know where	such a horizon
would be; that	is, how	high	or how low	it would appear to us; for at	whatever height we	are placed the
horizon would always appear at just the height of our eyes.
Whether any doubt exists or not as to the correctness of these various statements, I wish you would
test the matter thoroughly for yourselves, if possible. Statements and drawings are of very little use unless
the student is convinced by personal observation that the facts are true. And with such observation will
come an understanding of many other facts which can only be slightly touched upon here, and which, as we
continue, will be invaluable to steady progress.CHAPTER III
THE VANISHING OF LINES-----ONE POINT PERSPECTIVE
UR attention in the last chapter was directed to the consideration of the horizon, and it
is hoped that the points which are therein summed up are in every way clear. But it
is possible that the student, however well such points are fixed in his mind, sees but
little connection between these and the making of even the most elementary drawing,
much less more advanced pictures. Perhaps by the end of this chapter such connec-
tion will have become more clear.
Mention has already been made of the apparent vanishing of lines toward the
horizon, as in the case of the railroad track. If we ride in the street car and occupy
the front seat, so that the view of the street is spread before us, we see again the
parallel lines of the track appearing to converge in the distance, and with them other parallel lines, such as
those in the pavement, the roofs of the houses, the lines that form the upper and lower edges of the windows,
doors, and so forth. Now just here, since we have to do at present with observation and not drawing,
will you stand at one end of as long a room as you can find, and test this matter in another way? Notice
the ceiling and floor lines of the side wall as they go away from you: does not the higher one appear to
run down as it goes away, and the lower one to run up, and can we not imagine that if the wall were
continued out as far as the eye could see, these two lines might seem to converge till they met? Try
this again, standing at the end of a long fence, or notice a line of telegraph poles as they retreat in the
distance; watch the end of a covered bridge through which you drive, and see how the lines formed by
the sides and top seem to draw together. In short, test the matter for yourself, until you are perfectly sure
10THE VANISHING OF LINES—ONE POINT PERSPECTIVE	II
of this fact, and could point it out clearly	to some one else. This point, I hope, is	plain enough	for us
to feel safe in establishing our first definite	principle,	in some such form as this:	all	parallel lines	going
away from us appear to converge or approach each other as they go away.
Returning to the view from the car window, it may be noticed that only those lines of the buildings
which are above our eyes seem to run down,	and that	those below our eyes — such	as	the street, doorsteps,
and so forth — seem to run up; and if we	could be	upon the open
streets and tracks all went on till our eyes could see them no longer,
we should find that they all appeared to meet in some point upon the
horizon. Remembering, as we do very clearly, that the horizon is
always on a level with the eye, we may now, perhaps, add to our rule
another fact: all parallel lines retreating above the eye appear to run
down, and all below the eye appear to run up; and these lines, if
continued far enough, will seem to meet upon the horizon. But at
what point do they meet ? Will it be half-way across the horizon line,
or to the right or the left ?
We have seen how the horizon itself is entirely dependent upon
the	position	of the	observer;	and making a few experiments, as in
the	previous	paper,	it may be	seen that the point where these lines
appear to vanish, and which is, hence, very reasonably called the
“vanishing point,” is as dependent upon the position of the observer as is the horizon line itself.
Stand in the middle of any country road which extends straight before the eye for some distance, as
in Fig. i. The wagon tracks go off directly in front of us, and these lines, with those of the sides of the
road, appear (or would so appear if continued far enough) to meet at a point on the horizon just opposite
the	eye; and	all the	lines we	notice proceeding in the same direction,	such	as	those	of the	telegraph	wires
and	so forth,	seem to meet at	this point also. But now step to the left-hand	side	of	the road,	as	in	Fig.	2:
at once every line changes its direction. The board walk now takes the same relation to the eye as that
plain again, and the buildings and
Fig. 1.—A perspective lesson along a country road,
showing the centre of vision.ELEMENTARY DRAWING
I 2
formerly taken by the wagon tracks; we can see more of the fronts of the right-hand buildings than we
could have seen had we been standing in the middle of this road, and again all lines seem to meet at a
point opposite the observer s eye. The same, of course, conversely would be true were the right-hand side
of the road the subject of experiment.
If you should make such a drawing of a few houses, a street, or a road, you would be told that it was
in “one point perspective”; and in all drawings of this nature the lines, if parallel, and if at right angles
with the horizon, will seem to approach it at a position opposite the
observer’s eye. This point is sometimes called the centre of vision.
It does not mean, necessarily, the centre of your picture, because, as
we see in Fig. 2, it is sometimes much to one side; but what it does
mean is that it is the centre of what we can see.
Now, opening some magazine and looking at pictures of houses
and roads, in	the hope of confirming all	we have been learning, do
not let us be	confused if	we find lines running off in every direction,
with no indication* of meeting in front of the observer; it is only
drawings in “ one point perspective ” that will do this. Remember
there are many other kinds of drawings upon which it is more than
likely you will happen; but if you can find one of this description
it will be very helpful if you will ascertain, by continuing the lines with a ruler, just where the horizon
should	come,	and	at	what	point	in	relation to the	picture the	artist happened	to be seated when he made
his	drawing.	Take,	for	example,	the	sketch enclosed	within the	initial letter of	this chapter, and find for
yourself the vanishing point of the different lines. Why is it that so much more can be seen of the side
of one large column in the foreground than of the other? Or why is there any side view of the right-hand
column at all ? At what height was the observer placed to make the sketch, and in what relation to the
centre of the picture? If the remarks in this and previous chapters have been understood, these questions
should be easily answered by the student.
Fig. 2.—Showing, also, the centre of vision, but not
the centre of the picture.THE VANISHING OF LINES—ONE POINT PERSPECTIVE
13
A little may well be said here about proportion and apparent measurements, as we shall shortly want to
make use of these. If you have ever visited a large art school, you have probably noticed, perhaps with no
little amusement, the students holding at arm’s length a pencil or ruler, and with one eye closed apparently
criticising the same intently. It is still taken for granted, as when we began, that readers of these papers are
without the ordinary art student’s knowledge.
If you will take a pencil and similarly hold it out at arm’s length before you, closing one eye that you
may the more clearly see both pencil and an object to be measured, you will soon find for yourself the use
of this practice. Suppose you wished to draw the street we have been speaking about; a house in the
distance seems	smaller than one near by, and	you	wish to draw	it so.	But	how	much smaller? Perhaps
you guess one	half; and if	the drawing were made	it would prove	to be either too	large or too small, and
there might be no way to measure and see. But this is just what this pencil at arm’s length will do for
you. Measure upon it the height of the house in the distance; now, still keeping your arm out, measure
this height upon your nearer house. Perhaps it will be one and a half, perhaps three times the height of
the smaller house; but whatever it is, you will know that this is the size of the smaller house compared
with the larger	one — that	is, in proportion to	it.	If this is not	quite	clear	at first trial — and it is not
always easy to	understand	at first — try it in	another way. Take the	little	vase	on the table — measure
its width at arm’s length; now turn the pencil and see how many times this width can be repeated in the
height. It may be once, or twice, or any amount; but whatever the amount, it will be the proportion of the
width to the height. Going farther away and again measuring, the amount of space taken on the pencil each
way will be lessened, but the proportion will remain the same; that is, the height will still be twice or three
times the width. Be sure, in taking such measurements, to keep the arm always straight, as the slightest
deviation, often unconsciously made, will accordingly give a corresponding variation to the measurements.
This question of proportion enters into everything we draw, whether it be the simplest block or the
most varied figure composition. Mistakes in proportion are, of course, more apparent in figure drawing than
any other; and if an artist represents any figure incorrectly, we see almost at a glance that it is “ out of
proportion ”; the head or hands are too small, perhaps, not as a head or as hands, but in proportion to theELEMENTARY DRAWING
14
rest of the figure. But such mistakes, while more noticeable in figures, are just as real in any other drawing,
and should be as carefully guarded against. A thing is either right or wrong; if a drawing is in accurate
proportion, it will be correct	as far as it goes; if	not, it is incorrect, however cleverly	disguised.
These questions will all	become plainer as	you begin to draw.	But, for the present,	please make	no
drawings; simply use every	possible opportunity	for observation, and	get these few	points	so well fixed	in
your mind that it will seem	as though you had	always known such	simple facts as	these	will soon appear
to be.CHAPTER IV
TWO POINT PERSPECTIVE
It is one purpose of the writer of this book to avoid the uninteresting diagrams of cubes and plinths,
with which elementary drawing usually begins, until such time as the student may realize from personal
observation the need of such work for himself. To this end, in these earlier chapters,
we have given slight sketches of every-day surroundings to emphasize the fact that __________________HORIZON____
the elementary rules of perspective enter into everything we draw. It is hoped that	/ \
work to commence.
Taking one of the once despised cubes, which seemed of so little real use, let us	:
put it down directly in front of us on a table a little below our eyes (Fig. i). We
shall then be able to see the whole front face; also the top face so placed that the	_ --fTTZA.
lines on either side become “ two parallel lines going away from us,” in the same man-	pig. 1.
ner as the railroad track about which we learned so much; only these parallel lines,
instead of continuing as far as the eye can see, come to an end when they reach the other side of the
block. Now do not these parallel lines seem to converge, so carrying out the rule we have made for ourselves
from observation ?
To test this, try some measurements with your pencil at arm’s length and see whether the side A B
does not actually seem to measure more than the side C D. If your block is reasonably large, it will certainly
the student, now realizing this and seeing that these scenes or objects which are about
him embody more elaborately the simple principles which govern the drawing of ele-
mentary forms, has come to desire a practical experience. It is then time for his real
c,elementary drawing
16
show the difference by measurement, and turning the pencil vertically, with similar measurements, see in what
proportion the top surface foreshortened thus bears to the full face of the block.
Now if you will stand up and again measure, you will find the top to be considerably wider than before.
Sitting down, it becomes narrow again; while if you are still lower, so as to have your eyes on a level with
the full face of the block, the top goes out of sight entirely.
Here we have in a very simple form the application of all we have been learning about railroad tracks,
and roads, and fences. In just the same manner as the retreating parallel lines of those objects seemed to
converge toward a horizon on a level with the observer’s eye, so, and for the same reason, will the retreating
parallel lines of our block seem, as far as they go, to converge toward an imaginary horizon, though none is
in sight and the lines are abruptly stopped by the other side of the block. Now what I desire you to realize,
and what is difficult for nearly all beginners to realize, is that the direction of the retreating lines you are
going to make on your paper is to be the same as those you see before you, and that just as those lines in
wall or ceiling or block retreat toward an imaginary horizon, so on your paper they are to retreat toward an
imaginary horizon there.
This horizon being entirely dependent on your position, must be determined from the place where you
sit, and then suggested on your paper, if within its bounds.
The horizon on your paper will be as high in proportion above the block drawn on your paper, as your
own eyes are above the real block. Remember this in proportion. That is, if your eyes are a foot above
your block and the block itself is six inches in height, if you are drawing it full size, the horizon on your
paper will be a foot above also, or would be if you had enough paper to measure it on. But if your drawing
is much smaller than the original block, say one half, the horizon on your paper will be lowered one half also,
and the lines will still retreat in just the same direction that they would in the larger drawing, only they will be
less in length; and, again, since there is but one vanishing point in this drawing, the lines, if continued out, would
meet at a point opposite the observer’s eye. When in doubt as to the amount of convergence taken by any
retreating parallel lines, we may come nearly or quite to the desired knowledge by remembering the above facts.
Now let us turn the block a little, still keeping our own position unchanged. Another side now shows,TWO POINT PERSPECTIVE
17
and instead of two faces there are now three to represent. Meantime, what has happened to the full face of
the block ? It was formerly parallel with our horizon; hence the lines at top and bottom were horizontal to
our eyes; but turn it ever so little, these lines no longer appear horizontal, as the very fact of being able to
see another side proves that the full face of the block is no longer facing us or running with our horizon.
Please remember this very distinctly. It is manifestly impossible, if the side is visible in a block, or a chair, or
a room, or a house, or anything having parallel lines of this form, for the face of the object to run exactly
parallel with the observer’s horizon. You will see drawing-books and books on perspective, some of them by
Fig. 2. —A frequent error in drawing.
Fig. 3.
the ablest writers of the day, in which this mistake will be made (Fig. 2). It is sometimes from carelessness,
or again from a mistaken tendency to bring the rules of mechanical drawing into the field of free-hand work.
In any case it is not necessary because we notice the error to feel critical of its author; but I should like
you to understand this point very clearly in your own work.
We find now in the block two sets of parallel lines, vanishing toward two different points in the imaginary
horizon, and according to the extent the block is turned so is the distance of these points on the horizon.
Let us suppose it to be turned only a little (Fig. 3).
The lines of that side which was formerly facing us still run so nearly with the horizon that they takeELEMENTARY DRAWING
18
a long time to reach it; the side of which we can see little is so nearly tending directly away from us, that
it is almost opposite, as before. Turning it more (Fig. 4), so that we are facing the corner, instead of the
full face, we find both sets of lines vanishing at equal distances; and, of course, both sides of the block are
alike. Such drawings as these or any enlarged forms of them, such as street corners or angles of houses, are
said to be in two point perspective.
And now we hope the use of drawing-blocks and of such elementary subjects has become apparent, and
will be even more so as we continue. Exactly the same principles
which govern the drawings of these very simple forms govern the
drawings of all the most elaborate ones built on the same plan. The
picturesque old building by the roadside, the cathedrals and quaint
architecture of the Old World, even the corners of our own room, or
the window box and chair by the window — all these and hundreds
of other interesting subjects are “ built up,” we may say, on our paper
in accordance with just these simple rules concerning parallel lines.
We may become so familiar with this knowledge as not to realize
when we are applying it; but without the knowledge itself we are
indeed at a loss where to begin.
There has been nothing said, so far, about a picture plane and similar matters, which usually enter into
elementary work. The omission has been intentional. You will come to all such terms in your first text-book
on perspective, and the explanations will be very helpful; but at present our object has been to learn to
observe, and this, I hope, is being accomplished.
I think you understand that your paper represents the surface on which your picture is to be drawn, just
as if you had traced on the car window the picture of the street which you saw through it. Such a surface
is called a picture plane, and is always supposed to be directly in front of you, and perpendicular, like that
pane of glass; but if you see your picture correctly, there is little doubt but that you will draw it correctly,
with or without a knowledge of scientific terms.
Fig. 4.TWO POINT PERSPECTIVE
19
Now I would have you practise constantly. Draw chiefly objects which are simple in form, and which
embody the principles we have just been going over together. Fix your own horizon by what you know of its
position in relation to yourself, and then determine the direction of your lines yourself. Do not sit too near the
object to be drawn. If possible, place yourself at least three or four times its height away. More will not matter,
but less would bring you so nearly over the object as to put your drawing in what is called too violent perspective.
Use ordinary brown manilla paper and a sharpened piece of charcoal. Do not begin to draw in pencil. Such
lines cannot be easily erased, and as most of our lines are wrong in the beginning, it is a waste of time to spend
much of it in rubbing out, where one brush of a cloth will take off the charcoal line, and enable you to start anew.
Then, too, in drawing with a pencil, the line being fine and delicate, we are apt to spend a great deal of
time in making such lines very straight and even, forgetting that this is of secondary importance compared
with the proper direction of these lines. The making of even, straight lines is a merely mechanical process; any
one can do it, with more or less practice; but the placing of lines on your paper, so drawn that they shall show
the position of the object, its relation to the horizon, to the floor, and to the observer, is a question of intelligence,
not of mechanism, and it does not matter if such lines are in themselves at first a little wavering and uncertain.
These subjects are here dwelt upon at some length, that the student may have some understanding of the
usual requirements for drawing, instead of going about the matter blindly. In entering an art school especially
is this well; otherwise, the student, perplexed and surrounded by many objects of which he knows neither name
nor purpose, feels sure that could he but work with a pencil instead of this dusty charcoal, he would make
far greater progress; or if he were	but allowed to draw this object instead of	that, he	would succeed. Be
assured, however, that in any such	case, though no	reason be given, one exists,	and by	following quietly all
directions given you by experienced teachers, such reasons will in due time become apparent.
Be content, therefore, if the principal lines of	your drawing are right.	Do not	undertake anything
elaborate, and for the present work	only in outline.	We shall later see that an	outline	is a very elementary
matter compared to a picture; but we must learn to walk before running, and so for the present must be
content with this beginning.CHAPTER V
CIRCLES AND ELLIPSES
iHE study of objects which involve chiefly the use of straight lines has seemed the
most suitable so far; first, because a clear understanding of the perspective of such
objects lies at the basis of the most elementary drawing; second, because such sub-
jects are easier for beginners to draw than curves and circles. One would be very
much hampered, however, if confined in drawing to the use of straight lines; in fact,
we see few of them in nature, and in an outdoor scene those which are apparent are
generally of man’s creation — as houses, roads, and fences. Therefore, as one object
of these lessons is to help the student to enter fearlessly upon the drawing of one
subject as readily as another, for the present we will turn from blocks and cubes and
their more advanced forms, such as chairs, rooms, and buildings, and will give a little
time to the study of ellipses and curved lines.
Take, if you please, any circular object, such as a tumbler. Hold it below your
eyes, so that you look directly into it; the form of the top is, of course, round — that
is, a circle. Raise the tumbler until the same circle is on a level with your eye;
there no longer appears any circle, it has become a straight line. Lower it only a
few inches, the circle is again seen, but in a different form — that of an ellipse. By thus raising and lowering
the tumbler, it will be readily seen that a circle can appear as a straight line only when it is on a level with
the eye; at any other point of view it seems to vary ^in width according to its relation to the observer’s eye.
All this time, however, the tumbler has been below your eye; what will happen if it is raised above ? If we
Fig. L — Illustrating ellipses
above and below the eye.
20CIRCLES AND ELLIPSES
21
reverse the tumbler and hold it directly overhead, we shall again see the same circle that appeared when it
was directly below; if brought again to the level of the eyes, the straight line appears; if held as before in
various positions between these two points, the same varying ellipses appear, proving that what is true of any
circle below the eye is equally true of one above.
“ But,” you say, “ we reversed the tumbler to find this the case. Suppose it to continue rising in the
same position instead of being reversed? What becomes of the circle then?”
Let us try this, and see. As the tumbler ascends, the circle, after becoming a straight line on the level
of the eye, becomes again an ellipse; but this time the side of the circle nearest us, which appeared to
descend before, now rises, and the other side of the ellipse is hidden behind it, unless some transparent object
like this tumbler is used as a test, in which case we can see the circle continuing around as an ellipse of
just the same width as one at the same distance below the eye; the only difference being that the side of
the ellipse which then rounded downward now rounds upward, and vice versa.
If these facts are clearly fixed in your minds, I should like you to test them now in many ways. There
is no point in drawing about which an elementary student is more likely to make mistakes than about
circles seen obliquely. Take a little vase of simple form, and placing it on a table about a foot below your
eye, measure with your pencil the apparent width of the ellipse at the top as compared with the height of
the whole vase. Be sure to compare it, for only so will you realize how small a part of the whole vase it
becomes. Place any ordinary round-seated chair or stool at some distance from you, and measure it in the
same way. The chair seat, which looks so wide, will prove to be quite a narrow ellipse, and comparing it
with the height of the seat from the floor, it will prove but a small part of this distance; and you must not be
discouraged if, when the time comes for drawing such objects, you repeatedly make the mistake of drawing this
seat too wide. Only be very sure to get it right at last, by repeated measurements and criticisms of it yourself.
Next let us make a simple outline drawing of the vase just mentioned, raising its position, let us say,
until the top is on a level with our eyes. This top then becomes, as we have tested with the tumbler, a
straight line; and if it does not so appear, you may be sure it is a little below or above the level of your
eyes, and not placed exactly as we wish it.ELEMENTARY DRAWING
22
Now, if this top appears straight, how does the base appear? Is it also a straight line? Please think
this out for yourselves, and then, whether you have decided one way or the other, we will try to “prove the
answer.” Suppose the vase to be lowered until the top came as much below your eye as the base now is.
Would that top appear as a straight line? We know that it would not. Any circle seen somewhat below
the level of the eye appears as an ellipse; therefore, it is only the circle which is on a level with your eye
which may be drawn as a straight line; all other circles in the vase, whether of bands that surround it or
lines forming the base, will appear as ellipses, and must be so drawn.
This is one of the reasons why it is not true drawing to copy
the work of another. We sometimes see in drawing-books designs
such as these (Fig. 2), and not infrequently in far more advanced
works than “ drawing-books ” may be found exactly similar mistakes.
It is absolutely impossible for these vases, candlesticks, etc., ever to
have been placed in relation to one who drew them in such positions
as these. If the top was on a line with the observer’s eye, the base
must have been below, and consequently an ellipse; if the base was
on the level of the eye, the body of the vase must have been above,
and consequently the top formed an ellipse.
It may readily be seen that no amount of copying from drawing-
books would teach youths this. The perception of it must come from a knowledge of facts which no copying
can teach.
From such knowledge as this, we should be able to tell, in looking at any accurate drawing containing
ellipses, at just what relative height the observer was placed, as we found ourselves able to do about all
vanishing lines. Even in such slight sketches as those of the lighthouse, to which we gave some attention
in chapter 2, it would not be necessary to have the horizon in sight to learn that the first sketch was taken
from a point above the round roof of the lighthouse, or that in the other two the observer was placed below
the level of that roof. The ellipses of the circular roof are sufficient to demonstrate this, as well as the
Fig. 2. — Some examples of wrong principles used in
learning free-hand drawing. Compare with Fig. 3.CIRCLES AND ELLIPSES
23

retreating lines about the base. (It may be remarked in parenthesis that in these lighthouse sketches you
ought now to be able to determine which point of view would make the better picture, and why. When a
drawing is made from a considerable height, such as the first of those
sketches, it is often in what is called too abrupt or violent perspective.
It is like sitting above the tumbler or vase, and looking into it instead
of at it. For this reason the second drawing is made from a better
point of view; and if the building itself were the point of interest, and
not the ocean beyond, perhaps the third would illustrate the best
position of all.)
Now take the accompanying group of circular objects (Fig. 3), and
let us see if we can learn where the observer was placed. The top of
the tall candlestick shows by its upward ellipses that we cannot look
into it; therefore it must have been placed above the level of the eye.
The lower vases and jugs all give an equal indication in their ellipses
of being below the eye; and only in the top of the small right-hand
candlestick do we find one straight line, which indicates that to the
person sketching this line was on a level with the eye.
This position is again proved by the direction of the lines of the
shelves. Here we find again the old principle now so frequently
applied, of lines converging as they retreat from the observer; and in
the upward tendency of the lower shelves, and the more nearly straight
line of the upper one, we again have our horizon line established, and
the relation of the observer to the object fixed by these lines.
It will be helpful to you to make many drawings of objects similar
to these from different points of view. Work mainly for correctness in the chief lines of your drawing,
and for the present pay no attention to small details.
Fig. 3. — Studies of ellipses seen at various positions
in relation to the eye.CHAPTER VI
THE CONSIDERATION OF SOME POSSIBLE DIFFICULTIES
We have heretofore been speaking only of outline drawings; considering the form of the subject to be
drawn, its general proportions, and the best method of placing it upon the paper. It may be well now to
spend a little time in the consideration of light and shade, of textures, of color values, and such subjects,
remembering always that we deal with all such matters in only the most elementary way. But before turn-
ing to the more involved problems of light and shade, let us pause awhile and view some possible errors
that may have crept into the work.
We have supposed that our readers have vigorously tested and carried out the hints given, and that
quite a large number of drawings have as a result accumulated in each student’s portfolio. It would give me
great pleasure if we could look at these drawings together, talking over the merits of one, the mistakes of
another, and explaining perhaps in a few moments that which it would require weeks of correspondence to
make clear. But as this may not be, we can only suppose some of these drawings to be before us, and try-
ing to imagine the most probable mistakes, give a word of caution against their repetition.
It is probable, in the first place, that you have been sitting too near your model. Do not forget that
you should be at a distance amounting to at least three or four times the height of the object to be drawn.
To be too near the model places it under our eyes instead of before our eyes, and the picture becomes .dis-
torted. Such a position with relation to the subject is also apt to give so large a view of it that the stu-
dent does not look at it as a whole, but in parts, and soon finds himself absorbed in drawing some little
detail, forgetting that the main proportions of the whole are not yet secured. Possibly, too, there comes a
sense of discouragement in this very fact, that the proportions of the model are so large, it seems too much
to put upon paper at all. Any or all of these difficulties may vanish by simply changing the position.
24THE CONSIDERATION OF SOME POSSIBLE DIFFICULTIES
25
Possibly, too, the subjects chosen to be drawn have been too elaborate. Remembering the comparison
made at first between the early steps of art and those of music or literature, it is plain that we can no more
leap to success at a bound with one than with another. Up	to this	time	the student should have taken
only the very simplest and easiest subjects ; trying not	to think about	light	and shade, or color, or texture,
or indeed anything beyond the one problem of how to draw the form of the object before him, so that
the drawing should be in exact proportion, and in its	outline	should	look	exactly like the model. If you
are in doubt as to the correctness of your lines, you	will be	greatly	helped by looking at a reflection of
the drawing in a looking-glass. Here you have an entirely new view of the work, and are no longer
blinded by the very familiar condition which we all recognize — that of	having looked so long at	the	draw-
ing that it is impossible to tell what is right and what is wrong.
There is yet another difficulty in the way of real progress, which, until removed, will be a stumbling-
block at every step. This is a sort of mental laziness, which makes it much easier to guess at proportions,
than to ascertain by strict measurements the truth of the matter. Let me ask for the sake of your own
success, that you will never shrink from taking measurements, over and over again if needful, with your
pencil or charcoal held at arm’s length. Especially is this necessary in any object containing foreshortened
ellipses, as you have doubtless found since practising upon subjects such as those spoken of in the last
chapter. These measurements are taken simply to teach the untrained eye to see things as they appear,
rather than as we know them to be. We all know that a circle is really round; therefore, however much
of an ellipse it may appear, there is a constant possibility of error, in our drawings of such an ellipse,
unless by measurement we assure ourselves of the correct proportions before us.
By and by, when the student has advanced from this elementary stage of knowledge, to work in the
life-class, his eye will perhaps have become so trained, that an occasional	measurement to	determine	the	main
proportions will be all that is needed; or where still further advance has been made, until	the artist is at	work
outside of all schools, perhaps there will be felt no need of measurements at all. But all these things come
only after years of work; it would be as impossible to work successfully in this so-called “ free ” way now, as
it would be to attempt the most advanced Latin oration, before having mastered the elements of the language.ELEMENTARY DRAWING
26
Therefore, whatever you may see in the studios of more advanced workers, do not be led into making
attempts towards a freedom from methods, which you can never obtain except by a practical knowledge of
such methods.
For the same reason, do not fall into the habit of putting upon your paper, merely rough suggestions
of the subjects you have undertaken. Do not make sketches ”; make drawings.
This tendency to avoid hard work is one of the “ possible difficulties ” against which I would especially
warn you. Said a noted artist once, “ I have more hope of the student with an ounce of genius and a pound
of hard work, than I could ever have of the one in whom these conditions are reversed.”
That the “ ounce of genius,” or at least of decided ability for this line of work must exist, is certain; but
without the ability to work, all the genius that can exist ends only in useless half attempts, and in the yet
sadder result of half-developed character.
And now that some of these possible difficulties are discussed and overcome, and we are ready for new
progress, let us notice the pictures which appear from time to time in the illustrated magazines and periodicals,
and see if there is not more for you now in the simplest architectural sketches than ever before. The lines
of roof and door in an outdoor sketch, the direction of floor and ceiling in some interior, the proportions of
chairs and tables, books and book shelves, all have an added interest because it is an intelligent one. The
drawings at which we look have not changed; it is our eyes which are opened to a new understanding of
them, an understanding based not on copying the work of another, but on a little practical knowledge of how
to do the work ourselves. That knowledge is at present very limited, and while this fact must needs teach
us humility, it should be in no way discouraging; rather it should have a cheering effect, in the thought of
the immeasurable amount yet to be learned and yet to be enjoyed.CHAPTER VII
LIGHT AND SHADE
A drawing made in outline cannot properly be called a picture at all. It is a diagram; excellent,
perhaps, in proportion, interesting possibly, and pleasing to look at, but not really a picture of that which
it professes to represent. For in nature there are no outlines. Look where you please, in doors or out,
at the most elementary cube or pyramid,	or	at the	cast	of the Venus of Milo,	nowhere will it be possible
to find a hard black outline surrounding	the	form.	The	varying degrees of light and shade on any object,
and the shadows cast from and around it, are those things which really show its form, and only as these
are correctly drawn can the result be called in any degree a picture.
That this has not been touched upon before is not because secondary importance is attached to the
value of such knowledge, but because we have not heretofore been at all concerned with the making of
pictures, but with a knowledge of drawing. Neither shall we as yet be practically concerned with the
making of pictures now; but after this much study we may be said to take greater interest in the pictures
which others are making, and to desire yet more information as to what constitutes their value.
It is necessary, first of all, in beginning the study of light and shade, for the student thoroughly to
realize for himself what a difference is made by the direction of light. To test this, notice first any figure
out-of-doors at noon; see how the light descends upon him, falling upon the top of the head, the shoulders,
the upper edges of folds in the clothing,	the	tops of the	shoes; finally see how	the shadow which he casts
is below him, strong and defined. Even	if the sun	is a	little behind or before	him, so as to prolong this
shadow, or if it is a cloudy day, so that the shadow is not clearly defined, the light is still so evidently
chiefly from above that the effect is still that of strong descending light.
27ELEMENTARY DRAWING
28
Now take some figure in a dark room standing before the open fire, or perhaps holding a lighted candle
below the level of the face. Notice how all the former effects are reversed; the shadows under the brows,
nose, and upper lip (which were so apparent in the sunshine when the light was a descending one) are now
all dispersed; in their places are strong lights, while what was formerly light is now in shadow. This effect
is so unusual and so pronounced that if the cause of the light (as the fire or candle) were hidden, we should
still be sure that the light and shade in this case was caused by a strong ascending light.
Next, see any figure in an ordinary room, near a window. The side of face and form nearest the
window receives the strong light; the other side, the shadow, though there may in this case be some other
windows or doors in the room, which by casting other lights may lessen the strength of the shadow side.
But even in this event there will be ample difference between the light and shade to show that the effect
has been produced by a side light.
Observing these things, we see in how large measure the light and shade make the picture. No out-
line drawing could show this result at all. The outlines of a man out-of-doors, or within doors before a fire,
or standing by a window, would all be practically the same if the man were in the same position. Having
then this fact firmly established in mind — that a knowledge of the direction of light is a most important
factor in making an intelligent drawing — it is necessary to remember another point equally well, namely,
that the side of an object in shadow is very much darker in comparison with the side in light than we are
at first apt to think.
As an illustration of this, it is frequently said that to the experienced eye a white cloth in shadow is
darker than black velvet in sunlight, a statement always regarded with considerable scepticism by the ele-
mentary worker. Our eyes usually find it at first so much easier to distinguish strength of color than
strength of light and shade, that such doubt is quite natural; but such a statement as the above needs only
to be tested to prove its accuracy. Simply fold a piece of black velvet so that the sunlight may fall strongly
upon one of its planes; place a white handkerchief in the shadow, where as little reflected light as possible
may reach it; and, cutting a small hole in, a piece of cardboard, look through it alternately at the one and
the other, comparing the tone of each with the tone of the cardboard surrounding it. If the articles areLIGHT AND SHADE
29
correctly placed, the velvet will be manifestly the lighter of the two; and such a comparison will bring a
realizing sense of the true darkness of an object in shadow, or (if the light be not too much diffused) of
the shadow side ,of any object.
And now, as practice, and as a matter of proof to one’s self, the blocks, cones, and pyramids of former
lessons may again come into use, until the eye has become accustomed to distinguishing the strong differ-
ences between light and shadow sides. Do not begin on more ambitious subjects, or feel a contempt for
the unoffending elementary forms, until you are able to show well these differences in light and shade.
After arranging your group with a good side light, and making your drawing in outline first — still on
manilla paper with charcoal, for reasons explained in a previous paper — let it be your object to bring one
tone of shadow against another or against a light, so as to dispense with all outlines, as is the case in the
group you are copying. Consider the tones of the sides in shadow as so many large simple planes, varying
in shade; if any doubt arises as to	the	comparative degrees of light and	dark, it would be	well to compare
one with the other through a hole	cut	in cardboard, just as in the test	about the black	velvet and white
handkerchief above mentioned.
Draw all the cast shadows (i.e., the shadows cast by the objects upon the floor or table, or the wall
behind), and be sure to follow their shapes as accurately as you do those of the objects themselves. The
shadow cast by any object is almost like a part of the object, and should be shown in any drawing of it —
at least in part, if too much space would be covered by showing it entirely.
After practising upon these elementary forms until the eye has become somewhat trained to distinguish
light and shade, it will be useful to	try	drawing some simple plant in various lights, as is	suggested in the
two accompanying sketches. It will be	noticed in Fig. 1 that the light	descending from	directly overhead
brings all the tops of the flowers and leaves into light, and that this light touches also the flower lying
beside the pot, while the pot itself and the under side of leaves, flowers, and stems are thrown into shadow.
In Fig. 2 the light coming from the left side throws the whole right side into shadow, including flowers,
leaves, the pot, and the blossoms lying beside it; while the shadows cast by the two subjects under study are
equally significant, the one being below, the other to the right of the plant.ELEMENTARY DRAWING
30
Fig. 1. — Drawing of a primrose placed in a strong descending light.LIGHT AND SHADE
31
1|
Fig. 2. —The same plant placed in a strong side light.ELEMENTARY DRAWING
32
In making such drawings as these, while there may be at first little apparent result, the practice for the
eye, in distinguishing between light and shade, will lead to a clearer understanding of the subject than any
words can give; and I would have you also remember that the differences that are apparent in two such
drawings as these are but a slight indication of the difference caused by the direction of light in a large
picture. Notice, therefore, all such points in every picture within your reach; and in your own work I
trust you will now make studies which shall constantly give you practise in light and shade.CHAPTER VIII
COLOR VALUES
Almost every student in art turns with delight to the study of color. Often, indeed, it is the interest
in this subject which awakens the first desire to become an art student; for we are all familiar with the tyro
who liberally scatters the most brilliant colors of the paint-box over paper or canvas, with the explanation,
“ I do not know much about drawing, but I do love to paint.” In listening to such statements it is well to
remember, with patience, that the speaker has the excuse of ignorance; but when bad drawing is seen in the
color work of more advanced students, found there not from ignorance, but from a disinclination for hard
work, and with a hope that the brilliant painting will cover all defects in drawing, it is hard to find an
excuse that will avail.
If the reader has learned by this time to be even a little more desirous to draw correctly before painting
at all — if in only a little measure he has begun to realize what good drawing really means, and that it is
the only sure foundation for art work of any kind, the writer will be more than repaid. For the artist w"ho
cannot or does not draw correctly is no artist at all; without an accurate sense of form, he is hampered at
every turn, however true his sense of color and tone may be. And it is especially to be desired that students
working alone, without the healthy influences of an art institution of any kind, and therefore particularly
liable to drift into mistakes, should realize the importance of this fact.
We hope, therefore, that it will be no disappointment to such students, whom it is especially desirable
these papers should help, when they find, in considering the subject of color values, that there is to be at
present no thought of the colors as colors at all, but only of their relation one to another in degrees of light
and dark. This we shall find as clearly shown in black and white as if we had the most brilliant palette
before us; and so, if you please, let us consider a few examples of the term “color value.”
33
DELEMENTARY DRAWING
34
We will suppose that we have three books before us; one is bound in dark green leather, strong in
color; another in a brilliant red, neither a dark color nor a very light one; the third is perhaps a delicate
cream color. It is plain that in drawing these books, in charcoal, lead-pencil, or pen and ink, since we have
no color to assist us, the green and red cannot be shown as colors; but their “ values ” — that is, the varying
degree of light and dark — can be made just as manifest in the drawing as in the books which lie before us.
The green book will be strong and vigorous in tone, the red much less so; the cream-colored one, almost or
perhaps quite white.
Now let us suppose another group of books, in which the bindings are all light in color; one a pale
blue, another a buff of just as pale a tone as the blue, the third an equally delicate shade of green. As
colors, these three books are, as you see, as different as the three preceding ones; but in their color values —
that is, in the comparative degrees of light and dark color — there is little if any difference. In showing
this group, then, in a pen or pencil sketch, we must be content to express the fact that our models are all
equally light in color value; neither very dark, as in the dark green book of the previous drawing, nor quite
white.
By going over this attentively, and making a few such studies as the ones suggested, the student will,
I hope, clearly see that while two colors may be exactly opposite as colors, their color values may be exactly
the same.
This is a simple statement of the most elementary way in which we can consider color values. As the
student continues in his art work, the term will take a wider and more varied meaning; it will be found to
be a much-used and sometimes much-abused expression among the pupils of any art institution which he may
attend, and he will finally discover the real use of the words by experience, and by hearing lectures or
reading books upon the subject by some master who knows whereof he speaks.
For a clear statement of the more advanced uses of the term may be mentioned the chapter on
“Values” in John C. Van Dyke’s book, “How to Judge of a Picture.” (Charles Scribner’s Sons.)
To pass now to the practical work which T hope each one of you is doing, I would suggest that you
begin to make more advanced drawings, in which may be introduced as many of the points we have- goneCOLOR VALUES
35ELEMENTARY DR All TNG
36
over together as possible. Let us suppose that you have chosen some such subject as the accompanying
sketch of an old sailor’s shop. In commencing such a drawing, do not sit too near the corner to be drawn,
as this will make the perspective too violent, and will be puzzling to draw, as well as unattractive. It is well
to be placed as far away as the room will allow.
In the next place, sketching lightly the main lines of the room in pencil, the principles with which we
began these talks must be applied. There are parallel lines in wall and floor and roof, which must converge
more or less according as the eye and the pencil measurements may determine. Of course, such lines as
those formed by the irregularly placed boards across the rafters are merely arbitrary and must be drawn in
by sight, after the main perspective lines are determined. They are not parallel with any of the real per-
spective lines of the room, and so are not subject to the same rules.
The lines formed by the back	and	legs of the chair come	under	the same careful measurements, while
the	ellipse of its seat, the slanting	top	of the rough	block of	wood,	and the curve of	the large pulley, as
well as many of the lines in the little cork floats fastened to the nets, may be determined by an application
of the lesson we had in a previous paper of this series concerning circles and ellipses.
The arrangement of light and shade, as we have previously learned, is determined by the direction
from which the light comes, in this case through the window in front. Make your drawing a very careful
one in this particular, watching every little shadow in the subject you have chosen, and be sure to put
these shadows in as they really look to you, rather than as you think they ought to be. Remember, too,
that the light falls sharply upon all surfaces turned toward it, as the chair seat, the edges of coils of rope,
the	upright board, and the floor.	Let	all your light	surfaces	alone	at first, and work	only with those in
shadow. If the lighter tones prove finally too light,	it is easier to	reduce them, with	a slight tone over
them, than it is to remedy the opposite error of getting them too dark.
Next comes for consideration the subject of color. Since I cannot see the corner you have chosen for
your sketch, it is of course impossible to make more than general suggestions; supposing it to be a place
not unlike our illustration, it would be well to compare the color value of the old boards in the wall with
that of the nets and darker cork floats, and to put the strongest color in vigorously and clearly, keepingCOLOR VALUES
37
everything light which does not hold strong color. If you are working in charcoal or pencil, you will have
opportunities for more gradations of tone than in pen and ink, which to be effective must frequently sacrifice
many half tones.
There is yet another quality which calls for attention in such a drawing as this — a quality upon which
we have not yet touched, but which I doubt not your work is beginning to show. It is that of texture, by
means of which you may indicate whether any object is shining or unglazed, rough or smooth, firm and
wooden, like the walls or floor, or loosely woven, as were the fish-nets in our old shop. This subject is a
very interesting and necessary part of our elementary work, and demands consideration in our next chapter.CHAPTER IX
TEXTURES
Having in the last chapter considered the subject of values, let us now take up that of texture. It will
probably involve more of what may be called drudgery, and less apparent improvement for the student, than
any upon which we have yet dwelt. There is a certain brilliancy of effect to be obtained in the study of
light and shade or of color values which will repay one for the time spent upon them; but in the study of
textures, the work becomes more a question of the simple rendering. Uninteresting as this work appears,
however, it is undeniably of the greatest use.
We realize this as we look at the best work in the magazines of to-day, and notice what careful study of
textures the illustrations evidence. The folds of cloth or of silky curtains and the woodwork of the furniture,
the fine texture of the flesh and that of the hair, are often in their way as admirable a part of the picture
as its composition. And it is a useful preliminary to the student that there should be some knowledge of
this subject before proceeding to the more serious points of picture making.
I would suggest that the student take as varied a collection of textures as possible, and endeavor, in
whatever medium he likes, to represent them faithfully; not at all with the idea of making something pretty
or attractive, but simply as subjects for study. Select such things as fur, feathers, tin, glass, wood, metallic
surfaces, flowers, folds of silk and wool; note the differences between the textures, and decide for yourself what
causes such differences. In the first few studies it would be better not even to draw the whole of the object,
but merely represent on paper a part of its surface; so that the accuracy of the texture may be judged by
the rendering alone, unaided by the form.
During such study it will be seen that those surfaces which reflect the light, as tin, glass, polished
38TEXTURES
39
Study of texture (fur).
Study of texture (metal).
Study of texture (poppy).ELEMENTARY DRAWING
40
metal, etc., are full of sparkling contrasts; there are crisp dark touches in close connection with some bright
light. The duller surfaces, on the contrary, such as wood, fur, woollen goods, etc., seem to be without such
contrasts, and present a more even, unbroken appearance. It may also be noticed that while opaque objects
have their light and dark sides clearly defined, the more transparent ones (such as glass or delicate flower
petals) show unexpected gleams of light upon those surfaces turned away from the source of light. These and
innumerable other distinctions must be observed in endeavoring to show a variety of textures. A good test
as to whether any texture is successful is to shut off a small part of the drawing from all that surrounds it,
and ask yourself, Does this look like wood, silk, glass, or whatever the model may be ?
After some practice on these separate pieces of texture, any one object will be useful placed in a good
light and drawn on not too large a scale. When there is a large surface to be covered in this simple rendering,
the work often grows tiresome before the drawing is completed; and as unfinished work is always a detriment,
it is best to undertake a small drawing, and finish it. Practise on such subjects continually; and, above
all things, avoid copying the work of another. That Mr. Abbey or Mr. Gibson or any of our noted artists
should have their own method of expressing textures, as well as form and color, gives the student no right
whatever to make their efforts his; it is partly because the work of these men is so individual that it has
become so successful.
For such work as this plain rendering of surfaces, it is best to have only still-life subjects. The lights and
shadows which so constantly change in outdoor work make that branch of study much more difficult; while
figure work requires months of painstaking study in a life class and much observation before success can even
be approached. Since this little volume deals only with what may be called the alphabet of art, the models
to be used should be of the simplest kind. Therefore attempt only small, still-life groups, or at most some
simple corner of a room, until you can so render surfaces and textures as to be able to “ tell your story ” quite
clearly, and so that others may understand what you have to say.
Do not fear that your work will become labored or formal by these hours of careful study. Progressing
further, it will often be found needful to omit a great deal of just such rendering as this over which we now
take so much pains; as, for the sake of effect, it is frequently necessary in more advanced work to state onlyTEXTURES
41
the more important points in a drawing, leaving much to the imagination of the observer. But such work as
this which is now progressing is work done for study, not for effect; it is merely the series of steps by which
we climb to higher things; and only as we patiently learn how to put upon paper exactly what we see before
us can we advance to the greater knowledge of picture making — the “knowledge of what to leave out.”
Study of wooden objects. (Sandals from Mandingo, West Africa.)CHAPTER X
OUTDOOR SKETCHING

'HE time has now come for the students who have followed these informal “talks,” to
make something more than outline drawings, or studies for light and shade; and we
will therefore consider, in a very simple way, some points of outdoor sketching. Such
work brings with it a far wider interest than anything we have yet known. Nature is
herself a source of an inspiration, which to be understood must be experienced; and
after a few attempts to portray her beauty, the student will realize that the most crude
and ineffectual efforts bring with them a deeper delight than the most finished study
of a still-life group or any indoor work.
Nevertheless, with all its delight, this work has many unforeseen difficulties. The
light changes; the shadows hardly remain in any one place long enough to draw them;
there is the constant swaying of trees and vines in the wind; the fluttering of one’s paper and umbrella
from the same cause; the glaring sunshine or the suddenly arisen clouds which destroy all the original
effect — all these and many more obstacles are to be met and overcome, in outdoor sketching.
Let me then suggest that you take, in the beginning, only the most simple subject. A few roofs, which
may be seen from the window, will answer; and if these prove too difficult, take but the corner of one
window, with a tree or vine, and confine yourself to such details, until more familiar with the work (Fig. i).
One of the most important matters in making a drawing of any object, even the most simple, is the
knowledge of how to place it upon the paper. The interesting house or scene may become flat and unattrac-
tive when drawn on a scale too large for the sheet of paper on which it is placed, or when begun so high
42OUTDOOR SKETCHING
43
Fig. 2.ELEMENTARY DRAWING
44
or low, or so close to the margin of the paper, as to leave no space for possible needful additions. Any
sketch or drawing should for this reason be so placed as to leave an ample margin on all sides. If, after the
drawing is made, there proves to be too great an expanse of paper, it may easily be cut down to. a suitable
size; while the opposite difficulty (namely, the need of an inch or two more of paper) may not be so easily
remedied.
Having decided upon your subject, make a very rough and hasty sketch on brown paper, to be sure
that you have chosen the best point of view. One can never determine this so well in a mental vision of
the subject as by even the crudest sketch. This point being once decided, keep to it. Many an otherwise
good picture has been spoiled from the inability of the artist to let his choice of subject alone. The tempta-
tion is strong to add to this side and that, points which are interesting in themselves, such additions too
frequently taking away from the general interest of the picture. Make your drawing at the time when the
shadows are most interesting, a point only to be determined by previous observation. Having “placed”
your picture suitably and sketched in the main forms, it would be well to carefully outline all shadows in
pencil; and however much they change afterward, keep your drawing of such shadows within the limits of
the pencilled indication. This will prevent a mistake frequently made in outdoor work, whereby the shadows
in the same picture are apparently cast at different times of day.
All the houses and sheds and windows, which make a part of outdoor sketching, must conform to the
principles of perspective with which we first started. Houses are but big blocks, so to speak; and all their
vanishing lines retreat in accordance with the principles which govern the most elementary forms, excepting,
of course, in such cases as the central high building in Fig. 2, the roof of which does not run at right
angles to its wall, and must therefore be drawn without the help of perspective rules. These elements of
perspective are also introduced (Fig. 3) into all roads, fences, retreating rows of trees, etc., which may come
into your work. Use such knowledge with judgment, however, lest your work become too architectural and
formal.
Many hours must be spent in the study of trees alone, to ensure the good drawing of them. The
individuality of trees is as strong as that of people; the different species vary in color, form, and foliage soOUTDOOR SKETCHING
45
greatly as to necessitate the most careful study; while
no two, even of the same species, have just the same
manner of growth. It is a good plan to take first the
single branch of any kind of tree, say an oak or an ash,
and, sitting near enough to see its detail, make the
most accurate drawings of it, over and over, until you
are quite familiar with its leaves and bark, and its
method of growth. Then, moving to a position some
distance away, take as your subject a larger portion of
the same tree; study the masses of foliage, the color,
the light and shade; and when these have all received
careful attention, move still further away and consider
the tree as a whole. Bear in mind that in drawing
any large form, such as an entire tree, there is danger
of sitting too near. Be well removed, therefore, from
your subject, so that you may think only of the form
of the tree in its entirety, rather than of the detail.
After such study as this it would be well to take
an entirely different kind of tree, such as a pine or
cedar, and pursue the same course, afterward compar-
ing your sketches and making such alterations as an
increasing knowledge shall suggest.
Study also the varying aspects of water at differ-
ent times in the day, and under different conditions;
notice the reflections when it is unruffled (as in Fig.
4), and the way such reflections disappear with the
Fig. 3.ELEMENTARY DRAWING
46
slightest breeze over the surface; observe how, in a strong wind, every wave on a river or lake seems made
up of innumerable little waves, crossing and recrossing the larger one, and requiring the most accurate
drawing to represent them fairly.
Use for these studies whatever medium you find suits your work the best; and if unsuccessful for a
long time with one, try another. Many find a rather soft pencil to be satisfactory; others can express
themselves best in charcoal; while to a few, pen and ink, which is always attractive, is not too difficult.
The latter medium, however, in the hands of elementary workers, such as are following these talks, is too
apt to lead to an interest in making good pen lines rather than good studies of the object to be drawn.
Remember chiefly that that with which you work is, after all, as its name implies, only the medmm through
which you express yourself; and that it is far more important that you should have something to express,
founded on good and careful study, than that you should make beautiful lines or tints which are without an
intelligent meaning.
Fig. 4.CHAPTER XI
WORKING FROM PHOTOGRAPHS
The statement has more than once been made in this volume that in elementary drawing there should
be at first’little or no copying the work of another. Unless the student can at least draw in outline what he
sees before him, it is both weakening and misleading for him to copy; weakening because he thereby depends
upon another’s knowledge rather than his own, and misleading because that knowledge may be imperfect.
Assuming, however, that the student has now learned to see form and to draw it with reasonable
correctness, there is a use, upon which we may touch, in one form of copying; .that is, in occasional work
from photographs. As furnishing a subject for the simple rendering of textures or for study in color values
the photograph is often very useful; and kept in its proper place, i.e., as a means of study only, it will prove
to the elementary student who has advanced thus far a helpful step to better things.
One may often find good photographs of stone walls, trees, grass, running water, or water ruffled by the
wind, and many similar effects; which effects it might be difficult to obtain out doors at the desired time.
Careful pen or pencil studies of these will greatly facilitate much more advanced studies from nature which
may afterward be made. In making such drawings, especially if they be done with the pen, it will be found
best to omit many small and uninteresting details which take away from the chief objects of interest in the
picture; since, as has been well said, it is largely “ the knowledge of what to leave out ” that makes such
work effective and not labored.
In the sketch accompanying this paper, it will be seen by comparison with the photograph from which
it was taken that the contrasts of light and shade are rendered with much more distinctness than in the
photograph, even at the frequent sacrifice of color. If, for example, the color of the light side of the house,
47ELEM1XTARY DRAWING
Facsimile of the photograph from which the drawing on the following page was made.WORKING FROM PHOTOGRAPHS
49■ELEMENTARY DRAWING
5°
the stone wall beneath it, and the sand below had all been expressed, it is probable that a gray tone and a
feeling of lines would have pervaded the entire drawing; and all the contrasts having been lost, the interest
would have gone also.
Another in copying this photograph might render it in an entirely different way; there is no special
“ method ” for such work, save that of simplicity, and the purpose of calling attention to its present treatment
is merely to show how one must often depart from the original photograph,
in order to get the effect of it. While it is not the purpose of this volume
to treat of pen drawing as an especial method of expression, it may perhaps
be mentioned here to such as are interested, that in pen work it is often a
good plan to begin work only with the shadows and shadow sides of objects,
leaving all the light sides to be considered last. In this way it will soon
become apparent how little detail is needed after the main shadows are
expressed; while if the case is reversed and the light sides are considered
first, there is apt to be so much elaboration of detail, that all contrast of
light and shade is lost by the time the darker sides receive attention.
It is a well-known fact that photography, while worthy in this day of
pictorial photographs to take its full place among the arts, does in a measure
distort perspective, and thereby renders great care in this particular necessary
in copying. Here is one reason, among many, why there must be a good
understanding of the first principles of drawing and of perspective when work
from photographs is first attempted; else the attempt will merely fix bad habits and false ideas of drawing.
When we see a photograph of the interior of a church, and observe	that the	ellipses in	the columns	near the
edge of the picture take the form of A instead of B, which latter	we well	know they	should take,	it is for
us to use the knowledge which elementary study has given us, and draw these ellipses correctly where the
lens distorts them. When, in a group of houses, the nearer ones	assume	too great	size in proportion to
those beyond, or when the student shall, later, progress to more advanced	work, and	shall see in	a figure
Fig. A.	Fig. B.
Illustration of the distortion of perspective in
a photograph of the interior of a church.
The ellipses in the columns near the edge
of the picture take the form of A instead
of B.WORKING FROM PHOTOGRAPHS
51
group a hand or foot distorted by too close proximity to the camera, out of all proportion to the body to which
it belongs, then should his knowledge of proportion be such as to lead him to remedy the fault, and continue
with ease with the drawing.
It may then readily be seen how necessary it is to draw correctly, and to have much knowledge behind
that correct drawing, before one can dare use photographs at all. There must, besides outline drawing, be a
good understanding of the points upon which previous papers of this series have dwelt — light and shade,
color and texture. To translate the rough fur, or soft lace, or hard stone which a photograph may give us
into a similar texture in lines is no small work, and without some previous knowledge of the difference in
textures, based on accurate study, it is well-nigh impossible. Given some study of this kind, however, and the
photograph often helps much farther along the same road.
It would be better that the elementary student undertake little or no figure work, either from photographs
or otherwise, at present, remembering that all these papers have dealt with what may be called merely the
foundation stones of art, while a good drawing of the human figure represents a stage of attainment so far
removed from these beginnings that years of patient work must lie between.
Do not then try anything so advanced, until all this elementary knowledge is acquired, and until months
of study from life shall have taught you to overcome some of the many difficulties peculiar to that line of work.CHAPTER XII
SOME CLOSING REMARKS
The student who has followed these chapters, and has carried out the suggestions given, has, by his
ability to progress from one lesson to another, proved that his work is now no longer elementary. It is
then time for such a worker to follow a more advanced line of study, either through such text-books on
art as	may be available, or through attendance	at	a good	art school.	The	latter method is of course
greatly	to be preferred.	Besides the inspiration	of	working	in company	with	other students whose aims
are somewhat similar, there is in any such school the influence of the art works which are on every
hand, and the guidance and care of instructors who desire the student’s best progress.
There are at least	two things which may	be	helpfully	suggested to	one	expecting to attend such a
school.	First and most	important: on entering	the school,	begin with the course in elementary drawing.
If you have followed with care these or other papers on the subject, your way through the course should
be comparatively short and easy; but do not, because you have had some previous study either here or
elsewhere, feel that you have “ done casts ” or “ finished models.” The question is not what you have
done, except so far as it affects what you can do now. If you are really able, through previous lessons,
to draw these elementary forms correctly, there is little danger that you will be hindered by your instructors
from making as rapid progress as you are able to make. If, on the other hand, your lessons have only
enabled you to see correctly, and your hand still lacks the ability to express what you observe, it will be of
no use whatever for you to try anything more advanced until you are able to state with simplicity and clear-
ness the facts you already know.
The second thought which I would suggest is that of a definite purpose in your art studies. The ele-
52SOME CLOSING REMARKS
53
mentary work should be nearly the same for all branches of art; but after that stage is passed, it is, I believe,
of the greatest value to know what you are going to do. Too many art students drift along from one year to
another, trying now a little of this kind of work, now a little of that, with first one teacher and then another,
leaning always upon those who are instructing them, until they waken to find life far gone and their own
work in it hardly begun. Starting with a definite purpose, one is less apt to drift into such helplessness.
Later on, it may be necessary to alter the purpose, or perhaps relinquish it for another; but the habit of
decision is formed, and its effect upon the whole work of life is definite and lasting.
There are so many fields which the art student may enter that the perplexity of choice must be solved
by the question of his own qualifications. The many branches of designing, the interests of interior decora-
tion, portraiture in oil or in miniature work, illustration from either its decorative or pictorial standpoint —
any of these, or many other lines of work, await the earnest and qualified student; while highest of all, to
the few fitted for it, is the beautiful profession of a teacher.
Illustrative work is at present too attractive to many students that a few words relating to it may not be
amiss. Should any of" those younger students who have been following this series have this purpose in mind,
let me suggest that they be very sure the requisite illustrative faculty is theirs — in small measure at least,
else there may be much time wasted in the endeavor to acquire that which is in reality a gift. It is not
unusual to see one who might be a good portrait painter, or water-colorist, decide to “ take up ” illustrating;
and while this attempt may occasionally bring success, it so often leads to the opposite result, that it is worth
serious consideration whether or not one really possesses the needful originality and decorative instinct.
Assuming that this is assured in even a small degree, the student may be sure that the same course in ele-
mentary drawing is needed in illustration as in other branches of art: the ability to copy the work of another,
or to make clever pen sketches which are greatly admired by one’s friends, does not imply the ability to draw
correctly, without which all clever pen work is worse than useless; while even good drawing avails little with-
out imagination.
After a thorough course in drawing, if you are desirous of illustrating, you may find profit in entering
for a short time a class in composition and one in the technicalities of pen-and-ink; and during this periodELEMENTARY DRAWING
54
of study it will be an advantage to visit such printing or lithographing establishments as may be open to
you, for the purpose of familiarizing yourself with the different processes of reproductive work. After this,
taking the most simple subjects, try to illustrate any poem or short story, and submit your work to the art
editor of some magazine, when you will probably have some shortcomings pointed out, which you can set to
work to remedy. Keep your pictures simple, and study the drawings in the best magazines; not to imitate,
but to learn from them.
Or, should your interest turn more toward the decorative than the pictorial, there is a wide and beautiful
field for the designer of headings, initial letters, marginal decorations, and tail-pieces; and since those possess-
ing this decorative instinct seem fewer in number than those who turn to picture making, good designs of
this kind are to-day much sought after.
For this work, should you possess the needful ability, any roadside weed may furnish you with a subject
for attractive drawings. It is not even always needful to leave the city in search of material, as there is
often enough in the branch of a tree beside the window, or the wild grasses and weeds growing on a vacant
lot, to supply one with subjects for many hours of work with beautiful and practical results.
For illustrative work to be good, it must, however simple, be original. By this I do not mean that you
should strive to do grotesque or peculiar work; but simply that you should copy no one, but try to express
your meaning as well as possible in your own way. There is no more beautiful work than that of illustra-
tion, whether it be of a purely decorative nature or pictorial; but all those who have succeeded in it have
done so because they had something to say, and have said it in their own way.
And this indeed is true of all art. To the sincere artist there can be nothing light or trifling connected
with his work; because, whether poet or painter, sculptor or singer, he has a message to deliver, a gift
intrusted to him, wherewith he shall make life brighter for his fellow-men. Whether this gift be what men
call great or what they call small, whether this message shall reach thousands or but a few, in nowise affects
the messenger. That he shall give his message truly and honestly, and deliver it with his best ability — this
is all that concerns him.PEN DRAWING AND PEN DRAUGHTSMEN.
THEIR JVORK AND THEIR METHODS.
A STUDY OF THE ART TO-DAY WITH TECHNICAL SUGGESTIONS.
BY
JOSEPH PENNELL.
With over 400 illustrations, including many Examples from Original Drawings by Sir F. Leighton, Sir J. E. Millais,
Sir E. Burne-Jones, F. Sandys, F. Shields, E. Pinwell, W. Small, F. Walker, Mahoney
W. North, E. A. Abbey, Holman Hunt, A. Parsons.
Demy 4to. Bound in Buckram. $15.00.
“ One can hardly turn the leaves of this sumptuous volume without giving vent to repeated exclamations of surprised delight. It
is a treasury of faithful ■ specimens of the work and the methods of the artistic wielders of the pen, and a study of the art to-day,
with abounding technical suggestions.” — Boston Courier.
“ It is indispensable to the artist and almost indispensable to the man who loves books.” — Commercial Advertiser.
“ As representing pen illustrative art it stands unique and alone.” — Boston Transcript.
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY,
66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK.