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CORNELL
Anderson's UNIVERSITY

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ANDERSON, Av ory,
a Pictorial Sch ory, |
a School Histo SUL |
The selectior | 1 as |
seemed best ada oe evit, |
while imparting and |
personages in th: | pnd
such, also, as ap) B in
reading and eloc in
prose and poetry ble
variety of style be
found to possess the

higher classes of

From Prof. W. T. FROM ern.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

* Our author in f] - Do
ing of the details so t e i rt I.
gives American His Ihe ‘state of ing,
Prescott, Bancroft, pet~.
There are ag duce a
settlements, the co Raacic at a1 eC
States —all portrays Bessie Be ae.o with
reasonable complete :

“Part IL. takes v ains
miscellaneous select eece
and Rome, the Crus.

“This is a rather ————$ ume,
every part of wh cl h are
chronologically arra..o... ..--- tlish,

Scottish, and French History, and * Miscellaneous History’ of other nations, ancient and
modern—are well adapted to make the youthful reader familiar not only with the details
of amultitade of important events, and with tle character of many historical person-
ages, bnt also with the best productions of English and American historical literature,
anda number of writers belonging to other fields and nations.”

Fram the Chrestian Union, tev. Henry Warp Beecuer, Editor.)

“Mr. Anderson’s histories have already received a very wide appreciation ; and when
we say that iu this Reader the author has fully accomplished all that he proposed to him-
self, we have given it the highe-t praise Mr, Anderson can desire.”

From the New York Tribune.

“*The Historical Reader’ contains a series of eclections from the most celebrated
writers of ancient and modern history, together with illustrative passages from favorite
Friti-l) and Americun poets, forming a reading book for schools on a new plan, and
showing an unusual degree of literary merit.”

From the New York Evening Post.

“A work for schools has just been brought out, entitled ‘The Historical Reader,’ in
which the compiler, John J. Anderson, A.M.. has struck out a plan equally novel and
satisfactory, * * * Obviously the value of such a volume will depend largely upon
the discrimination excrci-ed by the compiler in the passages chosen ; and herein Mr.
Anderson has shown a high desrev of literary taste and culture.”

From the New York Erening Mail.

“Mr. Anderson has hit upon a thorouchly good iden in adding to his historical man-
vals ‘The Historical Reader.’ Iti likely to accomplish a threefold good, in renderivy
reading exercises especially interestine, inculcating quietly a taste for history, and
acquainting the younger gencration with a class of the best writers of English which is
none too much known.”

Published by Clark & Maynard, 5 Barclay 8t., New York.

   

 

 
 

 

Date Due

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Ande
Be e Pres-
ent | é. ; 7 , AM,

Late TA I Ad ef ior of a

Grau i ee School

Hista

Cuar and the
1 arrativg he pree-
ent time Qci 2 6 4949. J ided to.
2 The bj ~ solored ;
and on tl wn, and
the suce ineated.
4. The p . aa vith the
names ag z J ect may

sy
be reviey act & 3 3 roth ac-
cording
2 es 1869.

“ Prog UvTg 7 1356 listory,
by John —lts plan
is compr¢ d with
Clearness| ling of
importan e€ same
time, I w e more
ample an imitted
to cm 1 to me
to be sup} raise
for its co ighly
intelligen teartily
Tecomme: sh

rk.
From Pri — Penn-

“Ina ves the
whole Ili erm of
office in t! ably is
possible ii of the
thousands > chief
historical n Em-
Dire, that, istruc-
tive. We
From Pro ington

“It is know
how to te \ching
is necessa) Ys
From R. or the

“This , must
effect a re! 8 and
chronologj

“ Your! Ae choo,
and subje oom,
It is the b of the
subject in ity of
the langna nany
text-book: most
compends: icting
rather tha: res of
the book.

 

 

 

 

 

 

raphy show go nand in hand. .

furnishes the pu

to the tea¢he

T 80 large an opportunity

Tei oe ny pe, Deuuy O1 uustory and Geog-
++ + Itis extremely gratifying to find’a book that
pil with the leading facts of history in 80 a
for oral instruction.”

Published by Clark & Maynard. 5 Barclay St., New York,

ttractive a manner, and leaves

 
Cornell University Library
59.B65

Ncient histor:
Bains "ettne Chr IEDY
Fuad age:
eer (AL a

an ey R.
Dine. dhe a |
bart, few
PE ea ; dives aoe
Fo. jee
Mite dob. i
hots. es | .
Medley, PEPE. &

“ie, A Kr

eg
 
ANCIENT HISTORY,

ILLUSTRATED BY COLORED

MAPS, AND A CHRONOLOGICAL CHART,

FOR THE USE OF

FAMILIES AND SCHOOLS.

BY ©. A. BLOSS.

“ Geography and Chronology are the two eyes of History.”

REVISED AND IMPROVED BY

JOHN J. ANDERSON, A. M.,

AUTHOR OF A SERIES OF SOHOUOL HISTORIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

NEW YORK:
OLARK & MAYNARD, PUBLISHERS,
5 BARCLAY STREKT.
1873.

y
\\
PUBLISHERS’ NOTICE.

 

Tur work, of which the present one is a revision, was ori-
ginally prepared several years since, and was soon used with
great satisfaction in some of the best educational institutions
in the State of New York. In consequence of the death of its
accomplished author, the work (not being stereotyped) passed
out of print after two Jarge editions had become exhausted.
At the suggestion of several eminent educators, who were
anxious to have it for use in the institutions under their own
charge, the present edition has been published.

Its preparation was committed to Mr. Jonn J. ANDERSON,
whose long experience as a teacher, and whose peculiar fitness
for writing history for use in schools, as had been shown by
the great favor with which his series of School Histories of the
United States had been received, indicated him as eminently
qualified for the task. His work has been chiefly confined to
dividing the matter into convenient paragraphs, with suitable
questions upon each, and the addition of a valuable series of
review questions, placed after each principal division. He has
left the body of the work as the author wrote it, with very
slight exceptions. Indeed, one of its essential characteristics is
the author’s singular felicity of expression, combined with
great brevity and clearness of statement. These and other
qualities have rendered it exceedingly attractive—interesting,
while instructing the pupil, and making the study of ancient
history, usually so dry, pleasant and agreeable to the young.

New Yor, Sept, 1867.

 

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1472,
By CLARK & MAYNARD,
In the Office of the Librarian of Cougross, at Washington, D. CG.
PREFACE.

T]HE study of philology, and the results of historical re-

search, as well as the recent investigations in Oriental
antiquities, have shed invaluable and unexpected light on what
is commonly regarded as ancient history. ‘To briefly embody
these discoveries, and to correct the dates, so that they will con-
form to the most authentic interpretations of the Egyptian and
Assyrian inscriptions, is the reason for the alterations which
have been made in the present volume.

In Chaldo-Assyrian history, the chronology of Sir H.
Rawlinson has been mainly followed; though in the recapitu-
lation, the dates of M. Oppert, Poole, Lepsius, Gutschmidt,
have been given, followed by their names, whenever they differ.
In Egyptian history, the dates of Bunsen have been followed,
though those of Lepsius, Mariette, and Brugsch have also been
given for convenience of reference. The note on page 31 will
indicate a reason for the great diversity in the dates of the dif-
ferent Egyptologers. In Jewish history, the dates of Ewald
have been given, except where they differ from the results of
M. Oppert, who has definitely fixed the chronology of the kings

of Israel and Judab by means of the solar and lunar cclipses
it PREPACE.

mentioned in the Assyrian inscriptions. The dates of Ussher
and others have also Leen added for convenience of reference.
In Grecian and Roman history the dates are those of Grote and
Mommsen.

Chronological tables have heen added, which, it is believed,
will be » valuable addition to the book, as they present, for the
first time in un accessible form, the results of the latest re-
searches in Eastern history on the subject of chronology.

A few notes have also been added throughout the book,
wherever the text needed elucidation, or later researches made
it desirable. The few new pages at the beginning of the bouk
will indicate briefly the results of the latest historical investiga.

tions.

July, 1872,
CONTENTS.

SecTrion— Pace
I. Tue Ontcin or tHE Nations ‘ ‘ ‘ fi s 5
Il. Eaypr. . : . . . . . 16
IIL. Persia ‘ ‘i A A : . - 32
IV. GREECE . 2 3 . 5 . . 87

(MACEDONIA) : ‘ 7 . ‘ 223

V. THRACE. ‘ - 4 ‘ 3 . 3 289

VI. Eaypr ; ; : : : : . 297

VU. Rome . : : 7 2 314

VIII. Tae CHRISTIAN ERA ‘ ‘i 3 . 404
NAPS.

PAQE

No. 1. Mar or Evropr, ASIA, AND AFRICA AS KNOWN TO THE ANCIENTS 7

2. Map or GREECE 87
“3, Map oF ALEXANDER’S TRAVELS . ; 243
314

“4. Map or Irapia ‘ j ; : .

(a INDEX AT THE END OF THE VOLUME.
 

THE ORIGIN OF THE NATIONS.

1. There is no precise and consecutive history of the first man, or the
origin of our species, except that in the Bible. The narrative in the
Bible of the creation of man, the deluge, and the dispersion of the
human race, have indirectly been corroborated by the discoveries in
the natural sciences, the traditions of other nations, and the results of
comparative philology. ‘“ The Bible assigns no precise date to the
origin of the human species; it gives no positive time for that event.
It has in reality no chronology for the early epochs of man’s existence ;
neither for that which extends from the creation to the deluge, nor for
that which reaches from the deluge to the call of Abraham. The
dates which commentators have attempted to fix are purely arbitrary,
and have no dogmatic authority. They belong to the domain of his-
torical bypothesis, and one might mention a hundred attempts to make
the calculation, each time with a different result. Equally useless,
equally devoid of solid foundation, as are these calculations regarding
the dates of man’s creation, would be the attempt to determine from
the Bible the exact place of the cradle of our species, or of the Garden
of Eden, Everything bids us hold the common opinion which places
in Asia the origin of the first human family, and the source of all civil-
ization.”

NOTE.—Tue Dispersion.—The place where the Bible narrative states that the ark
rested after the deluge, the starting-point for the sons of Noah, is Mount Ararat. After the
most careful investigations, the mountain mass of Little Bokhara and Western Thibet
is agreed upon as the place whence the human race issued. Here the largest rivers of
Asia—the Indus, the Oxus, and the Jaxartes—take their rise. From this, as a centre,
the families of Shem, Ham, and Japhet were dispersed. The family of Ham, from
whom the people of Pheenicia, of Egypt, and Ethiopia were descended, was the first to
leave the common centre. Of the four sons of Ham, the race of Cush has been identified
with the Ethiopians, the Egyptians with Mizraim, the Libyans with Phut, and Canaan
with the Pheenicians, and all the tribes lying between the Mediterranean and the Dead
Sea before the settlement of the Hebrews.

The race of Shem was the next to leave the country where the descendants of Noah
dwelt after the flood. They occupied the countries extending from Mesopotamia
to the southern part of Arabia, and from the Mediterranean Sea to the country beyond
the Tigris. In many places, as the country bordered by the Oxus, the banks of the
cers, apart of India, the Cushite race was probably expelled first by the descendants
of Shem, and by the Aryans, the sons of Japhet. Of the descendants of Ham, Hber was
the progenitor of the Hebrews, Joktan of the Arabs, Lud of the people of Lydia.

The race of Japhet was the last to leave their home. They migrated to the south,
crossed the Hindo Koosh, and entered India, subjugating the earlier Hamitic tribes, and
to the west over the most of Europe, and became the progenitors of the Sanskrits,
Greeks, Romans, Persians, and Teutonic tribes.

It is supposed by many that the descendants of Magog, a name representing the
races which have been designated by philologists as Turanian, was the first of the family
of Japhet to go forth from their home, from the fact that wherever the Japhetic race

a

 

uestions.—1. What is said of the Bible narrative? Of its chronology? Of the time
of the deluge? The call of Abraham? Of man’s creation? Of the source of civiliza-
tion? Where was Mount Ararat? What rivers rise near here? Describe these rivers.
6 ASSYRIA. , [p. c. 8600.

extended it encountered a Turanian population, which it subdued. The sacecgeannts OF
the sons of Noah included only the white race, who, speaking the same ang ope build.
land of Shinar, were dispersed in consequence of the confusion of tongues: Nowe and
ing of the Tower of Babel. The negroes in the days of the Pharaohs, and the y

red races, have no mention in the sacred narrative.

= s f comparative philology teaches that in
Sie ene ee arethree aionace ei the Tionbayiunic, the Tgglutinative, and
the injlec. ed. The monosyllabic languages consist only of simple words expressing the
idea, the notion, independent of their relations to other words, as the ancient Chinese.
The agglutinated languages, in which two roots are joined together to form words, one
of thein loses its independent meaning and becomes subsidiary to the other, have re-
ceived the name of Turanian, which comprises all the languages spoken in Europe and
Asia not included under the Aryan or Semitic families. The inflected languages, in
which the roots coalesce, so that neither the one nor the other retains its substantive
independence, have been divided into two great families, the Semitic and the Indo-Euro-
pean, Aryan, or Japhetic. The Semitic languages embrace the valley of the Tigris and
Euphrates, Syriaand Arabia. It should not be inferred from this that the name Semitic was
restricted to those countries peopled by the race of Shem, for a large part of the Hamitic
nations spoke the Semitic languages. The Indo-European embraced those countries
{rom the plains of India, across the plateau of Ivan, the highlands of Armenia, into Europe,
of which it covers nearly the whole surface. Thus it will be seen from this brief survey
that the results of comparative philology are insubstantial accord with the narrative of
the Bible ; that the races were originally one ; that they emigrated from a region of Central
Asia, at the east of the Caspian and northwest of India; that they were originally a
astoral people, gradually changing their habits as they descended into the plains of the
ndus and the Huphrates. The method of investigation, as applied to the Aryan, is as
follows: It is found that the names of many common objects are the same in all the
families of the languages of this stock, and it would be unreasonable to suppose that
two nations widely separated would have independently selected the same name for the
same object. Thus the word for house in Greek is 6640s, in Latin domus, in San-
skrit dama, in Zend demana, from which root comes our word domestic. From the
fact that the same word was used by all these different nations to designate the same
object, it is pretty certain that the ancient Aryans lived in houses. So with the word
for boat; but as the words designating masts, sails, yards, are different in the different
families, it is supposed that the Aryans, before their separation, sailed only in boats with
oars on the rivers Oxus and Jaxartes, and were unacqnainted with the use of sails, etc.
Pursuing the same method of inyestigation, the results are briefly these: they had oxen,
horses, goats, sheep, and domestic fowls; their food was chiefly the products of the
dairy and the flesh of the cattle. -The cow was the most important animal, and gave the
name to many plants, to the clouds, which they called the cows of the sun, that the
children of the morning drove every day to their pastures in the blue fields of heaven.
The Aryans also had barley, knew the use of the plough, the mill for grinding, the
hammer, the hatchet, and _the auger. They were also acquainted with the metals, gold,
silver, copper, and tin. They knew how to spin and weave; their houses had doors.
windows, and fireplaces; they had cloaks ; they boiled and roasted their meat; they had
lances and swords, the bow and arrow, but no armor; they had family life, some simple
laws, games, the dance, and wind instruments. They had the decimal system, and
divided the year according to the periodical revolutions of the moon ; they worshipped
the sun, moon, and stars, fire and water. In this way the early history of a people
extending fur beyond any authentic records possessed by man, has been partially re-

stored, For a further investigation of this subject, the pupil is referred to Max Miiler’s
Science of Language. i

2. B. c. 8600.—Tue Coarpaan Emprre.—a ter the dispersion of
the races, there lived in the Tigro-Euphrates basin a mixed population,
divided into two principal elements, the one living at the north, the
other at the south. These various peoples living on the soil of Baby-
lonia and Chaldea, at first separate, were united at times under one
sceptre. The seat of empire was sometimes transferred to the north,
sometimes to the south, and again from the south to the north, and the
Mesopotamian empire reccived the name Chaldean (Old Bahylouiay,
or Assyrian, according to the seat of power at the time, « Cush,” says

2.— Question.—Describe how the Chaldean empire was founded.

 

 
  
 

 

 

 

 

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B. Cc. 1814.] THE ORIGIN OF THE NATIONS. ”

the Bible, “begat Nimrod. He was a mighty hunter before the Lord.
And the beginning of his kingdom was Babel, and Erech, and Accad,
and Calneh, in the Mind of Shinar. Out of this land went forth Asshur, .
and builded Nineveh.” About 2500 B.c., the first Cushite dynasty of
Babylon was expelled by invaders of the Aryan race, and these in
turn-were expelled by other conquerors, until the conquest by Assyria
in about B. c, 1814. From the inscriptions stamped on the bricks
used in building, the names of the reigning kings have been discovered.
The skill in building, the knowledge of working metals, gold, bronze,
lead, and even iron, have been proved from the monumental remains
and from the utensils found in the tombs. Astronomy had been culti-
vated with great success, and in the most remote times to which the
monuments relate, its study was far advanced in Chaldea. They prob-
ably carried on an extensive commerce from the ports of the Persian
Gulf, along the course cf the Euphrates, and by caravans across the
Syrian desert to Pheenicia. The Chaldeans also devised the system of
mapping the heavens out into constellations, and naming the stars. To
their astronomical records is due the only trustworthy clue we have
to their chronology. Prof. Rawlinson says that “tor the last three
thousand years the world has been mainly indebted for its advance-
ment to the Semitic and Indo-European races; but it was otherwise in
the first ages. Egypt and Babylon, Mizraim and Nimrod, both de-
scendants of Ham, led the way, and acted as the pionecrs of mankind
in the various untrodden fields of art, literature and science. Alpha-
betic writing, astronomy, history, chronology, architecture, plastic art,
sculpture, navigation, agriculture, textile industry, seem all of them to
have had their origin in one or other of these two countries.” ,

3. Forseveral centuries Ur was the capital of the Chaldeean empire, and
its power extended over the whole of the Mesopotamian plain, including
Assyria. In a few centuries Assyria regained itsindependencé. About
the middle of the seventeenth century Mesopotamia was subdued by
Egypt, and its history is written on the monuments of Egypt until

 

Questions.—Describe the Tigris. The Euphrates. What four cities were founded.
What race first lived in Chaldwa? Ans. The Turanians: they were the first race to
spread out into the world, and probably covered the great extent of territory, both in
Europe and Asia, before the great Semitic and Aryan migrations. The Turanians also
brought to Babylon and Assyria the cuneiform system of writing, so called because each
character was formed by a number of marks haying the form of a wedge. What has
been discovered in regard to the civilization? Of their trade? What is said of their
chronology? What does Prof. Rawlinson say of their civilization? 3, What was the
capital of the empire? Its extent? Mesopotamia is derived from two words,
Which signify (a land) between two rivers. Mow is it known that it was conquered by
Egypt?
8 ASSYRIA. [p. c, 1415.

B.c. 1314, when Assyria succeeded in throwing off the Egyptian yoke,
and extending its power over Mesopotamia.

4.3. ¢c, B&05.—Assynran Eupree.—The kingdom of Assyria, with
Nineveh for its capital, increased in power until it extended its sway
over all of Mesopotamia. Ctesias relates that Ninus claimed to be the
son of the god Belus; but as such assumptions of divinity were com-
mon in those early ages, nothing can be determined as to his paren-
tage. Ninus so much enlarged and beautified Nineveh, that he is
styled its founder. This great city, situated upon the Tigris, was an
oblong square, 60 miles in circumference ; surrounded by walls 100
feet high, and so thick that three chariots might be driven abreast on
the top of them. Upon the walls stood 1,500 towers, each 200 feet in
height ; and the whole was so strong as to bid defiance to all weapons
of warfare then known. WNinus is said to have spent seventeen years in
conquest, and to have extended the bounds of his dominions over the
whole of Middle Asia. In Bactria he would have suffered defeat but
for the counsel and conduct of Semiramis, wife of one of his officers.
He married her after the death of her husband, but she could not be
satisfied to rule the empire by influencing the emperor; she was deter-
mined to be absolute sovereign; and the doting Ninus having been
persuaded to commit to her hands the government for five days, she
contrived to attach the principal lords to her interest, and procuring
the death of her husband, possessed herself of the empire.

To immortalize her name, Semiramis employed 2,000,000 men in
enlarging, fortifying, and beautifying Babylon. Its walls were not
inferior to those of Nineveh; its whole area was divided into 676
squares by the streets, which crossed cach other at right angles; these
streets were terminated at each end by massive gates of brass, over-
looked on each side by lofty towers ;.and the mighty river which rolled
through the town was inclosed with walls as strony as those which en-
compassed the city.

She visited every part of her dominions, and left in every place
monuments of her greatness. The country was rough and unculti-
vated. She hollowed mountains, filled up valleys, built aqueducts,
levelled roads, and converted the unbroken wilderness into fertile
plains. She extended her dominions beyond Asia even. Ethiopia
submitted to her arms, and in Africa she visited the temple of Jupiter
Ammon, to inquire of the oracle how long she should live. She was
answered, “Till her son conspired against her.’ On her return she
undertook the conquest of India, but was signally defeated. Her son

Questions.—4. What is said of the kingdom of Assyrian? Of Ninus? Of Semiramis?
s. « 600.) THE ORIGIN OF TIIE NATIONS. 9

seized upon this occasion to alienate the affections of her people, and
this coming to her knowledge, she resigned her dominions, and retired
to a private station. The Assyrians worshipped her under the form of
the white dove.

5. This is the narrative, as given by the Greek historian; but the study
of the Assyrian monuments and inscriptions prove positively that
neither Ninus nor his wife Semiramis ever existed. The name Ninus
is only a personification for the whole history of Nineveh, and Semi-
ramis has been borrowed from an historical queen who lived five cen-
turies later.

The history of the succeeding kings possesses but little interest or
importance. The monuments supply us with wa vivid picture, it is
true, of their life in war and peace; but of the people we know little
more than that they fought the battles of the monarch, and served as
beasts of burden in the transportation of their monuments, and swelled
the pomp of their processions. The records of private life which have
been preserved in the wall-paintings of Egyptian tombs are entirely
wanting in Assyria. The history of art and civilization in Nineveh, as
attested by the monuments, has been summed up by Prof. Rawlinson
as follows: “ With much that was barbaric still attaching to them,
with a rude and unartificial government, savage passions, a debasing
religion, and a general tendency to materialism, they were, towards the
close of the empire, in all the arts and appliances of life,, very nearly
on a par with ourselves, and thus their history furnishes a warning
which the records of nations constantly repeat, that the greatest material
prosperity may co-exist with the decline, and herald the downfall, of
akingdom.” \

6. 5. c. 800-7 89.—Sardanapalus was the last king of the First
Assyrian Empire. His vices and follies alone rescue his name from obli-
vion. A monument found by Alexander, in Cilicia, proves that he must
have made an expedition to Western Asia; but the greatest part of bis
time was spent in his seraglio, spinning with the women, or imitating
their habits of dress and conversation. His effeminate manners ren-
dered him contemptible ; and Arbaces, a Median governor, with Belesis,
the most distinguished member of. the Chaldean sacerdotal college,

 

Questions.—5. On whose authority have these stories been related? How have they
proved to be false? What is said of the succeeding kings? Of the people? How do
the inscriptions here differ from the paintings in Egypt? What has Prof. Rawlinson
said of their government, religion, civilization, etc.? 6. What is said of Sardanapalus?

Norr.—The destruction of Nineveh, where Sardanapalud is said to have been killed,
is not regarded as historical by Prof. Rawlinson, but the narrative in the text is in
agreement with M. Oppert. .
ASSYRIA. [B. v. 705.

10

conspired against him, and collected a numerous force to dethrone him.
Sardanapalus quitted for a while his voluptuous retreat, and appeared
at the head of his armies. He was beaten, and besieged in the city of
Nineveh two years. At last, finding all was lost, he erected a throne of
his treasures, collected his women about him, and having set fire to
the palace, perished with them in the flames. Thus ended the First
Assyrian Empire, 1450 years after its founding by Nimrod. The con-
spirators seized upon the government, and divided it between them,

whence arose two kingdoms,

7. B. c. 789. Arbaces, after his capture
of Nineveh (in B. ¢. 78, Oppert), is said
to have retired from the country. He is
called in Scripture Tiglathpileser. He
took the city of Damascus, and put an
end to the Syrian kingdom, which had
long vexed the Jews, and he made Ahaz,
king of Judah, pay dearly for being de-
livered from his troublesome neighbors.

Read 2 Kings xvi. 7-9. Isa. xvii. 1-8. Amos
i. 3,4.

s

9. B. oc. 728. Tor TWo KINGDOMS RE-
UNITED.—Salmanaser, son of Ninus II.,
besieged Samaria three years, and after
the people had suffered every hardship,
took the city and carried the inhabitants
captive, 250 years after the revolt of Is-
rael from Judah, 721 B. c.

B. c. 705. Sennacherib exacted a
tribute of Hezekiah; and not content
with “all the treasures of the house of
the Lord, and of the king’s house,” in-
vaded Judea with a large army. By his
emissaries he insulted the already hum-
bled Jews, and blasphemed against the

 

(B. c. 789, Oppert.)

8.THe BasyLonisn As-
SYRIANS RULED BY BELESIS.
—Belesis took up his resi-
dence at Babylon. With his
reign began the famous era
of Nabonassar, according to
Berosus, in this manner:
“ Nabonassar, having col-
lected the acts of his prede-
cessors, destroyed them, in
order that the computation
of the reigns of the Chaldean
kings might be made from
himself.”

10. Prince Merodach Ba-
ladan sent to congratulate
Hezekiah upon his recovery
from sickness, and to in-
quire about the shadow’s
going back upon the dial
of Ahaz, for the Chaldzans
were great astronomers.
They had records in their
city of observations made
1500 years before, or about
the time of the confusion
of tongues. Of the sueceed-
ing kings of Babylon we

 

Questions.—6. What was his fate? How was the first Assyrian Empire brought to a-
close? 7 What did Arhaces do? By what othcrnames is he known ? Where is Damas-
cus? (See map No. 1.) 8. What can you state of Belesis? How did the reign of Nabon-
assar bezin? 9, What did Salmanascr accomplish? What did Sennacherib do?
B.C. 680.] BABYLON SUBDUED. Li

God of heaven; but Hezekiah spread his | know little, except their
impious letter before the Lord, and re- | names.

ceived assurances of divine protection, | ead 2 Rings xx. 11-16. Trace
-That night the destroying angel was sent nei a ll
forth into the camp of the Assyrians, and

185,000 of Senuacherib’s host slept the
sleep of death. Filled with shame and
rage, the impious king returned to Nine-
veh, where two of his own sons conspired
against him and slew him. Then his son,
Esarhaddon, reigned in his stead.

Read 2 Kings xviii. 13-20, and xix. 8-87. Also
read 2 Kings xvii. 1-7. Lev. xxvi. 82, 33, and Deut.
Exviii. 36,

13. B. o. 680.—Esarhaddon, perceiving that Babylon was filled
with anarchy, took advantage of the times to reduce it to its former sub-
jection. Thus he reunited the Assyrian Empire, B.c. 680. He planted
strangers in the land of Israel, who were the progenitors of the Sama-
ritans. In his reign Manasseh was carried to Babylon, where he
remained in captivity 12 years. In the days of King Nebuchadnezzar
TL. several tributary princes revolted, and he was involved in a war
with*the Medes.

Read 2 Kings xvii. 24, and Ez. iv. 2-10.

14. The monarch Saracus resembled Sardanapalus in his taste and
pursuits. The general of his army, Nabopolassar, having the burden
of state affairs to sustain, thought himself more worthy of the throne
than his effeminate monarch. Ile accordingly formed an alliance with
Cyaxares, king of Media, to dethrone the last of the race of Arbaces.
With their joint forces they besieged Saracus in Nineveh, and finally
gained possession of the place and slew the monarch. After this the
glory of Nineveh faded, and Babylon, its ancient rival, became the
most famous city in the world.

Read Nahum, chap. iii.

15. Nabopolassar the Chaldean, having thus acquired sovereign
power, commenced a new dynasty, under which Assyria reached its
greatest glory, and fell to rise no more. By his warlike exploits he

 

 

Questions.—11. How did his invasion of Judea end? What became of Sennacherib?
Who was his successor? 12. What is said of the Chaldeans? What act did Mcrodach
Baladan perform? 13. What did Esarhaddon accomplish? What is stated of Manassch ?
Trace the strangers from Nineveh to Samaria. Nebuchadnezzar from Nineveh to Media.
14. Give an account of Saracus. When was he slain? Ans. 648 n.0. What is said
of the subsequent history of Nineveh and Babylon? 15. What is said of Assyria under
Nabopolassar ?
12 ASSYRIA. [B. 0 600.

roused the jealousy of all his neighbors. Necho, king of Egypt, marched
to the Euphrates to stop his conquests, Syria and Palestine revolted,
and he found himself in his old age surrounded by enemies. In this
emergency he thought proper to invest his son Nebuchadnezzar with
a share in the government. The young prince proved himself worthy
of his father’s confidence. He invaded Palestine, took Jehoiakim,
and carried him captive to Babylon, with numerous young persons of
the royal family, among whom were Daniel and the three children,
Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego. This event took oe in the 4th
year of Jehoiakim, B. 0. 606. t
Read 2 Kings xxiv. 47, and 2 Chron. xxxvi. 6,7. Dan. i.1,2 Jer. slvi. 2, 25, 26.

16. s. c. 60@,—In 599 Nebuchadnezzar fought a great battle with
Necho, and entirely defeated him. In the beginning of his reign he
had a remarkable dream, which, as interpreted by Daniel, contained
the history of all succeeding ages. By his officers Jehoiachin was
deposed, and Zedekiah placed upon the throne of David, but he also
rebelled against the king of Babylon. Nebuchadnezzar went in per-
son to punish the treachery of Zedekiah. He besieged Jerusalem two
years, and when all the bread was spent in the city, the men of war
attempted to flee by the way of the plain, but were captured by the
hosts of Chaldea. The Holy and Beautiful house built by Solemon
perished in the conflagration of the city, and all the precious things of
the sanctuary, together with the king and his nobles, were carried to
Babylon, B. 0. 588.

Read 2 Kings xxiv. 10-20; xxv. 1-8. 2 Chr. xxxvi. 9-21. Jer. lif. 4-12.

17. Taxine or Tyre.—Four years after, Nebuchadnezzar besieged
Tyre, a strongly fortified and opulent city of Phenicia, “‘ the Queen of
the sea, whose merchants were princes, and whose nobles were among
the honorable of the earth.” Here, for thirteen years, his troops suf-
fered incredible hardships, so that ‘‘ every head was made bald, and
every shoulder was peeled ;”’ and when the place finally surrendered,
the exhausted besiegers found no treasure within its walls to reward
their labors, the inhabitants having removed their principal effects to
an island about half a mile distant, where in a short time a new city
arose which far eclipsed the glory of the old.

Read Ez. xxix. 18-20 and Is. xviii. 5-9, 11, 18.

 

Questions,—15. Whom did he invest with a share in his government? Why did he take this
step? What did Nebuchadnezzar accomplish? 16. What: octurred in 599 B.o.? What is
said of a dream? On what expedition did Nebuchadnezzar go? With what result? Where
is Jerusalem? (See map No. 1). 17. When did Nebuchadnezzar besiege Tyre? Give an
aeco nt of the siege.
B. 0. 600.] NEBUCHADNEZZAR. 13

18. Conqurst or Eeypr.—Nebuchadnezzar then turned himself
upon Egypt, which was at that time suffering from intestine commo-
tions. Amasis and Aprieg having divided the people by a contest for
the throne, no effectual resistance was offered to the invaders. ‘The
good of all the land of Egypt was before them,” and they spared
nothing. With the spoil of the splendid temples of Apis, and the
wealth of the conquered people, the great king returned to Babylon,
having rendered the country tributary, and made Amasis his deputy.

Read Is, xix. 1,4, 17, 22,23. Jer. xlvi. 13, 25,26, Ez. xxx. 10,13, 24-26.

19. Nebuchadnezzar was now sole monarch of Chaldea, Assyria,
Syria, Arabia, Palestine, Egypt, and Ethiopia. He married Amyit,
princess of Media, who rivaled Semiramis in the splendid works with
which she beautified the city of Babylon. A bridge 5 furlongs in
length spanned the Euphrates, and terminated at each end in a palace
of vast dimensions. The old palace on the east side of the river was
nearly 4 miles in circumference, but the new palace, surrounded with
three walls, one within another, was 7 miles in compass. In the last
palace were the Haneine gardens, built by Amyit to resemble the
woody country of Media. Arches were raised on arches till they
reached the height of the walls; the ascent was from terrace to terrace
by stairs ten feet wide. On the top of the arches were first placed large
flat stones, then a layer of reeds, then bricks closely cemented toge-
ther, and then thick sheets of lead upon which lay the mold of the
garden, so deep that trees of the largest size might take root in it; and
beneath their shade were plants and flowers of the greatest beauty
and most exquisite perfume. An engine at the top drew up the
waters of the river and scattered them in showers over the gardens,
and in the spaces between the arches magnificent apartments were
fitted up, commanding a delightful prospect of artificial hills and
forests, streams and fountains.

20. Tempe or Betus.—Near the center of the city stood this edifice.
It was circular, having eight stories, diminishing upwards to the height
of 600 feet. The wealth of this temple, in statues, tables, censers, cups,
and other implements of massive gold, was almost incredible. One
ancient writer makes it amount to $100,000,000. On the summit was
an observatory, from which the Chaldean astrologers watched the
motions of the stars, and made those calculations which Callisthenes

 

Questions.—18. What was Nebuchadnezzar’s next movement? What rendered the un-
dertaking easy? How was the king rewarded? 19. To what power did Nebuchadnezzar
attain? Whom didhe marry? How was Babylon beautified? Give a description of the
Haxging Gardens, 20. Give a description of the ‘Temple of Belus.
14 ASSYRIA. [B. 0. 555

transcribed and sent to Aristotle. Nebachadnezzar, proud of the
mighty realm which owned his sway, and proud of the magnificent
city which he had enriched with the spoils of Nineveh, Jerusalem, and
Egypt, refused to “isten to the warnings of that Daniel who had made
him acquainted with the divine will. But in the very hour * when
his heart was lifted up, and his mind hardened in pride,” be was seized
with a kind of madness, and driven from his throne to dwell with the
beasts of the field. At the end of seven years his reason returned to
him, his kingdom was restored, and excellent majesty was added unto
him. He reigned 43 years.

Read Dan, iv. 30-36,
21.—n. 0. 561, Evil-Merodach, son of Nebuchadnezzar, was a gentle

and weak prince, unfitted to govern the vast empire left to his care.
He was dethroned after two years by Nereglissar, his sister’s husband.

B. 0. 559.—If the success of Nereglissar had equaled his ambition,
Assyria would have had little cause to lament the change in adminis-
tration; but, endeavoring to extend his dominions, he periled all.
After making alliance with Croesus, king of Lydia, he declared war
against the Medes, but was slain in the first battle. Mis son Laboro-
soarchod, the man with the long name, the wicked life, and short
reign, succeeded him. Nine months his subjects bore with his impi-
ous cruelty, and then put him to death.

Read 2 Kings xxv. 27-80.

22. z. o. 555.—While the contest with the Medes was still undecided,
and the Assyrians were lost in luxury, the sceptre descended to the
weak hands of Belshazzar, grandson of Nebuchadnezzar. The war
with Cyrus, and the danger of his kingdom, could not draw him away
from his pleasures. His armies and allies were defeated, and finally
Babylon alone, of all bis vast dominions, held out against the con-
queror. For two years this city was closely invested; yet such was
the strength of its fortifications—such the quantities of provisions
stored in its granaries, and afforded by its gardens—that the Assyrians,
thinking themselves secure, ridiculed the besiegers from the walls,
and defied them from their impregnable towers,

23. Taxine or Banyton.—Nebuchadnezzar, in repairing the walls
of the Euphrates, had made a great lake to receive the waters of the

 

Questions.—2). Why did Nebuchadnezzar refuse to listen to the divine warnings? What
consequently befellhim? What further account can you give of him? Trace the Chaldean
armics to Jerusalem; to Tyre; to Egypt. 21. What can you state of Evil-Merodach? Of
Nereglissar? Who succeeded him? Give an account of Laborosoarchod. 22. Who waa
Belshazzar? What was his character? What city was the last of his possessivos? By
whom was it then invested? Why wasit notreadily captured? 23. What plan of cap
ture did Cyrus fiually decide upon ?
B.C. 638.] BHELSAAZZAR. 15

river, and had secured its entrance with strong dykes. Cyrus, having
learned that on a certain day a grand festival was to be celebrated,
sent a party of soldiers to break down the dam, and let the waters flow
away from their accustomed channel; then dividing the rest of his
army, he stationed one part at the place where the river entered the
city, and the other where it came out, with orders to enter the channel
as soon as the water was fordable, and approach each other. The
dykes were broken down; and the waters filling the lake, and the
trench of circumvallation which the Persians had spent the two years
in digging, the bed of the mighty stream was left nearly dry. About
midnight the army of Cyrus passed under the walls, and proceeded
silently along the channel to a point near the center of the great
palace ; that palace in which Belshazzar, surrounded by his drunken
lords, was listening with quaking heart to Daniel’s interpretation of
the handwriting on the wall.

24.—The brazen gates leading to the river had been left unfastened ;
the guards, partaking in the negligence and disorder of the night,
offered but a feeble resistance, and the city was filled with the enemy
before the doomed inhabitants awoke from their fancied security.
Belshazzar was slain at the door of his palace, and Babylon fell into
the hands of Cyrus, B. 0. 538. Thus ended the Second Assyrian Em-
pire, 251 years after its founding by Arbaces. Assyria then became »
Persian province.

Read Jer. 1. 1, 3, 9, 10, 18, 14, 15, 16, 29, 85,86, 87, 88, 41, 42, 43, 44; Jer. li, 1-14, 28, 30, 81
82, 89, 55-58; Dan. v. entire. 3
The Chaldean Dynasty of Assyria.

1 Nabopolassar.

2 Nebuchadnezzar the Great.

  
 
     

Laborosoarchod. 5 | 6 | Belshazzar.

Nereglissar. 3 | Evil-Merodach.

 

Questions.—24. Give a further account of the success of Cyrus, What was Belshazzar’s
fate? When did that event occur?
y EGYPT,

Egypt, in commencing with Misraim, 3628 B. c., and ending with Psammenitus, 525 B.C,
continued about 3098 years.

SECTION II.

1. Eeypr, one of the most celebrated spots on the face of the globe,
oceupies the northeastern corner of Africa, lying between the Medi-
terranean Sea on the north, and Nubia on the south; and between the
Red Sea on the east, and the deserts on the west. It is about 600
miles Jong, and 350 broad; but its most interesting portion is a vale,
yarving in width from 15 to 20 miles on each side of the Nile. This
majestic river, the source of its wealth and fertility, rises in the moun-
tains of Abyssinia, and, running nearly parallel to the Red Sea, flows
tnto the Mediterranean by seven different mouths.

2. It never rains in Egypt, but the want of showers is abundantly
supplied by the annual overflowing of the Nile, which, bringing down
the precious mud from the mountains, deposits it upon the earth, and
imparts to it a richness greater than is found in the soil of any other
country. Ancient Egypt, in fact, unlike every other country on the
globe, brought forth its produce independent of the seasons and the
skies; and while continued drought in the neighboring countries
brought one season of scarcity after another, the graparies of Egypt
were always full. Its early settlement and civilization were doubtless
owing to these favorable circumstances.

3. No part of ancient history is more obscure and uncertain than
that of Egypt. That it was peopled in the earliest ages, its monuments
most fully prove; but the traditions and records preserved by its
priests are so beclouded with fabulous boasting, that it is impossible
to separate the true from the false. According to the religious legends
preserved in volumes of papyrus, and shown to Herodotus when he
visited Egypt, the deities themselves first ruled the country. To them
succeeded a race of demi-gods, of which Osiris was the head. Next
followed a dynasty of kings, composed of real flesh and blood, of whom

Eosrt.—Qucstions.—1, Mowis Egypt located? Whatare its dimensions?) What ean you
State of the Niley 2 Of its overtlowings? Of the fertility of ancient Egypt? What are
the boundaries of Egy pt? 3. What is said of the early history of Egypt? : Why is this sof
B. What is set forth mw the religious legends of the country

 
J. C. 3623.] EGYPTIAN WORSHIP. 17

Menes was the first. This Menes, they said, completed the work of
the gods by perfecting the arts of life, and dictating to men the laws
ie had received from the skies. Though many new rites were added
in after ages, yet to him Egypt owed its peculiar religious institutions,
and general plan of animal worship.

4, Osiris the sun, and Isis the moon, were the principal objects of
adoration,—Osiris dwelling in the body of the bull Apis, and Isis
existing under several mystic forms. Magnificent temples were erected
to their honor, and numerous ceremonies were performed before them.
If Apis lived 25 years, he was drowned in a sacred fountain; if he
died before that period, all Egypt went into mourning, and this mourn-
ing continued till a new Apis was found. The deceased animal was
embalmed in the most costly manner, and buried with such pomp,
that on one occasion the funeral expenses amounted to a sum equal to
855,000.

5. The priests then traversed the whole land in quest of a successor.
He must be a calf of a perfectly black color, with a square white spot
in the forehead, the figure of an eagle upon the back, a crescent on
the side, and a beetle on the tongue. These marks were of course
produced by the contrivance of the priests; but the people, supposing
them to be indubitable evidences that he contained the soul of Osiris,
were filled with the greatest joy when He was brought in triumph to
Memphis. Here in his splendid temple, ‘the walls of which shone
with gold and silver, and sparkled with the gems of India and Ethio-
pia,’ he was served by a whole college of priests, who fed him from
golden dishes, and attended him with the utmost care.

6. The annual festival of Apis began with the rising of the Nile, and
presented for seven days a scene of uninterrupted rejoicing. The god
vas then displayed to the view of the people, covered with embroidered
cloths of the finest texture, and surrounded by a whole troop of boys,
singing songs in his praise. Many other animals were also esteemed
deities. The dog, the wolf, the hawk, the crocodile, and the cat, were
popular divinities, and he who killed one of them, even by accident,
was punished with death. At the decease of a cat, every inmate of
the family cut off his eyebrows; but when a dog died the whole head
was shaven, It was customary for Egyptian soldiers to return after

Read Ez. xxii. 1-6, 18, 19,

 

Questions.—4. Who were Osiris and Isis? What was done with reference to Apis?
5. What else was done with reference to Apis? 6. Give an account of tho festival of Apis.
Yow were other animals also esteemed? Namosome that were go esteemed, What penalty
was affixed to the killing of them?
B,C. 3625
18 EGYPT. [

long expeditions, bringing with them the bodies of these animals
which they had found on their journey, and embalmed with super:
stitious care. ;

7. They also worshiped certain portions of the vegetable kingdoms,

whence the poet took occasion to satirize them:
“ But should you lecks or onions eat, no time
Would expiate the sacrilegious crime 3
Religious nations sure, and blest abodes,
Where every orchard is o’errun with gods!”

Among the institutions of Egypt, none exercised a more important
influence on the character of the nation than the division of the people
into tribes, or castes. The son was obliged, by the customs of the
country, to follow the trade of his father; so that priests, warriors,
herdsmen, and traders, were always distinct cJasses.

g. According to the Egyptian doctrine of transmigration, the soul
of man was destined to pass through the bodies of different animals,
and, at the end of 8000 years, to,return and inhabit a human form:
but the cycle could not commence till the body began to perish ; hence,
say many historians, arose the practice of embalming the dead. The
greatest attention was bestowed upon this work, which was enforced
by severe and sacred laws. Many hands were employed in the cere-
mony: some drew the brain through the nostrils; others opened the
side and took out all the softer parts of the body; others then filled
the cavities with spices and drugs. After a certain time the body was
wrapped in fine linen, dipped in gum, and impregnated with perfumes;
finally it was delivered to the relatives, who put it in an open chest,
and placed it upright against the wall of a sepulchre.

9. The chains of rocky mountains which bounded the valley of the
Nile were formed into vast catacombs, and fitted up with chambers
for the repose of the dead. The tomb was always prepared for the
husband and his wife. Whoever died first was deposited there, or
kept embalmed in the house till the decease of the other. The upper
rooms of the tombs were ornamented with paintings and sculptured
figures, representing the Egyptians in all the occupations of every-day
life. All the operations of agriculture—plowing, sowing, and reaping ;
all the employments of the housewife—spinning, weaving, sewing,
washing, dressing; all the mechanic arts; all the amusements of the
people, even the very balls and dolls with which the children played,
oe ee worship ? What is said of the tribe and caste

a ged todo? What was the result? 8. What, say histo-

rians, gave rise to the practice of embalming the dead? Give a description of the work of

embalming, 9, What and where were the Egyptian catacombs? Give a description of
them. Where is the Nile? (See map No. 8.)
Bc. 3623. ANTIQUITIES 19

are still to be seen portrayed with striking fidelity and distinctness in
these stupendous palaces of the dead.

10. In one painting is represented the judgment of a wicked soul,
condemned to return to the earth in the form of a pig, after having
been weighed in the scales before Osiris, and found wanting. It is
placed in a boat, and, attended by two monkeys, is dismissed from
heaven, and all communication with that delightful place cut off, by a
man who hews away the ground behind it with an ax. The sacred
rites of sepulture could not be conferred, even upon kings, until the
dead had been solemnly judged by a tribunal appointed for the pur-
pose, and declared worthy to enter the abodes of the blessed.

11. All the ancient kings of Egypt are called in Scripture Pharaoh.
In the time of the Pharaohs, Egypt was divided into the Thebais, or
Upper Egypt; Middle; and Lower Egypt. Lower Egypt extended
from the Mediterranean to the place where the Nile began to branch
off; and Middle Egypt extended from that place to Thebes, nearly
where the Upper portion commenced, and reached to Nubia. The
Pyramids are all situated on the west side of the Nile, and extend in-a
direction nearly parallel to it, for about 70 miles. Their vast antiquity,
their amazing magnitude, and the mystery which envelops their his-
tory, render them objects of intense interest.

12. Menes or Mizraim Founps Eeypv, sz. 0. 3623.—After the con-
fusion of tongues at Babel, the sons of Noah separated into different
parts of the world. Ham had four children, three of whom settled in
Africa. Mizraim, the second son, founded Egypt, and all historians
agree in considering him the Menes of the Egyptian priests. He is
supposed to have founded Memphis, by digging a new channel for the
Nile, and laying the foundations within its ancient bed. Many of its
ruins have served as materials for building Cairo, but a sufficient num-
ber remain to excite our admiration of the wonderful skill of the
Egyptians in architecture. In the 12th century, these ruins extended
half a day’s journey in every direction, but now there are only scat-
tered fragments of idols, 40 feet high, and blocks of granite inclosed in
rubbish, to interest the antiquary.

Read Gen. x. 6.

 

Questions.—10, What painting is described? What ceremony had to be observed with
reference to the dead? 11. What titles were given to the Egyptian kings? How was Egypt
divided? Where are the Pyramids? Whatrenders them objects of interest? 12. Whither
did the sons of Noah go? Ham's children? Mizrim? What supposition is made in con
nection with Misraim? What can you state of the ruins of Memphis? In which division
of Egypt was Memphis?
2u EGYPT. [B. 0. 2080.

13. Busiris built Thebes, the city of an hundred gates, from each of
which issued, upon state occasions, 200 chariots and 10,000 fighting
men. It is now called Said, and lies magnificent in ruins; its fallen
columns and moldering temples eminently beautiful even in the midst
of decay. The sculptured figures which ornamented gates, and walls,
and capitals, show the perfection of Egyptian art; even the colors of
the paintings in its deserted palaces are undimmed by the hand of
time; so happily did the Egyptians stamp immortality upon their
works.

14. Osymanpyas.—Diodorus gives a description of many beautiful
edifices erected by this king. One was adorned with a sculptured
representation of his expedition into Asia. Another temple contained
ua magnificent library, the oldest mentioned in history. The Egyptians
used hieroglyphical writing, and their records were preserved not
only by inscription upon monuments, but in books made of the leaves
of the papyrus. This library was called ‘the office or treasury for
the diseases of the soul.”” The life of Osymandyas was such as secured
to him a distinguished sepulchre. It was encompassed with a circle
of gold, 865 cubits in circumference, ornamented with figures showing
the rising and setting of the heavenly bodies; for so early as this tho
Egyptians had divided the year into 12 months of 30 days each, apd
every year added 5 days to bring the sun to the equinoctial points.
Champollion thinks the splendid ruins of the Memnonium in Thebes
are the remains of this tomb, as the statue of Osymandyas is still to be
seen in them, though shattered in a thousand pieces.

15.—Uchoreus raised a very high mole to protect Memphis
from the inundations of the Nile, and fortified the city other-
wise in so impregnable a manner, that it was ever afterwards the key of
that river. Moeris made the famous lake which bears his name. The
object of this wonderful excavation was to regulate the inundations
of the Nile. It was joined to the river by a canal ; in its center were
two pyramids upon which the rise of the water was marked ; when it
rose above the usual point it flowed off into the lake, and when it did
not reach so high, the deficiency was supplied from the lake.

16. 8.0 2080.—Some time in this century Egypt was invaded by
people from Arabia, called Shepherd Kings. Every place yielded to

Questions.—13. By whom was Thebes built? How was that city located? (Seo map
No.1.) Whatecan you say of its ruins? 14. What account do we get of Osymandyas?
What is hieroglyphical writing? What is papyrus? What is said of Osymandias’s sepul-
chre? Of the division of the year? 15. What work did Uchoreus accomplish? Moeris?

Describe tho lake. 16. When was Egypt invaded by the Shepherd Kings? What suevesa
did they have?
B c. 1509.] MONUMENTS TO SESOSTRIS. a1

these fierce barbarians, who, having taken Memphis and fortified Pelu-
sium, organized the government to suit themselves, and founded On,
or Heliopolis, the city of the Sun. Another race might have reigned
at Thebes during the same time, for the state of Egypt was one of
anarchy and confusion during this period. 1800 8. o.—It was in the
days of the Hykcos, or Shepherd Kings, that Joseph was sold into
Egypt. To connect him with the highest tribe or family, and so con-
stitute him a governor, he was married to the daughter of Potiphera,
priest of the Sun.

Read Gen. xxxvii. 23-28; xli. 41-46; alsol. 22-26,

17. b.o. 1414,—Among the ruins of Thebes is the statue of Mem_
non, an image of the Sun-king, cut out of the solid rock. It was said to
greet the rising of the god of day with a musical sound resembling
the tone of a harp. This work was ascribed to Amunoph II. Rama-
ses Miamun was the king that so cruelly oppressed the Israelites.

They built for him the treasure cities of Ramases and Pithom.
Read Ex. i. 8-11.

18. B. vc. 14Q0.—Amanoph III. is th: prince who it is supposed
endured the ten plagues, and perished in the Red Sea. Diodorus
says: ‘‘ A tradition has been transmitted through the whole nation,
that once an extraordinary ebb dried up the waters of the Red Sea,
so that its bottom was seen, and almost immediately after a violent
flow brought back the waters to their accustomed channel.”

Read Ex. vii, 20, 21; viii. 6,17, 24; ix. 6, 10, 24,25; x. 18-15, 22, 23; xii. 29-98, and Ex.
xiv. 9-81; xix. 1, 2.

19. Though much dispute prevails among the learned as to the
time in which Sesostris flourished, yet the numerous monuments in.
scribed to him prove him to have been something more than a fabulous
personage. In the temples of southern Ipsambul, in the ruins of
Thebes and Memphis, his statues appear stamped (Champollion asserts)
with the reality of portraiture. In almost every temple up to the
confines of Ethiopia, his deeds and triumphs are wrought in relief and
painting. The greater part of the celebrated ohelisks bear his record ,
one side of Cleopatra’s needle is occupied with his deeds, and lis
legends clothe with interest the stupendous ruins of Luxor and Carna«.
The best authorities plave him in the Ninetecuth Dynasty, and date his
reign from about 1409 x. c. i 7

 

Questions.—16. What account can you give of Joseph? Trace the Shepherd Kings from
Arabia to Egypt. Where is Pelusium? (See map No. 1.) Heliopolis? 17. What is said of
the statue of Memnon? What of RamasesMiamun? 18. Of Amenophis III.? What tradi-
tion is mentioned? 19. When did Sesostris reign? What can you state of his monuments,
statues, &e. ?
29 EGYPT. [p. o. 1499

20. His father, by the authority of an oracle, as the Egyptians say,
formed the design of making his son a conqueror. For this paps
all the male children born on the same day with Sesostris WEES
brought to court and educated with him. Their common exercise
was hunting, and they were never suffered to eat till they had run @
race, either on foot or on horseback. The energies of thei bodies
were thns develuped, and the ambition to excel in courage and skill
was constantly cherished.

21. The enmity still prevalent aguinst the Iykcos he turned to his
own account, and in the lifetime of his father pursued the remnants
of the hated race into Arabia. The success of this expedition stimu-
lated him to still greater efforts. Libya, so celebrated for its burning
deserts and fiery serpents, was overrun and subdued by the young
prince and his companions. Upon the death of his father he entered
upon his great work, the Conquest of the World! Before leaving
home, he made it his care to gain the hearts of his people by his jus-
tice and generosity, and to attach his soldiers to his person by all the
ties of affection and interest. i

22. He divided the country into 36 districts, or nomi, and bestowed
them upon persons of merit and fidelity. His troops, commanded by
1700 officers (most of whom had been educated with bim), when
drawn out in battle array, covered a space of more than 200 acres.
His chariots and horsemen, issuing from the gates of Thebes, filled all
the plain, and, leaving the fertile vale of the Nile, they entered upon
the mountainous country of Ethiopia. He conquered even the
Southern Ethiopians, and forced them to pay a tribute of ebony,
gold, and elephants’ teeth. In the Nubian temples, representations
of his numerous victories line the walls. One of them shows the
conqueror standing among huge logs of ebony and golden ingots,
while a vanquished queen and her children stretch out their hands to
him as if imploring mercy.

23. With the aid of w fleet which he fitted out, the islands and
cities upon the Red Sea were subdued; on the height overlooking the
narrow strait of Babelmandedone of his columns was erected. Fol-
lowing the track of ancient commerce, he entered Asia and subdued

Questions,—20. What design did the father of Sesostris have? How did he commence
to carry out his purpose? 21. What were the first Successes of Sesostris? What great
work did he then enter npon? What was bis lirst care? v2. What division did he make ot
the country? What army did he have? What dia he accomplish in Ethiopia? What is

shown in the Nubian temples? 23. What did he accomplish, aided by his fleet? What
other conquests did he make?
uc. 1402.] SESOSTRIS THE CONQUEROR. 93

the countries even beyond the Ganges. Thence it is supposed he
marched in a westerly direction; for history states that he left an
Egyptian colony in Colchis, where they were long after known by their
swarthy complexions, frizzly hair, and peculiar customs. In every
country that he conquered, he set up pillars with this inscription:
“Sesostris, king of kings and lord of lords, subdued this country by
the power of his arms.”

24. Herodotus found in Asia Minor two statues of Sesostris, one
near Ephesus, the other on the road between Smyrna and Sardis; they
were five palms high, armed with a javelin and bow, after the Egyptian
manner, A line drawn from one shoulder to the other bore this in-
scription: ‘‘This region I obtained by these my shoulders.” Certain
monuments show also that he entered Thrace, and bounded his con-
quests by the Ganges and the Danube—but we must not forget that
conquest was, in those early ages, but little else than a forced march
through primitive forests, inhabited by scattered tribes, unacquainted
with the stratagems of war, and accustomed to fly with their flocks
and herds at the approach of an invading foe. The want of provisions
for his army, the difficulty of the passes, and intelligence of treason in
Egypt, induced him to return home ufter he had borne the sword of
conquest up and down the world for nine years. He took no pains to
preserve his acquisitions. True, he was laden with the spoils of the
vanquished, and followed by a countless multitude of mourning cap-
tives; but he left the countries he had depopulated and the cities he
had pillaged to recover at leisure from those desolations which had
covered his name with glory.

26. He rewarded his officers and soldiers with a munificence truly
royal, and employed the repose of peace in raising works calculated
both to enrich Egypt and immortalize his own name. He raised a
number of lofty mounds on which cities were built, where the people
might retire with their flocks during the inundations of the Nile. He
fortified the whole coast from Pelusium to Heliopolis, to prevent any
future invasion of the Hyscos. He erected a temple in every city of
Egypt, and raised gigantic statues representing himself, his wife, and
his four sons. In all these stupendous works, captives only were em-
ployed, and he caused to be inscribed on the temples: ‘ No one native

 

Questions.—23, What pillars did he set up? What is the Strait of Babelmandel? (Sce map
No.1.) 24. What discoveries did Herodotus make? Describe the statues. 24. How far did
the conquests of Sesostrisextend? How do we get at that information? What wasa con
quest in those days? How many years was he absent from Egypt? Why did he return?
Where is Smyrna? 25. What is said of the rewards bestowed by Sesostris? Of the mounds
taised by him? Fortifications? Temples?
24 EGYPT. [v. c. 1100

labored hereon.’ The kings and chiefs of conquered nations came at
stated times to do honor to their victor, and to pay the accustomed
tribute. On certain occasions he is said to have unharnessed his
horses, and, yoking kings together, made them draw his chariot. At
length this mighty monarch lost his sight, and rather than endure the
loneliness of old age in darkness, he put an end to his own life.

26. zs. o. 1400.—In this century and a great part of the rext,
occurs one of those chasms so frequent in Egyptian history. Four years
before the close of the thirteenth century, Proteus began to reign in
Egypt. From a custom of adorning his head with representations of
animals, vegetables, or even burning incense, arose the fable of Protean
forms, so, often quoted among the Greeks. Homer calls him asea-god,
and says that, when caught by Menelaus, he turned into a lion, a ser-
pent, a tree, &e.

27. 8.0. 1%00.—Proteus received Paris and Helen when on their
way from Sparta to Troy, and erected a temple to Venus the stranger.
His numerous forms may signify the duplicity of his character.
Cheops, a most wicked and oppressive monarch, built the pyramid
which bears his name. Ten years were spent in preparing for the
work, and twenty more in erecting it. It stands a little south of
Cairo, and lifts its head about 45 feet higher than St. Peter’s at Rome.
On its side was an inscription which the priests told Herodotus was
an account of $1,700,000 expended merely in furnishing the workmen
with leeks and onions. Cephrenius.was also a monster of wickedness,
By his exactions and oppressions he incurred the hatred of his sub-
jects, and filled Egypt with mourning.

28. B. 0. 1100.—Myocerinus, “the peacéful,”’ was as remarkable
for his justice and moderation, as his predecessors had been for their
extortion and excess, He built the third pyramid. It was smaller than
the others, but equally expensive, being faced half way up with
Ethiopian marble. The goodness of this monarch did not exempt him
from calamity. The death of his only darling daughter clouded his
life with sorrow. He ordered extraordinary honors to be paid to her

memory; exquisite odors were burned at her tomb by day, and a
Read 1 Kings ix. 16, 24; and 2 Chron. viii. 11.

Questions.—25. What is stated about his chariot? Hisdeath? Trace his whole course,
and mention the modern names of the countries through which he passed. 26. When did
Proteus begin to reign? How did the fuble of the Protean furm have its origin? What did
Momer say of Proteus? 27, What further can you state of Proteus? Give an account of
Cheops. Of Cephrenius. Where was Sparta? (See map No. 1.) Troy? Cairo? 28. What
was the character uf Mycerinus? What event clouded his life with sorrow? Give a further
account of him.
’

B oc. 800.] WARS IN PALESTINE. 95
lamp illuminated it by night. Having reigned for no great length of
time, he was informed by an oracle that he was destined to die in six
years. On complaining because he, a pious prince, was not allowed a
long reign, while his father and grandfather, who had injured men
and despised the gods, had each reigned half a century, he was told
that his short life was the direct consequence of his piety; for the fates
had decreed that Egypt should be afflicted for the space of 150 years,
and as he had not proved a minister of vengeance, he must give place
to one less inclined to mildness and lenity.

29. Asyouis.—This king, during a scarcity of money, enacted a law
permitting any man to borrow money, by giving in pledge the body of
lis father; but in case he afterwards refused to pay the debt, he
should neither be buried in the same place with his father, nor in any
other, nor have the liberty of burying the dead bodies of any of his
friends, who for want of the sacred rites would not be permitted to
enter the peaceful realm of Qsiris. One of his immediate successors
was the king who gave his daughter in marriage to Solomon.

30. s. o. 100@.—Shishak was the Pharaoh that reigned in Egypt
when Jeroboam fled thither to avoid the wrath of Solomon. In the
reign of Rehoboam the same Shishak invaded Palestine, seized upon
all the strongest cities of Judah, penetrated as far as Jerusalem, plun-
dered “the treasures of the house of the Lord, and the king’s house,”
and carried away ‘the shields of gold which Solomon had made.”

Zerah, king of Ethiopia and Egypt, made war upon Asa, king of
Judah, with an army far superior to the whole number of Jews,
women and children inclusive; but he was defeated, and obliged to
retire in haste to his own land.

Read 1 Kings xi. 40; and xiv. 15, 16; also 1 Chron. xiv. 9-14.

31. B. o. 8060.—What transpired in Egypt during the ninth cen-
tury is unknown. The next king of whom we read was Anysis, a
blind man. Sabachus, or So, king of Ethiopia, dethroned him, and
reigned in his stead. The kingdom thus obtained by violence was
nevertheless governed with justice. Instead of putting criminals to
death, he employed them in repairing public works, and in other
menial offices serviceable to the state. He is thought to be the So
mentioned in Scripture as entering into a league with Hoshea, king

 

Questions.—29. What singular Jaw did Asychis enact? What is said of one of his suc-
ecasors? 80. Who was Shishak? When did that event occur? What account can you give
of Shishak? Of Zerah? %1. Give an account of Anysis, Of Sabachus’s government,
What is supposed with reference to So?

2
26 EGYPT. [p. c. 700.

of Israel. At the end of 50 years he hada dream, which the priests
interpreted as a warning that he could no longer hold the kingdom in
safety or happiness, upon which he voluntarily retired to his own
country.

Read 2 Kings xvii. 4. is

32. Sethon was both king and priest of Vulcan. He gave himself
up to religious contemplation, and not only neglected the military
class, but deprived them of their lands. At this they were so much
incensed that they refused to bear arms under him, and in the midst
of the commotion Sennacherib, king of Assyria, arrived before Pelu-
sium with a large army. Sethon attempted to raise a body of troops
to oppose him, but none of his soldiers would follow him. In despair
he betook himself to his god, and while yet in the temple, praying to
be delivered from his enemies, he fell into a deep sleep, during which
Vulcan exhorted him to take courage, and assured him of victory.

33. Thus sustained, he assembled about 200 shopkeepers, laborers,
&c., and advanced to Pelusium. The next morning he found the
Assyrians in great disorder, preparing to fly. A prodigious number
of rats had entered their camp during the night, and gnawed to pieces
the quivers, bow-strings, and shield-straps. Unable to fight, they
endeavored to make good their retreat, but Sethon, falling upon
them, made terrible slaughter in their ranks. In memory of this re-
markable deliverance, Sethon erected a statue of himself holding a rat
in one hand, with these words issuing out of its mouth:

“ Whosoever beholdeth me, let him be pious.”
This story is no doubt a corruption of that related in 2 Kings xix.

34, B. o. 7@@.—The invasion of the Ethiopians and other troubles
had reduced Egypt to a deplorable state of anarchy. At length 12 of
the principal noblemen seized upon the government, and divided it
into 12 absolute sovercignties; and because an oracle had declared
that the whole kingdom should fall to the lot of him who should offer
his libation to Vulcan in a brazen bowl, they bound themselves by
the most solemn oaths to protect each other’s rights. For 15 years
they reigned together in the utmost harmony, and, to leave a monu-

went of their concord to posterity, united in building a famous
labyrinth near Lake Mveris.

Questions.—31, How did his reign end? 82. Who was Sethon? What was Sethon’s
course of conduct? What danger threatened him? What then occurred? 83. Give an
account of Sethon’s deliverance, 33. How did he commemorate the event? 34. What was
the condition of Egypt seven hundred years before Ohrist? How had that been produced?
What summary act was done by twelve persons? How long did they reign? Why did they
build a labyrinth Where did they build it? Where was Lake Moeris? (See map No. 3.)
B.C. 63¢.] PSAMMETICHUS. 27

36. This remarkable structure consisted of 12 separate palaces,
stretched along in a succession of splendid apartments, spacious halls,
and lofty terraces; adormed with statues, hieroglyphics, and every
other appendage of Egyptian art. A vast number of intricate pas-
sages ran around the base of the building, and around these a wall was
thrown, leaving only one entrance to the labyrinth; while at the other
end stood a pyramid, containing a way leading to 12 sabterraneons
palaces, exactly corresponding to those above. The whole structure
contained 3000 rooms; 1500 above ground and as many below. All
the roofs and walls were of stone, adorned with sculptured figures,
and.all the halls were surrounded with pillars of white marble. Hero-
dotus visited the upper rooms, but was not permitted to enter the
subterranean palaces, because the bodies of the sacred crocodiles lay
there embalined. i

36. It happened one day, that the twelve kings were sacrificing in
the temple of Vulcan at Memphis, and that the high priest, who dis-
tributed the golden cups for libations, had brought with him, by some
accident, only eleven. Psammetichus, who stood the last in order, took
off his brazen heliuct, and poured his libation out from that. This inci-
dent occasioned great disquiet among his colleagues, and they accord- ”
ingly banished him to the seacoast. After passing some years in the
solitude of exile, Psammetichus secured the aid of a company of
Greeks, whom adverse winds had driven on the coast. By their assist-
ance he overcame the eleven, and became sole master of Egypt.

37. B. 0. 630.—In gratitude to his Grecian friends, he gave thein lands
and revenues, and placed children under their care to learn the Greek
tongue. These, in process of time, formed a distinct caste, called, in
the days of Herodotus, Interpreters. The limits of Assyrian conquest
had never been clearly defined, and a quarrel now arose about the
boundary of that empire, on the southwestern border. The Assyri-
ans had taken Syria and the territory of Israel, and were waiting till

‘a favorable opportunity should occur for seizing Palestine and invading
Egypt. Some years before, Tartan had taken Ashdod, or Azotus, and
Psammetichus set himself to recover this important post; but owing
to the natural strength of the fortifications and the vigorous defense
of the garrison, the siege lasted 29 years; the longest of any recorded

 

Questions.—35. Give a description of the labyrinth. What can you state of the visit ot
Herodotus? 86. What occurred in relation to the eleven cups? How did Psammetichuy
get to be sole master of Egypt? 37. What is said of the Interpreters? Of a boundary dis
pute? What succcsees had the Assyrians gained? Tartan? What can you say of the siegr
of Ashdod?
28 EGYPT. [p. c. 610.

*

in history; nor does it appear that the Egyptians afterward derived

any particular benefit from the possession of the place.

Read 1 Samuel v. 1; Is. xx. 1; also, Acts viii. 40.

38. B. 0. 610.—Pharaoh Necho, son of Psammetic
to join the Red Sea to the Mediterranean by a canal through the
isthmus of Suez. He persisted till 120,000 men had perished in the
work, and then abandoned it. In another enterprise he was more
successful. Having taken some Phenician navigators into his service,
he instructed them to sail around Africa, and solve the great mystery
of the form and termination of that continent. In their small row-
galleys, well equipped, they departed, and at the end of three years
returned in safety. They stated, that passing down the Red Sea, they
entered the Southern Ocean; that at the approach of Autumn they
landed on the coast and planted corn; when this was ripe they cut it
down, and again departed. In passing the southern point of Africa,
they were surprised to observe the sun upon their right hand:* then
turning to the north, they continued their course; the third year they
doubled the columns of Herenles, and returned to Egypt through the
Mediterranean.

39. Nabopolassar, the Chaldean, having usurped the Assyrian
throne, became so powerful as to rouse all the ancient enmity of the
Egyptians. Necho undertook an expedition against him. Josiah,
king of Judah, hearing that he intended to pass through Palestine,
assembled all his forces and stationed himself in the vale of Megiddo,
to oppose his progress. Necho sent a herald to inform him that he
mineant the Jews no harm, but was commissioned by God against
another nation. Josiah would not listen to this remonstrance; he
gave battle, was defeated, and received a wound of which he died.
The victorious Necho continued his march to the Euphrates, defeated
the Assyrians, and took the city of Carchemish. On his way home he
stopped at Jerusalem, levied a tribute upon the Jews, placed Johoia-
kim upon the throne, and carried Jehoahaz captive into Egypt. Soon
after the Babylonians dispossessed the Egyptians of all they had
gained, retook Carchemish, and Necho died.

Read 2 Kings xxiii. 29, 30, 88-35; also, 2 Chron. xxxv. 20-24; and xxxvi. 84.

* Herodotus doubted the truth of this story, from the fac ing i
north, but to us this is its greatest confirmatys, POR Heels seein Se sin ante

hus, attempted

 

Questions.—37. Where was Ashdod ? (Map No. 3.) 88. Who was Ph:

‘ > s . B. . as araoh Necho? In
what great enterprise did be fail? In what was he snecessful ? Give an account of the
successful enterprise. Where are the columns of Ilercules? Ans. One is at Gibraltar.
and the other opposite, on the African coast, at the western extremity of the Mdilesianoun:
89. Who was Nabopolassar? What expedition did Necho undertake? By whom was ho
opposed? What followed? What successes did Necho afte i
events did he die? Se ree
B,C. 594.] NEBUCHADNEZZAR. ‘ 29

40. 8.0. 594,—In the reign of Psammis, son of Necho, the Eleans,
having rearranged the Olympic gaines, sent a splendid embassy into
Egypt, to give an account of the regulations they had established ; for
they were desirous of gaining the approbation of a people then con-
sidered the wisest in the world. When the delegation arrived, Psam-
mis assembled the priests and sages to listen to the communication of
the distinguished strangers. After mature deliberation, the grave
council remarked, that the persons appointed to award the prizes, being
Greeks, could scarcely be impartial in ‘their decisions; upon which
the deputiesreturned home, satisfied, no doubt, with going abroad after
praise.

41. Apries, the son of Psammis, is called in Scripture Pharaoh
Hophrah. In the first years of his reign he invaded Cyprus, took the
city of Sidon, and made himself master of Phenicia. Inflated with
pride, he boasted that not even the gods could dethrone him. Zede-
kiah king of Judah, unmoved by the “woe” of Isaiah, made an
alliance with Apries, and, relying upon his assistance, broke his oath of
allegiance to the king of Babylon. In the war that followed, Zede-
kiah found that the Egyptian help was “a broken reed;” for though
the Chaldeans departed once from Jerusalem for fear of Pharaoh’s
host, yet in the end the Egyptians abandoned their allies, and left
them to meet the wrath of Nebuchadnezzar alone.

42. Some years after, the chastising rod fell heavily upon Apries.
A large army which he had sent intdNLybia having been destroyed, as
was supposed, by his connivance, a great part of his subjects rebelled.
Apries sent one Amasis, a particular friend, to bring back his subjects
to a sense of their duty; but the moment Amasis began to speak, the
rebels fixed a helmet upon his head, and proclaimed him king. Ama-
sis accepted the honor, and became leader of the mutineers. Apries, -
greatly exasperated at the defection of his favorite, sent a nobleman
with orders to bring Amasis, alive or dead, before him. The messen-
ger, unable to seize an individual protected by an infuriated mob,
returned without his captive; and his master, in a rage, ordered his
nose and ears to be cut off. This piece of wanton cruelty alienated
the affections of his people, so that the revolt becaine general, and he
was obliged to abdicate his throne in favor of Amasis. The new king

 

Questions.—40. Who was Psammis? What embassy was sent by the Eleans during his
reign? Give an account of the ceremony that took place, 41. Who was Apries? What
is he called in Scripture? What events took place in the first years of his reign? What
influence did his success exert upon his character? Who formed an alliance with him?
In what manner did he treat his allies? 42. What canscs led to the overthrow of Aprics?
Who then was king? How did Amasis then treat Apries? :
. 525,
30 EGYPT. [B. ¢

confined Apries in one of his palaces, and treated “him with great
respect; but the people were implacable, and the tyrant, being
delivered ‘‘into the hands of those who sought his life,” was
strangled.

Read Ez. xxviii. 21,22; also Ez. xxix. 8, and xvii. 12-17; Is, xxxi. 1-8, and Jer, xxxvii. 7, 8,
ond xliv. 80, and Ez. xxix. 2, 3, 4, %

43. While these troubles had been going on, Nebuchadnezzar
invaded Egypt, and subdued the country as far as Syene. He made
horrible devastation wherever he came, killed great numbers of the
inhabitants, loaded his army with treasure, and, having made Amasis
his deputy, returned to Babylon. During the reign of Amasis, Egypt
is said to have been perfectly happy, and to have contained 20,000
populous cities. He espoused a Grecian female, and displayed his
attachment to the Greeks by permitting them to settle on his coasts,
and by contributing liberally to the rebuilding of the temple at
Delphi. Solon visited Egypt during his reign.

44. The prosperity of Amasis was at last disturbed by the prepara-
tions which Cambyses, king of Persia, made to attack his kingdom.
The Persian monarch had demanded the daughter vf Amasis in mar-
riage; but Amasis attempted to deceive him by sending him the daugh-
ter of Apries. The lady disclosed the imposition to Cambyses, and he,
in great wrath, determined to march against Egypt. Amasis, how-
ever, died in season to escape the perils that threatened him, and the
whole fury of the storm fell upon his son, Psammenitus.

45. Psammenitus was scarcely seated on the throne when Cam-
byses arrived before Pelusium, with all his forces. Pelusium was taken,
a great battle fought near Memphis, Psammenitus put to death, and
Egypt became a Persian province, B. 0. 525. Subsequently this
country fell under the power of the Macedonians, Romans, Saracens,
Mamelukes, and, lastly, of the Turks; thus verifying the words of

 

Questions.—42. What further can you state of Apries? 43. Who invaded Egypt at
that time? Wow far did Nebuchadnezzar subdue the country? Where is Syene? (Seo
map No, 8) What is said of Nebuchadnezzar’s devastation? Whom did he make his
deputy? What is said of the condition of Egypt during the reign of Amasis? Whom did
he marry ? How did he manifest his favor to the Greeks? 44. How was the prosperity
of Amasis disturbed? Give the story of the deception, Who was Psammenitns?
45. What battles were fuught soon after Psam nenitus ascended the throne?) What
became of him? When did Exypt become a Persian province?

é Under what powers
did it afterward fall? What prophecy was verided ?
B. C. 525.] FALL OF EGYPT. 31

Vv

prophesy, “Egypt shall be the basest of kingdoms,” and, “there shal)
be no more a prince of the land of Egypt.”

Read Ez. xxix. 10, 15, and xxx. 6, 18

Nore.—The history of Egypt written by Manctho, a priest of Sebennytus, (a tuwu on
the Delta), which was founded on tie official archives presvryed in the temples, has been
lost. A few fragments only rema.n together with a list vi all the kings who reigned in
Egypt down to the time of Alexander. This list Menetho divided in dynastics, and
recorded for the most part the names of the kings, the length of each reign, and the
duration of the dynasty. The following extract is from Mariette whose researches in the
Museum at Cairu deservedly places his name among the foremost of Egyptologers :—

«Every one must be struck with the enormous total of years (B. c. 5004-332) to which
the duration of the dynasties of Manetho amounts. The lists of the Egyptian priest, in
fact, carry us back to times which are mythical among all other people, but which are
in Egypt certainly already historical. Embarrassed by this fact, aud, moreover, unable
in any way to cast a doubt on the authenticity and veracity of Menetho, some modern
authors have supposed that Egypt had been at some periods of its history divided into
more than one kingdom, and that Menetho had represented, as successive, dynasties which
were already contemporaneous. According to them, the fifth dynasty, for example, was
reigning at Elephantine at the same time that the sixth was enthroned at Memphis.
The convenience of this system, for certain combinations fixed at leisure and in view of
preconceived ideas, need not be pointed out. By reconciling some dates and correcting
others, we may, by an ingenious and even scientific arrangement of dynasties, contract
almost as we wish the lengthy of the lists of Menetho. Itis in this way, that some
place the foundation of the Egyptian monarchy in the year 5004 before our era, other
authors, such as Bunsen, place the same event only as far back as the yeaa 3623.

On which side lies the truth? The larger amount of study given to the subject, the
greater is the difficulty of answering. The greatest of all obstacles in the way of
establishing a regular Egyptian chronology is the fact that the Egptians themselves
never had any chronology at all. The use of a fixed era was unknown, and it has never
yet been proved that they had any other reckoning than the years of the reigning
monarch. Now these years themselves had no fixed starting point, for sometimes they
began from the commencement of the year in which the prececding king died, and
sometimes from the day of the coronation of the king. However precise these calcula-
tions may appear to be, modern science must always failin its attempts to restore what
the Egyptians never possessed. In the midst of thesc doubts, the course which seems
the most prudent and scientific, the least likely to be a departure from truth, is to accept
as they stand in the list of Manetho. It would certainly be contrary to established facts
to pretend that from the days of Menes to the Greek conquest Egypt always formed
one united kingdom ; and it is possible that unexpected discoveries may one day prove
that throughout nearly the whole duration of this vast empire there were even more
collateral dynasties than the partisans of that system now contend for. But everything
shows us that the work of elimination has already been performed on the lists of
Manetho, in the state in which they have reached us, The contemporancous dynasties
Manetho has thrown out, and admitted those only whom he regarded as legitimate, and
his lists contain no others. The scholars who have attempted to compress the dates
given by Manetho have never yet been able to produce one single monument to prove
tuat two dynasties named in his lists as successive were contemporaneous. On the
contrary, there are superabundant monumental proofs collected by very many Egypto-
logers, to convince us that all the royal races enumerated by tic Sebennytic priest
(thirty-one in all) occupied tie throne in succession.”
PERSIA.

SECTION III.

1. Taz monarchical form of government follows most naturally
upon that state of society in which a strong-minded, ambitious man,
from being head of a family, comes to be chief of his relatives, ana
leader of atribe. Accordingly we find that all the early governments
were monarchies. Among the Persians the prince was styled, ‘‘ The
great king, the king of kings.” The crown was hereditary, but sub-
ject to the will of the father rather than to the law of primogeniture.

2. The young heir was never committed entirely to the care of a
nurse, but persons of distinguished merit were chosen to take charge
of his health and manners. At seven he was put into the hands of
competent masters, who taught him to ride on horseback, to draw
the bow, throw the lance, and engage in other athletic exercises. At
14, four of the wisest and most virtuous men in the state were
appointed his preceptors. They taught him the religion of Zoroaster,
the principles of government, the administration of justice, and the
bearing of a king. When he ascended the throne, seven counselers,
chief lords of the nation, were appointed to assist him by their abili-
ties and experience. Public registers were kept, in which all the
edicts of the king were recorded, together with all the privileges
granted to the people, or benefits conferred upon individuals, for ser'v
ing the state.

Itead Esther i. 14; and ii. 23; also vil. For king, read Ezra vii. 12,

3. The Persians thought it reasonable to put the good as well as
the evil into the scales of justice, so that one single crime should not
destroy the reputation of a man habitually just and upright. No
person was condemned without being brought face to face with his
accuser, and having time allowed him to gain an impartial decision.
If the accused proved innocent, the accuser suffered the punishment
in his stead. The empire was divided into 127 provinces, the govern-

 

Persta.— Questions.—1. Where is Persia? (See map No. 3.) Of what isa monarchical form
of government the natural result? What do we accordingly find? What title did the Per-
sians give to their prince? 2. What was the custom with reference to the prince? With
reference to the public registers? 8. With reference to persons accused of crime ?
ARTS, REVENUES, AND RELIGION. 33

ors of which were called satraps, who inflicted capital punishment in
the same manner as kings. Of these satraps the king took cognizance
in person; and an officer of his household was appointed, to repeat to
him every morning when he waked, “Rise, sir, and think of dis-
charging the duties for which Oromasdes has placed you upon tha
throne.”

4. The Medes and Persians were originally a pastoral people, but
after the establishment of their monarchy, they paid great attention
to agriculture and manufactures. Their fields produced every neces-
sary, and their gardens abounded in the choicest fruits and sweetest
flowers. Median vestments, woven of fine wool, and dyed in the
gayest colors, were held in the highest esteem, even by the Greeks.
In order to receive certain intelligence of the affairs of the provinces,
a high road, on which distances were regularly marked, connected
the western coast with the seat of government; and along this road
couriers, trained to extraordinary speed, traveled without intermission
in the king’s name.

5. The revenues of the Persian king consisted partly of moneys
(chiefly gold raised by taxes), and partly of an annual levy of corn.
horses, camels, or whatever the province afforded. In the days of
Persian power, the satrap of Armenia sent regularly every year 20,000
young colts to the king. Certain cantons were set apart for furnishing
the queen’s wardrobe, and were named according to the article they
supplied: one being called the queen’s girdle; another, the queen’s
vail, &c. The Persians served in the army from the age of 20 to 50,
and it was esteemed a crime to desire exemption from military duty.
The king’s guard consisted of a body ot 10,000 men, called the Immor-
tal Band, because when one died his place was immediately filled by
another noble, so that the number should be always complete.

Read Esther vii. 10; and i. 1, 6; and viii 8,10.

6. The Persians adored the Sun, and bowed with their faces to the
east, with reverential delight, when he appeared above the horizon,
A splendid chariot was dedicated to him; and the Steed of the Snn,
extravagantly caparisoned, formed an important part of every grand
procession. As an emanation from the god of day, or as an emblem
of the deity, they paid particular honors to jire, always invoking it

 

Questions.—3, Of Satraps? 4. What is said in relation to the early occupations of tho
Medes and Persians? What method of conveying intelligence was used? 5. Of what did
the Persian king’s revenues consist? What is said of the composition of the Persian army ?
Of the king’s guard? 6, What is said of the Persians’ adoration of the sun? Their
atloration of fire ?

Q*
34 PERSIA.

first in their sacrifices. The Sacred Fire was intrusted to the keeping
of the Magi, who were originally one of the seven Median tribes. The
priesthood descended from father to son, and no stranger could be
instructed in the mysteries of their religion without the king’s per-
mission. They erected neither statues, temples, nor altars to then
gods, but offered their sacrifices in the open air, on ‘hill-tops, or “in
high places.”

7. Zoroaster is generally believed to have been the founder of the
sect called the Magi, in the time of Cyrus the Great. He first made
his appearance at Xis, a town of Media, and improving upon the ancient
doctrines of the Magian tribe, brought their religious tenets into a
more consistent form. He erected a temple where he kept a fire,
which he said came directly from heaven. This was distributed through
the kingdom, and maintained by the priests with the greatest care.
They watched it day and night, fed it with wood stripped of the bark,
and never blowed it with their breath for fear of polluting it. Zoro-
aster taught that there are two grand principles: the one, the cause
of all good; the other, the cause of all evil; the former, represented
by light; the latter, by darkness.

8. The good spirit he called Oromasdes, and the evil, Ahrimanes.
When the Persians besought blessings for themselves, they presented
their petitions to Oromasdes; when they invoked evi] upon their ene-
mies, they addressed Arimanius. Some held that both these gods
were eternal; others, that only the benevolent being was eternal, and
the malevolent created ; but all agreed that there would be a continual
strife between the two till the end of time, and then, a final restitution
of all things being made, Oromasdes would reign in an elysium with
all the good, and Ahrimanes be conlined to a world of darkness, with
ull the evil who had followed his counsels on earth.

9. Polygamy prevailed among the Persians. The king had a sera-
glio, and the nobles followed his example. But though the women
were guarded with the most jealous care, shut up in separate apart-
ments at home, and never suffered to go abroad without being closely
vailed, yet the virtue of chastity was very rare. To recount the
intrigues of the Persian court would disgrace the pages of history.
They considered the burning of the dead as a great indignity. It was
their custom to wrap the body in wax, and lay it in a sepulchre ; but

Questions.—b6. Of the succession of the priesthood? How were the sacrifices offered 2
7 What is believed with reference to Zoroaster? What did he do? What did he teach %
8 What did he call the good spirit? The evil spirit? Mow did the Persians diserimi-

nate fn their petitions? What opiaions were held in reference to the two spirits or gods!
%. What is said in reference to polygamy ? Burning Ube dead? ;
uc. 710.) MEDIAN DYNASTY FOUNDED. 85

Cyrus commanded his children to restore his body to the earth from
which it was formed.

10. B. o. BBOO@.—Elam, son of Shem, and brother of that Asshur
who founded Nineveh, is supposed to have been the progenitor of the
Persians, whence they were called Elamites. B. c. 2000—In the time
of Abraham, Chedorlaomer, king of Elam, assisted by three confederate
princes, made war upon the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah, subdued
them, and made them tributary 12 years. No further mention is made
of Persia till it comes into notice as a province of Media, 1400 years
after.

Read Gen, a. 22; Is. xxi. 2, and Acts ii, 9; also Gen. xiv. 1-15.

1l. B.c. 830.—It is interesting to trace the progress of a people
from a rude and savage state, in which they subsist upon the spontaneous
fruits of the ground, through all the various stages of civilization, till
they gain a name and a place among the nations of the earth. In
the history of Assyria, we have seen that Arbaces, satrap of Media,
was one of the conspirators who dismembered the first Assyrian em-
pire. The Medes then existed in separate tribes, and if Arbaces
incorporated them with the second Assyrian empire, no mention of it
is made in history. Sometime after, Dejoces, a judge of great probity,
became so distinguished in his own district, that people came from
a distance to appeal to his judgment. Encouraged by his popularity,
he formed the design of being king, and pretending disgust with the
fatigues of office, retired from business.

12. Lawlessness and iniquity thereupon increased, until, an assembly
of the Medes being summoned, the friends of Dejoces represented that
the only means of curing these disorders would be to elect a king. .
This opinion was generally approved, and then they unanimously
agreed that there was not in all Media a man so capable of holding
the reins of government as Dejoces. He was accurdingly elected
their king, B. c. 708. When Dejoces ascended the throne, he deter-
mined to surround himself with all those external marks of dignity
calculated to inspire awe and command respect. He obliged his
people to build him a magnificent palace, and chose the noblest uf his
subjects for his body-guard. The city of Ecbatana, of which lis
palace was the center, and chief ornament, is thus described by Hero-
dotus : \ i

 

Questions.—10. What is said of Elam? Wine is known of Persia during the three fol-
lowing centuries? What took place during the time of Abraham? In what century did
that take place? ‘When is Persia again noticed? 11. Who was Arbaces? What is said of
Dejoces asa judge? 12. How did he manage to be made king? When was le elected?
What did he then determine upon? What did he compel his people to do?
36 PERSIA. [B. 0. 633.

13. ‘The Medes, in obedience to their king's command, built shiose
spacious and massy fortifications now called Ecbatana, circle within
circle, according to the following plan: Each inne: circle overtops its
outer neighbor, by the height of the battlements alone. This was
effected partly by the nature of the ground, a conical hill, and partly
by the building itself. The number of circles was seven. The cir-
cumference of the outermost wall, is nearly the same as that of Athens.
The battlements of the first circle are white; of the second, black ;
of the third, scarlet; of the fourth, azure; of the fifth, orange; all
colored with the most brilliant paints. But the battlements of the
sixth are silvered over, and the seventh shines with gold.”

14. B. 0. 655.—Dejoces spent most of his time in polishing and
refining his subjects. He kept himself secluded from public view, and
established the most severe etiquette in the palace. No courtier was
allowed to laugh or spit in his presence, and all officers of state ap-
proached him with the greatest ceremony. He reigned 53 years.
B. ©. 655.—Phraortes, son of Dejoces, then ascended the throne. He
was ambitious of extending his dominions, and succeeded so far as to
bring the barbarous tribes of the Persians into subjection, and, having
enlisted the vanquished soldiers into his army, pushed his conquests
into Upper Asia.

15. The Assyrians still considered the Medians as a tributary people,
and Nabuchadnezzar, their king, being engaged in a war, summoned
Phraortes to assist him with troops. Phraortes treated the demand
with contempt; and Nabuchadnezzar, greatly enraged, swore “ by his
throne and his reign,” that he would sweep the Medes from the earth

“with the ‘“besom of destruction.’ A battle was fought between the
Assyrians and Medes, which proved fatal to Phraortes. He sought
safety in flight. Nabuchadnezzar pursued his course, penetrated into
Media, took the beautiful city of Ecbatana, gave it up to pillage, and
stripped it of all its ornaments. He then hunted Phraortes like a hart
in the mountains, and, having taken him prisoner, caused him to be
set up as a target for his bowmen, in which cruel manner he expired.

16. B. 0. 633. Cyaxares.—This prince succeeded to the throne of
Media, filled with a determination to avenge his father’s death, and

 

 

Questions.—13. Describe Ecbatana, Where was Ecbatana? (See map No. 1.) What
ts it now called? Ans. Hamadan, Whatis shown there? Ans. The tombs of Mordecai
and Esther, What city is now near where Ecbatana stood? Ans, Ispahan, 14. How
long did Dejoces reign? What is said of his course as king? By whom was he suc-
ceeded? When did Phraortes become king? Where did he go? 15. What quarrel did he

have? With what result? [clate the manner of Phraortes’s death. 16, Who was Cyax-
area?
B C. 653.] EFFEOTS OF AN ECLIPSE. 87

repay the injury done to Ecbatana. Accordingly, having made the
requisite preparations, he invaded Assyria. He was victorious in the
first engagement, and was pressing on to attack Nineveh, when he
was called home to repel the Seythians, a nomadic horde, who, pour-
ing down from their native wilds, were now passing through Media.
He hastened to meet them, but met them to his cost. The Scythians
defeated him ; and, preferring Media to their own country, concluded
to settle there. For 28 years these barbarians maintained their posi-
tion, notwithstanding all the efforts of Cyaxares to dislodge them.
They still adhered to their predatory habits ; but though they wandered
to neighboring countries for pasturage or pillage, they always returned
to Media as their home.

17. The Medes, at length, worn out with the enormities of their
unwelcome guests, resorted to a stratagem to free themselves. A
general feast was proclaimed throughout Media, to which each master

_of a family invited as many Scythians as he could entertain. The
evening passed in festivity, and the barbarians were plied with wine
till they sunk into the deep and helpless sleep of intoxication. The
massacre then commenced, and so faithfully did the Medes carry out
the intention of their king, that most of their tormentors never waked
again. The few remaining Scythians fled to the king of Lydia, who-
received them kindly, and espoused their quarrel. This of course
gave rise to a war between the Lydians and Medes.

1s. After several years spent in mutual hostilities, the affair termi-
nated in a singular manner. Great preparations had been made for a
general battle, but just as the two armies closed in the fight, an eclipse
of the sun spread darkness over the scene. The furious combatants
paused in the heat of the onset, and gazed in mute terror at the heav-
ens. A dark pall seemed to be hung over the sun, to signify the dis-
pleasure of the gods. Both Lydians and Medes, ignorant of the true
cause of the phenomenon, and trembling at the fear of speedy judg-
ments, hastened to ratify a peace. An alliance was formed between
the contending parties, the daughter of the Lydian king was affianced
to Astyages, son of Cyaxares, and the two monarchs, to render the
contract binding, opened a vein in their arms and licked each other’s
blood.

 

Questions.—16. Upon what did he determine? How much did he accomplish? How was
he diverted from his purpose? What then occurred? What conclusion did the Scythians
then come to? How long did they remain in Media? 17. How did the Medes at last get rid
ofthem? How was a war between the Lydians and Medes caused? 18. How did the
‘noon affect the fortunes of Cyaxares?
38 PERSIA. Ee Seat
19. Cyaxares, thus relieved from his Scythian foes, returned to his
favorite project of humbling Nineveh. Nabopolassar, general of the
Babylonian army, disgusted with the weak rule of Saracus, joined lala
in besieging this great city. In this siege were fulfilled the terrible
denunciations uttered by Nahum against the ‘ bloody city,’ whose
oppressions had crushed the people of God for so many years. Asty-
ages, son of Cyaxares, was married to the sister of Croesus, king of
Lydia, according to the contract made during the eclipse. As an
oracle had declared that his grandson should be greater than he, he
married his only child, Mandane, to Cambyses, a needy Persian prince,
hoping thereby to defeat the will of the gods.

Read the 2d chapter of Nahum.

20. zn.c. 593.—In the year 593 3B. 0., Astyages had a son born,
whom he named after his father, Cyaxares. Cyrus, son of his daughter
Mandane, was born one year after, and the history of these two
princes will be given together. The Persians at this time consisted of
twelve tribes, numbering about 20,000 men, and inhabiting a small
province, in what is now called Persia. By the wisdom and valor of
Cyrus, the name and dominion of Persia afterward extended from
the Indus to the Tigris, east and west, and from the Caspian Sea to
-the Ocean, north and sonth. :

21. Cyrus’s Youru.—The system of education which we have
previously delineated was rigidly adhered to in the youth of Cyrus.
The only food allowed him and his companions was bread, cresses, and
water. They were sent to school to learn virtue and justice, just as
boys go now to learn the sciences. Speaking the truth was strenuously
insisted upon, but the crime most severely punished in them was
ingratitude. When Cyrus was twelve years old, his mother took him
into Media to see his grandfather. The Persians at this time were far
inferior to the Medes in refinement, and Oyrus beheld with astonish-
ment the shining battlements of Ecbatana, and the magnificent palace
of the king. Ny

22. The ancients, to set off the beauty of the face, used to fourm

 

Questiona—19. What was his next movement? Who was Nabopolassar? What can
you say of the sicge of Nineveh? What is ancient Scythia now called? Ans. ‘Tartary.
Ilow many children did Astyages have? Ang. It is supposed he had three—Amyet, wife
of Nebuchadnezzar, and mother of Eyil-Merodach ; Mandane, mother of Cyrus; and Cyax-
ares IL The story of the oracle is not generally believed. 20. When was Cyaxares II.
born? When Cyrus? Of how many tribes did the Persians then consist? How many
men? What country did they occupy? Mow was the name and dominion of Persia after-
ward extended? 21. What system was adopted in educating Cyrus? Jlow did the Per-
ae then compare with the Medes in refinement? 22. Low did the ancients paint them
selves?
B. c. 583] EDUCATION OF CYRUS. 39

the eyebrows into perfect arches by coloring them black. They
tinged the lashes likewise with w drug of the same hue, which also pos-
sessed an astringent quality, and, by drawing up the lid, made the eye
appear larger and more brilliant. When Cyrus saw Astyages painted
in this manner, with his purple coat, necklaces, and other ornaments,
he went up and embraced him; then, looking at him attentively, he
exclaimed, *‘O, mother, how handsome is my grandfather!’ Astyages,
pleased with the simplicity of the child, spared no pains to interest and
amuse him. He was taught to ride, permitted to hunt in the park
with the nobles, and magnificent entertainments were prepared for
him; but though Cyrus loved his exercises on horseback exceedingly,
he looked with contempt upon the luxuries of the table, observing,
that “the Persians, instead of going such a round-about way to satisfy
their hunger, found that a little bread and cresses would answer the
same purpose.”

23. Perceiving that Astyages treated his cup-bearer with great
favor, Cyrus begged the honor of being permitted to serve the wine.
This being granted, he presented the goblet with such dignity and
grace, that all present were charmed with his behavior. Astyages in-
quired why he omitted the important ceremony of tasting (for it was
the duty of the cup-bearer to pour some of the liquor into his hand,
and taste it before presenting it to the king); ‘ because,” said Cyrus,
“T thought there was poison in the wine, for not long ago, at an en-
tertainment you gave to the lords of your court, after the guests had
drunk a little of it, I perceived that their heads were all turned; they
talked they knew not what, then fell to singing very ridiculously, and
you yourself seemed to have forgotten that you were aking, and that
they were your subjects.” History is silent with respect to the effect
of this temperance lecture. When Mandane was preparing to return
horae, Astyages requested that his grandson might stay with him;
4nd Cyrus, expressing a desire to perfect himself in the art of riding,
was permitted to remain there several years.

24. B. 0. 583. Oryrus’s First Expepirion.—When Cyrus was about
sixteen years old, Evil-Merodach, prince of Assyria, was married; and,
to celebrate his nuptials, made a great hunting match on the borders
of Media. All the nobles of his court attended him, together with a
body of light-armed foot, to rouse the beasts from their thickets; but

 

Questions,--22. What is said of the meeting between Cyrus and A&tyages? 23. Relate
the circumstances in relation to the serving of the wine by Cyrus. 24. Who was Evil-
Merodach ? (See also Assyria, 27th paragraph.) .
40 PERSIA. [B. 0. 560.

when he arrived in sight of the Median garrisons, he thought it would
be a greater exploit to plunder them, than to carry home the antlers
of stags, or the skins of bears and lions. Notice being given to Asty-
ages that the enemy were in the country, he speedily gathered toge-
ther what forces he could, and marched to meet them,

25. On this occasion, Cyrus, completely clad in a new suit of
armor which his grandfather had caused to be made for him, mounted
his horse, and followed the troops. Astyages wondered by whose
command he came, but permitted him to remain; and Cyrus, perceiv-
ing a body of plunderers making off with their booty, spurred upon
them with his uncle, Cyaxares, and put them to flight. After the
enemy were completely routed, he would not retire with the rest, but
galloped round the deserted field, viewing the slain, till he was almost
dragged away by those sent for him. His praise was then in every
mouth, and to him was ascribed all the glory of the action.

26. B. o. 582.—Oxrus Returns Home.—Cambyses, hearing of his
son’s exploit, sent for him home, that he might complete his education
according to the institutions of Persia. Astyages, having presented
him with horses, and whatever else he delighted in, sent Lim away.
Great multitudes attended him part of the way on horseback, boys,
youth, and men. They shed many tears at parting, and Cyrus pre-
sented to his companions all those little gifts which he had received
from Astyages, and at last, taking off his Median robe, he gave it to
Araspes, a youth whom he loved most tenderly. Astyages never saw
him again, for Cyrus remained in Persia till his grandfather died, and
his uncle, Cyaxares, began to reign.

27. B. 0. 560.—Nereglissar, king of Assyria, having overthrown
many of the neighboring nations, considered the Medes as the only
obstacle to his universal dominion. Being of a warlike disposition, he
summoned all his subjects to take up arms, and sending messengers to
Creesus, king of Lydia, and other sovereigns, representing the rising
power of the Medes in the most odious light, he entreated them to
unite with him in overthrowing them. Cyaxares, on his part, sent
embassadors to all his friends for speedy help, and entreated his bro-
ther-in-law, Cambyses, to dispatch Cyrus to his assistance, with all
the forces he could muster.

28. Oyrus’s Srconp Exprrprrion.—Cambyses, having chosen

Questions.—24, Tlow was a battle between him and Astyages brought about? 25. What
account can you give of the battle? 26. Give an account of Cyrus's return home. 27. Who
was Nereglissar? Why did he wish to overthrow the Medes?

What défensi
tid Cyaxares adopt? 28. How did Cambyses respond ? a yeminceoure’
B. c. 560.] WAR WITH ASSYRIA. 4)

10,000 archers, 10,000 targeteers, and 10,000 slingers, submitted them
to the discipline of his son for a time; and, when all was ready, set off
with him for the borders of Media. By the way, he discoursed with
him upon the business of an officer, the care of supplies, the manner
of encampment, and the necessity of inspiring his soldiers with confi-
dence in his abilities. ‘But what shall a man do,” said Oyrus, ‘‘ to
appear more skillful and expert than others?”—‘' He must really be so,”
replied Cambyses; ‘and in order to be so, he must apply himself
closely, and study diligently what the most able and experienced have
said, and, above all, he must have recourse to the protection of the
gods, from whow alone we derive all our wisdom and all our success.”

29. Discoursing in this manner, they arrived upon the confines of
the two kingdoms, where they made their supplications to the gods,
and having embraced each other, the father returned to Persia, and
Cyrus marched on into Media to Cyaxares. While the two princes
were conferring together upon the discipline of their forces, and the
probable number of allies they could bring into the field, embassadors
arrived from the king of India, to inquire into the cause of the quarrel
between the Medes and Assyrians. They said they were commanded
to proceed thence to the court of Babylon, and make the same demand
of Nereglissar, and that their master had determined to espouse the
cause of the injured. Cyaxares then said, ‘‘ You hear me declare that
we have done no injury to the Assyrians, and if he declares that we
have, we choose the king of India himself to be our judge.” With
this answer the embassadors departed.

30. Both parties were employed three years in forming alliances,
and making preparations for war. When Cyrus had all things in
readiness, he proposed to lead his army into Assyria, telling his uncle
that he thought it better for the troops to eat up the enemy’s country
than their own, and that so bold a step would inspire them with
valor. This course was determined upon, and the troops being drawn
up in order of march, Cyrus invoked the wisdom and favor of the
gods, beseeching thein to smile upon the expedition in which they
were engaged. When they reached the confines of Assyria, Cyrus
again drew up his army, and paid homage to the gods of the country
upon which they had entered, and then dividing his forces into differ-
ent detachments, he sent them out different ways to plunder the vil-
lages of the enemy.

 

Questions,—28, Relate the conversation between him and Cyrus. 29. How did the
king of India undertake to interfere? What reply did Cyaxares make? 30. What boid
course was determined upon ? ;
43 PERSIA. [p. 0. 560

31. Ovrvs’s First Barriz.—The nex. day they came in sight of tha
enemy, encamped in the open country, and intrenched with w deep
ditch. Cyrus, beholding the multitudes which filled the plain, was
glad to avail himself of several hills to conceal the small number of
his troops. The next morning the Assyrians moved out of their in-
trenchments, and before the Persians had time to come up, greeted
them with a hail-storm of arrows, stones, and javelins; but when the
battle wag joined, the superiority of Cyrus’s men became evident.
They broke the Assyrian and Lydian battalions, and the Median
cavalry coming up at the saine moment, the enemy thought only of
waking good their retreat. The panic became general, Oresus retired,
the other allies followed his exainple, and Nereglissar was slain.

32. Cyrus pursues THE Fuerrives.-—Cyrus, perceiving that without
the destruction of the allies, the victory would not be complete, thought
best to pursue them that night; but to this Cyaxares was exceed-
ingly averse, being desirous to enjoy the victory, and afraid of incur-
ring any further fatigue. However, after much solicitation, he gave
Cyrus permission to take as many of the Median cavalry as would be
willing to follow him. A sufficient number were found not only wil-
ling, but eager to engage in the pursuit, and after hasty refreshments
they set off at full speed. Toward morning they overtook the
enemy, put them to a final rout, slew the guardians of the camp, and
seized upon the treasures of the confederate kings. Here Cyrus took
a great number of horses, which enabled him to accomplish one of his
favorite desires, the formation of a body of Persian cavalry.

33. The Hyrcanians also came over to the conquering side, and
thus the Persian army, instead of losing by the battle, was greatly re-
enforced. At sunrise, Cyrus called in the Magi, and desired them to
choose out of the booty every thing that was most proper to be
offered to the gods. The remainder he delivered to the Medes and
Ilyrcanians, to be distributed to the whole army. When Cyaxares
awoke next morning from the fumes of his wine, he was greatly dis-
pleased to find most of his army gone with his nephew. Te dispatched
an officer to him, with orders to reproach him severely, and bring back
the Medes. Cyrus, however, wrote him a respectful letter, and the
affair passed over. :

 

ae Lig

Q@uestions.—31. In what were the Assyrians superior? In what the army of \ogrus?
Give an account of Cyrus's first battle. Trace Cyrus from Persia to Media and Assyria
82 In what particulars did the characters of Oyaxares and Cyrus differ? How was this.
difference shown? 33, Where was Hyrcania? (See map No. 3.) In which direetion from

Media? Persia? Assyria? How was the Persian army inereased? What disposition os

the booty did Cyrus make? What displeasure did Cyaxares evince? Huw was he appeased ?

 
B.0 660.) THE PERSIANS RE-ENFORCED. 43

34. Two Assyr1an NosiemMen yorn THE PrrsiaAns.—While Cyrua
was making the necessary arrangements to profit by all these successes,
a noble Assyrian, somewhat advanced in years, arrived on horseback,
attended by a train of servants. He told Cyrus that he commanded a
strong fortress, and had furnished the king with 1,000 horse, and that
Nereglissar had sought to ally him to the royal family, by marrying
his daughter and son to the young prince and princess. ‘But alas,”
said he, ‘*my son, being sent for by the king, went out to bunt with
the young prince; and having pierced a lion with his spear, which
Laborosoarchod had just missed, the impious wretch stuck a javelin
into his breast, and took away the life of my dear, my only son!
Then I, miserable man, brought him away a corpse instead of a bride-
groom. My king joined with me in my affliction, but the prince has
never testified any remorse, nor can I ever serve under him, or give
my daughter to the murderer of her brother.”

35. When Gobryas had finished his melancholy story, Cyrus gave
him his hand, and promised, with the help of the gods, to avenge his
cause. The other nobleman, Gadates, had been ill-treated, merely
because one of the king’s wives had called him handsome ; and burn-
ing with revenge, he joined with Gobryas in a scheme to bring over
the Oaducians to Cyrus, They were entirely successful, and the Per-
sian army was thus re-enforced by a strong fortress near Babylon, and
a body of 30,000 men. .

36. Sustay Privcess.—Among the prisoners which they had taken
was Panthea, wife of Abradates, prince of Susiana. As she was ex-
ceedingly beautiful, she was placed in a costly tent, found also among
the spoils, till Cyrus’s pleasure should be known concerning her.
Cyrus committed her to Araspes (the person to whom he gave the
Median robe when a boy), but Araspes, not so much engaged in war as
his master, fell violently in love with the handsome captive; on this,
Cyrus sent him away to the enemy, asif he had banished him; but
with secret instructions to act asu spy. Panthea, thinking that she
had been the cause of trouble to her noble protector, sent Cyrus word
not to be distressed at the loss of Araspes, for she could supply his
place with one equally brave; and not long after, being sent to her
husband, she persuaded him to come over a side of the Persians,
with all his forces. v :

 

Questions,—34, Why did Gobryas, an Assyrian nobleman, join Cyrus? 85. Why did
Gadates joinhim? Where did the Ciducians live? Ans. In Assyria. What aid did tho
Assyrian noblemen bring to Cyrus? 36. Relate the story of the captive princess Pan
thea, What is the modern name of Susiana, Ans, Kurdistan, Where was Susiana
(See map No. 3.)
44 PERSIA. [B. c. 560.

37. Cyrrus’s Mertine wit ais Unove.— When Cyaxares heard that
Cyrus was returning re-enforced by the Hyrcanians, Cadveius, and
Susians, he was filled with envy; and when Oyrus, alighting from his
horse, came up to embrace him, he turned away his face, and burst
into tears. The tender and respectful conduct of his nephew, however,
soon softened him; and many presents, with a splendid supper, re-
moved all unkindness. The next day, a general assembly was sum-
moned to take into consideration the propriety of carrying on the war,
and the majority of the ullies being in favor of pressing Laborosoarchod
to the last extremity, it was decided to make all preparations for
another campaign. From deserters and prisoners they learned that
the king of Assyria had gone to Lydia, taking with him talents of gold
and silver, and presents of the most costly kind. The spies, too,
brought in intelligence of the most alarming nature,

38. Like the messengers of evil tidings to Job, one courier seemed
to tread on the heels of another, with accounts of the formidable
alliances making by the Babylonians. The Indian envoys, who had
been to inquire the cause of the war, came back with an exact account
of those mighty preparations which agitated all Asia. They said the
combined forces were assembling in Lydia; that the Thracians had
engaged themselves; that 120,000 men were marching from Egypt;
and another army was expected from Cyprus; that the Cilicians, the
Phrygians, the Paphlagonians, Cappadocians, Arabians, and Pheiw-
cians had already reached the rendezvous; that Croesus had sent
over to form a treaty with the Lacedemonians, and it was thought a
greater army would be assembled at Thymbra than was ever before
brought into the field.

39. Cyrus MAronEs TO Lyp1a.—Cyrus, on his part, spared no pains
to perfect the discipline of his troops, and to strengthen himselt by
powerful alliances. He knew all the officers of his army by nine,
and was continually among the soldiers, endeavoring to inspire them
with the zeal and ardor he himself felt. The king of India, satistie!
that the Assyrians were the aggressors, seut him a sum of money, aint
promised to stand his friend; but beside the allies who had before
joined him, he had no powerful princes to assist him. Notwithstand
ing the comparative inferiority of his forces, he determined again to
carry the war into the enemy’s country ; and, having left a part of the

 

Questions. 31. What effect did the success of Cyrus have upon the mind of Cyaxares ?
Ifow was the fecling removed? What was done next day? 88. What is said of the mes-
sengers of evil tidings? What forces were in coinbination against Cyrus? 89. What pre-
parations did Cyrus make? What assistance did he reewve 2
B.c.554.] ARRANGEMENTS FOR BATTLE. 45

Medes with his uncle, set forward with his army on his third erpe
dition.

40. When a short distance from Thymbra they took some prisoners,
who informed them that the Assyrians and their confederates, hearing
ot their approach, had been three days preparing for battle; and that
Croesus, assisted by a Greek and a certain Mede, were busy in drawing
up the soldiers with great exactness, At the mention of the Mede,
Cyrus was greatly rejoiced; and not long after, Araspes (for if was
he) came to him, bringing an exact account of the disposition of the
enemy. As this is the first pitched battle of which we have a particu
lar description, a delineation of it will be given at some length.

41. Marsmatine oF THE Forces.—Cyrus’s army consisted of 196,000
men; Creesus’s of 420,000. In addition to the regular infantry
and cavalry, Cyrus had three hundred chariots, each drawn by four
horses abreast. The pole of each chariot was armed with two long
pikes, to pierce whatever opposed its advance, and several rows of
sharp knives were placed at the back, to prevent the enemy from
mounting behind. At each axletrce, horizontal scythes, three feet
long, were fastened in such a manner as to mow down the ranks of the
enemy; and still further to increase their power, short scythes were
fixed, point downward, under the chariot, to cut in pieces whatever
the impetuous onset should overturn.

42. He had also a great number of towers mounted on wheels, each
drawn by sixteen oxen. Each tower held twenty men, whose busi-
ness it was to discharge stones and javelins upon the enemy. <A body
of camels, each trained to fight, with two Arabian urchers on his back,
was stationed opposite the Lydian cavalry, because a horse will fly
from the presence of a camel. Cresus’s troops were ranged in order
of battle, thirty deep. The infantry filled the center, and the cavalry,
with which he meant to surround the Persians, was stationed upon
the wings. His army, thus drawn out in line, extended nearly five
miles. Cyrus, in order to make as broad a front as possible, placed
his infantry only twelve deep, and his cavalry in the same manner upon
the wings, and then his army fell short of that of Croesus half a mile
at each end.

43. First in the line of infantry came the spearmen; next, the arch-
ers; and still a third body, to sustain or threaten those who gave

 

Questions.—40. Where was Thymbra? (See map No.2.) What information did Cyrus
get from some prisoners? What caused Cyrus to rejoice? 41. What was the strength of
the respective armies? What is said of Cyras’s chariots? 42. Of his towers? Ilow were
the troops of the respective armies ranged? 43. How did Cyrus further arrange his forocsf
46 PERSIA. [B. ¢. Bod.

wav—to kill traitors, and Keep cowards in their places; and behind
them came the moving towers, so high that the soldiers in them dis-
charged their slings and javelins above the heads of the advance Per-
sians; and to prevent all possibility of retreat, a row of baggage was
placed behind them, and the lines filled up with infantry and camels,
so that the enemy would be obliged to take a long circuit to surround
them, and then would be impeded by wagons, boxes, tent-poles, and
all the paraphernalia of acamp. The seythe-armed chariots were
separated into three divisions; the one commanded by Abradates,
placed in front of the battle, and the other two upon the flanks:

 

 

 

ARCHERS. Solid battalion | Ancrens, ten
of deep.
> 3 a3 Eoyrrtans; | Surycrrs, ten }
CAVALRY. | Stingers. Thirty dvep. CAVALRY.
men each way. | SPEAKMEN,
SPEARMEM |) 082 does. ten deep.
CAMELS, SPEAEMEN. 100 Sreanwen. | CAVALRY.
CHARIOTS.
CAy GER Y. SPEARMEN, CAMELS,
SLINGERS. 8 deep. SLINGERS.
100 ARCTIERS, 100
BS deep.
CHARIOTS. ARCHERS. 8d Bopy. Ancners. | CHARIOTS.
Camp FORNITURE. TowERs. Camp FURNITURE,

From this imperfect sketch, an idea may be formed of the position
of the troops as they were drawn out the day before the engagement.

44, Barrie or Tuywpra.—Early in the morning, Cyrus made a
sacrifice; and the soldiers, having taken some refreshment, and poured
out libations to the gods, arrayed themselves in their armor of bur-
nished brass, and took their places in the ranks. Panthea had made a
robe for Abradates, and she put it on him with her own hands. She
bound on his golden helmet and arm-pieces, the tears all the while
streaming down her cheeks, though she besought him to prove to
Cyrus that he was worthy of the confidence reposed in him, Abra-
dates, lifting his eyes to heaven, prayed that he might appear a hus-
band worthy of Panthea, and a friend worthy of Cyrus; then mounting
his chariot, he bade her farewell, and never saw her more! The Ver-
sian standard was a golden eagle perched upon a pike, with its wings
stretched out, and Cyrus warned his soldiers to take care of that, and
move forward without breaking their ranks, v

45. When Crwsus discovered how much superior his own forecs
were to those of Cyrus, he ordered his front to remain firm, while the

 

Questions.—44, What was done early on the morning of the battle? By what mame is

ae a known? What aid did Panthea give? 45. Give an account of the beginning of
B.C. 554.) THE BATTLE OF THYMBRA. 4T

wings advanced to inclose the Persians, and join the battle on three
sides ut once. But at this, Cyrus’s wings faced round, and stood thus:

orasus’s.

|,

waiting in. breathless silence for the event. At once loud and clear
rose the voice of their leader, chanting the battle hymn. A respon-
sive shout burst from the soldiers, and with invocations to the god of
war they rushed on to the charge. The wings were first engaged ;
the cavalry of the enemy began to give way before the camels, and
the chariots falling furiously into the méleé, the rout became general.

46. Abradates, who had been waiting for this signal, now com-
menced the attack in front; but here the Egyptians maintained their
ground not only, but overturned the chariots, slew Albradates, and
drove the Persian infantry as far back as the fourth line; but there
such a tremendous storm of arrows and javelins fell upon their heads
from the rolling towers as caused them to waver in their ranks, and
at the same instant Cyrus, coming up at the head of his victorious
cavalry, attacked them on the rear. Advance or retreat was now
impossible; but the Egyptians, turning upon their new assailants,
defended themselves with incredible bravery. Cyrus himself was in
great danger. His horse having been stabbed by a fallen foe, sank
under him, and he was precipitated into the midst of his enemies,
Officers and men, equally alarmed at the danger of their leader, rushed
headlong into the thick forest of pikes to his rescue. He was quickly
remounted, and, his men rallying round him, the battle became more
bloody than ever.

47. Concerned at the destruction of so many brave men, Cyrus
finally offered them honorable terms of capitulation, and the Egyptians
having surrendered, all hope of retrieving the day was gone. The
battle lasted till evening. Crcesus retreated as fast as possible to
Sardis, and the other kings followed his example, each taking up the
line of march for his own country. As soon as the confusion had in
some measure subsided, Cyrus inquired of the officers assembled about

 

Questions.—46. Give a further account of the battle. 47. What capitulation was offered
and accepted? What allies of the Assyrians fought most bravely? To what place did
Crmsus retreat? In which direction is Sardis from ‘Thymbra? (See map No, 2.)
AS PERSIA. [B. 0. 554,

him for Abradates, and one of the servants related his overthrow by
the Egyptians. No sooner had Cyrus heard of his death than he
leaped to his saddle and set off in search of him.

48. On the bank of the river Pactolus sat the wretched Panthea,
with the head of her husband on her knees; she was bathing his pale
face with her tears, while, with an air of distraction, she watched her
servants digying his grave upon a little hill close by: Cyrus came up,
with his attendants, bringing sweet odors, ornaments, and every thing
proper for the burial; but Panthea seemed incapable of receiving con
solation. She sent them all away till she should require their assist-
ance, and then, having exacted a promise from her nurse to wrap her
body in the same robe with her husband, she thrust a sword into her
bosom, and, laying her head upon his breast, expired. They were
wrapped in one mantle, and laid in one grave—the brave Abradates
and his loving wife; and Cyrus caused a mound to be raised over them,
which continued till the days of Xenophon.

49. TAKING oF SarDIs AND Crasus.—The next day he advanced
upon Sardis, and made great preparation for taking it by storm; but
a Persian slave betrayed to him a private entrance into the citadel, so
that he secured possession of it without bloodshed. He took Creesus
prisoner, and, according to the custom of the times, prepared to burn
him. When the pile was lighted, the fallen monarch exclaimed, three
times, ‘© O, Solon! Solon! Solon!” Struck with the accent, Cyrus
ordered him to be unbound and brought before him. Upon inquiring
the cause of this peculiar exclamation, he learned that Solon, an Athe-
nian philosopher, had seen all the monareh’s treasures, and yet had
refused to call hin happy, because he did not know what sad reverses
might yet befall him. Thus forcibly reminded of the fickleness of
fortune, Cyrus pardoned the king for the sake of the instruction con-
veyed by the philosopher, and ever after Croesus was his friend.

50. Cyrus cors To Basyton.—<As this war belonged in reality to
the Assyrians, Cyrus thought it not terminated so long as Babylon
held its supremacy among the nations. So, calling all his troops
together, and ranging them in the order of march, he set off for that
great city which, since the fall of Nineveh, had been without a rival
in Asia. The first measure of Cyrus was to surround Babylon with

 

Questions,—48. Relate the story of Abradates and Panthea. Where is the river Pactolus?
(See map No. 2.) 49. Relate the cireumstances of the taking of Sardis and Crassus. Ot
the escape of Creesus from execution. What did Cyrus do with Cresus? Ans. Ie took
him back to Persia with him, where he lived to be very old, renowned for his wisdom
end picty. 60. In what direction was Babylon from Sardis? (See nap No. 8.)
B. 0. 554.] CYRUS THE CONQUEROR. 49

his troops; but so great was the extent of the walls, that his forces
seemed weak and contemptible when stretched over so large a space.
He therefore called a council of war, and learning from Gobryas and
Gadates the position of the palace, and the depth of the river, he
entered upon a work every way worthy of his great genius and indom-
itable perseverance. Te drew a line of circumyallation quite round
the city with a large deep trench, as though he intended to invest the
place and reduce it by famine; but as the besieged had provisions for
twenty years, they ridiculed the idea of his taking up his abode there
till they were starved into surrender.

51. For two years his troops labored upon ‘the vast excavation, and
when it was found capacious enough to drain the Euphrates, together
with the artificial lake dug by Nebuchadnezzar, he gave orders, on the
night of a grand festival, to break down the dykes, and let the water
flow away from its accustomed channel. The bed of the river made
the path for his troops, and, once in the city, Gobryas and Gadates
conducted them directly to the palace. In the confusion and clamor
of killing the guards, Belshazzar seized his sword and ran to the gates,
where he was immediately slain, and the two roblemen, amply avenged,
took possession of the palace. Cyrus then sent a body of horse up
and down the streets, proclaiming safety to those who remained in
their houses, and thus, ere the sun again rose on Babylon, “the king-
dom of Belshazzar was given to the Medes and Persians.”

Read Jer. li. 11; Is. xiii, 15, 22,17; Is. xlv. 1-4; Is. xxi. 25 and Dan. v. -

52. Crrus’s TriumpmaL Procession.—The next morning, those who
were shut up in their houses, perceiving that their king was dead,
gave up their arms and submitted quietly to the Persian. When
Cyrus found himself well established in the kingdom, he prepared to
triumph in a manner proportioned to his suecess. Having called his
chief officers together, he gave them each a Median robe, that is, a
long garment reaching to the feet, of the brightest colors, and richly
embroidered with gold and silver. To the inferior officers he also
presented robes of purple or scarlet. The next morning the army
assembled before sunrise, clad in the garments which had been pre-
pared for them. Four thousand guards, drawn up four deep, ranged
themselves in front of the palace, and 2,000 placed themselves in the
same manner on each side. The armed cavalry and gilded chariots
were also marshaled, half on one side and half on the other. nj

 

Questions.—50. How did Cyrus proceed against Babylon? 51. Give an accourt of the
siege and taking of Babylon. Of the fate of Belshazzar. 52. What took place next morn-
ing? What pres:nts did Cyrus make? What display was then made?

3
50 PERSIA. [B. 0.

53. When all was ready, the gates of the palace were thrown open,
and a great number of bulls of peculiar beauty were led out by four
and four, to be sacrificed to Jove; next followed splendid horses, to
be sacrificed to the sun; then a cavalcade of chariots and horses, fol-
lowed by men bearing the Sacred Fire in a large hearth ; and then
Cyrus appeared in his lofty car, with his purple robe flowing grace-
fully from his shoulders, and a vest of mingled purple and white
closely fitted to his noble person. The royal tiara was placed upright
upon his head, encircled with the diadem of a conqueror.

654. At sight of him, the people prostrated themselves in adoration ;
and then the guards, moving forward, made way for the coming of
the officers of the king’s household, the Immortal Band, the Median
cavalry, and the cavalry of the allies. The chariots of war marched
in the rear, and closed the procession. Simultaneously, and with
beautiful precision, they moved to the fields consecrated to the gods,
where the victims were sacrificed in a solemn holocaust to Jupiter and
the sun; after which, offerings were made to the earth and to the
demi-gods of Assyria. The ceremonies of the day concluded with
games and races, and a grand entertainment crowned the evening with
mirth. Cyrus then made every one a present, and dismissed the
assembly, filled with joy and gratitude.

55. Cyrus Marries Toe Davantrer or Craxares.—When Cyrus
had regulated affairs to his mind, he took a journey into Media. Cy-
axares was glad to see him, and Cyrus acquainting him with all his
arrangements, his uncle was exceedingly rejoiced, and sent his daughter
to the conqueror of Asia with a crown of gold, bracelets, a collar, and
Median robe. The maid, as she was ordered, put the crown upon his
head. Cyaxares then said, “I give you the maid too, as your wife,
and all Media as her dowry.” Cyrus replied, “I applaud the race, the
maid, and the presents, and, with the consent of my father and mother,
will marry her.” So he continued his journey to Persia, taking with
him such magnificent presents as the subjects of his father had never
seen, and enough to make them all rejoice in his return,

56. Cambyses greeted him with all the tenderness which a father
might feel for so good and dutiful a son, and having constituted him
his heir, suffered him to depart again for Media to marry his cousin.
The nuptials were performed with all due magnificence, and, accom-

 

Questions,—53 and <4, Describe the ceremonies that followed.
Cyrus, how did Cyaxares manifest his pleasure?) Why did not Cyrus marry immediately ?

d6. Was this his first wife? Ans. Probably not, for his son Cambyses began to reign nine
years after,

55. Upon the return of
B. 0. 529.] CYRUS THE GREAT. 51

panied by his wife and father-in-law, he again returned to Babylon.
There Cyaxares reigned two years under the name of Darius the Mede.

Danter.—Daniel had now been prime minister to the kings of
Babylon sixty-seven years, and such was his reputation for wisdom
and integrity, that Darius made him chief of the three superintendents
of the kingdom. Darius is supposed to have yielded to the craft of
his courtiers in the affair of the lions’ den, while Cyrus was absent
subduing the countries near the Red Sea.

Read Daniel v. 81; also, Dan, vi. 1-23, and xi. 1.

57. Cyrus Kine or Persia, s. 0. 536.—By the ai of his father
and uncle, Cyrus now became sovereign of the Second Universal Mon-
archy. Every province from the Indus to the Egean acknowledged
his authority, and the little territory of which his father had been
chief was greatly enlarged. It was twenty-three years since he left
Persia, at the head of a small band of soldiers, to engage in war with
Nereglissar, the most powerful monarch of the Hast: his troops. as he
now reviewed them, consisted of 600,000 foot, 120,000 horse, and
2,000 armed chariots; and he reigned seven years unquestioned lord
of Asia.

58. In the first year of his reign expired the seventieth year of the
Babylonish captivity, and Cyrus, true to the prophesy, published the
remarkable edict permitting the Jews to return to their own land.
“The chosen people,” under the conduct of Zorobabel, soon after
departed for Jerusalem. Daniel, at whose instigation this favorable
turn in their affairs was doubtless effected, must have been at this
time more than eighty years old. Josephus says that he was much
distinguished for his skill in architecture, and mentions a famous edi-
fice built by him at Susa. It was a common tradition that he died
in that city, and was honored with a splendid monument, which
remained even to the time of Christ.

59. To return to Cyrus. Historians differ as to the manner of his
decease. Herodotus says he died a prisoner, but Xenophon makes
him close a long life of enterprise and virtue with a calm and happy

 

Questions.—56. How many years did Cyaxares rule in Babylon under the name of
Darius? What individual history in the Scriptures is emphatically connected with that
of Darius during his reign in Babylon? Did Daniel remain in Babylon? Ans. It is sup-
posed that. he died in Snsa, in the third year of Cyrus, after having persuaded that monarch
to issue the decree to restore and build Jerusalem. 57. When did Cyrus become king of
Persia? How extensive was his territory? How large his military force? How long did
he reign unquestioned lord of Asia? 58. In the first year of his reign, what edict verified
the prophesy in relation to the Jews? Who escorted the Jews to Jerusalem? Whatis said
of Danicl in connection with this circumstance? 59. What difference of opinion is there
respecting the death of Cyrus?
52 PERSIA. [tae

death. The minister of God’s vengeance upon those nations whose
““eup of iniquity was full,” he still tempered victory with humanity,
and made the dominion of the “Arms of silver” more tolerable than
that of the “Head of gold.” Tie fulfilled his peculiar destiny, and
effected the purpose for which he was raised up, unconscious that God
had chosen him, and called him by name by the mouth of his prophet
Isaiah, a century before his birth ; but it is thought that his edict for
restoring Jerusalem proceeded from a mind instructed in the Divine
Oracles; and the® Jews say, he acknowledged that he received the

empire of the world from the God of Israel.

Read 2 Chron. xxxvi. 22,235 Ezrai. 1,2; and vi. 1-5; also, Dan. ii. 38, 89; and vil. 55
also viii. 3, 4, 20.

60. B. o. 529.—Campyses.—Cambyses, son of Cyrus, succeeded to
the throne of Persia. The wealth of his kingdom had not failed to
affect his morals. As one born to command, he could not bear a refu-
sal of that he desired, even from an equal; so that when Amasis, king
of Egypt, sent him another lady for his seraglio, instead of his own
daughter, he was filled with rage, and determined to invade that coun-
try. His preparations being completed, in the 4th year of his reign
he marched to the frontiers of Egypt, where he learned that Amasis
was just dead, and that Psammenitus, his son, was gathering all his
forces to stop him at Pelasium, This place was very strong, and the
siege of it might have detained him some time, had he not resorted to
the following stratagem: in front of his army he placed a great num-
ber of cats, dogs, sheep, and other animals held sacred by the Egyp-.
tians, and then attacked the city by storm. The soldiers of the garri-
son, not daring to fling a dart or shoot an arrow, for fear of wounding
their gods, Cambyses took the place without opposition.

61. Soon after, Psammenitus approached with a large army, and
offered battle. A desperate engagement followed, in which the Per-
sians were entirely victoricus. Those of the Egyptians who escaped,
fled to Memphis. The bodies of the slain were collected, the Persians
by themselves and the Egyptians by themselves, and buried in mounds
one over against the other. In the days of Herodotus, the bones of
the Egyptians and Persians were still moldering in the places where
they were buried. The skulls of the former were so hard, that a vio-

 

Questians.—o9, What is said of his character? Of his destiny? 60, Who succeeded
Cyrus to the throne of Persia? When did that event take place? What influence had
the wealth of the kingdom upon the character of Cambyses? In what year did he wage
war upon Exypt? Who was the king of Egypt at that lime? By what stratagem did

he overcome the forces of Psammvnitus? 61. Describe the battle that followed. Relate
tho story of the skulls,
B. 0. 524.] CAMBYSES IN AFRIOA. 53

lent blow from a stone could searcely break them; while those of the
latter were so soft, that a man might pierce them with a common
walking-stick. The reason of this may be found in the different habits
of the two nations. The Egyptians shaved their heads, and went
always uncovered, while the Persians wore the turban, both at home
and abroad. /

62. Cambyses pursued the fugitives to Memphis, and sent a herald
to summon them to surrender. Contrary to the laws of war, the
Egyptians fell upon him and his attendants, and slew them. Cam-
byses, doubly enraged, attacked the place without loss of time. His
efforts were successful, and as soon as he had made himself master of
the city, he selected ten times the number of his slaughtered embassa-
dors from the principal nobility, and caused them to be publicly exe-
cuted. Among these was the eldest son of Psammenitus. As for
Psammenitus himself, Cambyses seemed disposed to treat him with
lenity. He spared his life, and appointed him an honorable mainte-
nance; but subsequently, finding him engaged in a conspiracy, he ordered
him also to execution. Egypt was thus added to the Persian domin-
jons, B. 0. 525. From Memphis, Cainbyses proceeded to Sais, where
lie ordered the dead body of Amasis to be dragged from its tomb, and
burned, thinking that the greatest indignity he could offer it.

63. B. c. 524.—Tae Erniopian Exprepirion.—The next year, Cam-
byses determined to make war in three different countries, viz.:
against the Carthaginians, the Ammonians, and the Ethiopians. The
first of these projects he was obliged to abandon, because his Pheni-
cian sailors would not assist against the Tyrian colony, Carthage; and
the other two served but to show the madness of a man drunk with
power. He sent embassadors into Ethiopia, carrying presents of pur
ple cloths, golden bracelets, and perfumes, with secret orders to act
as spies, and bring back an exact account of the state and strength of
the country.

64. The Ethiopians despised the presents, and with their natura
shrewdness concluded the embassadors to be what they really were,
enemies in disguise; but to return the courtesy of Cambyses, the Ethi-
opian king took a bow in his hand, which a Persian could hardly lift,
and, drawing it with the utmost ease, said to the messengers, “ This is

 

Questions.—61. How long had they been there when Herodotus saw them? Ans. About
70 years. 62, Relate the story of the ambassadors. When was Egypt then added to the
Persian dominions? What did Cambyses do at Sais? Where wasSais? (See map No. 1.)
63. What project did Cambyses contemplate for the next year? In what year was that?
Which of the projects did he abandon? Why? How did he commence against the Ethio-
Dians? 64. How did the Ethiopians act in the matter ?
54 PERSIA. [B. 0. 524.

the present, nud this the counsel, which the king of Ethiopia gives to
the king of Persia. When the Persians shall be able to bend a bow
of this bigness and strength, with as much ease as I have now done,
then let him come to attack the Ethiopians, and bid him bring more
forces than Cambyses is master of. Till then, let him thank the gods
for net having put it into the hearts of the Ethiopians to extend their
dominions beyond their own country.”

65. Upon the receipt of this answer, Cambyses determined to set off
immediately, and he made such injudicious haste, that his army was
not half supplied with provisions. He pushed on, however, without
stopping, till he reached Thebes. There he separated a chosen detach-
ment of 50,000 men, and sent them into Ammonia, with orders to
ravage the country, and destroy the famous temple of Jupiter Ammon.
The devoted band, strangers to the perils of their journey, set off to
obey the mandate of their king. For several days, nothing occurred
to hinder their progress, save the hunger and thirst of a desert; but
finally a strong wind came up from the south, and lifting the sands
like waves of the sea, moved them forward with irresistible power.
The terror-stricken Persians struggled manfully with their fate, but
the simoom of the desert was stronger than they, and, far from hope
or help, they sank down, and were buried beneath the drifting sands.

66. In the mean time, Cambyses pursued his journey. The barren-
ness of the country increased at every step. For the luxuries of Egypt,
the army substituted herbs, roots, and leaves; but these failing, they
began to devour their beasts of burden, and finally they were reduced
to the horrible alternative of starving or eating one another. The lot
was cast, and every tenth man was doomed to become food for his
companions. Oambyses, in sight of all this misery, had feasted daily,
according to his custom; till at last, so many of his forces died, and
discontent became so general, that, fearing a mutiny, he gave orders
to return. With the remains of his army he reached Thebes, where
he thought proper to vent his mortification upon the temple of the
gods. The pillage amounted to 300 talents of gold, and 2,300 of silver;
a sum greater than 2,000,000 of our dollars. He also took away the
circle of gold from the tomb of Osymandyas,

67. Campyses’s Tyranny.—From Thebes, Cambyses proceeded to

 

 

Questions.—65, Mow did their conduct influence Cambyses? Relate what befell the
chosen detachment. Where was the temple of Jupiter Ammon? (See map No.1.) 66.
How did the army of Cambyses suffer? Ilow did Cambyses vent his mortification upon his
return to Thebes. Where was Carthage? (See map No, 1.) In which direetion was it from
bee Ethiopia from Babylon? 67. Tell the story of Cambyses’s tyranny to tha
Syyptians,
8. 0. 524.} CRUELTIES OF CAMBYSES. 55

Memphis. As he approached the city, the sound of mirth and festivity
greeted his ears. Supposing that the people were rejoicing at the ill
success of his expedition, le fell into a violent passion, and, sending
tor the magistrates, demanded of them the cause of these unwonted
demonstrations of joy. They told him that their god Apis, recently
deceased, had reappeared, and all the people were welcoming his ar-
rival. Considering this as an evasion, he sent them to instant execution.
He then called for the priests, of whom he madé the same inquiry.
Receiving the same answer, he ordered the god himself before him; but
when the deity appeared, and he found it was nothing but a calf, he
ran up to it, and thrust his sword into its thigh, and upbraiding the
priests for worshiping a beast, ordered them to be scourged. The
poor calf was carried back to its temple, where it died of its wound.
The Egyptians said, that after this impious act Cambyses went mad,
but, judging from his conduct, he was bereft of reason long before.

68. Cambyses’s only brother, Smerdis, accompanied him into Ethi-
opia; but as he was the only man who could draw the bow brought
back by the embassadors, Cambyses became jealous of him, and sent
him home. Afterward he dreamed that Smerdis was king, which so
wrought upon his imagination, that he sent Prexaspes, one of his
clief favorites, to put him to death. However, Prexaspes was most
cruelly punished for his crime by the same jealous tyrant. Cambyses
had caused several of his principal noblemen to be buried alive, and
so many of his friends had suffered from his fury, that he began to fear
for his life. In one of his jealous moods he obliged Prexaspes to tell
him what his subjects said of him.

69. Prexaspes spoke with the utmost caution. ‘They admire a
great many excellent qualities they see in you, but they are somewhat
mortified at your immoderate love of wine.”—“ I understand you,” re-
plied the king, ‘they pretend that wine deprives me of my reason:
you shall be judge of that immediately.” Then calling for the son of
Prexaspes, who was his cup-bearer, to bring the goblets, he drank a
greater quantity of wine than ever before, and ordering the youth to
stand at the farther end of a long hall, with his left hand upon his
head, he took his bow, and declaring he aimed at the boy's trembling
heart, discharged the arrow. To complete the cruel scene, he com-
manded Prexaspes to open his son’s side, and see if wine had impaired
the steadiness of his hand! The wretched father, trembling for his
own life, replied, ‘‘ Apollo could not have shot better.”’ ¥

 

Questions.—68. Of his tyranny to his brother. 69. Of his tyranny to Prexaspes.
56 PERSIA. [B. c. 522

70. Caupyses’s Deatn.—lIn the eighth year of his reign, Cambyses
left Exypt for Persia. When he came into Syria, he found a herald
there, sent from Susa to proclaim Smerdis, son of Cyrus, king, and to
command the army to transfer their allegiance to him. Cainbyses, to
know the facts in the case, had the herald brought into his presence,
and cross-questioned with Prexaspes. From this éxamination it ap-
peared that the true Smerdis was really dead, and that the usurper
could be no other than Smerdis the magian, who bore a strong resem-
blance to the murdered prince.

71. Upon this, Cambyses made loud and public lamentations, de-
claring that his dear and only brother had been put to death by mis-
take, and, ordering all his army to prepare to take vengeance upon the
man who had assumed his name, he prepared to march against him.
But just as he was mounting his horse, his sword slipped from its
scabbard and wounded him in the thigh. The Egyptians looked
upon this as a judgment, for the indignity offered their god Apis.
When Cambyses saw that he must die, he sent for the chief Persians,
and, making them acquainted with all the circumstances concerning
Smerdis, besought them not to suffer the sceptre to pass into the
hands of a Median tribe, but to elect a king from their own number.
He reigned seven years and five months.

72. B.c, 522.—Ooncerninc Suervis’s Ears.—The Persians, thinking
Cambyses had forged the story he told them, out of hatred to his
brother, paid no attention to it, and at his death quietly submitted to
the magian. To continue the imposture by which he had gained the
throne, Smerdis shut himself up in the palace, and admitted only his
chief officers to his presence; and to strengthen himself in the king-
dom, he married all his predecessor’s wives, among whom was Atossa,
daughter of Cyrus (for Cambyses had married two of his own sisters),
and Phedyma, daughter of Otanes, a noble Persian.

73 This nobleman, suspecting the imposition, sent a messenger to
his daughter, to know whether the king was the real Smerdis or some
other man. She answered, that never having seen Smerdis, the son
of Cyrus, she could not tell. He sent again, bidding her ask Atossa,
who would, of course, know her own brother. She replied that the
hing kept his wives in separate apartments, and she was not permitted

 

Questions.—70, When did Cambyses leave Egypt for Persian? What danger threatened
him in Syria? What facts did he ascertain? 71. What course of duplicity did he pursue?
Tell the story of his death. In going from Memphis to Syria, in what direction éid Cam-
bysee march? (Sev snap No.1.) 72. Who was the successor of Cambyses? In what year
uid the magian gain the throne? By what means did he endeavor to continue the imposi-
tion? 73, How was the imposture discovered ?
B. 0. 521.) SMERDIS THE USURPER. 5T

to see Atossa. Otanes sent a third time, telling her that Cambyses
had cut off the ears of Smerdis the magian, and bade her watch her
opportunity when the king was asleep, and see whether he had any
ears or not. She did sv, and putting her hands carefully under his
turban, found that he was in reality earless.

74. Consprracy AND Conression.—When Otanes learned that his
suspicions were correct, he entered into a conspiracy with Darius
Hystaspes and five other noblemen, to dethrene the usurper. Every
thing was kept secret till the very day fixed for the execution of the
plot. On that day a strange circumstance prepared the minds of the
people for the event. The magians, constantly uneasy lest their arti-
fice should be unveiled, had extorted a promise from Prexaspes, that
he would declare, before an assembly of the people, Smerdis the king
to be the son of Cyrus. Prexaspes, at the appointed time, mounted to
the top of a tower, and, to the astonishment of the assembled multi-
tude, confessed that he had murdered the true Smerdis with his own
hand. He begged pardon of the gods for the crime he had been com-
pelled to commit, and, leaping from the tower, was instantly killed by
the fall.

75. Deata or Smerpis AND Exgorion or Darrus.—This unlooked-
for event filled the magians with consternation. Smerdis retired to an
inner ‘chamber in the palace; thither the conspirators pursued him,
and having slain his guards, cut off his head and brought it out to the
people. The mob, infuriated at being imposed upon, fell upon the
magi, and destroyed so raany of them that the day was ever after
called ‘The slaughter of the magi.”” When the tumult had in some
measure subsided, the lords entered into a consultation about the form
of government which should be adopted. Otanes declared for an
aristocracy, but Darius gave so many good reasons in favor of a mon-
archy, that he brought the other lords into his opinion, and a monarchy
was decided upon.

76. The next inquiry was, who should be king; and this being
referred to the gods, the lot fell upon Darius, and he was accordingly
anointed sovereign of Persia. The lords who had placed him on the
throne were his privy counselors, and in all public affairs were the
first to deliver their opinions. They wore their tiaras bent forward,
to distinguish them from the king, who wore his upright, and from

 

Questeons.—T4. What measures did Utanes take? What did Prexaspes do? 75. Give an
account of the death of the impostor Smerdis. How were the magi made to suffer?
What consultation was held? With what result? 76. How was Darius elected king?
What is said of the wearing of the tiaras?

3*
58 PERSIA. [p. o. 521

the other nobles, who wore theirs bent back. 521. B. 6.-Darms was
the son of Hystaspes, of the royal family of Persia. In his youth ke
had served under Cyrus, and been rewarded for his valor by the hand
of the daughter of Gobryas. After his accession to the throne, he
took his predecessor’s wives, and Aristona, another daughter of
Cyrus. He was the greatest and most powerful king that ever filled
the throne of Persia. :

77. Cyrus and Cambyses had conquered nations, but Darius was
the true founder of the Persian state; the various countries which
they had brought into subjection, he organized into an empire, where
every member felt its place and knew its functions. His realm
stretched from the Egean to the Indus, from the steppes of Scythia to
the cataracts of the Nile. This vast tract he divided into twenty
districts, and settled how much each portion was to contribute to the
royal treasury; but though the sum required was much less than the
inhabitants were able to pay without inconvenience, they murmured
at it. They called Cyrus father; Cambyses, master; but Darius they
styled ‘tthe merchant.’”’ Tho annual revenue in his days amounted to
$9,600,000.

78. The building of the temple, and the rearing up of the walls of
Jerusalem, had been interrupted in the preceding reigns; but in the
second year of this prince, Haggai the prophet, and Zechariah the son
of Iddo, stirred up the people to the work. The ancient enemies of
the Jews strove to hinder them, and even sent a letter to Darius to
advertise him of what was going on in the province of Judea. The
records of Cyrus being searched, his decree was found at Acmetha
or Ecbatana, and Darius gave orders that the builders should not only

_ be tolerated, but assisted in their pious work.

ead Esther i. 1, 2, and Ezra iv. 4; and v. entire; also vi. 1, 2, 6, and Hag. i. 1.

“79. Taxine or Banyton.—In the beginning of his reign, Derius
meditated an invasion of Scythia; but this expedition was delayed by
the revolt of Babylon. During the troubles about Smerdis, and the
clection of Darius, the inhabitants had been engaged in Jaying up pro-
visions, and preparing for war: they now boldly threw off the yoke.
The Jews, warned by the exhortation of Zechariah, “Thou Zion that

Questions.—76, When did Darius become king? What is said of the power and ereat-
ness of Darius? 77. What is said of him asa founder and organizer? What was the ex-
tent of his realm? - Compare it with the realm of Cyrus.
(See map No. 3.) What is the Egean Sea now called? An
is the Indus river? (See map of Asia.) Where was Scythia? (See map No.1.) What
are tho steppes of Scythia? 78. What is said of the building of the temple and walls of
Jerusalem? 79, What invasion did Darius meditate? Why was it delayed?

Where was the Egean Sea?
s. The Archipelago. Where
B.C. 521.) BABYLON TAKEN. 59

dwellest with the aaughter of Babylon, flee from the country and save
thyselt,” had probably availed themselves of the king’s permission,
and returned to Jerusalem. To make their provisions last as long as
possible, the Bubylonians determined to destroy all the unserviceable
persons in the place. They assembled their wives and children toge-
ther and strangled them, only permitting each man to retain bis best
beloved wife, and one maid-servant to do the work of the family.
The capitulation of the city by famine seemed as hopeless as in the
days of Cyrus. The Persians tried the old stratagem of draining the
Euphrates in vain; the battering-rams made no impression on the
massive walls, and at the end of eighteen months victory seemed as
far off as ever.

80. But assistance came to Darius in an unlooked-for manner.
Megabyses, one of the seven conspirators against Smerdis, had a son
Zopyrus whom Darius tenderly loved. What was the king’s astonish-
ment to see this young nobleman appear before him one day with his
ears and nose cut off, and his whole body mangled in the most shock-
ing manner. Starting up from his throne, he cried out, ‘‘ Who is it,
Zopyrus, that has dared to treat you thus?”’—“ Yourself, O king,”
replied Zopyrus; ‘the desire that I had of rendering you service has
brought me into this condition. As I was fully persuaded that you
would never have consented to this method, I consulted only the zeal
I have for your service.” He then unfolded his design to the king,
and with him concerted a plan to insure its success. All wounded
and bleeding as he was, Zopyrus made his way to Babylon, and
begged admittance. The guards took him in, and carried him before
the governor.

81. To him Zopyrus represented that Darius had thus mutilated
his body, because he tried to dissuade him from continuing the siege,
and he added that his only feeling now was a desire of revenge. His
name and person were well known at Babylon, his wounds testified to
the truth of his story, and the governor fell at once into the snare,
Zopyrus was most active in the garrison. He sallied out with the
Babylonians, and defeated the Persians in so many engagements, that
the whole city rang with his praise. Finally, he was appointed
generalissimo of the army, and intrusted with the keeping of the walls.
At the time agreed upon, Darius came up with his forces, and Zopyrus
opened the gates to his master. The king then ordered the hundred
gates to be pulled down, and the massive walls to be demolished, that

 

Questions.—79. What preparations did the Babylonians make for resistance? 80. What
unexpected assistance came to Darius? 81. How was Babylon taken by Cyrus?
60 PERSIA. [B. c. 508.

the city might bever again defy the Persian arms. ‘fla ee thousand
of the principal rebels were impaled, and the remainder received a free
pardon. . . ;
82. Taz Soyrman Expeprtrox.—This inconvenient insurrection
being thus terminated, Darius set out for the Scythian war. The
whole military force of the empire was put in motion, and the num-
bers of tle army amounted to 700,000 men. His fleet, manned chiefly
by Ionian mariners, was directed to sail up the Egean, through the
Hellespont and Bosphorus into the Euxine; thence up the Danube to
a certain point, where he would join it with his land forces. At the
head of his army he moved through Asia Minor, crossed the Bos-
phorus on # bridge of boats, and proceeded through Thrace to the
place of rendezvous. In several places he erected magnificent pillars,
with high-sounding inscriptions. On one was carved, “ This pillar
was erected by Darius, the best and handsomest of all men living.”
83. To cross the Danube, he made another bridge of boats, the
keeping of which he committed to the Ionians, telling them, if he did
not return in two months, they might retire. The Scythians, hearing
of this formidable invasion, sent their wives and children, their flocks
and herds, into those impenetrable fastnesses, known only to them-
selves. They also filled up the wells, stopped the springs, and con-
sumed all the forage of those places through which the Persians were
to pass. Thus secure, they slowly retreated before the advancing
hosts, drawing them on, deeper and deeper, into the forests of Europe.
Darius, weary of the tedious pursuit, sent a herald to the king of the
Scythians, inquiring why he did not stop and give battle; or, if he
feared him, why he did not acknowledge his master, by sending earth
and water. The Scythian replied, that he had neither cities nor lands
to defend, and that he acknowledged no other master than Jupiter.
84. The farther Darius advanced into the country, the greater
were the hardships to which his army were exposed. Just when it
was reduced to the last extremity, there came a herald to him from
the Scythian prince, bringing a bird, a mouse, a frog, and five arrows,
as a present. Darius was sorely puzzled to know what these typified ;
but one of his seven lords explained the enigma in this manner:

 

Questions.—81. How did he punish the Babylonians for their revolt? 82. After the in
surrection, on what expedition did Darius set out? What direetion did he give to the fleet?
How did he proceed with the army? Trace the course of the fleet from the Archipelago
into the Danube. Trace his land army from Susa to the Pruth, where it joined the fleet. S38.
Who were the Ionians? (See map No. 2.) What is said of the bridge of boats across
the Danube? What plan of action did the Scythians adopt? What message did Darius
send? Whatreply was made? 84. What wag sent to Darius by the Scythian prince?
p.¢.500.} THE PERSIANS AND SOYTHIANS. 6]

“ Know,” said he, “that unless you can fly away in the air like a bird,
or Aide in the earth like a mouse, or sieim in the water like a frog,
you shall not be able to escape the arrows of the Scythians.” The
Persians had now come upon a barren country, and were in danger of
perishing for want of water, so that Darius found himself under an
absolute necessity of abandoning his imprudent enterprise.

85. Therefore, as soon as night came on, the Persians built their
camp fires as usual, and leaving the infirm and sick behind them,
marched away as fast as possible towards the Danube. The Scythians,
discovering their retreat, sent an express by a shorter path, to per-
suade the Ionians to destroy the bridge, and thus throw the Persian
king into their power. Miltiades, then tyrant of Chersonesus, perceiv-
ing that this would break the yoke frém the neck of the Ionian
colonies, strongly advocated the measure; but Histizeus, governor of
Miletus, represented that, as they held their power of Darius, to turn
against him would be to destroy themselves. The Persians were
therefore permitted to pass the bridge in safety, and Darius finally
reached Sardis, where he spent almost a year in recruiting his army.

86. Conquest or Inp1a.—s. c. 508.—To wipe away the disgrace of
this unfortunate enterprise, the Persian monarch shortly after under-
took an expedition against India. He caused a fleet to be fitted out upon
the Indus, which, under the command of Seylax, passed down through
the Southern Ocean, and up the Red Sea. By the conquest of India,
an immense revenue was added to the Persian treasury. 502. B. o.—
This year, to attach the Phenicians to his interest, Darius restored inde-
pendence to Tyre, seventy years after it was taken by Nebuchadnezzar.

Read Is. xxiii. 15. ;

87. 8. 0. 0OO.—This century is filled with the most important events
to Persiaand Greece. The Persian invasions introduce so complete and
interesting a comparison of these rival powers, that the attention of
the historian is especially directed to them, and the student is requested
to make himself particularly familiar with all the causes which con-
tributed to the overthrow of the hosts of Asia by the Grecian states.
Histivus, tyrant of Miletus, who had preserved the bridge of boats

 

Questions.—84. How was the riddle explained? 85. By what stratagem did Darius
escape? By whose policy was he suffered to repass the bridge cummitted to the care ot
the Ionians? Trace Darius from the Pruth to the Volga, and back to Sardis. S6. What
expedition did* Darius next undertake? Why did he do so? What course did his fleet
take? How did he attach the Tyrians to his interestu? S7. Who was Histiwus? Where
was Miletus? (See map No. 2.) What can yon say of Miletus? Ans. It was reckoned
r.ext to Carthage and Tyre for its commerce, What invitation was extended to Ilistivus?
‘There was Susa? (See map No.1.) In what direction was Susa from Miletns?
62 PERSIA. [B. 0. 500
over the Danube, was invited to Susa by Darius. Before setting out
for court, he committed the government of Miletus to Aristagoras,
his son-in-law. About the same time, Darius made his own brother,
Artaphernes, governor of Sardis. A quarrel arose between Aristagoras
and Artaphernes. Histimus, who knew the character and temper of
the Greeks, and was at the same time anxious to return home, sent a
messenger to Aristagoras, telling him that his wisest course would be,
to revolt from the Persians entirely, and to engage all the Tonian
colonies to do the same.

88. Aristagoras complied with his father’s desire, and soon all the
states of Grecian descent in Asia Minor were engaged in a common
league against Persia. Still further to strengthen his arm, Aristagoras
made a voyage across to the Egean, to persuade the Greeks, by their
ties of kindred, and their ancient freedom, to assist their brethren of
Ionia in regaining their liberties. Aninsult which the Athenians had
themselves received from Persian pride, induced them to listen to his
representations. About ten years before, they had banished Hippias,
for usurping authority over the state. Artaphernes had received the
exile, and listened to his complaints. The Athenians sent to justify
their conduct to the Persian governor, and received for answer, if they
wished to be safe, they must take Hippias for their king. When
Aristagoras therefore told them of the oppressive rule of Artaphernes
over the Ionian colonies, and entreated their help to break the yoke,
they entered readily into his feelings, and agreed to assist the league
with twenty ships.

89. Burnine or Sarpis.—The Eretrians, inhabitants of a little city in
Eubeea, added five more; and with this slight re-enforcement, Arista-
goras returned to Ephesus, where he landed with his confederates, and
marched to Sardis. The governor retired to the citadel; the Greeks
had free plunder; and a soldier, perceiving that most of the buildings
were roofed with reeds, set one of them on fire. The flames spread
from house to house, and soon the whole city was on fire. This burn-

 

Questions.—87. Who was made governor of Sardis? Between whom did a quarrel
begin? What advice was given to Aristagoras? How had the Jonian colonies
been settled? Ans. Asia Minor was originally settled by the descendants of Javan, who
therefore were of the same family as the Ionians; but the term Ionians embraces only the
colonies settled by the Grecians driven from Peloponnesus, after the Trojan war, by the
Dorians. Eolia had eleven cities and Ionia twelve. They were subjugated by Croesus, and
of course, fell with Lydia under the dominion of Persia. 88. With what success were the
efforts of Aristagoras attended? Why did the Athenians listen to him? Whore is Athens?
(Scemap No, 2.) $9, Who were the Erctrians? Where was the island of Euboea? (See
eo No.4.) What is it called now? Ane. Negropont. Give an account of the burning
of Sardis.
a0. 490] CAUSES OF THE PERSIAN WAR. 63

ing of Sardis by Aristagoras and the Athenians was the torch which
lighted the flame of war in Asia Minor, and kindled in the breast of
Darius an inextinguishable desire for revenge. When the intelligence
was brought to him, he called for a bow, put an arrow into it, and shot
it into the air, with these words: ‘“‘ Grant, O Jupiter, that I may be
able to revenge myself upon the Athenians.” After he had thus
spoken, he commanded one of his attendants to exclaim thrice every
time dinner was set before him, ‘‘ Master! remember the Athenians.”

90. Deara or ArisTagoras AND Histi#vs.—During all these com-
motions, Histiaus had remained in Susa; but perceiving that Darius
suspected that his relative had acted by his directions, he begged per-
mission to go and quell the revolt. His request was finally granted ;
but before he arrived at Miletus, Aristagoras was slain in battle.
Histizus offered himself at once to the Ionians, and used every means
in his power to become head of the league; but they all feared him,
and at last, his intrigues being discovered, he was crucified by Arta-
phernes.

91. Expepirion or Marpontvs, B. 0. 493.—In the 28th year of his
reign, Darius, having fitted out a fleet, committed it to the command
of Mardonius, his son-in-law, with orders to punish the Greeks for the
burning of Sardis. Mardonius was a young man, and not over skillful
in the art of war; and though more entitled to consideration for being
the king’s son-in-law, was not perhaps the more gifted on that account.
In doubling Mount Athos, his fieet encountered a violent storm, in
which three hundred ships were wrecked, and about 20,000 men
drowned. MHis land army shared a similar fate. The Thracians
attacked the camp by night, made a great slaughter, and wounded
Mardonius himself. Thus the first army fitted out against Athens did
not succeed in reaching Greece at all!

92. 8. c. 490. Darts anp ARTapHERNES.—The losses of Mardonius
only animated Darius to greater exertions. He caused another army
to be assembled, appointed Datis and Artaphernes, two generals of
tried abilities, to command it, and engaged the banished Hippias to
conduct them to Athens by the shortest route. However, to leave no
stain upon his clemency, he first sent heralds into Greece, demanding

 

Questions.—89. What was the consequence? Where was Sardis? (See map No. 2.)
90. What became of Aristagoras? What did Histiaus do? 91. Who was Mardonius?
What command was given to him? In what year did that occur? Where is Mount
Athos? (See map No. 2.) What disaster occurred there? What further is said of the
expedition? 92. What effect did the losse3 of Mardonius have upon the mind of Darius?
How did he undertake to relieve himself against a charge touching his “ elemency ?”
64 PERSIA. [p. 0. 486.

“earth and water.’? Some of the States, intimidated by the mighty
preparations making in Asia, yielded the required tokens of submis-
sion; but the heralds sent to Athens and Sparta were thrown, one
into a ditch, and the other into a well, and tauntingly told to help
themselres to ‘earth and water.”

93. When every thing was ready, Darius sent away his generals,
telling them to give up Athens and Eretria to be plundered, to burn
all the houses and temples, and to bring all the inhabitants to Persia,
bound in chains, which he provided for that purpose. This time the
Persians passed directly across the Egean, and landed without any
accident upon the island of Euboea. They took and burned the city
of Eretria, according to the commandment, and sent home a company
of chained captives as an earnest of future victories. Thence con-
ducted by Hippias, they departed, crossed the strait of Euripus, and
landed on the plains of Marathon. A description of this battle will be
given in the history of Greece. Let it suffice to say, that the Per-
sians were totally defeated, that they made a rapid retreat, and that
Hippias was slain. Thus ended the second attempt upon Greece.

94. Furrner Preparations oF Darivs.—The anger of Darius was
doubly inflamed against Athens by the event of Marathon, and he
resolved that the insolent people who had invaded his territories,
burned his city, abused his heralds, and driven his generals to a
shameful flight, should feel the full weight of his arm. The prepara-
tions he now set on foot, were on a vast scale, and demanded a longer
time. For three years all Asia was kept in a continual stir; in the
fourth, his attention was distracted by a quarrel between his sons
respecting the succession, and by an insurrection in Egypt. The
crown he settled upon Xerxes, his eldest son by Atossa, daughter of
Cyrus; but he died before he had finished his preparations against
Egypt and Athens. He reigned thirty-six years. On his tomb was
inscribed, ‘‘ We were able to drink much wine, and to bear it well.”

95. XERXES THE GREAT, B. 0. 486.—By the death of Darius, and the
accession of Xerxes the Persian, the scepter passed from the hands of a
prince reared among the privations of a camp, to one born in a palace,

 

Questions.—92 How were the heralds treated who were sent to Athens and Sparta?
92. What directions foilowed from Darius to his generals? What did the Persians accom-
phish? Where did they meet total defeat? What course did the fleet take in sailing from
Ephesus to the island of Eubea? (See map No, 2.) From Eubeca to Marathon? 94.
Tow did the disaster at Morathon affeet Darius? What quarrel distracted his attention
from military preparations? Who was Xerxes? Jlow and when did he become king?
J[ow long had Darius reigned? What was inscribed upon his tomb? 95. What is said of
the early life of Xerxes in contrast with that of Darius?
B.c.486.] THE GRECIAN WAR PROJECTED. 65

the favorite son of a favorite queen, who had been nurtured in Juxury,
and taught to look upon the kingdom as an inheritance to which the
blood of Cyrus gave him a pre-eminent claim. Xerxes was not natu-
rally ambitious, but his flatterers persuaded him that it was absolutely
necessary for him to carry out the great projects which his father had
left unfinished. The Egyptians were first punished. Ile invaded the
country in person, and purposely made the yoke of the inhabitants
more galling than before. Stimulated by this success, he resolved on
the invasion of Greece.

96. A council was called of the most illustrious persons in the
empire, before whom he laid his plans. The speech put into his
mouth by Herodotus, will best display the character and extent of his
views. ‘I desire,” said he, ‘‘ to imitate the example of my predeces-
sors, who all distinguished their reigns by noble enterprises. I ought
to revenge the insolence of the Athenians, who presumed to fali upon
Sardis and burn it to ashes. I ought also to revenge the disgrace
which my country received at the battle of Marathon. I anticipate
great advantages from a war which may lead to the conquest of
Europe, the most fertile country in the universe.” After thus express-
ing his desires, and adding various arguments in favor of their being
carried out, he waited till the others should express their opinions.

97. Mardonius spoke first, and gave his voice for war, as necessary
to wipe out the foul blots from the Persian. name, and to teach the
cowardly Greeks the danger of offending the great king. The rest of
the assembly, seeing how well Xerxes received his brother-in-law’s
adulation, dared not contradict it, with the exception of Artabanus,
the king’s uncle, who endeavored to divert the course of deliberation
to more serious considerations than the glory of the expedition. But
Xerxes, who could not bear contradiction, gave his faithful adviser a
severe rebuke, and told him that he should be punished by being left
among the women, whom he resembled in cowardice. The war was
therefore resolved upon. ;

98. PREPARATIONS FoR War.—Xerxes’s aim was not merely to col-
lect a force sufficient to overcome all opposition, but to set his whole
power in magnificent array, that he might enjoy the sight of it himself,
and display it to the admiration of the world. For four years longer

 

Questions.—95, How was his ambition first aroused? What successful enterprise in-
fluenced him to invade Greece? 96. How, according to Ierodotus, did he express his
desires? 97. For what purpose did Mardonius second the wishes of Xerxes? Who was
Artabanus? What did he do? What rebuke did he consequently receive? 98. What war
like preparations were made during the next four years?
B. c. 480
66 PERSIA. [

Asia was kept in restless turmoil: less time would not suffice to pro-
vide subsistence for the countless host about to be poured upon
Europe. Besides the stores to be carried by the fleet, magazines were
to be formed along the whole line of march as far as the confines of
Greece The most skillful engineers of Phenicia and Egypt were sent
forward to build a bridge of boats across the Hellespont, and a multi-
tude of men were dispatched to the Chalcidice to excavate a canal
through the isthmus which joined Mount Athos to the continent.
Nay, the “great king” himself honored the mountain with a letter
couched in these terms: “ Athos, thou proud aspiring mountain, that
liftest thy head to the heavens, be not so audacious as to put rocks
and stones in my way. If thou opposest my servants, I will cut thee
down, and throw thee headlong into the sea.”

99. When these preparations were drawing to a close, Xerxes set
forth for Sardis, where he designed to spend the winter, and gather
the multitudes together, who were assembling in all the provinces of
his vast empire. During his stay in this place, a violent storm drove
the boats from their moorings, and destroyed the bridge over the
Hellespont. Xerxes, enraged at the Joss of so much time and labor,
put the architects to death, and caused chains to be thrown into the
sea to teach it submission. Another bridge was speedily commenced
of double rows of boats; one for the army, and the other for the
baggage. This bridge was made by chaining together 674 vessels, and
fastening them at each end by cables thrown over strong piles driven
into the carth. Massive anchors were dropped from the sides to hold
them in their places; flat-bottomed boats, lashed firmly together,
formed a floor above, and battlements were erected on each side to
prevent the cattle from being frightened by the violence of the waves.
The length of the bridge was not far short of a 1ile.

100. Xerxes’s Marcu.—Early in the spring (B. 0. 480), Nerses
began his march from Sardis with the mighty armament which had
been collected from Media, Persia, and all the tributary nations, a
motley crowd, including many strange varieties of complexion, dress,
and language, each tribe retaining its national armor and mode of
fighting. There were recruits from all the different people who were
allied with Croesus against Cyrus the Great. There was the Immortal
Band; there the Median cavalry; there the Persian lancers, with

 

Questions,—98. What letter is mentioned? 99. To what place did Xerxes then go tu
spend the winter? What misfortune took place while he was there? What did Xerxes
thereupon do? Describe the second bridge. 100. Give a description of the great army of
Xerxes,
B. 0. 480] THE ROYAL PROGRESS. 67

spears knobbed with gold; there the sacred horses richly caparisoned ;
and there the royal chariot where Xerxes sat in state, except when,
fatigued with riding, he sheltered himself from the heat of the sun in
an easier carriage. The fleet coasted along the Egean, and the army
moved forward to Abydos, a city of Bithynia, near the straits.

101. Here Xerxes, desirous to witness a mock sea-fight, ascended a
lofty throne and beheld, as far as the eye could reach, the bosom of
the Hellespont crowded with his ships, and the plains and mountains
of ancient Ilium covered with his troops, A feeling of pride and satis-
faction spread through his heart as he surveyed the glittering array,
and reflected that, at the head of the largest army ever brought into
the field, he was about to subjugate the fairest portion of the earth.
But a sudden shade passed over his countenance: for a moment the
pomp and pageantry of the mustered hosts faded from his view: “In
one hundred years’ time,” said he, ‘‘ not one living soul will remain of
all the thousands who now surround me;”’ and the monarch, throned
in power and pride, wept at the thought.

102. Passrnc THE Briper.—As soon as the sun’s first rays appeared
upon the horizon, the bridge was strown with myrtle, and sprinkled
abundantly with sweet odors. Then Xerxes poured out libations into
the sea, and, turning his face to the rising sun, implored the protection
and guidance of the great god Mithras, till he should complete the
conquest of Europe. After golden vessels and a sword had been
thrown into the sea, the ten thousand Immortals, crowned with chap-
lets, advanced upon the bridge. Thearmy followed as rapidly as pos-
sible, the officers lashing the poor soldiers all the way to quicken their
speed ; yet so vast was the multitude that the living tide owed without
interruption seven days and seven nights before the last man, Xerxes
himself, the tallest and most majestic person in all that host, had
arrived upon the European shore.

103. In the great plain of Doriscus, on the banks of the Hebrus, an
attempt was made to number the army. Ten thousand men were
formed in as small a space as possible. A fence was then raised around
them; they were dismissed, the inclosure filled again and again, till
all had passed within the circle; and according to this muster the
infantry alone amounted to 1,700,000. | The cavalry was counted by

Questions,—100. How did the fleet and army proceed? Where was Abydos? (See map
No. 2.) 101, What took place near Abydos? What feeling pervaded his mind in view
of his greatness? What moral sentiment even then subdued the haughty monarch to
tears? What waters did the Hellespont connect? (See map No. 2.) 102. Describe the
crossing of tne Hellespont. 103, Of how many persons did the amny of Xerxes consist?
What method was adopted to number them?
68 PERSIA. (B. c. 480

divisions, and the mariners by the number which each ship carried, and
the whole exceeded two millions and a half of fighting men. The
women and servants who always attended the Persian camp could
not be less than as many more, so that the whole body was estimated
at five millions.

104. To feed this multitude with only the scanty portion allowed
to slaves, required 662,000 bushels of flour per day ; yet such prepara-
tions had been made that, with the provisions laid up in the magazines
and those carried by the vessels of burden, there was no lack of any
thing in the camp. Avant, couriers had been sent out to prepare for
the coming of the lord of Asia. Wherever the royal train halted a
superb pavilion was erected, adorned with the most costly furniture.
Many cities of Europe, anxious to propitiate the mighty power moving
through their territories, provided even vessels of gold and silver for
the table. The rapacious attendants of the Persian court spared
nothing; in the morning, when the army marched, all was carried off,
In this manner Xerxes continued his course till he reached the spot
where Deiaratus, a banished Lacedemonian king, had told him he
would find his whole army stopped by a handful of men.

105. TuzrmopyLt2.—Thermopyle is a narrow pass of Mount €ta,
about fifty paces broad. On one side roared the sea; on the other
rose the precipitous mountain. Through this narrow defile lay the
path of the Persians, and an army could scarcely reach Attica by any
other route. When Xerxes came to this place, he found the truth of
Demaratus’s words. A band of heroes were stationed here, determined
to give such an impression of Grecian valor as should teach the
haughty Persians the character of the men they had come to enslave.
Xerxes waited four days, hoping to frighten them away, or bribe
Leonidas, their leader, to betray his country. He waited in vain, and
Leonidas rejected his offers with scorn.

106. On the fifth day he ordered a body of Median cavalry to full
upon the rash and insolent enemy, and lead them all captive into his
presence. A throne was erected for him, from which he could survey
the narrow entrance of the pass, and the prowess of his soldiers. Their
numbers served only to impede their efforts; the foremost fell, the
hinder advanced over their bodies to the charge; their repeated onsets

 

Questions.—103. How many women and servants were along? Tow many persons, then,
were there in all? 104. What is said of provisions for the camp? Of occurrences during
the march of the army? From whom had erses received a warning? What was the
warning? 105. What is Thermupyle? Describe it, Where was it located? (See raap
No. 2.) What did Xerxes find there? For what did Xerxes wait in vain?’ 106, What
occurred on the fifth day ?
B. 0. 480. THERMOPYL&,. 69

broke upon the Greeks idly as waves npon the rock. The day wore
on; and, spent with fatigue, and greatly thinned in their ranks, they
were recalled from the contest. The despised Greeks were now
thought worthy to cope with the Immortals, and all the next day the
inipatient monarch saw with grief and rage the slaughter of his own
body-guard. Three times he started from his throne, as though about
te chastise the intrepid Spartans with his own hand for the huvoc
they were making in his chosen band.

107. The day following, the attack was renewed with no better suc-
cess, and the confidence of Xerxes was clianged to gloom and despon-
deney, when an inhabitant of the country revealed to him a secret
path over the mountain. A party was immediately sent out with the
traitor, and by daybreak the next morning the Grecians learned that
the Persians were coming over the brow of the mountain, and before
noon the devoted band of Spartans were attacked in front and rear
by the whole power of Xerxes. They fought desperately to the last,
and were finally overwhelmed by the arrows, javelins, and stones of
the enemy. Where they fell they were buried; their tomb, as the
poet sang, was an altar; u sanctuary, in which Greece revered the
memory of her second founders. Xerxes lost 20,000 men in this
engagement, and his fleet also suffered the same day a severe defeat
off Cape Artemisium. :

108. DrTACHMENT sENT TO DELpri.—Xerxes had heard so much
of the wealth of Delphos, that he thought to enrich himself by the
plunder of its treasures. A detachment was accordingly sent across
the Parnassian mountains, to bring away the vessels of gold and silver
deposited there. The Delphians, hearing of its approach, asked coun-
sel of the oracle. The Pythia responded, ‘ The arms of Apollo will
be sufficient for the defense of his shrine.’ Thus encouraged, no pre-
parations were made to resist the enemy. As the Persians were
marching through the dark and deep defiles of the mountains, a violent
storm arose, the wind prostrated huge trees across their path, the
mountain torrents loosened rocks and stones, and poured them down
upon them with a mingled tide of earth and water; the Delphians
added their wild cries to the howling of the storm; and the thunder, *
repeated by a thousand echoes, completed their consternation. They

 

Questions.--106. On the sixth? 107. On the seventh? What treason occurred? De-
ecribe what followed, How many men did Xerxeslose? What other loss did he sustain ?
Where was Cape Artemisium? (Sve map No, 2.) 108. By what means did Xerxes expect to
enrich himself at Delphi? Where was Delphi? (See map Ne. 2.) Give an account of the
march and wverthrow of the detachment
PERSIA [B. ¢. 480.

70
fled, or fell, overcome with terror; they trampled one upon anotlser ;
they became entangled in the forest or were thrown down precipices*
and but few of them ever returned to tell the tale of their. disaster.

109. Burxiva or ATuENs.—Meantime, the rest of the Persians ad-
vanced through Beotia* to Attica. No troops came out to dispute their
passage. Xerxes thought he had not calculated in vain upon the
cowardice of the Grecians. When he reached Athens, the streets
were deserted. With the exception of a few old people, devotees and
priests, who had taken shelter in the citadel, every person had escaped
to the islands of Egina and Salamis. Xerxes plundered the temples,
stormed the citadel, and reduced the city to ashes. The pictures and
statues which the refined Athenians had spent years in executing, he
sent to his uncle Artabanus, with the glad tidings that Athens had
shared the fate of Surdis.

110. Barrie of Saramis.—In the narrow strait between Attica and
Salamis, the little fleet of the Greeks awaited the storm of war which
was slowly rolling round the promontory of Sunium. The Persians
advanced with their numerous vessels, and filled up the port of Pha-
Jereum. In the consternation and agony of seeing their city burned,
and their bay crowded with hostile ships, many of the Greeks advo-
cated the propriety of moving down to the vicinity of Corinth, and
awaiting the enemy there; but Themistocles induced them to give
battle there, and thus the engagement took place in a strait so narrow
that the Persians could scarcely turn their ships, but were forced to
fight hand to hand. From a lofty eminence, Xerxes again beheld his
troops repulsed by the hardy Greeks; many of his ships were
entangled and sunk, and his disheartened soldiers retired in the great-
est disorder.

111. That night the whole fleet abandoned the coast of Attica, and
sailed away for the Hellespont. Mardonius, who perceived that Xerxes
was desirous of escaping from the dangers and mortifications which
surrounded him, proposed that the king should return to Asia with the
body of the army, leaving himself, with 300,000 of the best troops, to
complete the conquest of Greece. To this proposal the monarch
gladly assented. Xerxes, having passed into Thessaly, permitted Mar-

 

* Questions.—109. In what direction was Beotia from Thermopyle? (See map No. 2.)
How is Athens situated? What did Xerxes find on reaching Athens? What acts did be
commit at Athens? What tidings did he send to his uncle? 110, In which direction was
the island of Salamis from Attica? (Sve map No.2.) What accourt can you give of the
disaster to the Persian nayy? By what namo is that battle Known? 111. What then was
done by the fleet? What proposition was made to Xerxes? What prompted Mardonius
to make it? To what place did Xerxes then retreat? Where is Thessaly ? (See map No.2.)
* Also written Beotia,
B. 0. 465.] THE ROYAL RETREAT 71

donius to select his soldiers, and leaving them to winter there, pursued
his march toward Asia. ‘‘ Widely different from the appearance of
the glittering host which a few months before had advanced over the
plains of Macedonia and Thrace to the conquest of Greece, was the
aspect of the crowd which was now hurrying back along the same
road, The splendor, the pomp, and the luxury and ease were ex-
changed for disaster and distress, want and disease.” The contents of
the magazines had been destroyed or purloined by those who had the
charge of them; comfortable food was not to be obtained; and as the
retreating multitude passed those places, impoverished by their recent
visit, they were forced to subsist upon the bark and leaves of trees.
(2 Sickness came with famine; great numbers were left to the
harity of their enemies; and when they reached the river Strymon,
numbers still greater were drowned in attempting to pass upon the
ice, which the sun was fast melting away. In forty-five days after he
left Mardonius, Xerxes reached the Hellespont. The rebellious sea
had torn his vessels from their anchors, and dashed in pieces the bridge
which it had cost so much time and labor to construct; but the fleet
(or what remained of it) was there, to transport the poor fragment of
his army to Abydos, The exploits of Mardonius will be recounted
in the history of Greece. The life of- Xerxes, after this inglorious
campaign, may be told in a few words. He gave himself up to
a round of pleasures, and was slain by Artabanus, captain of his
guards, B. 0.465.
113. Artaxerxes AscENDS THE TuronE.—Xerxes had four sons:
‘Darius, Hystaspes, Artaxerxes, and Achemenes. When Artabanus
left the chamber of the murdered monarch, he went directly to that
of Artaxerxes, and, awakening him from sleep, told him that his brother
Darius had assassinated his father. The youth immediately arose,
and without waiting to inquire into the affair, hastened to his brother’s
bed and killed him. Artabanus having thus got rid of Xerxes and
Darius, proclaimed Artaxerxes king, thinking he would prove a con-
venient tool, till a faction could be formed strong enough to place the
crown upon his own head; but the young prince, suspecting the game
his pretended friend was playing, ordered him to execution. By this
time, intelligence of his father’s death had reached Hystaspes, governor

 

Questions —111. What comparison is made? What is said of the destitution that ex-
isted? 112. Of sickness? Numbers left? Of what occurred at the Strymon? Where
was the Strymon? (See map No. 2.) What had occurred at the Hellespont? How,
then, did Xerxes get to Abydos? What further account can you give of Xerxes? 113. How
many sons did Xerxes have? Give their names, By what means did Artaxerxes obtain the
throne?
72 PERSIA. [p. ©. 460.

ared to assert his right to the crown,
in the last of which

t possession of the

of Bactria, who consequently prep
Two battles were fought by the rival brothers ; :
Hystaspes was slain. Artaxerxes thus gained quie :
throne of Persia, B. 0. 43. He was called Artaxerxes Longimanus,
from the length of his arms. ;

114. Tur Eeyprtax Revorr.—s. 0. 460.—The Egyptians always
wore the yoke of Persia uneasily ; and in this year, having made Ina-
rus, prince of the Lybians, their king, they revolted. Artaxerxes
sent his brother Achsmenes, with 300,000 men, to reduce them to
obedience. It fared ill with the Persians at first. The Athenians
made alliance with the Egyptians, and Achszmenes was slain with one-
third of his army. The other 200,000 Persians made their escape to
Memphis, where they entrenched themselves in a part of a city called
the White Wall. There the Egyptians besieged them three years,
As soon as practicable, Artaxerxes fitted out another army to go to
the relief of his unfortunate subjects. While Artabasus sailed up the
Nile, with a part of the troops, Megabysus (son of Zopyrus, who gained
Babylon) advanced with his division by land to Memphis.

115. The tables were now turned. Defeat followed Inarus and his
allies, while victory crowned the efforts of the Persians. The besiegers
were in their turn besieged in Biblos, a city built between two arms
of the Nile. For a year and a half the Persians maintained the
blockade; and finally, by draining one of the encircling arms, opened
a passage to the city. Inarus then surrendered, with fifty of his Athe-
nian friends, on the solemn promise of Megabysus that their lives
should be spared. The rest of the Grecians had free permission to
leave the country, and the Egyptians were again reduced to servitude.
Artaxerxes kept Inarus and the Athenians five years as prisoners of
war, during which time his mother importuned him daily to deliver
them into her hands, that she might sacrifice them to the manes of
her son Achemenes. Overcome by her entreaties, the king finally
yielded, and the inhuman princess put them all to a cruel death.

116. Megabysus felt this contempt of his solemn oath most keenly.
He left the court, retired to his government of Syria, and finally openly
revolted. After overcoming the armies sent against him, and in all
things showing himself superior to his sovereign, he was at last per-

 

Questions.—113 Why was he called Artaxerxes Longimanus? 114. Why did the Egyp-
ans revolt from Persia? Who was their king? Who were sent against the Egyptians?
What became of them? Where was Memphis? (See map No. 1.) Tig: In what ecaarier
were the tables turned upon the Egyptians? Upon what condition did Inarus surrender?
Was the condition faithfully complied with? State how it was not, 116, es
Megabysus displeased? What course did he pursue ?
nc.424] SUCCESSORS OF ARTAXERXES. "3

suaded to return to his allegiance by his wife Amytis, sister of Arta-
xerxes. Butin hunting with the king one day, like the son of Gobryas,
he killed a wild beast, which the monarch had roused from the thicket.
Though by this act he saved the life of his royal master, yet he was
condemned to die for a breach of court etiquette. His wife again inter-
posed, and prevailed upon her brother to commute his punishment
into banishment. After remaining five years in lonely exile, he dis-
guised himself as a leper, and repaired to Susa, where his wife recog-
nized him, and by entreaties again restored him to royal favor, which
he enjoyed till hisdeath. He was a man of the greatest abilities, and
the ablest general in all Persia.

117. Histortans.—In the reign of Artaxerxes, Esdras, Nehemiah,
and Ezra were sent to Jerusalem. They arranged the books of Scrip-
ture in their present order, composed the books of Chronicles, and
those bearing their own names. While engaged in this important
business, Herodotus commenced his works, so that profane history
took the seal of authenticity about the time that the sacred writers
closed their labors. Herodotus was followed by Xenophon, Diodorus,
Livy, Tacitus, and others whose works still exist in the original Greek
and Latin. This Artaxerxes is supposed to have been the husband of
Esther.

Read Neh. i. entire; and li. 1-8; also xiii. 6,7. Ezra vii. 1, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12-26; and viii.
31, 82; also Esther x. entiré.

118. Xerxes JI. B. o, 425.—Nerxes was the only legitimate son of
Artaxerxes; but it was his misfortune to have seventeen half-brothers,
one of whom, Sogdianus, followed the newly elected monarch to his
apartment, and killed him while overcome with wine. He reigned 45
days. Sogdianus then, s. c. 424. assumed the royal tiara, to wear it
only about six months. All his brothers envied him, and fe feared all
his brothers. Ochus, governor of Hyrcania, to escape the death which
Sogdianus threatened him, openly declared himself the avenger of
Xerxes’s blood. The nobility joined him; Sogdianus was taken pris-
oner, and thrown into a cylinder filled with ashes, which was made to
revolve till he was suffocated. He reigned 195 days.

119. Oouvs, or Darius Noruus.—s. o. 424.—As soon as Ochus
ascended the throne, he took the name of Darius, to which the Greeks

 

Questions.—116. Give a further account of him. 117. What historians were sent to
Jerusilem during the reign of Artaxerxes? What did they accomplish while there? Who
commenced writing profune history at that time? By whom was Herodotus followed ?
Whose husband was Artaxerxes supposed to have been? 118. Give a sketch of the life of
Xerxes II. Of Sogdianus. What was there peculiar in Persian punishments? 119. When
did Ochus ascend the throne? What name did he assume; and what was added?

4

*
4 PERSIA. ets

Troubles in Asia Minor, Egypt, Arabia,
and Media would have kept Darius in a constant state of anxiety, had
not Parysatis, the queen, contrived to engage him in a sees round
of pleasures, while wars were carried on in all these places by the
Persian generals. Tissaphernes, satrap of Sardis, and Pharnabaces,
governor of Bithynia, jntermeddled constantly with the affairs of tho
Greeks, and vast sums were expended to foment the dissensions of
Athens and Sparta.

120. At the instigation of Parysatis, Darius finally gave the dominion
of all Asia Minor to his son Cyrus, a youth of sixteen. Here the
young prince, to secure the alliance of the Lacedemonians, then
esteemed the best soldiers in the world, assisted them with money
and supplies, and assured Lysander, their general, that rather than see
them want any necessary for carrying on the war with the Athenians,
he would melt down the throne of gold and silver on which he sat,
and coin it into money for them. He had an object in this liberality,
much dearer to him than his friendship for the Lacedemonians. Pa-
rysatis, not content with seeing her favorite son governor of this exten-
sive province, besought Darius to declare him heir to the throne
instead of Arsaces, their oldest child; mt this Darius would not

added Nothus—illegitimate.

‘consent. He reigned twenty years.

121. Arraxerxes Mnemon.—s. 0. 405.—As soon as Arsaces ascend-
ed the throne, he changed his name to Artaxerxes—Mnemon was after-
ward added, on account of his astonishing memory. The new king,
as the custom was, set out for Pasargadae, to be crowned in a temple
of the goddess of war. The prince to be consecrated must enter that
temple, put off his own robe, and clothe himself in the one worn by
Cyrus the Great, before he was king. This garment had been pre-
served with superstitious reverence more than 150 years Before the
crown was put upon his head, the sovereign must eat a cake of figs,
chew some turpentine, and drink a cup of mingled vinegar and milk,

122. Young Cyrus, driven to desperation at seeing the scepter to
which his mother had taught him to aspire, transferred to the hands
of his brother, determined to assassinate him in the temple itself, in
the presence of the whole court, just as he took off his own to put on

 

Questions.—119. What troubles agitated Persia at that timo 2 120. What was done atthe
instigation of Parysatis? To whom did Cyrus render assistance? What assurance did
Cyrus give? What was his object? What proposition did Darius roject 9 I es ney
he king? 121, When did Arsaces ascend the throne? To what did he elyheeth ie ?
By what name is he known? Relate the particulirs of the coronation ge bis aan
What devd 9f assassination cid young Cyrus determine upon? custom, 1
B. 0. 405.] THE GREEKS AID CYRUS. 75

the robe of Oyrus. Tissaphernes, having gained intelligence of thia
design, revealed it to Artaxerxes. The rash youth wasin consequence
seized in the temple and condemned to death ; when Parysatis, almost
out of her senses, flew to the place, clasped him in her arms, bound
the tresses of her hair about him, and by her tears and entreaties pre-
vailed on Artaxerxes to pardon him, and send him back to Sardis.
Cyrus, instead of appreciating the magnanimity of his brother in spar-
ing his life, and continuing his government, remembered only the
indignity of his chains, and, in resentment, strengthened himself in
the determination to overthrow the king.

123. Wrar Cyrus pip In Asta Mrnor.—The haughtiness and pride
which had led him, when but a youth, to condemn two persons of
royal blood for wearing their hands uncovered in his presence,
were exchanged for the most winning affability. His emissaries at
court constantly magnified his merits as a statesman and a warrior,
and many turbulent noblemen stood ready to espeuse his cause. It
was now his turn to solicit favors from the Lacedemonians. He wrote
to them, promising that ‘to the foot he would give horses, and to
the horsemen, chariots; that on those who had farms he would bestow
villages, and on those who had villages, cities. Their pay, he said,
should not be counted, but measured out to them. He told them he had
a greater and more princely heart than his brother; that he was bet-
ter instructed in philosophy, and that he could drink more wine than
Artaxerxes without disordering his senses!”

124. The Lacedemonians, moved by gratitude or avarice, sent a
scytale to Clearchus, commander of their forces in Asia Minor, with
orders to obey Cyrus in every thing he demanded; but they wisely
affected ignorance of the enterprise in which he was engaged. A
company of Beotians also. joined him, and some Athenians, among
whom was Xenophon. The better to conceal his design, Cyrus gave
out that his expedition was directed against the Pisidians. Tissa-
phernes, rightly judging that several hundred thousand men would
not be collected for so slight an occasion, set out post from Miletus to
inform Artaxerxes of what was going forward.

125. This news occasioned great trouble at court. Parysatis and
all her favorites were looked upon as holding intercourse with the
rebel. Statira, the queen, continually loaded her with reproaches.

 

Questions.—122. How was it prevented? What followed? Was Cyrus grateful to his
brother? 123. What policy did Cyrus pursue? What promises didhe make? What infor-
mation did he add? 124. Of whom was the army of Cyrus composed? How did Artaxerxes
gct ii.formation of Cyrus's design? 125. What suspicions rested upon Parysatia ?
“Where is now,” said she, “that faith which you have so often
pledged for your son’s behavior? Your unhappy fondness has
kindled this war, and plunged us into an abyss of misfortunes.”
Parysatis replied with equal warmth, and their hatred finally became
so great that they could not dwell together in one palace.

126. Meantime, Cyrus set out from Sardis with an army amount-

-ing to nearly 300,000 men. When they reached Tarsus, the Greek
soldiers, suspecting their destination, refused to go farther; but the
persuasions of Clearchus, and the powerful eloquence of an extra gold
piece, added by Cyrus to their pay, finally induced them to proceed
in search of the enemy, which Cyrus said he expected to meet near
Babylon. From Cilicia they passed on through Syria, forded the
river Euphrates at Thapsacus, meeting with no opposition till they
reached the plain of Cunaxa.

127. Barrie or Cunaxa.—All the country through which they
marched was so quiet, that Cyrus sapposed his brother feared to meet
him in the field. Under this impression, he traveled leisurely along,
armed only with a saber, and attended by a small guard. When about
75 miles from Babylon, a horseman came up at full speed, crying out
that the enemy were approaching. In an instant all was hurry and
confusion; Cyrus leaped from his chariot, buckled on his armor with
the greatest dispatch, and, without giving his army time for refresh-
ment, arrayed them for the conflict. Clearchus with his Greeks occu-
pied the right wing, the barbarian mercenaries the left, and Cyrus,
with a band of six hundred horse, took his position in the center. All
things were ready about noon, and the soldiers stood there in battle
array three hours.

128. At length, when both their patience and strength were nearly
exhausted, a great cloud of dust appeared like a white cloud, and soon
spread itsclf densely over the whole plain; the steady tramp of sol-
diers, and the clattering of horses’? hoofs were heard, and, not long
after, the glittering of helmets, lances, and standards, proclaimed the
approach of the royal forces. Tissaphernes Jed up the left wing op-
posite Clearchus; and Artaxerxes, supported by the flower of his
army, took Lis post almost in front of his brother. When the two

 

Questions.—125, In what words did the queen address her? What was the conse-
quence? 126. With how large an army did Cyrus march? From what place did he
start? Where was that place? (See map No. 2.) low did Cyrus persuade the Greeks to
follow him? Where was Tarsus? (15, map 8.) Where was Thapsacns? (29, same map.)
Cunaxa? (Map No.3.) 127. Ilow far was Cunaxa from Babylon? What battle occurred

there? How did Cyrus behave on the morning of the battle? 128. Ilow was the battle
commenced?
B. 0. 401.] BATTLE OF CUNAXA. Q7

armies had approached near enough, the Greeks moved forward sing
ing their loud pwan; and then, striking their darts upon their shields
to frighten the horses, rushed upon the Persians with ail their force.
The enemy scarcely waited for the charge; the horses, maddened by
the din, wheeled, and pranced with ungovernable fury; the riders,
equally frightened, sought safety in flight; and Tissaphernes, with a
small body of troops, ulone maintained his ground.

129. The attendants of Cyrus, seeing the flight of the Persians,
proclaimed him king upon the spot; but while the main body remained
unbroken and his brother lived, Cyrus thought the kingdom still in
dispute. Keeping his 600 horse in a body, he observed the motion of
the king, and perceiving him wheeling to the left, charged his guards
with great impetuosity. The Persians gave way, and the attendants
of Cyrus dispersed in the pursuit, but with a few nobles he maintained
his position. At length, discovering the king, he spurred on, crying
out, ‘I see the man,” and gave him a wound in the breast, at the
same time that he himself received a blow in the eye from a javelin.
The two brothers then fought hand to hand, and those about them
engaged furiously in the defense of each, till Cyrus was slain, and
eight of his principal friends lay dead upon his body. Artaxerxes
gave his eunuch, Mesabates, charge to cut off the head and right
hand of Cyrus, while he collected his followers and plundered his
brother’s camp.

130. The Greeks ealustea about dark from the pursuit of the
fugitives, and, supposing they had gained the victory, put off their
armor, wondering much that no messenger came from Cyrus to com-
pliment them upon their valor. The refreshments provided by the
prince had been carried off by the plunderers, and they were forced
to retire supperless to rest. In the morning they learned the extent
of their misfortune. By the messenger who brought them news of
Cyrus’s death they sent word to Arius, next in command, that being
victors, they would make him king; and while waiting for his answer,
they killed the oxen of the baggage wagons, and, collecting the broken
weapons from the field of battle, roasted the flesh and made their
breakfast. Not long after there came heralds from the king, sum-
moning them to deliver up their arms. They replied that they would
die before they would part with them; that if Artaxerxes would

 

Questions.—129. Give a further account of the battle. What orders did Artaxerxes give
to Mesabates? 180. What did the Greeks learn on the morning after the battle? To whom
did they then send word? What word did they send? How did they prepare their
breakfast? What summons came to them? What was their reply?
73 PERSIA. [B. ¢. 401.

receive them into the number of his allies, they would serve him with
fidelity and valor; but if he endeavored to reduce them to slavery, ho
would find them determined to lose their lives and liberty together.

131. In the mean time the messenger returned from Arius, say-
ing that that general declined the honor intended him, for there were
so many noblemen in Persia superior to himself, that if Artaxerxes
were dethroned, he could not expect to reign unmolested. He after-
ward engaged, by the most solemn oaths, to condact them to their
own country without fraud, and the bond was ratified by dipping
their spears in the blood of animals slain for the purpose. It was also
agreed to return home by a more northern route, to avoid the king’s
army and gain provisions. They accordingly withdrew from that
place, and rested three days in some little villages, where they were
visited by Tissaphernes and several of the Persian grandees.

132. TreaouEry or TissAPHERNES.—Tissaphernes began his story
by telling them that, being a neighbor of Greece, and seeing them
surrounded with dangers, he had used his good offices with the king
to obtain permission to conduct them to their own country; that-the
king had not granted his request directly, but had sent him to inquire
why they had taken up arms against him. ‘We call the gods to
witness,” replied Clearchus, “ that we did not enlist ourselves to make
war with the king. Oyrus, under different pretexts, brought us
almost hither without explaining himself, and when we found him
surrounded with dangers, we thought it infamous to abandon him
after all the favors he had bestowed upon us. As he is dead, we are
released from our engagement, and have no desire to contest the
crown with Artaxerxes, nor to ravage bis country, if he does not
oppose our return.”

133. Tissaphernes said he would acquaint the king with their
reply, and bring them his answer. He was gone tliree days, and
when he came back he told them that the king, after much solicita-
tion, had appointed Aim to the government of Sardis, and had given
them permission to depart under his safe conduct, and if they would
wait till he had settled his affairs at court, they would set out to-
gether. These arrangements were confirmed by an oath on both
sides. The Greeks waited very impatiently twenty days, every day

 

Questions.—131. What was the reply of Arimus? What agreement did Arimus enter
into? By whom were the Grecks visited? 132. What story did Tissaphernes tell? Who
réplied on the part of the Greeks? What reply did he make? 133. What did Tissaphernes

say to this? Iow long was he gone? What message did he bring? How long did the
Greeks then wait?
B.c. 401] RETREAT OF THE TEN THOUSAND. 79

becoming more distrustful of his intentions, and more suspicious
of Arisus, who had been freely pardoned by the king. Finally,
Tissaphernes arrived with a body of troops, and they all marched on
together; but they had too good reasons for being enemies to confide
entirely in each other’s truth. Occasions of distrust occurred daily
as they advanced to the head waters of the Tigris, and at last Tissa-
phernes, having invited the Greek officers to a conference, put them
all to death. Soon after, Arieus rode up to the Greeks, and de-
manded their arms in the king’s name.

134. B. o. 400.—-Nothing could exceed the consternation of the
Greeks at this tragical turn in their affairs. In the words of another,
“ All gave themselves up to despair. They felt that they were still
2,000 miles from the nearest part of Greece, close to the vast armies of
the king, and surrounded on all sides by tribes of hostile barbarians,
who would supply them with nothing but at the expense of blows and
blood; they had no guide acquainted with the country, no knowledge
of the deep and rapid rivers which intersected it, and no cavalry to
explore the road or cover their rear on the march. As if discipline
and hope had ended together, the roll-call was scarcely attended to;
the watch-fires were scantily, or not at all supplied; and even their
principal meal was neglected; where chance led, they threw them-
selves down to rest, but not to sleep—for sleep was banished by
thoughts of that country and those friends whom they no longer
expected to behold again.”

135. Xewopnon.—But there was among them a man, Xenophon,
hitherto distinguished only by his love of the instructions he had
received in the school of Socrates, who now felt the native energies of
his mind roused to meet the critical emergency into which they were
thrown. After a vain endeavor to sleep, he rose at midnight, awaked
some of the principal men, and, representing to them the ignominious
death which would certainly follow submission, exhorted them to elect
new officers, and pursue their route. This measure was resolved
upon. Five generals were chosen, of whom Xenophon was one; the
army was assembled, and encouraged by all the cheering suggestions
which the desperateness of their circumstances would admit, and by
break of day they were ready to set off.

 

Questions.—133. What is said of Arieus? What treacherous act did Tissaphernes commit?
What Ariezus? 184. What is said of the consequent consternation of the Grecks? How did
they reason about their condition? How did they act? 135. Who at last inspired them
with new courage? In what way did he doso? What was consequently done?
80 PERSIA. [z. 0. 401.

136. Rerrnar or tun Tew Trovsanv.—It were long to tell how
often these determined veterans were forced to turn back, when a
deep and rapid river rolled across their path; how many times they
were obliged to make a long and tedious circuit around the base of
some huge mountain; bow many skirmishes they fought with the
barbarians, through whose territories they passed; how often they
were compelled to halt and form in battle-line to repel the assaults of
the treacherous Tissaphernes, who, with the forces of Artaxerxes,
hung upon their rear; how much they suffered from cold and hunger;
what murmurings, discontents, and jealousies arose, how many died
of Mardship and fatigue; and how many, in utter despair of again
seeing their native land, yielded to their hard fate, and were left un-
buried upon the plains of Asia.

137. In passing through Armenia, they encountered vast snow-
banks, into which they sunk at every step; they also suffered intensely
from a violent north wind; many lost their sight by the painful glare
of the snow; and numbers perished with the cold. Sometimes, how-
ever, they came to little villages, where the inhabitants treated them
kindly, supplied them with provisions, and suffered them to rest after
their fatigues. Marching on thus, through dangers by flood-and field,
for many a long and weary month, they ascended at length a very
high mountain, and turning their eyes to the west, beheld, far in the
distant horizon, the dark waters of the Euxine. At once a glad shout
burst from every lip: ‘The sea! the sea!” was repeated by a thousand
voices; the soldiers embraced their officers with tears of joy, and then
running to the top of the hill, and piling up a great heap of stones,
raised a trophy of broken armor taken from the different enemies they
had overthrown in their long and toilsome march. a

138. The remaining perils of their journey were encountered with
buoyant spirits; and when they reached Trebizond, they encamped
thirty days to perform the vows they had made in the hours of dis-
tress, and to celebrate the Olympic games. In this place they sepa-
rated, a part embarking by sea, and a part continuing their journey by
land; they reunited, however, at the Thracian Bosphorus, and cross-
ing over to Byzantium, found themselves once more upon European

 

Questions.—136. The retreat that followed is called what? What difficulties did “ the ten
thousand” encounter? 187. What did they encounter in Armenia? Tow were they treated
at villages? Relate the events that took place on the mountain. Where was the Euxine
Sea? (See map No. 3.) What is the Kuxine called now? Ans. The Black Sea, 138
Where is Trebizond? (Map No. 3.) Where was Byzanium? (No, 2.) What is Byzantium
uow called, Ans. Constantinople. What was Trebizond once called? Ans, Trapezus.
B. c. 401.] THE QUEEN’S VICTIMS. 81

soil. Xenophon computes, that from Ephesus, where they enlisted, to
Cunaxa, where the battle was fought, was ninety-three days’ march ;
from Cunaxa to Byzantium was something more; and the time taken
by the Greeks, going and returning, was fifteen months. This retreat
of “The Ten Thousand” has never hada parallelin the annals of war,
and to this day it stands upon the pages of history as the most perfect
model of an enterprise formed with valor, conducted with prudence,
and executed with success.

139. Vencranor or Parysatis.—To return to the ulfairs of the
Persian court. Artaxerxes claimed the honor of having given Cyrus
his death-wound; but a Carian soldier insisted that he himself had
dispatched the pretender, as he was feebly attempting to rise after
being unhorsed. Artaxerxes, having tried various ways in vain to
stop his boasting, delivered him over to Parysatis as the murderer of
her son. She caused him to he tortured ten days, and put to death
by having melted brass poured into his ears. Mithridates, an officer
of distinction, who also had s chare in the death of the young prince,
was next marked out as an object of the queen’s vengeance. Ie was
sentenced to the punishment of the troughs, a species of torture too
horrid for description; and lingered out seventeen days in inexpressi-
ble agony.

140. The eunuch Mesabates, at the command of his king, had cut
off the head and right hand of Oyrus; but as he stood high in the
favor of Artaxerxes, Parysatis knew not how to accomplish his de-
struction. Nevertheless, whut she could not effect by open accusation,
she brought about by patient ingenuity. She made use of every art to
win the confidence of her son, humored all his whims, ministered to
his pleasures, and spent hours with him in playing dice. One day she
allowed him to win a large sum of money from her, and then, pretend-
ing to be very much chagrined at her loss, offered to play with him
for a eunuch. Artaxerxes assented, and Parysatis, exerting all her
skill, won the game. She seized upon Mesabates as the forfeit, and
before the king learned her purpose, caused him to be flayed alive.

141. Deara or Sratira.—But Parysatis was not satisfied. She had
ler eye upon a more beautiful and more illustrious victim, who was so
intrenched in the affections of Artaxerxes, that she could not hope to
supplant her. This was Statira, whose charms she had always envied,

 

Questions.—138, What computation did Xenophon make? What is said of the famous
retreat? 159. What claim did Artaxerxes make? Was his claim disputed? How was the
offender disposed of? Give the account of Mithridates. 140. Give the account of Mesa
bates, 141. Was Parysatis then satisfied? Who was selected to be the next victim?

qk
89 PERSIA. [B. c. 361

and whose influence over her son had long before excited her hatred.
To cloak her design the more effectually, she feigned a reconciliation
with her daughter-in-law, exchanged visits with her, and often invited
her to sup in her apartment. The two queens appeared to be on the
most friendly terms, but the fear of poison kept them constantly
uneasy, and they would never eat except from the same dishes. But
Parysatig could not’ be foiled. One day at table, she took a nicely
dressed bird, cut it in two, and giving one-half to Statira, eat the other
herself.

142. Immediately after, Statira was seized with the most excruci-
ating pain, and sending for Artaxerxes, accused Parysatis of having
poisoned her. Convinced by the dreadful convulsions in which his
beloved queen expired, Artaxerxes put all the servants of his mother
to the torture, when Giges confessed that she had poisoned one side
of the knife with which Parysatis had divided the bird. She was
punished by having her head crushed between two stones: the wicked
queen was banished to Babylon. :

143. Peace wir Greror.—Meanwhile Tissaphernes, by intermed-
dling in the affairs of Sparta and Athens, kept up a continual war in
Asia Minor, which was finally productive of great honor to Persia.
The two rival states became so much weakened by their own dissen-
sions that the Persians gained the advantage of them; and, in com-
pelling them to sign the treaty of Antalcidas, wiped out the stain of
their former defeats, B. 0. 387.

144, Trountes at Home.—-zn. 0. 361.—The end of Artaxerxes’s reign
was filled with troubles and cabals. He was of a sweet and amiable
disposition, but indolent, and enslaved by the luxuries of the court.
The satraps of the provinces, abusing his good-nature and infirmities,
loaded the people with taxes, and made the Persian yoke intolerable,
Many of the tributary provinces, in consequence, revolted ; but as they
acted without concert, quarreled among themsvlves, and betrayed one
another to the king, the troubles excited by them expired of them-
selves, Artaxerxes had three sons by his wife, and 150 by his concu-
bines. The rival interests of so many princes filled the whole court
with factions. To prevent these disorders, Artaxerxes declared

 

Questions.—141. What course of conduct did Parysatis then pursue? How at last did
fhe accomplish her purpose? 142. What measures did Artaxerxes adopt in order to learn
the cause of his queen’s death? What confession was made? What was the consequence?
143, What is said of Tissaphernes? What was the result to Sparta and Athens? 144. What

was the general character of Artaxerxes? How many sons did he have? Why did he
declare Darius his successor ?
B. c. 360.] REIGN OF OCHUS. 83

Darius his successor, and permitted him to wear the royal tiara and
assume the name of king.

145. Darius, not satisfied with these marks of.favor, formed a
design against his father’s life, in which he engaged fifty of his brothers.
A day was fixed by these unnatural children for the completion of
their scheme, but the thing having been related to the old king, he
caused them to be arrested as they entered his chamber with the in-
struments of death in their hands. They were all executed as they
deserved. Ochus, the third legitimate son, then began to entertain
ambitious thoughts for himself. By assassinating one brother, and
threatening another into suicide, he removed the obstacles which
stood between him and the throne, and broke his father’s heart.
Artaxerxes sunk to the tomb overwhelmed by repeated afflictions. Ho
reigned 44 years.

146. Ocuus, B. co. 860.—Ochus desired distinction, and he gained it.
Of all the monarchs that had ever disgraced a throne by violence and
cruelty, he takes the pre-eminence. The vices of his predecessors
shrank into insignificance when compared with the absolute deformi-
ties of his character, so that it might be said of him in the words of
Scripture, ‘There was none like unto Ochus who sold himself to work
wiekedness.” To rid himself at once of all fear of his family, he put
every member to death, without regard to age, sex, or tender entreaty.
He caused his own sister, Ocha, to be buried alive, though her
daughter was his queen. He shut up an uncle with one hundred
children and grand-children in a court of the palace, and ordered them
to be shot to death with arrows, merely because the young princes
were held in high estimation. Ile treated all who gave him cause for
uneasiness throughout the empire with the same barbarity, and filled
every province of Persia with lamentation.

147. His only expedition of importance was against Egypt, which
he invaded with complete success. After his return he abandoned
himself to his pleasures, leaving the affairs of his kingdom to be
administered by Mentor the Rhodian, and Bagoas his eunuch, an
Egyptian. Not contented with having dismantled the cities,-pillaged
the houses and temples of Egypt, he carried away the archives of the
nation, which the priests had so long preserved with pious veneration.

 

Questions.—145. What plot did Darius form? How was it defeated? Who was Ochus?
What baseness was he guilty of? How long had Artaxerxes been king? 146. Who sue-
ceeded Artaxerxes on the throne? What was the character of Ochus? Name some of his
barbarous acts. 147. What success attended his arms? To whom did he then leave the
affairs of his kingdom?
84 PERSIA. [B. 0. 336.

In addition to his impiety, he had caused the god Apis to be served
up at dinner for his household, and had even gone so fur as to compel
Bagoas to eat of it. This the outraged Exyptian never forgave, and it
is said that Oclus died by poison administered by his hand. Nor did
this satisfy his revenge. Tle caused another body to be interred
iustead of the king's, and, cutting up the flesh of Ochus in small pieces,
fed it to ext, and fashioned his bones into handles for nuives und
swords, the proper emblems of cruelty, B. ©. 838.

148. When Bagoas had thus disposed of Ochus, he placed Arses,
the youngest son of the king, upon the throne; but not finding him so
convenient a tool as he had anticipated, he caused him to be assas-
sinated, and bestowed the crown upon Darius Codomanus, one of the
surviving descendants of that uncle whom Ochus had massacred, The
Persian empire was now tottering to its fall. The ‘arms of silver”
had become enervated by luxury, and their strength had ceparted;
“the ram” had ceased ‘‘to push westward and northward and south-
ward,” and quietly reposed “beside the river,”? while the “he-goat”
was preparing to attack him.

149. Fart or Persia, B. 0. 336.—It was two hundred years from the
time when the whole eastern world bowed to the yoke of Cyrus the
Great, that Darius Codomanus clothed himself in the robe of that
mighty conqueror, and attempted to sway the imperial scepter over
revolted provinces and effeminate subjects. In the same year Darius
and Alexander began to reign, the one in the East, the other in the
West. Darius had scarcely time to discover that Bagoas was plotting
against his life, and to bring that wicked person to punishment, when
news was brought to him that Alexander had invaded his dominions.
It was not till after the battle of Granicus had been fought, that the
ill-disciplined forces of the empire were collected to attend their mon-
arch in his march to repulse the Greek.

160. In the battle of Jssvs, Darius was first defeated, and compelled
to flee with great precipitation. Two years after, in a second battle
at Arbela, he was again utterly defeated. His intention then was to
pass through Media, laying waste the country as he went, till he found
refuge the other side of the Oxus. There he supposed the conqueror
would leave him unmolested; but his plan was defeated by one of his

 

Questions.—147, What indignity did he force upon Bagoas? How was Bagoas avenged?
When did that occur? 148. Who was Arses? Give the account of him. Who was Darius
Cedomanus? To what position did he attain? 149, Ilow many years had passed since the
reign of Cyrus the Great? What feeble imitation was attempted by Darius Codomanus?
‘50. How many battles did Darius fight in person ?
B.C. 330.] THE ROYAL FAMILIES. 85

own satraps, who dethroned him, and carried him off a close prisoner
to Bactria. Alexander pursued him, and finding escape impossible,
the treacherous satraps stabbed their king in several places, and left
him by the road-side weltering in his blood. He was indebted to a
Macedonian soldier for the last draught of water, and expired, com-
mitting his body to the conqueror, B. 0. 3830.

By the subjugation of all the eastern world to Alexander, Persia
became a Grecian province.

JNead Dan, viil. 2-7, 20, 21.

Mepian Dywasry.

, a
Darius Hystaspes. 9 | J 7] Cambyses. | 8 | Smercis.

   
  

Xerxes the Great.
Artaxerxés Longimanus.
Xerxes II. reigned 45 days.

Sogdianus reigned 195 days.

Darius Codomanus.

Persia hecomes a Grecian province.

Question. 150. Relate the story of his death, When did that event take place? What
did Lersia then become ?
PERSIA.

86
REVIEW QUESTIONS.

PAGE
1. What can you state of the early history of Persia?.....-.eeeeee . 35
2. Give an account of Dejoces....... ee eee rete rete reer err ee ereee 35, 36
83. Of Phraortes......csce cers ccere senso ccc cese cere sesseeescaee 36
4. OF Gyaxaresinsis sy noes a espe esate «eee ee SE MRE Raa SF 36, 37, 38
5. Give, as far as you can, the history of Media up to the time of

13, 33, 34, 35, 36, 34, 38

 

CYTUS. 0. cece eect eee eens eee e teen renee
6. Give an account of Cyrus till his 16th year... ....- eee eee eee ees 38, 39
". Of Cyrus's first expedition and return home.....---+eeeeeeeeees 39, 40
8. What led to Cyrus’s second expedition ?......0e- sees seer eeeee 40
9. Give an outline of that expedition......- teAeess ee wee 4], 42, 43, 44
10. Describe the preparations for the battle of Thymbra............. 44-46
11. Give an account of the battle, and of Panthea’s fate.........--- » 44-48
12. Give an account of Croesus, king of Lydia..........-e- eee 40, 42, 44-48
13. Why did Cyrus wish to capture Babylon?....... 2... eee ee eens 48
14. Give an account of his operations and success. ......-e0-eeeeeee 48, 49
15. Give his further history till he became king.......... Bieakesess 50, 51
16. Give his further history till his death... 2. .... Lee ce ee eee eee 51, 52
17. Why did Cambyses make war upon Egypt?..........- esse eee 52
18. Give an account of Cambyses’s SUCCESS... 2.2... ee eee eee renee 52, 53
19. Of his expedition against the Ethiopians..............-465 Sass 53, 54
20. Of his tyranny and cruelty at Memphis.............02 eee ee eee 55
21. Of his cruelty toward Smerdis and Prexaspes..........e- eee eee 55, 56
22. Give an account of the true and false Smerdis............... 55, 56, 57
23. Describe the taking of Babylon by Darius. ...... 2... cece eee eee 58, 59
24. Give an account of the Scythian expedition. ......... cee ee eee ee 60, 61
25. Name the important succeeding events
26. What is stated in connection with the burning of Sardis?......... 62, 63
27. Name the events till the battle of Marathon. ...........02-00000e 63, 64
28. The further events, till the death of Darius.............2. eee eee 64
29. What preparations were made against Greece?......... ee eee eee 65, 66
30. Give an account of Xerxes'’s march... .... ccs cece ess ceeecs 66, 67, 68
31. Of the battle of Thermopyle........... Scihs Sate Genco seeeesis cae 68, 69
32. Of the further movements of Nerxes......... cc cee eee cece e eens 69, 70
33. Of the battle of Salamis and consequences... ......... 2 eee eee eee 70, 71
34. Name the events of the next seven years...... ewe iONe Oe See ES: 71, 72
35. Give the account of the Egyptian revolt... ........ ccc eee ee eee 72, 73
36. Name the important events succeeding the revolt............. 73, 14, 15
ST. Name the events connected with young Cyrus............ 74, 75, 76, 77
38. Describe the Retreat of the Ten Thousand..............-0000ee 77-81
$9. Givevansaccount: of Ochusy, 6.6.6: ce esguieg ramen Sele oa ah 8 Sack one tele 33, 84
40. What further can yor state of Persia?.... 2... cece eee ee ee eee . 84, 85
CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION.

 

B.O.
Menes, first King of Egypt (s.c. 2700, Lane); (B.c. 3893,
Lepsius) ; (B. c. 5004, Mariette), Bunsen - - 3623
The Great Pyramids by Suphis L, - about 2400
Egypt invaded by the HyBaos, or Shepherd kings ee Cc. aah
Oppert) 2080
The Chaldean, or Old Babylonian Monarchy, founded, abenedltines
to Gutschmidt and Rawlinson - about 3600
The Third Dynasty, beginning of Chaldean ‘History 2234
Shepherd kings completely subdue Egypt - 1900
Settlement of the Israelites in Egypt (Ussher, B.C. 1706) F
(Poole, B.C. 1867); Bunsen 13829
Time of the Judges in Judea - 1650-1095
Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt (Poole, B.C. 1652) Ussher,
B.C. 1491); Bunsen - - 1314
The Assyrian Empire founded, - about 1450
The Nineteenth Dynasty in Egypt—Ramses IL. (Sesostris), height
of Egyptian power (Oppert, 1462 B.C.) - - 1409
Kkameses II. opens a Canal trom the Nile to Red Sea 1811-1260
Conquest of Babylon by the Assyrians 1260
Reign of Saul (8. c. 1097-1058, Oppert) 1095-1055
“David (B. Cc. 1058-1019, Oppert) 1055-1015
«Solomon (B.c. 1019-978, Oppert) 1015-985
Revolt of the Ten Tribes (B.c. 928, Oppert) - 985
The kingdom of Israel to the Captivity of the Ten Tribes by
Shalmanezer (978-721, Oppert) —- - 985-719
The kingdom of Judah to the Captivity in Babylon - - 978-588
Carthage founded - about 872, 985-586
Semiramis, Queen of Assyria 810-781
Hosea, last King of Israel - . 729-719
Sennacherib, King of Assyria 705-680
Medes revolt from Assyria - 740
Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem, the captivity of the Jews 586
Tbe Median Monarchy founded 650
Nineveh taken by the Medes 625
Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon 604-561
takes Tyre 585
Egypt conquered by Assyria 665
. Cyrus, King of Persia - 558-529
' Crovsus taken prisoner by Cyrus (s. c. 544), Rawlinson 554
' Babylon taken by Cyrus - 538
‘The return of the Jews from Babylon - 536
-  Cambyses, King of Persia - - - 529-522
. Psammenticus defeated at Pelusium by Cambyses 525
The End of the Egyptian Monarchy  -- 525
Cambyses rules over Egypt 525

Darius 1, King of Persia 521-486
CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION.

  
 

B.C.
Darius I., invades Scythia - - oe
iw conquers ‘Thrace and Macedonia - a
Revolt of the Asiatic Greeks on
Sardis burnt by the Grecks - oe
Xerxes I., King of Persia 486 65
Artaxerxes L., ‘King of Persia 465-20
Eeypt revolts from Persia 2 oe
Persia again establishes her power over Asia Minor . 412
‘Vissaphernes sand Pharnabazzus satraps 412
Artaxerxes IL, King of Persia - - 405-362
Battle of Cunaxa 401
War between Sparta and Persia 399-894
Battle of Cnidus 394
Peace of Antalcidas - 5 887
Artaxcrxes ILL, King of Persia - - 859-388
Eeypt and Phoenicia again annexed to Persia 346
Darius LL, last King of Peisia 336-3380
FIRST PERIOD.
Chaldean Ascendency in Western Asia about B.c. 2001-1543
SECOND PERIOD.
Egyptian Ascendency in Western Asia B.c. 1525-1200
THIRD PERIOD.
Assyrian Ascendency in Western Asia B.C. 1250-625

FOURTH PERIOD.
The Four Great Powers—Babylon, Media, Lydia, Egypt, B.C. 625-558
(Babylon taken by Cyrus, B. c. 588) ; (Media and Lydia con-
-quered by Cyrus, B.c. 558-554); (Egypt conquered by
Cambyses, B. c. 525).
FIFTH PERIOD.

 

 

Persian Ascendency in Western Asia, to B.c. 559-333
TABLE.
Dates as given by Modern Colponulois
8 Ze i=
Ussuer. a CLINTON. Wass. | Poo.r.
RS gaat ee rseceetin ns
B.C. | B.O. B.C. | Rc
Creation 4004 4138 BAIT \ DARL
Flood - 2349 2482 BIOS B59
Call of Abraham - - wd 2055 2078 | 2082
Tixodus — - W491 | 1625 | 1648 Wi25
Destruction of the Temple - - 588 587 | 586. 586

 
GREECE.

SEOTION IV.

Greece, commenciag with !ts settlement by the children of Javan, about 2000 B u., and
ending with its subjugation by the Romans, 146 B. c., continued nearly two millenniums.

1, WE have contemplated the “Head of gold” and ‘Arms of
silver,’ described in Nebuchadnezzar’s image; we come now to the
“Body of brass,” which comprises a far more interesting and instruc-
tive portion of history. Assyria and Persia were empires ruled by
despots, and dependent in a great measure for their prosperity upon
the individual character of the king; consequently the history of the
monarch became the history of the nation. A striking deviation from
this order will be observed in the following pages. Greece was a
republic. It was settled at different times, in different places, by
adventurers from different countries. The laws of the different states
were not the same; yet a common bond of brotherhood, and a com-
mon hatred of tyranny, led them to unite in repelling every foreign
invader, and gave them at one time the dominion of the world.

2. Though Greece at first possessed only a very small extent of
territory, yet the advantages of its natural position were very great.
It was in the center of the most cultivated portions of three quarters
of the world; its extensive coasts were indented with numerous bays,
and furnished with commodious harbors; it was watered in every direc-
tion by an infinite number of small streams, which, rising in the lofty
hills, flowed through fertile vales, and imparted a delicious coolness to
a climate naturally warmer than that of any other part of Europe. Its
superficial content was 29,600 square miles; not half as large as the
territory of New England; yet within this limited space were twenty
rival states, which for a long period bade defiance to the world, and
perished only when they turned their arms upon one another.

 

GreEEcE.—Section 1V.— Questions.—_1. What is said of Nebuchadnezzar’s image? Why
is the history of Greece considered more interesting than that of Assyria and Persia? What
was Greece? What is said of its settlement? Of itslaws? Why did the Grecian states
unite? What was the consequence? 2. What is said of the natural advantages of Greece?
low large was its territory? Of how many states did it consist? What is said of their
power? Why did they perish ?
‘

88 GREECE.

3. A dime, laid upon the southern part of Turkey, in Europe, as
delineated upon the common maps, would cover all the territory of
Greece proper, and Macedonia beside; yet here stood the beautiful
city of Athens; here were the vales and groves of Arcadia; here the
bloody fields of Marathon and Platea; here was ‘‘ High Olympus,”
with his neighboring eminences, Pelion and Ossa; here was lofty
Parnassus, sheltering the famous temple of Delphi; here were the
classic waters of Helicon, and the Castalian fount; here all those
woods, and vales, and streams made sacred by the visits of the gods
themselves. Here too lived and flourished the wisest philosophers,
the mightiest heroes, and the most renowned statesmen the world
ever saw; and to this comparatively insignificant spot, sculpture,
painting, poetry, and music lent their magic powers to such a degree,
that to this day the models of the Grecian school are imitated, but
not surpassed.

4. GeocrapHy.—We will consider Greece under four divisions.

I.—TIlyria, Macedonia, and Thrace were not reckoned a part of Greece
until about the time of Alexander.

IIl.—Worthern Greece had Thessaly on the east and Epirus on the
west.

1. Thessaly, afterwards so celebrated for its cavalry, contained Mts.
Ossa and Olympus, separated by the delicious vale of Tempe, through
which flowed the magnificent river Peneus. Here also was the plain
of Pharsalia, where three very important battles were fought.

2. Epirus contained the oracle of Jupiter at Dodona.

5. II.—Of Central Greece or Hellas, 3, 4, 5, 6, were very little
celebrated. 7 Phocis contained the oracle of Delphi, the city of
Crissa, and Mt. Parnassus. 8. East Locris contained Thermopyla,
which is thus described: “ At Thermopyle a steep and inaccessible
mountain rises on the west, and on the east side are the sea and the

 

Questions.—3. What is the illustration in connection with the dime? What city was
there? Vales and groves? Bloody fields? Eminences? Mountain? Temple? Waters?
Fount? Woods, vales, and streams? Philosophers, heroes, and statesmen? What is said
of the sculpture, painting, poetry, and music of Greece? [The importance of a “ geographical
knowledge of history ” cannot be too deeply impressed upon the mind of the student; it is,
therefore, earnestly requested that every pupil become perfectly familiar with the situation
of the different states upon map No. 2, and also with the relative position of Greece on the
maps in general use.] 4. What three states are first mentioned? What is said of them?
Which of them was farthest east? (See map.) Of what two states was Northern Greece
composed? (See, also, map.) For what did Thessaly become celebrated? What did it con-
tain? Epirus? 5. By what name was Central Greece best known? Name the states of
Central Greece. (See, also, map.) Give the names of those bordering on Northern Greece.
What did Phocis contain? East Locris?
GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 89

marshes. The road is fifty feet wide, but in the narrowest part there is
room only for one carriage.” 9. Eubcea, separated from Beotia by tho
narrow strait of Euripus, had one city, Eretria, which took an active
part in the Persian wars. 10. Beotia was a large plain shut in by
mountains. Beside Thebes, the capital, it contained Platea, Leuctra,
and Cheroneia,* places which will often be mentioned in the course of
this history. 11. Attica was sixty-three miles long and twenty-five
broad. Its only city was Athens: Marathon, Eleusis, &c., were only
villages. 12. Megara was a Dorian colony, subject to Attica.

6. IV. Peloponnesus.—13. Corinth was in everybody's way. It
was the key of Southern Greece, and the hostile armies which passed
from Hellas into the Peloponnesus frequently laid it waste. The
citadel of Corinth, Acro-Corinthus, was a lofty rock, clearly visible
from Athens, a distance of forty miles. 14. Sicyon, the capital of
Sicyonia, was the oldest settled town in Greece. 15. Achaia was never
much distinguished till after the death of Alexander, when its twelve
cities united to resist the power of Macedon, and were for a time the
sole defenders of Grecian liberty.

7. 16. Elis was the Holy Land of Greece. No wars were allowed
to violate this sacred soil; armies in passing through it were deprived
of their weapons. Here was the temple of Olympian Jove, and here
all the descendants of Hellen met once in four years to celebrate the
Olympic games. 17. Arcadia was the country of hills and valleys, of
flocks and herds. The Arcadians were equally ready to fight for free-
dom and for money, and generally enlisted on the side which furnished
the best pay. 18. Argolis took the lead of all the states in the Trojan
war, and never after. 19. Laconia was the ancient name of Lacede-
monia, the capital of which was Sparta. The Spartans laid waste and
subdued (20.) Messenia, very early in the history of Greece.

8. Mytrnotoey.—The religious beliefs and observances of the Greeks,
constituting their mythology, are intimately connected with the fabu-
lous and poetical portion of their history. The origin of Grecian reli-
gion has been differently stated by different historians; some asserting
that it came from Egypt; others that Phenicia was its parent; while
others bid us search in Crete and Samothracia for the authors of those

 

Questions —5, Eubea? Beotia? Attica? What is said of Megara? 6. By what nama
was Southern Greece most known? Why was Corinth in everybody’s way? What is eaid
of Acro-Corinthus? Of Sicyon? Of Achaia? 7. What is said of Elis? Of Arcadia?
Of Argolis? Of Laconia? Of Messenia? [The teacher is requested to give out the num
bers, und permit the pupil, with his eyes fixed upon the map, to describe the states.
8. What constituted the mythology of the Greeks? Whatis stated in relation to the origir
of Grecian religion ? * Also written Cheronees and Cheeronea,
90 ” GREECE.

fables which peopled ‘‘ Old Olympus” with all the deities of the Pan-
theon. These fables, whether invented by the natives or introduced
by foreigners, were spread throughout Greece in the form of traditions,
till the poets collected and arranged them into one uniform system
which the beauty of their verses caused to be universally adopted. [/

9. According to this system, the beginning of all things was Chaos
—-a heterogeneous mass, containing all the seeds of nature. Hesiod
says, ‘Chaos was first ;”’ then came into being “ broad-breasted Earth,
the gloomy Tartarus, and Love.” The progeny of Chaos were Nox,
Erebus, Day, and Ether, Colum, Heaven, and Terra, the Earth, were
the parents of Saturn, the oldest of the gods, but he, having the Titans
for brothers, obtained the kingdom only by an agreement to destroy
all his offspring. This promise he fulfilled till Rhea, his wife, con-
trived to hide Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto, which becoming known to
the Titans, they cast Saturn into prison. Jupiter, meanwhile, was
reared in the isle of Crete, rocked by Adrastea in a golden cradle, fed
with ambrosia brought by pigeons from the streams of Ocean, and
nectar, which an eagle drew each day with his beak from a rock.

10. When Jupiter had grown up to manhood he overcame the Titans
and restored Saturn to his throne; but he afterwards quarreled with
his father and chased him into Italy, where the banished god spent his
time in civilizing the rude inhabitants. He brought them into such
a state of blessedness, that this period was ever afterwards called the
Golden Age. He was represented in pictures as an old man, witha
scythe in one hand, and a child, which he was about to devour, in the
other. According to a more rational account, Saturn is but another
name for time. Days, Months, and Years are the children of Time,
which he continually devours and produces anew, even as Saturn is
fabled to have destroyed his own offspring.

11. After Saturn had been driven into exile, his three sons divided
the universe among themselves. Jupiter became sovereign of the
heavens and earth. Neptune obtained the empire of the sea, and
Pluto received the scepter-of the infernal regions. Jupiter, however,
was soon disturbed in his dominions by the offspring of Titan, a race
of terrible giants, who by piling Pelion upon Ossa attempted to ascend

 

Questions.—8. What is intimately connected with the poetical portion of Grecian
history? 9. What did they style the beginning of all things? Who were the parenta
of Saturn? Who were the Titans? How many children had Saturn? What is said of the
youth of Jupiter? 10. What further account can you give of Jupiter? How was Satara
represented? What more rational account do we have of Saturn? 11, Who ruled over the
threo empires? By whom was Jupiter disturbed? In what way?
GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 91

to heaven and pluck him from his throne. The gods, in great alarm,
fled from Mt. Olympus to Egypt, where they sheltered themselves
under the forms of various animals.

12. Jupiter finally overcame his enemies, including the huge Typhon,
whom he buried beneath Etna, where he heaves the lofty mountain
with his groaning sides, and vomits flames to this day. Jupiter was
always represented as sitting on a throne of ivory and gold, holding
the thunderbolts in his right hand, and a scepter of cypress in the
other, with an eagle standing by his side. He took in marriage his
sister Juno, 2 beautiful, but ill-tempered goddess, who kept the “father
of gods and king of men” a little in awe of her tongue, which did not
always deal in the gentlest epithets. She was delineated as riding in a
chariot drawn by peacocks, with a scepter in her hand, and a crown
of roses and lilies upon her head.

13. Nine of the principal deities were considered as the children of
Jupiter. Apollo was the god of music, poetry, painting, and medicine.
He was represented as « beautiful young man, with a bow in his hand
and a quiver of arrows at his back. At the banquet of the gods on
Olympus, Apollo played on his lyre while the Muses sang. When
he resolved to choose the site of his first temple, he traversed Greece
till he came to Crissa, a quiet, sequestered spot, sheltered by Mt. Par-
nassus, where he slew the inonstrous serpent Python, and set about
erecting a temple; whence the place was called Pytho. Mars, the
god of war, was represented as driving furiously along in a chariot
drawn by Fear and Terror, in the form of foaming steeds, with Discord
running before him, in tattered garments, and Anger and Clamor fol-
lowing close behind.

14. Bacchus, the god of revels and revelers, is too well known, with
his red eyes and bloated face, to need a description here. Mercury
was the messenger of the gods, and of Jupiter especially. He was the
god of speech, of eloquence; the patron of merchants and of dishonest
men, particularly thieves. He presided over highways and cross-
ways, guided travelers through by-ways, and conducted the souls of
the dead to the world below. In token of his office he was painted
with wings upon his hat and upon his heels, with a rod called Cadu- *
ceus in his hand, which Apollo gave him in exchange for the Lyre.
Square blocks of granite surmounted with his head, standing at the
crossing of streets, were called statues of Ilerma.

 

Questions._12, What suceess did Jupiter have? How was he represented? Who waa
bis wife? What was Juno's character? How was she represented? 13. How many chil-
dren had Jupiter? Deseribe Apollo. Mars. 14 Describe Bacchus. Mercury.
92 GREECE.

15. Minerva was the goddess both of wisdom and of war, and wes
fabled to have sprung, all armed and equipped, from the head of
Jupiter, The spindle and the distaff were her IBVEDEION, and the
solemn owl her emblem. She superintended the building of the ship
Argo, and taught Epeus low to frame the wooden horse. Athena,
her Greek name, was given to Athens. Another name of hers was
Pallas. The Palladium, her image, fell down from heaven into the
city of Troy. When the Grecians besieged that place, they found it
could never be taken while the Palladium remained in it. Ulysses
ané Diomedes crept into the city, through the sewers, and stole the
precious protection, after which Troy was captured,

16. Venus was the goddess of beauty and of love. The three
graces danced around her, and the mischievous little Cupid played at
her feet. She sprang from the froth of the sea, and was laid, like a
pearl, in a shell instead of a cradle. The rose-colored shallop, with
its precions freight, was watted by Zephyrus to the island of Cyprus,
where the gold-filleted Seasons received her, clothed her in immortal
garments, adorned her with every ornament which could add to her
beauty, and took her to the abode of the gods, every one of whom
admired and Joved her, and desired to espouse her. She finally fell to
the lot of Vulean.

17. Vulean, attended by his grisly one-eyed Cyclops, was repre-
sented as a blacksmith, forging thunderbolts for Jupiter. It was said
that the first woman was fashioned by his hammer, and that every god
gave her some present, whence she was called Pandora; and that
Jupiter, to be revenged upon Prometheus, who stole fire from heaven
to animate the man he had formed, sent Pandora to him with a sealed
box. When the precious casket was opened, all sorts of evils and
diseases flew out of it, and nothing but Hope was left at the bottom.
Aurora, the goddes; of the morning, was represented clothed in a
saffron-colored robe, coming out of a golden palace, and throwing
back a flowing vail, as she opened with rosy fingers the gates of day
for the fiery steeds of Apollo. Sbe was the mother of the winds, and
wept the dew frorn her cyes in liquid pearls. The Muses were nine
beautiful goddesses, who presided over musicians, orators, historians,
poets, &e.

18. Neptune, the god of the ocean, was drawn by dolphins, in
his scallop-shell chariot, over the foaming waves. His hair was black

 

Questions.—15. Describe Minerva. 16. Venus. 17. Vulean. Aurora, The Muses
1S Neptune
THK TRIBUNAL OF THE DEAD. 93

as the midnight storm, and his eyes as blue as the peaceful sea. An
azure mantle floated from his shoulders; in one hand he held his
trident, and with the other clasped his wife, Amphitrite. Triton, his
son and trumpeter, attended his father.

Frowning, he seemed his crooked shell to sound,
And at the blast the billows danced around.

19. Beside the celestial and terrestrial deities, of which not a
tithe have been enumerated, the infernal gods were often quoted.
According to Grecian fables, the passage which led to the infernal
regions was a wide and dark cave, opening upon a stagnant lake
called Avernus. Four rivers were to be passed by the dead, the most
celebrated of which was the Styx. Charon, the ferryman of hell,
received the souls of the buried dead (those of the unburied being com-
pelled to wander one hundred years about those gloomy shores), and
rowed them over to the palace of Pluto. The gate of this palace was
guarded by a three-headed dog, Cerberus, whose body was covered
with snakes instead of hair. After bribing this ferocious keeper by
the present of a cake, they entered to the presence of the sovereign of
the infernal regions. .

20. This was Pluto, the brother of Jupiter, who sat upon an ebon-
throne, holding in his hand the key of ‘death and Hades.” By his
side sat Proserpine, the daughter of Ceres, who became his wife in the
following manner: When all the goddesses had refused to marry
Pluto, he seated himself in his chariot of darkness, which rendered
him invisible, and suddenly emerged from a cave in Sicily, near which
some beautiful nymphs were gathering white daffodils. He seized
Proserpine, and sank with her into the earth. Ceres, alarmed at the
absence of her daughter, lighted a torch at the flames of Etna, and
wandered up and down the earth in search of her. She found her at
Jast in the infernal regions, the bride of Pluto.

21. Tue TripunaL or THE DEAvD.—AII persons received their deaths
impartially from the Fates. Then their condemnation impartially
from the three Judges. And afterwards their punishment impartially
from the three Furies. The Fates, three sisters, who ordered the
Past, the Present, and the Future, were constantly employed in spin-
ning the thread of life. Lachesis turned the wheel, Clotho drew out
the thread, and Atropos cut it off with the fatal scissors. The three

 

Questions.—19, What is said of the infernal regions? 20. Who had charge of the inferna.
regions? Who was his wife? In what manner did he get his wife? 21. What is said of
the tritunal of the dead ?
94 GREECE.

judges, Minos, Rhadamanthus, and Eacus, were the sons of Jupiter.
The three tormenting Furies were monsters, with the faces of women.
Grief, Terror, and Madness were their inseparable followers; in one
hand they held a lighted torch, while w ith the other they scanned
the souls of the lost throughout all the gloomy caverns of hell. Beside
the furies, these melancholy regions were peopled with Darpies,
Sphinxes, Gorgons, ‘‘and chimeras dire,” presenting every disgusting
appearance, and every terrible form of punishment.

22. Exystan Fierps.—There was a place in the province of Pluto
called Elysium, where all the souls of the good, after being purged
from their light offenses, were permitted to take up their abode

“The few who're cleansed, to those abodes repair,
And breathe in ample fields the soft Elysian air;
From holy rites performed, they take their way,
Where long extended plains of pleasure lay.

The fields are verdant, and with heaven may vie,
With ether vested, and a purple sky:

The blissful seats of happy souls below,
Stars of their own, and their own sun they Know.”

After years spent in these delightful retreats, the souls of the blessed
were instructed to dripk of the river Lethe, which washed away all
remembrance of the past, and then they returned to earth again, to
inhabit other bodies.

23. The Greeks had also a class of demi-gods, who had human
bodies, sacred minds, and celestial souls, and were sent into the world
for the benefit of mankind. Among these were Hercules, who per-
formed several mighty exploits; one of which was the rending asunder
of Spain and Africa, thus permitting the strait of Gibraltar to flow
between two rocks, called the pillars of Hercules; Jason, who headed
the Argonautic expedition; Exsculapius, the god of medicine; Or-
pheus, Achilles, Ulysses, and many others, which it would be impos-
sible to notice in the limits of this work.

24. Beside all these gods, a species of imaginary beings filled every
corner both of the earth and sea. Every mountain had its Oreads,
the woods and vales were peopled with Dryads, the sea was furnished
with Tritons and Nereids, and every fountain rejoiced in its guardian
Naiad. To the Greeks, the thunder was the voice of Jupiter; the
soft breeze of summer, was the wing of Eolus; the echo of the forest
was the pensive w Misper of a goddess and the murmur of the streamlet~

 Biigantiins, 22 What is said of the Elysian flelds? 23. Of the demi-gods? 24 Of
imaginary beings? Of thunder? Soft breeze? Echo of the forest? Murmur of the
stresalet?

 
GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 95

was the tone of a presiding deity. In short, whatever sound or sight
charmed their fancy was ascribed to the agency of unseen, but beau-
tiful and immortal beings,

25. Errror or Grecian Myrnoxoay.—-It will readily be inferred,
that a religion so interwoven with all that was lovely in nature, and
all that was poetic in imagination, must have exercised a powerful
influence upon the character of the people. The Greek honored his
deity as his friend; and to defend his temple, was a more sacred daty
than to protect his own fireside. To paint the ideal beauty of Venus,
to make the marble personate the lofty purity of Minerva, or the dread
majesty of Jupiter, employed all the genius of the painter and the
sculptor. To sing the combat of the gods with the giants; to charm
the listeners at the Olympic games with the loves of Olympian Jove ;
to recount the exploits of the heroes before the walls of Troy; to
magnify the strength of Hercules, and the address of Theseus;
awakened the imagination, and gave wings to the genius of the poet
and historian; hence it is that Greece stands proudly pre-eminent as
the birth-place of the sciences, and the cradle of the fine arts.

26. Till the time of Homer, the Greeks, like other savages, wor-
shiped in the open air, in sacred groves, or in temples rudely cou
structed for the purpose. The priesthood was limited to no part
cular family or class; and oftentimes distinguished generals or magis-
trates assisted in the most solemn rites. In the marriage ceremony,
the bride was conducted in the evening from her father’s house to her
husband’s, seated in a chariot, between the bridegroom aad her most
intimate friend. Torches were carried before them, and a nuptial
song was chanted by the way. Before the door of the dwelling, the
axletree of the carriage was broken, to signify that she was never to
return to her father’s house.

27. At the death of friends, the Greeks abstained from all ban
quets and entertainments; they tore or cut off their hair, they rolled
in the dust, and covered their heads with ashes. Before the inter-
ment, a piece of money was put into the mouth of the deceased, whicn
was considered as Charon’s fare for wafting the soul over the infernat
river. The corpse was likewise furnished with a cake of loney and
flour, designed to appease the fury of Cerberus, and procure the ghost
a safe and easy entrance to the realms of Pluto. In the early ages, it
was customary to lay the dead in the ground, but burning afterward

Questions,—25, What was the effect of Grecian Mythology? ¥8 Where did the Greek.
conduct their worship? Describe their nuptial ceremonies

+ Yesuwibe their funera
ceremonies. What was esteemed a great disgrace?
96 GREECE.

became the common practice. The pile was lighted by the nearest
relative, and, while it was consuming, the friends stood by, pouring
out libations, and calling upon the departed soul. Then followed
feasts, at whic all the guests appeared crowned, and employed the
time in lauding the deceased, so fur as was consistent w ith truth; for
it was esteemed a great disgrace to lie upon such an occasion.

28. The most powerful engines of Grecian polity were the mysteries
and oracles. In every state of the Republic there were certuin cere-
monies of a secret religion, over which the solemn veil of inystery was
thrown. The sacred rites of Ceres, and the oracular responses from
the dismal cave of Trophonius, the venerable oak of Dodona, and the
inspiring vapor of Delphi, exercised over the enthusiastic minds of the
inhabitants a power which designing men seized upon to further their
own ambitious views. V

29. DrsoripTion oF Detpat.—tThe oracle that gained the highest
reputation was that of Delphi. On the southern side of Mount Par-
nassus, not far from Crissa, the mountain crags formed a natural
amphitheater, in the midst of which a deep cavern discharged from a
narrow orifice, a vapor powerfully affecting the brain of those who
came within its influence. This, we are told, was first brought into
notice by a goatherd, whose goats, browsing upon the brink, were
thrown into convulsions; upon which, the man, going to the spot and
endeavoring to look into the chasm, became agitated like one frantic.

30. The spot which produced such marvelous effects, became the
object of universal curiosity ; people came from all quarters to inhale
the inspiring fluid, and the incoherent words uttered in the intoxica-
tion were considered prophecy. But the function of the prophet
became not a little dangerous, for many through giddiness fell into the
cave and were lost. An assembly of the neighboring inhabitants was
therefore convened, a priestess was appointed by public authority; a
frame, resting upon three feet, called a tripod, was prepared, seated
upon which the Pythoness inhaled the maddening vapor, and uttered
incoherent sentences, which her attendants wrote down as the re-
sponses of Apollo. A rude temple was built over the eavern, priests :
were elected, ceremonies were prescribed, and sacrifices were pet-
formed, Delphi, which was really near the center of Greece, was
reported to be the center of the world.

31. No eee of importance was undertaken, without first cou-

 

 

Questions.—28. What is said of the mysteries and oracles? 29, 30, 81. Deseribe Delphi,
Where was it located? (See map Noo) What is it wow 2?

Ang. A small village called
Castri, How did Delphi become a © national bank ?”
SETTLEMENT OF GREECE 97

sulting this oracle; to do which, it was necessary to propitiate the god
by presents; and, as the priests had it always in their power to deny
answers, to delay answers, or to give answers direct, dubious, and unin-
telligible, the applicants soon came to understand the philosophy of mag-
nificent donations. In addition to these incentives to munificence, the
names of those who presented valuable gifts were registered, and the
articles exhibited to visitors; and thus interest and vanity combined to
adorn the temple, till it became ‘tone of the seven wonders of the
world.” These treasures were carefully guarded; the wealthy de-
posited their gold and jewels there for safe keeping, and, in this man-
ner, Delphi finally became, also, the great National Bank of Greece.

32. Guence SETTLED sy THE Sons or Jon or Javan. —Javan
the son of Japheth was, according to historians, the progenitor
of the Grecians. His four sons, Elisa, Tarsis, Chittim, and Dodanim,
were supposed to have settled the country, and in them we recognize
the heads of those tribes which afterward became so renowned for
arts and arms. Elis, Elysian fields, and the river Ilissus derived their
names from Elisa; Chittim was the father of the Macedonians; and
Dodona was but a change of Dodanim. In amalgamations, revolutions,
and migrations, the distinctive features of these tribes were finally lost,
and they came to be known under the general appellation of “The
Pelasgi,”” who were first noticed as a race of savages, living in caves,
and clothing themselves in the skins of wild beasts. They founded
Sicyon, B.o. 2090.

33. A rude and massive style of building, of which many specimens
were found in Southern Greece, was ascribed to the Pelasgi. Inachus,
a Pelasgic leader, founded the city of Argos about the middle of the
nineteenth century. At an uncertain, but very early date, an Asiatic
people, named ‘Tfellenes,”’ migrated to Greece, and intermingled
with, or expelled, the Pelasgi. In 1616 8. o., Corinth was founded by
Sisyphus, In 1550 8. c., Cecrops, at the head of a colony from Egypt,
founded Athens, and introduced the rudiments of civilization into

©

 

Questions.—32. Frum which of Noah’s sons were the Grecians descended? Name four
gong of Javan. What derivatives came from the name Elisa? Who were “The Pelasgi+*
In what direction did Javan’s sons travel from Babel? Where was Sicyon? (See map
No. 2.) 83. What was the Cyclopic style of architecture? Where was it found’ To whom
was it ascribed? In what part of Greece was Argos? (See map No. 2.) By whom was it
founded ? When? Who were the Hellenes?. By whom was Corinth founded? In what
year? When was Athens founded? By whom? From what place did he emigrate? ILow
much older was Athens than Sparta? How did they become incorporated with the native
(nhabiants? Give the location of Athens and Sparta. (See map No. 2.)

6
98 GREECE.

Greecé. In 1516 8. 0., Sparta was founded by Leles, also an Egyptian,
These colonists, however, united with the original inhabitants, and
became so incorporated with them as tu seem one race,

34, The genealogy of the principal tribes may be understood from the
following diagram :
Deucalion, king of Thessaly.

Hellen. [2] A\mphictyon, founder of the Amphictyons.

Dorus* | 3 34 Nuther. 3 | Eolus. 13 | Amphictyon.

Achacus. | 4 | 4 | ion*

 

In very early times an assembly of deputies from the provinces had
been in the habit of meeting to consult upon the common interests of
the confederacy, in the temple of Ceres, near the pass of Thermopylae.
Their constitution is not accurately known, but they seemed the
guardians of religion, rather than the representatives of a general
government. The code of laws by which their motions were governed
was drawn up by Amphictyon, son of Deucalion. During this century
tho assembly began to meet semi-annually: at Delphi in the spring,
and at Thermopyle in the autumn, They bound themselves by an
oath to protect an Amphictyonie city, and to defend the territories of
the god; invoking curses upon their land and their children, defeat
and distress in all enterprises and judicial controversies, in case they
tailed to perform their oath. In 1455, Cadmus, with a company of
Phenicians, landed in Beotia and founded Cadmeia, the citadel of
Thebes. He is said to have brought with him sixteen letters of the
Greek alphabet.

35. Pelops, a Phrygian prince, is said to have settled in Southern
Greece, married the daughter of one of the native potentates, and
becanie a man of so much consequence that the country was named

* Mark the relations of the Dorians and Ionians.

Questions —34. What council was instituted in this eentury 2? When was Thebes founded!
By whom? Traee the venealozy of the tribes. What were tho early usaves of the pro
vinces? Where did the assembly meet? What is known of their constitution? What
city did Cadmus found in 1455? Vlow amany of the Greek letters did he introduce!
85. Who was Pelops? Where did he setue? In what year? Which way did he travel!
Tuo v did Peloponnesus come by its name? Trace tbe live of genealogy.
8.0. 1184.] THE TROJAN WAR. 9a

e

from him, Peloponnesus. Here follows the genealogy of his des-

cendants :
Dardanus.
Tros.

[2 |
Tantalus, King of Phrygia. a4 Tlus.
4 |
5

   
       

Z| Pelops.

3] Plisthenes.
[4 | Menelaus.

Laomedon.

Priam, king of Troy

| 4. | Agamemnon, Paris. [6 | | 6 | ITector.

Tyndarus, king of Sparta.

castor | 2 [2 | Paltrxe: LN Tele. / \ Clytemnestra,

The genealogy of Helen, wife of Menelaus, and of Paris, prince of
Troy, may also be traced above.

 

 

36. wo. 1800.—Tie Arcoyavtio Expeprrion.—According to the
mythic legends so often quoted, Phryxus and Tlelle, two children of a
Beotian king, to avoid the persecutions of their step-mother, escaped
upon a winged ram, which had a fleece of gold. They intended to
land in Colchis, where their uncle lived; but, as they were passing the
narrow strait that divides Asia from Europe, Helle fell into the sea,
which was named from her, Heilespont.* Phryxus arrived in safety
at Colchis. The ram died there; and to recover his fleece, Jason, a
relative of Phryxns, with fifty of the most renowned warriors of the
age, among whom were Castor and Pollux, Hercules, Theseus and
Laertes, undertook the Argonautie expedition. That a company sailed
from the shores of Greece to the eastern borders of the Euxine, during
this century, is no doubt a fact; but what real purpose was veiled
ander the symbol of the golden fleece it is impossible to determine.

37. B.c. 1ES4,—Trosan War.—Castor and Pollux having died in
youth, and Clytemnestra being married to Agamemnon, king of Argos,
Tyndarus, king of Sparta, looked for a successor in the husband of his

* The Hellespont was the strait through which the tides of the Euxine flowed into the
Egean. It was 60 miles long, and, in some places, 3 miles broad.

 

 

Questions.—36. Relate the mythic lerend connected with the thirteenth century. What
expedition is said to owe its origin to this fa’ le? 87, 38, 39. How did the Trojan war ori
ate? Relate the stury.

 
100 GREECE. [p. c. 1184

Helen.* The beanty of this princess, together with the throne, drew
numerous suitors from all parts of Greece, and Tyndarus began to fear
that, in selecting a husband for his daughter, he should surround her
with enemies in the persons of her rejected lovers; he therefore com-
pelled them all to take an oath to protect her in possession of the ob-
ject of her choice. Menelaus, brother of Agamemnon, was so fortu-
nate as to win her regard, and to him Tyndarus consigned his daughter
and his throne.

38. Not long after, Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy, hearing of the
charms of Helen, made a voyage across the Egean to see her. He was
kindly received, and hospitably entertained by Menelaus, who, during
his stay, having occasion to visit Crete, left his wife to amuse his guest.
Paris, who was the most beautiful man of his time, seized the oppor-
tunity to persuade the fickle queen of the superior happiness to be
enjoyed in his father’s court. When Menelaus returned, he found his
home deserted and pillaged of all its treasures; the perfidious guest
who carried away his wife having also loaded the ship with the
precious things of Sparta.

39. Burning with the desire of revenge, Menelaus summoned the
former suitors of his treacherous queen to fulfill their vow, and assist
him in burying the dishonor of Greece beneath the ashes of Troy.
Agamemnon, the most powerful prince of the age, was appointed to
head the expedition. Under this leader, all the chieftains, with their
followers, from the end of Peloponnesus to the end of Thessaly, to-
gether with Idomeneus from Crete, Ulysses from Ithaca, and other
potentates from the islands, assembled in Beotia to embark in their
enterprise of vengeance. The fleet, consisting of 1200 open vessels,
each carrying from 50 to 120 men, had a prosperous voyage. The
Greeks landed upon the coast, and soon compelled all the descendants
of Dardanus to take refuge within the walls of Troy.

40. How Troy Frri.—tThe siege became a blockade, and famine
began to threaten the Trojans; but the besiegers were themselves in
little better condition. Supplies came slowly from the far-off shores
of Greece, and finally they were obliged to disperse in different direc-
tions to seek for sustenance. A band was sent over the Hellespont to
cultivate the Chersonesus, and Achilles is said to have plundered
twenty-three townsin marauding expeditions. The besieged also made

* See page 99,

 

Questions.—37, 38, 39. Who was the leader in the expedition against the Trojans? Who
assisted Menelaus.6 allies? Where did the army assemble? What movement was then
male 40, Give a description of the siege that followed.
p. 0. 1184.] DORIAN INVASION. 101

frequent sorties; Hector performed prodigies of valor, and Homer
represents the gods themselves as mingling in the strife. and urging
on the combatants. Thus the war was protracted during ten years.

Al. The Greeks at last had recourse to stratagem. Pretending to
abandon the siege, they formed a wooden horse of vast size, as a present
for Minerva; and, making all preparations for returning home, erm-
barked in their ships and set sail, leaving a band of their bravest heroes
within the body of tle horse. The Trojans, overjoyed to be rid of their
foes, tore down a part of the walls, and dragged the offering for Mi-
nerva within their city. That night was spent in festivity through
Troy. The guards were withdrawn, the weary soldiers threw aside
their arms, and wine, amusement, and repose ruled the hour. Mean-
time the Grecian fleet drew back to the shore; the warriors disem-
barked, and silently approached the devoted city; the heroes in the
wooden horse sallied forth, opened the gates, and the Greeks entered
The night, which was begun in feasting and carousal, ended in confla
gration and blood. The destruction of Troy took place B. 0. 1184
Independence and sovereignty never returned to the ‘land of Priam ;”’
it became a part of the kingdom of Lydia, and followed the fortunes
of the great empires.

42. CONSEQUENCES OF THIS Exprpition.—But though the Greeks
had extinguished the flames of their resentment in the best blood of
Troy, they had little reason to glory in their revenge. Their fleets
were dispersed, and their vessels were wrecked on dangerous coasts.
Many of their chiefs wandered through long voyages, and settled in
foreign parts; some became pirates, aud made their homes among the
islands of the Egean; and of the few who were so fortunate us to
reach the shores of Greece, but a very small number were able to
wrest their thrones from the usurpers who had filled them during their
absence. Clytemnestra, following the example of her sister, had
bestowed her‘affections upon another, and Agamemnon, on his returr
to Argos, was assassinated.

43. Dortan Invaston.--The remainder of this century was dark
ened by clouds of domestic strife. The descendants of Hercules, having
been driven from Southern Greece by the Euystheus, had dwelt in
the mountainous region of Doris, now, profiting by these commotions,
they crossed the Corinthian Gulf, and seized upon their former inherit-

 

Questions—41, By what stratagem was Troy at last taken? In what year did it fall?
What did it become? Trace the Greeks from Beotia to Troy. (See nap No. 2.) 42. What
were the consequences of the expedition to the Greeks themselves? What became of
Agamemnon? 43. Whowas Hercules? Ans. One of the demi-gods, whose children, return-
mz frou Doris, oveirun and settled all Suuthern Greece. In what direction did they move?
102 GREECE. [B. ¢. 817.

ance. In consequence of this revolution, Elis, Messenta, Laconia, and

many other states of the Peloponnesns became Dorian; the former
inhabitants escaping to Asia Minor, or being reduced to a state of
vassalage.

44. 3.0. 1068.—The Heraclida, encouraged by tlreir success in
Southern Greece, advanced up through the isthmus and fell upon
Attica. Codrus, at that time king, having been told that ‘‘either the
state or the king must perish,” disguised himself as a peasant, went
into the camp of the enemy, insulted one of the soldiers, and was
slain, thus nobly devoting himself for his country. The Heracleids
were driven back into the Peloponnesus, and Medon, son of Codrus,
was made Archon instead of King of Athens. B.0. 8530.—-—Ilomer is
accounted the most ancient writer, except Scripture historians. He
was a blind old man, who lived in one of the Ionian colonies. of Asia
Minor. Hesiod is supposed to haye been ashepherd, who fed his flocks
by the side of Mt. Helicon. va

45.3.0. 817.—Oz1ympio Gans InsTITUTED BY Ipnitus. Lyourevs’s
Laws.—Homer mentions certain games which were celebrated in his
time, but it seems they were only occasionul meetings ; and during the
long troubles arising from the Dorian conquest, the customs and insti-
tutions of the Peloponnesians were so altered and overthrown, that
even the memory of the ancient games was nearly lost. In this season
of turbulence, Iphitus ascended the throne of Elis. Active and enter-
prising, but not by inclination a warrior, he was anxious to find a
remedy for the disorderly situation of his country. For this purpose
he sent a solernn embassy to Delphi, to inquire “‘ How the anger of the
gods, which threatened the total destruction of Peloponnesus, through
endless hostilities among its people, might be averted.” The answer
was, ‘The Olympic festival must be restored ; for the neglect of that
solemnity bas brought on the Greeks the indignation of the god
Jupiter, to whom it was dedicated, and of the hero Hercules, by whom
it was instituted; and a cessatiun of arms must immediately be pro-
claimed for all cities desirous of partaking in it.”’

46. This reply of the god was promulgated throughout all Greece,

 

(uestions.— What places were settled by the expelled Pelopids? Ans. Eolia and
Jonia? For what were the inhabitants afterward distinguished? cuins. For cleganco
of taste and love of the arts and scicnces, They were the teachers and examples of the
other Greeks. Llomer, Pythagoras, Parbasius, and S.ppho, were natives of these colonies.
Trace the I[eracleids from Thessuly and Doris to Peloponnesus. 44. Where did the Iera-
clidw next vo? Lelate the story of Codrus. Trace the Heraclida: from Laconia to Altien.
Who was Homer? What did he write? Who was Hesiod? What did he write? Ans,
The stories of the gods. 45, By whom were the national games revived? What led to their
revival? Lelute tho story.
B.C. 817.] OLYMPIC GAMES. 103

and Iphitus caused the armistice to be published. With the approba-
tion of the other Peloponnesians, it was ordained that a festival, open
to the whole Greek nation, should be held at the temple of Jupiter, in
the spacious plain of Olympia; that it should be repeated at the termi-
nation of every fourth year; that it should consist of sulemn sacrifices
and games: and that, whatever war might be in progress, a cessation
of arms should take place before and continue long enough after the
festival to allow all the Hellenic race to leave their homes, attend the
games, and return again in peace. Thus Llis became the Holy Land
of Greece, and a reputation of sacredness attached itself to the whole
Eleian people. In the time of Iphitus the foot-race was the only
game exhibited.

47. Afterward, at different periods, wrestling, boxing, chariot-
racing, and horse-racing were added; and when sculpture, painting,
poetry, and music, began to give refinement to pleasure, it was at the
Olympic games that the artist exhibited specimens of his skill, and the
poet gained his proudest laurels. A mart, or fair, was a natural con-
sequence of a periodical assembly of multitudes in one place. He,
who had any thing to sell, could find purchasers in this vast concourse ;
he, who had any thing splendid to exhibit in dress or equipage, could
attract admiring eyes in a place where every thing that augmented
the glory of the Greeks was applauded; and thus it happened, that
all the wealth, skill, and beauty of the nation passed in general review
once in four years. This meeting supplied the want of a common
capital ; matters of general interest were here promulgated, treaties
were signed, and expeditions planned, which the strong uational feel-
ing, awakened by this display of strength, tended greatly to facilitate.

48. Orgrer GAames.—The advantages and gratifications of the Olym-
pic games excited the Greeks to establish similar festivals in their own
states. Three of these only, the Delphian, Isthmian, and Nemean,
ever rose to any importance;-and they never equaled the Olympic
in celebrity and splendor. The Delphian were celebrated at Delphi,
in honor of Apollo ; the Isthmian upon the Corinthian Isthmus, in honor
of Neptune, whose temple there commanded a view of the sea; and
the Nemean in Argos, in honor of Juno, They were held at intervals

 

Questions —46. Of what did the Olympic festival consist? What is said of Elis? Where
was Olympia? (Map No. 2.) 47. Which were the only games during the time of Jphitus?
What other games were afterward added? What is said of the artist and the poct? What
good resulted to the peuple in business transactions? 48. To what did the Olympic games
excite the Greeks? What other festivals rose to importance? What can you state of the
Delphian? Isthmian? Nemean? Where was Delphi? (See mup No 2) Argos? Corin-
thian Isthmus? (18, map No. 2.)
104 GREECE. [p. c. 817.

of four years, each taking its year between the Olympic mectiags, so
that every summer there was a festival common to all the Greek
nation, with an armistice enabling all, who desired, to uttend.

Clytemnestra. /\

      
  
      

| Agamemnon.

Orestes,

Aristodemus, one of the

Argia. Heracleids, B. 0. 1100.

4
Eurysthenes. | 2 | 2 | Procles.

iy of L

“NIPARAP MPs,

3 |
[4 |
a
6

Lycurgus, the
great law-giver.

Archelaus. 3 | 8 | Charilaus.

49. The race of Orestes terminating in a danghter, Argia, she was
married.to Aristodemus, one of the Heracleids, to whose share Laco-
nia fell in the general division of the Pcloponnesus. Aristodemus
died soon after, and his twin sons, Eurysthenes and Procles, shared
the kingdom jointly. The government thus formed a diarchy. For
seven generations the crown descended in each line from father to son
in unbroken succession. Each king naturally had his own partisans,
and hence it isno matter of surprise that, after the lapse of two centu-
rics, faction and anarchy should have obtained possession of the state.

50. Order and peace had long been banished from Lacedemon when
Lycurgus, by the death of his brother, was put in possession of the
authority held by the line of Procles. He, however, resigned his newly-

 

Questions —49. Who was Aristodemus? How was his kingdom governed after his death?

flow does a dynasty differ from a dyarchy ? What troubles originated in the dyarchy fourm
of government? 60. To what position did Lycavgus attain?
B. 0. 817.] THE SPARTAN LAWS. 105

acquired dignity in favor of his infant nephew Charilaus, and, to fit
himself for a law-giver, took what in those days was esteemed a long
and perilous journey into Crete, Egypt, and Asia. In Crete he studied
the laws of Minos, and formed an intimacy with a poet of that island,
whom, when he left for Egypt, he persuaded to pass over into Sparta,
and prepare the minds of the people, by popular poems, for those
changes in government and manners which he intended to introduce.

51. From Egypt he journeyed to Asia, where he found the poems
of Homer, and observing in them many moral sentences and much
political wisdom, he collected them in one body and transcribed them
with his own hand. The disorders of the state, meantime, increased
to such an extent, that the Lacedemonians sent frequent messengers
to entreat their regent to return home. When all things were ready,
he accepted the invitation, and, entering the city of Sparta amid the
rejoicings of the people, immediately set himself to alter the whole
frame of the constitution.

52. B.c. 817.—Lycurcus’s Laws.—Ilaving strengthened his author-
ity by the sanction of the Delphic oracle, which declared that ‘ The
constitution he should establish would be the most excellent in the
world,” and having secnred the aid of a numerous party among the
leading men who took up arms to support him, he procured the enact-
ment of a series of ordinances affecting the civil and military constitu-
tion of the commonwealth, the distribution of property, the edneation
of the citizens, and the rules of their daily intercourse and domestic
life. A senate was chosen, consisting of experienced individuals, who
gave to the government a just equilibrium: ‘ The twenty-eight sena-
tors adhering to the kings, whenever they saw the people too encroach-
ing; and, on the other hand, supporting the people, when the kings
attempted to make themselves absolute.”

53. The city was overstocked with indigent, indolent persons. Ly-
curgus, to give them employment, and at the same time a motive for
exertion, caused the whole territory of Laconia to be divided in thirty-
nine thousand parts, which were portioned out to the inhabitants.
After this, he attempted to divide the movables,* but here he found
great difficulty ; the people strongly objecting to the sacrifice of their
goods. He therefore adopted another method, counter-working their

* Furniture.

 

Questions.—50. Why did he take the long journey? What did he do in Crete? 51, What
did he do in Asia? How were state affairs in Laconia during his absence? 52. Ifow lid he
Strengthen his authority? What is suid of the Senate? 53. What “Land Reform” did
Lycurzus introduce ?

5*
106 GREECE. [R. 0. 817.

avarice by a stratagem. He stopped the currency of gold and silver,
and substituted iron money in its stead; at the same time, fixing
the rate of this new coin so low, that, to remove a sum equal to one
hundred dollars, a cart and oxen would be required. This iron was
gvod for nothing else, having been deprived of malleability, by being
heated and plunged into vinegar. Neither would it pass among the
other states, so that the Spartans had no means of purchasing any
forvign or curious wares; nor did any merchant-ship unlade in their
harbors. No sophists, wandering fortune-tellers, or dealers in gold
and silver trinkets, were found in that country, there being no money
to tempt them that way. Hence luxury, losing by degrees the means
which supported it, died away of itself.

54, Another regulation was the institution of public tables, where
all the men were to eat in common of the same meat, and of such kinds
of it as were appointed by law. They were not permitted to eat at
home on any occasion, and they made it a point to observe and
reproach any one, that seemed to lack appetite, as effeminate, and
weary of the common diet. About fifteen persons formed the mess of
one table, and each was required to bring, monthly, one bushel of
meal, eight gallons of wine, five pounds of cheese, and a little money
to buy flesh and fish ; but the food held in highest esteem was ‘ black
broth,” a kind of soup made of lentils. Children were introduced at
these tables, that they might learn sobriety, and listen to discourses
upon governinent. They were taught to joke without scurrility, to
sustain raillery with equanimity, for, ‘It was reckoned worthy a Lace-
demonian to bear a jest.””. When they first entered the hall, the oldest
man present pointed to the door, saying, ** Not a word spoken in this
company goes out there.”

66. Discrprine or tom Youxa.—To render his institutions perma-
nent, Lycurgus caused them to be inwoven with the whole fabric of
society. From the earliest period of life, the discipline of youth was
stern and severe. Feeble and defective children were thrown into a
cave, and left to perish; such as, upon a public examination, were
deemed sound and healthy, were adopted as children of the state, and
committed to their mothers for the period of infancy. At the age of
seven, they were taken from their parents and educated at public
expense. They were enrolled in companies, and kept under the same
order and discipline as a military band.

 

 

 

Questions,—53. What currency alteration? What was the effect? 54. What reculation

was introduced in relation to public tables? “The Mess” of one tuble? Children at the
tables? 55, 56. What was the discipline of the youth? What is said of theft?

 
z. 0. 817.) THE SPARTAN LAWS. 107

56. The youth who showed most courage was made captain; and
frequent skirmishes took place between rival parties, which the old
men encouraged by commendations. As they advaneed in age, their
hair was cnt very close, they were forced to go bare-foot, and play, for
the most part, quite naked. They slept on beds of reeds, gathered
with their own hands, and were allowed but a spare diet, that their
ingenuity might be cultivated to supply their wants. One of the
ablest men in the city was appointed inspector of the youth; he gave
the command of each company to a young man who had been two
years out of the class of boys, and was therefore culled an Iren. This
Tren, when twenty years old, gave orders to his inferiors, with all the
dignity of a colonel, He called upon them to serve him at his house;
some he sent to get wood, others to gather herbs, or to steal any eat-
able from the common tables. Ingenuity in these little thefts was
highly honored, but detection insured disgrace.

57. .\ boy, having stolen a fox, and hidden it under his garment,
suffered the creature to tear out his vitals, rather than encounter the
sneers of his companions. The Iren, reposing himself after supper,
used to order one of the boys to sing a song; to another, he put some
question, such as “‘ Who is the best man in the city?” Tf the respond-
ent hesitated in his answer, he was considered a boy of slow parts, and
le who gave a wrong answer had his thumb bitten by the Tren. The
magistrates often attended these little trials, and if the Iren were
guilty of too much severity or remissness, he himself suffered punish-
ment after the boys were gone. :

58. Short and pithy sentences became the style of Laconia. Lycur-
gus himself adopted and encouraged this manner of discourse. The
Spartans cultivated poetry and music, as every thing else, in sub-
serviency to a martial spirit. There were three choirs in their
festivals. The old men began, :

“Once in battle bold we shone ;”
the young men responded,

“Try us; our vigor is not gone ;”
and the boys concluded,

“The palm remains for us alone.”

In war the severity of their discipline was relaxed; the men were per-
mitted to comb their hair gracefully, and to study elegance in their

 

Questions.—5T, Relate the story of the boy and fox. What furthcr discipline were the
youth subjected to? 58, What style of expression did the people adopt? What arts did
they cultivate? Where was the severity of their discipline relaxed ?
108 GREECE. [B. 0. 776.

arms and apparel; but at home, the city was like one great camp,
where all had their stated allowance, and knew their publie charge,
“Bach man concluding that he was born, not for himself, but for his
country.”

69. They were expressly forbidden to exercise any mechaute art or
ayricultural employment. The Helots, inhabitants of a small sea-port
town in Laconia, had been reduced to a state of servitude some years
before, and upon them fell the burden of all the labor. These slaves
were treated with the greatest inhumanity. They wore dog-skin
bonnets, and sheep-skin vests; they were forbidden to learn any
liberal art, and once a day they received u certain number of stripes,
lest they should forget their condition. Sometimes they were intoxi-
cated and exposed in the public halls, to the ridicule of the children,
and when there was danger of their becoming too numerous, the
Spartan youth were instructed to sally out in the night and kill all the
Helots they met.

60. Exp or Lycurevs.—The last act of Lycurgus was to sacrifice
himself for the perpetuity of his work. Tlaving assembled all the
Spartans, he told them that it was necessary to consult the oracle
upon an important subject; then, taking an oath of the kings, and
senators, and people, to obey his laws till his return, he bade farewell
to his beloved Sparta, and bent his steps toward the Delphi. When
the last seal had been set to his institutions by the oracle, which fore-
told that Sparta should flourish as long as she adhered to them, he
transmitted the prediction to his fellow-citizeus, and, that they might
never be freed from their oath, determined to die in a foreign Jand.
The place and manner of his death are veiled in obscurity. Both
Delphi and Elis claimed his tomb. Sparta, faithful to her oath, ad-
hered to his institutions five centuries, and each year honored the law-
giver as a god, with solemn sacrifices.

Gl. Toe First Otymrrap.—In the year 776, B. c., Corcebus, having
won the prize in the Olympic gamex, hid his name inscribed in the
gymuasium, and this period began the first Olympiad. The prizes
in these games were at first of some intrinsic valne, but from the
7th Olympiad, or twenty-eight years after the victory of Corcbus,
the only prize given was a garland of wild olive, cut from a tree in the

 

Questions,—58 What was the conclusion of each man? 59 What prohibition was imposed
upon the people? Who were the Helots? What did they become? How were they
treated? 60. What was the last act of Lyrurzus? Relate the circumstances attending it
What was the tendency of the laws Lycurgus established? Trace him through his travels
G1. In what year began the first Olympiad? After the victory of Corebus, what became
the prize in the games? How were the victors honored ?
R. 0. 743.] MESSENIAN WAR. 169

sacred grove at Olympia, which was said to have been brought by
Hlereules from the land of the Hyperborcans. Palm leaves were at
the same time placed in the hands of the victors, und their names
were proclaimed by a herald. A victory at Olympia, being the highest
honor a Greek could o' fain, conferred such glory on the republic
to which he belonged, that he was permitted to enter his native city
in triumph through a breach made in the walls for his reception ;
banquets were given to him by his friends, and often an annuity was
settled upon him by the State.

62. In this century the office of Ephori was instituted ut Sparta.
This court consisted of five members only, chosen annually from
among the people. ‘They were empowered to fine whom they
pleased, and exact immediate payment of the fine.’ They could sus-
pend the functions of any other magistrates, and arrest and bring to
trial even the kings. The archonship of Athens, which had hitherto
been hereditary in the family of Codrus, was in this century made
decennial.

63. B. o. 748.—First MEssentAn War.—The first trial the Lacede
monians had occasion to make of their military discipline was in a
war with the Messenians, their western neighbors. A rich Messenian
put ont some cattle under the care of herdsmen (his own slaves) to
pasture, by agreement, on the lands of a Lacedemonian. The Lacede-
monian sold both cattle and herdsmen, pocketed the reward of his
iniquity, and pretended to the owner that they had been carried off by
pirates. One of the slaves, however, escaped from his purchaser,
returned to his master, and related the whole affair. The injured
Messenian sent his son to demand the money of the perfidious Lacede-
monian, who added to his enormities by murdering the youth. The
father, full of grief and indignation, went himself to Sparta and laid
his complaint before the kings and people. Finding no disposition in
them to grant him redress, he returned to his own country, and avenged
himself by murdering all the Lacedemonians he could meet. These
outrages resulted in a war, disastrous to Lacedemon, and almost fatal
to Messenia.

64. Without any of those formal declarations of war which the law
of nations even then required, the Lacedemonians prepared secretly for
hostilities, and so extreme was their enmity that an oath was taken,
‘That no iength of time should weary them, and no misfortune deter

 

Questions.—Iu what manner was victory estimated? [Low long was one Olympiad?
Ans, Four years. 62, What office in Sparta was instituted during this century? What
change was made in the archonship of Athens? 63. What caused the first Messenian war?
110 GREECE, [B. ©. 685,

them, but they would prosecute the war, and on no account return to
their families till they had subdued Messenia.” For nineteen long
years the conflict raged with doubtful success; if Messenia was de-
populated, Sparta was ta no better situation, for all the men capable
of bearing arms were exiles by their oath, and Lacedemon was
inhabited only by women. But Spartan discipline and Spartan per-
severunce at length prevailed. Ithome, the last stronghold of the
wretched Messenians, was beseiged and taken, the gurrison fled by sea,
the miserable multitude scattered in various directions about the
country, and the Lacedemonians reduced them to a state of servitude
little betrer than that of the Helots, B. c. 724.

65. B. c. G854,—Sreonp Messrstin Wan. uring forty years,
Messenia remained in quiet subjection. Another race were by this
time grown up, ignorant of the comparative strength of themselves
and their conquerors, and filled with that irresistible spirit of liberty
which animated every Grecien breast.  Amstomenes. w noble youth,
who traeed his origin to Hercules through a long line of kings, was
the instigator and leader of the revolt. Supported by allies from
aA\rgos and Arcadia, he attacked a body of Lacedemonians, and showed
such skill and courage that the Messenians saluted him king on the
field of battle, a name which he, however, declined in favor of that of
general, To practice upon the superstitious fears of the eneimy, he
entered Sparta, which lad neither walls nor watch, and hung against
the Brazen House (the temple of Minerva) a shield, with an inscription
declaring that Aristomenes, from the spoils of Sparta, made that offer-
ing to the goddess. Alarmed lest their enemy should win the favor
of their protecting deity, the Spartans sent to consult the oracle, and
were directed to take an Athenian adviser.

66. The Spartans were little pleased with this response, the jealousy
between the Dorians and Tonians being already rife, and the Athenians
were little disposed to aid in the subjugation of the brave Messenians;
but the embassy was sent for the required leader, and the Athenians,
fearing to offend the god, complied in such a manner as they thought
would render compliance useless. They sent to the Spartans Tyrteus,
a lame schoolmaster and poet, who, notwithstandins his disabilities,
proved more serviceable than they designed. By his poetry he roused
the drooping spirits of the Spartans, and persuaded them to enlist a

 

 

Questions,—64. How long did it continue? What was the result? 65. Who was Aris-
tomenes? Whatis said of him? What allies did he have? Could they have reached Mes-
senia without going through Laconia? 6. Who was Tyrtwus ? \

is On what mission was he
scit? What suceess did he meet with,
B.C. 685] ARISTOMENES IN THE CAVERN, 111

band of Helots among their soldiers. Though Aristomenes continually
harassed them with incursions, yet it was not till the third year of the
war that the contending parties came to any decisive engagement.

67. In the great battle of the Trenches, the Messenians were be-
trayed by the king of the Arcadians, and Aristomenes, escaping with
a scanty remnant of his forces, was obliged to give up the defense of
his country and concentrate his remaining strength at Ira, a strong-

_bold nearthe sea. Making this place his headquarters, he sallied out
upon the enemy and carried off prey or prisoners, till at last, falling in
with a body of Laccdemonians under both their kings, he was taken
with about fifty of his band.

68. How AristomEents Esoaprep.—They were tried as rebels, and
sentenced to be thrown into a deep and dark cave, used for the punish-
ment of the worst criminals. Aristomenes was saved as if by a miracle.
His shield, which he had been allowed to retain in compliment to his
valor, striking against the sides of the cave, broke the violence of his
fall, so that he tumbled alive upon the dead bodies of his companions.
After the first feeling of gratitude for deliverance had subsided, his
heart sank at the prospect of a lingering death in this horrid charnel,
peopled with the skeletons and putrid carcasses of former criminals.
He retreated to the farthest corner, and, covering his head with his
cloak, laid down to wait for death. On the third day of this dreadful
imprisonment he was startled by a rustling noise. Rising and un-
covering his eyes, he perceived by the glimmering light a tux devour-
ing the carcasses.

69. It immediately occurred to him that this animal must have
entered the cavern by another way than that by which he had himself
descended. Acting upon this suggestion, he seized the fox with one
hand, while with his cloak in the other he prevented its biting him,
and in this way followed it through a narrow bury till the passage
became too strait for his body. But here a peep of daylight renewed
his courage, and setting vigorously to work with his hands, he soon
made an opening large enough to creep through, and thus found him-
self once wore at liberty. His friends at Ira received him as one risen
from the dead. The Spartans affected to disbelieve the story of his
reappearance, but Aristomenes soon proved to them that he had lost
none of his valor by his sojourn in the cavern.

70. Fate or Ira anp tHE Messexrans.—Through his untiring in-
genuity and perseverance, the siege of Ira was protracted during eleven

 

Questions. —67. Give an account of the first battle. What misfortune befell Aristomenes?
08, 69. Itelate the circumstances of his escape. 70, 71. How long did the siege of Ira last?
1 @ B. C,
119 GREECE. [B. c. 668

years, and at last was taken only by treason. A Spartan deserter,
learning that an outpost of Ira had been abandoned one stormy night,
re-deserted to his countrymen with the intelligence. Gujded by the
double-dyed traitor, the Lacedemonians silently carried ladders to the
defenseless point and mounted unresisted. The barking of dogs
awakened Aristomenes. Tlastily summoning his men, he rushed to
the rescue, and all that night the clash of arms and the shout of com-
batants mingled with the howling of the storm; the women assisting
by throwing tiles from the lhouse-tops, or bearing arms in the fight.

71. Butthe numbers of the Lacedemonians enabled them constantly
to bring up fresh troops, while every Messenian was obliged to stand
at his post, without rest or refreshment, under the peltings of the
pitiless storm. Cold, wet, sleepless, jaded, and hungry, they kept up
the struggle for three nights and two days, and then resolved upon the
last effort of despair. The men were drawn up in a hollow square,
with the women and children in the center, and a passage demanded,
sword in hand. The Spartans gave way on every side, and this
miserable remnant of a heroic people advanced unharmed. The Ar-
cadians came to meet them on the frontiers of their country, bringing
food and clothing, and saluting them with words of kindness and sym-
pathy. The aged and infirm Messenians remained in Arcadia, but
the young and vigorous determined to seek independence in a foreign '
land.

72. While they yet deliberated on the choice of a country, 4 mes-
senger arrived from Rhegium, sent by the king of that place, to offer
the exiles an asylum in his dominions. This refuge was joyfully
accepted, but scarcely were they comfortably located with their
hospitable entertainers, when they were harassed by the piratical
incursions of the Zancleans across the strait. Here seemed an oppor-
tunity to reward their benefactors and provide a home for themselves;
therefure, assisted by the Rhegians, they besieged Zancle, both by sea
and land, conquered the inhabitants, united with them, and founded
the city of Messina, which remains to this day a witness of the valor
of the Messcnians.

73. Wat BEOAME or AristoMENES.—<Aristomenes sent his son
with the colony to Zancle, but for himself, he said, he would never

 

Questions.—llow was Ira finally taken? What was the fate of the Messenians? 72.
Where did the Mussenians take refuge’ Wohero did they finally settle? What is said of
the city of Messina? Where is that city? (See map No, 4.) What is its present popu-
lation? Ans. About 100,000 inhabitants. ‘Trace the Messenian exiles from Ira to Areadia,
thence to Rhegium, and thence to Sicily, 73. What account can you give of the son of
Aristomenes? What exertivus did Aristumenes make ?
B. o. 612.] THE ALCM.ZONIDS. 113

cease to war with Lacedemon. Tle vainly sought the means of farther
hostilities. He passed over into Asia, hoping to get assistance there ;
and finally spent some years with a Rhodian king, who, being told
to marry the daughter of the most illustrious Greek, unhesitatingly
chose the child of Aristomenes. He lived universally respected by
the most powerful princes of his time, and died at Sardis, deeply
lamented by all who knew him, His actions dwelt in the memories
of his countrymen, and cheered their wanderings and sufferings ; and
in their legendary songs, his character was represented as combining
all the elements of goodness and greatness, in a degree almost un-
paralleled among Grecian heroes. \/

74. From the death of Codrus, 1068, to the year B. o. 624, nothing
of particular interest occurred in the history of Athens. The Archon-
ship descended from father to son, in the family of Medon, son of
Codrus, till the thirteenth generation, when, by a change in the con-
stitution, upon the death of Alemzon, the office was laid open to the
ambition of all the nobles, and the Archons were elected once in ten
years. The children of Alemon, as descended from a king, and from
that Alemaon who first settled in Attica, looked upon themselves as
the aristocracy, and assumed airs little pleasing to the other citizens.
There was then in Athens a young man named Cylon, who had dis-
tinguished himself at the Olympic games, and married a daughter of
the king of Megara. Fully persuaded that he was equal, if not supe-
rior to the proud Alemzeonids, he determined to set the matter beyond
all doubt by making himself master of the republic.

75. With a band of troops which he obtained from his father-
in-law, he seized the citadel of Athens. Megacles, the head of the
Alemeonid family, being at that time Archon, summoned the citizens
to arms, and, surrounding the Acropolis, cut off every resource from
the young aspirant and his followers. Cylon saved himself by a dis-
graceful flight; his deserted adherents fled for protection to the altars.
‘Not caring to stain these sacred places with their blood, Megacles
lured them forth by a promise of pardon; but no sooner were they in
1 power, than he caused them all to be put to death as traitors!
The sacrilege, thus wantonly committed under color of the law, alien-
ated the minds of the Athenians from the Alcmeoniden, and proved
a fruitful source of trouble in later times. Megacles and his adherents

 

Questions.—What became of Aristomenes? ‘Trace the course of Aristomenes? 74. In
what year does Athenian history resume its interest? What is saidof the Archonship? Of
the children of Alemxon? Who was Cylon? Upon what did he determine? 75, Give an
account of the attempt made by him. Who was Megacles? What can you state of him?
lit GREECE. [B. 0. G24

were banished, but still tranquillity was not restored. The existing
laws were insufficient to quell the disorders which daily arose ; and,
finally, the Athenians appointed Draco, an old man of acknowledged
probity, to fill the ottice of legislator.

76. Draco’s Laws.—Draco brought forward his code of laws, B. 0.
624. They were peculiar only for the penalties annexed to them. The
slightest. theft was punished capitally, as well as the most atrocious
murder; and one remarked of them that ‘they were written with?
blood, and not with ink.’ His own words, “small crimes deserve
death, and I know of no heavier punishment for greater,” serve to
illustrate the severity of his disposition. The laws, of course, fell
into disuse; the penalties were too severe to be execnted, and the
law-giver himself was obliged by the anarchy that ensued to retire
to Egina, where he was suffocated ly the number of cloaks and gar-
ments thrown upon him in the theater—a method which the inhabit-
ants took to express their esteem for him.

77. v. 0. G@Q@,—Reoaprure or Saramis.—The island of S:latnis,
wearied of the weak and uncertain government of Athens, threw off
its allegiance, and set up for independence. Many unsuccessful
attempts were made to reduce it to its former state of dependency;
and, finally, the people met in general assembly, and deereed capital
punishment to any private or magistrate who should propose to lead
them again to the conquest of Salamis. The nobles, unable to ad-
minister the government, and the people, incapable of acting in any
public capacity, were equally dissatisfied with the posture of affairs,
but none dared to propose any change.

78. In these circumstances, came forth one of the greatest charac-
ters Greece ever produced. Solon, a young poet, descended from
Codrus, though a native of Salamis, lad resided for some time at
Athens. Perceiving that the people regretted their foolish resolution,
he gave out that he was subject to occasional fits of insanity, and shut
himself up in his house, while he composed a poem on the loss of the
lovely island. Waving every thing prepared, one day, during an as-
suinbly of the people, he ran into the market, place, like one frantic,
mounted the heraid’s stone, and recited his poem to the crowd. Somo
of his friends stood ready to raise the shout of admiration ; the people
caught the phrensy, the odious law was repealed by acclamation, a

 

Questions.—Who was Draco? 76. When did he offer his code of laws? What can you
state of the laws? What beeame of Draco? Trace Draco tu Egina. 77. Where was the
island of Salamis? (See map No. 2.) What political change took place? What attempts
were made? What decree was made? What, then, was the condition of affairs at Athens?
Ts. Who was Solon? In what manner did he distinguish himself?
b. 0. 594. THE NEW CONSTITUTION. 113

new expedition was ordered, and Solon was appointed to command
the troops. Under his guidance, the Athenians were successful, and
Salamis again acknowledged the authority of the parent state. In the
general joy, the exiles were restored; Megacles returned, and the
Alemonids again ruled the city.

79. Factions.—But the discords of Athens, having their origin in a
defective constitution, were not removed. The mountaineers and
common people sighed for a complete democracy ; the rich landed-
proprietors aimed to establish an exclusive oligarchy ; and the mercan-
tile men were anxious to see the different orders harmonized in a
mixed government: hence, Highlanders, Lowlanders, and Coastmen,
became the distinguishing names of the factions which long divided
the Attic people. While matters were growing worse and warse, and
many were looking to a despotism for relief, the superior abilities of
Solon drew the attention of all parties. Though one of the nobles, he
had never oppressed the poor; though the favorite of the people, he
had never excited their clamors against the rich: his wisdom had
been proved, his integrity was above question; and he was accord-
ingly, with unanimous consent, elected Archon, with peculiar powers
for reforming the laws and constitution.

80. B. o. 594.—Soron’s Laws.—In the inquiry, what the Athenian
constitution was, it will be necessary to take a view of the Componrnr
Memepers of the Athenian State. Athens was inhabited by three dis
tinct classes: I. A citizen, born of free Athenian parents, or admitted
to the freedom of the state, was one of the people, and eligible to any
office. IL. Strangers, who came to settle at Athens, for the sake of
commerce, or any other reason, had no share in the government, no
votes in the assembly of the people, and could not be admitted to any
office. III. Servants, were those taken in war, and bought and sold as
parts of their master’s estate. ' They were treated with great kindness,
and could ransom themselves, even without their master’s consent,
when they had laid up sufficient money for the purpose.

81. It was the object of Solon’s laws to equalize, as much as possi-
ble, the privileges and authority of the citizens. He repealed all the
laws of Draco, except those against murder. But the distinguishing
feature of the new constitution was the substitution of property for
birth, as a title to the honors and offices of the state. Solon divided

 

Questions —19. Tow many factions were there? Name them. Why was Solon elected
Archon? 80. How many classes were there in Athens? What privilege belonged to the
free born citizen? What is said of strangers? Of servants? $1. What was the object of
Solon’s laws? What was the distinguishing feature of the pew constitution ?
116 GREECE. [B. 6. 594,

the people into four ranks; the rmrsr consisted of those whose in-
come amounted to five hundred measures yearly ; the secon, of those
whose revenues came up to three hundred, who, being able to keep a
war-horse, were called knights; the THirp were called by a name
and filled a rank similar to that of yeomen ; and the Fourrm consisted
of hired laborers in husbandry. Out of the first class only, nine
Archons were chosen yearly. The jirst, called the Archon, took care
of legacies and wills provided for orphans, and punished drunkenness ;
the second had the charge of religious ceremonies, and enjoyed the
title of king; the third had the care of strangers; and to each of the
others separate offices were assigned.

82. Courts, Counoirs, AND AssemBLy.—Every Archon on laying
down his office became a member of the Courr or Argopacus. This
court consisted entirely of ex-archons, who held their offices for life,
unless they were expelled for immoral conduct. It was the jérst court
that ever decided upon life and death; it was the only court from
which there was no appeal to the people. The members held their
meetings on ‘t Mars-hill,’’ a small eminence at a little distance from the
Acropolis. They sat in the open air in the night, around an altar
dedicated to Minerva, near which were rude seats of stone for the de-
fendant and lis accuser. No eloquent pleadings nor moving represen-
tations were allowed before this court, lest the minds of the judges
should be warped by them. The Areopagites took cognizance of
murders, impiety, immoral behavior, and particularly of idleness,
which they deemed the cause of all vice. They guarded the Jaws and
managed the public treasury ; they had the superintendence of youth,
and provided that all should be educated according to their rank and
fortune.

83. The institution of the council of Four Hundred was uniformly
ascribed to Selon; but the judicial power which he relied upon most
for the correcting of all abuses was a body of 6000 citizens, called the
General Assembly, chosen by lot yearly to form a kindof supreme court.
There were also ten courts of judicature in Athens, and, to save the
inhabitants of Attica the trouble of coming to the city for justice,
itinerant judges, called the Forty, were appointed to go through the
boroughs and decide eases of interior consequence. Solon ordered that
all those who took no part in public affairs should be punished; for,

 

Questions.—S1. How did Solon divide the people? $2. How was the court of Areopagus
formed ? What is said of this court in particular? What else is said of the court? 8.
What is said of the Council of Four Hundred? Of the General Assembly? Of the courts of
Judicature? Of itinerant. judges?
B. 0. 600.] THE NEW CONSTCTUTION. 117

said he, ‘‘ That is (in my opinion) the most perfect government whera
an injury to any one is the concern of all.”

84. As many of the citizens had sold themselves for debt, the law-
giver caused a general cancellation to take place, and lessened the rate
of interest, that the poor might be able to recover from the oppression
under which they had so long groaned. No son was compelled tc
support his father in old age, unless the father had taken care to bring
him up to some trade or profession. These enactments, in which
Solon was supported by the nobles as well as by the people, were in-
scribed upon blocks of wood made to turn upon an axis. They were
kept at first in the Acropolis, but afterward in the Prytaneum or
place of the General Assembly. They formed the basis of the Roman
Twelve Tables, and thence became incorporated in the institutions of
Alfred the Great; so that we may trace our trjal by j jury and apie
sentative government to the laws of Solon. Roth pete

85. First Sacrep War.—The territory of Crissa, situated upon a
gulf of the same name, contained three cities whose harbors were
crowded with vessels from every quarter, bringing pilgrims to the
neighboring ternple of Delphi. The commorce thus created filled the
coffers of the Crisseans with the gold of Asia, Africa, and the islands
of the Egean. Not content with these honest gains, the rapacious in-
habitants levied a tax upon every foreigner, and a few individuals,
more impious still, filled up the measure of their iniquities by forcing
the gates of the temple and plundering its treasures. This sacrilegious
act affecting, as it did, the pecuniary interests of all Greece, could not
be forgiven. Solon represented to the Amphictyonic council the
necessity of punishing the offense with the greatest rigor. A messenger
was accordingly sent to Orissa, to require the surrender of the crimi-
nals. The Crisseans made common cause with their guilty fellow-
citizens, and an insulting answer was returned to the venerable guar-
dians of the holy shrine. ®

86. War was in consequence declared against the sacrilegious
rebels, and Solon was appointed to command the armies which
assembled from all parts of Greece, to avenge the injury done to the
god. The Amphictyonic forces besieged the city of Crissa nine years

 

Questions,—84. What general bankrupt law went into effect? What view had Solon of
indolence? How were filial duties regulated ? Upon what were the laws inscribed? What
did they eventually become? What regulations in our own government can be traced to
the laws of Solon? 85. In what division was Crissa? Ans Phocis. What is said of the
three cities? Of the rapacity of the inhabitants? Give the primary causes of the war that
followed. 86. What appointment did Sulon receive? What city was then besieged? How
ong did the siege continue? Where was the Gulf of Crissa? (Map No. 2.)
ICE B. 0. 591,
118 GREECE. [

without gaining any decisive advantage. The length of the war
dampened their zeal, and a pestilence which broke out in the camp
threatened it with a final extinction. Deputies, sent to the oracle for
counsel, returned with the singular answer, “Send to Cos for the
Jin of gold.” What this was, or how it could help them, was more
than they could tell; but in those days it was deemed proper to obey
the commands of the gods, even though they seem ed hard to be under-
stood ; and messengers were dispatched upon the mysterious errand.

87. When the envoys made known their business in the Coan
assembly, a dead silence ensued; for the magistrates there knew no
more of the article in question than did the Amphictyons themselves.
After an embarrassing pause, an old man arose and said—‘ My name
is Nebros, which in our language signifies fawn, and my son’s name is
Chrysos, which signifies gold. Chrysos, my son, therefore, must be
the ‘fawn of gold’ intended by the gods, and he shall go with you.”
Strengthened and animated by the success of their mission, the am-
bassadors returned, and great was the joy in the Amphictyonic camp,
when Chrysos, by means of his medical knowledge, restored the sick
to health, and raised the drooping spirits of the soldiers, By accident,
he also discovered a pipe which conducted water into the city, and
found means to poison the fountain. The garrison was thus conquered
by an unseen foe, and Crissa fell into the hands of the Aunphictyons.

88. But Cirrha and Anti-Cirrha, two powerful cities, still remained,
and threatened to stand a siege as long as had already detained the
forces of Apollo. Again the oracle was consulted, and again the re-
sponse plunged them all into perplexity. ‘‘The Amphictyons,” said the
Pythia, ‘will never be successful till the waves of the sea wash the
sacred precincts of Delphi.” While all the deputies were speculating
on the possibility of getting the sea over the Parnassian mountains,
Solon relieved their embarrassment by suggesting that, as they could
not bring the sea to the sacred bounds, they might take ‘the converse
of the proposition” and bring the sacred bounds to the sea.

89. This plan struck the Amphictyons favorably. With various
imposing rites and ceremonies, they consecrated all the territory of
Crissa to Apollo, and called on him to aid in the punishment of its
sacrilegious possessors. Superstitious hopes and fears now aided ip
the contest. The Amphictyons were filled with courage, the Cir-

Questions.—86, Why were deputies sent to Delphi? What answer did they get? §7
What further can you state of the furon of gold 2 What did Chrysos accomplish? 88 What
two cities still held out? What course was adopted? What was the response? What
did Solon suggest? 89. What eflcet did it preduce upon the enemy? To what purpose
were the sports of the captured cities conseciated ?
B. 0. 594] SOLON’S TRAVELS. 119

rhwans with dismay ; nor was it long before victory declared in favor
of the assailants. The doomed inhabitants were put to the sword ot
banished; and the lands, which had been enriched by long and skillful
culture, were left desolate. From the spoils of the captured cities, a
fund was created to reward victors at the Olympic games.

90. Soton Goes To Asra.—But Solon, with all the wisdom of his
institutions, and all the popularity he had acquired as a general and a
statesman, could not prevent a new ebullition of faction in his beloved
city. The parties of the Highlands, the Lowlands, and the Coast, still
contended for superiority ; and what one class approved in his Jaws,
another desired to see amended. Anxious for the success of his great
work of legislation, Solon finally assembled.the people; and after
acknowledging that his own mind was not perfectly satisfied as to the
utility of all his measures, he obtained from them a pledge to obey his

‘laws ten years, while he visited those countries most distinguished for
the excellence of their government, and revised the constitution he
had framed for Athens, Having thus secured to his institutions a
fair trial, he sailed for Egypt and abode some time, as he himself

relates,—
“ On the Canopian shore, by Nile’s deep mouth.”

From Egypt he went to Cyprus, and from Cyprus passed, by request
of Creesus, king of Lydia, to Sardis.*

* The interview of Solon with Cresus is very justly celebrated. That monarch, who
was considered the richest in the world, attempted to dazzle the eyes of the philosopher
with a display of magnificent furniture and jewelry. Solon, though a plain republican,
gazed upon the splendor of royalty without the least surprise; and Creesus, chagrined at
the indifference of the humble Grecian, demanded, “ /f he had ever seen a happier man ?™
Solon replied, “ He had; and that person was one Tellus, a worthy citizen of Athens,
who, hoving been above want all his life, died, gloriously fighting for his country.”
Creesus again inquired, “ Whether, after Tellus, he knew anoTuHER happier man in the
world ?” Solon replied, “ Yes; Cleobis and Biton, famed for their dutiful behavior to
their mother; for, the oxen not being ready, they put themselves into the harness and
drew their mother to Juno's temple, who was extremely happy in having such sons, and
moved forcard amidst the blessings of the people. After the sacrifice, they laid down
to rest, but rose no nore. for they died that night without sorrow or pain, in the midst
of «0 mach glory.” ‘ Well,” said Cresus, highly displeased, “ and do you not then rank
us in the number of happy men?” “ King of Lydiu,” said the philosopher, “ the vicixsi-
tudes of life suffer us not to be elated by any present good fortune, or to admire that
Selicity which ts liable to change. Futurity curries for every man various and uncer-
tain events in itx bosom. Tle, therefore, whom heaven blesses with success to the last, is,
in our estimation, THE HAPPY MAN. But the happiness of him who still lives, and hus
the dangers f life to encounter, appears to us no better than that of a champion before
the combat is determined, and while the crown is uncertain.”

Though Creesus dismissed the stern law-giver with contempt, yet, when his city was

 

Questions.—90. What factions continued to agitate Athens? By what means did Solon
endeavor to perpetuate his laws? What was the object of his journey? What places did
he visit? Recite the anecdote in the note. Whereis Cyprus? (Map No. 3.)
120 GREECE, [B. c. 560.

01. Tun Prstsrratip£.—Of the three parties in Athens, Lycurgus,
leader of the Lowlanders, belonged to the “ Old Aristocracy,” the
ancient Eupatride. Megacles, distinguished for being the head of the
Alomwonids, for numerous victories in the Olympic games, for. the
wealth and splendor of his house, and for having married the heiress
of the throne of Sicyon, was leader of the Coast party. Bat the most
powerful man in Athens was Pisistratus, cousin of Solon, whose
engaging manners, agreeable person, and persuasive eloquence gained
for him the pre-eminence among the democratic Highlanders, Each
party was wedded to its own opinions, and contention seemed to
increase, without any prospect of termination, till one day Pisistratus
came into the agora with several roarks of violence upon his person.

92. The people gathered round him with looks of curiosity and con-
cern. He told them that ‘as he was going into the country he was
waylaid by his political opponents, and with difficulty had escaped, *
wounded as might be seen, hence they could judge whether it would
be safe for any man longer to bea friend to the poor. It was obvious,”
he said, “that Ae could no longer live in Attica, unless they would take
him under that protection which he implored.” Immediately one of
his partisans proposed to grant this injured friend of the people a
guard of fifty men for the security of his person. The vote was passed,
and Pisistratus, taking advantage of the terror inspired by his armed
followers, seized upon the citadel. Lycurgus and his party submitted
quietly for a time, and the Alema@onide left the city.

93. Though Pisistratus thus became a tyrant, yet he changed nothing
in the Athenian constitution. All the laws, courts of justice, and
magistracies remained the same, and he himself once obeyed a citation
from the Areopagus on charge of murder. He courted the friendship
of Solon, and often availed himself of his relative’s wisdom, but the
philosopher died the year following these events, at the age of 80.

taken, himself made prisoner, and laid bound upon the pile to be burned, the truth of this
discourse wrung frum him the passionate exclamation, “O, Solon! Solon! Solon!” Upon
the inquiry of Cyrus, > What god or man he invoked in so great a calamity,” he related the
conversation he had with one of the seven wise men of Greece, and the conqueror was 50
struck with it that he released the prisoner and made him his friend. Thus Solon saved tho
life of one king, and improved the cheracter of another.

 

Questions.—91, 92. Who was Lycurgus? What party did he lead? What is known of
Megacles? What particularly distinguished Pisistratus? By what means did he increase
his power? How was the citadel of Athens built? Ans. The Acropolis, or citadel of Athens,
was built upon a rock, three-fourths of a mile in circuit. It commanded the town, and was
accessible only from one side. 93, What did Pisistratus thus become? Did he effect any

ie in the fundamental laws? Whose friendship did he seek? At what age did Suloa
ie?
B. 0. 554.) GEOGRAPMY OF GREECE. 194

94. B. 0. 554.—‘‘Ups anp Downs.” A WeppdING AND A QUARREL.—
Pisistratus not long after lost all the power he had usurped. The
rival factions of Megacles and Lycurgus united to overthrow him; but
no sooner had they effected their object, than they quarreled among
themselves. At the end of six years, Megacles sought out the retired
Pisistratus, and offered to give him his daughter in marriage, and assist
in restoring him to his former station. Pisistratus returned to Athens,
amidst the acclamations of the people, and reccived his young bride
at the hand of her father with apparent joy; but, looking upon her ag
descended from a race struck with an everlasting curse, he treated
her with entire neglect. The Alemeonida, indignant at the affront,
again made common cause with the party of Lycurgus, and Pisistratus
was’ again driven from Athens. We resided ten years in Eubeea.
Hearing then that the government of his rivals had become unpopular,
he landed upon the plain of Marathon with a considerable force, and
marched toward Athens. He was everywhere successful; the disaf-
fected flocked to his standard, and he soon saw himself possessed of
greater power than ever before (B. c. 537-127).

95. What he lad twice lost, and now so hardly regained, he deter-
mined henceforth to hold with a firmer grasp. No longer relying
upon the affections of the fickle multitude, he took a body of foreign
mercenaries into pay, and by their aid inspired awe, where he could
not command respect. His refined and elegant taste, however, led
him to employ his power for the benefit of Athens. He took every
method to promote agriculture ; he beautified and adorned the city ;*
he gave liberally of his private property to relieve the distressed, and
enacted a law making public provision for those wounded in the ser-
vice of their country. He is said to have founded the first public
library in the known world, and to have made the first complete edi-
tion of Homer’s poems. He continued to direct the administration of
government to an advanced age, and died in the city which he had
robbed of liberty, and crowned with prosperity.

* He commenced a temple to Olympian Jove, more vast than any the ancient world ever
saw, but lived to complete only the foundations. He formed the Lyceum, a beautiful
gurden furnished with stately buildings, and watered by a fountain which flowed in nine
artificial channels through delightful groves, by the side of shaded walks.

 

Questions.—94, When did Pisistratns lose the power which he had usurped? How was his
overthrow accomplished? How was he restored to his former station? Why was he again
d@iven from Athens? How did he afterward gain greater power than he had before? 95.
How did Pisistratus secure his power? How did he use it? In what respects? What. is
said of him asa “founder?” Asacompiler? What further can you say of him?

6
122 GREECE. (3. c. 527,

96. Hiprras ann Hipparcnus.—The sons of Pisistratus succeeded
to his power, and for some years trod in his steps. Hipparehus, who
seemed to inherit all his father’s literary taste, devoted himself to the
improvement of the moral and civil condition of the people. He
invited learned men to the city, and cultivated letters and the arts,
under their guidance. Ie caused marble statues ot LUerme, with
moral sentences engraved upon the sides, to be erected in the principal
streets; he relieved the people of a heavy tax; called in and recoined
the money; and for eighteen years contributed not a little to the
flourishing condition of the country. This period was called the
“Golden age of Greece; and Thucydides, in speaking of the Pisis-
tratidsw, remarks, ‘Those tyrants singularly cultivated wisdom and
virtue.” A rule so tranquil, so beneficent, and so popular, seemed
likely to be lasting; when an event occurred, which, though simple in
itself, brought a train of complicated miseries upon Athens.

97. Hipparchus, acting in his public capacity, as director of the
holy rites, dismissed the sister of Harmodius (against whom he had
a private pique), from bearing the sacred vessels at a public festival.
This insult stung Harmodius to the quick, and kindled the indignation
of his friend, Aristogiton. They resolved, in their prosecution of
revenge, to overthrow the ruling dynasty. At an assembly in which
the citizens bore arms, they rushed upon Hipparchus and slew him;
but his guards, coming up immediately, killed Harmodius, and, not long
after, Aristogiton was taken and put to death. B.o. 514. Now it was
that tyranny properly began. Grief, anger, and excitement rendered
Hippias revengeful and suspicious; he increased his enemies by putting
several distinguished individuals to death, and began to look abroad
for the support he had hitherto found among his own people.

98. The Alemwonids and their party found means to profit by the
failing popularity of Hippias. They had employed the years of their
exile in awork which made all Greece their debtors. The temple of
Apollo, at Delphi, having been consumed by fire, the Amphictyons
engaged to give three hundred talents for its rebuilding. The Alc-
monids undertook the job, and finished it in the most superb style,
exceeding their contract in the expense they put upon the structure,
and completing the beauty of the edifice by carrying up the whole

 

Questions.—96. By whom was Pisistratus succeeded? What was the character of Hip-
parchus? Name some of bis acts? Wow long did the country thus flourish ? What was
the period called? What remark is quoted? 97. What event occurred to disturb the
general harmony ? Who were the principal actors in the tragedy that followed? What
became of them? Why did Hippias become revengeful and suspicious? How did he manl-
fest these feelings? 98. By whom was advantage taken of the failing popularity of Wippias?
B. 0. 510] THE ALCM-EONIDA, 123

front with Parian marble. The god proved not ungrateful ; for, when-
ever the Spartans applied to the oracle for counsel, in addition to the
regular response, they were admonished to give liberty to Athens.
Now, when Athens was all commotion, the people of Sparta deter-
mined to obey the injunction of Apollo. They seut out Cleomenes,
their king, with a band of men to aid in overthrowing the Pisistratid
party. Tippias was defeated in the field, and the Athenians, fearing
a siege, consented to deliver up the city in five days. In this time the
most obnoxious escaped, and Hippias made good his retreat to the
Hellespont.

99. Exitr axp Rerory.—Clisthenes, son of that Megacles who con-
tended with Pisistratus, being thus restored to his country, enjoyed a
brief period of power. To please the people, he changed the number
of tribes from four to ten, and enacted that fifty persons should be
chosen from each to constitute a senate; which was from this time
called the Council of Five Hundred. Tis Eupatrid opponents appealed
to the Spartans, and Cleomenes was in consequence sent with another
army up from the Peloponnesus, to destroy the dominion he had so
recently established. A herald preceded him, demanding the banish-
ment of the Alcinzonide, as the descendants of sacrilegious parents.
Not daring to bring the matter before the people, Clisthenes and his
party retired; and Cleomenes, emboldened by this success, banished
700 families from Athens. Ile was proceeding to remodel the consti-
tution, and arrange affairs to suit the aristocracy, when he was inter-
rupted in his labor of love, by a refusal on the part of the Athenians
to be so governed. The indignant people ranto arms; aud Cleomenes,
after being besieged in the citadel two days, was permitted to return
home and take his partisans with him. The Aleme@onide again
returned to Athens.

100. The Athenians, concerned at a breach with the warlike
Spartans, and at a loss for allies, sent aver to Sardis to form a con-
nection with Artaphernes, the governor of that place, The satrap
received the deputies of the Jittle unheard-of republic with that
haughtiness so becoming in a viceroy. When they were admitted into
his presence, he demanded who they were, and why they desired an
alliance with the Persians? These questions having been answered
with all due respect, he condescended to say, ‘That if they would

 

Questions.—98. How did they take such advantage? To what place did Hippias retreat ?
Trace the Alemzeonids from Delphi to Sparta, to Athens; and Hippias to the I[cllespont.
99. Who was Clisthenes? What was the Council of Five Hundred? State what was done
by Cleomenes? In what proceeding was he interrupted? What followed? 100 What
was Lhe livst publiv transaction between Greece and Persia?
{a4 GREECE. [B. ©. 510,

give carth and water to Darius, they might be received into alliance,
otherwise they must depart.” The ambassadors, considering only the
jimmmediate danger of their country, consented to these humiliating
terms. Such was the first public transaction between Greece and
Persia When the ambassadors returned home, they were severely
censureu by the people for the craven spirit they had manifested, and °
nothing further was done about the alliance with Persia.

101. Tue Croups Gatner.—Yet the danger which hung over
Athens was not yet averted. Cleomenes could not forget that he had
effected a disgraceful retreat from the Acropolis. He left no means
untried to excite a league against the Athenians. In the Spartan
senate he asserted, that, while shut up in the citadel, he discovered,
among the archives of the republic, a record of the means by which
the Alemonids bribed the Pythia, and gained the command to give
liberty to Athens. Ye urged, therefore, that the Spartan government
had acted unjustly, irreligiously, and imprudently, in expelling Llip-
pias; and that they could not do their duty to gods nor men other-
wise than by restoring him. By the influence of this speech, Hippias
was invited to Sparta; but, as the other states refused to enter into a
league to restore the banished tyrant, he soon after retired to the court
of Artaphernes, where he was kindly received, and treated with the
greatest attention.

102. The Athenians sent to request that Artaphernes would not
countenance their banished citizens. The satrap returned for answer,
“Tf the Athenians wish to be safe, they must receive Hippias for their
king.” This haughty reply threw all Attica into a ferment. Every
man was aroused by indignation or alarm. At this critical moment,
Aristagoras, governor of Miletus, arrived at Athens. He had come to
persuade the Athenians to assist their brethren of Ionia in a rebellion
against Persia. Being introduced into an assembly of the people, he
used every argument in his power to point their vengeance against the
Persina rulers of Asia Minor. And he succeeded. Twenty ships were
voted, to aid the Ionians in their projected revolt; and “ these ships,”’ adds
the historian, ‘were the beginning of evils to Greeks and barbarians.”

Nore.— Pythagoras, 4 fymoans Grecian philosopher, flourished in this century. He wasa
native of Samos, and a great traveler. He is said to have been carried from Egypt, in the

 

Questions,—100, Tlow were the ambassadors treated upon their return? Trace them to
Sardis and back. 1OL What could not Cleomenes forset? What assertion did he make?
What did he urge? What influence did the speech have? Lo what place did Hippiay
ulerward retire? 102, What message was sent to Artaphernes? What was his reply?
What was the effect? Who, just then, arrived at Athens? What was bis object? Low tar
did ne suceeed ? What says the historian about the ships?
po. 500.] PEHESIAN INVASIONS. 195

army of Cambyses, to Persia, where he compared what he had learned from the Egyptian
priests with the doctrines of the magi. From Persia he passed into other countries, col-
lecting every where materials for his great system — Ie finally took up his abode in Crutona,
in Italy. He established a school there, into which he admitted those whom be thought
capable of becoming true philosophers. The candidates were first put upon trial by being
subjected to rigorous exercise, severe abstinence, and strict silence. During these years
they neither saw nor heard their master, but were instructed by some inferior preceptor,
who settled every doubt by “ ipse divit,” “he,” that is Pythagoras, * said so.” If any one,
wearied of this rigid discipline, chose to withdraw, he was dismissed with double the share
that he had advanced to the common stock: a tomb was erected for him as for a dead man ;
and he was forgotten as soun as possible. Iaving passed the severe ordeal, the candidates
were permitted to hear Pythagoras lecture from behind a curtain. His doctrines they com-
wnitted to memory, that the wisdom of their master need not pass to the vulgar through the
medium of bouks.

He taught by numbers; the Divine’ mind being considered the Monad, from which
nature emanates and recedes, as numbers depart from unity.

The Diatonic seale was discovered by Pythagoras. In passing a smith’s forge, he observed
that three of the sounds made by the four workmen were harmonious, while the fourth was
discordant. He found the difference to bein the weight of the hammers. Acting upon this
hint, he went home, and preparing four strings exactly alike, hung upon them four weights
corresponding to the weights of the hamuiers. Thus he formed a musical seale, and pro-
ceded to construct stringed instruments. He conceived that the spheres in which the
planets move, striking upon ether, must produce a sound, and that, all their motions being
harmonious, their sounds must be harmonious also; and his scholars, ambitious to increase
their master’s fame, declared that he had been permitted by the gods to “listen to the
celestial music of the spheres.”

His theory taught that fire holds the middle place in the universe, and that the earth is
one of the planets which make their revolutions about the sphere of fire.

Pythagoras believed in the transmigration of souls, and declared that he could remember
what passed while he inhabited the bodies of ditferent animals. He lived to an advanced
age, venerated by the credulons, and loved by the good. He had such a command over his
countenance that it never expressed either grief, joy, or anger.

103. 8. c. 499.—Tue Causzs or THe Pensran Invaston.—In p. c. 502,
in Naxos one of the islands of the Aegean Sea, a revolution broke out, and
the aristocratic party was expelled from the island. The exiles applied
to Aristagoras, the tyrant of Miletus, for assistance, which he readily
promised, knowing that if they were restored by his means he should
become master of the island. He also obtained the co-operation of Arta-
phernes, the satrap of Western Asia, by representing to him that not only
Naxos, but all the islands of the Aegean Sea could be annexed to the Per-
sian empire. The expedition proved a failure, and Aristagoras threatened
with utter ruin, determined to urge his countrymen in the Greek cities
of Asia Minor, to throw off the Persian yoke, and establish a democratical
form of government. He also crossed over to Greece and applied to Athens
and Sparta for assistance. Sparta refused to take any part in the war; but
Athens, incensed because the satrap Ariaphernes had said that the ‘<Athen-
jans moust receive Hippias for their king,” voted to send assistance to the
Tonians. They landed near Ephesus, and marched immediately to Sardis,
which they took and burnt (B. c. 499). Although they committed no

 

 

Questicns.—103. What is said of the revolt in Naxos? Where was Milctus? What did
tie Athenians do in Asia Minor? How did the invasion affect Darius? What did he
gay? Give tic situation of Sardis?
L260 GREECE. [B. . 500

er is invasion w: the resent-
ility, yet this invasion was enough to arouse :
other act of hostility, ye mg

ment of Darius against the republics of Greece.
formed who the Athenians were, he seized his bow and shot an arrow
hizh into the air, exclaiming, ‘ © Great Jove, grant me the power to take
vengeance on the Athenians.” He ordered an attendant ta aa to him
three times every day at dinn r, “ Sire, remember the Athenians.

Sparta.—104. Cleomenes, meantime, opposed Demaratus, his brother
covercign, in every thing; and, by procuriny a decision against him from
the Delphic oracle, effected his banishment. Demaratus, like Hippias,
retired to Persia. Cleomenes having committed suicide, his nephew,
Leonidas, succeeded to the throne, in the line of Eurysthenes, about the
game time that Leotychides, nephew of Demaratus, received the power
vested in the house of Procles.

105. Sirvarion or rm Greotan States.—And now, while the
hosts of Persia are gathering to pour their full tide of vengeance upon
the offending Greeks, let us look at the condition of these little states,
and inquire into their means for resisting the tremendous shock. The
Thessalians, who should have guarded the northern frontier, were so
at variance among themselves, that they could not agree, even
against a common enemy. The Thebans, and with them almost all
Beotia, had sent earth and water to the Persians. Argos had been
almost depopulated by Sparta, and Athens had not yet forgotten the
injuries she had received trom Cleomenes.

106. Beside these divisions between the different republics, each
state was divided in its own counsels; the aristocracy could not brook
the measures of the people, and the people would not support the
measures of the aristocracy; and what was far worse, Hippias and
Demaratus, the banished princes of Athens and Lacedemon, were resi-
dents of the Persian court, and instigators of the war. And yet, even
at these fearful odds, in this distracted state of the country, neither
Athens vor Sparta could tolerate the idea of submission to a foreign
power; and when the heralds arrived, demanding “ earth and water,”
in the name of Darius, king of kings, they dared to exasperate the

-already maddened sovereign, by throwing one of the messengers into
a ditch, and the other into « well, as the places where they could best
find the required tokens of submission.

 

Questions.—104. What became of Cleomenes ? Of Demaratus? By whom was Cleomencs
succceded? What power did Leotychides receive? 105. In what condition were the
'Thessalians to resist invasion? The Thebans ? Argos? Athens? 106. What was the
general condition among the states? What made matters worse? Wat was the spirit
of Athens and Sparta? By what acts was this spirit manifested 2
B.C. 492.] PERSIAN INVASIONS. 127

107. B. o. 492.—The first armament sent out by Darius, under hig
son-in-law, Mardonius, was shattered by a storm, off Mt. Athos, and
consequently did not succeed in reaching even the shores of Greece,
The next three years were spent in preparation on both sides, And
while Datis and Artaphernes, with the congregated forces of tlhe East,
are slowly sailing across the Egean, let us look at the military power
of Athens, against whom the attack is principally directed.

108. GeneALoGy or MirriapEs.—Many years before this period, the
peninsula called ‘“‘The Chersonesus” had been settled by the Athe-
nians in a singular manner. During the time of Pisistratus, the native
inhabitants of the place, being at war with their neighbors, sent some
chiefs to consult the god. The oracle directed them to invite into
their country, to found a colony there, the first person who, after their
quitting the temple, should invite them to the rites of hospitality. The
chiefs started on their journey homeward. Turning into Attica, their
way led them past the country-house of Miltiades, a descendant of a
wealthy and honorable Athenian family. Miltiades, happening to be
in his portico, and seeing men pass in a foreign dress, accosted thein,
and offered them refreshment. They entered his house, and soon
acquainted their hospitable entertainer with the purpose of their
journey, and the oracular response they had received.

109. Miltiades readily accepted the divine direction. A number of
Athenians, whom Pisistratus very willingly dismissed, joined in the
enterprise, and Miltiades, with the followers he had collected, departed
with the strangers. The colony thus planted acknowledged him as
their head; and he became, without a struggle, the tyrant of Cherso-
nesns. He died childless, and his estate and authority passed to the
son of his brother Cimon. This youth, also named Miltiades, was at
that time in high favor with Hippias and Hipparchus. These politic
tyrants, anxious to preserve the authority of the mother country over
the colony, sent young Miltiades to collect his inheritance, and take
upon himself the administration of affairs.

110. When Darius marched against the Scythians, Miltiades followed
in his train, and was left, with the other Ionian chiefs, to guard the

 

Questions.—10T. When did Darius send out his first armament? Who commanded it?
What is said of the expedition? Where was Mt. Athos? (See map No. 2.) How were
the next three years employed? What is said of Datis and Artaphernes? 108. Who was
Miltiades? Who entered his house? Why did they dosu? Where had the chiefs been?
What direction did the oracle give? What information did the oracle impart to Miltiades ?
109. How did Miltiades act in reference to the divine direction? Who joined in the enter-
prise? What colony was thus planted? Who was Cimon? To what distinction did his
son attain? What was the name of that son? What is said of Iippias and Hipparchus ?
110, What charge was assigned to Miltiades ?
128 GREECE. [B. c. 493.

bridge of boats across the Danube. It was this Miltiades who pro-
posed to break up the bridge, and free Ionia from the yoke of Persia,
by leaving Darius to perish among the Scythians; 2 measure which
was prevented by that very Histiaeus who instigated the Ionian colo-
nies to revolt, and thus commenced the war which now threatened
Athens. It does not appear that Miltiades took any active part in the
revolt; but, finding himself obnoxious to the Persians, he put his effects
on board five triremes, and sailed for Athens, where he soon gained
great popularity, and was made one of the generals.

111. Such was the man who, while the Persians were subduing the
islands of the Egean and storming Eretria, was employing all his
energies to raise a force sufficient to meet them, when they should
make their descent upon Attica. No measures had yet been taken for
the general security. The Ionian colonies that began the war had
been conquered; all the islands had submitted: Euboea, the guardian
of the eastern coast, had wasted her best blood in a fruitless resist-
ance; and the Persian army had even passed the narrow strait of
Euripus, before any league for common defense had been proposed.
On the capture of Eretria, a messenger was sent from Athens to Sparta,
to communicate the alarming intelligence, and entreat assistance. The
Lacedemonians promised their utmost: help, but their laws and their
religion, they said, forbade them to ‘march before the full moon, of
which it wanted five days. In five days the Persiars might ravage all
Attica.

112. The Athenians were thus left to meet the storm alone. Their
forces were commanded by ten generals of equal authority, und among
them a question arose, involving the issue of the war, and the fate of
all Greece. Should they sustain the horrors of:a siege within their
city, or should they advance into the open plain to meet the enemy?
It was at this crisis that the genius and experience of Miltiades saved
his country. He knew the character of the Persians, he knew the
valor of his countrymen, and he left no means untried till he had pre-
vailed upon the archon to give the casting vote in favor of marching
out of the city. Aristides, reflecting that a command which changed
every day could not be uniform or efficient, resigned in favor of Mil-
tiades; and, the other generals following his example, this chief was

Questions.—110. What proposition did he make? Why was not the propusition carried
out? Why did Miltiades go tu Athens? What success did he gain there? Trace his
movements. 111, What successes did the Persians cain? How was Miltiades meanwhile
employed? What is said of EKubuat Where was the strait of Euripus? (See map No. 2.)
Erctria? What messenger was sent? What was the reply? 112. Did the Spartans assist
the Athenians? By what process was Multiades invested with sole authority ?
B. 0 490.] PERSIAN INVASIONS. 199

invested with sole authority. As the Persians possessed the command
of the sea, Miltiades was forced to wait for intelligence as to the point
of debarkation: they had therefore landed their whole force without
molestation, upon the eastern coast of Attica, and were in quiet pos-
session of the plain of Marathon, when the Athenian army appeared
on the hills above.

113. B. o. 490.—BarrLte or Maratnon.—Let us take a view of the
rival armies, as they lay encamped the night before the battle. The
barbarian host numbers six-and-forty different nations. They are sur-
rounded with all the pomp and panoply of war: 100,000 foot-soldiers,
wearing stockings and turbans, and carrying bows and short spears,
the successors of those troops who under the great Cyrus conquered
all Asia, flushed with the hopes inspired by recent victory, wait for
the morrow to earn new laurels: 10,000 horses, richly caparisoned,
each carrying a short spear on the forehead, and another upon the
breast, with 10,000 riders armed with spears and javelins, are prepared
to pursue the fugitives to the very gates of Athens. The fleet appears
in the distance, carrying provisions and baggage for the soldiers, chains
for the captives. and marble for monuments; and even the servants
which are left to guard it are more in number than all the inhabitants
of Attica, men, women, and children, included,

114. Sheltered by the hills, thé 10,000 Athenians, with a few vol-
unteers from Platea, and attending slaves to act as light armed infantry,
invoke the aid of their protecting gods and heroes in the approaching
conflict. Who can prophesy aught but victory to the Persians? Who
can predict aught but destruction to the Greeks? When Miltiades
viewed the narrow valley, bounded by rocky and difficult heights, in
which the Persians were inclosed, he determined to commence the
attack. Finding his troops animated as he wished, he issued an order
to lay aside missile weapons, to advance, running down the hill, and
engage in close fight. This command was obeyed with the utmost
alacrity. The Persians beheld the mad onset, at first, with ridicule,
but the shock they sustained soon turned their attention to self-
defense. The horse, incumbered by the narrowness of the ground,
could not move without throwing their own ranks into disorder; and

 

Questions.—112. Which party had command of the sea? Where did the Persians land
theirarmy? Of what place did they take quiet possession? Where was Marathon? (See
map No. 2.) 113. What battle is described? How large was the army opposed to the
Athenians? How were the foot-soldiers attired? What is said of the horses and riders?
By whom was the army commanded? (See paragraph 107.) 114. How large was the
Athenian army? By whom was the battle commenced? Why did not Miltiades wait to be
attacked? How was the battle commenced? How did the Persians regard the onset ?

6*
180 GREECE. [p. 0. 490,

the infantry, having no use for their bows and slings, threw them
away, and engaged hand to hand with the Greeks. The center of the
Persian army maintained its ground till the wings gave way, and then
all fled for protection to their ships. The Athenians pursued them,
and, in the confusion of embarkation, made great slaughter. They took
seven galleys, with all their contents. The Persians lost 6,400 men,
the Athenians only 192.

115. Immediately after the battle, an Athenian soldier, still reeking
with the blood of the enemy, quitted the army and ran with the glad
news to Athens. He reached the gates, and, shouting to the anxious
multitude, “ Rejoice, rejoice; the victory is ours,”’ fell down exhausted
and expired. The Persian commander, Datis, was killed in the battle,
aud the aged tyrant, Hippias, met an inglorious death. The Persian
armament, however, was still very formidable; nor was Athens, by
the glorious victory of Marathon, delivered from the danger’ that
threatened her. Miltiades, suspecting that an attempt might be made
upon the city, marched rapidly across the country with his forces, and
arrived upon the hill, Cynosarges, before the Persian fleet succeeded
in dunbling Cape Sunium, and coming to anchor in the port of Phale-
reun. Perceiving the warlike disposition of the Athenian troops, the
Persian commander, without attempting any thing further, weighed
anchor, and steered for Asia.  *

116 Two days after, a body of Lacedemonians arrived. They had
marched instantly after the full moon, and reached Athens in three
days, a distance of not less than one hundred and twenty miles. Find-
ing themselves too late to share in the glorious action, they visited the
battle-field, and, after having bestowed many encomiums upon the
valor of the Athenians, returned home! In the plain a lofty mound
was erected over the bodies of those Athenians who fell in the con-
flict, their names being inscribed upon pillars sculptured from that
very marble brought over by the Persians to commemorate their
anticipated victory. This tumulus is still to be seen, and some remains
of the marble monuments are yet visible, Thus ended the first Persian
invasion.

117. Deatn or Mirr1apes.—The popularity and influence of Mil-

 

Questions.—114. Give a furtber account of the battle. 115. Whatisrelated of an Athenian
soldier? What was the next movement of Miltiades? Where was Cape Sunium? (See
map No, 2) Where did the Persian fleet anchor? What was the next movement of the
fleet? 116. What help came for the Athenians? Why had not the Lacedemonians arrived
in time tu take part at Marathon? What, then, did they do? What celebrated mound was
erected? Is it still tobe seen? 117. What is said of the popularity and influence of Mul-
tiades? Where was the island of'Paros? (S+3 map No, 2.)
B. 0. 483,] PERSIAN INVASIONS. 131

tiades were now unbounded. To punish a personal affront of the
Parians, he requested a fleet of seventy ships te be employed in a
manner which would bring great riches to the republic. The people
granted them without requiring him to tell how he meant to use them.
With this force he attacked the isle of Paros, under pretense of pun-
ishing the people for assisting the Persian fleet. The Parians resisted
him bravely; he was dangerously wounded, and obliged to return
home in disgrace. The glory of Miltiades had roused the slumbering
envy of the Alemeonide, and his failure at Paros furnished the
desired occasion for destroying him.

118. Xanthippus, who had married a niece of Aegacles, accused him
of leaving Paros because he was bribed by the commanders of the
Persian fleet, then stationed at a little distance on the continent. The
gallant Miltiades, too ill to leave his house, was brought in his bed
before the general assembly of that people he had so recently delivered
from destruction. Le attempted no defense, but lay there a melan-
choly spectacle, while his brother recounted his services, and endea-
vored to excite the compassion of his judges. <A fine of fifty talents
was, nevertheless, laid upon him, and, being unable to raise this sum,
he was thrown into prison, where he died of his wounds. The fine
was afterward paid by Cimon, his son. ¥

119. Tne Perstan Covurt.—On the return of his generals from this
disastrous expedition, Darius determined to invade Greece in person;
but troubles in Egypt and at home prevented the execution of his
design, and, five years after, death closed all his schemes of revenge.
But the Persians continued to retain the character of a warlike and
conquering people, which their fathers had bequeathed to them. They
were not accustomed to insnlts within their dominion, like the burn-
ing of Sardis, still less to defeuts in the field like that of Marathon.
Xerxes, therefore, instigated by his courtiers to undertake a war
which would extend his dominions to the western ocean, began to
make arrangements for carrying out the design, both by sea and land.

120. Four years were employed in preparation. An army was col-
lected, greater than the world ever saw, either before or since. Every
sea-port, in the whole winding length of coast from Macedonia to the

 

Questions.—117. What naval expedition did he undertake? Give an account of it. What
misfortune at home followed? 118. What accusation was brought against bim? What scene
ocenrred? What judgment was pronounced? What further can you state of Miltiades?
119. Upou what did Darius determine? What prevented him from so doing? By whom
was Darius succeeded as king? What arrangements did Xerxes begin? By whom was he
influenced so to do? What had the Athenians done? 120, How long was Xerxes busy in
waking preparations? What army was collected?
1382 GREECE. [B. c. 489.

present Gulf of Sidra, was ordered to prepare ships and impress mari-
ners. ‘To prevent all risk of future disasters like that which attended
the fleet of Mardonius, a ship canal was excavated, at immense expense,
across the isthmus which joins Mt. Athos to the main-land; and when
we consider that Xerxes expected to add Europe to his dominions,
and that the passage across the Egean was very dangerous, and the
doubling of Mt. Athos especially so, this canul appears to have been
a very wise preparation.

121. At length, the levies being completed, the forces from all the
eastern, southern, and western provinces of Persia assembled at Sar-
dis. Thither the monarch went himself, to take the command. Thence
heralds were sent to all the states of Greece (Athens and Sparta
excepted), demanding earth and water ; and, according to Oriental
custom, ordering entertainment to be prepared for the king. Every
thing was ready before the vernal equinox. And now leaving Xerxes
to prosecute his pompous march toward Thermopylw, where a signal
defeat awaits him, let us look again at the state of the Grecian republics.

122. It was now ten years since the battle of Marathon. The Greeks
had long had intelligence of the immense preparations making in Asia,
yet still no measures had been concerted for general defense: on the
contrary, many of the smaller states had sent earth and water to the
invaders. The Argives, still weak from the slaughter under Clev-
menes, declared to the deputies sent to beg assistance, that ‘The
Spartan arrogance was intolerable, and that they would rather be sub-
ject to the barbarians than to Lacedemon;” and they ended their
indignant refusal by commanding the ministers to leave the territory
before sunset, on pain of being treated as enemies.

123. The Spartan kings were Leonidas, and Leotychidas who had
defeated the Persian fleet in the battle of Myeale. The Athenian
counsels were governed by Themistocles and Aristides. Both of these
distinguished men had proved their valor in the battle of Marathon.
Of the ten Athenian generals, Aristides was the only one that agreed
with Miltiades upon the propriety of meeting the enemy in the field ;
and he it was who, renouncing his day of command in favor of the
superior skill of Miltiades, induced the other generals to do the same.
Yet, such was the power of faction at Athens, that through the

 

Questions.—120. What cinal was made? Where was Mount Athos? (See map No. 2.)
Why was the canal made? 121, At what place did the furees of Xerxvs assemble? Where
was Sardis? (See map No. ¥.) At what place did Xerxes tuke formal command? What
demands and orders did he issue? 122. When did the battle of Marathon take place? Ans, 490
years B.c. When did Xerxes march against Sparta? 123. Who were the Spartan kings
Who the leading Atheniav counselors? What is said of Aristides 7
B. 0. 480.] PERSIAN INVASIONS. 133

. ¥ : = . .
intrigues of Themistocles, this great and good man had been in banish-
ment six years, and was now only recalled when his country felt the
need of his services.*

124, Themistocles, with the natural penetration of an ambitious
mind, saw in the approaching struggle an occasion for Athens to rise
to anew rank in Greece; and to gain for her this exalted position,
and at the same time to take the lead in her counsels, had developed
his energies, and called into exercise all the powers of his great intel-
lect. Egina, though a small island, possessed the largest fleet in
Greece. To make Athens a maritime power, he had roused her envy
of Egina, and by his eloquence had persuaded the people to devote the
proceeds of a silver mine to the building and equipping of triremes.
Thus, by his foresight, Athens was furnished in this emergency with a
fleet of two hundred ships; and now, while the storm of Persian inva-
sion was slowly approaching, he was busied in allaying animosities,
and silencing disputes among the Grecian cities, and in devising every
stratagem to secure a victory which he hoped would make Athens
supreme in Greece, and Themistocles supreme in Athens.

125. Tue Response.—He hoped almost alone. The courage of the
mass was the stern resolution of despair. Many were dismayed by
the overwhelming force collecting in Asia, and more were disheartened
by the fearful response of Apollo; for, persons deputed by public
authority, having performed the prescribed ceremonies, entered the
temple, and as they sat by the shrine, the Pythia exclaimed, ‘‘ Wretches,

* The Athenians had a mild way of gratifying envy, which they called a method of
humbling those who possessed tuo much power. LEvery citizen took a shell, and, writing
upon it the name of the person he considered most obnoxious, threw it into a spot inclosed
for the purpose with wooden rails, The magistrates then counted the shells, and, if they
amounted to six thousand, the ostvacism was declared complete, and the individual whose
namne was found upon the greatest number of shells was banished ten years. Aristides had
been commissioned to tuke charge of the spoils after the battle of Marathon. He discharged
his trust with the most perfect fidelity. He was also distinguished for his inflexible justice
in every transaction. Themistocles, envying the love and respect with which he was
treated, insinuated that he was insensibly gaining the sovereign power, though without the
ensigns of it. By this means the people were induced to banish the most virtuous man in
the state. While the shells were gettiny inscribed at the assembly that passed the sentence
of ostracism upon him, a peasint approached, and begged him to write the name of Aris-
tides upon the shell. The good man, surprised at the adventure, asked him “ Whether
Aristides had ever injured him?" “No,” said he,“ nor do I even know him, but it vexvs
me to hear him everywhere called the Just.” Aristides made no reply, but wrote his
nile upon the shell, and returned it to his envious countryman.

 

Questions.—124. What did Themistocles see in the approaching struggle? Was he selfish
in his efforts? What is said of Egina? Mow was it situated? (See map No, 2.) What
had Themistocles induced the Athenians to do? What isa trireme? Ans, A galley or
vessel with three benches or ranks of ours on each side. Iow large was the Athenian feet?
(25. Why were the people disheartened? What was the response,
1384 GREECE. [B. c. 480

why sit ye there? Leave your houses and the lofty ramparts of your
city, and fly to the furthest part of the earth. For not the head shall
remain firm, nor the body, nor the extreme feet, not therefore the
hands, nor shall aught of the middle remain, but all shall pass unre-
garded. For fire and keen Mars, urging the Syrian chariot, shall
destroy. Nor yours alone, but many other strong towers shall he
overthrow. Many temples of the immortal gods shall he give to the
consuming fire. Even now they stand dropping sweat, and shaking
with terror. Black blood flows over their highest roofs, foreseeing
the necessities of wretchedness. Depart, therefore, from the sanc
tuary, and diffuse the mind in evils.”

126. The Athenian deputies were thrown into the deepest conster-
nation. In their anxiety, they consulted with one of the principal
Delphian citizens; he advised them to take the symbols of suppliants,
and go again to the oracle. They did so, and addressed the shrine
thus: **O sovereign power, prophesy unto us more propitiously for
our country, regarding these suppliant tokens which we bear, or
we will not depart from the sanctuary, but will remain here till we
die.”

127. The prophetess answered, ‘‘ Minerva is unable to appease
Olympian Jupiter, though entreating with many words and deep wis-
dom. Again, therefore, I speak in adamantine terms. All else within
Ceeropian bounds, and the recesses of divine Cithzeron shall fall. THe
WOODEN WALL alone great Jupiter grants to Minerva, to remain inex-
pugnable, a refuge to you and your children. Wait not, therefore, the
approach of horse or foot, an immense army coming from the conti-
nent, but retreat, turning the back, even though they be close upon
you. O divine Sulamis! thou shalt lose the sons of women, whether
Ceres be scattered or gathered.”

128. Writing down this answer, which appeared milder than the
former, the deputies returned to Athens. When the matter came to
be discussed, various opinions were advanced upon the meaning of
the words which interested them so deeply. Somme thought they
directed the defense of the citadel, the ancient palisade of which was
intended by the wooden wall. Others insisted that the wooden wall
could mean nothing but the fleet, on which the oracle encouraged
them to depend, but they concluded from the last sentence that, if the
fleet came to an engageient, it would be defeated off Salamis. They

 

Questions,—126, Jlow did the deputies then act? What address did they make? 127.
What answer did the prophetess make? 12%. To what place did the deputies then return?
What opinions were advanced? What adyice given?
B. ¢. 480.] PERSIAN INVASIONS. 135

advised, therefore, to make use of the fleet for quitting, with their
families and effects, a country which they could no longer defend.

129. But Themistocles was eloquent, determined, and popular. He
had procured the building and appointment ef the fleet, in view of this
very emergency; he was supposed to have instructed the Pythia as to
the wooden walls, and he now ascended the herald’s stand to give the
finishing touch to his deep-laid scheme, by bringing the people into
his views. ‘There was one emphatic word,” he said, “ which clearly
proved the late construction wrong. For if the last sentence had been
meant unfavorably to Salamis, the oracle would scarcely have said, O,
divine Salamis, but rather, O, wretched Salamis. Defeat at sea was
therefore portended not to them but to their enemies; the wooden
wall unquestionably meant their fleet, and a naval engagement must
save the country.”

130. The Athenian people felt at once the force of his reasoning;
Athens was hallowed by the blood of heroes, and by the presence
of Minerva, the guardian deity. It was determined to remove the
women and children, for a brief period, to Salamis and Egina;
to put the whole strength of the commonwealth into the navy;
to increase the number of ships as fast as possible; and to meet
the enemy at sea. Then it was, after Xerxes had assembled his
army at Sardis, that * the busy note of preparation” began to sound
in Greece.

131. Tne Coneress.—A national congress was formed by each state
sending deputies to Corinth to consult upon the conduct of the war.
None were more forward to join the confederacy than the Thessalians.
When intelligence arrived that the Persinn army had crossed the Hel.
respont and was advancing toward the frontiers. the Thessalians
begzed that forces might be sent to guard the passes of their country.
All the soldiers, therefore, that could be assembled were sent up to take
possession of the vale of Tempe, between Ossa and Olympus; but
hearing that the Persians could still enter Greece by going further
west, they abandoned the pass, and returned to Corinth. The Thes-
salians, thus deserted, submitted to the Persian monarch, and many

 

Questions. —129, What had Themistocles already procured? What supposition was made
in reference to him? What argument did he use to bring the people into his views? 180.
What effect did the reasoning of Themistocles have? When did Greece begin to prepare
for defense? 131. At what place did a congress meet? Of whom was the congress formed?
What was the object of the congress? Who were among the earliest to join the confedera-
tion? What request did the Thessalians afterward make? What response was consequently
made? What were Ossa and Olympus? Ans. Mountains, Where were they situated?
(see map No. 2.) How did the forces sent afterward act? What was the consequence ua
recards the Thessalians ?
136 GREEOE. [B. c. 439.

enlisted zealously in his service. The Grecian confederacy, which
remained to resist the whole force of the Persian empire, now con-
sisted of a few little states, not equal in territory to the state of Massa-
chusetts, and whose population woud not equal that of a single county
ot England.

132 Srarioxixe Tue Troops.—The whole strength of Athens went
to the naval armament. It was the season for celebrating the Olympic
games, and it was deemed unnecessary to divert the attention of all
Greece from these sacred rites; but, to secure the fidelity of the states,
which still belonged to the confederacy, the congress thought best to
give a pledge of their interest in the general welfare, by sending a
small force to garrison Thermopylew. Leonidas, king of Sparta, fore-
seeing that they should be called to sell their lives for their country,
selected from his subjects three hundred men who had sons to bear
up their names; ang Plutarch states that he and his little band
solemnized their owif obsequies by funeral games before their depar-
ture.

133. Each Spartan was attended by one or more Helots; Arcadia
furnished 2120 men, Corinth armed 400, Phlius* 200, and Mycenet
80." Messengers were sent to Phocis and Locris to summon their
whole force. ‘“ They were reminded that the invader was not a god,
but a mortal, liable as all Jiuman greatness, to a fall; and they wero
bidden to take conrage, for the sea was guarded by Athens and Egina,
and the troops now sent were only forerunners of the Peloponnesian
ariny, Which would speedily follow. The Phocians immediately sent
forward 1000 men, and the Locrians were equally prompt; the Thes-
pianst volunteered to the amount of 700, and Leonidas compelled the
Thebans to furnish 490 more. Thus, with an army of about 6000 men,
Leonidas marclied to defend Thermopylae against all the forces of the
east.

134. While the Spartans were thus advancing to their fatal station,
the fleet was moving round to the adjoiming strait of Euripus. The
Delphians, unable to do any thing for the defense of their country,
had recourse to the oracle, and were told ‘*to pray to the winds, for
these might be powerful assistants to Greece.” The summer was far

* A city of Arcadia. + A city of Argolis, t From “— a city of Beotia,

 

Questions.—131, low much of the confederacy remained? 132. In what preparations did
the Athenians invest their strength? What was deemed unnec sary ? Why was a force
sent to Thermopyla ? How smany Spartans did Leonidas select for the purpose? What
event did he foresee? What statement is made by Plutarch? 133, What additions were
made to the Spartan army? How large was the entire force of Leonidas? 134 What did -
the oracle tell the Delphians ?

 
 
B. c. 480.] PERSIAN INVASIONS. 137

advanced when Leonidas and his forces came in sight of Mount Eta,
and the fleet’ came to anchor near the adjacent shore. Suddenly the
heavens began to blacken with clouds. The Athenians, filled with
joy at sight of the rising tempest, redoubled their cries to the god of
the Thracian wind. They besought the deity to vindicate Attica, and
bring destruction on the barbarian fleet, as he had formerly done at
Athos.

135. “‘ Whether this really induced Boreas to fall upon the barba-
rians,”’ says Herodotus, ‘I cannot undertake to say, but the Athenians
assert it, and have therefore built him a temple.”? The storm lasted
several days. Four hundred Persian galleys were sunk, with all their
crews, besides the loss of coasting vessels. Fifteen galleys, which
had been dispersed, some days after fell in with the Grecian fleet,
and were captured. The prospect of Grecian affairs was now bright-
ening a little. If their fleet could meet. that of Persia with suc-
cess, and Leonidas defend Thermopyle, Kerxes could never reach
Athens.

136. Tue Fienr.—Nor was it long before the day of trial came.
The first sight of the Persian host, covering the Trachinian plains,
struck some of Leonidas’s followers with dismay, and many were for
retreating and making a final stand at the isthmus of Corinth; but
Leonidas, having set a body of Phocians to guard the only mountain
path by which they could be surrounded, and having sent off for a
reinforcement, prepared to give such an example at Thermopyle as
should rouse all Greece to action. Day after day the haughty monarch
waited, expecting that the grand display of his forces would frighten
away the opposing Greeks, A horseman, sent out to reconnoiter,
returned with the answer that he found the Spartans out of their
intrenchments; some quietly seated combing their flowing hair,
others employed in exercise. At length, despairing of their voluntary
retreat, he sent out his Median cavalry, and finally the Immortal band,
to repulse them, but the Grecians held the pass against their utmost
efforts.

137. How long the contest might have lasted, had not. treachery
revealed a secret path to the Persians, it is impossible to tell. This

 

Questions,—134. What encouragement did the Greeks receive from the clements? 135,
Who was Boreas? Did the prayers of the Athenians induce Boreas to act in their behalt,
What effect did the storm have? How did Grecian affairs then appear? 136. What wal
Thermopylw? Ans. A celebrated defile between Thessaly and Locris. (See map No. 2.)
Ilow did the first appearance of the Persians affect the men of Leonidas? What prepuara-
tions had Leonidas made? For what did Xerxes look day after day? What information
did he receive? How did the battle of Thermopyle commence? 137. What treachery
occurred ?
: B. c. 130.
128 GREECE. [

path, neglected as it had been, was not unknown to the Grecians, and
Leonidas set a company of Phocians to guard it. A Thessalian
betrayed the secret to Xerxes, and for a considerable bribe offered to
eowainet a body of forées over the mountain to the rear of the Grecian
camp. They started about dusk, and, marching rapidly all nizht,
reached by daybreak the spot where the Phocian guard was posted.
The oaks, with which the mountain was covered, concealed their
approach. The Phocians were first alarmed by the noise of a multi-
tude of men treading among the fallen leaves. They sprang to their
arms, and, retreating to the side of the path, prepared to sell their
lives as dearly as possible; but the Persians, having another pur-
pose in view, left then unharmed, and made all speed for the plains
below.

138. Tae Immorrat 300 anp TnetrR Krxe.—When Leonidas Jearned
that the Persians were advancing in his rear, he called a council of
war. Opinions were divided; some thinking it best to maintain their
post, and others contending that this would be a useless waste of lives.
The debate ended in a general resolution to retreat with all speed to
their respective homes, with the exception-of Leonidas and his three
hundred Spartans, and the gallant Thespians, who determined to
remain, and give such a specimen of Grecian valor as should forever
strike terror into the hearts of the Persians; and they retained the
Thebans as hostages. As the oracle had declared that either Lacede-
mon or her king must perish, Leonidas resolved at once to be himself
the sacrifice. 4

139. The whole Persian army was under arms before the sun rose,
the king himself attending in solemn pomp to wait the appearance of
the luminary, for beginning the devotional ceremonies prescribed by
the Persian religion. The Spartans, having given up all thoughts
either of conquering or escaping, looked upon Thermopyle as their
burying-place, and prepared to leave their bodies a monument to after
ages, of their obedience to that Jaw of Sparta, which forbade a soldier
to fly from an enemy. When their frugal breakfast was prepared, _
Leonidas exhorted his men to take some nourishment, telling thein
that they should sup that night with old Pluto, upon which they set
up a shout as if they had been invited to a banquet. About the mid-
dle of the forenoon, the Persians advanced to the attack in front and

 

Questions.--137. What is said of the Phocians? 138, Why did Leonidas eal! a council of
war? What opinions were oflered? What resolution was formed? What declaration had
the oracle previously made? 139. What preparations were made by the Persians early on
the following morning? What, by the Spartans ?
n. 0. 480.] PERSIAN INVASIONS. 13

oO

rear; but Leonidas, nothing daunted, collected his little band before
a wall which had been built in former times, and awaited the charge.

140. The first shock was exceedingly violent. Leonidas gaye loose
to the fury of men prepared for death. Advancing alittle, he attacked
the Persians in the widest part of the valley, made great slaughter
among them, and caused such confusion, that, through want of room,
numbers of the ill-disciplined multitude were forced into the sea, and
many were trodden to death by their own people. The Spartan king
fell early in the engagement, and the contention for his body animated
the combatants to new fury. But when the Persian band came up in
the rear, and the Spartans saw on every side the bristling ranks of
steel, they retreated again to the narrow wall, and, placing their backs
against it, fought till every man was slain;* and never was field of
glory strewed with braver dead. This is that battle of Thermopyle
to which allusion is so often made; and this is that Leonidas whose
name still takes the highest rank in the list of heroes.

141. Toe Navat Excacement.—During the memorable scene at
Thermopylx, the hostile fleets met in the neighboring channel. The
business of the Grecian fleet, like that of the army, was to defend the
strait. A sharp skirmish resulted in favor of the Greeks, and the capture
of 30 galleys. Scarcely had the rival ships cast anchor, when Boreas
again excited the elements to anger. The sea heaved in tumultuous
waves toward the frowning skies, and the skies in turn poured down
their torrents upon the troubled sea. The drift of the storm carried
the wrecks of the late engagement among the Persian ships. Their
cables were entangled, their oars impeded; repeated flashes of light-
ning seemed to discover the horrors of the scene, while the thunder,
resounding among the summits of Pelion, struck the Ionian seamen in
Persian pay with the idea that the gods were thus declaring their
displeasure, because they were bearing arms against their mother
country. Superstitious terror weakened their strength, and embar-
rassed their efforts. A squadron also, which had been sent around
Eube to attack the Grecians in the rear, was driven upon the rocks
of that dangerous coast, and all perished. ‘Thus the deity to whom

* Aristodemus and Panites were absent at the time, but as it appeared that they ‘
might have been there had they made the necessary exertion, no one would keep company

or converse with them. Pantites, in despair, strangled himself, but Aristodemus lived to
redcem his character at the battle of Platea,

 

Questions—139. What movement was then made by Leonidas? 140. Give a further
account of the battle. What is said of Thermopyle? Of Leonidas? 141. Where, means
while, did the hostile fleets mect? What was the business of the Grecian fleet? What
encouragement did the Greeks receive from the elements?
{40 GREECE. [B. c. 480.

they had prayed again interposed to reduce the Persian force more
nearly to an equality with the Grecian.”

142. Tus Perstans Apvanor.—The Persians were thus prevented
from making any advance, but when intelligence came that Leonidas
and his men were sluin, and that the rest of the army had retreated,
the commanders of the Grecian fleet weighed anchor and sailed for
the Saronic Gulf. Xerxes and his army proceeded south from Ther-
mopyle, guided by the Thessalians. They spared the places which
had formerly submitted, but they burned thirteen cities, whose gallant
people refused to join their enemy’s ranks. Some were reduced to
slavery, and others fled beyond Parnassus. The Peloponnesian land
army determined to abandon Attica to its fute; they therefore retired
to Corinth, built a wall across the isthmus, and set Cleombrotus,
brother of Leonidas, to guard it. In Athens, the alarm was extreme.
All their frontier lay exposed to the advancing enemy; all their men
of war were on board the fleet; and the only resource left for the
deserted inhabitants was to seek a refuge in the islands, which would
doubtless be in their turn attacked.

143. At the awful moment of abandoning their country, all hearts
were filled with the deepest anguish ; the women and children mingled
their cries together, and the whole shore resonnded with lamentations.
Some old persons, too infirm to move, and some individuals, who
sought the citadel eooden walls, remained behind. Themistocles, to
facilitate the embarkation, had recourse to popular superstition. It
was believed from ancient times in Athens, that a large serpent was a
divine guard to the temple of Minerva; and it was custumary to place
cakes as an offering to this reptile, every new moon. The chief-priest
of the temple declared, that the cakes which had hitherto always been
eaten by the divine serpent now remained untouched; an incontro-
vertible proof that the goddess had forsaken the citadel.

144, This induced the citizens readily and quietly to quit their city;
nay, so far were they moved by it, that they stoned to death an orator
who tried to persuade them.to remain and submit to the king: and

O71
the women, equally excited, inflicted the same punishment upon his

 

Questions.—142. Why did the Grecian fleet sail? For what waters did it sail? Where
was that gulf? Ans. Between Attica and Argolis, (See map No. 2.) In what direction
did Xerxes and his army move? What places did they spare? TIow many cites did
they burn? What became of the inhabitants of the destroyed cities? What decision was
made as regards Attica? What defensive measures were then adopted? What was the
prospect for Athens? 143. Tow did the people behave on leaving Athens? Why did
Themistocles resort to superstition? What belief prevailed? What declaration did the
chief-priest make? 144. With what effect ?
B. ©. 480.] PERSIAN INVASIONS. 141

wife. The city was finally evacuated, and the inhabitants, bidding a
sorrowful farewell to their houses and temples, sailed away to the
neighboring islands of Salamis, Egina, and Troesene. They were
kindly received, and hospitably entertained. The Persian army,
advancing meanwhile, found no obstacle till they reached Athens.
After a longer resistance from the devotees than could have been
expected, the place was taken, the temples pillaged, and the houses
burned.

145. THEMISTOOLES GAINS His Pornt.—Intelligence of this event
came to the fleet, while a council of war was sitting. It occasioned
such alarm, that some of the commanders left the debate, hastened on
board their galleys, and prepared for instant flight. Night came on,
and all was confusion. Themistocles, firm in his former opinion, per-
suaded Eurybiades* to summon another council immediately. There,
in the course of debate, he urged the necessity of protecting the
islands, and concluded with declaring, ‘‘That if so little regard was
shown to the Athenian people, who had risked every thing in the
Grecian cause, their fleet would either make terms with the enemy, or
seek some distant settlement for a people so unworthily treated.”

146. Eurybiades, alarmed, bent to this argument, and it was decided
to meet the enemy in the bay of Salamis. Themistocles, fearful still
of defection, sent wu trusty messenger to Xerxes, to say that the Athe-
nians thought of deserting to the Persians, and that the other confede-
rates had determined to fly. The great king, alarmed at the idea of
his prey’s escaping from his grasp, caused his fleet to form wu semi-
circle, and cut off all retreat from the Greeks. Thus Themistocles
saw the Grecian fleet confined in the very place he wished, and the
ships of the enemy so closely wedged in, that their numbers proved a
serious embarrassment.

147. Bartte or Saramis.—In the sea-fights of the ancients, the
principal advantage was gained by driving the beak of the vessel into
the enemy’s galley; and the skill of the Grecians in turning and row
ing was much greater than that of the Persians. By daybreak, on
the 20th of October, B. o. 480, the two fleets were drawn out in order

* The Spartan admiral of the fleet.

 

Questions,—144, Where did the Athenians seek shelter? What then befell Athens? 145.
What intelligence reached the fleet? What was the effect? Who was the Spartan admiral?
To what did Themistocles persuade Eurybiades? What then did Themistocles urge and
declare? 146, What decision was arrived at? Why did Themistocics send to Xerxes?
What word did he send? What measures did Xerxes then adopt? What did Themistoclea
then see? 147. Wow was the principal advantage ainong the ancients gained in sea-fights?
In what did the Grecians excel the Persians? When did the battle of Salamis occur?
142 GREECE. [R. c. 480.

of battle. The shores, the heights, the fields of the neighboring coast,
were crowded with anxious spectators. Xerxes, enthroned upon 3
lofty promontory, overlooked the scene. As the sun rose, the Persian
trumpets sounded; the Greeks lifted up their loud pwan; the harbors
of Phalereum, Peiraus, and Munychia* sent forth their yulture-beaked
triremes, and every man prepared himself for the conflict.

148. The onset was vigorous on both sides. But space did not suf-
fice for the Persians to bring their whole fleet regularly into action ;
zeal to distinguish themselves in the presence of their sovereign hur-
ried them confusedly forward; damage, loss of oars, and wounds in
the bull from the beaks of their own ships, followed; the Athenians
bore down every thing before them; ‘shortly the sea itself became
scarcely visible, from the quantity of wreck and floating bodies.”
Such is the expression of the poet, who fought himself in the Athenian
squadron. The Lacedemonians sustained their part with invincible
bravery; some of the Jonians revolted to their parent country ; the
confusion increased, and the rout became general. All the Persian
galleys, that could disengage themselves from the fatal straits, fled;
some were taken, many were sunk, and a few escaped.t Forty Gre-
cian triremes were destroyed; but most of their crews saved them-
selves on board other vessels.

149. Tue Joyrut Mornine.—The defeat of this fleet deranged the
measures of the Persian commander. No port was near, capable of
protecting its shattered remains. A hasty order was that night given
to sail for the Lellespont. Day broke, and the Greeks, who expected
a renewal of the action, looked in vain for an enemy. The bay of
Salamis, the Saronic gulf, lay calm and peaceful in the morning light,
unconscious of the bloody tragedy which had been acted upon their
surface. Xerxes hastily decamped with his land forces, and Themis-
tocles, to give wings to their speed, gave them intimation that a pro-
ject was on foot to destroy the bridge over the Hellespont, a medsure
which he himself proposed, but which Eurybiades prevented, on the
ground of the danger of reducing so powerful an enemy to despair.

* The three harbors of Athens.

+ Artemisia, queen of Halicarnassus, had joined Xerxes fleet with fire ships. She dis-
played so much courage and skill in this battle, that the monarch remarked, “ His men had

acted like women in the fight, and his women, like men.” Had Xerxes listened to her
ailvice, he would not have attacked the Grecians in the narrow strait of Salamis.

 

Questions,—147, Tlow was it commenced? 148, Give a full account of the dattle? 149.
Tlow did the results of the battle affect the measures of Xerxes? What hasty order was
given? What was the state of affairs on the Joyful morning? What is said of the retreat
of Xerxes ?
B. 0, 480.] PERSIAN INVASIONS. 143

Xerxes, however, lost no time upon his backward journey; and
with the exception of Mardonius and 300,000 men, who went into
quarters in Thessaly, Greece was in one month freed from its inva-
ders.

150. Tre Arnextans Rerury.—The effect of so glorious, so impor-
tant, and so unexpected a victory as that of Salamis can be imagined,
but cannot be described. The Athenians returned to their desolate
homes; and the sound of the axe and the hammer mingled with the
happy voices of those who engaged in rebuilding their houses and
temples. Winter approached, and with it came a political calm, very
unusual among the factions states. Gratitude to the gods, for the sig-
nal deliverance they had granted, seemed to swallow up all feelings of
ancient enmity. The most valuable portions of the spoil were publicly
dedicated to the gods; honors were decreed to the first and second for
merit in war.

151. All Greece now resounded with the fame of Themistocles; and
when the Grecian commanders met in the Temple of Neptune, to
award the palm of individual merit, every man gave the first vote for
himself, and nearly every one the second for Themistocles. The Spar-
tans invited him to their city; and though they gave to their own
general, Eurybiades, a crown of olive leaves for superior bravery, they
conferred a similar distinction upon Themistocles for wisdom and mari-
time skill. They added a chariot, the best the city possessed; and
when he returned, an escort of three hundred knights attended him to
the borders of the country.

152. Toreats oF War AND Proposats or Peacr.—Spring, and
the recollection that Mardonius was still in Thessaly, awakened the
Greeks from their happy repose. Before making any warlike demon-
strations, Mardonius sent Alexander, king of Macedon, to Athens, with
offers of peace; and this important news, quickly spreading through
the country, the Spartans also sent ambassadors to exhort the Athe-
nians to prove faithful to Greece. By the judicious directions of
Aristides, the Lacedemonian deputies and Alexander were admitted tc
an audience of the people, at the same time. Silence was proclaimed.
Alexander rose and addressed the assembly in this sizaple and anti-
quated style:

153. “ Athenians! thus saith Mardonius:—The cummands of the

 

 

Questions.—149. Did Xerxes take all his men with him? 150, Describe the events subse-
quent to the battle, 151. Who was declared first in war? ILow wae Themistucles honored?
152, Who was sent on an important mission? By whom was he sent? On what mission
was Alexander sent? What was done to cennteract this missioa? How did Aristides ar
range the audience? 153, Give the speech which Alexander made?
144 GREECE. [B. 0. 479

ting are come unto me, saying, ‘T forgive the Athenians all their
offenses against me. Now, therefore, Mardonius thus do; restore to
them their territory, and add to it whatsoever themselves shall choose,
leaving them to their own laws ; and if they will make alliance with
me, rebuild all the temples which have been burnt.’ Such being the
king’s commandment to me, so I must necessarily do, unless you pre-
vent. For myself, I say to you thus: Why would you persevere in
making war against the king? You cannot overcome him. You know
how numerous his armies are, and what they have effected. As a
friend, I recommend to you, not in a vain contest to lose your own
country, but to seize the honorable opportunity of this offer, from the
king himself, for making peace. Be free: and let there be an alliance
between us without fraud or deceit.”

154. Alexander added a few words of his own, in which he urged
the Athenians to accept the offers of the king, because they would
thus secure, not the safety of their city only, but the sovereignty of
Greece. The king of Macedonia concluded, and the chief of the Spar-
tan ministers rose. ‘The Lacedemonians,” he said, ‘have sent te
request that you will admit nothing to the prejudice of Greece, nor
receive any proposal from the Persians. We grieve for your sufferings,
that now, for two seasons, you have lost the produce of your lands ;
and that the public calamity should so long press so heavily on indivi-
duals. We will engage to maintain your families while the war shall
last. Let not, therefore, Alexander persuade you to accept Mardonius’s
offers; prudence forbids it, for you well know that among barbarians
there is neither faith nor truth.”

155. In the name of the Athenian people, Aristides made the fol-
lowing answer to Alexander: “ We know that the power of the Per-
sian empire is many times greater than ours, but, independency being
our object, we are determined to defend ourselves to the utmost.
You may therefore tell Mardonius that the Athenians say, ‘ While the
sun holds his course, we will never make alliance with Nerxes, but,
trusting in our gods and heroes, whose temples and images he, setting
at naught, has burnt, we will persevere in resisting him.’?” Then,
turning to the Lacedemonian ministers, the orator thus continued his
discourse:

156. ‘“‘ After the proofs you have had of the resolution of the Athe-
nians, your fear that they would accept the terms of the barbarian

 

Questions, —154. What reply was mnade by the chief of the Spartan ministers? 155, What
was the reply of Aristides to Alexander? 156. In what words did he address the Laecde-
mionians ?
B. c. 479.] PERSIAN INVASIONS. 145

becomes dishonorable apprehension. No riches, nor the offer of the
finest country on earth, could bribe us to connect ourselves with the
Persians to the enslaving of Greece. The images and temples of our
gods, burnt and reduced to ashes, prevent it; our connection as a
Grecian people in blood and language, our common dedications to the
gods, our common sacrifices, and our similar customs and manners,
forbid it. Know then this, if before ye knew it not, that while one
Athenian survives, we will never ally ourselves with Xerxes. We
acknowledge your kind attention, in proposing to maintain our fami-
lies; we will not, however, be burdensome to you. These, then, being
our resolutions, let there be no delay on your side. Your army must
march immediately, for Mardonius will move instantly upon learning
that we have rejected his proposals. Before, therefore, he can arrive
in Attica, it will behoove us to meet him in Beotia.”

157. Atnens Burnep.— With these answers, the king of Macedonia
and the Spartan ambassadors departed. The Athenians had conjec-
tured rightly. Upon the failare of his negotiation, Mardonius broke
up his camp, and advanced immediately, by nearly the same road that
Xerxes lad taken, toward Athens. The Spartans hesitated and
delayed as before; the Persian army was already in Beotia; and the
Athenians, left defenseless once more, retired to Salamis, and wit-
nessed from its shores the conflagration of the houses they had rebuilt-
Finally, the Peloponnesians put themselves in motion, and Mardonius,
afraid to meet them in the hill-country of Attica, withdrew to Beotia.
He chose his station on the border of the Platean lands, where he for-
tified a space of about a square mile, and fixed his camp.

168. Thither the confederated Greeks, amounting to 70,000 regular
soldiers, with attendant slaves and Helots, headed by Pausanias,* pur-
sued him, and pitched their camp over against the camp of the Per-
sians, the little river Asopus flowing tranquilly between them. As
the diviners on both sides declared that the attacking party should be
defeated, the commanders made their dispositions to act upon the
defensive; and, with the exception of some skirmishing among the
cavalry, ten days were passed in inaction, each party waiting in the
vain hope that the other would begin the engagement. At length
Mardonius, seeing but a few days’ provision left, and that fresh troops

* Pausanias, son of Cleombrotus, was cousin and guardian of Plistonax, the young son of
Leonidas.

 

Questions,— 157. What movement was made by Mardonius? What destruction did the
Athenians witness? To what place did Mardonius retire? 158, How many Grecks rallied
to meet the enemy? Why was anencounter mutually delayed? What decided Mardonias
to make an attack? What plan of attack did he decide upon?

7
146 GREECE. [u. c. 479,

‘daily arrived to the Grecians, resolved to pass the Asopus next morn-
ing, and fall upon his enemies before they had time to prepare for the
conflict.

159. At midnight, however, a man on horseback softly approached
the Grecian camp, and begged to speak with Aristides. The watchful
general came immediately, and the unknown person said to him, * I
am Alexander, king of Macedon, who, from the friendship I bear to
you, have exposed myself to the greatest dangers, to prevent your
fighting under the disadvantage of a surprise; fur Mardonins, impelled
by the scarcity of provision, has determined to attack you to-morrow,
by daybreak.” The king of Macedon, having thus testified his interest
in the welfare of his country, departed as secretly as he came; and
Aristides repaired immediately to the tent of Pausanias with the im-
portant intelligence he had received. With all possible dispatch the
other officers were summoned, and sent throughout the camp, with
directions to put the troops under arms; an arrangement which was
scarce completed before the gray mists of morning began to roll up
the sides of Citharon,* and skim along the margin of the river.

160. To place the Athenians opposite the Persians, Pausanias
ordered them to change places with the Spartans, wheeling from
the left wing to the right; which they did, exhorting one another, by
the way, to act with bravery. ‘The enemy,” said they, “bring
neither better arms nor bolder hearts than they had at Marathon ;
they come with the saine bows, the same embroidered vests, and pro-
fusion of gold; the same effeminate bodies, and the same unmanly
souls. We fight, not like them, for a tract of land, or a single city,
but for the trophies of Marathon and Salamis, and that Athens may
have the glory of them.” Mardonius, seeing this change in the posi-
tion of his enemies, moved his Persians to bring them opposite the
Spartans; upon which, Pausanias again changed his wings, and
brought the Athenians face to face with the Persians,

161. Thus the day passed without any action at all. In the even-
ing, the Greeks held a council of war, in which they determined to
decamp, and take possession of a place better supplied with water,
because the springs of the present camp were spoiled by the enemy's
horse. When night was come, the Greeks struck their tents, the

* A mountain ridge, at the foot of which the Greeks were encamped.

 

Questions. —159. Give an account of Alexander's visitation ? What action was conse-

quently taken? 160. What army chanzey did Pansanias take? Wow did the Athenian
soldiers reason? What changes did Pausanias again muke? 161. Upon what did the

Grechs determine? Give an account of tho moveinent,
B. 0. 479.] PERSIAN INVASIONS. 147

Athenians leading the way by the plain, toward the little city of
Platea; the allies following confusedly; and the Spartans reluctantly
bringing up the rear, over the foot of Citheron, many of them so indig-
nant at the idea of retreat that they could scarcely be made to keep
their ranks. The day was dawning, when Mardonius, seeing the
Greeks, as he thought, retreating, summoned his men to pursue and
secure the easy victory. The barbarians, thinking they had only to
plunder the fugitives, rushed on, uttering loud shouts, and clanking
their arms, as if to increase the -fright of the Grecians. Pausanias,
secing this, ordered his men to stop and fall into their ranks; yet,
through the confusion that reigned, they did not engage readily, but
continued scattered in small parties, even after the fight had begun.

162. In the mean time, Pausanias offered sacrifice, but, as no auspi-
cious token appeared, he commanded his men to lay down their
shields at their feet, and wait his orders. The steadiness and patience
of the Spartang now appeared in a wonderful manner. While the
enemy were bearing down upon them with insulting shouts, and
arrows were flying thick and fast around them, they stood defenseless,
waiting the time of heaven and their general; and, without lifting a
shield, or hurling a spear, suffered themselves to be slain in their
ranks. Pausanias, with tears trickling from his eyes, turned with
uplifted hands toward the temple of Juno, and besought the goddess
that ‘they might at least be permitted to show the enemy that they
had brave men to deal with.”

163. The very moment that he uttered this prayer, the diviners
discovered the desired tokens, and Pausanias gave the signal for action.
At once, the soldiers, who a moment before had stood passive and
silent as targets fur the arrows of the enemy, grasped their shields,
and, heaving their bristling pikes, rushed in solid phalanx, like an
infuriated animal, upon their assailants. The barbarians perceived at
once that they had to do with men ready to spill the last drop of their
blood for their country. They fell back and rallied, they sent forth
storms of arrows, they betook themselves to their swords, and, grap
pling close with the Greeks, made a long and obstinate resistance.

164. The Athenians all this while stood still, expecting the Lacede-
monians; when the clash of armor reached their ears, they hastened
toward the place where the noise was heard, but were intercepted by
the Thebans and other allies of the Persians. The battle was thug

 

Questions.—161, How, at last, did the encounter begin? 162. For what did Pansanias
wait? How did the Spartans manifest steadiness and patience? Tfow did Pausanias theo
act? 163. Give an account of what followed? 164. Give afurther account of the battle.
148 GREECE. [B. 0. 479.

divided into two parts; the Spartans contending fiercely with the
Persians, and the Athenians and other allics being equally engaged
with the treacherous Greeks. Mardonius, who had thought himself
pursuing an enemy that dared not resist him, was filled with the
deepest anguish when he saw the tide of victory turning against him.
He rushed into the thickest of the battle; he encouraged his mep;
he fought with desperation; but he fell, mortally wounded, and the
hopes of the Persians fell with him. His death was the signal for
instant flight; and the rout and pursuit once commenced, the slaughter
became dreadful.

165. The Athenians, who had just broken the ranks of the Thebans,
hearing that the barbarians had retreated to the wooden fortifications
of their camp, permitted their treacherous brethren to escape, while
they pressed on to assist in destroying the last hope of the enemy.
The passions of the Greeks were inflamed by long distress and danger,
and now that the day of vengeance had arrived, they showed no mercy.
Of the 300,000 men who had been left with Mardonius, 40,000 horse
made good their retreat with Artabazus, but of the others, not 3,000
escaped alive from the ruins of the camp.

166. Tne Supper.—Sated with slaughter, the conquerors turned
their attention to plunder. The appendages of the royal household
were found in the tent of Mardonius, and most of the domestic slaves
had escaped the massacre. Pausanias, after surveying the richness of
the scene, ordered the slaves to prepare a supper exactly as they had
been accustomed to do for Mardonius. His orders were diligently
executed; the splendid furniture was arranged; the side-boards dis-
played a profusion of gold and silver plate; and the table was covered
with the most exquisite elegance. Pausanias then directed his usual
Spartan supper to be placed by the side of this sumptuous entertain-
ment, and summoning the principal Grecian officers, ‘‘ I have desired
your company here,” he said, “to show you the folly of the Persian
general. Living Juxuriously as you see at home, he came thus far to
take from us such a miserable pittance as ours.”

167. Disposition oF tHE Sport.—The Helots attending upon the
Lacedemonian camp were ordered to collect the spoil. Tents and
their furniture, collars, bracelets, hilts of cimeters, cups of gold, and
other utensils of the same precious metal, together with horses, camels,

 

Questions,—164. What is said of the eonduet of Mardonius? Whut followed his death ?
165. What did the Athenians permit? How many men belonging to the army of Mardonius
were slain?) Dy what name is that battle known? Ans. Platea. 168. Give an account of
the supper. 167. What wer? the principal spoils of the victors ?
rn. 0. 479.] PERSIAN INVASIONS. 149

slaves, and women, were the principal booty. A tenth was first set
apart as an offering to the gods. The historian says, “ from this tenth
the golden tripod, which stands upon the three-headed brazen serpent
next to the altar, was dedicated to the god at Delphi.” The brazen
statue of Jupiter, fifteen feet high, at Olympia, and the brazen statue
of Neptune, at Corinth, were derived from the same source. The
Tegeans found a brazen manger of very curious workmanship, which
they were allowed to place in the temple of Minerva, with this inscrip-
tion: “To that divine Wisdom which directs what human ignorance
calls Chance.”

168. ConsUMMATION oF THE VioTorirs.—Meanwhile, Artabazus and
his followers pursued their journey with all speed. They passed the
mountains of Thessaly and crossed the greater part of Macedonia
without loss. But at the passage of the river Strymon, those Greeks
who had submitted to the Persians turned against them; slew great
multitudes; and took prisoners enough to enrich themselves greatly
by the sums paid for their ransom; so that this battle of Strymon
had lasting fame, as the consummation of misfortune and disgrace to
Persia, and of safety and glory to Greece.

169. While the arms of the confederate Greeks were thus won-
derfully crowned with success against the immediate invaders of
their country, the fleet, which had lain all summer inactive at
Delos, was at length excited to enterprise. The commanders, Xan-
thippus and Leotychidas, received secret messengers from the Ionian
colonies, with the intelligence that they were ready to revolt, and
only waited the appearance of the Grecian galleys off the coast
to rise to action. Tbe very next day the whole fleet sailed for
Samos.

170. The Phenicians, the best navigators in Persian pay, seeing no
prospect of any further business, had requested- permission to depart
before the equinoctial storms, and had by this time reached home.
The Persians, greatly alarmed at the appearance of the Grecians,
steered for the promontory of Mycale, where, drawing up their galleys
upon the beach in the form of a fort, they raised a wall of stones
aound them. It was not without surprise that the Grecians found

 

Questions.—167. What disposition was made of them? 168. What command did Arta-
bazus have? How far did he get without loss? Where was the river Strymon? (See map
No. 2.) What is its present name? Ans. Karasou, or Black River. Give an account of
the battle of Strymon. 169. Where was the islund of Delos? (See map No. 2.) Samos?
(Sume map.) Who commanded the fleet of the confederate Greeks? What secret intelli-
gence did they reccive? Whut move did they then make? 170. Why bad the Phenicians
gonchome? What ure equinoctial storms? Where was Mycale? (Sce map No.2.) What
seeurred there? Give un account of it.
150 GREECE. [B. c. 479.

the sea yielded to them; and, encouraged by such evident signs of
fear, they agreed to disembark and attack the Persians in their in-
trenchments. They did so; the Lonians turned to the side of their
countrymen, and never was rout ore complete, or ruin more dread-
ful. Almost all the Persians were slain. The Greeks carried off
every valuable of easy removal, then set fire to the rest, and the whole
Persian fleet was consumed. This took place the very day of the
battle of Platea, September 22d, B. o. 479.

171. The season was too far advanced for any other attempts upon
Jonia. The Grecian commanders therefore sailed for the Hellespont,
to break up the bridges there, but the storms raised by the Thracian
wind had done the work for them; the few Persians in the neighbor-
hood fled at their approach, and the Grecian fleet, having cleared the
Egean of every foe, crowded all sail for their own delightful harbors.
The Persian mnonarch remained in Sardis, to see the sad relics of his
forces that found means to fly from Mycale, and to receive the over-
whelming intelligence of the still greater loss of his army in Greece.
Shortly after, he moved to his distant capital of Susa. ‘Such was
the conclusion of the expedition of Xerxes, after two campaigns won-
derfully glorious to Greece, and both in themselves, and for their

 

tadia

12345 iv. 1

 

 

 

1. Acropolis. 7. Cynosarges, 10. Phalereum,

2. Propyle. 8. Agora. 11. Munychia.

3. Theater. 9. Academia, 12. Port of Pirseus,
6. Lycwum.

 

: Questions.—170, When did the event occur? 171. What further was accomplished by the
Grecian fleet? What is said of the conclusion of the expedition of Xerxes?
8. 0. 478] REBUILDING OF ATHENS. 151

known conseqnences, perhaps the most remarkable and important in
the annals of mankind.”

172. Monumenrs.—The usual piety of the Greeks then exerted itself
in dedications to the gods and honors to the dead. Eighty talents of
silver were allotted to the little city of Platea, with which a temple
was erected to Minerva. Means had hitherto been wanting to pay
due honors to those who had fallen in the extraordinary action uoder
Leonidas, but now the care of their obsequivs was committed to the
Amphictyouic council. Two structures of marble were reared on the
spot of the engagement, with inscriptions which may be thus trans-
lated: ‘Here 4000 men from Peloponnesus fought 3,000,000,” and
“Stranger, tell the Lacedemonians that here we lie in obedience to
their laws.”

173. Tur Srraracems oF Tuemistoctes.—The Athenians, in re-
taking possession of their city, found only a small part of the
wall standing, with a few houses which had been reserved for the
residence of the Persian officers. A jealousy which had been ex-
cited by the honors shown him at Sparta, and a boastful display
of his own glory, had shut out Themistocles from any public em-
ployment in the last campaign; when, however, the rebuilding of
the city came into consideration, he again stepped forth upon the
political stuge, and, by his skillful management, regained popular
favor.

174. The Spartans, having heard that the Athenians were inclosing
their city with walls, sent embassadors to urge them ‘not to go on
with their fortifications, but rather, as far as in them lay, to demolish
the walls of all the other cities out of the Peloponnesus, that the ene-
my, if he again returned, might have no strong place to fix his head-
quarters, as recently in Thebes.” It was dangerous to refuse this
modest request, for Athens was in no situation to enter the lists with
Sparta; but to comply with it would be to give up all idea of inde-
pendence. Themistocles here showed his skill in intrigue, and with
great address relieved his countrymen from their painful embarrass-
ment. He told the Spartans they must be misinformed with regard
to the intentions of the Athenians, and promised that embassadors
should immediately be sent to Lacedemon, to give a satisfactory account
of their proceedings. Having caused himself to be elected one of the
envoys, he departed alone, leaving directions for his associates to fol-

 

Questions,—172. Recite the article, Monuments. 173. In what condition did the Athe-
nians find their city? What is said of Themistocles? 174. What messave did the Spartans
send to the Athenians ? Why did not the Athenians comply? What course did Tuemis-
tocles pursue?
152 GREECE. [B. c. 478,

low him as soon as the walls were of sufficient height to give security
toa garrison. .

175. Having arrived at Sparta, he delayed the promised explanations
from day to day. When the Ephori inquired his reasons, he told them
he waited for his colleagues, and wondered they were not arrived.
The people, meanwhile, sustained the policy of their leader. The
work was prosecuted by night and by day ; freemen did not scruple
to toil among slaves ; the women and children exerted all their strength
in waiting upon the workmen, and every kind of material was used
in carrying up the walls, even to the remains of buildings and tombs.
Those who had occasion to pass between the two countries continually
brought intelligence of the progress of the walls, and the king of Egina
came express to confer upon the subject. Themistocles, nevertheless,
constantly asserted that they were misinformed, and upbraided them
for believing unfounded reports. ‘Let men of rank,” said he, “ be
sent to Athens, to inquire into the affair, and I will remain a host-
age in your hands to insure the proper conduct of the Athenian
people.”

176. This proposition completely outwitted the Spartans. Three
persons of eminence were sent to Athens, and Themistocles managed
to intimate to his countrymen the propriety of detaining them till his
own safe return. Not till the walls of Athens were advanced to the
height that was necessary did Aristides and his other colleague join
Themistocles in Sparta. The author of the plot then threw off the
mask, and boldly declared that, ‘‘ by the last intelligence received, he
had the satisfaction to learn that Athens was now sufficiently fortified
for its security.”” Whatever the Lacedemonians might have felt, upon
perceiving the trick put upon them, their steady wisdom showed itself
in the suppression of allresentment. No reproaches were vented; on
the contrary, a civil apology was made, and the embassadors from
both states returned home.

177. This important and difficult negotiation thus successfully ter-
minated, the ambitious views of Themistocles were more fully opened.
Amid all her sufferings from the Persian wars, Athens, through the
superior abilities of her leaders, had been gradually assuming a rank
far above that which she had formerly held in the Grecian states. By
her naval power, Themistocles now thought to lead her to empire. The
greater part of her citizens were already seamen ; it was necessary in the

 

Questions.—175. Give a further account of the stratagems of Themistocles. 176. How did
he bring them to a snecessful issue 2? Tow was the whole affair closed? 177, What is said
of the growing importance of Athens? What ambition did Themistocles have fur her?
B. 0. 478.] END OF PAUSANTAS. 153

next place to have a port. For this purpose he gained the co-opera-
tion of Aristides and Xanthippus, and soon fortifications more complete
than those of Athens rose round the harbor of Piraeus, which was joined
to the city by long walls of such height and thickness as to be capable
of sustaining a siege for a great length of time.

178. Though Themistocles planned and executed these great works,
yet to carry them on required such vast sums of money, that he was
forced to disoblige the allies by sailing round the islands and extorting
money from them. He had likewise the misfortune to offend the
people of Athens by recounting the many services he had rendered
the state, and by erecting a temple near his house, inscribed “to the
goddess of the best counsel,” intimating that to him his country owed
its present prosperity. At last the Athenians, thinking he had risen
above the equality which a commonwealth requires, subjected him to
the ordeal of ostracism, by which he was banished for ten years. In
the time of his exile he took up his abode at Argos. He never re-
turned ; for circumstances entirely beyond his control soon put a final
close to the schemes he had laid for the glory of Athens.

179. Env or Pausantas.—As the Persians still possessed Asia Minor,
it was necessary for the Greeks to maintain a fleet in the Egean to pro-
tect the islands. Pausanias, who had led the Greeks to victory in the
battle of Platea, was sent in the capacity of commander-in-chief of
the confederates to the island of Cyprus, which he freed from all
fear of Persia with very little trouble. The upright Aristides and the
brave Cimon, son of Miltiades, were admirals of the Athenian squadron,
and far more popular than the imperious Pansanias. From Cyprus
they sailed to the Hellespont and Propontis. The city of Byzantium*
was then, as now, an important place. It was the depository of Per-
sian arms, the key of Europe, and the residence of many distinguished
individuals. After a long siege it was taken, and several persons of
royal blood made prisoners,

180. This good fortune proved the ruin of Pausanias. The luxury
he had affected to despise at Platea now surrounded him in the most
attractive form; the luster of his own glory blinded him to the dangers
which beset the path of the ambitious; and the thought that he soon
must resign his command to bis young relative, and sink into the in-

* Constantinople.

 

Questions.—177. How did he commence operations? 178. Why was he ostracised? To
what place did he go? What further is said of him? 179. Why did the Grecks maintain
a fleetin tie Egean? What success did Puusanias cuin? What third success? 150. What
weakness of character did Pausanias at last exhibit?

Te
L54 GREECE. [B. c. 475.

significance of private life, filled him with repining. He saw his
kinsman, the banished Demaratus, living in ease and splendor, more a
sovereign than when king of Sparta; and he began to covet the re-
finements of dress, the luxuries of the table and the bath, and the
arbitrary power of a despot, for himself. As a preliminary step, he
permitted his prisoners to eseape, and then dispatched a trusty mes-
senger to the Persian coart, with proposals in which Pausanias, the
commander of the Lacedemonians, agreed to place all Greece under
the dominion of Persia, if Xerxes would give him his daughter in
marriage, with those advantages of rank and fortune essential to such
lofty alliance.

181. Ilis proposal was very favorably received. No sooner did he
learn this fact than his pride and arrogance burst all bounds. As if
already son-in-law of the great king, he assumed the airs and manners
of a Persian satrap. He never spoke to the officers of the allies but
with sharpness and anger; and he inflicted punishment upon the
soldiers in the most arbitrary manner. The sea captains and Jand
officers of the Greeks, contrasting his conduct with the steady justice
of Aristides, quitted the Spartan banners and ranged themselves under
those of the Athenians. These things being told at Sparta, Pausanias
was recalled and tried upon several charges. He was deposed from
his command, but joined the army as a volunteer, that, being near Asia
Minor, he might communicate more easily with the king. When his
plans were nearly ripe, he returned to Sparta and began to tamper
with the Helots, promising them liberty in the insurrection he meant
to raise. - 7

182. A boy whom Pausanias had brought up was sent with a
letter to the Persian satrap. Remembering that no former messenger
had ever returned, he opened the letter and read, besides the parti-
culars of the treason, an order to put the bearer to death. Alarmed
at his danger, he carried it immediately to the Ephori. Still the
evidence was thought insufficient. The boy was directed to go asa
suppliant to the temple of Neptune; while the Ephori hid themselves
in a place where they could overhear all that might be said to him,
Pausaniax, as had been anticipated, repaired to the spot, and promised
the boy great rewards if he would not betray him. The magistrates,
having thus heard the particulars from his own mouth, were about to
apprehend him, when he escaped and tovk refuge in the temple of

 

Questions.—180, What proposal did he make? 181. Ifow was his proposal received ?
Mow did this affect him? What further account can you give of him? 182, Give a fur-
ther and closing account of bin.
B. 0. 471] END OF THEMISTOCLES. 155

Minerva. As it would have been sacrilege to drag him from the
altar, the entrance was blocked up with stones, and he was left to
perish of cold and hunger.*

183. Exp or Tuoemisrootes.—After the death of Pausanias, the
Spartans pretended that they had found papers which fully proved
that Themistocles had been a participator in his crimes; and orders
were in consequence sent to bring him to trial before the Aimphic-
tyons. Themistocles heard of his danger in time to escape to Coreyra,
but finding the people there unable to shelter him, he crossed over to
the opposite coust of Epirus. Adimetus, king of Molossus, had been
his enemy, but he determined to throw himself upun his generosity.
Themistocles entered his palace in his absence, and, being instructed
by the queen in the most solemn form of supplication, took the young
prince in lis arms and kneeled down before the household gods. In
this position Admetus found him upon his retarn, and, moved by his
distress, undertook to assist him. Te sent an escort with him across
the mountains to Pydna, where the fugitive embarked, in disguise, on
a merchant-ship bound for Asia.

184. He was landed in safety at Ephesus. But here also the most
dreadful dangers awaited him. The Grecian officers of justice were
in pursuit of him, and the king of Persia had offered two hundred
talents for his apprehension. He lay concealed in the house of
a friend some days, and was then sent off in a close carriage to
Susa; his attendants being instructed to tell those they met, that they
were carrying a lady from Ionia to a nobleman at court. Having with
some difficulty obtained an audience with Artaxerxes Longimanus,
he prostrated himself before the throne, and on the interpreter’s
inquiring who he was, replied, ‘‘ The man who is now come to address
himself to you, O king, is Themistocles the Athenian, an exile, per-
secuted by the Greeks. If you save me, you save your suppliant; if
you destroy me, you destroy the enemy of Greece.”

185. Artaxerxes received him with the greatest joy, assured him
of his protection, and prayed to Arimanius that his enemies might
always be so infatuated as to banish their ablest men: nay, so great
a treasure did he consider his distinguished guest, that he exclaimed
three times in his sleep, “I have got Themistocles the Athenian.”

* His aged mother placed the first stone at the door of the temple.

 

Questions.—133. In what manner was Themistocles involved in his discrace? To what
place did he first flee? Then where? How did he get Admetus to help him? 184. Give
an account of his flight to Susa. Of his interview with Artaxerxes Longimanus, 185, [low
was he received? What exclamation is reported of Artaxerxes?
156 GREECE. [R. c. 485.

The honors that were paid the exile were far superior to those that
other strangers received. The king took him out to hunt, admitted
him familiarly to the palace, introduced him to his mother, and per-
mitted him to be instructed in the doctrines of the magi. He gave
him three cities in Asia Minor for his support, and paid to him the
two hundred talents offered for his head.

186. But when Athens assisted Egypt to revolt, and Cimon rode
triumphant over the seas, the king of Persia called upyn Themis-
tocles to perform the many promises he had made, and assist in
humbling the power of Greece. Whether his noble heart broke in
the contlict between love for his country and gratitude to his royal
benefactor; or whether, despairing of being able to effect his pur-
pose, he put an end to his life by poison, cannot now be determined.
It is certain, however, that he never bore arms against his beloved
Athens; but, dying in a foreign land, gave orders that his bones should
be secretly conveyed to Attica; and tong after, a tomb within the
harbor of Pireus, on the seaside, was pointed out as the humble
grave of the illustrious Themistocles.

187. Exp or Aristiprs.—Aristides, meantime, continued to deserve
and receive the favor of his country and her dependents. He settled
the articles of alliance between Athens and the other states; he ap-
portioned the sum to be paid yearly for the current expenses of the
commonwealth; he took charge of the public treasury; and in all
these offices acquitted himself with such integrity and justice, that
envy itself could find nothing against him. While Cimon and Xan-
thippus were busy in procuring the banishment of Themistocles,
Aristides alone did nothing against him; for as he had never envied
his rival’s prosperity, he did not now rejoice in his misfortunes. We
are not acquainted with the time and manner of his death, but
his monument was erected at the public expense; and he left his
family so poor that his daughters were portioned from the city
treasury.

188. Crvon.—When Artaxerxes, by the death of his father, suc-
ceeded to the Persian throne, he was so much engaged in settling
affairs at home, that he had little leisure for carrying on the war with
Greece. However, to preserve the Ionian colonies, he ordered a

 

Questions,—135, What treatment did Themistocles afterward receive at the hands of the
king? 186. What closing account can you vive of Themistocles? Where did he die?
Ans, At Magnesia, a town on the Meander river, a little west of Sardis. Trace the course
of Themistocles from his resiGence in Argos to the place of his death. 187. What can yon
state of the end of Aristides? 158, What colonies did Artaxerxes undertuke to preserve ?
In what way? *
B. 0. 466.] ARISTIDES—CIMON. 157

numerous fleet to move round the river Eurymedon, and sent out a
land army to act in conjunction upon its banks. Meanwhile, Cimon,
son of Miltiades, under the judicious management of Aristides,
had become one of the leading men in the Athenian state. The
treason of Pausanias and the banishment of Themistocles had made
him the commander-in-chief of the Grecian fleet, which was anchored
at Cnidus.

189. As soon as intelligence of the movements in Pamphylia was
conveyed to him, he embarked some of his best troops, and sailed for
the mouth of the river. The Persians, counting upon their superior
numbers, advanced boldly to meet him. A fierce engagement ensuerl,
in which the Persians were defeated; many of their ships were sunk,
and about three hundred fell into the hands of the victors. The
nuinber of prisoners amounted to 20,000; and this circumstance,
together with the brief duration of the contest, suggested to the
active mind of Cimon a stratagem, which made the victory com-
plete.

190. Having dressed his best soldiers in the robes of the captives,
he embarked with them in the Persian galleys, and sailed up the
Eurymedon to the place where the land army awaited the arrival of
their friends. The unsuspecting Persians hailed their return, and
went out to meet them with every demonstration of joy. They were
fatally undeceived when their supposed brethren, brandishing the
Grecian spear and battle-ax, fell upon them with resistless fury.
Unarmed and surprised, they made but a feeble resistance. A few
of them escaped in the darkness, but most of them were taken
prisoners; so that Cimon acquired the singular glory of gaining two
victories and erecting two trophies in one day.

191. By this great success the Persian power was so broken that
offensive operations were totally intermitted; and it became the boast
of the Greeks that no armed ship of Persia was to be seen west of the
coast of Pamphylia; and that no Persian troops dared show them-
selves within a day’s journey of the Grecian seas. The plunder of
the camp amounted to an immense sum, one-tenth of which was
devoted to Apollo. A large portion fell to the share of Cimon. This
money he employed in beautifying Athens. In his youth he had

 

Questions.—188, How did Cimon get to be commander of the Grecian fleet? 189. To
what river did he sail? Whereis that river? Ans. In Pisidia. (See fig. 9 on map No. 3.)
Give an account of the naval engagement. 190. Also of Cimon’s second victory. What
glory did he thus acquire? 191, How did the success of the Greeks affect the Persians?
What is said of the plunder which the Greeks took? What change took place in the man-
ners of Cimon? Where were Cnidus, Pamphylia, and Eurymedgn? (Map No. 2.)
158 GREECE. [B. c. 464,

affected a roughness of manners, and a contempt for the refinement
of life; but in his riper years he became a model of politeness.

192. He patronized every liberal art, and studied to procure ele-
gant as well as useful gratifications for the people. By his muniti-
cence were raised those lofty porticos, under whose magoiticent
shelter the Athenians delighted to assemble and pass their time in
conversation. Ina wood, before rade and without water, he formed
commodious and elegant walks, whose sides were adorned with
running fountains; and this became the widely celebrated grove of
Academia.* He planted the agorat of Athens with the oriental
plane; and, ages after, these beautiful trees sheltered the buyers and
sellers who came thither to grow rich by traffic.

193. Not satisfied with these public benefactions, he threw down
the fences of his own gardens and orchards, that all might eat freely
of the fruit; a table was spread at his house for the poorer citizens;
and every day he invited from the agora some indigent persons to a
sumptuous repast. He was commonly attended by a large retinue,
handsomely clothed; and if he met an elderly citizen ill clad, he
directed one of his followers to change cloaks with him. He was
equally attentive to lending and giving money; and* such was the
estimation in which he was held, that he was considered as brave as
Miltiades, as wise as Themistocles, and second to none but Aristides
in justice.

194. 8. o. 464.—ToE EartruquaKE AaNpD ITs CoNse@teNces.—The
Lacedemonians Lad looked on with envious eyes while Athens, under
these able statesmen and skillful generals, was acquiring riches and
dominion; but just as they were upon the point of adopting measures
to humble her pride, their attention was recalled to personal affairs.
One day, while the sons of the principal families were exercising in the
gymnasium, a terrible earthquake laid waste all Laconia. The building
in which the youth were assembled fell, burying them in its ruins; the
shocks were repeated; multitudes were crashed by the falling houses;
the earth opened in several places; vast fragments tumbled down the
sides of Mt. Tayyetus; and, in the end, only five houses were left
standing in Sparta. The Helots in the fields suffered less than the
citizens; and, witnessing the terror and confusion of their masters,

* See map of Athens, page 150. t Markct-place.

Questions,—192. What did he do for the comfort and gratification of the Athenians?
193. What else did be do? In what estimation was he held? 194 What had the Lace-
demonians meditated with reference to the Athenians? Give an account of the earthquake,
What then did the Helots determine upon?

?
B. o. 464.] CIMON. 159

rapidly assembled to complete the work of destruction, and regain
their liberty.

195. Archidamus, the king, perceiving the imminent danger of
Sparta, ordered the trumpets to sound to arms, upon which the flying
multitudes instinctively rallied around their respective standards. The
Helots, awed by the appearance of a regular army, dispersed around
the country, and incited their brethren to revolt. The greater part
of these miserable men were descendants of those Messenians who had
fought so bravely for liberty ages before. They remembered the
heroism of their ancestors; they recalled the exploits of Aristomenes ;
and, determined to strike once more for freedom, they seized and
fortified Ithome, the spot rendered sacred by the blood of their
fathers. They outnumbered the Spartans by many thousands, and
they had become so familiar with the art of war, in attending upon
their masters, that their revolt seemed more formidable to Sparta
than the hosts of Persia.

196. Nor was this the worst feature in this distressing calamity.
The Lacedemonians were completely helpless in any kind of business.
Deprived of their slaves, they were in danger of starving ; agriculture
stopped; the mechanic arts ceased. The Spartans were thus reduced
to the mortifying necessity of applying to their allies for succor.
There was found in Athens a strong disposition to refuse the required
aid; but Cimon, who had always been a favorite with the aristocratic
powers of Greece, silenced all opposition; and a considerable body
of forces under his command marched into the Peloponnesus. This
measure, though intended to keep the peace between the rival states,
had a contrary effect.

197. It was in the leisure and inactivity of the siege of Ithome that
those heart-burnings arose, which first occasioned an avowed aversion
between the Lacedemonians and Athenians, and led, not immediately,
but consequently, to the fatal Peloponnesian war. Here Athenian
vanity had full opportunity for display, and Spartan pride full leisure
to take offense. The Spartans remembered that these Athenians were.
Ionians, whom the Dorians considered an alien race: suspicion arose
that they might join the enemy, and upon some trifling pretext they
were civilly dismissed.

198. The Athenians returned home so exasperated by the treat-

 

Questions.—195, Give an account of the preparation made by the Helots, 196, What
eondition of things soon followed? What aid went to the Spartans? 197. What was the
remote cause of the Peloponnesian war? What did the Spartans remember? Why were
the Athenians sent home ?
160 GREECE. [p. 6. 461,

ment they had received, that a decree was immediately passed,
renouncing the confederacy of Lacedemon. Cimon’s popularity had
been for some time on the decline; not that he was less brave, or less
generous, than formerly; but that the Alem@onide were again
struggling for power, and that the present commotion offered a favor-
able opportunity to crush him. [le had always professed himself an
admirer of the Spartan institutions; and now, insulted as he had
been, he did not join in the hue and cry against Lacedemon. All
these circumstances were cited against him; and when the public
inind was sufliciently aroused, the ostracism was called for, and he
was banished.

199. Xanthippus, who
conducted the accusation
(2) Mewacles. against Miltiades, was mar-

ried to Agariste, niece of
Hippocrates. (3) (3) Clisthenes. that Clisthenes who gained

p : so much favor by rebuild-
Agariste. /a (1) Nanthippus. ing the temple at Delphi,

and procuring the banish-
JS (2) Pericles. ment of the Pisistratide.
Their son, Pericles, was

Alcibiades. now the head of the Alc-
meonide, and the rival of Cimon. He had been the pupil of Anaxa-
goras, and attracted public notice soon after the banishment of
Themistocles. He had an agreeable person* and popular manners ;
and in the art of speaking so far surpassed other orators, that he
received the surname of Olympius ; for they said that in his harangues
he thundered and lightened.

200. As he had never been an archon, he could not sit in the court
of Areopagus; he therefore entered into a scheme with the leading
men to contract the powers of this august court; a measure which
gratified the people, and added not a little to his popularity. Still
further to strengthen his power, he provided the most elegant amuse-
ments for the inultitude; the dramas of Eschylus, Sophocles, and
Euripides, and the satires of the comic poets, were exhibited in the
magnificent theaters; the religious festivals were celebrated with new

 

* Ilis head was so disproportionately long that he was styled the “ Onion-headed,” from
Its similarity to the sea-onion.

 

Questions.—198, What decree did the Athenians pass? Why was Cimon banished?

199. Who was Pericles? Can you describe him? 200, What efforts did he make to gain
the applause of the people?
B. c. 460.] PERICLES. 161

splendor; and every thing was done to keep the people pleased with
the change of administration.

201. But to maintain these increased expenses, new supplies were
necessary. The common treasury, located at the sacred island of
Delos, for the support of the navy, was moved to Athens, and the
assessment which Aristides bad apportioned to the allies was con-
verted into a direct and burdensome tax. To obviate the unpleasant
feelings which these measures were calculated to excite, the people
were employed in the fleet which watched the Persian and Phenician
navies. In the confusion which followed the death of Xerxes, Inarus
aroused the greater part of Egypt to rebellion. Finding, in the war
that followed, the necessity of engaging a maritime power in his
interest, Inarus sent proposals of alliance to Athens. Pericles hoped
that in this expedition a revenue of wealth and fame would accrue to
his native city, equal to that gained by Cimon on the coast of Asia
Minor; and the alliance with Inarus was accordingly formed.

202. Disasters 1N Ecypr.—the fleet sailed from Cyprus to Egypt,
where Grecian valor and Grecian discipline at first overbore all opposi-
tion; but a turn in the tide of Athenian fortunes was at hand. Mega-
bysus, an able Persian general, succeeded in shutting up his foes on an
island in the Nile, where he cut off their supplies, and reduced them
to the brink of destruction. Inarus was betrayed to the Persians, and
most of the Greeks perished. The few that remained were carried
prisoners to Persia, Nor was this all. Fifty trireme galleys going to
Egypt entered the mouth of the Nile, ignorant of what had happened.
The Phenician fleet attacked them in the river, while the Persian army
assisted trom the shore; a few ships forced their way to sea, and
escuped; but the greater part were destroyed or taken. Such was the
conclusion of the Athenian enterprise against Egypt, after it had been
carried on six years.

203. Fianrina AMonG Frienps.—Meanwhile, the Athenians had not
been idle at home. They had taken part with Megara against Corinth,
subdued Egina, which Pericles styled ‘tthe eye-sore of the Pireus,”
and made several campaigns in Beotia. The Spartans, having carried
on the siege of Ithome ten years, finally granted the rebels liberty to
depart unharmed, with their wives and children, goods and chattels.
The Athenian fleet took them on board, sailed with them into the

 

Questions.—201, How were means to meet. the increased expenses raised? Who was
Inarus? What proposition did he make? Why did Pericles form the alliance? 202. ‘To
what place did the fleet sail? What is said of its first successes? Who was Megabysus?
What did he succeed in doing? Give a further account of the Athenian enterprise against
Egypt. 203. What, meanwhile, had the Athenians done at home?
162 GREECE. [p. 0. 449.

Corinthian gulf, and settled them in Naupactus, 2 maritime town of
Locris. There, retaking the name of Messenians, they formed them-
selves into a free republic, and were once more pumbered among the
Grecian people. .

204. All parties were now tired of a war in which they gained
nothing, and lost much. The Athenians especially, fearing the united
vengeance of Sparta and Corinth, were particularly desirous of peace ;
and Pericles, as a preparatory step, exerted himself to procure the
recall of Cimon. This banished noble was at that time living on his
Jordship in Chersonesus; bat he did not refuse the call of his factious
countrymen, Through his influence a truce was obtained for five
years, which time was actively employed by Pericles in completing the
dong wall begun by Themistocles.

205. Expeprrion ro Cyprus, AND Dgarn or Cimon, B. 0. 449.—But
such had become the state of things at home, that even Cimon con-
curred in the purpose of turning the spirit of enterprise once more
toward foreign conquest, in the hope of scattering the elements of
faction, which were already brooding war in Greece. A fleet of two
hundred galleys was equipped for an expedition against Cyprus, of
which Cimon took the command. He reached the place of his desti-
nation in safety, but received a wound in the siege of Citium, of
which he died. His spirit seemed still to hover over the fleet; for
the galleys which were conveying his remains to Attica, encoun-
tered the Phenician fleet, and gained a great victory. His bones
were interred in Attica, and a magnificent monument erected to his
memory.

206. After the death of Cimon, the nobility, perceiving that Pericles
possessed far too great authority, set up Thucydides* as his opponent;

* Thucydides was descended in the female line from Miltiades. Ne was born in Attica,
B.«. 471. The first circumstance related by his biographers, is an account of his attending
the Olympic games with his father, when about fifteen years of age. LIerodotus at that
time recited his bistory, and the young Thucydides was so much affected with the work,
and the applause it received, that he shed tears. On observing this, Herodotus exclaimed
to his father, “ Your son burns with ardor for learning.” Of bis early manhood we have no
account, but he doubtless served the usual time in the militia; for after the death of Cimvun
be was set up as the opponent of Pericles. In his 47th year, he was appointed to the com-
mand of the Athenian fleet off the coast of Thrace, but being too late by half a day to relieve
Amphipolis, then besieged by the Spartans, he was banished. Ile continued an exile twenty
years, during which he wrote the history of the Peloponnesian war, in eight books. Le
returned te his native state the year after Athens was taken by Lysander, and died there.

 

 

Questions.—203. What became of the Messenians? 204. Why did the Athenians desire
peace? What preparatory step was taken? What course did Cimon pursue after his
recall? 205. What object bad he in recommending foreign conquest? What expedition
dil he command? In what engasement did be perish? What victory followed? 206.
Who was Thucydides? Give his history contained in the note.
Bc. 461) PERICLES. 163

and such was the effect of the eloquence of these two rival states-
men that the city was quite broken in two, one part being valled the
nobility, the other the people. Pericles addressed himself particularly
to please the people, and his success was so great that Thucydides
said, “ When I wrestle with Pericles, if I throw him ever so decidedly,
he can persuade the spectators that he threw me.” Pericles also
gained a decree for sending out sixty galleys every year, manned
with citizens, who not only improved themselves in maritime skill,
but were paid for their time; and when they returned he con-
trived all kinds of shows, games, plays, and processions, to amuse
them. In addition to this, carpenters, masons, brasiers, goldsmiths,
painters, turners, and artificers of every kind, were employed
upon those splendid buildings which were erected by his recommen -
dation.

207. The Odeum, designed for musical performances and the rehear-
sal of new tragedies, was built almost entirely of the masts of Persian
vessels, and was so constructed as to imitate the form of Xerxes’s tent.
The Parthenon, or temple of Minerva, situated on the summit of the
Acropolis, in beauty and grandeur surpassed all other buildings of the
kind. In this edifice was the statue of the goddess seulptured in ivory.
It was thirty-nine feet high, and forty talents of gold were employed
in ornamenting it. The orators of Thucydides’s party raised a clamor
against Pericles, insisting that he had brought the greatest disgrace
upon Athens by removing the public treasures from Delos, and taking
them into his own custody. The works were notwithstanding carried
steadily forward, and finished in an incredibly short time, with an
elegance combining the freshness of youth and the sublimity of
antiquity.

208. B. o. 445.—Granpmotuer Cortnta, Motuer OCoroyra, AND
Littte Epramnous.—Ambition, pride, and jealousy, had strown
Greece with combustible materials; and from a fatal spark, which
kindled a flame in the corner-of the country, the blaze spread finally
over the whole; insomuch that the remainder of its history is but a
tale of domestic calamity and suffering. In very early times, the |
republic of Corinth established a colony upon the island of Coreyra. *
The colony fourished exceedingly; her people were rich and power-
ful, and her fleet ranked next to that of Athens. She also sent out
colonies, one of which settled in Epidamnus. Epidamaus likewise

 

Questions —206, What amusements precured popularity for Pericles? 207. What re-
markable buildings were erected? Give a description of the Odeum. Of the Parthenon.
208. What is suid of the remaining history of Greece? The early history of Corcyra?
Of Epidam ons?
164 GREECE. [p. ©. 445,
increased in goods and pride, and threw off all allegiance to the parent
state. The barbarous tribes in the neighborhood of Epidamnus, not
long after, invaded her territories, and reduced her to the brink of
destruction.

209. In this state of distress, she applied to Coreyra for help; but
the mother, thinking the present troubles only a salutary correction of
her child, turned a deaf ear to her petitions. The Epidamnians then
turned their eyes to grandmother Corinth, and, being encouraged by
the oracle, dispatched a solemn embassy thither, acknowledging that
city as their metropolis, and imploring assistance. The Corinthians
readily listened to the appeal, and, sending out a fleet, took military
possession of the colony. Corcyra had thus her mother enraged on
one side, and her daughter incensed on the other; she, however,
determined to carry out her intentions, and steadfastly resist all inter-
ference in her government.

210. The Corinthians, alarmed by the preparations Corcyra was
making for war, called on the allies for aid; and Corcyra, taking alarm
also at the number of confederates who responded to the call, sent to
make alliance with Athens. This was a delicate point for the Athe-
nians to decide. If they assisted Corcyra, they in effect declared war
against Corinth; if, on the contrary, they permitted her to be over-
come, the Peloponnesians would be strengthened by the tall of the
greatest naval power of Greece, After much hesitation, they dis-
patched a fleet of thirty galleys to defend the Corcyreans. The
war was, however, productive of little gain or glory to either side,
and might have passed unnoticed but for its political effect, in leav-
ing upon the mind of Corinth such a sense of the snpremacy of
Athens as led her to enlist on the side of Sparta in the Peloponnesian
war.

211. The ostracism being called for about this time, Thucydides was
banished, and thus Pericles became sole master of Athens and all its
dependencies. The revenue, the army, the navy, the friendship of
kings, and the alliance of princes, were all at his command. But,
though possessed of such unlimited power, he kept the public good in
his eye, and pursued the straight path of honor. According to the
representation of Thucydides, his rival, he was a man of popularity

 

Questions.—209. Where was Coreyra? (See map No. 2.) What is it called now? Ams
Corfu. What is said of the colony of Coreyra? 210. What produced alarm among the
Corinthians? What aid did they consequently invoke? Why was Corcyra alarmed % What
alliance was sought? State the delieate points. What assistance was sent to Coreyra?
Wout effect had the Coreyrean war upon Athens, politically? 211. How did Perieles be-
come master of Athens and its dependencies? What was his character ? :
B. 0, 445.] PERICLES. 165

and unblemished reputation ;* money could not bribe him, and he was
so much above the desire of it, that, though intrusted with so many
offices, he added not one drachma to his personal estate.

212. Potidwa, a Corinthian colony on the coast of Macedonia, had
been brought under the dominion of Athens. In this time of commo-
tiun, the Potidawans received a body of troops from Corinth, and
declared themselves free! The Athenians immediately ordered
their fleet around that way, and blocked up Potidewa by sea and land.
The Corinthians, therefore, sent deputies to Sparta, to complain that
in so doing they had broken the truce,t and the Spartans readily in-
voked a general assembly of the states, to listen to complaints against
Athens. When the deputies had arrived, proclamation was made,
giving permission for those to speak who had any thing to advance.
The Eginetans first occupied the attention of the meeting, with a com-
plaint of the destruction of their fleet by Pericles, and of the depend-
ency in which they were held; and the Megarensians urged, that,
contrary to the existing treaty, they were prohibited all intercourse
with Attica.

213. The Corinthians then opened their grievances in the following
form: “ Often have we warned you, O Lacedemonians, of the wrongs
which the Athenians were preparing for us; but not till we had
already suffered, and hostilities were commenced, would you summon
this assembly of our confederacy, in which we have, perhaps, more
cause than others to come forward, injured as we have been by the
Athenians, and neglected by you. Not that we alone are inte-
rested; all Greece is concerned; many states being already reduced

* He was, it is true, greatly influenced by the courtesan Aspasia; but she owed her
power to her great abilities, rather than to her personal charms. Ata time when the educa-
tion of Grecian females was little superior to that of slaves, when their minds were unin-
formed. and their manners unpolished, Aspasia, the Milesian, appeared in Athens, She was
endowed with accomplishments rare even among men; and by the combined attractions of
her beauty, manners, and conversation, completely won the affection and esteem of Pericles,
so that he put away his wife, and bound himself to her by the most intimate relation which
the laws permitted him to contract with a foreign woman, Nor was he alone sensible of
her charms. Her private circles were frequented by the most enlightened and accomplished
men of the State, Who often brought their wives to be instructed by her conversation.
Socrates said he learned eloquence of her; and Plato did not hesitate to assert, that the
funeral oration pronounced by Pericles, one of the most eloquent compositions extant, was
written by the gifted Milesian,

+ A truce for thirty years had been concluded between Sparta and Athens.

 

Questions.—212. Where was Potidea? (See map No. 2.) Why did the Athenians besiega
Potidexa? By whom was a general assembly of the states called? Why was it called? Of
what did the Eginetans complain? The Megarensians? 213. Who were the third to com-
pluin? . With what did tbey open their grievances?
166 GREECE. [pve 445.
to subjection, and others notoriously threatened. Corcyra, capable
ot furnishing a fleet superior to that of any republic in our con-
federacy, is already taken from us, and Potidwa, our most im-
portant post for carrying on commerce in Thrace, is at this time
besieged. These injuries are in a great measure to be imputed
to you.

214. “ After the Persian war, you permitted the Athenians to fortify
their city; then to build their long walls; and still you have continued
to look on (though boasting to be vindicators of the freedom of
Greece), while they have deprived of freedom not only their own, but
our confederates. Is this a time to inquire whether we have been
injured? No; rather, how we shall repel the injury. The Persians,
we know, came from the farthest parts of the earth before you had
made any adequate preparations for defense; and now you are equally
remiss against the Athenians, in your own neighborhood. Let this,
then, be the term of your dilatoriness; give at length that assistance
to your allies which you owe them, and relieve the Potideans. This
can be done only by an invasion of Attica. Consult then your own
interest, and do not diminish that supremacy in Peloponnesus which
your fathers transmitted to you.”

215. The Corinthians ceased; and when all others had expressed
their opinions, they were requested to withdraw, that the Spartans,
who claimed the dignified station of sovereign arbiters, might decide
upon the question. War was resolved upon; but to gain time, and
sow the seeds of dissension in Athens, an embassy was sent thither,
requiring that all ereerable* persons should be banished, lest some
general calamity should fall upon Greece.

216. THe Empassies.—The embassadors were received at Athens,
and discharged their commission with all due gravity; but Pericles,
against whom this blow was aimed, as a descendant of that Megacles
who murdered the followers of Cylon, recollected that the principal
families of Sparta had also been guilty of sacrilege, in the case of
Pausanias, and in the murder of some Helots who had been dragged
from the sanctuary of Neptune. The great earthquake had been attri-
buted to this last act of impiety. Pericles, therefore, proposed that
the Lacedemonians should set the first example of regard for the wel-

* Those guilty of sacrilege.

 

Questions. —214, What did they charge upon the Lacedemonians? With what advice did
they close? 215, What then was resolved upon? Why was an embassy sent to Athens?
What was the embassy instructed to require? 216, What answer was given to the em-
bassy ?
B. 0. 431.] PERICLES. 167

fare of Greece, by banishing their own sacrilegious citizens. With this
answer the deputies departed.

217. A second embassy arrived soon after, with very different
instructions. These envoys urged that the siege of Potidwa ought to
be raised, Egina restored to independence, and the decree against
Megara revoked. The two first propositions were scarcely noticed ;
apon the third, the Athenians condescended to explain, that the Mega-
rensians had been guilty of plowing up a spot of ground consecrated
to the Eleusinian goddess, and of receiving runaway Athenian slaves.
With this answer, the second embassy returned to Sparta; and soon
after came a third, men of eminence and influence, who said nothing
of sacrilege, Potidwa, Egina, or Megara, but simply put forward the
modest requisition, ‘ That aJZ the Grecian states held in subjection Ly
Athens should be restored to independency.”

218. An assembly was convened to determine on a final answer.
Many spoke in favor of peace on these conditions, and many urged
the necessity of war. Finally, Pericles ascended the bema. He showed
that what the Lacedemonians wished was not the independence of
Megara or Egina, but the submission of Athens; that they were deter-
mined to assert their own supremacy; and if one point were granted,
another would immediately be put forward, till Athens must finally
fight or be shorn of all her glory, allies and dependencies. He drew
a lively picture of the progress and results of the coming war, and
closed by recommending a compliance with the demands of Sparta, as
soon as she would herself set the example, by giving liberty to her
allies. This answer was conveyed to the embassadors nearly in the
words of Pericles; and all hopes of peace being thus destroyed, both
sides began vigorously to prepare for war.

219. B. o. 431.—TuEe Prieponnesian War.---The spark which had
fallen in Corcyra, and been kindled into a flame in Potidswa, now blazed
forth in Beotia. The Thebans had longed to subject the little city of
Platea, but feared the power of Athens, who protected it. As soon,
therefore, as war was considered certain, they seized upon this place,
and succeeded at first in getting possession of it. ‘‘ At this time,”
says Thucydides (who, having expiated his srime of being a great
man by ten years’ banishment, had returned to the fleet), “* Greeve
abounded with youth, who, filled with admiration for the wonders
wrought by their fathers in the Persian wars, were anxious to win

 

Questions.—21T. What was urged by the second embassy? What answer was given to
the envoys? What was required by the third embassy? 218. What course did Athens
then take? What were the arguments of Pericles? What was the result? 219. What
betell the city of Platea? What is stated as having been said by Thucydides?
168 GREECE. [B. 0. 431.

for themselves a place in the records of fame.” Oracular responscs
were algo reported; many prodigies were seen; an earthquake shook
the sacred island of Delos; and Greece abounded with portents,
which each party interpreted for themselves and against their ene-
Mhies.

220..The two confederacies, now upon the point of engaging in
Jong and deadly strife, were very differently composed ; but the forces
of Greece were very equally divided between them. Sparta had for
allies 4,* 5, 6, 7, 8, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, and a part of 2 and 10; 20 had
been destroyed, and 18 remained neuter. Athens had 3, 1, a part of
10, and the little settlement of Naupactus; but most of the islands in
the Ionian sea had been brought into her interest by Corcyra; her
fleet commanded the Egean, and brought efficient aid from the colo-
nies of Asia Minor. Athens was the head of the Ionic race; Sparta
of the Doric. Athens was regarded asa democracy, and the advocate
of the rights of the people; Sparta, as an aristocracy, and a defender
of the privileges claimed by the nobility. Athens demanded tribute
from her allies, while Sparta was contented with supremacy alone.
In every island, therefore, which owned the dominion of Athens, a
strong party was found favorable to the success of Sparta.

221. First Invasion oF Arrioa.—Archidamus, the good old Spartan
king, the friend of Pericles, was made commander-in-chief of the
Peloponnesian forces. They marched 60,000 strong up towurd the
Corinthian isthmus; but as their leader was opposed to the war, and
tried every ineasure to intimidate the Athenians before taking any
decisive step, an interval occurred, which was well employed by the
Athenians in making preparations against the invaders. Pericles,
foreseeing from the beginning the consequences of his course, had not
been remiss in providing for them. Knowing the superior force of
the Spartans by land, he persuaded the Athenians not to venture a
battle; but to lay waste their fields and retire into their city, depend-
ing upon their fleet for supplies.

222. He told them that for these there were abundant resources it.
the commonwealth. The annual tribute amounted to $600,000: there
were in the treasury $60,000,000, and the uncoined gold and silver

* Let the pupil name them from the Map.

 

Questions.—219. What is said of the portents? 220. Who were tho allies of Sparta?
(Sea map No. 2.) Who of Athens? What political feature distinguished Athens from
Sparta? 221, Who was constituted comimander-in-chicf of the Peloponnesian forces? To
what eourse did Pericles persuade the Athenians? Why did he do so? 222, What repre-
evotations did be make?
BO.4J1L] . PERICLES... 169

which might be employed was not less than $500,000 more. There
was besides one ton’s weight of pure gold upon the statue of Minerva,
which could be taken off without injury, and replaced when deemed
expedient. Sheltered by thie walls.of their city, they would be able
to look on in security while the Peloponnesians ravaged their country ;
and embarking on board their fleet, they might take ample vengeance
by ravaging the coast of the Peloponnesus.

223. But, though these representations encouraged the people to
trust for the final result, yet they were far from being contented. It
was very inconvenient for the free denizens of the mountainous regions
to be cooped up in a space where no one could move without intrud-
ing upon his neighbor; the inhabitants of the plains were not pleased
with the prospect of seeing the elegant houses they had built burned
to the ground, and the gardens and vineyards they had planted laid
waste by the hand of the destroyer. They lingered wistfully about
their homes, and it was not till the confederates had actually laid siege
to a frontier town that they sought refuge within the city.

224. Archidamus reached Attica with his army just as the corn
began to ripen, and, laying waste the whole country in his path, used
every effort to provoke his enemies to battle. Pericles, notwithstand-
ing, remained firm; he would call no assembly of the people; nor
would he quit the city when the fleet went to ravage the Pelopon-
nesus, lest some misfortune should happen in his absence. However,
when the enemy retired he led out all the citizens to plunder Megara,
and having by the fleet expelled the Eginetans from their island, he
settled an Athenian colony there. ;

225. Tne Funerat Ceremontes.—When winter set in, and hostilities
were suspended, Pericles employed his fertile genius in devising means
to animate the people, and te convert even their calamities into an
occasion of triumph. The funeral rites of those who had fallen in
defense of their country were publicly solemnized. Three days
before the burial, the bones of the bodies previously burned were
collected and laid in state under an ample awning. There their rela-
tives visited them, and strewed them with evergreens and spices, as
affection or superstition dictated. On the appointed day, the bones
were laid in ten chests of cyprus wood, and conveyed on carriages to
a public tomb in the most beautiful suburb of the city, the people fol-
lowing in a long, mournful procession, and the female relations filling

 

Questions.—223. How did the represex tations affect the people? Why were the denizens
of the mountains dissatisfied? Why, the inhabitants of the plains? 224. What did Archi-
damus effect? What course did Pericles pursue? 225. Describe the funcral vbsequies,

8
170 - GREECE. [s. c. 430

the air with lamentations. After the ceremony of entombing was
over, Pericles passed through the crowd to a lofty stand prepared for
the purpose, and delivered an oration, which, as transcribed by Tim
cydides, is considered the most remarkable of all ancient compositions,
and a finished model of beautiful conceptions, chastened and elevated
by a noble severity.

226. Seconp Invasion or Attioa.—Tne PLracue.—The next spring
the confederate army met again upon the isthmas, to decide the fate
of Athens. In this second invasion, Archidamus laid aside the for-
bearance he had practiced the year before, and left scarce a corner of
the land unravaged. But a greater calamity than their offended
brethren could inflict, now fell upon the Athenians. <A drefidful
plague, which, commencing in Ethiopia, had passed through Lybia
and crossed the Mediterranean, burst at once upon Athens. Persons
apparently in perfect health were seized with extreme heat in the
head and redness of the eyes. The tongue and throat then assumed a
bloody appearance, a violent cough came on, with hicecoughs and
spasms ; inflammation ensued, and the body was rapidly covered with
loathsome ulcers. As it began in the head, it proceeded through all
parts of the body, and finally fixed itself in the extremities 3°80 that
those who survived lost their hands, or feet, or eyes. The patients
were afflicted with intolerable thirst; many dragged themselves to
the fountains and there fell down dead, with none to bury them.

227. It was midsummer, and not only every house was fully occu-
pied, but many families were crowded together in stifling huts, where
they died in heaps. The very temples were filled with dead bodies,
and every part of the city exhibited a dreadful scene of mortality and
mourning. Beasts of prey, though perishing with hunger, refused to
touch the carcasses of those who died of it; and birds of ill-omen flew
about, and by their dismal croakings excited fearful ferebodings. The
Peloponnesian army had wasted the vale of Attica, and were rapidly
proceeding toward the seacoast, when, becoming alarmed by accounts
of the plague, they hastened homeward, after occupying the country
forty days.

228. Misrorrunss or Prrto.es.—The firm mind of Pericles was not
to be depressed by the sword without, nor by the pesti’ence within,
nor even by the irritation and despair of the Athenians, who accused
him of being the author of their calamities, by drawing such multi-

 

Quest ions.—225, What afterward took Place? 226, 227. What is said of the second inva-
sion Ly Archidamus? Give an account of the Plague. 228, 229, Relate the stury of the
uisfortunes of Pericles.
B. 0. 429. PERICLES. 171

tudes into the city as to poison the very air. In the anguish of their
feelings, they forgot all he had done and suffered for them; and by a
public decree deposed him from his military command, and fined him
an immense sum. Ner was this his only misfortune. His advisers
fell victims to the pestilence, and the greater part of his family friends
died of the same dreadful disease, Still he neither wept nor performed
any funeral rites, nor was he seen at the grave of any of his relatives
until the death of Paralus, his last legitimate son.

229. He attempted, indeed, then to keep up his usual calm behavior
and serenity of inind, but in putting the garland upon the head of the
deceased his firmness forsook him; he broke out into loud lamenta-
tions, and shed a torrent of tears. Athens made trial, in the course of
a year, of the rest of her generals and orators, and finding none capa-
ble of extricating her from the difficulties in which she was involved,
once more invited Pericles to take again the direction of affairs. He
had shut himself up at home to indulge his sorrow, and it was with
difficulty that Alcibiades and his other friends persuaded him to re-
assume the reins of government. During the following winter, the
Potidseans, after suffering most intensely from famine, surrendered;
and thus Athens gained at least one disputed point.

230. But anxiety and care had done their work for Pericles. He
was attacked by the plague in a modified form, and sunk by slow
degrees to his rest. When he was at the point of death, his friends,
sitting about his bed, began to discourse upon his extraordinary virtue
and great exploits; for while he was commander-in-chief, he had
erected no less than nine trophies to the honor of Athens. They said
these things, supposing his senses were gone; how great, then, was
their astonishment when he suddenly aroused, and observed, “I am
surprised that while you extol these acts of mine, in which fortune
had her share, you take no notice of the most honorable part of my
character: that no Athenian, through my means, ever put on a mourn-
ing robe.” Thus died Pericles, who had held the pre-eminence for the
space of forty years among some of the most distinguished men Greece
ever produced; who had managed the finances of the republic without
the least taint of avarice; and who, though all the power of the
magistrates centered in himself, had so preserved his popularity, that
he was the first great man, after Solon, that escaped banishinent.

231. In the former war with Corcyra, the Corinthians, having taken
some prisoners, treated them with the greatest kindness, and sent them

 

Questions.—230. Give an account of his death, What is stated of his acts and character?
231. What is related of prisoners taken by the Corinthians?
172 GREECE. [B. o. 425

home devoted to the aristocratic interest. Nv sooner had they arrived
than they created a sedition in the republic, The nobles were assas.
sinated in the senate-house, and the people were massacred in the
general assembly. These civil commotions lasted two years, and
finally the Athenians were compelled ta send out an armed force to
decide the cause in favor of the democracy.

232. As the fleet, on its return, sailed along the coast of the Pelo-
ponnesus, a storm compelled the commanders to cast anchor in the
harbor of Pylos, the ancient seat of old Nestor’s kingdom. Foul
weather prevented their departure; and the sailors, for amusement,
assisted the Messenians in their company to erect a fort; and in six
days Pylos was strong enough to sustain a siege. It was not long
before the transactions at Pylos were known in Sparta, and the alarm
occasioned by a Messenian garrison being established within fifty
miles was very great. To prevent a union between the garrison and
the Lacedemonian slaves, an army was sent to invest the place by land,
and the confederate fleet was manned with adventurers who went out
to take possession of the little island of Sphacteri, lying between the
fort and the sea.

233. Meanwhile, the Athenian fleet had moved to Zacynthus, and
Demosthenes,* who commanded Pylos, found himself blockaded both
by sea and land. He, however, managed to send a messenger to
Eurymedon, commander at Zacynthus. The admiral, hearing of the
critical situation of the little garrison, sailed to its relief, and, driving
away the Spartan fleet, spread his ships around Sphacteriaw, so that
there was a double blockade: Pylos blockaded by Sphacteria, and
Sphacteriz blockaded by the Athenian fleet. Under these circum-
stances, the Spartans made proposals of peace, which Cleon persuaded
the Athenians to refuse. “If he were a general,” he said, ‘ Sphacteria
should soon be compelled to surrender; and then they might dictate
their own terms.” Niciast at once offered to resign the command to
him; but Cleon, who was a notorious coward, declined the lonor.
The people, glad to enjoy a joke, even at their favorite’s expense,
insisted upon his accepting the office; till finally, thinking it best to
put a bold face upon the affair, he came forward, and declared that

* An ancestor of the celebrated orator.
+ A man of birth and fortune, commander of the Athenian army.

 

Questions,—252, Where did the Athenian fleet stop on their return from Coreyra? What
was done at Pylos? Where was Pylos situated? (Sve map No.2.) What was done by
Sparta? 233, Where was Zacynthus? (See map No. 2.) How did the double bluckade
occur? What then did the Spartans propose? Why was not the proposal accepted ?
B. 0. 424] BRASIDAS AND CLEON 173

“within twenty days he would bring all the Lacedemonians in Sphac-
teriw captives to Sparta.”

234. This impudent boast was received with shouts of laughter;
but events over which he had no control enabled him to fulfill his
promise, At the head of a band of adventurers, he reached Pylos in
safety ; and a fire happening to break out in the woody parts of Sphac-
teri, the Lacedemonians were driven from their defenses. Assisted
by Demosthenes, of whose skill he had the good sense to avail himself,
Cleon led his men to the attack, killed one hundred and twenty-eight
of the enemy, and, true enough, took all the rest prisoners and carried
them to Athens. Nothing occurred, during the whole course of the
war, so contrary to the general opinion as this event; and as the
prisoners were of the first rank, it was decided to keep them in chains
till terms of peace were settled; or, if the Spartans again invaded
Attica, to put them to death.

235. B. o. 424.—Revorr or Oryyruvs.—In this year the Athenians,
uuder Nicias, made the important conquest of the island of Cythera.
A general dejection prevailed in Sparta. During seven campaigns,
not an individual among the confederates had distinguished himself
except Brasidas, and he was yet a young man. As the Spartans had
undertaken the war without an adequate fleet, he saw the policy of
commencing hostilities in a quarter which would withdraw the Athe-
nian ships from the coast of the Peloponnesus; but his countrymen, .
though most courageous in the field, were exceedingly timid in the
cabinet. Even when Olynthus and other maritime states of Macedon
entered into a combination to humble the naval power of Athens, it
was with difficulty that Brasidas persuaded them to send with him an
army to the north. The Lacedemonians were afraid to diminish their
force at home, for Pylos was garrisoned by Messenians, and their
slaves stood ready to revolt.

236. Proclamation was therefore made, that any Helots, who
thought they could merit the dignity of citizens by feats of arms,
should present themselves before the magistrates to undergo the
honorable trial. The most warlike and ambitious assembled, of course,
and two thousand being chosen and crowned with chaplets, were
marched in solemn procession around the temple, as an initiatory cere-
mony to freedom. Soon after they disappeared, and the massacre was

 

Questions.—234. How did Cleon rise to importance? 235. Where was the island of Cy
thera? (See map N». 2.) When did the Athenians capture it? Why were the Spartans
dejected? What did Brasidas reeommend? Why were the Lacedemonians afraid te
dimizish their forees at home? 236. What hurried préparations did the Spartans make for
leaving home? Where was Amphipolis? (See map No. 2.)
LT4 GREECE. [B. c. 422.

managed with snch careful secrecy, that in what manner they pérished
never was known. After this shocking precaution, Brasidas was per-
mitted to set out without loss of time. When the Athenians heard
that Brasidas had marched to Macedon with a Jarge army, they
ordered Thucydides to move westward with the fleet, and defend
Amphipolis. He did so; but, being too late by half a day, the place
surrendered, and Brasidas went into winter quarters there. This loss
affected the Athenians most sensibly; they banished Thucydides for
twenty years, and finally agreed upon a truce of one year with the
Spartans.

237. zB. o. 422.—Barrie or Ampniporis.—Cleon, emboldened by his
accidental success at Sphacteriw, gave the Athenians no rest till they
sent him with a large army to recover Amphipolis. This time, how-
ever, fortune did not smile upon him. He led his troops to battle in
a disadvantageous position, and was defeated. Both generals were
also slain. The two parties were then about even; for the death of
Cleon was better than victory to the Athenians; and the loss of
Brasidas, worse than defeat to the Spartans.

238. Tlie war had now been in progress ten years, during which
both sides had suffered severely. They had alternately ravaged each
other’s lands; they had slaughtered their brethren in battle, and
executed them as prisoners; they had endured famine and pestilence ;
they had lost their houses, and wasted their revenue; and now, tired
of hostilities, and ready to let their weapons drop out of their hands,
they listened to the counsels of the peaceful Nicias, and concluded a
truce for fifty years, on condition that all the towns and prisoners
taken should be restored, and the different states placed in the posi-
tion which they occupied before the war!

239. But though the rival powers had concluded upon a peace,
there was nothing like quiet in the country. The other states thought
they had something to say upon the subject; and Corinth, in particu-
lar, could not consent to give up Potidwa. The people of Amphipolis
refused to exchange the supremacy of Sparta for that of Athens, and
Sparta contended that she could not compel them to do so; and thus
the contest went on, between recriminations and negotiations, affronts
and reprisals, for the next six years.

 

Questions.—236. Why was Thucydides banished? Where was Amphipolis? (See map
No. 2.) What is it called now? Anas. Iamboli, 237. On what expedition was Cleon sent?
When did that occur? What was the result? What made the two parties about even?
258. How had both parties suffered during the war? What counscls did Nicias sive? What
was the result? 239. Why did not the truce concladed upon bring peace 2

; Tlow were the
aext six years then spent? Where was Potidwa? (See map No. 2.)
B. ¢. 415.] ALCIBIADES. 175

240. B. 0. 415.—Expepition To Srorry.—There was at this time in
Athens a young man so eminent for all his qualifications of person,
mind, and fortune; so ambitious of distinction; and so gifted with
eloquence and dissimulation, as to mark him at once for a leader of
that giddy multitude which ruled the city. This was Alcibiades,
descended in the paternal line from Ajax, and in the maternal from
the Alemaonide. He was extravagant, but with an air of nobility;
he was dissolute, but engaging and graceful; he had been the pupil of
Socrates, and had thrice won the olive at the Olympic games; he was
the nephew of Pericles, and the favorite of Aspasia.

241. After the death of Cleon, Alcibiades came forward to set aside
the policy of the cautious Nicias, and rekindle a war in which he
might have full scope to display his abilities. The factions ran so
high that the ostracism was again called for. Both parties were
greatly alarmed at their danger, for the struggle was between the
young, who wanted war, and the old, who desired peace. Finally, the
leaders agreed to join their influence against Hyperbolus, a friend of
Cleon, who had been instrumental in calling up the ostracism at this
time. The plan was entirely successful, and Hyperbolus was banished.
Though the Athenians laughed at first at the turn things had taken,
yet when they came to reflect that they had honored the low-born
Hyperbolus by ranking him with Aristides, Themistocles, and Cimon,
they were so chagrined that they never resorted to the ostracism
again.

242. It was just about this time that embassadors arrived from
Egesta, an Ionian colony of Sicily, praying for assistance against the
people of Syracuse, who had endeavored to bring them into subjection.
Alcibiades was for espousing the cause of Egesta at once, but Nicias,
who knew that to quarrel with a Dorian colony* was, in effect, to
declare war against the Peloponnesian confederacy, strenuously op-
posed the rash undertaking. The multitude, however, listened to the
glowing representations of Alcibiades,t and after some trifling precau-
tions the expedition was determined upon, Nicias, Alcibiades, and
Lamachus being appointed commanders.

243. The prudent Nicias still sought to cool the ardor of the people,

* Syracuse was a Corinthian colony.

+ When Timon the man-hater saw Alcibiades, after gaining his point, conducted home

in great honor from the assembly, he went up to him, and shaking his hand, exclaimed, “ Go
on, my brave boy, and prosper, for your prosperity will bring on the ruin of all this crowd.”

 

Questions. —240. In what year was the expedition sent to Sicily? Who was Alcibiades?
What is stated about him? 241, What circumstance put an end to ostracism? 242. What
causes produced the Sicilian war? What reasons were given for and against it?
176 GREECE. [B. c. 415

by representing the number of obstacles it would be necessary to sur-
mount. He said the fleet not being sufficient, a land army must be
provided at immense expense, and he doubted the ability of the
Egestans to pay and feed the soldiers. He reminded them that the
Syracusans would be at home, among friends who could assist them
with men, money, horses, and provisions ; while the Athenians would
be in an enemy's country, so far from Greece that it would take four
months to receive supplies in winter; that if they were successful they
should gain nothing; but if they were unsuccessful it would reflect
eternal disgrace upon the Athenian name; and for his part, he was
determined not to go, unless he were supplied with every thing requi-
site for carrying on the war.

244. This sensible remonstrance, so far from having the desired
effect, only furnished the partisans of Alcibiades with a pretext for
making more magnificent preparations, and a decree was in con-
sequence obtained for raising as many troops and fitting out as many
galleys as the generals thought necessary. Indeed, so sanguine were
the people upon the subject, that young men in their places of exercise,
and old men in their shops, drew maps of Sicily, and planned the pas-
sage thence to Africa; for in the splendid conquests of which they
dreamed, they comprised Carthage, Italy, and the sea, to the pillars
of Hercules.

245. Toe Emparxation.—The levies being completed, the generals
resolved to set sail immediately for Sicily, by way of OCorcyra and
Rhegium. On the morning appointed for embarkation, the citizens
enrolled for the expedition appeared on the parade by daybreak. The
whole city accompanied their march to the Pirwsus. In that assembly
theré were no uninterested spectators. No city had ever fitted out so
numerous and gallant a fleet as the present; and not even the Athe-
nians, skilled as they were in naval affairs, had ever undertaken so
grand or distant an expedition; and no family mingled in the vast
procession, but felt the honor and the pain of contributing its most
promising member to this hazardous enterprise.

246. When the last adieus had been said, and the troops were em-
barked, the trumpets sounded as a signal for silence, and prayers were
put up with the greatest solemnity, the whole assembly uniting their
voices in one grand petition for success. Goblets of wine were then
produced, from which officers and soldiers together poured out liba-

 

Questions,—243, What representations did Nicias make? 244. What effect did the repre-
sitions produce? Drawa map of Sicily and the principal conquests of Athens, 245,
216 Describe the embarkation, Where was Coreyra? (Map No. 2.) Rhegium? (No.4) *
B. . 415.] ALCIBIADES. 177

tions, and drank to the prosperity of the commonwealth and the arma-
ment. Then, far above the roar of the sea and the voice of the wind,
rose the loud pean of the Greeks; and amid the waving of banners,
and fluttering of pennons, the fleet moved majestically out of the
harbor, the inhabitants of the city following it with their eyes till it
seemed to be lost between the sea and the sky. At Corcyra the Athe-
nian squadron was joined by the ships of the allies, and, the winds and
wayes proving favorable, the combined fleet had a prosperous journey
thence to Sicily. They landed without opposition, and took up their
station at Catana.

247. ArorptapEs.—This advantageous debarkation of the troops was
all that Alcibiades effected in the enterprise from which he had antici-
pated so much glory; suspicions, which had well-nigh detained him
in Athens, soon occasioning his recall. Some time before the fleet
sailed, the statues of Hermes were all mutilated in one night, and it
was generally believed that Alcibiades and his companions had been
guilty of the sacrilege during a drunken revel. Taking advantage of
his absence, his enemies magnified his follies into a plot to subvert the
government, and many persons were apprehended as being privy to
the affair. All Athens was in alarm; the conspirators were thought
to be in Jeague with Sparta, and one whole night the people watched
under arms. At last, one of the prisoners told his fellows that it
would be better to confess something than to submit to torture. They
accordingly disclosed the pretended plot, and received their liberty as
a reward for their villainy.

248. All those whom they accused were immediately condemned
and executed; but Alcibiades, whose name figured largely in the awful
disclosures, being in Sicily, they knew not how to effect his destruc-
tion. If they put him under arrest there, it might occasion a sedition
in the army. It was therefore resolved to send the Paralus* after him,
with a simple command to return to Athens. Immediate obedience
was paid to this order. Alcibiades followed the sacred trireme in his
own ship, as the humblest individual in the conmonwealth, but when
they stopped to take in provisions on the coast of Italy he absconded.
The heralds, having searched for him in vain for several days, returned
without him. The Athenian people, however, pronounced sentence
of death against him, in what was called “deserted judgment;” his

* The sacred trireme.

 

Questions.—246. What occurred at Coreyra? Catana? 247. Of what was Alcibiades ac
cused? 245. Why was he not put under arrest in Sicily? What plan was resolved upon
instead? What is stated in relation to his absconding? The judgment against Alvibudes?

a
178 GREECE. [B. co. 415,

whole estate was confiscated, and all orders of religion were com-
manded to éurse him.

249. When Alcibiades heard of this severe sentence, he exclaimed,
“I hope one day to make them sensible that I am still alive.” From
Italy he made his way to Sparta, where he found persons very willing
to assist his designs against his country.* He told them that the
Athenians did not mean to bound their conquests by the shores of
Sicily, but that, after subjecting that island, together with Italy, Car-
thage, and Spain, they intended, by the aid of numerous fleets and
allies, to bring all Greece under their dominion; aud he counseled the
Lacedemonians, if they would avoid abject dependence, to send an
army into Sicily, and nip the growing power of Athens in the bud.
His advice was taken. The Lacedemonians decided to assist the
Syracusans and renew the war.

250. Measures or Niciis.—Nicias, meantime, having fortified his
camp, put off an attack upon Syracuse week after week, and month
after month, till finally the buoyant spirits of his troops were all
evaporated, and they strolled about in search of amusement rather
than conquest. The Syracusans, too, having recovered from the fright
which so grand an armament had occasioned, came up to his intrench-
ments, and scofingly asked “if he had come to settle at Catana.”
Roused by this taunt, he determined to settle at Syracuse if anywhere,
and, with his usual caution, set about making arrangements for that
purpose. He bribed a Sicilian to go to Syracuse with a story, that the
Athenians lay in the town every night without their arms, and that on
a certain morning, which he named, the Syracusans might unite with
the disaffected persons in the neighborhood, burn the Athenian camp
and fleet, and free the island at once of its invaders.

2651. The enemy, pleased with the idea of terminating the war in
so summary a inanner, fell readily into the snare. At the very time,
however, that the Syracusans set out for Catana, Nicias left Catana
for Syracuse, and, landing there in the absence of the garrison, forti-
fied himself in the outskirts of the town. The Syracusans, on arriving
at Catana, and finding only an empty camp, were so provoked at the
trick put upon them, that they marched back to their city w’th all
speed, and presented themselves without the walls in order of battle.

* Te gained the confidence of the Spartans by conforming strictly to all the laws of

Lycurgus. He bathed in cold water, took the most violent exercise, and dined on black
broth, with great relish.

 

Questions.—249, What exclamation is reported of Alcibiades? What evils did he seck
for his country? 250, Did Nicias act with energy? What was the result? To what
stratagem did Nicias resort? 251. Give an account of what followed. Where was Catana? (4)
B.6. 414] DEJECTION OF NICIAS. 179

Nicias immediately attacked and beat them. Not, however, having
courage to commence the siege of the place, he returned with all his
forces, and went into winter quarters at Catana.

252. B. o. 414.—Sieaz or Syraouss.—The next spring, having re-
ceived a supply of horse from Athens, Nicias resolved to block up
Syracuse both by sea and land. He conducted all his movements with
so much prudence, that he gained possession of a hill that overlooked
the town, before the Syracusans knew of his approach. By diligent
exertions, his soldiers inclosed the city with a wall, to cut off its com-
munication with the country; and, during the time the work was in
progress, came off victorious in eight different engagements with the
enemy. Several Sicilian cities, attracted by the prosperous state of
Athenian affairs, came over to their interest, and supplied them with
provisions; so that, naturally desponding and cautious as he was,
Nicias began to conceive high hopes of success.

253. The Syracusans, on their part, seeing nothing before them but
famine or the sword, began already to think of surrender, when the
fleet which the Spartans had fitted ont, at the instigation of Alcibiades,
appeared off the coast! As Nicias disbelieved the report of Gylippus’s
arrival, he placed no regular guard to prevent his landing, and there-
fore was not a little surprised and alarmed to see that officer drawing
up the Syracusans, and marshaling his own forces in order of battle.
His alarm was changed to anger soon after, when a herald came to
him, saying, that ‘““Gylippus would allow the Athenians five days to
quit Sicily.” He prepared for battle with unwonted animation, and
was victorious in the first engagement; but afterward fortune for-
sook him, so that, giving up all thoughts of conquest, he sought only
safety.

254. Enfeebled by along and distressing illness, and discouraged
by the turn of affairs, he transmitted to the Athenians a most melan-
choly account of his situation. He told them that instead of besieging
Syracuse he was himself besieged, and in danger of capture. He said
that his fleet had gone to decay, that many of the ships were leaky,
and the crews diminished; that they were forced to go so far for wood
and water, that they were always fatigued with constant duty; that
the slaves deserted, and many of the allies went home without leave ;
that the temper of the Athenian people being averse to subordination,

 

Questions.—251, Did Nicias then lay siege to Syracuse? What did he do? 252, When
did Nicias finally conclude to lay siege to Syracuse? What advantages and successes did
he gain? 253. What turned the tables in favor of the Syracusans? Give an account of
what followed. 254, What did Nicias write home?
180 GREECE. [B c. 413.

he found it impossible to control the perverse disposition of some
under his command; and that it was absolutely necessary for the
Atbenians either to recall the armament, or to send out another, not
inferior in numbers and equipments, and furnished with more money.
He closed by begging to be superseded in the command, on account
ot his ill-health, and as a reward for his past services.

255. It was midwinter when this letter reached the Athenians,
but immediate preparations were made to retrieve their affairs. Eu-
rymedon was sent off with-a small squadron, and money to pay the
soldiers, while all hands at home were busily employed in fitting out
substantial re-enforcements for the spring. As for the request of Nicias,
ther would not listen to it, but they appointed two officers to assist
him in his charge. The intelligence brought by Eurymedon roused
all the energies of Gylippus. He attacked the Athenians by sea, and
was completely victorious; and wrested from them the fort which
protected their naval stores, so that they could receive no supplies
withort making their way through the fleet of Syracuse.

256. B. c, 413.—ArRivaL or DemosTHENEs.—Nicius, almost over-
come with the difficulties of his situation, and the gloom of his pros-
pects, turned his eyes involuntarily towards his native country, when
a sight the most animating and cheering burst upon his view. Sev-
enty-three Athenian galleys, richly decorated, adorned with costly
streamers, and manned with eight hundred men, were steering for the
harbor of Syracuse. As they approached the shore, the sound of
trumpets and the shouts of the sailors made the whole city resound.
The Syracusans, struck with terror, did not attempt to prevent the
disembarkation, The joyful greetings and fresh hopes of the adven-
turers diffused new life through the camp; but Nicias soon began to
tremble at the rash measures which Demosthenes advoeated. He had
private intelligence that many of the Syracusans, tired of the imperious
manner of Gylippus, were making preparations to surrender; but as
he was not at liberty to speak openly upon the subject, he advised the
other commanders to wait a certain time. This, however, only sub-
jected him tu taunts about his timidity, and he was at last forced to
give up his point.

257. Demosthenes put himself at the head of the land forces, and
attacked Epipole* by night. As he came upon the guards by surprise,

* A strong fort upon an eminence overlooking Syracuse.

 

Questions,—155, How was his request answered? What disaster befell the Athenians %
256. What then was their conditiun’ Deseribe the arrival of Demosthenes. How did his
arrival affect the troops of Nicias? What advice did Nivias give? Was bis advice seceptrd *
B.0. 413.] THE SEA-FIGHT. 181

he killed many of them, and routed those who stood upon the defense.
But when he reached the spot where the Beotians were posted, his
men were driven back. As they turned to fly, they encountered
another band of Athenians coming down the hill, who, mistaking them
for enemies, fell upon them. In striving to rally, they repeated their
watchword so often that the enemy learned it, and used it to lead
them astray. At last the rout was complete. Some fell headlong
from the rocks or walls. Some escaped, and wandered through fields
and woods till they were found next day, and cut to pieces by the
enemy’s horse. Thus, at once, were blasted all the hopes which had
sprung up in the hearts of the Athenians upon the arrival of Demos-
thenes.

258. Tue Sea-Fient.—There remained now only the sad alterna-
tives of returning in disgrace to Athens with the remnant of the
splendid armament which sailed from Pireeus under such happy aus-
pices; or of remaining to die of pestilence, famine, or the sword, in
Sicily. Demosthenes advocated the former course; bat Nicias, who
understood the Athenian method of rewarding generals, declared that
‘““he would rather die. by the hands of the enemy than by those of
his fellow-citizens.” Thus the favorable opportunity for escape was

- lost, and the sickly season found the Athenians dispirited and doubt-
ing in their quarters before Syracuse. At last, Nicias, overcome by
the general calamity, gave orders to strike the tents and prepare to
move. With the greatest secrecy and dispateh, every thing was put
in readiness; but just as the troops were on the point of embarking,
the moon was shrouded in an eclipse.

259. This natural phenomenon struck the whole armament with
terror; and Nicias, who, according to the superstition of the times,
had always delayed an enterprise three days after such an event, now,
by advice of his soothsayers, determined to wait nine times three days.
Quitting every other care, he sat still, observing his sacrifices, and
praying for favorable tokens, while the Syracusans shut up the mouth
of the great harbor with galleys anchored firmly with iron chains;
nor would he take any measures for repelling the insults of the enemy,
or effecting a retreat, till the Athenians, with great indignation, called
upon him to lead them off by land. Unwilling, however, to comply with
their demand, he made an effort to break through the encircling fleet.

 

Questions.—257. Give an account of the attack made by Demosthenes, and of its imme-
diate result, 258. What alternatives remained for Nicias? What course did Demosthenes
advocate? Why did not Nicias adopt it then? Why did he afterward change his mind?
What occurred as the troops were about to embark? 259. What was the effect upon the
troops? Upon Nicias? What effort to escape did he at last make?
182 GREECE. [B. 0. 413,

ad

260. Then it was that the great sea-fight began, remarkable not
only for the vigor and bravery of the combatants, but for the agitation
and despair of the spectators. The Syracusans came out on the walls
of their city to behold the sight, and the Athenians thronged the Epi-
nolw to gaze upon the last effort of those gallant seamen who had so
long been accustomed to conquer, and ‘had so reluctantly learned to
bear defeat. After suffering incredibly from repeated attacks, the
Athenian fleet was driven on shore, and the soldiers were so dispirited
that they neither opposed the enemy who were seizing their vessels,
nor demanded theirdead. Escape by sea was now impossible. It was
therefore resolved to move to Catana.

261. Tur Rerrear.—Nothing could be more affecting than the com-
mencement of this retreat. The dead were left unburied, though
thus their souls were condemned to wander in darkness upon the dis-
mal shores of the Styx; the dying, abandoned to wild beasts, with
gloomy presentiment of the same fate, lifted up their last cries in curses
upon their departing countrymen; the wounded dragged themselves
along after the army, entreating assistance ; and such ascene of lamen-
tation and mourning was presented as might have moved even Spar-
tan hearts to pity. The enemy had seized all the difficult passes,
broken down the bridges, and stationed cavalry all along their route,
so that the Athenians could not move one step without fighting.

262. Nicias, though oppressed with sickness and worn out with
privations, did all in his power to cheer and enconrage his men; but
when they remembered his well-grounded objections to the war, and
saw that so religious a man as he had no better fortune than the most
profligate soldier in the army, even their trust in heaven abandoned
them, and nothing but tears and sad presages were seen and heard on
every side. During a march of eight days, though attacked and har-
assed by the enemy all the way, Nicias preserved his division tolera-
bly entire; but the remainder of the army under Demosthenes, having
lost their way in the night, were surrounded and taken captive.

263. The next day, Nicias and his band were overtaken at the ford
of the river Asinarus. The most terrible havoc was made in the ranks
of the Athenians; and finally Nicias, to stop the slaughter, surren-
dered on the single condition that Gylippus should spare his men
yet even then the number of the saved was greatly inferior to the
number of the slain. When the Syracnsans had collected all the

Questions. —200. Give an account of the sea-hght. What then was impossible? What
resolution was consequently made? 261,262. Give an account of the retreat, OF the con-

dition of the Athemans, Disaster to Demosthenes, 263, Give an account of the next day’s
eceurrences, Where is Syracuse’ (Map No. 4)
Bo. 413.] EVIL TIDINGS IN ATHENS. 183

prisoners they could find into one body, they dressed up some of the
tallest and straightest trees by the river with the arms they had
taken from them, which they left as trophies of the most complete
victory ever gained on their island. Then, having shorn the horses of
the Atheuians, and ornamented their own in the most splendid manner,
they marched home with garlands on their heads, and were welcomed
to their city with every demonstration of joy.

264. It would have been a singular triumph for Gylippus to have
carried Nicias and Demosthenes prisoners to Sparta, but the jealous
and cruel temper of the Syracusans deprived him of this glory. A
decree was passed that the generals should be put to death; and they
were accordingly scourged with rods, and then stoned. The miserable
remnants of their once flourishing army were reserved for a still
severer fate. A vast quarry, whence stone had been taken for build-
ing the city, was judged the safest place of confinement for such a
number of skillful warriors. Food was given in quantities barely suffi-
cient to support life; no shelter was afforded from the inclemency of
the weather; and Thueydides summed up their miseries by saying,
“That no suffering could possibly result from so wretched a situation,
which was not experienced by the Athenian prisoners.” A few of
them, who were sold as slaves to individuals, gained their liberty by
repeating passages from the tragedies of Euripides, and lived to thank
their benefactor in Athens for the obligations they owed to his pen.

265. Tne Srory tTotp in AtuEens.—Rumor carried the news of
this total shipwreck of their power and glory to the Athenians, long
before an official notice of it could reach them. The first man who
disseminated the evil tidings, however, being only a poor barber, was
subjected to the torture, till the whole city was thrown into agony by
the confirmation of the report. How changed was the morning
which rose upon Athens, destitute of horse, foot, money, ships, or
mariners, from that morning when the Pireeus was crowded with a
gallant fleet, departing as was supposed to certain conquest! Then the
excited multitude, with hearts full of hope, stood gazing upon the joy-
ous flutter of gay streamers and waving pennons; now, bereaved and
desponding, they looked wistfully across the sea, as if expecting, yet
dreading to behold, Gylippus with his victorious fleet approaching to
commence the siege of their city.

266. But amidst the general gloom they were not idle. As day

 

Questions.—263, Give an acconnt of the proceedings of the Syracusans. 264. What would
have been asingular triumph to Gylippus? Why were they not carried there? What
was their fate? Of their army? Tow did a few escape? 263. How were the evil tidinga
received in Greeve? What comparison was made?
>

184 GREECE. [B. 0. 412

wore on after day, and no enemy appeared, they began to take cou-
rage. They levied money for building new ships and raising fresh
troops; they retrenched all superfisous expenses ; and, to avoid the
embarrassment of factions, established a council of old men to examine
every matter before it was brought before the people. Meanwhile,
the attention of all Greece was excited, and the politics of every
republic put in motion, by the blow Athens had received in Sicily.
Those who had yielded her an unwilling homage now prepared to
revolt; those who feared the vengeance of Sparta were impelled tu
do the same; her friends became cold; her enemies impudent; and,
bleeding as she was from the loss of those members of the common-
wealth which were her eyes to see, and hands to execute, she felt
that this severe rebuke was but ‘the beginning of sorrows.”

267. The Lacedemonians, encouraged by the success of Gylippus,
also undertook the building of a fleet; and thus, at the close of the
nineteenth year of the war, preparations were making on both sides,
as if hostilities were just then commenced. The people of Chios, Les-
bos, and Cyzicnm sent to treat with the Spartans about leaving the
Athenians to join the Peloponnesian confederacy; Alcibiades had
gone to Asia Minor some time before, and was now forming a treaty
with Tissaphernes, satrap of Sardis, for furnishing the Spartans with
money and ships; and Pharnabazus, satrap of Bithynia, was also anx-
jous to gain the friendship of Athens’s enemies.

268. Before, however, the Spartans formed all these alliances, they
held a congress of the confederates. There they concluded to hanl
their ships, which were in the Corinthian Gulf, across the isthmus;
to man them in the Saronic Gulf, and send them to Chios and Lesbos
with the articles of treaty, and dispatch them thence to the Hellespont
to act with Pharnabazus. This purpose was so far carried into execu-
tion, that twenty-one triremes had been dragged over the isthmus
with great labor and difficulty, and prepared for departure; but it
happened that some Athenians, who were there attending the Isth-
mian games, penetrated the design, and returned home with the start-
ling intelligence. A company of adventurers immediately set out
from the Pirwus and attacked the little fleet; killed the admiral, and
compelled the crews to draw the ships again upon shore.

269. Measures or AtorpiapEs.—This event occasioned great alarm

 

Questions,—266, What preparations did the Athenians again make? What effect did the
misfortunes of the Athenians have in Greece? 267, What preparations did the Lacedemo-
nians make? What help came to the Spartans? What was Alcibiades about? 268. What
purpose did the Spartans form in relation to their ships? How far was it exceuted? How
was it foiled? Where was the Saronic Gulf? (See Map No. 2.) :
Bo.41L] INTRIGUES OF ALCIBIADES. “° 185

at Corinth, the Spartans too were discouraged, and determined not to
engage in any enterprise on the other side of the Egean. Thus the
whole matter would have fallen through, had not Alcibiades under-
taken the affair. Ile sailed from Miletus to Chios, confirmed the
revolt, and brought the Chians into the Lacedemonian confederacy.
But the glory of Alcibiades was already on the wane: Agis, the Spar-
tan king, hated him for his private vices; among the confederates many
envied him; all feared him, and but few loved him. In his transac-
tions with Tissaphernes, he managed to gain favor for himself, rather
than for the people who sent him to ask it; and now, examining the
doubtful and dangerous position which he occupied, he determined by
a master stroke of policy ‘‘to restore himself to his country, before
that country was reduced so low as to be not worth returning to.”

270. Yet, urgent as were his reasons for a reconciliation, he still
feared the giddy multitude by whom he had been condemned. Fully
convinced that he could never rule in the hearts of the people, as
Pericles bad done, he set about changing the government of Athens
from a democracy to an oligarchy, with his characteristic zeal. Hav-
ing strengthened his interest with the satrap by the most subtle flat-
tery, he managed to communicate with the commanders of the Athe-
nian fleet at Samos, signifying to them his power to bring Tissaphernes
into their interest, and through him to lead Darius himself into their
alliance. But this he would not do, unless the power were taken
from the J/any and given to the Few. The generals of the army,
being in reality the leading men in the commonwealth, immediately
sent a messenger to the nobility at Athens, with a request that they
would assume the government, and deprive the people of the power
they had hitherto enjoyed.

271. The nobility joyfully set about the performance of a work so
congenial to their feelings; nevertheless, up to the last hour of the
DEMOcRAOY, every thing was conducted in a truly democratic manner.
A general assembly was summoned. <A resolution was passed, per-
mitting any one to make any proposal without fear. Then it was
decided that a new council should be formed, having full power to
administer public affairs. This council ‘consisted of four hundred
members, but, to amuse the people, it was added, that they would call
in the aid of five thousand citizens in cases of emergency. Thus the

 

Questions.—269. What did Alcibiades then do? Where was Miletus? (See map No. 2.)
Crios? (Same map.) Why was Alcibiades losing favor with the Spartans? Upon what
aid he consequently determine? 270. What did he fear among the Athenians? Why did
he wish the government changed? What communication did he send? 271. By what pro-
teas was the government changed?
186 GREECE. [p. c. 412

people of Athens voted away their beloved democracy, after having
enjoyed it about one hundred years after the banishment of the
Pisistratide.

272. Toe Tyranny or tae Four Hunpren.—When the assembly
broke up, the Four Hundred, vested with their new powers, and fol-
lowed by one hundred and twenty young men, who acted as attend-
ants or assassins, as the case might require, entered the senate-house,
paid the council of Five Hundred the arrears in their salaries, and
commanded them instantly to retire; an order which they prudently
obeyed. Having now all power in their hands, they put to death
those who disputed their authority; and feeling fully competent to
order affairs in the best possible manner, they determined not to recall
Alcibiades, lest he might interfere in some of their plans. Anxious,
however, to secnre the favor of the army at Samos, they sent out ten
commissioners to explain their measures, and soothe the feelings of the
soldiers. This the pacificators found no easy task; there was no dis-
guising the facts in the case; the people were deprived of power, and
Athens was ruled by four hundred tyrants! The soldiers sent imme-
diately for Alcibiades, and, having appointed him their geweral, begged
him to sail at once for Athens, and destroy the enslavers of their
country.

273. This measure, which would have saved Sparta any further
trouble with Athens, Alcibiades prevented; using arguments and
entreaties with some, and force with others. The’ commissioners
were, however, sent back with a message from himself, requiring the
immediate abolition of the self-constituted council, and the restoration
of the senate. When the commissioners delivered their message, and
reported the state of things in Samos, the Four Hundred determined
to submit to Sparta rather than fall into the hands of their infuriated
brethren, They opened negotiations for this purpose; but before they
were able to effect any thing, the people rose against them, and they
were glad to escape with their lives. Alcibiades was then earnestly
solicited to make all possible haste to the relief of Athens; but, proud
as he was, he wished to return under happier auspices than from a
mutinying army toa seditious city. Parting, therefore, from Samos
with a few ships, he cruised along the Egean, in search of some adven-
ture which should enable him to strike a blow for his country.

274. Had the Spartans been on the alert during these times of tral,

 

Questions.—272, What is stated of the tyranny of the Four Hundred? What action did
the suldiers take? 273. What course did Alcibiades then pursue? What became of the
Four Hundred? Why di not Alcibiades then go to the relicf of Athens ?
Bo4icf  ALCIBIADES IN THE FLEET. 187

they might have conquered Attica while the people were hesitating
between the orders received from the Athenian commonwealth at
Samos, and the Athenian commonwealth at Athens; but, with tl eir
usual tardiness, they lost the time in embarrassing negotiations with
the vacillating Tissaphernes. The false satrap was seeking to play off
the Athenians against the Spartans, by keeping them in perpetual hos-
tility; so that soon after he promised Alcibiades to make an alliance
with the Athenians, he engaged to pay the Lacedemonians for protect
ing the coasts of the Egean.

275. Barrie or Aprpes.—Myndarus, the Spartan admiral, having
intelligence froin Pharnabazus that the Athenians were in his neigh-
borhood, directed his course that way; and Alcibiades, hearing of the
intended fight, followed. The two fleets met near Abydos, and a bat-
tle ensued which lasted till night, without decisive advantage to either
side, when several foreign galleys were seen approaching. The Spar-
tans, recognizing Alcibiades, felt sure of timely assistance; but when
they saw the Athenian flag hung out, and perceived that he bore down
upon them with hostile intentions, they thought only of making good
their retreat. The Athenians having, by the assistance of Alcibiades,
captured thirty galleys, and recovered their own, erected a trophy.

276. Tue Visir.—After this glorious success, Alcibiades prepared
presents, and went to wait upon Tissaphernes with a princely train.
The treacherous satrap, however, to throw the balance again upon the
side of the Spartans, seized him, and sent him prisoner to Sardis.
From this place he contrived to escape to Clazomena, and, finding six
ships there, embarked immediately and sailed for the Hellespont.
The troops received him with joy; and learning that Myndarus and
Pharnabazus were together at Cyzicus, he convinced his men that it
was necessary to pursue them, and strike a decisive blow. Had the
Spartans known the number of his fleet, they would not have ventured
a battle; but Alcibiades, coming up in a tremendous storm of rain,
showed only a part of his ships, and when they were engaged poured
in the others, till the Spartans were completely routed. Pharnabazus
fled; Myndarus was slain; and the Athenians took every ship of the
squadron (B. c. 410).

277. The soldiers were rewarded with an abundance of spoil; Cyzi-
cus surrendered, and the Athenians not only secured the Hellespont,

 

Questions —274, What opportunity did the Spartans lose? Which side did Tissaphernes
take? 275. Who decided the battle of Abydos? Give an account of the battle. Where was
Abydos? (See map No. 2.) 276. Of what treachery was Tissaphernes guilty? How wag
Alcibiades fortunate? Give an acconnt of the battle that took place. Where was C;zicus ?
(See map No. 2.) .Clazomene? (Same map.)
eee 1B. C. 408,
188 GREECR.

but entirely cleared the sea of Lacedemonians. A — also
intercepted, which, in the Laconic style, bi to ge © Mphori an
account of the condition of the Spartans. ‘‘ Our glory is faded. Myn-
darns is slain. Our soldiers are starving ; and we know not what step
to take.” Success began to bring back the “ summer friends” of the
Athenians. When the islands saw the whole fleet of the Peloponnesus
annihilated at a blow, and knew that Alcibiades stood at the helm of
state, they began to -think the commonwealth would outride the
storm; they talked no more of revolt, or of alliance with Sparta, but
furnished regularly and cheerfully their stipulated quota of money,
inen, and ships.

278. Alcibiades, understanding the embarrassments arising from an
exhausted treasury, determined to bring the towns of Chalcedon and
Byzantium (which commanded the lucrative trade of the Enuxine)
again under Athenian jurisdiction. Thus fortified, he might treat
with Pharnabazus, awe Tissaphernes, stop the Spartan supplies from
Persia, and establish the superiority of Athens beyond question. It
was a comprehensive and feasible plan, but it came too late. The
sun of Athens was already in its evening declination, and the dark
clouds of faction were gathering like a pall around her glory. Alci-
biades, combining in himself the address of Themistucles and the
talents of Pericles, prolonged, for a little, her brief day ; but perished
himself in the ruin of his native city.

279. In the twenty-fourth year of the war, he led ‘his whole force
to the siege of Chaleedon. Te inelosed it with a wall which reached
from sea to sea, The Lacedemonian commander of the sarrison sent
to Pharnabazus for assistance, but that prince began to grow tired of
an alliance which brought frequent battles and no victories, and made
constant demands upon his purse, without bringing him in either do-
minion or glory. He therefore sent proposals of accommodation to
the Athenians, and a treaty was finally concluded in the following
atts “That Pharnabazus should Pay $20,000 for the ransom of

halcedon ; that all arrears should be paid up, and the Chalcedonians
aes tribute to Athens as formerly ; and that Pharnabazus should con-
uct embassadors to the king from the Athenians.” On thesa-éondiz
tions the siege of Chaleedon wag raised. P

harnabazus, thus secure in
Questions.—277. What is s:

aidof the intercepted lett fFe' ids
a ee ieee T cr? What effect dia success have ?

were formerly, as now, raised upon the "sof
stuifs was regulated by these ports, Where were th
js the present name of Byzantium ? Ans, Constanti
termine upon? 279. Give an account of his success

oumerce in bread-
two ports? (see map No. 2.) What
nople. What plan aq Alcibiades de-
“8 regards Chalcedon,
B. c. 408.] ALCIBIADES IN ATIENS. 189

his own satrapy, left Alcibiades at liberty to proceed with the siege
of Byzantium.

280. B. 0. 408.—Caprrure or Byzantium, AND Rerorn or Atcrnt-
ADES.—This place he undertook to reduce by drawing a line of circum-
vallation about it. But the Byzantines, warned by the fate of Chal-
cedon, made overtures to him, which he accepted. A gate was in
consequence opened to his troops in the night, and after a sharp
struggle with the Spartan garrison the place was taken, and the flag
of Athens once more commanded the Bosphorus. The services which
Alcibiades had thus rendered his country were perhaps greater than
any Greek had ever before performed. When he first joined the fleet
at Samos, Athens commanded little more territory than her walls
inclosed; she had no’revenue; no regular pay for soldiers; and they
were consequently dispirited and mutinous. Under his auspices, ber
dominion had been restored; her fleet again rode triurmphant over the
seas; and the allies again proudly ranged themselves under her ban-
ners.

281. His heart now yearned after his native country. He sighed
to be the acknowledged benefactor of Athens; to walk from the
Pirzeus to the city saved by his efforts, with a prouder step than when
he quitted it eight years before, the commander of the Sicilian expedi-
tion. He longed to stand upon the bema, and sway the most enlight-
ened audience in the world by the breath of his eloquence ; and to hear
his praises shouted by the voices which had been loadest to condemn
him unheard, as the multilator of the Herma. Having settled affairs
in Byzantium as rapidly as possible, he led the armament to Samos,
There, selecting twenty ships of his convoy, he sent the others on to
Athens, following himself at a distance, agitated alternately with
hopes and fears as to-the receptiom he should meet.

282. He cruised along the coast of Laconia. until informed by his
friends that he had been elected general of the commonwealth, with
two colleagues, when he sailed directly for Attica. Having covered
his galleys with bucklers and spoils of all sorts, in the manner of
trophies, and made an imposing display of ships, with their arms and
ensigns, he entered the harbor of Pirejus. When his approach was
announced, a vast crowd assembled about* the port, each vying with
the other in extolling the merits of Alcibiades, praising his abilities,

 

Questions.—230, Give an account of his success as regards Byzantium, What is stated
of the services of Alcibiades to Athens? What were those services? 281. What was the
great desire of Alcibiades? For what did he sigh and long? What arrangements did he
make to return to Athens? 282. When did he sail for Attica? Give an aecount of the re-
ception be met with.
190 GREECE. |B. 0. 407.

his liberality, and his patriotism. A few, indeed, ventured to whisper
that he had been the cause of all their misfortunes, by advising the
Sicilian expedition, and concerting plans for the Spartans; but their
voices were drowned in the acclamations of the multitude.

283. His friends gathered round him as he leaped on shore; such as
could approach him, crowned him with garlands; while those who
could not get near for the crowd, viewed him from a distance, shed-
ding tears of joy. The greetings being over, he proceeded to the city,
and went into the assembly of the people, where he very modestly
complained of their treatment, and excusingly ascribed it to the
influence of some envious demon. He then opened before them the
hopes and designs he had formed, and they were so much pleased with
his harangue that they crowned him with crowns of gold, and gave
him the absolute command of their forces. Thus armed with autho-
rity and established in favor, he proceeded to direct the enrollment of
fresh troops, and the equipment of a fleet, with which he proposed
again to cross the Egean.

284. Lysanper’s Poricy.—Meanwhile Pharnabazus, with the Athe-
nian embassadors whom he had undertaken to conduct to Susa, was
met in Phrygia by Cyrus,* who had come into the western provinces
clothed with royal authority. The young prince had, however, been
commanded by his father to assist the Spartans, and the Athenians
were consequently repulsed. A general now entered the arena fully
equal in dissimulation and intrigue to Alcibiades. This was Lysander,
the Spartan admiral, who, though educated in the laws of Lycurgus,
and accustomed to the heavy sound of iron money all his life, under-
stood at once the superior weight of gold and silver. He had been
sent out in the winter, to take command of the army in Asia Minor;
and, collecting the scattered forces of Lacedemon at Ephesus, had
diligently employed the time in building ships and furnishing a fleet.

285. As soon as he heard that Cyrus had arrived at Sardis, he has-
tened to pay his court to him, and to acquaint him with the conduct
of Tissaphernes. Cyrus was very glad to hear the satrap accused,
because he knew him to be his enemy; and as Lysander conformed to
all his requests, and flattered him continually, he soon granted him
whatever he desired. When the crafty Lacedemonian was about to
take his leave, Cyrus provided a grand entertainment for him, and
after drinking to him according to the Persian manner, inquired,

* Brother of Artaxerxes. See article “Cyrus Revolts,” in Persia.

 

Questions.—283. Of the occurrences in the assembly of the people. 284. What is said of
Cyrus? Of Lysander? 285. What did Lysander accomplish at Sardis?
Bo. 407] FALL OF ALCIBIADES. 191

‘““What can I do for you that will give you the most satisfaction?”
Lysander replied, ‘ Nothing would gratify me so much as the addition
of a single obolus* to the seamen’s daily wages.”

286. Cyrus was so pleased with this answer, that he made him a
present of ten thousand pieces of gold. Lysander employed the
money to increase the wages of his men, a measure which worked
like magic upon the two fleets. There were, both among the Lacede-
monians and Athenians, multitudes of Beotians, Phocians, Argives,
Arcadians, and others, who cared neither for the right or the wrong
of the matter, but attached themselves to the side which offered the
best pay. The gold of Persia decided them in favor of the Lacedemo-
nians; so that this stroke of policy almost unmanned the Athenian
galleys.

287. Tuz Farat Sxrrmisn.—The news of the alliance between
Cyrus and Lysander had not reached Athens when Alcibiades, in the
third month after his return, sailed again for the theater of war. He
stopped first at Andros, which had revolted. He was in part success-
ful, but seeing that the walls of the principal city were strong enough
to sustain a lung siege, he erected a trophy, and proceeded to Samos.
Disappointed in his expectations of gaining the favor of Cyrus, he did
not yet yield to despair. He anchored his fleet at a convenient dis-
tance from Ephesus, and left it there in charge of Antiochus, the pilot,
giving him strict orders not to engage with the Spartans, while he
went to the Hellespont to raise supplies. Antiochus disobeyed this
command, went out, and by insulting Janguage provoked Lysander to
an engagement, was defeated, and slain. Fifteen Athenian ships were
taken; the remainder escaped to Samos. When Alcibiades heard of
what had been done, he hastened back, and, drawing out his whole
force, offered battle; but Lysander refused to engage, and the Athe-
nians were compelled to bear the disgrace.

288. Tue Fatt or Atrocrsrapes.—The people of Athens bore the
intelligence that Andros had been abandoned very well; for they
expected to hear that Chios and Ionia were conquered; but when the
report came that their fleet had fled before an inferior force, and that
an alliance had been consummated between Lacedemon and Persia, all
Athens was in an uproar. They lad thought Alcibiades invincible,

* About two cents,

 

Questions.—285. What inquiry did Cyrus make? 286, What response was made to the
request? How was the money used? 287. Where was Andrus? (See map No. 2.) Ephe-
sus? (Same map.) What was done by Alcibiades at Andros? ‘To what place did he next
proceed? Give an account of the skirmish there. Of Lysander’s offer. 288. What news
reached Athens?
192 GREECE. [B. c. 406,

and their first feeling upon discovering their mistake was one of indig-
nation and distrust. They suspected that it was not from want of
ability, but from lack of inclination, that he had not fulfilled his pro-
mises; and, excited by the startling dangers that lay before them,
urged on by artful and interested orators, without waiting to under-
stand the facts in the ease, they proceeded to pass the fatal decree
which sealed the ruin of Athens.

289. Alcibiades and his associate, Thrasybulus, the two persons
who, by experience and the gifts of nature, were beyond all others
the best qualified to save the commonwealth, were dismissed from
their employments. Ten generals were appointed in their room, of
whom Conon was chief. Thrasybnlus remained with the fleet, but
Alcibiades retired to his estate in Chersonesus.

290. z. 0. 406.—Batrre or Arcinrs.x.—At the time of his appoint-.
ment, Conon was employed in the siege of Andros. A decree of the
people directed him to go immediately, with the twenty ships under
his orders, and take command of the fleet at Samos. It was already
late in the year, and on his arrival he found a general dejection per-
vading the army. Tis first measure was precisely that for which
Alcibiades had been condemned. He selected seventy triremes, and
sent them out in various directions, to collect revenue from such
islands and towns as had not already revolted.

291. The term of Lysander’s command having expired, he was
superseded by Callicratidas, his equal in courage, but not in cunning.
There was too much of the true Spartan in him to stand all day about
the doors of Cyrus, waiting till he had done drinking, and was ready
to admit strangers; so, after being laughed at by the porters as an
ignorant rustic, he went back without any money to pay his soldiers.
However, he took one of the principal towns of Lesbos by storm, and
having pursued Conon into the harbor of Mitylene, captured thirty of
his ships, and besieged him there. Then, hearing that the other gene-
rals were returning, and making all sail for the relief of Mitylene, he
advanced to meet them over against Arginuse. Tis pilot advised him
to retreat, because the Athenians had the greater number of ships;
but he replied, ‘“‘ My death would be a small loss to Sparta; my flight
would be a disgrace.”

 

Questions,—238. Tow did it affect the Athenians? Why did they pass the fatal deeree?
289. What was the fatal decree? What appointments were made instead? 290. Where was
Samos? In what direction from Andros? (See map No.2.) To what place did Conon
sail? What was his first measure? 291, Why was Lysander superseded in command?
Who was his successor? What did Callicratidas accomplish at Mitylene? What advice
did his pilot give? How did he reply? Where was Lesbos? Mitylene? (Map No. 2.)
3¢.405.] BATTLE OF GOS POTAMOS. 193

292. The hostile fleets met, and a bloody action ensued. Callicra-
tidas, in attempting to break the Athenian line, was precipitated into
the sea, and drowned. The Spartans soon after fled. The Athenian
generals brought up their galleys alongside of each other, and held a
council of war. It was decided to leave Theramenes with forty ships,
to collect the dead for burial and the wounded from the wrecks;
while they proceeded, as was first intended, to liberate Conon. But
neither of these plans was carried into effect. A violent storm came
on, which compelled all to seek shelter, and thus the unfortunate
crews of the disabled ships were left to perish.

293. Rewarp oF THE Vicrors or Arcinusz.—This sudden turn
of affairs might have retrieved the fallen fortunes of Athens, had she
not been equally incapable of bearing defeat with fortitude, or success
with composure. Hence this splendid victory was followed by one
of the most extraordinary, most disgraceful, and most fatal strokes of
faction recorded in history. Of the eight generals who commanded
at Arginuse, six went home, dreaming, perhaps, of garlands and
crowns which the grateful populace would bestow upon them; but
scarcely had they arrived, when they were taken into safe custody till
they could give an account of their transactions. When the assembly
of the people met, Theramenes came forward and accused the prison-
ers of neglecting to save the lives of the wounded, after the battle.

294. The gencrals were scarcely permitted to speak a word in their
own defense. They were hurried through a mockery of a trial, and
condemned to death. Socrates, who was that day the presiding offi-
cer of the Senate of Five Hundred, unintimidated by the clamors of
the people, inveighed against the sentence, as illegal and unjust; the
voice of the majority, however, prevailed, and they were led off to
execution! Many followed them with tears to the place of death,
and felt in that melancholy hour the weight of guilt which had fallen
upon their country.

295. Battie of “Ecos Potamos.—The Spartans, ignorant of the
steps Athens had thus taken to accelerate her own downfall, were
greatly troubled by the defeat at Arginuss, and the death of Callicra-
tidas. There was not aman that could relieve their embarrassments
like Lysander; and the law forbade his re-election to the same office.
To evade this regulation, they sent out another admiral, with Lysander
for lieutenant. On reaching his station, Lysander immediately waited

 

Questions.—292. Give an account of the battle of Arginuse. What did the Athenian
generals then do? 293, 294. How were the victors rewarded? Who tried to save them?
295. Ilow did the Spartans evade a certain regulation? What measures did Lysander
promptly take? Where wus the battle of Arginuse fought? (Map No. 2.)

9

 
194 GREECE. IB. €. 465

upon Cyrus and obtained supplies, which enabled him to pay up all
arrears, and proceed with his arrangements for opening the campaign
in the spring, with a fleet equal to that of Athens. Soon after the
vernal equinox he moved from Ephesus to Abydos, and thence to
Lampsacus,* where he anchored his fleet.

296. Conon, hearing that Lysander had gone to the Hellespont,
pursued him with all speed, trembling for the important cities in that
region, He stopped at Sestos for refreshment, and that night landed
at Egos Potamos, or Goat’s River. As the strait there was only about
two miles wide, the arrival of the Athenians was instantly known to
Lysander, and he took his measures accordingly. By daybreak next
morning his galleys were ranged in order of battle. The Athenians,
equally prompt, rowed out to meet them; but the Lacedemonians
rested upon their oars, and gazed upon them in stern silence. These
movements were repeated three days in succession.

297. From the top of his castle Alcibiades could see the maneu
vers of the two fleets, and he was shrewd enough to guess at the pur-
pose of Lysander. In the hour of her danger, his love for his country
revived; and though at the peril of his life, he went to the Athenian
camp and told the commanders, that, as Egos Potamos contained no
harbor, and they were obliged to go every day two miles to market,
it would be better to move the fleet down to Sestos, and await the
attack of Lysander there. This advice, so politic and so seasonable,
was treated with contempt; and one of the generals was so insolent
as to bid him begone, for that they, and not he, were now to give
orders. Alcibiades told his friends who conducted him out of the
camp, that if he had not been insulted by the generals he would have
soon brought the Lacedemonians to battle by attacking them with his
Thracian archers,

298. It was not long before the wisdom of his counsels was seen,
for on the fifth day Lysander moved across the strait with his whole
ficet. Conon alone, of all the Athenian generals, was in any state of
preparation. When he saw the enemy in motion, he sounded the call
to arms; but the soldiers and seamen were too far away to hear it,
and the Peloponnesians were upon them before they were ready for
action. Conon’s trireme, with seven others of his division, and the

* A city on the southern shore of the Hellespont, where Themistocles died.

 

Questions.—296. What purauit took place? Where did Conon make a landing? Give an
account of the events of the three days. 297. By what act did Alcibiades manifest his love
for his country? How was his advice treated? 298. Give an account of the battle of LEg03
Potamus? What did Conon do after the battle? Where was 4igos Potamos? (Map No. 2.)
ac.405] CONSTERNATION AT ATHENS. 195

sacred ship Paralus, having their crews aboard, put off from the shore.
All the rest were seized at anchor. Finding he could effect nothing,
Conon fled while the enemy were intent upon the capture, and, having
cleared the mouth of the Hellespont, hoisted all sail. Afraid to go
home with the evil tidings, he sent an account of the affair by the
Paralus, and directed his course to Cyprus, where Evagoras kindly
received him.

299. ConsEQUENCES oF THE Battie or Aicos Poramos.—Lysander,
having taken possession of the Athenian ships to the number of one

‘hundred and seventy, began the pursuit of the scattered troops. The
greater part of them, together with all the generals, were made prison-
ers. They were carried to Lampsacus, where a council of war decided
that every Athenian citizen among them should be put to death; and
Lysander commenced the work by slaying one of the commanders
with his own hand. The Athenian marine being thus entirely de-
stroyed, Lysander had only to sail around the Egean, and take posses-
sion of the islands and towns upon the coast. As soon as he appeared
in the strait between Byzantium and Chalvedon, messengers came to
him from those places with terms of surrender. He sent every Athe-
nian directly home, that the city, having many mouths to feed, might
be the sooner reduced by famine.

300. The Paralus, meantime, protected by its sacred character, had
reached its destination, with that intelligence which no other ship had
dared to convey. In the words of another, ‘‘ Alarm and lamentation,
beginning immediately about the harbor, were rapidly communicated
through the town of Pirus, and then, passing from mouth to mouth
by the long walls up to the city, the consternation became universal,
and that night no person slept in Athens.” Grief for the numerous
slain, the flower of Athenian youth, among whom every one had some
relative or friend, was not all. They feared for themselves; they had
abused the day of power, and they trembled at the approach of the
day of retribution. Athens was not yet without men capable of guid-
ing her through any ordinary difficulty, but she was now in a strait
from which there was no egress.

301. On one side howled the waves of faction, decreeing death to
the propeser of an unsuccessful measure; on the other frowned the
power of Lacedemon, stern and immovable as the pillars of Hercules.
None knew what course to take; the orators dared not adyise; the

 

Questions.—299. What became of the captured Athenians? What then did Lysander
do? 800. Whut news did the Paralus take to Attica? How did the news affect the Athe-
nians? 301. What strait was Athens then in?
196 GREECE. [B. o. 404.

democracy dared not decree; the aristocracy dared not command.
To raise another fleet would be impossible; to venture a battle with
the Spartans by land would be madness; and, exhausted by the efforts
of despair, all ranks sullenly prepared to sustain a siege, both by sea
and land. Lysander, having cruised leisurely along the Hellespont,
and received the submission of the cities, sent off a part of his fleet to
secure the islands, and dispatched a messenger to the Spartans, telling
them that he was ready to sail to the Pireus with two hundred
triremes.

302. Srece or Atuens.—No sooner was this intelligence received,
than the Peloponnesians summoned their allies to assist in putting a
final period to a war, which had lasted, with little intermission,
twenty-six years. All the states except Argos sent out their troops;
the whole force of Laconia was mustered for the important occasion.
Effecting a union upon the borders of Attica, they marched fearlessly
up to the walls of Athens, and fixed their head-quarters in ‘t Acade-
mus’s sacred shade.”? Lysander arrived at the appointed time, and
cast anchor in the harbor, and thus all supplies were cut off from the
devoted city. No assault was attempted; famine did its work with
fearful certainty; and the Lacedemonians looked on with perfect com-
posure while their long-hated rival wasted away.

303. Yet it was not till many had died of hunger that any even
proposed to capitulate; and then it was three long and weary months
before the terms were fixed upon. The Corinthian and Theban allies,
indeed, contended that no terms should be granted; they said that the
people ought to be sold into slavery, and the site of the city made a
sheep-walk, like the Cirrhean plain. The Spartans, more merciful,
settled the following conditions: ‘‘That all ships of war should be sur-
rendered, except twelve; that the long walls and the fortifications of
the Pirsus should be destroyed; that all the exiles should be restored
to the rights of the city; that the Athenians should hold for friends
or enemies all other people, as they were friends or enemies of Lace-
demon; and that the Athenian forces should go wherever Lacedemon
might command, by land or sea.”

304. When these proposals were received, food had become so
scarce that it was impossible to hold out many days; yet it was not
without much debate that the vote was gained to accept the condi-
tions. The Spartan king, Agis, and Lysander, with their troops, then

 

Questions.—301, What movements did Lysander make? 3802. How long had the war
lasted? What united efforts were made to bring it to a cluse? How was Athens pro-
cecded against? 808. What conditions were the Athenians finally compelied tu submit to?
B. 0. 404.] THE THIRTY TYRANTS. 197

began the demolition of those walls which had so long made Athens
impregnable. A band of musicians was employed, to animate them in
the work of destruction by the sound of their instraments; while the
confederates, crowned with flowers, danced for joy, and hailed the
day as the first of their liberty.

305.—z. 0. 404-—The Spartans next proceeded to give laws to
Athens. Notices were sent to the exiles and fugitives to return and
take possession of their estates. The assembly of the people was
abolished, and the supreme authority committed to a council of thirty,
among whom was that Theramenes who prucured the death of the six
generals. Affairs being thus settled, Agis led away his forces, and
Lysander sailed to Samos, conquered the island, and banished all who
resisted his power. Having secured the Egean, he dismissed the ships
of the allies, and, with his Lacedemonian squadron, returned hoine.
“So ended the Peloponnesian war, in its twenty-seventh year; and so
Lacedemon, now in alliance with Persia, became again the leading
power of Greece; and the aristocracy triumphed over the democracy
in almost every commonwealth of the nation.”

306. Tur Tarrery Tyrants.—Though the Spartans would not, as
they said, ‘‘be guilty of putting out one of the eyes of Greece,” by the
entire destruction of Athens, yet, wishing to destroy entirely her poli-
tical importance, they chose men for her tyrants who had nothing to
recommend them but a hatred of democracy. These men, instead of
giving to the republic a more perfect body of laws, merely chose 3,000
citizens to confirm their decrees, and help thein bear the odium which
repeated executions brought upon them. The chairman of the Thirty
was Oritias, a man who, having been banished, had resided for some
time at Sparta, where he published a treatise upon the institutions
and laws of that country, which probably recommended him to Lysan-
der. This man determined to be lord of Athens. The others became
passive subjects of his will; the 3,000 sanctioned his acts; and the
whole city was soon filled with fines, imprisonments, confiscations, and
executions.

307. Fearing, however, the revenge their tyranny was calculated to
excite, the Thirty obtained a guard from Sparta, and by their assist-
ance put to death all who opposed them. But though Athens was
thas fallen and enslaved, she still retained the empire of mind. Su-

Questions.—304, 305. How were the conditions carried out? What then did Agis and
Lysander do? In what year did the war close? By what name is the war known? What
position did Lacedemon then hold? What is said of the aristocracy? 806. What is said of
the Thirty Tyrauts? Of Critias? 307. What fears had the Zhirty # Mow did they quiet
their fears? What did Athens still rctuin? j

 
198 GREECE. [B. c. 404

erates, Xenophon, and Plato still resided within her dismantled walls;
Alcibiades, Thrasybulus, a1d Conon, though in exile, possessed such
abilities as few men could boast; and amid all their misery, the people
flattered themselves that while they lived Athens could not be wholly
undone. Their hopes were disappointed in Alcibiades, but more than
realized in Thrasybulus and Conon.

308. The Tyrants also feared Alcibiades, and sought his ruin. When
une Lacedemonians gained the empire of the sea, he left his home in
the Chersonesus ard tock refuge in Bitbynia; intending, like Themis-
tocles, to visit the Persian court, and gain that protection from a
foreign power which his own country could not afford him. He was
residing in a small village in Phrygia when Lysander, having received
ascytale from Sparta to get Alcibiades dispatched, sent to desire Phar-
nabazus to put the decree in force. The persons intrusted with the
execution of this dastardly order surrounded the house of the illus-
trious Athenian, and set it on fire. Alcibiades forced his way through
the flames and drove back the barbarians, who, retreating to a dis-
tance, overwhelmed him with a shower of darts and stones. He sunk
down under a multitude of wounds, and expired. Timandra, his mis-
tress, took up his body, dressed it in the finest robes she had, and per-
formed over it those ceremonies necessary to secure the soul an
entrance into the kingdom of Pluto.

309. Successful so far, the Thirty proceeded to still greater lengths
in wickedness. To support their riotous expenses, and pay their Spar-
tan guard, they concluded to select every one his man; accuse him of
some crime; cause him to be put to death; and seize upon his estate.
Theramenes was struck with horror at this proposal. He inveighed
against it in the strongest terms, but he only brought destruction
upon himself. Critias denounced him, and, by bringing his guards
with drawn swords about the place of trial, awed the judges-into a
sentence of condemnation. He sprang to the altar, and claimed pro-
tection from its sanctity; but the Thirty had lost all fear of the crime
of sacrilege; he was dragged to prison, and compelled to drink the
hemlock; a fate which would have commanded more of our commi-
seration, had he not himself brought about a similar tragedy in the
case of the victors at Arginusa.

310. Torasysurus.—Meanwhile, Thrasybulus, who had been living

 

Questions.—307. In whom? What hopes did the Athenians still have? In whom were
the hopes disappointed? In whom realized? £08. Give an account of the death of Alci-
biades, What ceremony did Timandra perforn ? 309. What wickedness did the Thirty
next plin? Give an account of the death of Theramenes, 310, Where had Thrasybulus
been living in the mean time ?
r. ¢. 399.) SOCRATES. 199

at Thebes, felt the miseries of his country, and longed to relieve them.
He conversed with those who fled thither from Athens, and gradually
collected a party of followers, not formidable indeed from their num-
bers, but all determined in the cause of freedom. Without exciting
the suspicions of the Thirty, he made the necessary arrangements, and
with his little band seized on the strong fortress of Phyle, about.
twelve miles from Athens. The Thirty, their guard, and the assistant
8,000 marched ont to dispossess them, and sat down before the town
in the form of a regular siege; but a great snow-storm coming on,
they were obliged to march back to the city. Thrasybulus, being
re-enforced by other citizens, pursued his course, and took possession
of Pireus. The Thirty, and all the followers they could muster,
attacked them there, but were defeated, and Critias was slain. As the
rest were flying, Thrasybulus cried out, ‘‘ Wherefore do you fly from
me as a victor, rather than assist me as the avenger of your liberty?
We are not. enemies, but fellow-citizens; neither have we declared
against the city, but against the Thirty Tyrants.”

311. The attacking army listened and were convinced. Thrasybu-
lus, at the head of his associates, and the volunteers who came over
to his side, marched into the city in triumph, expelled the Thirty, and
appointed ten magistrates in their room. The Tyrants met the death
they so richly merited, and Athens resumed her ancient laws. The
Spartans ratified the acts of Thrasybulas ;* a general amnesty was pro-
claimed: it was decreed that all past actions should be buried in obli-
vion; and as these things took place in the archonship of the Euclides,
all events beyond the time of legal memory were said to be ‘“ Before
Evclides.” The laws of Solon were transcribed and put in force, and
quiet once more reigned in the city.

312. Drato or Soorates.—At this time, when the greatest zeal
was professed for the revival of the ancient institutions, all who had
uttered any thing against the old laws and usages of the state were
looked upon as dangerous persons. In this number was found the
wise and virtuous Socrates.t Amid the darkness of paganism he had

* Pausanias, the king, secretly favored Thrasybulus, and obtained peace for Athens.

t+ Socrates, the son of a statuary, was born B. c. 470. He was exceedingly homely, and
very ungraceful in his manners; and being deprived of his little property by the dishonesty
of a relation, his prospects tor rising in the world were very small; but a wealthy Athenian,

observing his love of study and wonderful abilities, took him into his house, and gave him
the eare of his children. Here he had the privilege of attending the lectures of the most

 

Questions—310. Upon what did he determine? What was his first successful step ?
Give an account of the attack upon him. 3811. Who restored liberty to Athens? What fol
Jowed? 312. For what was great zeal in Athens professed at that time’ In what number
was Socrates included ? .
200 GREECE. [B. c. 399.

attained the idea of One Supreme Berne, whom he acknowledged as
fhe framer and preserver of the universe ; and he consequently treated
many of the superstitions of the times with contempt. Having also
been eye-witness to the inconstant, uncertain, and even ervel govern-
ment of the democracy, he had expressed some aristocratic sentiments ;
and having been the tutor of Alcibiades and Critias, their follies and
vices were in some measure imputed to him.

313. These circumstances constituted ‘the head and front of his
offending;” but as the Athenians had been too much engaged with
other affairs to do more than to listen to the ridicule which the comic
poets heaped upon him, no notice had been taken of his atheism ;
now, when the revolution of Thrasybulus had placed them again at
ease, it seems to us quite natural that they should seal the dark
scroll of a century, peculiar for instances of ingratitude, with the blood
of the purest and wisest of their citizens.

314. Instigated by the rhetoricians and sophists, whom Socrates
had irritated by his cutting sarcasms, a young man went to the
king-archon, and impeached him in the following form: “ Melitus,
son of Melitus, declares these upon oath, against Socrates, son of
Sophroniscus. Socrates is guilty of reviling the gods whom the city
acknowledges; and of preaching other new gods; moreover, he is
guilty of corrupting the youth of Athens. Penalty,—death.” Before
the case was tried, one of his friends composed a speech, and brought
it to Socrates fur his defense; but he refused to use it, or to resort to
any of those methods by which criminals are accustomed to move the
hearts of their judges tv mercy. He looked upon death with pleasure,

eminent philosophers; and applicd himself to the study of nature, with a diligence that
made him “ wiser then al! his teachers.” He served the regular term in the militia, and
signalized himself at the siege of Potidwa, both by his valor and the hardihood with which
hg endured fatigue. But though ke did not refase his country’s call to the field, he had no
taste tor the excitements of a military life. THe loved better to walk through the Academia,
attended by the youth of Athens, giving instruction by asking such questions as exposed
the absurdities of error. Indeed, he looked upon the whole city as his school, and neglected
no oceasinon of communicating moral wisdom to his fellow-citizens. It was his custom, in
the morning, to visit those places set apart for gymnastic exercises ; at noon, to mingle with
the crowds in the market-places , and to spend the rest of the day where he could instruct the
greatest number of persons. Jn the evening, he generally took a lecture from his wife.
This woman, whose name was Xantippe, exercised her tongue upon the failings of the
patient philosopher without any mercy. Sometimes she would become so enraged as to
tear his cloak upon bis shoulders in the open street. Svcrates, instead of attempting to
control her temper, consoled himself with the idea that if he could bear her insults, no other
circumstance would have power to annoy him. While he was in prison, Lis friends came
to see him and enjoy his conversation. One of them lamenting that he should die inno-
eent,—“ What,” said Socrates, * would you have me die guilty 2”

      

a

(uestions.—312. Whatis said of the religious views of Socrates? Ofhis politieal views? 313.
Why had not the Athenians taken notice of the offenses of Socrates before ? 314. What formal
charge was brought against Socrates ? What refnsal did he make? How did be look upor death ?
Bc. 401] RETREAT OF THE TEN TIOUSAND. 201

as a relief from the joyless period of old age. He however declared
his innocence in the strongest terms, and contended that he deserved
rewards and honors, rather than the punishment of the malefuctor.

315. After his condemnation, he addressed his judges in a speech
of some length, and in conclusion said: ‘But it is time for me to
depart—I to die, you to live; but which for the greater good, God
only knows.” It was customary to execute on the day following trial,
but as the sacred galley had just been crowned and sent to Delos, it
was not lawful to put any one to death till its return. Thus for thirty
days Socrates lived in the prison, conversing freely with his friends,
and unfolding his doctrines with the greatest force and power. When
the fatal cup was brought to him, he took it with u serene air, and
drank its contents with the most perfect composure. He walked
about till he felt the poison begin to work, and then lay down and
expired, B. 0. 399. He was seventy years of age.

316. s.o. 40%,—Rerreat or roz Ten Tuousanp.—In the first
year of the former century, Cyrus betrayed the secret of the favor
with which he had treated the Lacedemonians. Looking upon them
as the bravest soldiers of Greece, he had sought to attach them to his
person, that they might assist him in a revolt against his brother,
Artaxerxes Mnemon. The Grecians who were led by him in this
enterprise to the plains of the Euphrates, consisted of a body of Spar-
tans under Clearchus, a body of Athenians under Proxenus, and
volunteers from the other states, amounting in all to thirteen thousand
men. Cyrus having been slain in the battle of Cunaxa, the Greeks
were left without a leader or guide in a strange land.

317. By the chances of war, the length of the way, and the incle-
mencies of the season, they had lost three thousand of their number ;
but in the beginning of this century, the famous Ten Thousand reached
Byzantium in safety. Opinions were then divided as to what course
it was best to pursue. Some proposed to seize upon several cities of
the Chersonesus, and plant a colony there; others were for returning
directly home. The states which owned the adventurers were little
pleased with the prospect of being visited by ten thousand armed
men, who had subsisted by plunder more than a year; they began,

 

Questions.—314. What did he declare? What claim? 315. Give anaccount of his death.
In what year did he die? How old was he then? 316. Flow did Cyrus regard the Lace-
demonians? What did he seek as regards them? How large an army of Grecians did
Cyrus lead to the plains of the Euphrates? Of whom were they composed? Tow came
the Greeks to be lett without a leader? 817. How many of the thirteen thousand reached
Byzantium? What had become of the others? Upun what were opinions divided? What
prospect did not please certain states?

ge
202 GREECE. [p. 0. 396.

therefore, to plan a war which should engage the attention of the
returning soldiers. The Ionian colonies of Asia Minor, having contri-
buted money and men to the unfortunate expedition of Cyrus, began
now to fear the vengeance of their king, whose satrap, Tissaphernes,
had returned, clothed with new powers, to Sardis.

318. Messengers from the Ionians arrived in Lacedemon, imploring
protection, just about the time that the Spartans were inquiring where
a war could be kindled to the best advantage. It was immediately
determined to grant the required aid, and the forces sent out from
home were directed to enlist the forces just returning from the east.
Xenophon, with a body of six thousand, accordingly entered the army
of Agesilaus, and from his pen we have an account of those exploits
of the Spartans, which made the monarch tremble in his distant capi-
tal at Susa. Convinced by the victories of Marathon, Thermopylae,
Salamis, and Platea, of the immense superiority of the Grecian soldiers
over the common hirelings of the day; and now stimulated by the
glorious “retreat of the Ten Thousand,” Agesilaus formed the bold
and grand design of dismembering the Persian Empire, and giving to
each satrapy its freedom, as freedom was understvod among the
Greeks.

319. Acrsrnaus.—The good old king, Archidamus, who led the con-
federates in the beginning of the Peloponnesian war, at his death left
two sons, Agis, who succeeded him, and Aczstnaus, who was at that
time quite young. As the crown belonged in the family of Agis,
Agesilaus had nothing before him but a private station, and therefore
was educated according to the institutions of Lycurgus; but he always
showed such an ambition to excel, and at the same time such a sepse
of honor and justice, as made him the peculiar favorite of his com-
panions. When his brother refused to acknowledge Leotychidas, con-
sidering him the son of Alcibiades, Agesilans began to entertain hopes
of the crown; and no sooner was Agis dead, than Lysander, by various
intrigues, raised him to the throne of Sparta. This being accomplished
about the time that the Ionian colonies sent to Sparta for assistance,
Lysander persuaded Agesilans to undertake the affair, and went him-
self in the capacity of counselor,

320. Tor CAMPAIGNS oF B.C. 396, 895, anv 394.--When Agesilaus

 

Questions.—817. What is said of certain Ionian colonies? 518. What request did the
Tonians make? JIow was the request met? Who f-rmed the plan of dismembering the
Persian empire? What circumstances gave rise to the project? 819, Ifow was Agesilaug
educated? What is said of his character? By what circumstances was he made king of
Sparta? What events took place about that time? To what was Agesilaus persuaded ?
Who persuaded him? In what capacity did Lysander go? Who commanded the expe
dition ?
B. 0. 395.] AGESILAUS IN ASIA. 303

arrived at Ephesus, Tissaphernes sent to inquire what induced him to
take up arms in Asia. Agesilaus replied, that he had come to aid the
Greeks established there, and to restore to thein their ancient liberty.
The satrap assured him that his master would give the Greek cities
their freedom; and finally engaged him to enter into a truce, while
couriers could go to Susa and return with the commands of the great
king himself. Agesilaus spent this interval in making suitable regula-
tions, and learning the exact force of the cities; but Tissaphernes, false
as ever, privately assembled troops on all sides. Having every thing
prepared, he sent heralds to Agesilaus, commanding him to withdraw
iminediately from Asia, and declaring war against him in case of
refusal. To be revenged upon Tissaphernes, Agesilaus gave out that
he was going to plunder the province of Caria, but, when the barba-
rians were drawn to that quarter, he turned suddenly into Phrygia,
took many cities, and enriched himself with immense spoil.

321.—8. 0. 395.—The next spring, he intimated that he should visit
Lydia. The satrap did not believe him; and Agesilaus had established
himself upon the plains of Sardis before Tissaphernes could get there
with his forces, and when the armies met, the Greeks routed the bar-
barians with great slaughter. This campaign finished the race of
Tissaphernes, The treacherous satrap, who bad deceived the Spur-
tans and the Athenians; who had acted the part of informer twice by
young Cyrus, and stained his hands with the blood of the Grecian
generals; now, being thought guilty of treason to his sovereign, was
beheaded.

322. From Lydia, Agesilaus marched into the province of Pharna-
bazus, where he pitched his camp, and not only lived in plenty, but
collected large subsidies. Pharnabazus, instead of attempting to drive
him away, collected his furniture, and moved about from place to
place. At last, becoming wearied with this manner of life, he sent to
desire a conference with his enemy. Agesilaus assented, and coming
first to the place appointed with his friends, sat down upon the long
grass in the shade. The Persian grandee came up, and his servants,
as their custom was, began to spread soft skins for him to recline
upon, but he had the grace to be ashamed of this luxury, and care-
lessly threw liimself upon the ground beside the Spartan.

323. He opened the negotiation by complaining of the Spartans for

 

Questions,—820, When he arrived at Ephesus, what question was put to him? What was
nis reply? Of what treachery was Tissaphernes guilty? How did Ayesilaus extricate him-
self? Where was Phrygia? (See map No.2) 321. In what year did Agesilaus gain a
victory on the plains of Sardis? Give an account of the batile. Give a clusing aceount of
Tissaphernes, $22, 823. What 's stated of Agesilaus and Pharnabazus ?
204 GREECE. [B. c. 395

ravaging his country, when he had always been their friena, and had
assisted them so much against the Athenians. Agesilaus was a little
embarrassed by this just rebuke, but excused himself by inviting
Pharnabazus to join the league against the king; telling Lim that from
the moment he threw off his vassalage, the Grecian arms, ships, and
battalions should become the guardians of his liberty. Pharnabazus
replied, “If the king sends another lieutenant in my room, I will be
with you; but while he continues me in the government, I will to the
best of my power repel force with force, and make reprisals upon you
for him.” ‘Agesilaus, charmed with this reply, took his hand, and
parted with him in the most friendly manner.

324. All Asin was now ready to revolt from the Persians, Agesilaus
settled the police of the cities, and brought them into excellent order,
without banishing or putting to death a single subject. Encouraged
by the success which had crowned his efforts, he determined to re-
move the seat of war from the coasts of the Egean to the heart of
Persia, that the king might be called upon to fight for Ecbatana and
Susa instead of sitting there at his ease, and hiring the states of
Greece to destroy each other. In the midst of these splendid schemes,
a messenger came to him from Greece, to tell him that Sparta was
involved in a war with the other states, and that the Ephori had sent
him orders to come home and defend his own country. To explain
the reasons of this command, which stopped the conquests of Agesi-
Jaus, and Jeft Asia unconquered for Alexander, it will be necessary
to examine the position of the different republics after the fall of
Athens.

325. Sparta AND Turpes.—When the Peloponnesian war closed,
the Spartans considered themselves undisputed masters of Greece.
Those states, however, that had been so anxious to exchange the supre-
macy of Athens for that of Lacedemon, found they were no great
gainers by the bargain. Spartan pride was quite as intolerable as
Athenian arrogance. Corinth, in particular, who had felt herself a
very important character during the war, disliked to assume the
position of an humble ally; and Thebes also, having gradually risen
to eminence, began to aii at indepeudence. The result was, Corinth,
Thebes, Athens, and several other cities entered into a league against
Sparta. Instead of allowing, as formerly, supremacy to one republic,
the new confederates formed a congress, composed of deputies from
the different states, who should be empowered to regulate the affairs

Questions.—324. Upon what change did Agesilaus then determine? How were his
achemes frustrated? 825. Give some account of the internal commotions of Greece. Whar
leugue was formed against Sparta? What is said of it as regards its congress ?
30.394.) AGESILAUS IN CHERON A. 205

of the Greek nation. This league was devised and carried into effect
by orators whom Tithraustes, successor to Tissaphernes, had hired* to
excite a war in Greece, thinking that such an event would occasion
the recall of Agesilaus,

326. The Spartans sent an army into Beotia under Pausanias, and
directed Lysander to draw down with his forces from the Hellespont.
He did so, but, failing to effect a junction with his king, he was de-
feated and slain. Pausanias, not thinking it prudent to hazard another
engagement, merely begged a truce to perform the fineral rites of the
slain. The Ephori cited him to give an account of lis measures, but,
fearing punishment for his unskillful conduct, he fled to another city.
In this embarrassing position of their affairs, the Spartans were com-
pelled to send for Agesilaus from Asia, at the very time when he
seemed likely to humble the Persian empire in the dust. Unwelcome
as was this call to Agesilaus, still he hesitated not to obey it. ° Hastily
arranging his affairs, in such a manner that they might be in readiness
for his return, he marched to the Hellespont, crossed Thrace and
Macedonia, and entered Thessaly by nearly the same route that Xerxes
had traveled about a century before.

327. As he was passing through this country, he heard that a great
battle had been fought near Corinth, in which the Spartans were vic-
torious; but instead of being elated by the intelligence, he exclaimed,
with a deep sigh, ‘‘ Unhappy Greece! why hast thou destroyed with
thy own hands so many brave men, who, had they lived, might have
conquered all the barbarians in the world.” Having passed the straits
of Thermopyls, and traversed Phocis, he entered Beotia, and encamped
upon the plains of Cheronea. Here the army of the allies met him,
and a battle was fought which Xenophon says was the most furious
one of his time. Agesilaus was pierced through his armor with spears
and swords in many places. He was, however, victorious. Though
much weakened by his wounds, he would not retire to his tent till he
had been carried through all his battalions, and seen the dead borne
off upon their shields. This splendid victory, however, could not
relieve his mind from the anxiety occasioned by the distressing intel-
ligence which he received a few days before the battle.

* He hired them with 30,000 pieces of money impressed with the figure of an archer;

which gave Agesilaus occasion to say, “ that 30,000 of the king’s archers drove him out of
Asia.”

 

 

Questions.—325. By whom was it devised and carried into effect? $26. What befell
Lysander? What is said of Pansanias? Now state why Agesilaus was recalled to Greece.
What route did he take to Greece? $827. When in Thessaly, what news did he hear? How
did it affect him? Mention the particulars of the ¥attle of Cheronwa, Where was Chero-
nea? (See map No. 2.)
206 GREECE. [B. 0. 394

328. Conon pErEaTs THE Sparrans aT Sea.—That Conon who
ficd with nine ships from the disastrous action at Egos Potamos, had
not been unmindful of his country in her fallen state. When Evagoras
first received him, Conon entered readily into his service, doing all in
his power to improve the Cyprian fleet ; and no sooner had Agesilaus
left Asia, than he brought about an alliance between his friend and
Pharnabazus. He even visited the court of Artaxerxes, and convinced
that monarch of his own ability to drive the Spartans out of the
Evean, if he had but a ficet. Thus, before Agesilaus had reached
Beotia, Conon, Evagoras, and Pharnabazus were furnished with ships,
money, and men, to revenge the injuries of their several countries
upon the Spartans, Agesilaus had left the Spartan fleet under the
command of his brother-in-law, a brave but inexperienced officer.
Conon, with his confederates, attacked, defeated, and slew him, and
took fifty ships. This was the news which reached Agesilaus in
Beotia, and destroyed at once the hopes he had formed of subverting
the Persian Empire. Though victorious in every engagement on his
route from Beotia to Sparta, he could not escape the painful reflection
that his parent state had already lost the command of the sea, and
that the armies which should have conquered her most distant foes
were only able to protect her at home.

329. Two Expepirions.—Atuens Resuitt.—The next spring, Co-
non and Pharnabazus undertook the work of revolution, and from the
shore of Ionia to the oft-conquered Melos, every island threw off the
yoke of Sparta. Thence proceeding to the coast of Laconia, they
effected a landing in various places, plundered and ravaged the coun-
try, and sailed away before the inhabitants had time to rally in self-
defense. They took the island of Cythera, and placed it under an
Athenian garrison. Then directing their course to the Corinthian
isthmus, where the congress of the confederacy was assembled, they
visited the leading men, concerted measures with them for prosecuting
the war with Sparta, and, having furnished them with a sum of money,
sailed again for Asia.

330. Encouraged by the joy of Pharnabazus at this successful expe-
dition, Conon now revealed the design he had meditated froin the
beginning. He represented the expense and inconvenience to Persia
of maintaining the fleet, and he proposed that the satrap should trans-
fer this burden to Athens, after having first put her in a situation to

 

Questions —328. How had Conon been employed meantime? What news reached Age-
silaus in Beotia? What hopes did the news destroy? What retlection was painfnl to
Agesilaus? 829. What did Conon and Pharnabazus accomplish? 880. What design did
Co .on reveal?
Bo. 387.] PEACE OF ANTALOCIDAS. 207

exact tribute from the islands as formerly, and secured her against
the attacks of Lacedemon. The liberality of Pharnabazus granted
all that Conon desired. He permitted him to re-establish Athenian
supremacy in the Egean, and to rebuild his native city.

331. Thus the unfortunate commander at Agos Potamos, after thir-
teen years’ voluntary exile, returned with the present of a fleet, forti-
fications, money, timber, masons, mechanics, and dominion in his
hand, to restore his ruined country. The states of the confederacy
lent their aid to the city which they had formerly hated and humbled:
every person wrought with diligence, and Athens soon ‘rose like
a Phoenix from her ashes.” The long walls which Lysander had
demolished, with insulting triumphs of music, were rebuilt; and the
city looked again from the harbor of Pireus over a sea of which she
was undisputed queen. B. 0. 393.

332. DzeatH or THrasyBuLus.—Thrasybulus was honored with the
command of the new fleet which Athens had thus most unexpectedly
received. He sailed first to the Hellespont to re-establish Athenian
dominion, and, having fortified the several towns upon the Thracian
coast, proceeded to Byzantium, where he restored the collection of
toll from the trade of the Euxine. He had similar success at Chialce-
don, and, moving thence to Lesbos, reconquered the island, and passed
the winter there in a safe and commodious harbor. In the spring he
coasted along among the islands and maritime towns till he came to
the river Eurymedon, the scene of the double victory of Cimon, to
demand tribute of the Aspendians. They paid the tax, for they were
unable to make effectual resistance; but, exasperated by some excesses
of the soldiers, they attacked the Athenian camp by night, and killed
Thrasybulus in his tent. Such was the end of Thrasybulus, a man of
the highest estimation, and worthy to rank with Aristides and Cimon.

333. Tue Peacock or Antratcipas.—Meantime the Lacedemonians,
humbled and distressed, turned their thoughts to a reconciliation with
Persia. For this purpose they sent Antalcidas, a man who had lived
long in Asia Minor, to Tiribazus, satrap of Sardis, with proposals of
peace; and also directed him to state that Conon had defrauded the
great king of the money given him to rebuild Athens; and that he
had formed the design of driving the Persians out of Eolia and Ionia.
The other states of Greece, hearing of the negotiation contemplated
by Sparta, sent each a deputy to secure an equitable adjustment of

 

Questions.—330. How did Pharnabazus respond? 831. How long had Conon been in
exile? With what did he return to Athens? Who rebuilt Athens? 332. Who com-
manded the new fleet? What did he accomplish? What became of Thrasybulus? 33%
What stratagems were used to effect the peace of Antalcidas ?

 
208 GREECE. [B. c, 383

affairs. Oonon was the minister from Athens, but no sooner had he
arrived than Tiribazus, regardless of his sacred character, threw him
into prison. The other embassadurs objected to every article in the
proposed treaty, and were consequently dismissed without having
effected any thing, while the crafty satrap, having secured the only
man he feared, visited Susa to learn the pleasure of the great king.
Conon, in the absence of his only friend,* pined to death in prison, or
was privately executed.

334. Thus deprived of her generals, Athens was not averse to peace;
and when Tiribazus, upon his return, summoned a congress of depu-
ties from all the belligerent states, her ministers were sent with the
others to listen to proposals for a general pacification. The congress
being duly opened, Tiribazus produced a writing sealed with the
king’s signet, and read the arbitration, or rather the command, of the
Persian monarch, in the following words:— Artaxerxes the king
holds it just, That all cities on the continent of Asia belong to his
dominion, together with the islands of Olazomene and Oyprus; and
that all other Grecian cities, little and great, be independent, except
that the islands of Lemnos, Imbros, and Sciros remain as of old, under
the dominion of Athens. If any refuse these terms, against such I
will join in war with those who accept them, and give my assistance,
by Jand and by sea, with ships and with money.”

335. These terms, which destroyed at once all the schemes of con-
quest which Agesilaus had formed, which wrested from Athens her most
valuable dependencies, and gave to Persia almost all she had ever
claimed, were acceded to, either willingly or unwillingly, by all the
states. Thus peace was established throughout Greece and Asia Minor,
the fleets were laid up, or employed in friendly commerce, the soldiers
were dismissed to their homes, and “the land had rest from war.”

336. Orynrutan War.—The universal quiet which reigned for some
time after the ratification of this treaty, was interrupted by the arrival
of persons at Lacedemon, who came to complain that Olynthus, having
engaged most of the towns of the Chalcidice in a confederaey, had
nearly expelled Amyntas, king of Macedon, from his government.
Ministers had passed between Olynthus, and Athens, and Thebes; and
the complainants represented to the Spartans that a powerful coalition

* Pharnabazus, who, having married the king's daughter, had removed to Susa.

 

Questions.—333, What became of Conon? 834. Why was not Athens averse to peace?
What was done by Tiribazus? What terms did the Persian monarch dictate? 335, What
is said of the terms? Was the peace honorable to any Grecian state? 336. Where waa
Olynthus? (See map No, 2.) What complaint was made against Olynthus?
B. 0. 379.] DEATH OF AGESIPOLIS. 909

was furming in that quarter, which would overthrow the supremacy
of Lacedemon, and destroy the liberties of Greece. A congress of the
Peloponnesian allies was immediately summoned; the subject laid
before them in all its political bearings; and a resolution taken to send
ten thousand men into Macedonia. Such forces as could readily be
collected, set out immediately. They lost no time in traversing the
frequented route through Corinth, Megara, Beotia, and Thessaly; and
as Potidwa gladly opened its gates to them, they found comfortable
quarters to await the other troops.

337. Tneses srizeD BY Pua@pipas.—The remaining division was
sent off under the command of Phebidas, who, quitting the line of his
instructions, set on fire a train of evils which kindled another Pelopon-
nesian war, and destroyed forever the supremacy of Lacedemon. In
his march northward, he encamped for the night under the walls of
Thebes. The leader of the aristocratic party in the city found his
way to the tent of Pheebidas, and invited him to enter the city, seize
the Cadmeia,* and change the government. This temptation was too
strong for the virtue of the Spartan. He entered the town by night,
and took possession by force of arms. The leaders of the democratic
party were thrown into prison, many of the citizens fled to ditferent
places, and a band of about four hundred found refuge in Athens.

338. When an account of this affair was carried to Sparta, the
ephors fined Pheebidas for turning aside from his duty; but they sent
Archias to govern Thebes, and appointed officers as they would for a
conquered city. The war in Olynthus still went on with various suc-
cess, No permanent advantage was gained till Agesipolis, the young
colleague of Agesilaus, was sent thither to take the command. He
wasted the Olynthian territory; he took Torone by storm; but in the
midst of his success he was seized with a fever, which soon terminated
his life. His body was preserved in honey, and carried the long and
difficult journey to Sparta, to be interred with the usual ceremonies
in the tombs of the Spartan kings. Cleombrotus, his brother, suc-
ceeded him.

339. But though the Olynthians were thus delivered from their
most active foe, they were in extreme distress. In resisting the power
of Lacedemon, they had counted on assistance from Beotia and Attica.
The unexpected revolution in Thebes had, however, cut off all

* The citadel of Thebes, named from Cadmus.

 

Questions,—336. What resolution was passed? What route did the forces take? 337,
What is said of Phoebidas? ILow was he tempted? 838, What is said of Agesipolis? By

whom was he succeeded? 339. What is said of the condition of the Olynthians?
a

 
210 GREECE. [B. 0. 379.

aid from these sources, and, without losing any decisive battle, they
were compelled to surrender, B. c. 879; but the new goverument of
their city was any thing but grateful to the body of the Theban
people.

340. Toe Counter-Revo.urion ww Trenes.—It happened soon after
the surrender of Olynthus, that Phyllidas, the secretary of Archias, was
sent to Athens on business. While there, he fell into conversation
with a Theban exile, an old friend, and having explained the state of
things in his native city, began to deplore the miseries which Spartan
treachery bad brought upon his felluw-citizens. The conversation
resulted in a plot to overthrow the tyranny which Sparta had estab-
lished in Thebes, and restore again the democratic form of govern-
ment. It was carried into execution In the following manner: A
select band of exiles set out from Athens, and, without exciting sus-
picion, quartered themselves in a little town not far from Thebes.
Pelopidas and Melon, the leaders, then choosing ten associates, dressed
themselves like hunters, and heat about the woods with poles and
hounds, as if in search of game. About night-fall they entered the
city at different gates, where they were met by their accomplices, and
conducted to the house of one Charon, a patriot of great wealth and
respectability.

341. Phyllidas had performed his part with equal success. THe had
invited Archias and Philip, with the principal Spartan rulers, to his
house, under promise of introducing them to some of the most. beanti-
ful women in Thebes. Searcely, however, had the entertainment
commenced, when a rumor reached them that thé exiles were con-
ceealed somewhere in the city, and they sent immediately for Charon.
The conspirators looked upon themselves as Jost; but the intrepid
Charon obeyed the summons with alacrity. He replied to the ques-
tions of the polemarchs in such a manner as entirely lulled their sus-
picions, and departed with their authority to inquire into the affair.
Phyllidas then led his guests back to their wine, when a new danger
threw lim into the utmost consternation, A horseman, sent from
Athens by those who had learned the particulars of the plot, riding in
hot haste, came up to the door, and dismounting, forced his way into
the banqueting-room. “ My lord,” said he, out of breath with the
speed he had made, “here are letters froin a friend of yours, who
begs you will read them immediately, being serious altuirs.”’-—“ Serious

Questions. —339 When did they surrender? Wow did they like their new government?

840. Tow was the counter-revolution in Thebes commenced? What plot was formed?

Uow was it carried into execution? 841. How had J’hylidas performed bis part? Give
tho particulars of his movements,
Bc. 378] PELOPIDAS AND EPAMINONDAS 911

affairs to-morrow,” replied Archias, laughing, and thrusting the letters
under his pillow.

342. Phyllidas now entered to say that the women were arrived, and
the tyrants commanding them to be introduced, Charon and his
friends caine in, clothed in female attire, and crowned with garlands.
The drnnken lords received them with shouts of joy; but the pre-
tended women, having each selected his man, drew their swords, and
rasped upon them with the greatest fury. They made but a feeble
resistance, and the conspirators soon issued from the house in triumph.
Messengers were then sent to bring up their fellows left on the way ;
the prison doors were thrown open, and five hundred Thebans issued
from their dungeons to join the ranks of freemen. Criers went up
and down the streets, calling upon the people to resume their liber-
ties; and arms were taken from the shops and distributed to all who
joined in the cry against Sparta. Epaminondas,* with a few cliosen
followers, joined the conspirators; the houses were filled with torches;
the streets were thronged with a multitude who hardly knew what
had happened, or which side to take; and never was there such a
night of confusion, anxiety, and hope, in Thebes.

343. The Lacedemonian garrison in the citadel, though one thau-
sand five hundred strong, knew not the limited extent of the conspi-
racy, but, seeing the tumult, set a guard at all the gates of the Cadmea,
and dispatched a messenger to Sparta for assistance. The next day
the revolutionists were re-enforced by the arrival of numerous exiles
and armed cavalry from Athens. An assembly of the people was sum-
moned, and addressed by Epaminondas, who exhorted all to aid in the
restoration of the ancient freedom of their city. His appeal was
answered by loud acclamations and clapping of hands; and Pelopidas,
Melon, and Charon were unanimously chosen magistrates. The cou-
rier arrived at Sparta, and told his news. A band of soldiers was
immediately sent off, but did not reach Thebes in time to interrupt
the progress of the revolation. The garrison, pressed by famine, had
already capitulated; and the city of Cadmus was free. Such was the
commencement of the second Peloponnesian war, which ended in the
huiniliation of Sparta, as the first did in that of Athens.

* An intimate friend of Pelopidas, who delighted in philosophical studies and the practice
of every virtue. He was never known to tell a lie. even in jest. When the Spartans seized
upon Thebes, Pelopidas fled to Athens; but Epaminondas, being looked upon as a mcre
philosopher, remained in the city, and did all in his power to inspire the youth with senti-
ments of bravery.

 

~ Questions,—342. Give further particulars, Who was Epaminondas? 343, How strong
was the Lacedemonian garrison in the citadel? What precaution did they take? Did they
succeed? What war was thus commenced ?
212 GREECE. [B. 0. 378

nw War.—lt remained now for the Lace-

344. Szeconp PELOPONNeSIA :
demonian government to punish the rebellion at Thebes, or resign at

once the supremacy of Greece. The latter thought was not to be tole-
rated ; the former was therefore resolved upon, and though mid-winter,
the army was ordered to march into Beotia. The grand purpose of Age-
silaus being to unite the Grecian states in an attack upon the power of
Persia, he was extremely averse to this war. The command of the army
was consequently committed to Cleombrotas, his brother sovereign.

345. Athens, still unrecovered from the wounds which Sparta had
inflicted upon herself, and seeing the great preparations making against
Thebes, scarcely knew which side to take. While she continued thus
irresolute, Sphodrias, a Spartan general, made an unsuccessful attempt
to seize upon the Pireus. This furnished a fine argument for the
orators in the Beotian interest. They declared that the Lacedemonians
meant to subvert the liberties of the Athenians, as they had done of
the Thebans; and such a storm of invective was raised, that all in
favor of moderate measures were obliged to hide their heads, while
war, offensive and defensive, became the popular care. Ships were
built, soldiers-were levied, and every thing prepared to assist Thebes
in the approaching contest. Meanwhile, the Beotian lands were
ravaged by the Peloponnesian forces, and Thebes suffered almost
famine from the repeated destruction of her harvests.

346. It would require too much space to detail all the petty skir-
mishes, political intrigues, and short-lived factions, which occurred
during the seven years that followed the attack of Sphodrias upon the
Pirzwns. Athens, intimidated by the mighty army which passed through
her borders to Beotia, renounced the alliance of Thebes, and assumed
as nearly as possible a neutral position, But during all this time the
Thebans had been learning the art of war, inuring their bodies to
labor, and acquiring both experience and courage in their various
encounters with the Spartans. The Sacred Theban Band, or band of
lovers, consisting of three hundred youths, bound together by the ties
of friendship, and all sworn to die side by side rather than fly before
an enemy, had been trained by Pelopidas, and inspired with an ardent
desire to establish the liberty of their country. Pelopidas, indeed,
was never idle. From the day that he was chosen general to the
day of his death, he was always engaged in some public employ-

Questions, 844. What remained for the Lacedemonian government? Why was Agesi-
lans averse to the war? To whom was given the command of the army? Wh ? “345
About what was Athens irresolute 2? How was a decision at Jast made? 3.46, Wh eis the
decision altered? What had the Thebans been about? Who instituted the Sa 1 4 Th bat
Band? What was the Band? What is said of Pelopidas? 3 cre eban
B.c. 371.) PELOPIDAS AND EPAMINONDAS. %18

ment, either as captain of the Sacred Band, or as governor of
Thebes.

347. 8. 0. 871.—Bartie or Lrvorra.—The Lacedemonians, having
made peace with all the other Grecian states, determined to strike a
decisive blow in Beotia. Cleombrotus was therefore sent thither, with
10,000 foot and 1,000 horse, and other troops joined them on the way,
till his army swelled to 20,000. Epaminondas, who was at that time
commander-in-chief of the Theban forces, could bring only 6,000 men
into the field; but as universal terror of the Spartans forbade the hope
of gaining any allies, he and his friend Pelopidas decided to join battle
with their enemies. Having taken their resolution, they strengthened
the hopes of their army with all the favorable omens and prognostica-
tions they could put in cixculation; and thus, strong in the confidence
that the fates were propitious, the troops advanced joyfully to Leuctra.

348. Epaminondas, being unable to oppose front to front and man
to man in the battle, placed his men in the shape of a wedge, and
made his attack directly upon the point where Cleombrotus was sta-
tioned. The enemy, perceiving this, began to extend the right wing to
surround the Thebans; but Pelopidas coming up just at the moment,
with his three hundred invincibles, threw them into disorder, and
completely frustrated their design. The consequence was, such a rout
and slaughter as never had been known before. Cleombrotus was
carried from the field mortally wounded. The Lacedemonians lost
4,000 men, and then fled to their intrenchments. The Thebans had
only 300 men killed. They erected a trophy upon the spot, which
was esteemed the most glorious and most important ever won in a
battle of Greeks with Greeks. When Epaminondas was congratu-
lated upon his most unparalleled victory, he replied, ‘I think only of
the happiness it will give my mother.”

349. The news of this defeat reached Sparta while the people were
engaged in the celebration of public games. The ephors, to whom the
dispatches were delivered, without interrupting the entertainment,
communicated the names of the slain to their relatives, but forbade
the women to make the clamorous lamentations common on such
occasions. Next day the parents of those who had fallen in the battle
went to the temples to thank the gods for the glory their sons had
acquired, while those whose children still survived were overwhelmed
with the deepest affliction. The law also augmented their misery.

 

Questions.—841. When was the battle of Leuctra fought? How many men did Cleom-
srotus command? How many Epaminondas? 348. Give an account of the battle. What
-eply did Epamirondas make to those who congratulated him? 49, How did the Spartans
receive the news of this defeat? Where was Leuctra? (See map No, 2.)
214 GREECE. [B. c. 370.

Those who fled from the field were to be degraded, so that it would bo
a disgrace to intermarry with them ; they were compelled to wear
patched and party-colored mean and dirty garments, to go half shaved,
and suffer every insult and abuse. Such numbers had incurred these
severe penalties that a public commotion was feared ; besides, these
soldiers could ill be spared at a time when it was necessary to recruit
the army. In this distressing emergency, the whole power was placed
in the hands of Agesilaus. He made a decree that the law should lie
dormant for one day, and thus the citizens were saved from infamy.

350. Invasion oF PeLoronnesus.—Nor was it long before Sparta
needed all her soldiers to protect her own territory. Numbers of
Greek cities, before neutral, made alliance with Thebes, and Epami-
nondas soon saw himself at the head of 70,000 men. With this over-
whelming force he invaded Peloponnesus. It was 700 years since the
Dorians established themselves in Laconia, and in all that time their
country had never been invaded by a hostile army. Agesilaus had
often boasted that *‘no woman of Sparta had ever seen the smoke of
an enemy’s camp;” how deep, then, was his mortification when 76,600
men crossed the Eurotas, captured several Lacedemonian towns, and
ravaged all the lands to the sea; pitching their tents in whatever spot
they chose, and spreading themselves over the country “like grass-
hoppers for multitude.”

351. Nor was this all. The Thebans published a decree recathng
the Messenians to their ancient inheritance. They came tom Rhe-
gium, from Sicily, from Naupactus, and from all places where utiey had
taken refuge in the dark day of adversity. The Thebaty and their
allies exerted themselves with such zeal in the rebuilding and fortify-
ing of Ithome, that the city was completed in eighty-five days. The
entrance of the Messenians to the home of their fathers was attended
with pomp and ceremony, and solemn sacrifices. Amd all their wan-
derings and desolations, they had retained their laws, religion, and
language; and now, regaining their place among the nations of tine
earth, they took possession of the lands from which their forefathers
had been banished two hundred and ecighty-seven years before, with
the proud consciousness that they were able to defend tiem even
against the power of Sparta, Thus the province of Messenia, amount-
ing to half her territory, was lost to Lacedemon forever.

Questions,—339, What power was given to Agesilaus? Tow did Po aa it? Traco
Cleombrotus from Sparta to Lenetra, 350. Who invaded Peloponnesus? What boast had
Agesilaus made? dow then was he mortified? 351, What people were reeslled to their
ancient inheritance? Give an account of their returning, What lysg did Lacedemon thus

sustain? Where was Ithome? (See map No. 2.)
B.C. 368.] EPAMINONDAS. 215

352. On their return from this expedition, Epaminondas and Pelo-
pidas were brought to trial for having retained their authority four
months beyond the time prescribed by law. Pelopidas condescended
to beg his life of the people,-but Epaminondas boldly defended the
course he had taken, and made such an eloquent appeal to the feelings
of his judges that he returned from the place of trial with more glory
than from the field of Leuctra.

353. Porrrican Arrarrs.—During the next five years, these two
iilustrious generals passed through great varieties of fortune. In the
year B. 0.868, the Thebans again invaded Peloponnesus, but not being
so successful as before, he was degraded to the rank of a private sol-
dier, in which capacity he marched with the army into Thessaly. . Here
the Thebans were reduced to the greatest distress, and again had
recourse to the wisdom of Epaminondas, who, being made general,
effected their retreat in safety. Two years after, he led an army into
Achaia, and brought the whole confederation into the Theban alliance.
Pelopidas was sent over to Asia Minor to contract an alliance with the
great king. Artaxerxes rejoiced to see him, and loaded him with
honors; confirmed the restoration of Messenia, and reckoned the The-
bans among his hereditary friends.

354. Upon his return, Pelopidas, being sent against Alexander, a
Thessalian tyrant, was slain in battle, and Epaminondas was left alone
to guide the helm of the Theban state. It was an arduous task. The
Grecian states began to perceive that Thebes was merely endeavoring
to wrest from Sparta that supremacy which Sparta had wrested from
Athens. It was at best but a change of masters that they had gained,
and, disappointed of liberty, they began to incline again to aristocracy.
Athens on her part became jealous of the rising glory of Thebes. If
she must have a rival, she preferred that that rival should be in Pelo-
ponnesus rather than in Hellas; accordingly, she forsook the alliance
of the city she had helped to elevate, and gave her friendship to her
ancient enemy, Sparta.

355. The Arcadians invaded Elis and plundered Olympia, which
sacrilegious act tore open again the unhealed wounds of civil discord.
As Sparta seemed to take the part of the plunderers, they made pro-
posals for a renewal of the former alliance, upon which the Theban

 

Questions. —352, What charge was brought against Epaminondas and Pelopidas? How
were they saved? 353. When did Epaminondas again invade Peloponnesus? With what
success? What was the consequence to him? How did he regain position? What suc-
cesses attended the exertions of Pelopidas in Asia Minor? 354, What further can you state
of him? What did the Grecian states soon perccive? Why did Athens forsake Thebes?
855. Which state did the Arcadians invade? Give an account of what followed. How was
Elis situated? (See map No. 2.) Olympia?
216 GREECE. [B. c. 362,

minister at Mantinea imprisoned eome of the principal citizens for
treason. Messengers were immediately sent to Thebes to complain of
his conduct. Epaminondas told the deputies that the Theban ininister
lad done well when he seized the Arcadians, for the Thebans invaded
Peloponnesus the first time only to benefit Arcadia, and that any pro-
posal of peace on their part was treason to Thebes. ‘Be assured,
therefore,” he added, “we will march into Arcadia, and with our
numerous friends there prosecute the war.”

356. The return of the embassadors with this answer put all Pelo
ponnesus in a ferment. Tach state felt indignant for itself in particu-
lar, and for Peloponnesus in general, that Thebes, a power just risen,
should presume to command war for them in their own peninsula
when they desired peace; and, what was worse, should dare to march
an army into their territory to enforce such a command. Arcadia,
Elis, and Achaia composed their difficulties as soon as possible ; made
alliance with Lacedemon in the common cause, and messengers were
sent to Athens for aid in resisting the growing power of Thebes.

357. BartLte or Mantinea.—To overthrow this confederacy, and
punish the defection of lis former allies, Epaminondas invaded the
Peloponnesus for the fourth time, B. 0. 362. He had under his com-
mand the effective force of all the Beotian towns, and numerons auxili-
aries from Thessaly and Locris. On his entrance into the Pelopon-
nesus, all the disaffected joined his army; and the Messenians, who
looked upon him as the restorer and champion of their country, flocked
to his standard, so that his troops greatly outnumbered those of the
enemy.

358. The combined forces of Peloponnesus were encamped at Man-
tinea, and Epaminondas, hearing that Sparta had been left unprotected,
directed his march thither; and, but for intelligence conveyed to Age-
silaus by a Cretan, the city would have been taken, says the historian,
“like a bird’s nest destitute of defenders.” Agesilaus, upon hearing
that the Thebans were coming down the mountain road, put himself
at the head of his troops, and, marching with great rapidity, reached
the place before them. They now felt the truth of Lycurgus’s declara-
tion, that ‘that city is well defended which has a wall of men instead
of brick.” It was impossible to take a place where every man foucht
for his own hearthstone; and Epaminondas reluctantly gave orders
to withdraw after a severe skirmish, in which numbers were slain.

 

Questions, —856. What consequences followed the invasion? 357. For what purpose did
Epaminondas invade Peluponnesus a fourth time? In what year was this invasion ?
What army did Epaminondas then have? 53. Mow was Muntinea situated? (See map
Nou. 2.) How was Sparta saved by Agesilaus? What remark of Lycurgus is quoted?
B. 0. 362.] EPAMINONDAS. 21%

359. Failing in this project, he immediately conceived another of

equal importance. It was summer, and thinking the Mantineans
would be engaged in gathering in their harvest, he sent his cavalry for-
ward to intercept the convoys and capture the laborers. This plan,
too, failed by an unexpected occurrence. The cavalry traversed the
lofty mountain barrier of Lacedemon without accident, and found, as
they anticipated, the slaves, cattle, and citizens of Mantinea at work
in their fields. A body of Athenian horse had just arrived, and were
waiting for refreshinent after a forced march of two days. When the
Mantineans saw the Thebans approaching, they quitted their labor in
the utmost alarm, and besought the Athenians to remount, weary as
they were, and fly to the rescue. They immediately complied, and,
jealous for the glory of their country, spurred their jaded steeds to
the scene of pillage, and engaged, at fearful odds, with the renowned
Thessalian and Theban cavalry. Brave men fell on both sides; but
the enemy were finally repulsed, and the Athenians brought off their
allies in safety, with all their property.
* 360. Epaminondas now found it necessary to give battle. With the
aid of a skillful general, he ranged his troops in the order in which he
intended to fight, and caused them to march in a column upon the
hills, until within about a mile of Mantinea, where they halted and
laid down their arms, as if preparing to encamp. Deceived by this
movement, the enemy quitted their ranks and dispersed themselves
about the camp, wherever interest on curiosity led them. Suddenly
the Thebans resumed their arms, and marched directly towards Man-
tinea. Their approach threw the Peloponnesians into the utmost con-
fusion. Some were running here, and some there; some buckling on
their breastplates, and some bridling their horses; and they were
hardly in their places when the Thebans commenced the action. The
battle began with the cavalry. The troops fought on both sides with
the greatest bravery. Epaminondas, at the head of his chosen sol-
diers, charged the Lacedemonian phalanx. They commenced with
spears, but these being soon broken, they drew their swords and
fought hand to hand, trampling alike on the prostrate bodies of friends
and foes.

361. The Theban cavalry had put the Athenians to flight, but still
the Lacedemonians had not yielded an inch of ground. Seeing the
necessity of deciding the battle before the enemy could rally, Epami-
nondas formed a little troop of his bravest soldiers, and charged the

 

Questions,—359. In what seeond project did Epaminondas fail? Give an account of it
360, 361. Give an account of the battle of Mantinea,

10
218 GREECE. {B. c. 362,

center of the enemy’s line. He wounded the Lacedemonian general
with the first javelin he threw, and finally broke the phalanx; but as
he pressed on to the victory, he received a wound in his breast.* The
wood of the javelin broke off, and the iron head remaining in the
wound, he sank down in mortal agony. The contest around him was
frightful; but the Thebans finally prevailed, and carried their wounded
general off the field. Both sides then rested upon their arms, and the
trumpets, as if by common consent, sounded a retreat at the same
moment. Both parties claimed the victory, and erected a trophy ; but
the Lacedemonians finally begged permission to bury the dead, which
was in effect confessing a defeat.

362. Epaminondas was carried into the camp. The surgeons ex-
amined his wound, and declared that his death wonld immediately
follow the extraction of the dart. These words filled aJl about him
with the deepest distress. His friends lamenting that he left no pos-
terity, he said, ‘Yes, I, have left two fair daughters, the victory of
Leuctra and this of Mantinea, to perpetuate my memory.” Svon
after, the javelin was extracted, and he expired, exclaiming, ‘* All is
well.”

363. Xenophon remarks upon this victory: ‘ Universal expectation
was strangely deceived in the event of this battle. Almost all Greece
being met in arms, there was nobody who did not suppose that the
victors would in future command, and the defeated must obey. But
God decided otherwise. Each ‘party claimed the victory, and neither
gained any advantage; territory or dominion was acquired by neither ;
but indecision, and trouble, and confusion, more than ever before that
battle, pervaded Greece.” Wearied, then, with the sad history of his
country’s woes, which from youth to age he had chronicled, he thus
concludes his narrative: ‘‘Thus far suffice it for me to have related.
The following events, perhaps, will interest some other writer.”

* The fatal dart was thrown by the hand of Gryllus, son of Xenophon.

+ “It is impossible,” remarks a distinguished historian, “for the compiler of Grecian
history not to feel a peculiar interest in the fortunes of the soldier-philosopher-autbor, who
has been his conductor through a period of half a century, amid transactions in which he
was himself an actor:” and it is hoped that the student alsu will be interested in reading a
short account of the life of Xenophon. His father was an Athenian of rank and affluence.
In early life, he was the pupil and friend of the great Sucrates. At the solicitation of Proxe=
nea, ard Sy the advice of the oracle, he enlisted in the army of young Cyrus. Me was pre-
sentat the battle of Cunaxa, and was the chief instrument in effecting the retreat of the
famous “ Ten Thousand.” During his absence. Socrates was executed; and upon his return,

he found that the same party bad procured a deeree of banishment for himself, Thus pre-
vented from visiting his native city, he joined the army of Agesilaus in Asia Minor, and

 

Questions.--361, What befell Epaminondas? 362. Give an account of the death of Epam-
inondas. 363, What are thy remarks of Xenophon upon this Victory ?
B. 0. 361.] DEATH OF AGESILAUDS. 919

364. After the death of Epaminondas, with which Xenophon’s nar
rative closes, no regular historian took up the tangled thread of Gre-
cian affairs; we are therefore indebted to a class resembling modern
news-writers for the documents which enabled Diodorus Siculus to
compile his history, and Plutarch to write his ‘‘ Lives.” From them,
it appears that the battle of Mantinea was followed by a general peace,
during which the armies on both sides were disbanded, and the troops
permitted to return quietly to their homes.

365. AcEsILaus.—Agesilaus, who began to reign when Sparta was
in her glory, and who had indulged the ambitious hope of humbling
the power of Persia, could not be pleased with the posture of affairs.
Within his memory, Lacedeinon had lost the alliance of the Greek
cities in Asia Minor and the Egean; the friendship and money of the
Persian. king; the fertile province of Messenia; and, what he valued
still more, the lofty position of supreme lord of the confederated Greek
nation. He could not rest upon bis humiliated throne. It was with
joy, therefore, that he accepted the invitation of an Egyptian prince
to assist him in throwing off the yoke of Persia. Upon his arrival in
Egypt, all the officers of the kingdom came to pay their court to him ;
but what was their surprise, to find in the person of the great Agesi-
laus only a little lame old man, in a plain Spartan cloak, seated on the
grass, amid a company of rude soldiers. When, however, he changed
his polities, and instead of assisting Tachos, who had invited him thi-
ther, joined the standard of Nectanabis, they learned to fear rather
than deride him. Having placed Nectanabis upon the throne, and
received immense rewards for his services, he sailed for home in mid-
winter, determined to use his money in recovering the lost Messenia,
B. c. 361. He died on the voyage; and his body, embalmed in wax,

acquired considerable wealth in those campaigns. He returned with this king to Lace-
demon, aud exchanged his military life for more peaceful occupations. The Lacedemonians
gave him the little town of Scillus, on the borders of Elis, to hold under their supervision
as a lordship; and there he settled with his famity, consisting of a wife and two sons. With
the money he had saved, he purchased an extensive tract of land, upon which he erected a
temple to Diana. This place, about twenty-five miles from Olyinpia, where every four
years he might see such friends as he chose, formed an appropriate residence for the illus-
trious Athenian refugee. Here he wrote the Life of Cyrus, the Memorables of Socrates,
and a continuation of Thucydides’ great history. When the Arcadians made Sacred Olym-
pia the seat of war, finding his residence at Scillus unsafe, he removed to Corinth. Though
a decree had been passed inviting his return to Athens, yet an absence of thirty years had
30 weakened his attachment to his native country that he chose to remain upon the isth-
nus, where he passed in dignified ease the remainder of a life protracted beyond his nineticth
vear. His son Gryllus was killed in the battle of Mantinea; and of the other, no further
mention is made.

Questions,—364, What condition of things followed the battle of Mantinea? 365, What
is said of Agesilaus? What invitation did he accept? At what were the Egyptians sur-
prised. Why dil they afterward fear? When did Agesilaus die? Where was he then?

 
580 GREECE. eee
was taken to Sparta for burial. He lived eighty-four YEOrsi of which
he reigned forty-one. We was succeeded by his son, Archidamus.

366. Tienes and Arnens.—The glorious victory of Muntinea, won
by Thebans, proved to no other state so disastrous as to Thebes her-
self. The loss of Epaminondas could not be repaired ; the sun of his
country’s glory set when he expired; and though Thebes did not
become lost in obscurity, she ruled no more. Athens might have held
the balance of power for the Grecian republic, but she could not bear
prosperity. Long before, Solon’s laws for encouraging industry and
punishing idleness had ceased to be regarded. ‘A sovereign multi-
tude, who could vote the rich into banishment and appropriate their
estates to the good of the public, would not work.” To them it was
far more agreeable to live upon the sacrifices provided by the treasury
of the state; to feast at the tables of the demagogues who courted
their favor; to spend their time in bathing, or walking in the sacred
groves; in listening to the discourse of philosophers, applauding the
eloquence of orators, or in witnessing those theatrical entertainments
with which Athens was so well supplied, and of which every Athenian
was so inmoderately fond.

367. The fleet of Athens still rode triumphant over the Egean; the
islands were her tributaries, and she had vast possessions in Thrace;
but these appearances of prosperity were like the mistletoe which
crowns with parasitic greenness the decaying monarch of the forest.
Athens was dead at heart. The unnatural pulsations which bad put
forward one great man after another to meet the exigencies of her cir-
cumstances, had weakened her energies and destroyed her vitality.
The measures of her government were fluctuating and uncertain; the
public voice became the organ of tyranny; and the decrees of one day
were rendered powerless by the decisions of the next. But her glory
conld not die. That very freedom which made her the prey of faction
awakened every latent spark of genius in her people; the very defects
of her government roused every slumbering energy of the gifted and
ambitious; hence it was, that the brightest galaxy of philosophers and
orators illumined the night of her political degradation.

368. Plato, the most celebrated philosopher of Athens, a descendant
of Solon, was born at cEgina, B. c. 428. He was called Plato, ‘ broad,”
from the shape of his forehead. He had a lively fancy, and when quite
young composed several dramatic pieces: but happening to hear
Socrates in conversation, he abandoned poetry, and turned his atten-

Questions,—W hat else ean you say of him? 300, What is said of Thebes? Of Athens?
S67. Of the Heet of Athens? Of the condition of Athens? Of her story? 368. When! wag

Plat born? What was he ealled? Why? Give an account of his carly lite
Bc. 36).] PLATO AND ISOCRATES. 291

tion to philosophy. He was twenty years of age when this occurred,
and he continued the disciple of that philosopher till Socrates fell a
victim to the violence of the times. Plato attempted to plead for the-
life of his master, but was prevented by the judges; he then presented
him with money sufficient to redeem his life, which Socrates refused
to accept; but he enjoyed the melancholy satisfaction of attending him
in prison, where he gathered from the conversation of his beloved
instructor the substance of his most admired composition, Phado--
‘Concerning the Soul.” In this dialogue, Socrates is represented as
proving the immortality of the soul by its spirituality, the objects to
which it naturally adheres being spiritual and incorruptible.

369. After the death of his master, Plato spent some years in travel-
ing through Italy, Cyrenaica, and Egypt. In Sicily he worsted Dio-
nysius the tyrant in an argument, and was in consequence sold into
slavery. Ilis friends and scholars raised money for his ransom, but his
noble-minded master gave him his liberty, and with the sum contri
buted, purchased for him a garden in the groves of Academus. Tlere’
the philosopher founded the celebrated Academy, where he taught the
gifted and high-born youth, who came from all parts of Greece to
listen to his instructions. Ile lived to a good old age, enriching his
country and the world with numerous philosophical works, adorned
with the chaste beauties of the Attic tongue, and enlivened with all
the graces of a brilliant imagination. The grove and garden which
had been the scene of his labors at last afforded him a sepulchre.
Statues and altars were erected to his memory, and his portrait was
preserved in gems; but the living image of his mind may be seen in
lis writings, stamped with the impress of immortality.

Note.—Isocrates was born at Athens, n. c. 436. He was the companion of Plato in the
school of Socrates; and after the execution of bis master, was the only person who bad cou-
rage to put on mourning. He was teacher of an oratorical school, and charged about $180
for acomplete course of instruction. Ie was a friend of peace, and kept up a correspond-
ence with Philip, urging upon him the policy and propriety of bringing all Greece into a
confederacy against Persia, After the battle of Cheroneia, he refused to take fuod for seve-
ral days, and thas closed his long and honorable career. at the age of 98.

Only twenty-one of his orations are now extant, One of these is said to have occupied

him ten years,

 

Questions—869, What further can you say of him? Of the honors paid to his memory }
yoy GREECE.
REVIEW QUESTIONS.
PAGE
1. Give the early history of Greece... ...-see eee rere ee eeeeerese 917, 98
2, Give an account of the Trojan War. ...---+eeeee eee reese 99, 100, 101
3. Of the Olympic and other gameS......++.eeeseeeeeee 102, 103, 104, 108
4. Of Lycurgus and his laws. ...... 6+. essere eee eee eee rete eee 104-108
5. Of the first and second Messenian Wars.....--e. seer eee e eee 109-112
6. Of Solon and his lawS.......... eee rere r ee eres 115-119, 199, 220, 339
T. Of the Pisistratidee ..... 6. cece eee ee eee eee ee eee eens 120-124
©. Of the battle of Marathon and its consequences. ....--eeeee eee 129, 130
9. Of affairs till the invasion by Nerxes..........--5 ices cae 130-137
10. Of Leonidas and the battle of Thermopyle......... Seow auscntens 136-139
11. Of the battle of Salamis and its comsequences........66 serene 141-143
12. Of Mardonius’s operations and death... 10.6... eee ee eee eee eee 143-148
13. What success did Xanthippus and Leotychidas have?......... 149, 150
14, What success did Themistocles have? .........--.246 132-143, 151-156
15. Give an account of Pausanias. ......-.. 0. eee ee eee eee eee 126, 145-155
16. Give an account of Cimon’s operations ............. cece ee eee 156-162
17. Of the contest between Pericles and Thucydides.............- 162-174
18. Of the first Peloponnesian war......... 2. cece eee e eee ee eee 167-174
19. Of the battle of Amphipolis and its consequences...........-- 174
20. Of Alcibiades and his operations ..........cc cece ce neveneees 175-198
21. Give the closing account of the Peloponnesian war............ 195-197
22. Give an account of Nicias and his operations..............066 172-183
23. Give the history of the “Four Hundred”....... ..........-. 185, 186
24. Give the early account of Lysander..................0.06. 74, 190-192
25. Give the subsequent account of him............ 0... ee eee eee 193-205
26. Give:ah account of ConOns wic.sccascoed eon Sede ee.oe sees 192-208
27. Of the battle of Arginusze and consequences............2...0- 192,. 193
28. Of the battle of AZAgos Potamos and consequences............. 193-196
29. Of the siege of Athens and results................0...02 005 196, 197
30. Give the history of the “Thirty Tyrants”... 0.02. .........00. 197-199
31. Give an account of Socrates... ..............79, 175, 193-201, 220, 221
32. Of the ‘Retreat of the Ten Thousand”................ 78-81, 201, 202
83. Give an account of Agesilaus. ............ 0002 e cece eee 126, 202-219
34, Of Thrasybulus and his operations. .......... 0... .c cee eee eee 192-207
35. Of the-Olymthian! Wats ccc gg Gaede wk wwe are gip ana eree Hee 208-210
36. Name the events in the second Peloponnesian war............ 212-219
37. Give an account of Epaminondas’s successeS............ 000 211-220
38. Give the biography of Plato............. +2 eR HSS NEO 4 RRR 198-221
39. Describe the battle of Mantinea............. 000. cece cee 216
40
MACEDONIA.

1. Tuus leaving Sparta, Thebes, and Athens, to act the inferior part
to which their own factions condemned them, let us turn to greet with
becoming attention a new hero of the Grecian drama.

Ainyntas, king when Darius invaded Europe, B. o.
(520.

2 | Alexander, envoy of Mardonius. See page 145.
3 | Perdiccas, B. c. 414.
4 | Archelaus made fortifications, formed roads, &e.

Amyntas disturbed by the Olynthian war.
Alexander II.

Ei Perdiccas.

Philip the Great.
Alexander JIL, the Great.

     
 

 

Aridaus, c]

Hercules.

Alexander, child of Roxana,

The Macedonians claimed their descent from Hercules, and therefore
had a kindred feeling with all the Dorian brotherhood; but as they
were far inferior to the other states in civilization, they made little
figure in history until the year B. 0. 359, when the crown devolved
upon Philip, only surviving son of Amyntas.

2. This youth, in the troubles arising from a disputed succession,

 

Questions. —Maceponta.—l. When did Macedonia come tnto political notice? Who wa
Philip ?
224 GREECE—MACEDONIA. [B. ©. 350.
had been taken by Pelopidas as a hostage to Thebes, where he received
a military and philosophical education in the house of Epaminondas,
and no doubt witnessed a retinement unknown in his brother’s court,
Upon ascending the throne, Philip found himself in the most perilons
circumstances. The Illyrians, who had slain his brother Perdiccas,
were plundering his country on the west; the Pwonians were engaged
in the same enterprise on the north; Pausanias, a Lacedemonian, put-
ting forward a claim to the throne, united with the Thracians, and
invaded Macedonia from the cast; the Athenians sent out a fleet to
vindicate their right to Amphipolis, on the south; and Argus, a rival
of his brother's, raised a party among the nobles, and assailed him in
his very court. ‘

3. Fortunately, he was well qualified by nature and education
to meet the exigencies in which he was placed. THe was eloquent,
shrewd, and courageous; but choosing to negotiate rather than fight,
he permitted the IMlyrian savages to carry off their plunder unmo-
lested, Knowing that the enjoyment of it would prevent another
immediate incursion. Ile bought off the Pwonian chiefs; and by the
powerful eloquence of gold, convineed the Thracian king of the injus-
tice of Pausanias’s claims. He withdrew his troops from Amphipolis,
and sent home the Athenian prisoners he had taken, with proposals of
peace; and, attacking Argieus, killed him in battle, and quelled the
insurrection of his rude nobles.

4. The Athenians, won by his generous policy, concluded a treaty
of peace and alliance with Macedonia; and “thus,” says the historian,
“this young prince, called to a throne nearly overwhelmed by tino
foreign cnemies, attacked by a third, threatened by a fourth, and con-
tested by two pretenders, before the end of the third summer, had
overcome these threatening evils not only, but had acquired new
dominion and new security.”

5. Arnentan Portoy.—After the battle of Leuctra, Olynthus again
asserted her independence, and now joining with Amphipolis, who had
thrown off the yoke of Athens, threatencd Macedon itself. Philip of
course united with the Athenians, to put down the rising powers, A
Macedonian army besieged Potidawa by Iund, while an Athenian fleet
blocked it up by sea. The city, thus closcly invested, soon surren-
dered, and received an Athenian gar

rison. Torone shared the same

 

 

 

Questions,—2, Where was Philip educated 2? What diMculties surrounded him as the king
of Macedon? 3 What were his three principal characteristics? Whatdid he gain by means
of gold?) What else did he gain? 4. By what policy did he make friends of hostile Pee ?
5 Where was Olynthus? (See map No. 2) Amphipolis? Potidwa? Torone? Methone?
Pydoa? What convulsions agitated Athens and Macedon ?
B. 0. 358.] PHILIP THE GREAT. 295

fate shortly after, and Methone acknowledged the sovereignty of
Athens; but this grasping power, emboldened by success, seized also
upon Pydna, the only remaining seaport in Macedonia. Philip sent
deputies to Athens to complain of this violation of the public faith, but
his remonstrance was unheeded. Demosthenes,* who saw a mighty
rival in the Macedonian king, advocated every measure calculated ta
cripple his power, and extend the supremacy of Athens.

6. As the Athenians, after the seizure of Pydna, could expect nc
further assistance from Philip, they withdrew their forces from Olyn-
thus, and laid siege to Amphipolis upon their own behalf. By the
dexterous management of Charidemus, a native of Euboea, in Athenian
pay, Ainphipolis was induced to surrender, and thus Athens possessed
all the maritime towns of Macedonia and Thrace. Demosthenes did
not overrate the importance of this conquest when he said, “ While
the Athenians hold Potidwa and Amphipolis, the king of Macedon.
cannot be safe in his own house.”’

7. Parip’s ALLIANCE wita OLyntaus.—But Philip knew his owr
interest far too well to leave the Athenians in quiet possession of

* This illustrious orator and statesman was born at Athens, B. ©. 382, Tx -wae left ar
orphan heir to a large estate at the age of seven. His first appearance a2 yol.e speake.
was in the prosecution of his guardians for embezzling his estate. The ‘avt’es +f his causa,
rather than the eloquence of his diction, gave him success. Indee“, it wes only hy tha
most untiring industry and perseverance that he acquired the art cf o.atory. He hada
stammering in his speech, which he remedied by declaiming wics pebb'es in his mouth,
He had a weak and effeminate voice, which he strengthened by p/oroupeiag orations upon
the sea-shore. He had also an awkward habit of shrugging one sas wee, which he corrected
by suspending a sword over it; and he practiced before a lich ius-;lass to overcome the
grimaces which accompanied his utterance. He constructed a 3'0,e. under ground, where
he studied for months together, shaving one side of his he«J, tiv. shaine might prevent a
wish to go abroad. In this solitary retreat, by the light of 2 ‘arp, he copied and re-copied
ten times all the orations recorded in Thucydides’s great history, and acquired a style so pure
and forcible, that mankind have by common consent yiel@c/ to him the palm of unrivaled
excellence in oratory. The theme, the time, and the theater of his orations contributed not
a little to his success. Liberty, or the ascendency of Avueuian demucracy, awakened for
him a sustaining and cheering response in every Athenian breast; hope and fear lent
him their powerful interest in those thrilling moments when Athens seemed about to guin
every thing, or to lose all; and never was orator surrounded with scenes so rich in imagery,
and so capable of furnishing him with all that was heart-stirring and exciting in appeal, as
was Demosthenes, when with one hand he could direct the eye to every spot made savred
by trophies of Athenian valor, and with the other point to the rising glory of Macedon,
before which the city of Minerva was destined to sutfer a final eclipse. His Olynthian ora-
tions, his four Philippies, viewed as pictures of the political state of Greece, or as specimens
of oratory, are incomparably interesting and beautiful. The whole Athenian people were
swayed by the breath of bis eloquence, and Philip used to say that he feared bim more than
all the flects and armies of Athens, and that “ he had no enemy but Demosthenes.”

 

Questions—5. Who was Demosthenes? 6. State how Athens acquired possession of all
the maritime towns of Macedonia and Thrace. How did Demosthenes estimate the impor-
tance of the Athenian conquest ?

 
226 GREECKE—MACEDONIA. [B. 0. 358.

Methone, Pydna, Amphipolis, and Potidwa. Ze also changed his
ground, and formed an alliance with the Olynthians, for the express
purpose of driving the Athenians entirely from the shores of Mace-
donia. The Athenians were taken by surprise. They had counted on
the ancient enmity between Olynthas and Macedon, to prevent a coali-
tion of this kind. They found they had counted in vain. They made
overtures of peace, which were rejected, and in spite of all their efforts
the combined forces of their enemies laid siege to Amphipolis. Tho
city was taken by assault; and Philip, entering it sword in hand, dis-
played his merey as a conqueror, and his merit as a statesman, Le
banished only the most facetious citizens, dismissed all prisoners of war
without ransom, and treated with particular attention all those who
had espoused his cause, After securing quiet possession of this impor-
tant post, the allied armies marched to Pydna. There was a strong
Macedonian party in the town, and no sooner did Philip appear in
arms before it, than the gates were opened to receive him.

8. Potidiwa stood next upon the list. The town’s people, consisting
of Macedonians and Olynthians, hearing of the approach of their
friends, rose against the Athenian garrison, forced them to retire into
the citadel, and threw open the gates with every demonstration of joy.
Philip released the Athenian prisoners, and furnished them with means
of returning home (that being the most direct method of opposing De-
mosthenes), and then turned his attention to the improvement of his
vevenne. Not far from Amphipolis were the gold mines of Crenidm.
They had been wrought by the neighboring inhabitants till the subter
ranean waters had filled up the veins, and rendered thom nearly use
Jess. With great labor and expense, Philip constructed machines for
draining these mines, and finally succeeded in gaining from them about
$1,000,000, yearly. Ie provided for the protection of the people
against their barbarian neighbors, and, in pledge of future attention,
named the place Philippi.

9. ALLIANOE wir THe

 

uy AND Erinus.—The next spring, Philip
was called to settle affairs in Thessaly. Lis father had owed his
throne to the attachment of the Thessalinns, and his brother had also
been in alliance with the nobles of that country. Now, when two
tyrant brothers had seized upon their liberties, the people Jooked to
Philip as the person who might deliver them from their oppressors,

 

 

 

Queslious.—T, What four cithes did Athens and Macedon quarrel for? What allianee did
Philip make? For what purpose did he make ity Why were the Athenians then sur
prised? “Give an account of Philip's sueeess at Amphipolis. At Pydna 8 AC Potidien
telate the origin of Philippi, 9 Give some account of Philip’s alliance with ‘Thessaly and
Epirus, Whom did Philip marry
B. 0. 357.] PHILIP THE GREAT. 927

without subjecting them toa severer yoke. The resu.t of this embassy
is given in the following words: ‘Philip, marching into Thessaly,
defeated the tyrants, and acquiring thus freedom for the cities, he
showed a liberality which so attached the Thessalians, that in all his
following wars and political contests they were his zealous assistants,
and continued such afterward to his son.” After his return from this
successful expedition, he married Olympia, a princess of Epirus, de-
scended from the hero Achilles. The magnificence with which their
nuptials were celebrated, formed the theme of many ancient writers.
From that time, the Macedonian court-became distinguished for its
elegance and splendor, and the greatest resort of refined society in the
world,

10. Tur Sarcep War.—B. c. 357.—While Athenians had been thus
fruitlessly contending with Macedon, Thebes had renewed her hostility
with Sparta in another from. Unable to punish her rival as she
desired for the treachery of Phcebidas, ske complained of the act
to the Amphictyonic council. The council lstened to the story of
Theban wrongs, and fined the Lacedemonians an immense sum. They
refused to pay it; and after a specified time the fine was doudled,
They still made no exertions to meet the demand; and after another
period it was made three-fold.

11. The Phocians were always enemies of the Thebans, and for that,
if tor no other reason, friends of the Spartans. The Thebans, there-
fore, accused them of having plowed ap the Cirrhean plain, which the
council had so solemnly consecratcu to the god. This accusation was
respondesl to by a decree, ‘That the Cirrhrean land had heen devoted,
and the Phocians must immediately cease to use it, and pay a fine.”
It was so long since the Amphictyons had interfered in Grecian affairs,
that many contended they had noright to do so: the subject was
“taken up in the lips of talkers,’ and much uneasiness was excited ;
but the land, meantime, was cultivated as before, and the fine remained
unpaid.

12. When the appointed time had expired, this fine, like the one
imposed upon Lacedemon, was doubled, and a new decree of the coun-
cil declared, that ‘* All states guilty of such contempt for Amphictyo-
nic law, as, after the duplication of the fine, to let the limited time
pass without taking any measures for payment, forfeited all their lands
to the god; and that accordingly all the lands of the Lacedemonians

 

Questions.—9. For what did the Macedonian court become distinguished? 10, What
complaint did Thebes bring against Sparta? What action did the council take? 11,12,
What complaint did Thebes make against the Phenicians? What was the resut?

ee
228 GREECE—MACEDONIA. [p. ©. 357,

2

and Phocians were forfeited... This was followed by a proclamation
tu the Greeks, that it bebooved every man and every state, as they
hoped for divine favor, or feared divine wrath, to do their utmost
toward carrying the decree into execution. The Amphictyons having
thus sounded the trumpet of war, consternation and dismay pervaded
the valleys of Phocis.

13. ALLIANCE BETWEEN Puocis AND Lacrepemon.— Though the Pho-
cians had never meddled in Grecian politics, they were not destitute
of courage, nor insensible to the charms of liberty. One man was
found among them, the oldest of three brothers, who might have vied
with Pericles, had he lived to perfect all the great qualities which the
present exigency called into action. A congress of the Phocian cities
having been called, to deliberate upon the state of the country, this
man, Philomelus, represented to them that the Cirrlwan lund had
belonged to the Phocians fromm time immemorial; that they also had a
right to the presidency of the Delphie oracle, of which the Amphic-
tyons had unjustly deprived them; and that as they were now strug-
gling against their oppressors, they might reasonably hope for the
divine blessing upon their endeavors.

14. The assembly felt the force of his reasonings, and committed to
him the direction of affairs, with the title of gencral-autocrator. He
proceeded at vice to Sparta to concert measures for withstanding the
Thebans, who were preparing to show their piety by enforcing the
Amphictyonic decree. Ile was well received by the Ephori; and
Archidamus, the king, did all in his power to further his plans. It
was agreed that the Delphian treasury was unsafe in the hands of the
Amphiectyons, and ought immediately to be reduced to a dependence
upon Phocian virtue; but how to bring about so desirable a change
was an important question.

16. Sparta had no money to hire mercenaries, and her own troops
could not reach Delphi without fighting their way through hostile
Arcadia. With money supplied by private liberality, Philomelus, how-
ever, succeeded in hiring those soldiers who, since the battle of Manti-
nea, had been roving about in idleness; and, watching his opportunity,
got them conveyed across the Corinthian Gulf. ‘With all possible dis-
pateh he marched to Delphi, and putting the guard to flight, gained
possession of the place. His first act was to destroy the deerces
against Phocis and Laccdemon, by defacing the marble upon which

 

Questions.—13. What alliance was formed in consequenee ? Who was Philomelns? What
representation did he make? 14. What power was committed to bim? Give an account
of his movements. 15. Give a further account of his movements.

 
B. 0. 357.] PHILIP THE GREAT. 229

they were engraved. Then, publishing a declaration that he had taken
charge of the temple and its treasures, by command of the Phocians,
to whom the holy shrine belonged, he requested all the states of
Greece to assist his countrymen in maintaining their ancient right.

16. Athens entered at once into a confederacy with Phocis. Most
of the Grecian states engaged in the quarrel, and many bloody but
indecisive battles were fought. The Thebans, having taken several
prisoners, caused them all to be put to death as sacrilegious wretches;
and the Phocians retaliated this cruelty upon some Theban captives.
Finally, having been defeated in a great battle, Philomelus was driven
to an eminence whence there was no retreat ; and, rather than fall into
the hands of his enemies, threw himself headlong from the rock, and
was dashed in pieces. The command then devolved upon his brother,
Onomarchus.

17. Puivip. enrERs THE Lists.—Philip was at this time engaged in
the siege of Methone, which Athens had stirred up to make incursions
upon his territory. The siege lasted through the winter, nor did he

‘withdraw his troops from the place till it was dismantled and added
to the Macedonian territory. Then, hearing that Onomarchus was
supporting a revolt in Thessaly, he engaged in the Sacred War. He
lost two battles and was obliged to retreat to his own country; but,
raising another army, he advanced again to Thermopyle, where he
met the Phocians and defeated them with great slaughter. Upwards
of 6,000 were slain upon the spot; and the prisoners, amounting to
8,000, were thrown into the sea, as the professed enemies of religion.
Ouomarchus was slain, and the command devolved upon his brother,
Phayllus.

18. By this great victory, al/ Thessaly came under the dominion of
Philip; nor was it in the power even of Demosthenes to diminish the
credit which Philip had gained by destroying those who had usurped
the guardianship of the oracle, and used its treasures in hiring soldiers
to resist the decrees of the Amphictyons. ‘It is incredible,” says an
ancient historian, ‘‘ what glory the victory over Onomarchus earned
to Philip among all nations. He was the avenger of sacrilege; he
was the protector of the religion of Greece. Next to the immortal
gods is he, by whom the majesty of the gods is vindicated.”

 

Questions.—16, What confederacy was formed? What is said of other states engaging
in the quarrel? What cruelties and retaliations were perpetrated? Give an account of the
death of Philomelus. Who then commanded? 17. Where was Philip at this time? What
success did he meet with there? How came be to be enguged in the Sacred War? How
did his first battles result? At what place did he gain a great victory? Give some ac
count of it, 18 What condition of things followed the victory? ;.What is reported as
having buen said by an ancient historian ?

tis,
B. 0. 846
230 GREECE—MACEDONIA. L

orious in several battles witL the Thebans, but
died soon after, of consamption. Faction, that curse of the Grecian
republics, then fixed its venomous fangs upon the Phocians, There
arose two pretenders to the office of autocrator-general, and while
they were intent upon settling this affair, Philip, at the head of his
forces, joined the Thebans in an attack upon Phocis. The distracted
Phocians, unable to defend themselves, appealed to his generosity to
escape the vengeance of the Thebans. They requested only that they
might have permission to abandon their houses and lands, and seek
safety in flight. This request was granted. The principal Phocians
emigrated; and thus, after many bloody struggles during ten years,
the Sacred War quietly ended.

20. Tue Douste Vote.—To settle the points now agitating Greece,
Philip invited a congress of all the states to meet at Thermopyle.
This grave assembly, in commencing their difficult and complicated
business, referred the affair of the Phocians to the Amphictyonic
council. By their decree all the Amphictyonic rights of the Phocians
were said to be forfeited, and all their principal cities were given over
to be dismantled; it was ordered that no village should contain more
than fifty houses, and that a yearly rent of $4,800 should be paid from
the Phocian lands till the debt of the god was liquidated. The double
vote in the Amphictyonic council which the Phocians had heretofore
enjoyed was bestowed upon Philip, in consideration of the benefits
he had conferred upon the Greek nation. A general peace was then
concluded; and throughout Greece, with the exception of the war
party in Athens, all voices were joined in extolling Philip as their
friend, and benefactor, and preserver.

21. Macrponian War.—While the Sacred War was in progress,
the Athenians commenced hostile demonstrations in Thrace, for the
recovery of the lost Chersonese and the recapture of Byzantium.
This attack, which resulted in the Macedonian War, proceeded step
by step with the Saered War; so that while the Athenians were
allies of the Phocians in that fatal struggle, they were at the sume
time ‘ parties of the first part” in a war of their own seeking. Philip,
on his side, had to contend with all the enemies the Athenians could
stir up against him. The Ilyrians again commenced hostilities upon
the west, the Pwonians on the north, and the Thraciuns on the east.

19. Phayllus was vict

Questions.—19. What success did Phayllus have? What ocenrred soon after? By what
means was the war terminated? 20. By whom was a concress called? At what place ?
For what purpose? What decree was made? How was Philip rewarded? With whom
had he been fighting dnring the war? 21. What was the cause of the Macedonian Wur?
What opposition confronted Philip ?

 
B. 0. 356.] BIRTH OF ALEXANDER. 931

But he was never unready for business. He sent Parmenio with an
army against his troublesome neighbors, and marched himself into
Thrace, where his good fortune was so great, that, according to Demos-
thenes, “he made and unmade there what kings he close.”

22. Birru or ALtexanpEr.—Philip had just returned from this suc-
cessful expedition, when a messenger came to him with the welcome
intelligence of a great victory which Parmenio had gained over the
Tlyrians, The same day another courier brought him word that his
horse had won the palin in the Olympic games. Scarcely had he been
congratulated upon these successes, when a third messenger arrived
with the information of the birth of a son. ‘O, fortune,” exclaimed
the happy monarch, “send some little evil to temper all this good.”
Not long after, he wrote the following letter to Aristotle, inviting him
to take charge of the young prince. ‘ Philip to Aristotle, greeting.
I desire you should know I have a son born. Greatly I thank the
gods for it, and yet less for the mere circumstance that I have a son,
than because it happens in the age wherein you are living. I trust
that, being put under your care and instruction, he will become worthy
of his birth, and of the inheritance awaiting him.”

23. OLtyntuvus AnD AtTnEeNS.—It was just after these events that
Philip engaged with Methone and the Phocians. Demosthenes, dis-
appointed in the result, brought about a confederacy with Olynthus.
Since the alliance of that republic with Macedon, it bad prospered
wonderfully ; but, becoming jealous of its neighbor, it entered into a
treaty with Athens, contrary to its existing engagements with Mace-
don, and prepared for war with a zeal which showed a sense of the
just indignation of Philip. The war party of Athens were now “in
the full tide of successful experiment.” ‘Now was the favorable
moment, they said, to engage all Greece in a league against the threat-
ening ambition of the Macedonian king.”’ Philip was represented as
the most false and cruel of tyrants, who had a certain design upon the
liberties of Greece.

24. Demosthenes commenced his Olynthiac orations, and undertook
the difficult and dangerous experiment of persuading the Athenians to
divert the theoric revenue (the sum appropriated to the support of
theaters) from its legitimate object, to the purposes of war. This

 

Questions.—21. On what expedition did he send Purmenio? To what place did Philip
march? What did Demosthenes say of Philip’s good fortune? 22, What three pteces of
good news did Philip receive? What exclamation did he make? What was the language
of his letter to Aristotle? 25. Why did Olynthus turn against Philip? What was the
object of Demosthenes? How was Philip represented? 24, What dangirous task did
Demosthenes undertake ? watt
232 GREECE—MACEDONIA. [B. 0. 346

attempt to rob the amusement-loving Athenians of their greatest
pleasure, would bave cost the life of a less popular man than the
renowned orator; but he had so fixed the attention of the populace
upon the great actor, Philip, that they consented to give up their cus-
tomary entertainment, to assist in the grand tragedy going on in Olyn-
thus. Indeed, the representations of the orator produced such a zeal
in the Athenian people, that a force was fitted out to assist Olynthus,
such as had never, since the fatal Sicilian expedition, been sent upon
foreign service.

25. Philip was not prepared for this new war. His country was
open on the Olynthiac side, and his enemies had overrun and plundered
his territories before he had time to make any effectual opposition.
In the winter, the Athenian general, Chares, returned to Athens.
The people assembled as usual to hear his report. He gave a thrilling
account of a glorious battle and uninterrupted success, and, to com-
plete the gratification of his fellow-citizens, he made a great feast for
all the people, which cost at least $50,000. This money was not fur-
nished from his private purse, nor from the profits of his command,
but from the Delphian treasury, having been extorted from their allies,
the Phocians. While these rejoicings were going on in Athens, the
Olynthians were very uneasy. Philip was making grand preparations
for the spring campaign, and when Chares returned to the theater of
war, he found a force far superior to his own assembled upon the
Olynthian border. He ventured a battle, and was defeated; a second,
with no better suecess. The Olynthians were then obliged to take
shelter behind their walls.

26. The other towns of the confederacy submitted at once to the
conqueror, and Philip approached within five miles of Olynthus, and
fortificd his camp. The wretched inhabitants then desired to enter
jnto a treaty. He answered, ‘That it was too late; he had before
abundantly and repeatedly expressed his disposition to treat, but now
it was become too evident that there was but one alternative; they
must quit Olynthus, or he Macedonia.” The surrender of the place
occurred not long after, und the victor carried out his determination
of compelling thein to leave the peninsula. It seemed advisable now,
even to Demosthenes, to make peace; and Philip having manifested

 

Questions.—24. Why would it not have been safe for any other person to have made the
attempt? Why was Demosthenes snecessful? 25. Why was not Philip prepared for this
pew war? What account did Chares give to the Athenians? What is said ‘of his feast?
Oi his first two battles thereafter? 26. Mow near to Olynthus did Philip approach? How
was Olynthus situated? (See map No. 2.) What desire did the Olynthians exprese?
What was Philip’s reply? What followed? Tow did this war terminate?
B. ¢. 343.] PHILIP THE GREAT. 2933

a

the same disposition, it was soon concluded. The Macedonian court
became the focus of negotiation for the Grecian republics, and at the
very time and place of the settlement of the disputes arising out of the
Sacred War, the difficulties of Macedon and Athens were finally ad-
justed, and a general peace brought repose to the country.

27. Puiuir’s Expepirion.—s. 0. 843.—Three years after, Philip
turned his attention to the barbarians who had inhabited his north-
eastern frontier. They fled before him, and he pursued till winter over-
took him upon the banks of the Danube, and his way was entirely hedged
in. Reports of various kinds were spread in Greece. It was said he
was sick. It was rumored that he was dead; and, depending upon the
truth of these stories, or counting more certainly upon the dangers
with which he was surrounded, the war party* in Athens, of which
the great orator was the life and soul, began again to lift its head.
By making war in Thrace, it was contended that ‘ Philip had broken
the peace, and that it was evidently his design to destroy Athens and
overthrow democracy.” Acting under this persuasion, the Athenians
instructed the commanders of their fleet to stop all the ships bound to
Macedonia, and, condemning the crews as enemies to Athens, to sell
them into slavery.

28. Philip remonstrated in vain. Demosthenes had in effect exalted
himself to the station of prime-minister of the republic; viceroy of
that sovereign assembly which met to decide upon the fate of thou-
sands; and his voice ‘was still for war.” To discharge the duties of
his arduous office, he applied himself to every kind of business with
untiring vigilance, and watched an opportunity to bring all the states
of Greece into a confederacy to overthrow Macedonian supremacy.
For this purpose, he did not scruple to receive money from the Per-
sian king, nor to exert his influence in healing the breach between
Athens and Thebes. Though these cities had fought on opposite sides
at the battle of Mantinea and in the Sacred War, yet Demosthenes
having shown thei the advantage of being friends, they readily con-
sented to bury private animosities in the grave they were digging for
the power of Macedon.

29. The coalition was for a time successful. Chares had been sent

* The war party opposed every measure of Philip’s; but Phocion and the venerable Iso-
crates sought only for the pacification of Greece.

 

Questions.—27. Give an account of Philip’s expedition, What charge did the Athenian
war party make against Philip? What instructions were given to commanders of Athe-
nian vessels? 28, Tu what position had Demosthenes risen? To what did he apply him-
self? Of whom did he receive money? For what purpose? What reconciliation did he
effect ?
Ont GREECE—MNACEDONIA. [B. c. 343,

with succors to Byzantium, which was attacked by the Macedonian
king; but, failing in his commission, was recalled in disgrace. Pho-
cion then undertook to preserve that city for Athens. The virtue and
moderation of this general were well known; and a man of eminence
in Byzantium, who had been his intimate friend at the Academy,*
pledged his honor to the city in his behalf. The Byzantines then
threw open their gates, admitted the Athenians, and joined them
against Macedon. By these means Philip lost all the towns on the
Chersonese, and suffered not a little in his military reputation. He
was now, as ever, very desirous of peace, and particularly anxious to
gain the friendship of the Athenians, for reasons of his own; but De-
mosthenes opposed the terms which Phociont advised them to accept,
and the war went on with mutual attacks and reprisals four years
longer, without any decisive advantage to either side.

30. Trp Sacred War.—But a new leaven was at work in the
great loaf of Grecian discomfort, which soon produced a fermentation
throughout the whole mass. Amphissa, a town not seven miles from
Delphi, bordered on that devoted Cirrhean plain forbidden to the use
of man, The Aimphisseans, unwarned by the fate of the Phocians,
used the land for pasturage, and ventured to repair the long-deserted
harbor. These acts Aschines, an orator in the interest of Macedon,
represented as a repetition of the former sacrilege, and the Amphic-
tyons, of which he was a member, declared war against the Amphis-
sans, and invited Philip to command the armies of the god. This
brought the crafty Macedonian at once into the midst of Grecian
affairs. Demosthenes immediately sounded the alarm for the Grecian
states. Even Corinth, the old enemy of Athens, joined the war party.
All was bustle and confusion; fortifications were repaired, arms made
and burnished, and every man was on the alert. Diogenes, the famous

* The school of Plato.

+ Though Phocion had engaged in hostility with Philip, and driven him out of the Het-
lespont, be was still in favor of peace; but he was not a gifted orator, and therefore failed to
carry his point. The perils of his country alone induced him to mount the bema. He

excelled in readiness of reply, and exposed with cutting sarcasm any fallacy in argument
Dumosthenes, who had often felt the keenness of his wit, styled him the Hatchet.

 

Questions.—29. Where did the Athenian troops meet Philip? What did Phocion effect?
What then was Philip’s condition? Why was not the war then brought toa close? 30.
What causes produced the third sacred War? What course did Demasthenes take? What
were the consequences? What did Diogenes do? Who was Diogenes? Ans. A famous
Cynic philosopher, born in Pontus: he lived in the summer at Corinth, and in the win-
ter at Athens. He taucbt that a man, to be happy, must despise honor, power, and all the
enjoyments of life. He walked the streets barefooted and without any coat. At night he
slept ina tub. He exposed the foliies of the age by the keenest ne. Being asked,
“What is the most dangerous animal?” be replied: “ Among wild animals, the slanderer ;
among tame the flatlerer.”

 
B. 0. 338.] PHILIP THE GREAT. 935

Cynic philosopher, at that time in the city, began to roll his tub about
in a remarkable manner. Being asked why he did so, he said ‘the
did not wish to be the only man in Corinth not absurdly employed.”

31. But all their preparations were in vain. Philip easily punished
the Amphissreans; and then, as if afraid of Athens and her confede-
rates, seized upon Elatea, the principal city of Phocis. It was late in
the evening when a courier arrived at Athens with the news of the
fall of Elatea. The Prytanes were at supper, but, instantly rising from
the table, some of them went to the agora, dismissed the ware-sellers,
and burned their stalls; others sent to call the trumpeter, and the
whole city was filled with tumult. Next morning the people were
called together, and a herald proclaimed that any one who would
advise the assembly might speak. A dead silence ensued. Finally,
Demosthenes mounted the bema, and, having clearly demonstrated to
the people that Philip meant to enter Attica, and reduce them all to
slavery, he so wrought upon the passions of his audience, that it was
decreed to send the whole force of Attica to oppose the Macedonian,
and defend the liberty of the Greeks.

32. Barrie or Cneroyera.—p. o. 338.—It was upon the plain of
Cheroneia, about sixteen miles from Elatea, that the allied forces of
Thebes and Athens led the “forlorn hope” of Grecian democracy against
the overwhelming power of the Macedonian monarchy. The particulars
of the battle it isnot necessary to relate. Philip was victorious. Alex-
ander, at the head of the Macedonian youth, cut down the Sacred
Theban Band. They neither turned nor wavered in the fight, but fell
upon the spot where they were stationed, each by the side of his dar-
ling friend, like the three hundred Spartans, leaving their bodies a
monument of their constancy to the cause of liberty. The news of
the defeat at Cheroneia produced terror and consternation among the
Athenians. They looked for nothing less than a second Lysander in
the king they had so often provoked. Demosthenes, who fought in
the battle, made his escape in the general flight, and, embarking in a
trireme, sailed from the Pirgus, saying that he was going to collect
tribute. Philip, however, did not pursue the fugitives: he even sent
the prisoners home without ransom, determined, if possible, to attach
the Athenians to his interests.

33. From the field of battle the victorious army marched to Thebes.

 

Questions.—31. What city fell into the hands of Philip? Where was Elatea? (See map
No.2.) What effect did the news of the fall of Elatea have at Athens? What was done by
Demosthenes? 82. Where was the plain of Cheroneia? When was the battle of Cheroneia
fought? Give an account of it. What is said of Demosthenes? Of Philip's generosity}
83. To what place did the victors then march? :
236 GREECE—MACEDONIA. [B. c. 336,

No opposition was made to their entrance. The government passed
quietly into the hands of the Macedonian party, and Beotia rejoiced in
the change of masters. As soon as it was known that the conqueror
was disposed to peace, an embassy was sent from the Athenians to
negotiate in their favor. Philip made no hard conditions, and Phocion
had the satisfaction of contributing to the welfare of his country in
the peace which was ratified. The great purpose of the monarch’s
soul was now unvailed. Diodorus says, “ Philip, encouraged by his
victory at Cheroneia, was ambitious of becoming military commander
of the Greek nation. He declared therefore his intention of carrying
war in the common cause of the Greeks against the Persians.” By the
national congress which he summoned at Corinth, he was elected
general-autocrator of Greece, and the proportion of troops which
every state should furnish for the Persian war was settled.

34, Deata or Pnir.—s. 0. 336.—Thus crowned with honor, he
returned to Macedon, to prepare for the great enterprise which had so
long occupied his thoughts; but the dagger of the assassin cut short
his schemes, and left Asia unconquered for his son. Philip loved con-
viviality, and was often intoxicated. Olympias was prond and impe-
rious. The other princesses, whom policy or a more tender motive
Jed her husband to introduce into his palace, excited her conterapt,
and aroused her resentment; and, after many quarrels, she retired to
her brother’s court. Alexander espoused his mother’s cause, and took
up his abode in Illyria. This breach was apparently healed; and the
mother and son had returned to Macedon. Cleopatra, Alexander’s
sister, was to be married to her uncle, the king of Epirus, and great
preparations were made for the wedding. Philip, having summoned
the states of Greece to furnish their soldiers, and having received a
satisfactory response from the oracle,* intended on this occasion to
secure the peace of his dominions by every possible friendly alliance
before setting out for Asia.

35. Guests were bidden from all parts of Greece. The most cele-
brated actors and musicians were engaged to entertain the goodly
company. Deputies came to offer congratulations, and to.present him
with golden crowns. The day following the nuptials, a grand exhibi-
tion was to take place in the theater. Philip, clothed in white robes,

* The response was this: “ Crowned is the victim, the altar is ready, the stroke ia
impending.”

Questions,—33. What followed? What is said of Phocion? What ambitious views had
Philip? To what position was he elected? 84. What is stated as against Philip? What
quarrel occurred? What marriage was arranged? What preparations therefor did Philip
make? 35. How for were the preparations curried out? Give an account of Philip’s death.
B. c. 336.] ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 237

advanced at the head of the procession; but just as the shouts of the
admiring multitude announced the king, a young man ran out from the
crowd, and, drawing a sword, stabbed him to the heart. Philip fell
dead. The assassin fled, but was pursued and killed as he was mount-
ing his horse. It was said to be a matter of private revenge; but
Olympias was suspected of having instigated the crime, and Alexander
did not escape the horrid imputation.*

36. Alexander the Great was born at Pella, B. 0. 356, on the very
day that the temple of Diana at Ephesus was burned to the ground.
All the magi who were at Ephesus, looked upon the jire as an emblem
of a much greater misfortune, and ran about the town beating their
breasts, and crying out, ‘‘This day has brought forth the scourge and
destroyer of Asia.” Whether the forebodings of the magi were real
or feigned, Asia had good reason to tremble when he who was destined
to subdue her ancient lords, and water her plains with the blood of
her sons, entered upon the stage of life. Leonatus, an austere man,
was his governor till eight years of age, when Lysimachus, an Acar-
nanian, became his instructor. As the family of Olympia claimed
their descent from the renowned Achilles, Lysimachus ingratiated
himself into their favor by dignifying his pupil with the name of that
warrior—a circumstance which doubtless contributed to foster the
ambitious feelings which had been observed in him from lis infancy.

37. In his fifteenth year, Alexander was placed under the immediate
tuition of the celebrated Aristotle,t and continued to receive instruc-

* No sooner did Demosthenes hear of the death of his great enemy, than he assembled
the Athenian people, and persuaded them to offer a sacrifice as upon news of a splendid
victory; and though he was at that time in mourning for his only child, he put on a festal
robe, and attended the ceremony crowned with flowers.

“Thus fell the greatest potentate of his time in Europe. With very small resources in
the outset, he acquired the most powerful monarchy that had ever existed among the
Greeks; but his great success arose less from the force of his arms, than from his obliging
disposition and conauct.”

+ ARISTOTLE was born at Stagira, an island on the Macedonian coast, B. 0. 8S4. At the
age of seventeen he went to Athens, and devoted himself to philosophy in the school
of Plato. His uncommon acuteness and indefatigable industry gained for him so higha
rank, that Plato used to call him the ‘| Mind of the School,” and to say, when he was
absent, “ Intellect is not here.” He lived in Athens twenty years, during which he
wrote many works; thence he passed to Macedonia, where he remained in quality of tutor
to Alexander eight more, and then returned to Athens. He kept up, however, a corre-
spondence with the young king, and persuaded him to use his power and wealth in the
service of philosophy. Alexander employed several thousand persons in different parts of
Europe and Asia to collect animals of various kinds, birds, beasts, and fishes, to send to
Aristotle, who, frum the information thus afforded, wrote fifty volumes on the history of

 

Questions.—36. Where was Alexander the Great born? When? What memorable
event took place the same day? Where was Pella? (Map No. 2.) Who were the first in-
structors of Alexander? 87. What is said of his subsequent training? Who was Aristotle?
238 GREECE—MACEDONIA. [B. c. 336.

tion from that philosopher in all the branches of human knowledge,
until he came to the throne. For him Aristotle wrote a work on
Government, and revised the Tliad, that he might present to his royal
pupil an accurate copy of his favorite poem. This volume Alexander
preserved with the greatest care, placing it every night with his sword
under his pillow. Jlis tutor too he held in the highest esteem, and
believed himself bound to love him as much as his father, declaring,
“ That he was indebted to the one for living, and to the other for liv-
ing well.”

38. While Alexander was yet a boy, there was sent from Thessaly
to Philip a noble war-horse, called Bucephalus, which, upon trial,
proved so strong and fiery that no one dared to mount him. Philip
gave orders that the unmanageable creature should be sent back again,
when Alexander interposed, and besought permission to try his skill.
It was granted. Alexander went up to the horse, spoke kindly to
him, and, perceiving that he was frightened at his own shadow, turned
him about, vaulted upon his back, and rode him round the circle of
admiring courtiers with the greatest ease and address. When he
alighted his father embraced him, exclaiming, ‘t My son, seek a king-
dom more worthy-of thee, for Macedon is below thy merits.” Buce-
phalus was ever after the favorite horse of Alexander, and the animal
became so attached to his master that he would permit no one else to
mount him.

39. At the age of sixteen, Alexander received the embassadors of
Persia in the absence of his father, and, instead of inquiring about the
palace and court, with a curiosity natural to his years, engaged with
them in conversation upon the subjects of government, battles, and
sieges, displaying such intelligence and discernment as quite surprised
his visitors. At the age of eighteen, he commanded the Macedonian
youth in the battle of Cheroneia, and cut down the Sacred Theban
Band. At the age of twenty, by the death of his father, he became
monarch of Macedon, and generalissimo of the Greek forces.

40. First ARRANGEMENTS OF ALEXANDER.—Macedon had been
animated nature. He differed with Plato in philosophy, and established a school at Athens,
in the grove called Lyceum, in opposition to the Academy. He delivered his lectures while
walking about, and his followers were in consequence called Periputetics. He continued
his labors there thirteen years, and then retired to Chalcis, in Eubcea, to escape a fate simi-

lar to that of Socrates. He dicd there at the age of sixty-three. He was buried at Stagira,
where his memory was honored with an altar and a tomb.

 

Questions,—-87. How did Alexander regard Aristotle? 83. Give the account of Alex-
ander and the horse Bucephalus. 39. What is related of Alexander at the age of sixteen?
Of him at the age of eighteen? Of bim at the age of twenty? 40. What changes had
Philip effected in Macedon?
Bc. 335.] ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 239

greatly changed by the energetic and beneficent policy of Philip.
The inhabitants, from rude, uncultivated herdsmen at war with neigh-
boring states, had been transformed into agriculturists, mechanics, or
soldiers, who knew. how to maintain a respectable position among the
nations of Greece. But though Macedon was thus improved in its
internal state, and comfortably allied with its neighbors, yet the death
of Philip again roused the spirit of faction throughout Greece. The
young king, however, showed himself fully capable of meeting his
enemies, either in the field or cabinet. ‘The king’s name is indeed
changed,” said he to the Macedonian assembly, “but the king, you
shall find, remains the same.” He retained the able ministers and
generals who had assisted his father, and by their counsel and aid
succeeded in quelling a rebellion already excited in his own dominions,
and in securing the friendship of Thessaly, his most powerful ally.

41. Thus fortified, he proceeded to Thermopylw, and took his
inherited seat in the Amphictyonic council. Notwithstanding the
efforts of Demosthenes, embassadors were sent from Athens as from
the other states, to congratulate him upon his accession to the throne,
and to desire a continuation of the friendship formed with his father.
From Thermopyle Alexander proceeded to Corinth, where, a congress
of the states being assembled, the question of his election to the station
of autocrator-general to carry the war into Persia was warmly dis-
cussed. He was elected by a great majority, though the Lacedemo-
nians sternly opposed the measure. While in this region he deter-
mined to consult the oracle, but, as he happened to go upon an unlucky
day, the priestess refused to officiate. The impetuous prince, however,
seized her by the arm and dragged her into the temple, when she
cried out, ‘‘ My son, thou art invincible.” Alexander, hearing this,
said, ‘‘We wanted no other answer, for he had the very oracle he
desired.”

42. Wars in tHe Norru, East, anp West.—Upon his return
home, he began to make preparations for his great enterprise, but was
prevented from setting off immediately by his troublesome neighbors.
The Triballians and Thracians formed a league against him on the
northeast, and the Ilyrians again commenced incursions on the west.
Parmenio, the general who had so faithfully served his father, was

 

Questions.—40, What caused the spirit of faction to break ont again in Macedon? What
did Alexander say to the Macedonian assembly? 41. What inherited seat did Alexander
take? What efforts did Demosthenes make in vain? To what place did Alexander next
proceed? What was done at Corinth? Give the account of Alexander with the oracle
Trace Alexander on the map, from Pella through his journey. 42, What troubles threat-
ened Alexander on the northeast and west? On what expedition was Parmenio sent?
240 GREECE—MACEDONIA. [B. c. 335,

sent against the latter, and Alexander himself marched against the
barbarians. He pursued them to the mountains, and overcame every
ovstacle with ease, till he reached the rugged chain of Haemus, whose
defiles Count Diebitsch so gallantly forced in the late war between
Russia and Turkey. The mountaineers, unpracticed in regular war-
fare, established themselves upon the summits overlooking the only
practicable pass, and, loading wagons with stones, prepared to roll
them down upon the invaders.

43. The shields of the Macedonians were of a rectangular form, and
large enough to protect the whole body. Alexander accordingly
directed his soldiers to open their ranks, and let the wagons pass, and,
where this was impracticable, to fall upon the ground, and cover them-
selves with their compacted shields. This plan succeeded. The wagons
were wasted in vain; not aman was killed by their impetuous descent;
and the phalanx, rapidly forming, advanced up the bill with loud shouts.
The barbarians were routed, and their women and children falling into
the hands of the Macedonians were sold for slaves. Alexander, deter-
mined in the beginning to make sure work, had ordered vessels from
Byzantium to proceed up the Danube. After three days’ journey
through cultivated plains, he reached the banks of that mighty stream,
and beheld upon the other side the country of the Geta, or Goths,
covered with wheat, already white to the harvest. Here, meeting his
vessels, he transported his army across in the night, and the next day
advanced towards the capital of the barbarians.

44. The Goths had assembled to give battle, but when they saw the
phalanx approaching, with spears presented and burnished shields,
hardly admitting a sight of what bore them, together with the cavalry
moving with miraculous regularity, they fled in the greatest dismay.
Their city fell into the hands of the Macedonians, and this bloodless
victory was rewarded with great booty. Returning from this expedi-
tion before the Ilyrians were subdued, he marched against them, and,
falling upon them when they thought him still at a distance, gained so
complete a victory that they never attempted rebellion again in his
reign.

45. Conreperacy against Macepon.—Scarcely were these enemies
reduced, when new ones required his attention. Demosthenes, who

 

Questions.— 42. On what expedition did Alexander march? Wow did the mountaineers
prepare to encounter Alexander? 43, How did Alexander mect this kind of warfare? What
was the result? What direction bad Alexander given to vessels? Why? Give a further
account of Alexander’s movements. 44. How did the Goths behaye? What was the con-
sequence? What rapid movement did Alexander then make? ‘Trace Alexander's route
45, What did Demosthenes do while Alexander was absent?
c. 325.] ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 941

hated and feared the son as sincerely as he had the father, and who
used unsparingly the eloquence with which nature had so richly
endowed him, and the gold with which the king of Persia so liberally
furnished him, had succeeded in forming another confederacy against
Macedon. After the battle of Cheroneia, a Macedonian garrison had
been left in Thebes. The commanders of this garrison were both
murdered in one night, and a report was at the same time circulated
that Alexander was dead. A revolution immediately took place in
Thebes, the Macedonian alliance was removed, and the city declared
independent. The Thessalians, knowing whence the storm arose,
declared war against Athens and Thebes ; and Greece was again all
commotion.

46. When these circumstances were reported to Alexander, in his
camp in Illyria, he lost no time in deliberation. Taking the shortest
route over a country of rocky, wooded mountains, in twelve duys he
arrived before the walls of Thebes with a chosen band. He hoped by
the uncalculated rapidity of his march to intimidate his enemies, and
compose matters without bloodshed; but though the Thebans were
struck with dismay when they heard of his approach, they still deter-
mined to make an effort; and though the Athenians were not yet in
arms, nor the Arcadians ready to march, they shut themselves up in
their city, and, relying upon the strength of their walls, obstinately
refused all offers of peace.

47. Ruix or Turepes.—The horrors perpetrated at the storming of
Thebes have been rarely paralleled in the annals of war. Many brave
men fell upon both sides before the gates were forced, but when once
the multitudes of Phocians, Thespians, and Plateans (who had suffered
so much from Theban cruelty, and were now found ranged under the
banner of Alexander) came to settle their long account of blood, the
city of Cadmus fell beneath the fearful retribution. The conquering
army ravaged the town, careless of commands, and slaughtered alike
the submissive and resisting. The altars, to which many fled for pro-
tection, flowed with the blood of the slain; even the slaves of the
Thebans turned against their masters, and joined in the work of ven-
geance.

48. It does not appear that Alexander had power to mitigate these
horrors, but, unwilling to bear the odium of destroying a Grecian city,

 

Questions.—45, What took place in Thebes? Why did the Thessalians declare war against
Athens as well as Thebes? 46. Where was Alexander at the time? What rapid movement
did he make? What did he expect to gain? Did the Thebans yield at once? What did
they do? 47. Give an account of the fall of Thebes. 48, What measures were adopted
preliminary to the destruction of Thebes? Where was Thebes? (See Map No. 2.)

11
249 GREECHE—MACEDONIA. jB c. 335,

he summoned a congress of the states to decide upor. ner fate. By
this assembly the same measure which the Thebans had meted out to
the Phocians, at the conclusion of the Sacred War, was now measured
out to her. It was decreed that the Theban state should be anni-
hilated, the town utterly destroyed, the surviving inhabitants sold into
slavery, and the territory given to the conquering allies. Alexander
succeeded in saving the house of the poet Pindar from the flames,
and all his descendants from slavery, B. 0. 8335. Thus ended the city
founded by Cadmus, after having been one of the heads of Greece
seven hundred and ten years.

49. Wuart passep in Atuens.—A part of the Theban cavalry
escaped to Athens, and the consternation which pervaded that city at
the news they brought can scarcely be imagined. Not even Demos-
thenes dared to mount the bema and harangue the people. The coun-
sels of Phocion consequently prevailed, and an embassy was sent to
the victors, to apologize for the part Athens had taken, and beg for
peace. Alexander received the deputies with favor, but insisted that
the Athenians should deliver up ten of their most factious citizens
to be tried, as the common enemies of Greece. In this number were
Demosthenes and Charidemus. By the fable of the sheep who gave
up their guardian dogs, the great orator dissuaded his countrymen
from complying with the demand. Another embassy was therefore
sent, to solicit- better terms; and Alexander finally granted them,
insisting only on the banishment of Charidemus, whom he suspected
of having been an accomplice in his father’s murder. We shall hear
of him again in Persia.

60. The domestic troubles of Greece being thus once more quieted,
the autocrator returned home, to prepare for that expedition which
had so long occupied his ambitious thoughts, He intrusted the govern-
ment of Macedon to Antipater, with a body of twenty thousand sol-

“diers, to keep the states of Greece in awe. For the conquest of Asia,
in which he was now setting out, he bad only thirty thousand foot
and five thousand horse, one month’s provisions, and about forty thou-
sand dollars in money. With this comparatively insignificant force,
Alexander marched to attack that power which had swallowed up

 

Questions._48. Give an account of the desiruction of the city. What exception was
made in the work of destruction? 49. To what place did a part of the Theban cavalry
escape? What was the effect of the news there? What action did the Athenians take?
Tpon what did Alexander insist? How was he induced to change his exaction? What terms
were finally agreed upon? 50. What was the next movement of Alexauder? To whom
jid he intrust the government of Macedon? What was Alexander's great object? What
preparations did he set out with?
 

 

   
   
  

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Assyria, Chaldea, Egypt, and all the countries from the Egean on the
west to India on the east, and which, one hundred and fifty years
before, had sent a host of five millions of persons, to overwhelm that
very Greece which was now prepared to roll back the tide of war
upoa the shores of Asia.

51. First Campaien iy Asta.—s. 0. 334.—(1.*) Ampuipoiis.—As-
sembling his troops at this place in the spring of the year, Alexander
marched at their head to (2.) Toe Hertespoxt. With Homer's Iiad
for his guide, he embarked from the spot where Agamemnon’s fleet
had weighed anchor eight hundred and fifty years before, and, taking
the tiller in his hand, acted the part of steersman in the passage.
Midway he lay on his oars, while a bull was sacrificed to Neptune
and the Nereids, and then, pouring libations upon the waves from a
golden vessel, resumed his course, aud landed in the Achaian port, in
imitation of his great predecessor.

52. Here he raised altars to Minerva and Hercules, and then pro-
ceeded to (3.) Troy. On this classic spot there was only a small vil-
lage, still retaining the ancient name of lion. In a temple of Minerva
were consecrated suits of armor, preserved since the Trojan war. He
took down one of these, and hung up his own in its stead; and having
performed sacrifices in honor of the Homeric hervcs, and crowned the
tomb of his ancestor Achilles, he proceeded on his way. No army
attempted to stop his progress till he reached (4.) Tue Forp or Tar
Grayicus, w river which flowed from Mount Ida into the Propontis.

53. Bartte oF Granious.—Darius, hearing of the expedition of
Alexander, had sent a commission to his satraps in this quarter, to
seize the ‘‘ Mad Boy ;” to whip him severely; to clothe him in mock
purple, and bring him bound to Susa; to sink the ships in which he
had crossed the Hellespont, and send his army in chains to the farther
shore of the Red Sea. Tie Persian lords, in compliance with these
gentle orders, assembled a large force on the banks of the Granicus;
but the Macedonians forded the river, and ascended the steep bank in
the face of their opposition, fought a tremendous battle, and gained a

* Let the pupil now look upon map No. 3, as Alexander’s course is marked out.

 

Questions.—51, Where was Amphipolis? (Sec map No. 2, also number 1, Map No. 3.)
{Norr,—In reciting the campaigns of Alexander, take this method; Let the teacher say,
“No, 1,” and the pupil answer, * Amphipolis, a town in Macedonia, now Turkey in Europe,
Here Alexander assembled his troops in the spring of 834 B.o.,and marched,” &e. “No,
2." The Hellespont, a strait leading from the Egean to the Propontis, now called Darda-
nelles.” Here Alexander,” &c.J 52, “ No. 3."—“ Troy: the exact spot where it stood cannot
now be determined. Here Alexander,” &e. Did Paul ever visit this spot? (See 2 Tim
iv. 13.) 58,54 “No. 4 ’—“Granicus, 8 small river which falls into the Sea of Marmora,
Ifere Alexander,” &e.
244 , GREECE—MACEDONIA. [B. 0. 334

glorious victory. The Persians lost one-tenth of their army, and nine
officers of distinction.

64. Alexander was first in the fight, and besides distinguishing him-
self for his bravery, was rendered conspicuous by his buckler anil his
crest, on both sides of which he wore a beautiful white plume. Two
Persian officers made him their object of attack. One of them gave
him a blow with a battle-ax which clove his helmet, and penetrated to
the hair. As the barbarian raised his arm to repeat the stroke, Clitus,
his foster-brother, ran him through with aspear. Alexander had now
passed the gates of Asia, and made good his entrance into the dominion
of the enemy. Twenty-five of his personal friends had been killed, to
each of whom he erected a statue of brass; and upon the arms taken
he caused to be inscribed, “ Won by Alexander, of the barbarians of
Asia.’ Most of the plate and furniture he sent home to his mother.

655. (5.) Sarvis.—The victory of Granicus intimidated the Persians
and encouraged the Grecians. After marching through a great extent
of country with the quiet and comfort of peace, Alexander was met,
about seven miles from Sardis, by the principal men of the city, who
came to throw themselves upon his mercy. He received.them kindly,
and, entering the place with them, took possession of the citadel.
Here he ordered a temple to be erected to Jupiter, on the spot where
the palace of Creesus had stood.

66. He remained at Sardis only three days, regulating the govern-
ment and tribute of the province, and then, by one day’s march,
arrived at (6.) Epnesvs, just as the Grecian party had overpowered
the Persian, and were ready to hail him with joy at their gates. He
gave orders that the tribute formerly paid to the Persians should be
employed in rebuilding the temple of Diana; and having attended a
magnificent sacrifice to this goddess, with all his troops, ne moved
forward to (7.) Miterus. His fleet entered the bay at the same time
his forces appeared before the town, and the Milesians, yielding to the
powerful motives furnished by the battering-rams, surrendered.

57. (8.) Haricarnassus.—The fertile province of Caria, of which

 

Questions,—54. Who commanded the Persians in the battle? Ans. Memnon, tbe
Rhodian: his widow was the mother of Iereules. (Sve page 272.) 55. “ Sardis, now called
Sait, a small village. Here Alexander, &e." What was written to the church of Sardis
in Rev. iii. 1-5? How long before Alexander did Cresus live? 56. Where was Ephesus?
(See map No, 2, also number 6, map No, 3.) “Ephesus, Mere Alexander gave orders,” &c.
Who founded Ephesus? Ans. Androcvhus, son of Codrus. Who laid the foundation of its
greatness? Ans, Lysander, when he built a fleet there. (See page 190.) What is written
to the church of Ephesus? (See Rey. ii. 1-3. “Miletus. Here,” &c. When was the
temple of Diana burned? 57. Give the location of Halicarnassus, What distinguished mau
was born there? (See page 163.)
B. 0. 334.] FIRST CAMPAIGN. 945

Halicarnassus was the capital, wasruled by Ada, a descendant of that
famous Artemisia who fought in the fleet of Xerxes, and sister of that
still more famous Artemisia, who erected in honor of her deceased
husband, Mausolus, the sepulchral monument reckoned among the
“seven wonders of the world.’ An insurrection had been raised
against Ada by her brother, and she was now deprived of a great part
of her possessions. To this “disputed point Alexander directed his
course. Ada went out to meet him, adopted him for her son with
great ceremony, gave him the keys of her strongest fortress, and so
managed affairs that his march across Caria, of nearly one hundred
miles, should be as through a friendly country. Halicarnassus sub-
mitted for the same reasons that had influenced Miletus.

58. Winter now approaching, he permitted a part of his army to
return home, with anthority to engage recruits; but he himself deter-
mined that the season should not pass in inactivity. Committing the
government of Caria to his good mother, Ada, he went forward
through Lycia and Pamphylia with his chosen troops, every town
submitting upon his approach, and sending presents. At (9.) AsPEN-
pus, on the river Eurymedon, the people made considerable resistance.
Asa punishment, Alexander obliged them to furnish double the quantity
of horses and money that he required of the other vanquished states.

59. (10.) Gorpium.—In this place he visited the castle where was
preserved with superstitious care the Gordian knot. The story of the
knot was this: In those early ages when remarkable events were so
common, a Phrygian peasant named Gordius, being engaged in plow-
ing, an eagle perched upon the yoke of his oxen, and quietly rode up
and down the field. Interested in the phenomenon, he left his work
and went to seek some one to explain the mystery. He wandered on
till, approaching a village, he saw a girl drawing water from a spring,
and finding upon inquiry that she belonged to a race of seers, he told
her his business. She advised him to return, and sacrifice immediately
to Jupiter. This led to a multitude of inquiries as to the manner in
which the ceremony was to be performed; and finally he persuaded
the girl to marry him and accompany him home. Nothing important
oceurred till a son of this match, named Midas, attained manhood.

60. The Phrygians were then debating upon a change in their form
of government, and while in assembly, were told that “A cart would
bring them a king to relieve their troubles.’? Soon after, Gordius and

 

Questions.—5T, 58. Who was Ada? Ry what process had she been deprived of part of her
possessions? State what took place at Walicarnassus. At Aspendus. Where was Aspen-
dus? What happened to Cymon and Thrasybulus at the river urymedon? 59, 60, Where
wasGordiam? (See map.) Relate the story of the Gordian knot.

.
946 GREECE—MACEDONIA. [B. c. 333.

Midas came in a cart to the convention, and the people, believing the
oracle to be thus answered, elected Midas king of Phrygia. In com-
memoration of this event, Midas dedicated the cart and its appendages
tu the gods. The yoke was tied to the pole with a piece of the bark
of the cornel-tree, in such a knot as no one could unloose. A tradi-
tion arose, that whoever should untie that knot should be Lord of
Asia; and the failure of many ambitious nen who had attempted it
gave great importance to Alexander’s visit. Some say that he cut the
knot with his sword. Arrian asserts that he wrested the pin from the
beam, and so took off the yoke. The means are of no consequence.
He was believed to have accomplished the oracle, and to be the “ des-
tined lord of Asia.” Here the troops that had been home rejoined
the army.

61. Szconp Camparen.—-B. 0. 833.—(11.) ANoyra.—At this place an
embassy met the king of Macedonia, bringing offers of submission
from (12.) Paparaconta. Thence he marched southward through
13.) Cappapocia, every town of which surrendered, till he reached
the lofty ridge of Taurus, which separates Asia Minor from Syria.
14.) Tue Pass or Mounr Taurus, called the Gate. The Persians
thought to defend this important point, but the troops took flight at
the approach of the Grecians, and Alexander encamped without
molestation upon the plains of Cilicia. (15.) Tarsus.—The Persian
forces stopped here, and Alexander hastened on to meet them. They
fled again, but his exertion had so heated his blood, that the sight of
the Cydnus, roiling its cool waters from the snow-clad summits of the
mountains, was perfectly irresistible. He plunged in and amused
himself some time in swimming, but he paid a severe penalty for his
imprudence. A violent fever seized upon him and brought him down
to the brink of the grave.

62. (16:) AncntaLus.—As soon as he was sufficiently recovered,
Alexander sent Parmenio to secure the passes into Syria, while he
engaged in the more active business of reducing that part of the coun-
try west of Tarsus. At Anchialus a monument was found, bearing
this inscription: ‘Sardanapalus, son of Anacyndaraxes, in one day
founded Anchilaus and Tarsus. Eat, drink, and play: all other human

 

Questions.—61. Where was Ancyra? What took place there? What at the Pass of
Mount Taurus? Where was Tarsus? What took place at Tarsus? Why was Tarsus a
free city? Ans. The inhabitants took part with Cesar in the civil wars, and were exempted
from tribute when he became master of the world. It still remains, though only the shadow
of its former self. What beautiful light was once seen on the Cydnus? (See page 303.)
62. On what expedition did Alexander send Parmenio? In what business did Alexander
engage? What was found at Anchialus? Has previous reference been mude to the Sar
danapalus monnment in this book ?
b. 0. 333.] SECOND CAMPAIGN. O47

joys are not worth a fillip.”” Darius, alarmed by the rapid advances
of the Greeks, determined at last to take the field and meet the ‘mad
hoy” in person. Ie drew up his troops near Babylon, with a pomp
yittle inferior to that displayed by Xerxes. The magi, carrying the
Sacred Fire on altars of massy silver, led the van, chanting a solemn
bymn, Three hundred and sixty-five youths vailed in Tyrian purple
followed; then came the splendid chariot of Jove, drawn by white
horses; and then the magnificent steed af the sun. Then followed ten
chariots richly embossed with silver and gold; and the cavalry of the
twelve nations, displaying arms and ensigns of the most curious work-
manship.

63. The Immortal Band took the next rank, and 15,000 men dressed
in the costliest apparel, called the king’s relations, followed. Then
came the king himself, seated in a lofty chariot, so richly ornamented
that it can hardly be described, with the images of Ninus and Belus
and a golden eagle fixed upon the sides. Ten thousand men, armed
with spears of silver and darts of glittering gold, followed, and 30,000
infantry inclosed him as a body-guard. His mother, wife, and chil-
dren also, surrounded by chosen attendants, traveled with the army
and king, according to the custoin of the Persians; and a multitude of
nations brought up the rear.

64. With this vast cavalcade of near a million of souls, resembling
more a triumphal procession than a host armed for battle, Darius
moved from the plains of the Euphrates northward toward the moun-
tains of Syria, in quest of a handful of Greeks, who had already
wrested from him the fertile territory of Asia Minor. As Darius I.
had his Hippias, and Xerxes his Demaratus, so this king had also his
attendant Grecian exile, Charidemus. While reviewing his immense
army, Darius turned to Charidemus, and inquired if even the sight of
such a multitude would not be sufficient to frighten Alexander. The
Grecian, proud of the superiority of his countrymen, replied with such
a cutting comparions between troops nurtured in the lap of luxury
and those taught by necessity to meet danger in the most appalling
forms, as displeased his royal patron. Darius, naturally mild and
gentle, was now so agitated by jealousy and fear that he ordered his
faithful monitor to instant execution.

65. (17.) Issus.—The mighty host commanded by Darius here came
to an engagement With the Grecians, and was entirely defeated. The

 

Questions.—62, 63, 64. Upon what did Darius at last determine? Give an account of
the number and kind of forces Darius had. Relate the circumstances of Charidemus's
death. How long bad he been in Persia? 65. Give an account of the battle of Issus
(Norz.—Remember that this is the first battle where the two monurchs fought in person.)
250 GREECE—MACEDONIA. [B. 0. 332

and no sooner did the Macedonian monarch. bebold him than he pros-
trated himself, and worshiped the holy name inscribed upon his
miter. When the astonished nobles inquired the reason of this strange
reverence, he told them that such a person had appeared to him in a
vision, and invited him to undertake the conquest of Asia. Jaddua
pointed out to him those passages in the book of Daniel where his
rapid conquests were foretold, and, after some more conver sation, was
dismissed in a friendly manner.

71. (22.) Gaza was situated two miles from the sea, on a lofty rock,
surrounded by a territory of deep sand. The governor refused to
surrender, and Alexander would not leave an unconquered place
behind him. Timber and earth were brought from a distance, a
mound formed as high as the walls, and battering-rams erected.
After a great expense of time, money, and lives, the place fell into the
lands of the Greeks. Every man of the garrison died fighting. The
governor was taken alive, and put to death in the most horrid manner.
(23.) Perusrum.—In seven days’ march from Gaza, Alexander arrived
with his army before this place, at the same time that his fleet sailed
into the harbor. The Egyptians, haters of the Persians since the days
of Cambyses, received him with joy, and thus he became the ac-
knowledged lord of this fertile and wealthy country without striking
a blow.

72. (24.) Hertoporis, the city of the Sun. To know the country,
and arrange the government of the people who had become his peace-
ful subjects, he advanced up the right bank of the Nile to Ieliopolis,
where he crossed the river and proceeded to (25.) Mempuis, the place
of the tombs and treasures of the Egyptian kings. (26.) ALEXANDRIA.
Learning that Egypt had no convenient seaport, he explored the coast
of the Mediterranean till he reached a suitable point, where he founded
the city which still bears his nume.* Far within that vast tract of
sand known as the Lybian Desert, lay the beautiful oasis containing
the temple of Jupiter Ammon. An insatiable desire to be considered
rather a god than a man, lad, by the conversation of his mother, been
instilled into the mind of Alexander. Stimulated by this foolish vanity,
be marched with a small escort along the seacoast about 200 miles,
to (27.) ParrroNium.

* Tt was marked ont in the shape of a Macedonian cloak.

Questions.—T1, How was Gaza situated ? How was the place taken? How was Pelusium
situated? How was it taken? 72. What took place at Heliopolis? What is said of Mem-
phis? By whom was the city of Alexandria founded? What led to the act? When was
the city founded? dns. 8.0. 532. Where was the temple of Jupiter Ammon? What
great desire did Alexander have? How did be contract the desire?
B. 6. 331.] -THIRD CAMPAIGN. 251

73. Thence he turned south, and traversing those fields which a
tropical sun renders ever arid and sterile, he arrived safely at (28.)
Tne TempLe or Jurirer Ammon.—The island of delightful green,
which greeted his eyes on emerging from the vast ocean of sand, was
only about five miles across, each way. The air was pleasantly cool;
springs of the finest water were plentiful; and beneath the shade of
lofty trees, whose spreading branches shut out the scorching rays of
the sun, the weary band reposed after their perilous and fatigning
journey. The priest confirmed the monarch’s pretensions, and he left
the temple the acknowledged son of the god! Thence he returned
again to (25.) Mempnis, where embassadors from the states of
Greece were waiting to congratulate him on his success.

74. Tuirp Campaicn.—z. 0. 331.—While Alexander wintered in
Egypt a re-enforcement from Greece arrived, and upon the opening of
spring he moved again to (20.) Tyre, the place appointed for the
meeting of the fleet, army, and embassies. Thither the Athenian
ship Paralus conveyed ministers from the different republics, who
acquainted him with the state of affairs in his own country. After
having made arrangements for the security of Greece he went on his
way, and about the beginning of June reached (29.) Taapsacus, the
place where young Cyrus crossed the Euphrates with his Grecian
troops. The bridges were broken down, and a body of Persians stood
ready to dispute his passage; but their hearts failed at his approach,
and, taking flight, they left the Greeks to repair the bridges and con-
tinue their route unmolested. It was Alexander’s intention to march
immediately to Babylon; but learning that Darius had assembled a
larger force than he commanded at Issus, and was waiting his approach
on the eastern bank of the Tigris, he directed his course thither, and
without obstruction crossed that rapid river at a ford.

75. (30.) ArpeLa.—Here Darius deposited his heavy baggage and
military stores; and very judiciously chose his station about six miles
from the town, in a place suitable for the action of his cavalry and
scythe-armed chariots. Alexander approached, and prepared for bat-
tle. That night he slept soundly, though Darius reviewed his troops
by torch-light, and the murmur of the immense multitude seemed like
the roaring of the sea when the waters are agitated by the violence of
the wind. Two years after the victory at Issus, Alexander again

 

Questions.—73. By what route did he reach the temple of Jupiter Ammon? Describe
the island. What did the priest do? To what place did Alexander then go? Where was
Meimnphis? 74. What arrangement did Alexander make to get ‘information from Greece ?
What took place at Thapsacus? Where was Thapsacus? Why did not Alexander proceed
direct to Babylon? 75. Where was Arbela? What took place there? dvs. A battle.
952 GREECE—MACEDONIA. [B. c. 331

“

mounted Bucephalus, as a signal for battle with the monarch of
Asia. He wore a short coat closely girt about him; over that, a
breastplate of linen strongly quilted, which had been found among the
spoils of Issus. THis helmet of polished iron shone like silver. A
superb belt, given him by the Rhodians, encircled his waist, from
which was suspended a sword of the finest temper. Aristander the
soothsayer rode by his side, clothed in a white robe and a golden
crown.

76. Just as they were advancing, an eagle appeared above their
heads and slowly sailed toward the enemy. As soon as the army
caught sight of the noble bird, they rushed on like a torrent to the
fight. Alexander, following the example of Epaminondas, directed
his efforts to one point, and selected for that point the spot where
Darius rode upon his lofty chariot in the midst of his royal forces.
The king of Asia sustained himself much better than on the former
occasion; but the onset of the Macedonians was so terrible, that his
body-guard were seized with consternation and fled. <A few of the
bravest of them indeed lost their lives in defending their sovereign;
and falling in heaps, one upon another, strove to stop the pursuit by
clinging in the pangs of death to the Macedonians, and catching hold
of the legs of the horses, as they pranced over their prostrute bodies.

77. Davius had now the most dreadful dangers about him. His
defenders were driven back upon him; the wheels of his chariot
became entangled among the dead bodies, so that it was almost impos-
sible to turn it; and the horses, plunging among heaps of slain,
bounded up and down, and no longer obeyed the charioteer. Again
he quitted his chariot, and, throwing away his arms, fled on horseback.
At first, Alexander pushed on after him; but at dark abandoned the
pursuit, and returned to the camp. About midnight, with a band of
chosen troops, he rode off to Arbela, and, surprising the town, gained
possession of it without bloodshed. The Persian empire appearing to
be entirely destroyed by the defeat at Arbela, Alexander was acknow-
ledged king of Asia, Without waiting for the formal abdication or
destruction of Darius, he turned to secure the treasures which the
fugitive monarch had left in his grasp.

78. (31.) Banytox.—As the conqueror approached this city he was
met by the whole population, following in solemn procession the
nobles and priests, who brought him presents, and surrendered the

 

Questions.—i5, 16, 77. Tow was Alexander attired for the buttle? What is said of Aris-
tander? Of aneagle? Give an account of the battle. What is said of the dangers which
beset Darius during the battle? Of his escape? What were the occurrences after the
battle? 78. Where was Babylon? Now did Alexander get possession of Babylon ?
B. 0. 331.] THIRD CAMPAIGN. 253

citadel, treasury, and town into his hands. The ready submission of
his new subjects so pleased Alexander, that he ordered the former
temples to be restored, and assisted himself at a sacrifice of Belus.
(82.) Susa was the common winter residence of the Persian court.
Before Alexander reached this place the son of the governor met him,
assuring him that the gates were open to receive him, and a treasury,
containing a sum equal to $45,000,000, waiting his disposal.

79. The spoils found in Susa were such as no other city ever pre-
sented toa conqueror. There were stuffs of such exquisite purple,
that though treasured 190 years, they still retained their freshness and
beauty; splendid vases containing the waters of the Nile and Danube,
which the Persians kept among their precious things, to show the
extent of their dominions; and, what Alexander valued more than all,
the brazen statues of Harmodius and Aristogiton,* which Xerxes had
stolen from Greece, and which the autocrator-general now sent back
aga peace-offering to the Athenians. Here he reinstated the family
of Darius in the palace where they had passed the happy years of
power; and, having committed the'administration of affairs to a Per-
sian, went on his way.

80. The passage from Susa to Persepolis was rough and difficult,
leading over mountains inhabited by savage tribes, to whom even the
kings of Persia had paid toll; but the rapidity of Alexander’s move-
ments disconcerted their plans of defense, and the Greeks took posses-
sion of their strongholds. The officers of Darius fled from the city at
his approach, not even stopping to plunder the treasury of Cyrus, in
which Alexander found as much coin as he did at Susa, and such
quantities of rich movables as loaded 20,000 mules and 5,000 camels.
He stayed in this place four months, that his troops might rest after
their fatigues, and prepare for the spring campaign. The first time he
sat down on the throne of the Persian kings, under a golden canopy,

‘an old Corinthian exclaimed, while the tears streamed from his eyes,
“ What a pleasure have those Grecks missed who died without seeing
Alexander seated on the throne of Darius! ”

81. Before breaking up his winter quarters he made a great enter-

* After the banishment of the Pisistratide, Harmodins and Aristogiton received almost

heroic honors. Statues of the finest brass were erected to their memory, and their names
were held in the highest veneration,

 

Questions,—78. Where was Susa? How did Alexander get. possession of Susa? 79.
What spoils were found in Susa? What is said of Alexander's treatment of the family of
Darius? §0. Where was Persepolis? (33.) What rapid movements did Alexander make ?
What is said in connection with bis sitting on the throne of the Persian kings? 81. What
(s said of the entertainment provided by Alexander?
254 GREECE—MACEDONIA. [B. c. 330.

tainment, at which all the guests drank to excess. An Athenian cour-
tesan, Thais, having studiously praised the lord of the feast during the
whole evening, suggested the idea of closing the banquet by a confla-
gration of the royal palace, in revenge for the burning of Athens by
Xerxes; and she desired to light the flame with her own hands, that
it might be said, the women had taken better vengeance upon the Per-
sians than all the generals of Greece. The whim struck the conqueror
favorably; and the guests, heated with wine, received the proposition
with acclamations. Immediately they rose from the table, and follow-
ing Thais, with lighted tapers in their hands, proceeded to set fire to
every part of the grand palace, accompanying the exploit with loud
peals of mirth and music.

82. B. o. 330. ‘“Fourtn Camparen.—From the fatal overthrow at
Arbela, Darius had proceeded to Ecbatana, hoping to raise an army
there of sufficient force to preserve to him the ancient kingdom of
Media, with Bactria and Sogdiana; but finding that a universal panic
had seized his soldiers, he gave up all hopes of regaining his lost king-
dom, and sought only to escape with the relics of his treasure to some
distant province. Five days before Alexander reached (34.) Ecpa-
TANA, the defeated monarch left that city, and retreated through the
passes of the mountains that skirt the Caspian Sea. Alexander stopped
long enough to reorganize his army, to reward his soldiers with
princely munificence, to re-engage those who wished still to push their
fortunes in his service, to dismiss those weary of cumpaigns and vie-
tories, and to settle the affairs of the province.

83. Then, with a chosen band, he resumed the pursuit of Darius.
After marching eleven days so rapidly that many horses died of fatigue,
he received tidings, tending rather to increase than retard his speed.
He learned from two of Darius’s servants that Bessus, governor of Bac-
tria, and another satrap, had seized their sovereign, and carried him
off a close prisoner; that it was their intention, if Alexander overtook
them, to deliver him up, and so gain favor for themselves; or, if they
succeeded in escaping, to depose him, and usurp the government of
the northern provinces. This news roused every energy of Alexander.
Ne traveled day and night without intermission till he caine up with

 

Questions. —S1. Of the conflagration? What can you state of the ruins of the palace ?
Ans. The ruins called Chilminar, or Forty Columns, near Sclinaz, are supposed to be the
remains of the palace burned by Thais. [Nore.—Now let the pupil trace Alexander's course
onamap] 82. Why had Darius sone to Ecbatana? Why was he not successful in this?
How ucar did Alexander come to capturing Darius in Ecbatana? How long did Alexander
stop there? 83, Gtve an account of Alexander's further pursuit of Darius. Who was
Bessus? Upon what did Bessus determine? How was he foiled 2
Bo. 330.] FOURTH CAMPAIGN. OBB

the traitors (or rather with their prisoner), for Bessus, finding himself
voable to push on with the chariot as fast as necessary, had given
Darius several severe wounds, and left him weltering in his blood.

84. Only about sixty of the Macedonians were able to keep pace
with Alexander till he reached the enemy’s camp. There they rode
aver scattered garments, and furniture, and golden vessels; and, pass-
ing a number of carriages filled with deserted women and children,
came to the chariot where Darius lay in the agonies of death. Te
called for a drink of water, and after having quenched his thirst with
thé cooling draught, stretched out his hand to the soidier that brought
It, saying, “Friend, this fills up the measure of my misfortunes, to
think I am not able to reward thee for this act of kindness. But
Alexander will not let thee go without a recompense, and the gods
will reward Aim for his humanity to my mother, my wife, and my
children. Tell him I gave thee my hand in his stead, and convey to
him the only pledge I am able to give of my gratitude and affection.”
When Alexander came up, Darius was already dead. The conqueror
was greatly afflicted at the tragical end of his rival. He threw his
own robe over the bleeding body, and with generous care caused it to
be conveyed to Susa, where the queen, Sisygambis, interred it with
funeral honors.

85. Meanwhile, the conspirators betook themselves to the lofty
wooded mountains of (35.) Hyrcanta, where Bessus, adopting the
name of Artaxerxes, prepared to vindicate his title to the throne of
Persia. Alexander continued the pursuit, and conquered the province;
but Bessus made his escape. with a body of 600 horse. Thus successful
in all his enterprises against the barbarians, Alexander was, wounded
by a domestic affliction, for which the most brilliant victory could not
compensate. Parmenio had been the ‘‘one general”? whom Philip
loved and trusted; the able counselor and guide of Alexander in his
youth, and his companion in all his toilsome campaigns. Philotas, the
son of Parmenio, had been one of the monarch’s most intimate and
favored friends from childhood. This Philotas was accused of treason,
and being put upon the rack, confessed the crime, and named his
father as one of the accomplices.

86. An assembly of the Macedonians was called, and the father and
son were both condemned to die. Philotas was stoned to death, and

 

Questions.—S84, Give an account of Alexander’s final pursuit. Give an account of the
death of Darius. Of Alexander's care for the body of Darius. 85,86. Where was Hyr-
cania? What name did Bessusadopt? Whatis saiduf him? Who was Parmenio? Who
Philotas? What accusation was brought against Philotas? What confession dii he make?
What sentence was passed? How was the sentence carried out?
256 GREECE—MACEDONIA. [B. c. 329.

a particular friend of Parmenio’s was sent into Media, where that
venerable general was stationed, to execute the sentence upon him,
Parmenio was walking in his park, and, seeing his friend approaching,
ran to embrace him, inquiring after his son and his king with the
greatest tenderness. The assassin gave him a letter from Alexander,
and, while he was reading it, stabbed him in the side, repeating his
blows till assured he was dead. Thus fell this great man, illustrious
both in peace and war. Ile was seventy years of age, and had served
his sovereign with fidelity and zeal in numberless campaigns ; two of
his sons had died in battle, and with the third and last he himself fell
a victim to the suspicions which an infamous boy had aroused, and
vicious favorites had fostered in the mifid of the king, for whom he
had so often hazarded his life.

87. The lust of power and the pride of dominion had already taken
deep root in the mind of Alexander. He was surrounded by flatterers,
and his foolish ambition to be considered @ god exposed the weak
points in his character. Philotas ridiculed this pretension, and thus
plucked down ruin upon his own head; for his guilt, to say the least,
was not fully proved. Knowing that the execution of these distin-
guished individuals might create discontent, Alexander again mar-
shaled his forces and set out after Bessus, who had retreated to North-
ern India, laying waste the country behind him. He met with no
particular adventure till he reached the head waters of the Indus.
Winter overtaking him there, he employed his troops in building s
city, which he named (36.) Atexanpria. It is still a flourishing place
on the great route of Candahar, by which caravans go through Affgha-
nistan and Northern India to Agra and Lahore.

88. B.’o. 829.—Firru Campaicn.-—Observing the hardiness ané
vigor of the natives of these climates, he enrolled 30,000 boys among
his followers, and caused them to be trained in the Macedonian dis-
cipline. Meanwhile, Bessus had established himself in Bactria, and
Alexander, anxious to come upon him before he was prepared, moved
early in the spring to the north. The soldiers, tired of marches and
countermarches, and thinking the object of their expedition already
accomplished by the subjection of Persia and the death of Darius,

 

Questions.—86, What further is said of Parmenio?, What observation has been made
about Alexander's successes? Ans. It has been stated that “Parmenio obtained many
victories without Alexander, but Alexander not one without Parmenio.” 87. What was the
foolish ambition of Alexander? To what did it lead? Why did Alexander soon marsha)
his forces again? What place didhe reach by winter? Whatis said of the place? How isit
located? (See map No. 1.) 88. How did Alexander add 30,000 troops to nis army? Where
had Bessus established himself? Whére was Bactria? (See map No. 1, number 37.) What
soused murmurings in the esmp of Alexander?
B. 0. 329.| FIFTH CAMPAIGN. O57

were so little pleased with the idea of traveling to the north while |
the snow was yet upon the ground, that nothing but murmurings end
repinings was heard within the camp. Alexander called then all
together, and addressed them as his friends and supporters, /) inixing
the tender with the animating in his speech, that he exepe their
sympathies, and raised their drooping spirits; and they declared them-
selves willing to fullow wherever he should lead. Profit%ng by this
favorable disposition, he made all speed into Bactriana.

89. (37.) Bactria and (38.) Aornt, the two principal \sities of the
province, were taken by assault, and all the rest quietly,submitted.
After crossing the river Oxus on skins stuffed with straw, be received
tidings of Bessus. Two ofthe traitor’s servants, imitating hixexample,
had treated him in the same manner that he treated his royal master.
They seized his person, forced the diadem from his head, tore the royal
robe of Darius from his shoulders, set him on horseback, apst"orought
him bound to Alexander. The miserable Bessus was sent to the
mother of Darius to receive his doom. She ordered four trees to be
bent down, and the limbs of the criminal to be fastened to them; the
trees were'then permitted to fly back, each bearing away its portion of
his body. (39.) Soeprawa.—Heye Alexander rested with his army, while
horses and other recruits were collected for the invasion of Scythia.

90. Nothing of importance occurred till he reached (40.) Tur Jax-
ARTHES. Scythia in Europe and Scythia in Asia, the great fountains
from which issued, in later times, the fierce warriors of Ghengis-Khan
and Timurlane, from which came forth Huns and Turks upon their
work of destruction, were at this time inhabited by wandering tribes,
which Alexander could have no motive to molest. Nevertheless, to
fortify his empire aguinst their incursions, he built upon the Jaxarthes
a city, and called it Alexandria, which is the last one we shall notice,
though in his travels he founded no less than twenty cities of this
name. The “Speech of the Scythian embassadors to Alexander,” so
justly celebrated, is too long for insertion here; nor will it be neces-
sary to detail the particulars of the hostilities in which he soon after
engaged with this barbarous people.

91. He spent the winter in Bactria, and the historian, in speaking of
him here, mentions that he had changed the Macedonian for the Per-

 

Questions.—S8, How did he quiet the murmurs? 89. What was Alexander’s success in
Bactriana? How did he cross the Oxus? By what name is the Oxus now known? Ans.
Jiboon or Gihon. How was Bessns at last taken? What was his fute? Where was Sos-
diana located? (See map No.1.) What is it now called? Ans, Samareand. 90, What is
the Jaxarthes now called? Ans. The Sihon. What city did Alexander build on that
river? Why did he build it? What other cities did he found? 91. What is said of Alex-
ander’s change. of costume and manners?
258 GREECE—MACEDONIA. [B. c. 827.
sian costume. Indeed, Alexander's conformity to the luxurions habits
of:the East had weakened his virtues, aud rendered him odious to
manfcf his most faithful friends. It was five years since he left
Macedokia, with a comparatively small army ; he was now surronnded
by numVers, among whom there were as many Asiatics as Greeks, and
the adopt'on of the manners and customs of the nations he had sub-
jugated scemed to him the dictate of profound policy; while, to the
veterans who had retained the native simplicity of Grecian manners,
jt seemed be another manifestation of that vanity which claimed the
worship rgndered only to the gods.

92. w. 6. 328. Srxrm Camparen.—The summer of 328 was spent
in quellitg a revolt among the Sogdians, of which no particulars of
interest are recorded, except that Spitamenes, the leader of it, was the
individual who betrayed Bessus. He perished, like his predecessors,
by the hams of false friends, who cut off his head, and carried it as a
valuable present to Alexander.

93. B. co. 827. Seventm Camparen.— Winter still lingered in the
lap of spring,” when Alexander moved to the destruction of (41.) Tire
“oegpran Rook, the last stronghold which resisted his power. It was
a mountain fortress, built upon a roek so lofty that its head was
crowned with perpetual snows. When summoned to surrender, Oxy-
artes, the governor, looked proudly down upon the herald, and in-
quired “if Alexander had provided himself with winged soldiers.”
The conqueror could not bear this taunt. He offered immense sums
to those who would scale the cliff’ A band of the bravest youtlis
undertook the perilous adventure, and succeeded by driving iron pins
into the congealed snow, and suspending scaling-ladders upon them.
The barbarians, thinking they must have been assisted by invisible
beings, surrendered immediately upon their summons; and Roxana,
the beautiful daughter of the governor, so captivated the conqneror
that he made her the partner of his throne.

94. Deatu or Crirus.—Persia and its environs were now subdued,
and Alexander projected the conquest of India. Before leaving these
provinces, he regulated the government and committed it to Clitus, a
valued friend, who had saved his life at the Granicus. As usual, the
Macedonians prefaced the expedition with sacrifices and feasts. While
they sat drinking, the conversation turned upon the history of Castor

 

Questions.—92. Wow was the summer of 828 spent? What is said of Spitamenes? 93.
What was the Sogdian Rock? Where was it situated? Who, in 227, was the governor ?
What inquiry did he make of Alexander? State how the place was taken. Who was
Roxana?” What is said of her? 94. What conquests had Alexander ee in 327?
What charge was committed to Clitus ?
Bc. 327.] SEVENTH CAMPAIGN. “org

and Pollux, said to be the sons of Jupiter. This, by association,
brought up Alexander’s pretensions to the same high birth. The
king, indeed, boasted not a little of his exploits, and the courtiers
about him chimed in with the grossest flattery.

95. Clitus, heated with wine, took upon himself the office of
reprover, contending that Philip was a greater man than his son, and
that Alexander owed his victories not so much to his own prowess, as
to the brave men by whom he had been supported. Alexander
retorted ; and Clitus, far from giving up the dispute at the instigation
of the more temperate part of the company, called upon his king ‘To
speak out what he had to say, or not invite freemen to his table, who
would speak out their sentiments without reserve. But perhaps,”
continued he, ‘it were better to pass your life with barbarians and
slaves, who will worship your Persian girdle and white robe without
scruple.”’ Alexander, no longer able to restrain his anger, threw an
apple in his face, and then looked about for his sword. The company
interposed, and forced Clitus from the room; but he soon returned by
another door, singing, in a bold and insolent tone, these lines from
Euripides :—

“ Are these yourcustoms? Is it thus that Greece

Rewards her combatants? Shail one man claim
The trophies won by thousands 2”

96. Alexander’s fury knew no bounds. He sprang from the table,
snatched a spear from one of the guards, and laid his foster brother
dead at lis feet, exclaiming, ‘‘Go now to Philip and Parmenio.’? The
blood of his friend sobered him in a moment; he threw himself upon
his body, forced out the javelin, and would have dispatched hiinself
with it, had not the guards carried him by force to his apartment.
Tle passed that night and all the next day in the deepest anguish, and
it was some time before his philosopher-courtiers eould comfort him.
Not Jong after, a conspiracy was discovered among the royal pages,
Calisthenes, nephew of Aristotle, who had accompanied Alexander
partly a3 a philosopher, and partly to collect valuable materials for
scientific research, was implicated.* All the conspirators were put to
death except Callisthenes. He was mutilated, and carried about with
the army in an iron cage, until he terminated his life by poison.

* Some authors say Calisthenes was put to death because he promised to adore Alexan-
der, and broke his word. This was the man whe transeribed the Chaldean records found in

the fane of Belus.

Questions —95. Relate the controversy that took place. 96. What was che sequel of
che dispute? Did Alexander regret his rashness? How did he manifest his regret?
What is said of a conspiracy that afterward occurred ?

.
262 GREECE—MACEDONIA. [B. o. 327.

orders were accordingly given to prepare for advancing to the Ganges,
ariver which was reported to be thirty-two furlongs wide and one
hundred fathoms deep. The Macedonians, who lad traveled through
so many lands, and wasted the best part of their lives ‘in fatiguing
campaigns, were now incessantly turning their eyes tu their dear
native country, and longing to revisit it: For two months they had
been exposed to violent storms; and now, when new wars and new
dangers were proposed, neither the severity of military discipline, nor
their love for their young sovereign, could prevent their feelings from
breaking forth in loud lamentations. Some bewailed their calamities
in the most plaintive terms, while others resolutely declared they
would go no farther. The dissatisfaction spread among all ranks, and
included even Alexander’s most confidential friends.

103. Still bent upon his expedition, the conqueror assembled his
army, rehearsed in a moving manner all the victories and spoils they
had won, and the perils they had encountered together, and set before
them in glowing colors the new laurels they should gain if they con-
tinued their route to the ocean. But all in vain. The soldiers, with
eyes fixed upon the ground, maintained a resolute silence, until a
venerable man, more bold than the rest, took up the reply. He
stated in the most respectful tone, that of the Macedonians who left
Greece with their general, eight years before, some had fallen in battle;
some, disabled with wounds, had been left in different places, far from
their families and friends; many had died of sickness, fatigue, and
forced marches; and of the few that remained, the bodily en. rgies
were weakened, and the minds impaired. He reminded his sov reign
that his own family had a right to expect him; that the Grecian repub-
lics, of which he was the chosen head, had been troubled by divisions
in consequence of his absence; and that every principle of honcr and
moderation required his return home.

104. The soldiers received this statement of their grievances and
desires with enthusiastic applause, and the king, greatly chagrined,
distnissed the assembly, and retired silently to his tent. Here he shut
himself up, and refused for two days to see even his friends; b:it find-
ing that his affliction wrought.no change in the minds of his soldiers,
he ordered a sacrifice to be performed, by which the matter was
referred to the gods. Then, assembling his officers, ne told them that
as the divine powers were favorable to the desires of the arty, he

 

 

Questions.—102. What orders for advancing were given? What object did Ale: ander
then have before him? Why did the soldiers refuse to go farther? 103. State how Alay -
ander endeavored to change their purpose. Give the puints of the specch made.» Aley
arder. 104, What course did Alexander then take ?
B. 0. 320.| ALEXANDER’S RETURN. 263

would cheerfully give up his own wishes, and they might comiaunicate
his intentions to move homeward. The joy of the heroic Ten Thou-
sand when ‘the sea” burst upon their longing gaze, could scarcely
have equaled the ermotions of the sorrowing Grecians when these glad
tidings were communicated to them. The whole camp echoed with
praises and blessings of Alexander, and hardy veterans wept tears of
jey, as imagination presented the distant shores of Greece to their
delighted view.

105. Tur Ocean.—Before he set out on his return, Alexander
caused twelve altars, seventy-five feet high, to be erected in honor of
the twelve victories he had achieved in India; and, marking out an
immense camp, left in it mangers for horses of twice the usual size,
and every thing else in proportion, to convey the impression that his
followers were nearer gods than mortals.. Having constituted Porus
viceroy of all the conquered countries, he returned to the Hydaspes,
where a fleet of 800 galleys, besides vessels of burden and boats, had
been provided by the party left there for the purpose. In these the
army took its departure (except a detachment which marched each
side of the river), about the time of the setting of the Pleiades, that
was in October.

106. It tovuk them nine months to move down the river, and conquer
all the various tribes upon its banks. When they were first greeted
by the sea-breeze, Alexander leaped with joy, and besought the sol-
diers to row with all their might, for now they were come to the end
of their toils, and without fighting any more battles, or spilling any
more blood, were masters of the universe. With feelings of mingled
delight and awe, the army gazed upon the heavy swell of the ocean, a
scene quite new to them; nor was their astonishment less, when, six
hours after, the roaring waves retired in a regular ebb, and exposed
the sandy beach to their curious eyes; but Alexander, thinking that
the boundaries of the earth had been reached, and a limit set to his
ambition, ‘“‘ wept because there were no more worlds to conquer.”

107. B. o. 324. Rerorn rrom Inpia.—After having besought

 

Questions.—104. What caused joy to his troops? How dil they behave? 105. What was
done by Alexander in honor of victories? Whom did he leave as viceroy of the con-
qw-rved countries? What is the modern name of the Hydaspes? Ans. Behnt or Jhylumn.
Of what river is it a tributary? Ans. The Indus. Ifow large was the fleet prepared for tho
return of Alexander’s army? Ans. 2,000 vessels. What materials must they bave bad in
order tu build them? What do you infer from this concerning the state of the arts in that.
place? 106. Give an account of the further progress of Alexander's army, Of what took
place at the sea, What sea? Ans. The Erythraan, now called the Arabian. What mis-
taken idea did Alexander have? Why did he weep? 107. In what year did Alexander
return from India? What petition did he make?
204 GREECE—MACEDONIA. [B. c. 324,

heaven “That no man might ever reach beyond the bounds of this
expedition,” he prepared to traverse the tract now kuown as Beloo-
chistan, on his way to Persia. He sent his fleet ont under the admiral
Nearchus, with orders to coast along the unknown sea, and join the
land army in the Euphrates. In (50.) Tug Deserr his troops suffered
incredibly from want of provisions and wholesome water; and such
mortality prevailed, that he brought back from India only about one-
fourth of his army. After they had eaten all the palm-tree roots they
could find, they fed upon their beasts of burden, and finally upon the
horses, so that, having no means of transporting those rich spoils
which they had gone to the ends of the earth to collect, they were
obliged to throw them away. At last the miserable remains of that
gallant army reached (51.) Carmania, where plenty once more smiled
upon thera.

108. The governors of the provinces, hearing of the conqueror’s
approach, sent all kinds of provisions, arms, and presents; and the
remainder of his route to (33.) PERSEPOLIS was one triumphal pro-
cession. His chariot was drawn by eight horses. Upon it was placed
«lofty platform, where he and his principal friends reveled day and
night. Other carriages followed, covered with rich tapestry, or paper
hangings, or shaded with branches of trees, fresh gathered and flou-
rishing. In these were the rest of the king’s generals and friends,
crowned with flowers and exhilarated with wine. In this whole
company was not to be seen a buckler, a helmet, or spear; but instead
of them cups, flagops, dnd goblets. These the soldiers filled from
huge vessels of wine placed by the wayside, and drank till intoxica-
tion drowned the remembrance of the friends they had lost in the
expedition.

109. Nearchus, having made the port with his fleet, left it anchored
at the isle of Ormus, while he went across the country to report pro-.
gress to his sovereign. THis account of the voyage excited in Alexan-
der a great desire to go upon the ocean. He proposed to sail round
Africa, as Necho’s fleet lad done; to enter the Mediterranean by the
Pillars of Hercules; to humble the pride of Carthage, which he hated
for the assistance it had given the Tyrians; then to cross into Spain,
and, having subdued every thing there, to coast along Italy to Epirus,

Questions.—107. By what route did his fleet proceed? Who commanded the fleet? In
what desert did the troops suffer? Ans. Sandy Desert, now Kerman. What is said of the
sufferings of the troops? At what place did they get relicf? 108. Give an account of Alex-
ander’s march from Carmania to Persepolis. 109. Where did Nearchus anchor his flect?
Where is the isle of Ormus? (See map No. 8 again.) Then where did Nearchus gu? How

did his account of the voyage offect Alexander? What grand scheme did Alexander
thereupon propose ?

 
Bo 324.] ALEXANDER’S RETURN. 265

and thence return over land to Macedonia. For this purpose he sent
orders to the viceroys of Mesopotamia and Syria to build ships upon
the banks of the,Euphrates; and commissioned Nearchus to bring his
fleet up the Persian Gulf, to the general rendezvous at Babylon.

110. The tomb of Cyrus, at Persepolis, had been violated during his
absence. It was a dome of stone, consisting of one chamber, in which
stood a bed with golden feet, covered with Babylonian tapestry. On
the bed was a coffin of gold, containing the embalmed body of Cyrus.
The inscription on the wall seemed expressly intended for Alexander.
It reads thus: “OQ man! WHOSOEVER THOU ART, AND WHENSOEV~:!:
THOU COMEST (FoR coME I KNOW THOU wiLT), I Am CrRUs, son OF
CAMBYSES, WHO ACQUIRED EMPIRE FOR THE PERSIANS, AND REIGNED
over ASIA: ENVY ME NOT THIS MONUMENT.’’ The lid of the coffin
was gone, and all the furniture of the chamber had been carried away.
Alexander punished those concerned in the theft with the greatest
severity. ‘

111. From Persepolis he proceeded to (32.) Susa, where he set
himself about the regulation of his vast empire. To cement the union
of the conquered and the conquerors, he married Statira, daughter of
Darius, and gave her sister to Hephestion, his dearest friend. His
chief officers he also united to distinguished Persian ladies. When
about 10,000 such matches had been made, the weddings were cele-
brated in the Persian fashion; but after supper, according to the
Grecian custom, the ladies were introduced. Each, as she entered,
was received by her husband, who took her by her right hand, gave
her a kiss, and seated her by his side. To prevent any ill-Lumor from
arising among the lower ranks of the Grecians, these nuptial cere-
monies were made the occasion of a grand festival. All the debts of
the soldiers were paid from the royal treasury, and tables loaded with
every luxury were spread throughout the camp, that none might be
excluded from partaking of the munificence of their sovereign. To
those who had distinguished themselves, magnificent presents were
given; and the king himself placed a crown upon the head of the
most eminent.

112. Here, again, he was joined by Nearchus, and feeling still a
desire to see the ocean, he went on board the admiral’s galley, and

 

Questions.—109. What preliminary orders did he give? 110. What is said in relation to
the tomb of Cyrus? What was the inscription? What action did Alexander take? 111.
Where was the city of Susa? By what acts did Alexander undertake to cement the union
of the conquered and the conquerors? Give an account of the ceremonies that followed.
112. Where did Nearchus again join Alexander? On whatriver was Susa? Ang. The Ulai,
a tributary of the Euphrates. What sail did Alexander taku?

12 :

 
266 GREECE—MACEDONIA. [B. 0. 324.

sailed down to (52.) Tor Persian Gur, and then up to (53.) Tur
Mourn or tne Tics, where the main body of his army lay encamped.
Here he published a declaration that all those Macedonians who by
reason of age, wounds, or infirmities were unable to endure longer the
fatignes of service, might retarn home. The suspicion (which had
long been lingering in their minds) that their king had transferred his
affections from them to the Persians was thus changed to certainty.
Voices were heard through the camp, exclaiming, ‘‘ He no longer
vares for the Macedonians; all his favor is for barbarians ;’’ and some
went so far as to vociferate, ‘‘ Dismiss us al], and for your associate in
future campaigns take your father Ammon.”

113. Alexander, upon hearing this insolent taunt, leaped from his
seat, and, pointing out thirteen of the ringleaders, ordered his men to
take them to immediate execution; then, again ascending the tribunal,
he addressed the astonished multitude as follows: ‘I do not address
you now to divert you from your eagerness to return home; all are
welcome to go; but I desire first to remind you of what you were
when you left home, and to what circumstances you are now advanced,
In doing this, I begin with acknowledging that not only my obliga-
tions, but yours, to my father are incalculably great. The Macedo-
nians were poor and wandering herdsmen, clothed in skins, and living
among mountains, when my father began to reign. Philip introducea
civil and military order.

114. “‘Towns then arose, garments of leather were exchanged for
cloth, and wholesome Jaws and improved manners made the people
respectable ; so that the barbarians, whom they had been accustomed
to fear, were compelled to acknowledge their dominion. Those who
obtained command in Thessaly had often been their terror; Philip so
altered things that the Macedonians and Thessalians became nearly
one people. Communication with southern Greece was commonly
difficult; success in the war with Phocis made it sure and easy. The
Athenians and Thebans had aimed at the conquest of Macedonia.
Philip humbled both, so that those states owed their safety to Mace-
donian generosity. Finally, settling the affairs of Peloponnesns, and
establishing peace throughout Greece, he was elected general of the
whole nation, for war against Persia—not more to his own honor than
that of the Macedonian people.

115. ‘Succeeding my father, I found in the treasury 60 talents, and

 

Questions.—112, What declaration did he publish? What effect did the declaration

# have? What exclamations and vociferations were heard? 113, 114, 115, 116. What hasty

' revenge did Alexander take? What statements did le make ia his address? Let the pupil
commit the chumeration of Alexander's victories to n.emory
B. 0. 324,] MUTINY—RECONCILIATION. 267

borrowed 800 more. Such was the fund with which, together with
you, I left Macedonia. Soon, through our success in arms, Ionia,
Eolia, Phrygia, and Lydia became tributary. Syria and Palestine
soon became yours; and in the same campaign the wealth of Egypt
and Cyrenaica followed without contest. Mesopotamia, Babylon
Susa, Bactria, the Persian treasure, the wealth of India, and the com-
mand of the ocean beyond, are now yours.” He then went on to state
that he had borne hunger, thirst, and fatigue with the meanest soldier,
and could show scar for scar with the bravest officer in the ranks;
that he had appropriated none of the treasures to himself, and was
distinguished by nothing but a parple robe and diadem.

116. “For your glory and your wealth,” continued he, ‘‘ have I led
you conquerors over plains and mountains, lands and seas. It was my
intention to have sent home all those less qualified for further service,
the envy of mankind; but as it is the desire of all to go, go all, and
tell those at home that your king, Alexander, who has led you over
Caucasus, and through the Caspian gates, across the river Oxus, and
beyond the Indus, who at your head braved the perils of the Gedrosian
desert, and the unknown dangers of the ocean, so that fleet and army
have hailed him conqueror at Susa, has been deserted by you, and
turned over to the care of barbarians, whom with you he had con-
quered.”

117. Having thus spoken, he descended hastily from the tribunal,
went to his palace, and did not appear again for three days. Then he
sent for the various bodies of infantry which he had formed from the
youth of conquered nations, and, surrounding himself with these, per-
mitted none to salute him with a kiss but such as were connected with
him by marriage. The Macedonians, overwhelmed with shame and
confusion at this severe rebuke, besieged his palace with tears and
lamentations, till finaily, overcome with their sorrow, he ordered the
gate to be opened, and presented himself to his humbled army. A
general cry of joy arose; the king mingled his tears with those of bis
repentant people; all were permitted to approach him, and none were
forbidden to take the valued kiss, for he evaded his interdict by calling
them all his kinsmen. The reconciliation complete, they once more
put on their armor, and, lifting up the loud pean, returned singing to
the camp.

118. From the mouth of the Tigris Alexander proceeded to (84.)
Ecpatana. Here he celebrated a magnificent thanksgiving for his

 

Questions.—11T. Relate what occurred after the speech. 118 Wha’ celebration took
lace at Ecbatann? Where was Eckatana?
268 GREECE—MACEDONIA. [B. ©. 324

There had come to him from

various and extraordinary successes.
and these were

Greece 8,000 persons, skilled in various diversions ; E
employed to fill up the intervals of eating and drinking with dramatic
entertainments. But in the midst of these festivities Hephestion fell
sick of a fever, and as he could not bear to be kept upon a low diet, he
took the opportunity, while his physician was gone to the theater, to
eat a roasted fowl and drink a bottle of wine; in consequence of which
he grew worse, and died in a few days. Alexander’s grief on the
death of his friend exceeded all bounds. The sounds of music and
mirth were instantly hushed, the poor physician was crucified, and
the horses and mules were shorn, that they might appear to share in
the general mourning. Sacrifices were offered to Hephestion as to a
demi-god, and the first relief which Alexander seemed to feel was in
conquering a barbarous tribe near Ecbatana, and sacrificing the youths
to the manes of his departed friend.

119. After settling affairs in this province, the conqueror directed
his course to the place which he designed to make the capital of his
empire. (81.) Basyton. As he was advancing toward this city,
Nearchus came up the Euphrates, to tell him that the Chaldean priests
were of the opinion that Alexander should not enter Babylon. Bat
he slighted the warning, and went into the city through the very gate
which they had predicted would be fatal to him. However, the
unfavorable omens affected his mind considerably, so that he lived
mostly in his pavilion without the walls, and amused himself by sail-
ing up and down the Euphrates, and in talking about his grand expe-
dition. Froin the miasmatic exhalations of the marshes, or, as some
say, from excessive drinking, he was seized with a fever, but he made
an effort to rise every day, and when not able to do so was carried on
a couch to the sacrifices, and received his officers in his tent. His
mind was constantly busied upon his projected enterprise; he con-
tinued to give orders concerning it till the eighth day of his malady,
when he was carried back to his palace. He bestowed his ring upon
Perdiccas, and when one inquired to whom the kingdom should be

 

Questions.—113. Whom did Alexander regard as his dearest friend? Give an account uf
his sickness and death. Of the consequent acts and ceremonies. 119. Whatimprovements
did Alexander attempt at Babylon? Ans. He began to repair the dykes broken down by
Cyrus; for ever since that time the water had flooded the country and rendered it unin-
habitable. He also set himself to rebuild the fane of Belus, which Xerxes destroyed after
hia return from Greece. Some idea of its greatness may be formed from the fact that 10,000
men labored every day upon it for six months, and still the rubbish was not removed at the
time of his death. Is there any structure upon the earth now equal in size and height to
this celebrated tower? What advice and warning did the Chaldean pricsts give? Give up
acecunt of the sickness und death of Alexander.
B. 0. 323.] DEATH OF ALEXANDER. 269

given, he answered, ‘‘To the most worthy.” On the ninth day he
was speechless, and on the eleventh day he died, B. 0. 823. He lived
almost thirty-three’ years, twelve of which he had reigned, and nearly
ten of which he had passed in Asia.

120. INTERMENT oF ALEXANDER.—The moment that Alexander’s
death was known, the whole palace echoed with cries and groans.
The vanquished Persians and the victorious Greeks bewailed alike the
man who had established order and peace among the nations, and all
exclaimed against the gods for having taken him away in the flower
of his age, and the plenitude of his glory. Nor was this great mourn-
ing confined to Babylon; it spread over the pru. ces; it affected
every governor; it caused the wounds of Sisygambis, mother of
Darius, to bleed afresh. ‘She who had survived the massacre of her
eighty brothers (who had been put to death in one day by Ochus) ;
the loss of all her children, and the entire downfall of her house, now,
on the decease of the enemy and conqueror of her line, seated herself
upon the ground, covered her head with a vail, and, notwithstanding
the entreaties of Statira and her sister, refused all nourishment, until,
on the fifth day after, she expired.”

121. When the first impressions of grief had subsided, each one
began to calculate the consequences of the event to himself. The
Greeks were far from home, and without a leader; the empire which
they had hoped to see established by their valor had lost its head, and,
uncertain what to do, they waited in painful anxiety for the arrange-
ments which those in power would make. Those in power were
equally at a stand. Seven days were spent in confusion and disputes,
and all that time the body of the mighty conqueror lay unembalmed,
waiting till some authority should be constituted to give orders con-
cerning its burial. Finally, all the principal commanders were sum-
moned to a general assembly. The chair of Alexander was brought
and placed in the midst; and Perdiccas laid upon it the insignia of
royalty, and the ring which Alexander had given him. He then
declared that it was indispensably requisite for some person to be
elected head of the government, and that the child of Roxana should
be acknowledged monarch of the Macedonian empire.

122. To the first proposition all assented ; to the last many objected.
To commit the scepter of the world to the hands of a guardian in
trust for an infant yet unborn, alarmed the prudent ard awakened the

 

Questions.—119. When did ho lie? How old was Fe at the (me cf bis death? How
long had he reigned? 120. Who mourned for Alexander? Why? What is said of the.
mourning and death of Darius’s muther* 12. tow were tie first seven days after Aloxil,
suder’s death spent? What was finally done? ; : a
270 GREECE—MACEDONIA. [B. Cc. 323

jealousy of the ambitious, and a long debate arose as to the propriety
and consequences of such a step. Arideus, the half-brother of Alex-
ander, a man whose energy of body and mind had been destroyed by
poisonous draughts, administered by Olympias, was finally chosen
monarch, to reign conjointly with the child of Roxana, should it prove
ason. They therefore arrayed Arideus in the royal robes, buckled
him with the armor of Alexander, and saluted him by the name of
Philip, monarch of Macedon, Perdiccas taking care to secure to him-
self the office of regent of the kingdom and guardian of the future
prince. After this important affair was settled, the body of Alexander
was delivered to the Egyptians, who embalmed it after their manner,
and then a special officer was appointed to convey it to the temple of
Jupiter Ammon. Two whole years were spent in preparing for this
magnificent funeral, which made Olympias bewail the fate of her
gon; who, although the son of a god, was compelled to wander so
long on the gloomy shores of the Styx.

123. Tue Laman War.—While these important affairs were trans-
acting in Asia, the Greeks at home were not idle. No sooner did the
news of Alexander’s death reach Athens, than the people determined
to overthrow the hated supremacy of Macedon. Demosthenes, who
had been banished, was recalled; and his active spirit soon united all
the states of Greece against Antipater, who had been left viceroy in
Alexander’s absence. All the citizens capable of bearing arms were
drawn out for the land army; and a numerous fleet was speedily
equipped and put to sea. Antipater was defeated in battle, and shut
up in Lamia, a city of Thessaly. Being, however, re-enforced by
troops from Asia Minor, he charged his enemies in turn, and gained a”
great victory. Then, offering to treat with the states separately, he
roused all their ancient animosities; and finally poor Athens was left
to meet his resentment alone. In the treaty formed, Demosthenes
was to be given up, the democracy abolished, and a Macedonian gar-
tison to be received into the city. To such humiliating conditions
was Athens reduced—she who had been the glory of the world!

124, Tue Funerat.—Not long after, the funeral obsequies of Alex-
ander were celebrated. A particular description of this august
pageant may be found in the 15th book of Rollin. It will only be
necessary to say here, that the body of the deceased monarch was laid
in a coffin of beaten gold, half filled with spices and perfumes, and

 

Questions.—122. Who was elected monarch in Alexander's place? What care did Per-
s@diccas have? How long were preparations in progress for Alesander’s funeral? 123. What
“ war next occurred? How did it occur? Givean accountof it. 124, Give an account of the
funeral obsequics of Alexander. :
B.C. 323.] DEATH OF PERDICCAS. 271

covered with a richly embroidered purple pall. A splendid chariot,
drawn by 64 mules, was the hearse on which it was conveyed to Alex-
andria, where Ptolemy raised a magnificent temple to his memory, and
rendered him all the bonors usually paid to the demigods of antiquity.
The mighty fabric of empire which Alexander had reared was dissolved
by his death. His hopes and purposes died with him. There lived
no man capable of carrying out the sublime desiga of uniting the
nations by one common bond, and extending civilization from one end
of the earth to the other. His remark, that ‘his death would be
followed by strange funeral games,” was the language of prophecy.
Scarcely was he laid in his tomb when all whom he had loved and
trusted engaged in a bloody struggle to wrest from his heirs the scep-
ter of universal dominion.

125. Olympias, the mother of Alexander, was still living in Epirus.
His sister Cleopatra resided in Sardis; and his half-sister Thessa-
lonica, in Macedon. His half-brother, Philip Aridius, lately elected
king, was in Babylon. His widow, Roxana, presented the Mace-
donians with an heir to the throne three months after her husband’s
death. Statira, daughter of Darius, soou after fell a victim to her
jealous cruelty. Alexander had also an illegitimate son in Asia
Minor, who was at this time four years old. These persons consti-
tuted Tae Rorat Famity or Macrepon. Situated as they were be-
tween the pretenders ard the crown, they were exposed to attacks
from every side, ap‘] 2}) fell victims to the ambition of those who
should have been their protectors: so that before the close of half a
century there was left to the founder of a dynasty for the world
“neither name nor remnant, neither root nor branch.” ;

126. Many hands were stretched forth to grasp the crown:

(1.) Perpicoas, as commander of the household troops, was in
reality lord of the empire. He assigned provinces to the government
of the other generals, as if by authority of the weak king whom he
guarded, or rather governed; and assisted Roxana to silence forever
the claims of Statira. Ptolemy, Antigonus, and Antipater, thinking
themselves equally entitled to sovereign authority, formed a confede-
racy against him. Perdiccas declared them rebels; and, taking with
him the imbecile Philip and the infant Alexander, advanced into
Egypt to give them battle. He lost a part of his forces in passing the
Nile; the rest matinied, and murdered him in his tent. He survived
Alexander two years.

Questions —124. What condition of things existed after Alexander's death? 125, What
bersons were there in the royal family? What account is given of the:u? 126, How long
did Perdiccas live? Where did he dio? .

 
272 GREECKE—MACEDONIA. [B. c. 32]

8. Seleucus,*

43.)

1, Perdiccas,

(2)

  
 
   

9. Antipater, 2e.y\ 7. Lysima-
ON: ae 9 hus, (42.)
“Cassander.* \ 6. Ptolemy,*
(40.)

3, Eumenes,

(»)

4, Polysper-
chon, (20.)

5, Antigonus,t

NE HERCULES. Ws

STATIRA. ROXANA. ¢.

Sea

aa

ie eS
< Demetrius.t

 

Nore.—The figures inclosed between parentheses refer to the number of years which
these individuals survived Alexander. Those names marked thus * were confederates at the
battle of Ipsus. Those marked thus t were opponents of the confederates in that battle.

127. (2.) AnTIPATER, regent of Macedon, then took charge of the
kings, and ruled in their names all the empire lying west of the Hel-
lespont. His ability and fidelity commanded the respect of his con-
temporaries, and while he lived Greece was comparatively quiet. He
however survived his royal master but four years. On his death-bed
he bequeathed his trust to Polysperchon, the eldest of Alexander's
generals, to the exclusion of his own son, Cassander, whose ambition
had already begun to develop dangerous traits in his character.

128. (3.) Eumenes was appointed by Polysperchon to guard the
dominions of the crown in Asia Minor against the rapacity of Anti-
gonus. Of all the self-constituted guardians of the royal family, he
alone seemed actuated by a sincere desire to serve them. For several
years he maintained a war in which he displayed great abilities and
untiring energy, often putting Antigonus to flight, and counteracting
all his schemes. He was at last betrayed into the hands of an enemy
with whom he had formerly been upon terms of the most intimate
friendship. Antigonus dared not trust himself to look his noble
prisoner in the face, but, giving orders that he should be kept like
an elephant or a lion, relieved him from the weight of his chains,
and shut him up in prison: finally, he put him to death.

 

& Questions.—127, What became of Demosthenes? Ans. Having been condemned to death
by the minions of Antipater, he put an end to bis own life. Give an account of Antipater’s
reign, 123. Of Eumenes's reign.
B. 0. 318.] CONTESTS FOR EMIiRRF 272

129. (4.) Potysperonon.—No sooner had this gevera assumed the
charge left him by Antipater, than Cassander began to form a party
against him, in which he engaged Ptolemy and Antigopus. To coun-
teract the movements of Cassander’s confederates in Asia, Polysper-
chon commissioned Eumenes to carry on war against them in the
name of the kings. To counteract his movements at home, he recailec
Olympias from Epirus; and to prevent the Grecian states from favor-
ing the cause of his antagonist, he published an edict for restoring
democracy throughout Peloponnesus and Hellas. The disastrous con-
sequences of these measures were felt throughout the empire. En-
menes, as we have before seen, lost his life in the war with Antigonus:
Olympias put to death Philip Arideus and his wife Eurydice; the
brother of Cassander and one hundred young noblemen also fell vic-
tims to her vengeance; and, to escape the fury which these atrocities
excited, she herself fled to Pydna, taking with her Thessalonica,
Roxana, and the young Alexander.

130. The edict for restoring democracy in the Grecian states pro-
duced revolution upon revolution. Almost every person of rank or
merit was stripped of his property or banished. Demetrius Phalereus,
governor of Athens, was driven into exile, and the venerable Phocion
was sentenced to death. The last message of this excellent man was
a command to his son to “forget the injustice of the Athenians.” So
bitter were his enemies against him, that a decree was passed forbid-
ding his bones to be buried in Attica. The last sad offices were paid
him in Megara. A lady of that country collected his bones in her
robe, conveyed them to her house by night, and buried them under
the hearthstone, praying that they might be faithfully preserved “ till
the Athenians should become wiser.” Her prayer was answered.
Cassander made war upon Polysperchon, and drove him into Etolia.
Then, marching with an army to Athens, he restored the aristocracy
and recalled Demetrius. The remains of Phocion were brought home,
and a monument of brass erected to his memory.

131. Cassander soon after commenced the siege of Pydna. He pre-
vented the reception of supplies by sea, and cut off all prospect of
relief by land. The condition of the besieged was deplorable in the
extreme. The royal family fed on the flesh of horses; the soldiers,
upon the dead bodies of their companions; and the elephants, upop
sawdust. Famine finally compelled them to surrender. Olympias
wus immediately put to death, and the widow and son of Alexander

Questions. —129, Of Polysperchon’s 130, To what did Polysperchon’s edict lead? Give
the account of Phocion. 181. Where was Pydna? (See map No.2.) Give an account of the
siege of that city.

1s
274 GREECE—MAOEDONIA. [B. 0 310.

kept close prisoners in Amphipolis. Thessalonica was subjected to an
imprisonment still more irksome by being married to her captor.
Cassander soon after marched down into Beotia, where he begau to
rebuild the city of Thebes, The place had lain desolate twenty years,
and the inhabitants lad lingered round the spot, finding a miserable
shelter in the ruins of their former habitations. With the assistance
of neighboring towns its walls were again reared up, comfortable
dwellings erected, and the grateful Thebans owned Cassander their
second Cadmus.

132. Cassander, asserting his claim to the throne of Macedon in
right of his wife, Thessalonica, soon perceived that a rival was grow-
ing up in the child of Roxana. When the young prince was about
fourteen, the Macedonians began to exclaim that it was time for him
to slip his leading-strings and take the head of the government. There
remained then no alternative for the usurper. He must either give up
his power or sacrifice Alexander. He chose the latter. Rorana and
her son were assassinated by order of Cassander. Polysperchon, who
had been quietly waiting the turn of times, now proclaimed Hercules
king, and raised an army of 20,000 men to support his right to the
throne. Cassander had recourse to negotiation. He told Polysper-
chon that if he would destroy Hercules, and yield him Macedon, an
army should be ready to establish Polysperchon’s supremacy in Pelo-
ponnesus. The cruel old man Jistened and cunsented. Hercules was
slain by his pretended friend, and the troops were withdrawn. Cas-
sander, however, instead of fulfilling his promise, chased Polysperchon
into Locris, where he lingered out his miserable life, 4 monument of
blasted ambition.

133. (5.) AnTiconus, having destroyed the faithful Eumenes, and
assisted Cassander to usurp the throne of Macedon, assumed the title
of king, in which he was followed by all the other generals of .\lexan-
der. While he lived, Asia was the scene of constant war. He fought
against the four confederates in the battle of Ipsus, was defeated, and
died of his wounds in gp. c. 301. (6.) Pronemy, the founder of the
Lagidz, supposed to be the son of Philip. He was educated
in the Macedonian court, and became one of the personal friends of
Alexander. He led the “winged soldiers” up the Sogdian rock, and
killed one of the Indian monarchs in single combat. He will appear

 

Questions.—131, What good did Cassanderdo? What city did Cassander afterward build?
Ans. ‘Vhessaiomea, in honor of his wife. Where was that city? (See map No.2) 182
Whow did Cassander sacrifice? Why did he doso? What was the fute of Herenles? What
was the fate of Polysperchon? In what direction wag Locris from Pydna? 133. Give ao
accuunt of Antigonus, Of Ptolemy
B. ¢. 301.] DIVISION OF THE WORLD. oD

again as king’of Egypt. (7.) Lysrmaonvus received from Perdiccas
the government of Thrace, which he maintained by force of arms till
the battle of Ipsus, when his title to the sovereign power was con-
firmed by the confederate princes. (8.) Seteucus, the founder of the
Seleucide, outlived all those who began with him the race for the
crown left by Alexander. He was one of the conquerors in the battle
of Ipsus, and his kingdom of Syria was one of the four horns men-
tioned by Daniel.

134. We close this chapter by remarking that Antigonus put to
death Cleopatra, the sister of Alexander: and that Thessalonica, wife
of Cassander, was murdered some years after by her own son. Fare-
well to the royal family of Macedon. How heavily the hand of the
Almighty fell upon them. A fatal curse seemed to pursue them till
they were all cut off from the face of the earth. Barrie or Ipsus.
zB. c. 301. In the last year of this century, Cassander, Lysimachus,
Seleucus, and Ptolemy united against Antigonus and his son Deme-
trius. A great battle was fought upon the plain of Ipsus, in Phrygia.
The confederates were successful, and immediately proceeded to divide
the world among themselves. Cassander had Macrvon and GREECE;
Lysimachus, Torace; Seleucus, Syria; and Ptolemy, Ecypr.

135. B.c. SOL. Acn#an Leacte.—War wirn Rome.—After
the battle of Ipsus, Cassander, by consent of his confederates, took his
seat upon the throne of Macedon, as the supreme head of the Greek
nation. He died B. o. 294, leaving Thessalonica with three sons,
Philip, Antipater, and Alexander. Philip died within the same year,
and the other two fell to quarreling for the vacant throne. Thessa-
lonica espoused the cause of Alexander, and Antipater murdered her
with his own hand. Alexander appealed to Demetrius,* who had by
this time recovered from the defeat of Ipsus. Demetrius gladly under-

* This singular man, the founder of the last dynasty of Macedon, deserves a more par-
ticular description. In his youth he possessed such uncommon beauty that no painter
could do justice to him in a likeness; his address was enchanting, and his energy and cou-
rage were equaled only by his love of pleasure. He was distinguished for his filial love, in
an age when parents and children were often rendered bitter enemies by political troubles;
and he was no less celebrated for the ingenuity and promptness with which he extricated
himself from difficulty and recovered from misfortune. He was surnamed Poliorcetes,
“ besieger of cities,” from the number of machines he invented for capturing walled towns.
In the siege of Rhodes he employed the “ Lfeliopolis or Town-taker.” which was an im-
mense tower, supported on eight enormous wheels, and propelled by the labor of 3,400 men.

 

Questions.—133, Of Lysimachus. Of Seleucus. 134. Where was Ipsus? (See map No,
8.) Give an account of the battle fought there. What division was made of the empire?
Did this include any part of Europe? Read Dan. viii. 4-9, 20-22. 135. How long did
Cussander's family possess the throne of Macedon? State how the royal family of Macedog
became extinct. Who was the founder of the last dynasty of Macedon?
#

276 GREECE—MACEDONIA. [B. c. 294

took the affair, but finding that Alexander, having become reconciled
to his brother, had no further occasion for his services, and was plot-
ting his destruction, he gained possession of his person and put him
to death. Antipater fled into Thrace, where he was assassinated by
his father-in-law, Lysimachus; and thus the royal family of Macedon
became extinct!

136. Demetrius then ascended the throne, and reigned unmolested
seven years. He might have enjoyed the supremacy much longer,
liad he not embarked in an unfortunate attempt to recover the former
dominions of his father in Asia Minor. Seleucus, who was his son-in-
law, claimed the territory himself, and steadfastly resisted all the
efforts of Demetrius. The poor aspirant was finally taken prisoner
by Seleucus, who held him in honorable captivity many years, per-
mitting him to indulge in the pleasures of the chase, and depriving
him of none of his accustomed luxuries. Finally, Demetrius lost his
relish for active exercises; he became melancholy, grew corpulent,
stupefied himself with wine, and chased away thought with dice. At
the end of three years he died of chagrin and intemperance, aged 54.
At one time he had worn a double diadem and purple robes; at ano-
ther, he had escaped from the battle-field in the disguise of a beggar;
he had been honored, nay, almost worshiped, in Athens and Mace-
don; and he died a poor, disappointed, broken-hearted old man, within
the narrow limits of the Chersonesus. His ashes were conveyed to
his son, Antigonus, in a golden urn, who celebrated his funeral with
great magnificence. This Antigonus became king of Macedon, B. 0.
277. As the most remarkable events of his reign were his wars with
his uncle, Pyrrhus, for the supremacy of Greece, we will pay a little
attention to the history of that monarch.

137. Pyrruvus, Kine or Epirus.—Epirus began now, for the first
time, to take the lead in Grecian affairs. The monarch, Pyrrhus, was
second-cousin to Olympias, and the fifth in the dynasty, of which he
was the only person of importance. He married the sister of Deme-
trius while that distinguished individual was looked upon as the heir-
expectant to a great portion of Alexander’s dominions; he fought on
his brother-in-law’s side in the battle of Ipsus, and did not desert him
in the day of his misfortunes. He even went as a hostage for him to
the court of Ptolemy, king of Egypt. He gained the favor of that
monarch, and received a heart-satisfying testimony of it, in being
allowed to take his best beloved daughter, Antigona, to Epirus as his

 

Questions,—186. What was the end of Demetrius? Give an account of him. What is
said of Antigonus? 137. Who was Pyrrhus? Give some account of him.
B.C. 281.] DEATH OF PYRRHUS. OTT

bride. When Demetrius emtarked in his last fatal attempt to regain
Asia Minor, Pyrrhus, at the request of Ptolemy, invaded Macedonia
from the west, and was acknowledged king of that country; but the
anarchy and confusion that ensued soon after compelled him to return
to Epirus.

138. Pyrraus cors to Iranry.—A request which flattered his
vanity and excited his ambition, tempted him again to interfere in
foreign affairs. The Tarentines, being engaged in an unequal contest
with the Romans, sent to Pyrrhus for assistance. Pyrrhes was
delighted with the application; for all the great conquerors befure
him had neglected to crush the rising power of the west. Having
prepared a vast number of flat bottomed boats, he set sail from the
harbors of Epirus, and after a stormy passage arrived at Tarentum.
He fought two battles with the Romans and was victorious, though
he suffered a loss almost as discouraging as defeat. Being then
invited to Sicily, he went thither, and spent two years in a war
with the Carthaginians; being, however, neither able to overcome
his enemies nor retain his friends, he returned to Italy. He recom-
menced hostilities with the Romans, but, having been defeated in
a great battle, he thought it both safe and wise to sail again for
Epirus.

139. To repair his military reputation, he made war upon Antigo-
nus, drove him from the throne of Macedon, and followed him into
the Peloponnesus with a large army. He found it impossible to take
the unwalled capital of Laconia, and, after many fruitless efforts to
retrieve his fortunes, turned aside to drive Antigonus away from
Argos. The Argives had no desire to be subjected either to Pyrrhus
or Antigonus, and the latter retired; but Pyrrhus entered the place in
the night, and commenced a furious attack upon the inhabitants. The
combat was obstinate and bloody. Pyrrhus, who possessed a com-
manding figure and the greatest personal courage, engaged eagerly in
the fight. An Argive singled out the king as an object of attack, and
Pyrrhus, crowding his antagonist against the wall, was about to dis-
patch him, when the mother of the youth threw a tile from the top of
the house upon the head of the monarch, and broke his skull. A
more particular account of his six years in Italy will be given in the
history of Rome. Antigonus Gonatus, having cut off the head of his
rival, Pyrrhus, and burned his body with funeral honors, returned to
Macedon. The remainder of his life was passed in tolerable tran-

 

Questions.—188. Of his first expedition to Italy. " Of his second expedition to Italy. 189,
Of his subsequent career. How was he killed?

Rx,
278 GREECE—MACEDONIA. [B. 0. 251,

quillity; though Peloponnesus and Hellas, which he reckoned among
his dependencies, were constantly disturbed by wars.

140. Tur Aonm£can Leacur.—The republic of Achaia consisted of
twelve small cities, all the inhabitants of which would scarcely people
one of our modern towns. The Achwans had lived independent of
all other governments, taking very little interest in the affairs of
Greece till Philip, in preparing to subjugate Asia, compelled them to
acknowledge his authority, and furnish their quota of soldiers for the
expedition. In common with their sister states, they took sides in the
struggles of the great generals for the empire of Alexander, and alter-
nately enjoyed victory and suffered defeat. When Pyrrhus returned
from Italy, and overthrew the power of Antigonus, the Achwans
looked up, and resnmed their ancient laws. The chief agent in bring-
ing about this happy event was Aratus, a native of Sicyon, who,
having succeeded in expelling the tyrants from his own city, formed a
design of uniting all the Peloponnesus in a league against Macedon.
As general of the Achwans, he was able to raise an army and drive
out the enemies of liberty; but the Macedonians having established
themselves in Corinth, he could do nothing further while they retained
possession of “the fetters of Greece.”

141. Corintn Freep.—Many and various were the schemes he
devised for regaining this important post; they all proved abortive
till accident or Providence sent to him a Corinthian, who, for a certain
sum, engaged to conduct a band of soldiers to a vulnerable point in
the wall of the citadel. Aratus pledged his plate and all his wife’s
jewels for the stipulated sum, and about nightfall set off with four
hundred chosen men on the hazardous enterprise. Their armor glit-
tered in the moonbeams, and had the Macedonian sentinel been watch-
ing from the temple of Juno they must inevitably have been discovered.
Fortunately, a thick fog at length arose, and wrapped a mantle of
deep gloom over the city. They sat down just without the wall, took
off their shoes, and silently planted their scaling-ladders. Aratus
ascended first with one hundred men, commanding the rest to follow
as soon as possible. Scarcely had the little band descended into the
city, when they saw a guard of four men approaching with lights.
They shrunk back into the shade of some ruins, and when the men
were nearly past, sprang upon them. Three were instantly killed;

 

adit Questions.—140. How large wus Achaia? How had the Achieans lived? Give a further
“account of them, Who was Aratus? What did be do for Achaia? Where was Sicyon?
(Map 2.) How was Aratus foiled by the Macedonians? 141. By what act was Aratus
favored? How did he guin the services of the Corinthian?
B. 0. 245.] CORINTH FREED. 279

the fourth escaped with a deep wound in his head, crying out, ‘‘ The
enemy! the enemy!”

142. The trumpets immediately sounded the alarm; the streets
were filled with people; torches were carried to and fro; the ram-
parts of the castle were lit up; and confused cries were heard in every
quarter. In this tumult Aratus lost his way, and clambered round
among the rocks, uncertain what course to take. The moon, so for-
tunately vailed before, now looked ont from beneath a cloud, and
revealed all the intricacies of the path. Aratus and his men mounted
the rampart, and were soon engaged in close combat with the guard.
The three hundred, having cleared the wall, drew up in a close body
under the shadow of a bending rock, and waited there in the utmost
anxiety and distress. They could distinctly hear the sound of blows
and the shouts of combatants; but these were repeated by so many
echoes that it was impossible to tell in what part of the city the fight
was going on, or to what point they should direct their steps. Mean-
time the Macedonian troops came round to attack Aratus in the rear.
When they mounted the ascent, the three hundred, guided by their
voices, followed them, and, as if issuing from an ambuscade, mingled
in the fight.

143. The enemy fled in dismay. The three hundred shouted vic-
tory to Aratus, and Aratus shouted Jiberty in return. The Corin-
thians, roused by a sound so delightful to every Grecian ear, joined
the Acheans; and by break of day the Macedonians were all either
taken prisoners or expelled from the city. As soon as practicable
Aratus entered the theater, and the Corinthians crowded in to hear
him speak. He stood leaning on his lance, with an air of solemn joy,
till a profound silence reigned through the vast concourse—then, hav-
ing recounted to them the history and principles of the Achwan league,
and having exhorted them to join it, and assist in overthrowing the
supremacy of Macedon, he delivered the keys of the city to the magis-
trates, and pronounced Corinth once more free! This bold and suc-
cessful action gained many friends for the League. Several important
cities joined the Acheans, and Aratus would doubtless have been
successful in giving liberty to the Peloponnesus had not the Spartans
become jealous for their own rights and turned against him.

144. The following is the line of Spartan succession, continued
from page 126.

 

Questions,—142, 143. Give an aeconnt of his success at Corinth. What course did he
afterward pursue? What was the etfect? Where was Corinth? (See map No.2.) 144
Give the line of Spartan succession.
280 GREECE—MACEDONIA. [B. c. 241

[22] Cleombrotus, killed at Leuctra. |20| AGEsILavs.

(Omitted.)
(Omitted, as unimportant.)

[26] Agis, killed by
[29] Leonidas. the Ephori.

1
|30| Cleomenes marries the widow of Agis, is driven from his
throne by Antigonus, king of Macedon, and dies in Egypt, B. 0. 214.
With him ended the race of Heraclidw, which had so long occupied
the throne of Laconia. Sparta was afterward governed by tyrants.

145. Sparra.—During all the revolutions which had taken place
since the day of Epaminondas, Sparta had been gradually declining in
virtue and military renown. Agis ascended the throne of Sparta B. 0.
244, While Aratus was using every effort to overthrow the power of
Macedon, Agis was planning the destruction of two more dreadful
tyrants—Vice and Luxury; but, living as they did in a servile and
degenerate age, both these distinguished men fell victims to the hatred
which their zeal in the cause of reform inspired. Agis attempted to
revive the laws of Lycurgus, which had fallen into disuse, to redivide
the Jands, which had by degrees passed into the hands of a few indi-
viduals, and to cancel those obligations which made the poor slaves to
the rich. His brother sovereign, Leonidas, opposed all his measures,
and gained the Ephori to his side. Agis was thrown into prison as
the instigator of a revolution, and strangled. Leonidas then com-
pelled the widowed queen to marry his own son, Cleomenes, because
she was the richest and most beautiful woman in Sparta. -

146. Cleomenes, however, was very unlike his father. He respected
the feelings of the woman who had so reluctantly become his bride,
and listened with the greatest attention while she recounted the vir-
tues and misfortunes of her former husband. He began to admire the
character so constantly presented before him, and insensibly formed
his own upon the same model. As soon as he was freed from restraint
by the death of his father, he made arrangements for carrying out the
design which had cost Agis his life. The Ephori being in reality “the
power behind the throne, greater than the throne,” he determined
first to destroy them. One evening while the Ephori were at supper,

 

Questions.—l44, By whom, after Cleomenes, was Sparta governed? 145. When did Agis
become king of Sparta? What was the character of Avis? Give an acconnt of him. Who
was Leonidas? Who (leomenes? Whomdid Cleomenes marry? Why? 146. What waa
tue character of Cleomenes? How did he come to admire the character of Agis? What
determination did he form? How was it carried out?
Bc. 222.J WAR WITH ROME. 981

a small party, headed by the brother of Cleomenes, rushed into the
hall with drawn swords, and fell upon them. Four were slain, and
one escaped. Cleomenes, now indeed a king, called the people toge-
ther, and after justifying what had been done, proposed the re-estab-
lishment of the government upon its ancient basis, giving up his own
estate first for distribution. The people acquiesced in the measure,
and the laws of Lycurgus were formally restored.

147. The spirits of Cleomenes rose with success. He began to
indulge thé hope of making Sparta again the head of the Greek nation.
Having gained several victories over the forces of the League, he pro-
posed that the Achwans and Spartans should unite, and make him
captain-general of the allied forces. Aratus, who had been thirty-
three years possessed of chief authority, could not bear the thought of
being supplanted by a youth, and that youth a’ Spartan. Finding,
however, that his friends were inclined to accept Cleomenes’ offer, he
sent to the king of Macedon for assistance; thus voluntarily submit-
ting to a power which he had spent all his life in striving to over-
throw. Antigonus Doson, guardian of the young Philip, immediately
marched into the Peloponnesus with an army; totally defeated Cleo-
menes, and made himself master of that renowned Sparta, which had
never before surrendered to its enemies. Oleomenes fled to Egypt,
where he died by his own hand. Antigonus, having abolished all that
Cleomenes had done to re-establish the supremacy of Sparta, com-
mitted the unfinished work of destruction to the factions and corrup-
tions with which the city was filled, and returned to Macedon, where
he died, B. o, 222, leaving the crown to its lawful possessor, Philip.

148. War wirao Rome.—The Etolians, who had been gradually
gaining « name among the Greeks, now entered the lists as competi-
tors with the Achzans for supremacy. The Achwans, unable to carry
on a war with the Etolians, sent for help to Philip; and the Etolians,
anable to carry on a war with the combined forces of Macedon and
Achaia, sent to the Romans! Though the Romans were at this time
sure pressed by the Second Punic War, yet they sent a consul and a
body of troops against Philip. The war between Philip and the
Romans went on for several years, Philip changing gradually for the
worse, as victory or defeat excited his passions. Aratus, by whose
counsels Antigonus had been guided, was at first the friend of the
Macedonian king; but, finding that every new situation seemed to

 

Questions.—146, What change did he then carry out? 147. What hope did he begin to
have? What proposition did he make with that view? How was he bafiled in his designs ?
Give an account of Antigonus Doson. 148. What is said of the Etulians? What combina-
tions were formed? Give the aecount of Aratus.
232 GREECE—MACEDONIA. [B. c. 183

develop some new trait of tyranny in his character, he withdrew
entirely from his retinue. Philip felt the implied reproach; and,
resolving to be rid of his silent censor, employed one of his creatures
to administer slow poison to the venerable general. Aratus saw his
body wasting away by dezrees, and understood the cause ; but it was
useless to complain; once be said, when a friend had observed In.n
spitting blood, **Such, Cephalon, are the fruits of royal friendship.”

149. The head of the Achwan league, after the death of Aratus,
was Philopemen, called by historians, ‘‘ The last of the Greeks.” He
fought with Antigonus against Cleomenes, and ever afterward watched
the Spartans with jealous eye. When Machanidas the tyrant attempted
to subject the Peloponnesus Philopemen, resisted him, and slew him
with his own band. As master of the Achzan horse, he distinguished
himself above all his predecessors, and commanded the respect equally
of enemies and friends. The restless spirit of Philip about this time
embroiled him in a war with the Rhodians and Athenians, who also
had recourse to Rome.

150. B. c. 146. GreEEcE BECoMES A Rowan Province.—The
senate and people of Rome were deliberating upon the propriety of
sending succors to the Rhodians and Athenians, when embassadors
came from Athens to implore immediate help, because Philip was
preparing to besiege the city. The Romans, upon the receipt of this
information, declared war against Philip. The contest lasted four
years, and Philip found that, like the dog in the fable, he had lost his
own possessions by attempting to grasp another's. He was defeated
in the battle of Cynocephale, and compelled to sue fur peace. The
consul obliged him to pay an enormous tribute, and to give up his son
Demetrius as a hostage. The determination of the Romans with
regard to the fate of Greece was to be made known at the solemniza-
tion of the Isthmian games. Crowds came from the farthest limits of
the country to hear what the sovereign arbiters would decree con-
cerning the government of the states. When the vast multitude were
assembled, a herald came forward, and proclaimed with a loud voice:
“The senate and people of Rome, and Titus Quintius, their general,
having overcome Philip and the Macedonians, ease and deliver from
all garrisons, taxes, and imposts, the Corinthians, Athenians, Achans,
&e, &., declare them free, and ordain that they ghall be governed by
their respective laws and usages.” ‘\

 

Questions.--149. Who was Philopemen? Give an account of him. What new war is
spoken of ? 150, Why did Athens appeal to Rome? What was the immediate conse-
quence ? What were the further consequences? Where was Cynocephale ? (See map
No, 2.) What did the berald proclaim ?
pc.19.] GREECE A ROMAN PROVINCE. 983.

151. At first, a low murmur prevented the people from hearing the
glad tidings distinctly, but when the herald repeated the proclamation,
their joy broke forth in such loud and repeated acclamations* that the
sea resounded on either side, and the hills and valleys of Corinth rang
with the echoes again and again. The games could not call off their
attention ; they ran in crowds to the Roman general to kiss his hand,
to throw crowns of flowers upon him, and to salute him as their
deliverer. It was a proud day for Titus Quintius Flaminius, when to
the trophies of the bodies and lands of the Grecians, won by force of
arms, he added their hearts also, won by clemency and virtue. In the
following year, B. o. 197, Flaminius was intrusted with a war against
Nabis, tyrant of Lacedemon, who had seized upon Argos. This Nabis
was a monster of wickedness. From the very first, he established his
power by rapine and bloodshed; those who possessed either rank or
fortune were marked as victims to his envy or avarice.t

152. Philip assisted. Nabis in his attempt upon Argos; and Philo-
pemen, with the Achwan forces, assisted the Romans. Flaminius,
with his allies, marched into Laconia, and laid siege to Sparta. This
city, since the rule of the tyrants, had been surrounded with walls,
and was now prepared to stand a desperate attack. Flaminius finally
made peace with Nabis, because his term of office had nearly expired,
and he wished to leave the country ungarrisoned and free. When
Flaminius was about to depart, he assembled deputies from the differ-
ent states at Corinth, and made his farewell address. After rehears-
ing the particulars of his administration, and urging them to preserve
inviolate the alliance with the Romans, he told them that he was pre-
paring to withdraw his army from Greece, and that within ten days
from the time he set sail, every garrison would be disbanded, the cita-

‘del of Corinth given up to the Achzans, and every city left to enjoy
its own laws and liberties. The whole assembly wept for joy; each
one exhorted his neighbor to receive the words of the Roman general

* Plutarch says, the shonts had such an effect upon the air, that several crows, which
were flying over the place, fell dead; and so great was the crowd around Flaminius, that le
was obliged to retreat for fear of being suffocated.

+ To carry out his schemes of extortion, he constructed an automaton resembling his
wife, and when any opulent cicizen refused to furnish him with money, “ perhaps,” Nabis
would say, “the persuasions of my wife will prove more successful.” The individual was
then introduced into a private apartment, where the horrid machine was made to clasp him

in its arms, and pierce him with sharp iron points, till the torture compelled him to grant
the tyrant’s demands.

 

Questions,—151. How did the people receive the tidings? What is said of Flaminius?
Who was Nabis? What was his character? 152. What war combinations were madef
Relate the doings of Ilaminius. What “assembly wept for joy?” What was the cause of
the weeping ?
234 GREECE—MACEDONIA. [p. @. 191

as oracles, and lay them up as decrees of fate. As a testimony of
their gratitude, the Achwans purchased all the Roman slaves in Greece,
and sent them home with Flaminius.

153. But Greece could not be quiet. It was her fortune to come
within the limits of that vast whirlpool, which all nations were invol-
untarily forming around the empire of Rome. The Etolians had been
allies of the Romans in the late contest. In the unbounded applause
bestowed upon Flaminius, they felt themselves overlooked. Their
general projected a mighty league, the head of which was to be a per-
son of no less consequence than Antiochus, king of Syria. Nabis,
tyrant of Lacedemon, was to manage the south; Philip of Macedon,
the north; Antiochus was to come with a great army from the east ;
the Etolians were to march from the west; Greece was to be subjected
not only, but war was to be declared against Rome, and the spoils
were to be divided when the conquest was won.

154. B. o. 191. How rue Leacuz PRosPERED.—The Romans,
hearing the mighty preparations making against them, immediately
took measures to meet the shock. Philopcamen, general of the
Acheans, was appointed to settle the account with Nabis, who, by the
aid of his wife, was raising funds with great rapidity. Philopemen
ravaged Laconia, fought a battle with Nabis, and destroyed three-
fourths of his army. Antiochus, in pursuance of the part assigned to
him, made a descent upon Eubcea, summoned the town of Chalcis to
open its gates, and, with a great flourish of trumpets, promised to
deliver all Greece. To this the Chalcidians replied, that they could
not guess what people it was that Antiochus came to deliver; that
they knew of no city garrisoned by foreign soldiers, or tributary to
the Romans; that they had no occasion for a deliverer, being already
free; nor for a defender, as they enjoyed the blessings of peace in-
amity with the Romans; and therefore they should not permit him to
enter their city. Antiochus was thus compelled to pass on without
effecting any thing.

155. The course of Philip was not exactly such as had been hoped.
Instead of assisting the League, he sent to the Romans, offering to
stand on their behalf, and furnish money and men according to his
ability. Antiochus, in conjunction with the Etolians, fortified the
pass of Thermopyle, and there waited the approach of the consul.
When the Romans reached the place they were stopped, of course ;

 

Questions,—153. What had made the Etolians dissatisfled? What did their general do?
How many persons were engaged in the league? What was the object of the league?
154. What did Philopemen uccomplish? How was Antiochus foiled? Where was Chalcis ?
(Map No. 2.) 155, What course did Philip pursue ?
B.C. 188.} DEATH OF PHILOP@MEN. 985

but Cato, who was a lieutenant in the army, having read of the man-
ner by which the band of Leonidas was surrounded, proposed to lead
a select party over the mountain path. He set out with a proper
detachment, but, having lost his way, the soldiers passed the greater
part of the night in scrambling over rocks, and wandering round in
the woods.

156. About daylight they heard the sound of human voices, and
perceived at a little distance a body of Etolians. Immediately draw-
ng their swords, they rushed upon the enemy, and put them to flight.
The terror of the Etolians created a universal panic. At the same
moment the Roman consul, hearing the shouts, commenced an attack
upon the main body. A stone struck Antiochus in the face, and shat-
tered his teeth. Excessive pain forced him to quit the field—exces-
sive fright forced most of his men to follow his cxample. Many lost
their lives in the sea; some were trodden to death in the rout; some
perished in dreadful morasses; some fell down craggy precipices; and
Antiochus had only about 500 men left of the army with which he
meant to subjugate all Greece. Etolia surrendered not long after,
and Philip sent embassadors to Rome to congratulate the senate upon
their glorious victory. His messengers were kindly received, and his
son Demetrius returned home with the highest marks of distinction.

157. Philopemen had humbled Sparta, demolished its walls, adod-
ished the laws of Lycurgus, and subjected the city to the customs and
usages of the Achewans. Messenia now drew off from the League.
Philopemen, though sick, set out with his chosen cavalry to bring it
back to its allegiance. He was surrounded in a narrow defile by his
enemies, and thrown from his horse. The Messenians took him cap-
tive while he lay insensible, and cast him into a dungeon. At night
the executioner was sent to him with a cup of poison. He was 70
years of age. Polybius, the historian, who carried his ashes in a
silver urn to Megalopolis, his native city, sums up his eulogy by say-
ing, ‘that in forty years, during which he played a distinguished part.
in a democracy, he never incurred the enmity of the people, though
he acted with the greatest freedom and independence.”

158. Enp or TuE Macrponian Dynasty.—When Demetrius, son
of Philip, returned from Rome, the marks of distinction with which
the senate had honored him created for him both enemies and friends.
Fully persuaded of the invincible power of the Romans, he opposed a

 

Questions.—155, 156. Give an account of the defeat of Antiochus, What then did Philip
do? With what result? 157. Whathad Philopemen done? Give the further and closing
account of him. 158. Who was Deinctrius? What caused him to have enemies as well
ao friends?
1. 146.
286 GREECE—MACEDONIA. [B. c. 146

war which his father was projecting. Perseus, his ome, a
stantly representing that all those who attached nhenise it - 5
trius were enemies of Macedon, succeeded in turning away his fa er 3
heart from his virtuous and upright son. Tho friends of peace rallied
round the youth who had been so much complimented by the Romans,
and this made his position still more trying. The infirmities of
Philip’s disposition daily increased, and the artful Perseus having
persuaded him that Demetrius entertained treasonable designs, orders
were given for his assassination. Two years after, Philip discovered
his mistake, and remorse soon hurried him to his grave. He expired
in the most horrid agony, bewailing the fate of his dutiful and loving
Demetrius, and calling down curses upon the head of the infamous
Perseus. He had reigned forty years.

159. Perseus ascended the throne s. o. 179. His hatred of the
Romans had been cultivated from early youth, but from motives of
policy he vailed his feelings, while he used every method to strengthen
his kingdom, and retrieve the losses sustained in the previous reign.
The Romans, however, were not inactive. They crowded him from
one humiliating concession to another, till there remained no alterna-
tive but war or slavery. We pass over all treaties, negotiations, and
embassies, with which such affairs are generally politely prefaced, to
come at once to the decisive battle, which was fought near Pydna, B. 0.
168. This conflict was very brief and very bloody. The parties were
engaged in close fight but an hour, yet when the Romans passed the
river the next day, the waters were still stained with blood. Perseus
was taken prisoner and carried to Rome, to adorn the triumph of
Paulus Emilius, his conqueror.

160. Achaia at length became involved in a war with the Romans.
Diwus, the last captain-general of the League, took up his station in
Corinth. The consul Mummius led a Roman army to the isthmus,
and encamped before the city. The besieged made a sortie, and were
driven back with great loss. Diswus, abandoning himself to despair,
killed his wife with his own hands; set fire to his own house; drank
poison, and ended an inglorious life by a shameful death. The follow-
ing night, every one that could porsibly escape left Corinth. The
consul abandoned the city to the fury of the soldiers, All the men
were put to the sword, the women and children were enslaved; and

Questions.—158. Who was Perseus? How did tho two brothers get in opposition? What
was the result to Demetrius? Also to Philip? 159, How long had Philip reigned? When
did Perseus succeed him? How did Perseus regard the Romans? What decisive battle is
mentioned? Give an account of it. Where was Pydna? 160, What is said of Achaia?
Who was Dieus? Give an account of him. Of the destruction of Corinth. :
Bc. 146] GREECE GOVERNED BY PRATORS. 287

after the statues and paintings had been removed, the houses and tem-
ples were set on fire. The whole city continued in flames several days,
The walls were then razed to their foundations, and a blackened mass
of ruins alone remained to tell where once proud Corinth stood, B. o.
147.

161. Greece was divided by the Romans into two provinces, Mace-
donia and Achaia, and governed by annual pretors, sent over from
Italy. The rival states, whose contentions for supremacy had so long
made an ‘‘ Aceldama”’ of the “land of song,” sank at once into poli-
tical insignificance. Athens, however, still retained the supremacy
of mind. The sciences and arts proved less perishable than civil and
military institutions. In her classic groves the youth of Rome were
educated; and that empire which Themistocles had failed to gain from
the favor of Neptune, was laid as a tribute at her feet by those distin-
guished individuals who had learned wisdom in the city of Minerva.*

* In the mythic legends of Athens, Neptune and Minerva were represented as contend-
ing for the guardianship of the city.

 

Questions —161. What supremacy did Athens maintain in spite of political insignificance ?
What makes a nation great?

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

PAGE

1. Give the early account of Philip the Great.................4. 223, 224
2. Name the important events in his life .............. 0.0000. 224-237
3. Give an account of his contest with the Athenians............ 225-236
4, Of Demosthenes, and the part he tookg.. 1... 6... cee eee eee 225-270
5. What events brought Philomelus into notice?................ 22%, 228
6. Give the-fall:account Of him: ¢ .visagisnssae case snereamenats 227-229
7. How did Thessaly come under Philip’s dominion?............. 226-229
8. State what you can of Phayllus. .. 1... 01... cece cece cee erneee 229, 230
9. What account is given of the ‘Double Vote”?...........006- 230
10. How was the ‘‘ Macedonian War” brought about?............ 230, 231
11. What part did Demosthenés take in the matter?.............. 231, 232
12. What partidid Chares take? ..2<42+2g2.vensigeeeae ees. ale istols 232
3. What was Philip’s success against the Olynthians?............ 232
14. What was lis success in the region toward the Danube?....... 233
15. How was Philip’s absence taken advantage of ?........:...00- 233
16. Give an account of Philip's failure at Byzantium.............. 233, 234
17. How was Philip brought into the midst of Grecian affairs?..... 234
18. State the events preliminary to the battle of Cheroneia......... 234, 235
19. Describe the battle and state its consequences ............ » + 235, 236
20. What can you state of Olympias?.............-e.0ee 227, 236, 271-273
21. Give the particulars of the death of Philip.........eeseeereee 236, 237
235 GREECE—MACEDONTA.
PAGE
22. When and where was Alexander the Great born?.......--..+- O37
23. Giveran account: of .ATIStOtl6, 20.0.6. eesiewtae anes ¢ 231, 237, 238, 258
24 What is said of Bucephalus?........-.- esse cere eee eeee 238, 252, 261
25. How did Alexander establish his authority in Greece?......... 239
26. Give an account of his success against the Goths............. 239, 240
27. Of Demosthenes's success against him ........---- eee eee eee 240, 241
28. What course did Demosthenes then take? ...........-02e000- 241
29, Give an account of the destruction of Thebes...........2---8- 241, 242
30. How was Athens saved from destruction ?.........00.eeeeee- 242
31. What was Alexander's ruling object 2... ... ccc cee eee eee eee 249
32. Name the events of his first campaign... ......... cee eeeeeees 243-246
33. Name the events of his second campaign........ .seeeeeeseee 246-251
34. What is said in connection with the taking of Tyre?.......... 248, 249
35. Name the events in Alexander's third campaign.............. 251-254
36. Name the events in his fourth campaign..............ee eee ee 254-256
37. Name the events in his fifth campaign... ........ cee esse ees 256-258
38. What occurred in the next campaign?........... 0.0 e cee eee 258
39. Give the events connected with the death of Clitus............ 258, 259
40. What did Alexander accomplish in his eighth campaign?....... 260
41. What was his success against Porus?..........00. eee ee eee 260, 261
42. Relate the events preceding Alexander’s homeward move...... 261-263
43. Give an account of the homeward Move..........eeeeeeeeeee 263-263
44. Of Alexander's death and burial..... 0.0.0.0... cece eee ee 268, 269, 270
45, What events followed ?...... 2... ccc cece cen e nsec eee enes 269, 270
46. What hands stretched forth to grasp the crown?............. 271, 272
47. What is said of Perdiccas?.......cscecccceencerecccuceeneus 21.
48. Antipater?............008 Sites a fo retrace ea swe takercta es ce utes wines O78
AO. EMIMO NESE. cc oseiitionare gio isis nvbieonds Wangety Sen carats Gee Sass daa'e oes ang
50. Polysperchon ?............005 Wiehe SepiNerapvale ein wie tes eeeaad 273
OTs AMTSORUS Pew aseraaamosnte edie omurencauisce’ ve wie eaee'e aes rrre Qik
62. Ptolemy 2 sc-dcensica- nave caeocssew wee ae Shee eo eM aeAta ea ares 204
63; Ly Sima chugs) ?sss suanveasdnaeacie watwates eT eee ii eaanee 213
Bo DClOUCUSIG. duu od saieamaeioeroe eaten discs pend b8 cheeiatasd.oip 275
55. Give an account of Cassander...........e00000 es s2Sbe =o PASSO
56. Of Pyrrhus and his doings............cceasee Ridius ib Siesta PTO RT
57. Of the Achvean League..............008 sebivGid sen edee wane LISS OD
58. Of Cleomenes and his doings............. ieee aioe simile save, sei 280, 281
69. Give an account of the war with Rome.............004 sesso QSISIST
60. State the particulars of Flaminius’s success......... azate aie 283
61. What is said of Demetrius, son of Philip?........ Siweswnees LSOOS6
62. Of Antiochus and his career?................ giwiiowahiars asiewe 284, 285
G3e OF RETS@ UBT arena connec siietrg Ait hi puala aeewieda:goiduis! delete aachwsshralon eee 2386
64. How was Greece divided ?...... 0000.00. ajenetiianesete 237
THRACE.
SEOTION V.

1. Lystmaonus.—s. o. 80@.—In the general division of the empire
of Alexander, after the battle of Ipsus, Thrace fell to Lysimachns, a
Macedonian noble. He married Arsinoé, sister of Ptolemy, king of
Egypt, though his son, Agathocles, had already united himself to
Lysandra, half sister of Arsinoé. Nothing of particular importance
occurred in the domestic history of Thrace, until the children of the
two Egyptian sisters were grown to manhood. Arsinoé, fearing that
the death of Lysimachus would leave her sons in the power of Agatho-
cles, began to poison the mind of the old king against his first-born.
Fully persuaded that Agathocles was engaged in a conspiracy, Lysi-
machus ordered him to be put to death. Lysandra, with her children,
fled to the court of Seleucus. This prince, though 77 years of age,
was not deaf to the voice of ambition, nor insensible to the claims of
the unfortunate. He declared war against Lysimachus, and with a
large army marched into Asia Minor.

2. Lysimachus immediately crossed the Hellespont, and advanced to
meet his rival in Phrygia, upon a plain called the Field of Cyrus. It
was a spectacle over which humanity might weep, to see these two
gray-haired old men, the last survivors of those distinguished generals
who won such glory in the campaigns of Alexander, now meeting to
engage in deadly strife for a dominion which must necessarily be so
very brief. Lysimachus was defeated and slain. Seleucus passed
over to take possession of Macedonia and Thrace, but was murdered
by Ptolemy Cerannus, brother of Arsinoé, B. 0. 281.

3. The friends and followers of Lysimachus at first regarded Cerau-
nus as the avenger of his blood ; but-when the cruel Egyptian married.
his own sister, Arsinoé, and assassinated the two young princes in her »
arms, they looked upon him with horror and detestation. His career
was short. Providence commissioned a distant and barbarous people
to do the work of vengeance. The Gauls, finding their own country
too populous, sent out a numerous army in quest of more fertile

 

Tukack—Scction V.—Questions.—1. In the division of Alexander's empire, to whose
share did Thrace fall? What led to a battle between him and Seleucus? 2. Give an ae
count of the battle. The closing account of Seleucus. Where was Phrygia? (See mag
No. 2.) 8. How then was Ceraunus at first regarded? What change took place?

13
290 SYRIA. [B ¢. 312,

regions. Following the valley of the Danube, they arrived in Thrace,
While all other princes through whose territory they passed were
purchasing safety with money and jewels, Ceraunus prepared for
war. .A battle was fought. in which he was defeated and taken pris-
oner, covered with wounds. The Gauls cut off his head, fixed it on a
lance, and held it up for derision. Thrace, being thus left without a
king, fell under the power of Macedonia, and continued subject to the
descendants of Demetrius till Greece was conquered by the Romans

SYRIA.

4, Toe Dynasty or Tue SELEUCIDS, B. ¢. 312

Seleucus I., Nicator 312.

Antiochus I., Soter 280.
Antiochus I., Theos 261.
Seleucus II., Callinicns 26.

Seleucus TI., Oeraunus 226.

   
  
  
   
  
   

“| Antiochus IV., Epiphanes 176.
‘| Antiochus V., Eupator 14.

| 10) Demetrius 162-151,
(11—Usurper.)

12 Demetrius IT., Nicator 146-140.
(18—Usurper.)

Antiochus VII., Sidetes 137-122.
(15~—Usurper.)
Beleucus V.

Antiochus VIII., Grypus 122-114.
Seleucus VIL

Antiochus TX 69-65.

 

Questions:—3. Give an account of Ceraunus’s career.
B. 0. 312.] SYRIAN KINGS. 291

The era of the Seleucidw is dated from B. 0. 312, when Seleucus
alone gained a victory over Antigonus, and entered Babyion in
triumph, though some chronologers date the commencement of the
Syrian kingdom at the victory of Ipsus, 801.

5. Serevous I., surnamed Nicator, or the “‘ Conqueror,” received in
the general division Syria, Armenia, Mesopotamia, and a part of Asia
Minor. He was the greatest and most powerful monarch of the four
who divided the empire of Alexander. He built the city of Seleucia,
about 45 miles north of Babylon, and gave it the privilege of being a
free Grecian city. He built also Antioch, the third city in the world
for beauty, greatness, and population. About a year after the death
of his friend Ptolemy, king of Egypt, he engaged in a war with Lysi-
machus, in which that monarch was slain. He was assassinated the
following year, B. 0. 280. Awnrioonus I., Soter, “‘ Saviour,” succeeded
to his father’s throne. He was distinguished for his victories over the
Macedonians and Galatians.

6. Antioouus II., Theos, ‘God, was so called by the Milesians,
because he delivered them from a tyrant. He engaged in a war with
Ptolemy Philadelphus, but, being defeated, was compelled to sue
for peace; a boon which he obtained on condition of divorcing his
wife, Laodice, and marrying Berenice, daughter of Ptolemy. “The
happiness of this match was of short duration. As soon as the king
of Egypt died, Berenice was repudiated, and Laodice recalled. This
wicked queen, fearing another reverse of fortune, poisoned Antiochus,
and, pretending that he was sick, sent for the principal noblemen to
hear the last commands of their sovereign. Meantime she put a per-
son who much resembled him into his bed, and instructed him what
te say. When the nobles arrived, the pretended Antiochus, in a faint
voice, recommended his dear Laodice to their care, and appointed her
oldest son, Seleucus, his successor. The death of Antiochus was soon
after made public, and Laodice, having placed her son upon the throne,
dispatched Berenice and her son, B. 0. 246.

7. Serzvcts II., Callinicus, had scarcely assumed the purple, when
Ptolemy Euergetes invaded Syria to avenge the death of his sister,
Berenice. The Syrians revolted in great numbers to the Egyptians,
and Seleucus was compelled to see his dominions ravaged, without

 

Questions.—4. After the death of Ceraunus, what became of Thrace? 5. At what period
commenced the era of the Seleucid? Who was SeleucusI.? Give his history. Where is
Antioch? Ans. Just half tvay between Constantinople and Alexandria, being 700 miles
froin eacb, Here the disciples were first called Christians, For what was Antiochn# Soter
distinguished? 6. Why was Antiochus II. called Antiochus Theos? Give his history
Relate the crimes of Laodice. 7. Give the history of Seleucus Callinicus.
292 SYRIA. [B. c. 226

power to protect them. During these commotions, Arsaces, the gover-
nor of Parthia, revolted; and, being victorious in a battle, took Seleu-
cas prisoner. This Arsaces was the founder of the Parthian dynasty,
Arsacide, a race of tyrants as impious as the world ever saw. Seleu-
cus died after a ten years’ captivity, by a fall from his horse.

8. SeLevous III., Ceraunus, ‘the Thunderer,” reigned ingloriously
three years. He was succeeded by his brother, Anrroouus ITI., the
Great. This prince engaged in a long and distressing war with Pto-
lemy Philopater, and was at last compelled to give up a great part of
Syria to purchase peace. He then commenced hostilities with the
Parthians to recover Media. This province was very valuable from
its producing the finest horses then known. Antiochus took the city
of Ecbatana. The royal palace, though built of cedar and cypress,
had not the least particle of wood visible. The joists, beams, ceilings,
columns, and piazzas, were all covered with gold and silver plates.
Alexander, Antigonus, and Seleucus had successively plundered the
place, yet Antiochus collected enough of the precious metals to amount
to $3,000,000. After a war of seven years, Antiochus made a treaty
with Arsaces, and returned to Antioch,

9. Antiocnus IJI. (rae Gnreat).—n. c. 223-187.—This was that
Antiochus who entered into the famous league with the Etolians to
overthrow the Romans, and suffered so much from the extraction of
his teeth at Thermopyle. From Greece he removed back to Ephesus,
where, in the company of a young woman whom he had found in his
travels and married, he passed his time as merrily as possible. He
did not awake to a full sense of his danger till his troops had suffered
defeat after defeat, and the Romans had actually brought the war into
Asia. Then he gave battle, was vanquished, and fled with all speed
to Antioch. Thence he sent his nephew to desire peace. It was
granted on condition that he should surrender all Asia Minor, pay an
immense sum of money, give twenty hostages, and deliver up Hannibal,
who had taken refuge at his court. Antiochus agreed to comply with
these terms. To obtain the money, he took a plundering tour through
lis dominions. The inhabitants of Susiana slew him because he
robbed their temple. Srxtevous IV., Philopater. To raise the tribute
imposed on his kingdom by the Romans employed all the time and

 

Questicns.—T. What do you know of the Parthians? Ans. They were atribe of Scythians
wuo lived in the northeast part of Persia, Arsaces drove out the Syrians, founded a new
cuipire, conquered Persia and several neighboring states. The Romans had frequent con-
tests yith the Parthians, but never subdued them. §. What is said of Scleucus Ceraunus ?
Give the aceaunt of Antiochus the Great. What is said of the royal palace at Eebatunal
9. Give an accuunt of the Antiochus who was at Thermopyle. Of Seleacus Philupater.
B.c. 187.] ANTIOCHUS EPIPHANES. 993

ingenuity of this prince. In his reign occurred the incident of ‘“ Helio
dorus in the temple,” related in the book of Maccabees.

10. Anriocuus IV., Epiphanes, “Illustrious,” ascended the throne
left vacant by the death of his brother, B. 0. 176. He engaged in a
war with his nephew, Ptolemy, and conquered all Egypt except Alex-
andria. He took the young king prisoner, affected to act as his guar-
dian, and to treat him with the greatest attention. The Egyptians,
however, applied to the Romans, who, as arbiters, compelled Epiphanes
to set the young king at liberty, and restore the cities he had taken
from him. The Jews having revolted, the Syrian monarch marched
into Judea. He besieged Jerusalem, and took it by storm. During
the three days that the city was abandoned to the fury of the soldiers,
80,000 Jews were put to death, and 40,000 taken prisoners. To his
other crimes he added sacrilege. He forced his way into the temple,
and ventured to enter the Holy of Holies. He carried away the altar
of perfumes, the table for shew-bread, the seven-branched golden
candlestick, and other precious things of the sanctuary.

11. Some time after, Antiochus published a decree, requiring all the
nations of his dominions to lay aside their ancient forms and ceremo-
nies, and worship the gods he worshiped, after the same form and
manner he had adopted. The Jews refused to comply with this com-
mand, and such a horrid persecution arose as no pen can portray. At
this time happened the martyrdom of Eleazar, and the seven Macca-
bean brethren. ‘Tidings out of the east and out of the north” now
troubled Antiochus. He divided his forces into two bodies; com-
mitted one part to the command of Lysias, with orders to exterminate
the Jews, while he led the other detachment against the Armenians.
The army of Lysias met the little band of Jews, commanded by Judas
Maccabeus, upon the plains of Mizpah. The Syrians were defeated,
with dreadful slaughter. Two more battles gave the Jews such
decided superiority that they marched to Jerusalem, recovered the
sanctuary, re-dedicated it to the service of the true God, and devoted
the week to thanksgiving and praise.

12. Antiochus, hearing of the defeat of Lysias, set out himself for
Judea. Oc his way, fresh expresses met him, saying that the Jews
had thrown down his idols, overturned his altars, and re-established
their ancient worship. At this intelligence he ordered his coachman
to drive with the utmost speed, that he might satiate his vengeance by

 

Questions—10. When did Antiochus Epiphanes ascend the throne? Who was his
nephew? What is said of the young king of Egypt? What misfortune befell the Jews?
1, 12. What decree did Antiochus publish? What followed? What reverse happened to
Antiochus? How were the Jews benefitei?

 
294 SYRIA. [R. c. 176,

“

making Jerusalem the burying-place of the whole Jewish nation.
Scarcely had he tittered the impious words, when he was seized with
the most excruciating pain; and as the horses were running at their
greatest speed, he fell from his chariot. The agony of his bruises,
added to the torment of his disease, drove him frantic. He imagined
that specters hovered round, reproaching him with bis crimes. Recog-
nizing the hand of Divine justice in the anguish he suffered, he ex-
claimed, “It is meet to be subject unto God, and man who is mortal
should not think of himself as if he were a god.” He promised if his
life were spared to do magnificent things for Jerusalem ; but his sands
wererun. ‘He died a miserable death, in a strange country, in the
mountains ’’ (B. c. 176-164).

13. Antioonus V., Fupator, a youth of nineteen, succeeded his
father, but was soon dethroned by his cousin, Demetrius, who had
been a hostage in Rome many years. Demetrius freed the Babylo-
nians from a petty tyrant, and made war upon the Jews. Judas Mac-
cabeus was dead, but by this time the Romans had extended their
powerful protection to the Jews, and Demetrius, having made peace
with them, proceeded to act the king in a more comic manner. He
erected a castle in Antioch, flanked by four towers, where he shut
himself up to follow the directions of Sardanapalus, “eat, drink, and
sleep.’ This delightful life was disturbed by a young man, who, pre-
tending to be the son of Epiphanes, had been acknowledged king by
the Romans. Demetrius quitted the castle of Indolence, and buckled
on the panoply of war. In the first battle he was defeated and slain.
ALEXANDER THE Usurper then made himself master of Svria. Pto-
lemy gave him his daughter, Cleopatra, in marriage; and Alexander,
thinking his fortune made, determined to give himself no further
trouble with public affairs. We do not know whether he chose the
castle of Demetrius for the scene of his pleasures, but he followed
exactly his course of life, and came to an end precisely similar.

14. Demernivs II., .Vicator, son of the former king, put forward his
claim to the throne. Alexander called on his father-in-law for assist-
ance. Ptolemy Philometer accordingly marched into Palestine with
a large army, but finding that a plot was on foot in Alesander’s camp to
poison him, he took his daughter away from her husband, gave her to the
young Demetrius, and engaged to assist him with all his forces, Alex-
ander was defeated and slain. Demetrius, now acknowledged king of

 

Questions.—12. Give the closing account of Antiochus. 13, 14. Who succeeded Antiochus
IV.? What can you say of him? Give the history of Demetrius. Of Alexander the
Usurper. In what way did Ptolemy Philometer aid the young Demetrius?
B. 0. 146.] SYRIA A ROMAN PROVINCE. 995

Syria, followed the example of his two immediate predecessors, till a
revolution in favor of Alexander’s son drove him from the throne. In
his wanderings and fightings he was taken prisoner by the Parthians,
and detained in captivity many years. Cleopatra shut herself up in a
strong city with her children, and continued faithful to the memory of
Demetrius, till, hearing that he had married a Parthian lady, all her
vindictive passions were aroused (B. c. 146-140),

15. She sent to Anrioonvs VII., Sidetes, brother of her perfidious
husband, offering to set aside the claims of her children, marry him,
and be once more queen. The offer wasaccepted, the nuptials speedily
solemnized, and the usurper not long after slain. Demetrius, mean-
while, was making every effort to escape from his keepers and return
to Syria. Antiochus, apprehensive that he would be successful,
marched into Parthia, determined to destroy this rival brother, and
conquer the country at one blow. He was, however, slain in battle,
and Demetrius returned to Syria. The inconstant queen forgave his
marriage with the Parthian lady, and acknowledged hiin Syria’s king
and Cleopatra’s lord. This second honeymoon was very short. The
king of Egypt made war upon Demetrius, and defeated him in a
pitched battle. The unfortunate monarch fled to the city of his queen,
but the gates were shut against him. He fell into the hands of his
enemies, and was put to death.

16. Serevous V., the eldest son of Demetrius and Cleopatra, now
ascended the throne; but as he did not admit his mother to a share of
power, she stabbed him with her own hand. She then sent to Athens
for her second son, and caused him to be declared king immediately
upon his return. Awrtioonus VIII. had the surname of Grypus, trom
his great nose. His mother presented him a cup of poisoned wine, but
he compelled her to drink it herself. Syria was thus delivered trom a
monster that had so long disgraced the names of wife, mother, and
queen. Grypus lived after this 27 years. His reign was disturbed
by the intrigues of bis brothers, both of whom contended for the
crown.

17. Syria Becomes A RoMAN ProvinoE.—s. 0. 64. —Grypus left
five sons, all of whom were kins, or at least pretenders to the throne.
Serevcus VI., the eldest, was killed in a mutiny of the citizens, in
which his house was set on fire. Antrocnus and Partp, the next two
brothers, were twins. One was drowned in attempting to swim across

 

Questions—14. What misfortunes happened to the latter? 15. What part did the wife
of Demetrius take? Give the history of Antiochus Sidetes. Of Demetrius Nicator. 16.
Of Seleucus V. Of Antiochus VIIL 17. How many sons did he leave? Give their history,
What further can you say of the race of Seleucus? Of Syria?
296 SYRIA. |B. c. 100.

a river, and the other spent the rest of his reign in fighting with the
two younger boys. The kingdom of Syria was torn in pieces by the
factions of the royal family, or by usurpers who established themselves
for a little time as kings in various cities and districts. Finally,
Pompey reduced Syria to a Roman province. The race of Seleucus
thus became extinct, or was lost in the common tide of human life

 

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

PAGE

1, Whe was Lysmiachie? cocacosck: cheseR AXeae ees ewew ieee e ds 289
2. What account can you give of him 2. A Nsaseegieaaie ies 272, 275, 289
3. Who was: Ceraunus ? ssc acc.aces ses sds anedncwiseeenaueee crews 289
4, Give an-account-of him. sss15e4s saws ss xa ce was wei auasmeees 289, 290
5. Who was Seleucns Piva gia ced eas eee dec sad soe 2 see seeeaawes 275, 291
6; Give an account of him, vvcicvseesstoeded swea sca acadionaod 275, 291
dy What is:aaid of Antiochus: ?ss.244 ss .ccsaiasacina nace cea a aes 291
82 OF AmOCHUS: Wty arsa3 08.08 9 hard sore Fa S scares tbiaverereteveteana seabtatece ae 291
Oe SELCUCUS TM. 2 sks cessed dda overs ney Sieaveses sia dees aieiacorteerheavbua sl denae ade timneaiaiwrs 292
TO Sele ues Ps asc: seco eeedcs SGial eck. Socveveea ea venare wd a teases eeneeL een 292
11. Antiochus ?......... av sinralio'adaues ouedeng. ava t ay ah acy Suassbsatiavale hate lechtasp sateen 292
Nes CEM CUS TeV Se cee 8 Zia rd avers tan Doutsansrtiind eased Geom eDUNe MaON See ore 292
13: ATMOCMUSE DV iY ysis axis Bedi aa eaAN eins adh Maya wsac belt Pane he ae 293
14. Antiochus V.?......... ae yee eh erastnashoe- Backapine aavela creceoatgoye 294
U5, . DEMCtWS Ransome teed ee soe cae add ad weiner atienmaeuaaes 294
16, What is said of Alexander the Usurper?...........2.-.-.000055 294
Li. Who was. Demetrius TN? eccscavaawiea ay cscs s costes vieea eeulas 294
18. Give an account of his successes and failures............0.00- 294, 295
19. What is said of Antiochus Sidetes?.......... Eebiskiwecn Peueees 295
20. Wid: Was: SElGUCUS Vi Picas acc vavaaventss ole fing cee e Pale pis adel sales a 295
21; Give-the accountiof Bits ose cacvaias vaso ie sae 's0o0 eames pase seis 295
22. What can you state of Antiochus Grypus?...........ccceeeeeeee 295
23. Of Grypus’s sons?...........0.0- a Saiigyedicw Sete seeteeseins «.. 295, 296
24. When did Syria become a Roman provinee?........... dais aoe - 296
EGYPT.
SECTION VI.

1. vs. oc. BOQ, Tue Taree Goop Protemies.—Dynast¥ oF THe
Lacipz.

Ptolemy Soter, began to reign, 323.

   
   
     
 
   

[2 |Ptolemy Philadelphus, “ 283.
3 | Ptolemy Euergetes, ee 247.
4 | Ptolemy Philopater, es 222.
Ptolemy Epiphanes, “205.
6 | Ptolemy Philometer, “ 181.
Ptolemy Physcon, ag 146.

8 | Ptolemy Lathyrus, gs 117.

AO Cleopatra Berenice.

   

12| Ptolemy Auletes.

Ecypt BECOMES A Roman Province.
13*
298 EG YP. [B. 0. 323,

When tl» empire of Alexander was dismembered, each gener!
tuking a limb, Ptolemy secured the “‘lion’s share;” not indeed in
extent of sountry, but in the wealth and submissive disposition of his
subjects Te was-the reputed son of Lagus, and the dynasty founded
by him was called the Lagidw. The era is reckoned from B. 0, 318,
though he did not assume the title of king till after the battle of Ipsus,
3801.

2. Protemy I., Soter, was distinguished not only as a warrior but
as a ruler; he was accessibie to all his subjects, simple in his manners,
and a lover of learning. He wrote a life of Alexander, and founded an
academy at Alexandria, to which he gave the greatest library in the
world. It was his two daughters who were married to Lysimachus
and Agathocles; and it was his eldest son, Ceraunus, who, exasperated
because his brother Philadelphus was preferred before him, fled to
Thrace, and, to gain the throne of that country, murdered the aged
Seleucus and the two sons of his sister, Arsinoé. Two years before
the death of Ceraunus, Ptolemy Soter associated Philadelpbus, his
second son, in the government; and the coronation of the young
prince was attended with a grand display of all the wealth and splen-
dor Egypt could boast.

3. Protemy II. was called Philadelphus, “ Lover of his Brother,”
perhaps ironically, because he had supplanted Ceraunus. He might
properly have been called Philemon, ‘Lover of Learning,” for all the
wars and tumults which prevailed thoughout the world could not tum
away his attention from the great work of completing the library
which his father had founded. Every book brought into Egypt was

seized and copied; the copies were handed back to the proprietors,
and the originals laid up in the library. The price he paid for the
Scriptures will illustrate the sacrifices he made to gratify his ruling
passion. Hearing that the Jews possessed u remarkable book con-
taining the laws of Moses, he determined to possess it. He collected
all the Hebrew slaves in his dominions, amounting to 120,000, and
sent them home, accompanied by embassadors bearing presents and
letters, and making a request for the holy volume.
- The ransomed Jews and the deputies were received at Jerusalem
wal the greatest joy. An authentic copy of the Scriptures, written
in letters of gold, was given to the Egyptians by the high-priest him-

pee SE a es
Eeyrt.—Section VI.—Questions.—1. Who was the founder of the Lagidw? What was
his vrigin? In what way did he gain Hgypt? When did he begin to rei 2 2 For what
was Ptolemy Soter distinguished? Was he an author? What did he write 2 “What else
did he do? Who was his eldest son? Who his second son?) What ean oui state of the
second son? 38, What is said of the library Of ve means taken to get the Scriptures ?

 

 
B. 0. 283.] PTOLEMY III. 999

self, and six elders from each tribe were sent home with them to
translate the Hebrew into a Greek version. The elders were con-
aucted to the island of Pharos, lodged in a house prepared for their
reception, and plentifully supplied with every thing necessary for their
comfort. When their work was complete it was read before the king,
who dismissed the faithful scribes with magnificent presents. This
version was called the Septuagint translation, from seventy elders
having been employed upon it.

5. The famous watch-tower of Alexandria was completed in his
reign. This tower, which was called Pharos, and passed for one of
the seven wonders of the world, was built of white marble, story above
story, adorned with columns and galleries of exquisite workmanship.
On the top, fires were kept burning to guide mariners into the bay.
Philadelphus also kept two powerful fleets, one in the Mediterranean,
and the other in the Red Sea, by which means he made Egypt the
mart of the world. Though he expended such vast sums in strength-
ening his kingdom, and constructing public works, yet Egypt was
never richer or happier than during his reign. In his old age, he
accompanied his daughter, Berenice, into Syria, and assisted at the
solemnization of her nuptials with Antiochus II., husband of the repu-
diated Laodice.

6. Proremy III., Hwergetes, ascended the throne of Egypt B. 0. 285
After Antiochus had banished his sister, Berenice, and recalled Lao-
dice, Euergetes engaged in a war with the Syrians, and overran their
country as far as Bactria. Among the plunder of the cities, he found
those idols which Cambyses stole from Egypt, and, carrying thein
home, recommitted them to the care of the priests. For this pious
act he was surnamed /uergetes, ‘‘ Benefactor.” When he set out on
this expedition, his wife, Berenice, made a vow to consecrate her hair
to the gods if they would bring her husband home in safety. Imme-
diately upon his return she caused her head to be shorn, and her
beautiful locks to be hung up in the temple of Venus. The conse-
crated hair was stolen not long after, and when the priests were called
to account, they gravely affirmed that it had been taken to heaven, and
gazing fixedly into the sky, declared they could see the light of the
golden locks. Some astronomers, equally sharp-sighted, were enabled
also to discern a constellation never before noted, to which they gave

 

Questions,—4. What great benefit did Ptolemy confer upon the world? Give the par-
uiculars. 5. What is said of the watch-tower? Of the two fleets? Of the richness ana
bappiness of Egypt? What did the king do in his old age? 6. Who was the next king of
Egypt? When did he ascend the throne? In what war did he become engaged? What
did he accomplish? Why was he called Euergetes? Why is he me tioned in astronomy ?
300 EGYPT. [B. 0. 229

the name of “Berenice’s hair.” This beautiful cluster of stars is
situated in the diamond of Virgo. Euergetes did not forget to enrich
his library with all the books and paintings which could be ob-
tained in any part of the world. He was the third and last good
Ptolemy. :

“7. Protemy IV. was called Philopater, “Lover of Father,” from a
suspicion that he hastened his father’s death. He commenced his
reign by the murder of his mother, Berenice, and his brother, Magus.
The character which he thus acquired for violence and cruelty was
sustained by all the succeeding acts of his life. This was the prince
who engaged in a war with Antiochus the Great, and wrested from
him a great part of Syria. Satisfied with conqnest, Philopater gave
himself up to every species of vice. Women, and those women not
his wives, governed every thing at court, and conferred all honors and
employments throughout the kingdom. His wife shared the fate of
his mother and brother, and many distinguished individuals fell vic-
tims to the corruption of the times.

“8. At last, worn out with dissipation, his constitution gave way.
No one that deserved the appellation of friend was present when he
died. Two or three of his creatures saw him breathe his last, but
instead of committing his body to the proper officers, and ordering a
general mourning, they concealed his death till they had carried off
all the gold and jewels from the palace. When, however, his decease
became publicly known, and the people reflected upon the probable
fate of the young prince left to the care of these vile usurpers of
power, they assembled and put them all to the sword. Their dead
bodies were dragged through the streets, and torn in pieces by the
multitude.

9. Four wioxep Protemies Reten.—zs. o. 205. Protemy V.,
Epiphanes. No sooner did Antiochus, king of Syria, and Philip, king
of Macedon, learn that the scepter of Egypt had fallen into the hands
of a child, than they determined to seize upon the cities which had
been so long in dispute, and settle the boundaries of the countries to
suit themselves. Antiochus carried out his designs by conquering
Celo-Syria and Palestine, but Philip had so much to do in Greece that
his plans failed. When Antiochus embarked in his great enterprise
of the league against Rome, he made peace with Ptolemy Epiphanes,
and gave bim his daughter in marriage. The young queen was

 

Questions.—6. What is said of the library? 7,5. Who next became hing? Why waa
he called Philopater? How did he commence his reign? What further ean you say of
him? What is said of his death? 9. By whom was he succeeded? What two kiiges
(urmed a league against Ptolemy V.? How did his wife manifest her attachment ?
8. c. 181] PTOLEMY VI 301

expected to act as a spy in the Egyptian court, but her attachment to
her husband overcame her reverence for her father, and she even
joined in the embassy which went to congratulate the Romans on the
victory they gained over Antiochus at Thermopylae.

10. After the death of his father-in-law, Epiphanes determined to
wrest from his successor, Seleucus, those cities which had been taken
from Egypt in the commencement of his reign. His courtiers inquired
where he expected to obtain money for furnishing his army. ‘“ My
people are my treasure,” replied the king. Inferring from this answer
that he intended to take unwarrantable liberties with their purses, his
parasites caused him to be poisoned. He had reigned twenty-four
years.

11. Protemy VI., Philometer, “Lover of his Mother,” was pro-
claimed king at the age of six years, and his mother declared regent.
As soon as he was old enough to understand war to be the game of
kings, he commenced hostilities with Antiochus Epiphanes for the
recovery of those cities which had passed from one government to
another so mapy times, He was taken prisoner and kept in confine-
ment, while his brother, Physcon, administered the affairs of the king-
dom. Philometer escaped from the too-loving watch of his guardian,
and united his fortunes with his brother. This brought Antiochus on
his third expedition into Egypt. Philometer sent for help to the
Romans. The embassadors deputed by this people to settle the affair
landed in Egypt, and came up with Antiochus about a mile from
Alexandria. They handed him dispatches, and waited in silence while
he read them. Antiochus, wishing to gain time, told the envoys he
would consult with his friends, and give them an answer soon. The
consul drew a line about him as he stood in the sand, and, raising his
voice, “‘ Answer,” said he, ‘‘ the senate of Rome before you stir out of
that circle.” The king, quite confounded, submissively replied, that
he would do as the Romans desired. Accordingly, he left Egypt at
the stipulated time, and restored the cities of Cyprus.

12. Some commentators think Antiochus and Philometer the “ two
kings who spoke lies at one table,” and recognize the intervention of
the Romans in the passage, ‘‘the ships of Chittim shall come against
him,” &. The two brothers could not live in peace. Physcon
expelled Philometer, who fled to Rome. The senate settled the dis-
pute by a partition of the kingdom between the brothers. Physcon,

 

Questions.—10. Relate the circumstances of his death. 11. Who succeeded him? When
was Ptolemy Philometer declared king? Why did he engage in war? What misfortune
befell him? Who was Physcon? What did the Romans do? Antiochus? 12. Read Dan
xi. 30. What disagreement took place
302 EGYPT. [B. c. 146

who was dissatisfied with his portion, thought proper to try the effect
of his person in Rome. The senate received him favorably, and added
Cyprus to his dominions; but when he came to ask the hand of Cor-
nelia, the mother of the Gracchi, in marriage, he learned that the
daughter of Scipio could despise a crown. Physcon returned to
Cyprus, but Philometer made war upon him, and took him prisoner.
This Philometer was the king who took his daughter Cleopatra from
Alexander, and gave her to Demetrius; and this Cleopatra was the
wicked queen who was the wife of three kings, and the mother of four.

13. Provemy VII., Physcon, ‘‘the Corpulent,” ascended the throne
of Egypt after the death of Philometer, B. o. 145. He married Philo-
meter’s widow, and murdered her son, the heir apparent, in her arms;
and he put so many of the friends of his brother to death, that Alex-
andria was almost depopulated. Philosophers, mathematicians, physi-
cians, and men of science and letters, who had been called together by
the generous policy which founded the school and libraries of the city,
sought a more congenial atmosphere than the court of a corrupt king,
Thus the cruelty of this tyrant scattered the seeds of learning in al] the
neighboring countries. To re-people his city, Physcon offered the
deserted houses rent free to those who would come from foreign parts
and take up their abode in them.

14. In this manner the inhabitants of Alexandria became a mixture
of every people, tribe, and tongue; but the new settlers soon perceived
that they had gained nothing by subjecting themselves to the will of a
tyrant. Physcon, fearing the just indignation ‘of his subjects, caused
the young men of Alexandria to be assembled in a public place, and
ordered his foreign troops to put them to death. All Egypt then
revolted, and the wicked king was forced to flee to Cyprus, while
Cleopatra, his divorced queen, ascended the throne. Her reign was,
however, short, for Physcon collected an army, reinstated himself by
force of arms, and reigned for some time, feared by his enemies, and
hated by his subjects (he had no friends); his own wife sought his
destruction, and he murdered his own son.

15. Curopatra.—Eeypr Suspurp.-—Protemy VIII.—s. c. 146-117. -—
surnamed Lathyrus, from the mark of a pea on his nose, succeeded his
father, after many quarrels with his mother and brother. Lathyrus
reigned 36 years, during which Egypt was constantly distracted by the

 

Questions.—12. What did Philometer gain by going to Rome? What did Physcon gain
by going? What did he not gain? What further is said of Philometer? What is said ol
Cleopatra? 18, 14. When did Ptolemy Physcon become king? Of what erueltics was he
guilty? What then was he foreed to do? What farther can you state of him? 15, Whe
wext ascended the throne? What troubles did Lathyrus have?
B.0. 80.] PTOLEMY AULETES. 303

dissensions of the royal family. Brrenrog, his only legitimate child,
succeeded him, but as, according to the custom of the country, all the
sons took the name of Ptolemy, and all the daughters that of Cleo-
patra, she was called Cleopatra Berenice. Sylla, at that time dictator
of Rome, sent her cousin, Alexander, to claim the throne. He con-
cluded to take Berenice in marriage, and permit her to retain the title
of queen; but subsequently repented of his lenity, and put her to
death. The fifteen years of Alexander’s reign were spent in violence
and cruelty; and finally the Alexandrians expelled him, and called
Ptolemy Auletes, an illegitimate son of Lathyrus, to assume the reins
of their government.

16. Ptolemy Auletes, to parchase the protection of the Romans,
entered into an agreement to pay Julius Cesar, the consul, a sum
equal to $90,000. The taxes which he levied to meet this engage-
ment exasperated his subjects, and he was obliged to fly for his life.
The Egyptians proclaimed his daughter, Berenice, queen. Auletes,
meantime, made his way to Rome. Cesar was absent in Gaul, but
Pompey received the exile kindly, gave him an apartment in his house,
and omitted no occasion of serving him. His business in Rome
detained him long. The senate had no army to send into Egypt, and
he was forced to wait till a change in the consulship was effected.
While the Romans hesitated, the Egyptians acted. The government
of a woman could not satisfy them. They therefore sent to Seleucus,
one of the last princes of Syria, offering him the hand of Berenice and
the sovereignty of Egypt.

17. Seleucus came immediately to Alexandria, married his queen,
and put on his crown; but avarice made him deaf alike to the call of
love and ambition. His first care was to cause the body of Alexander
the Great to be put into a coffin of glass, while he melted the golden
one into a more convenient form for transportation. Berenice, dis-
gusted with his meanness, employed some of her creatures to strangle
him. Auletes returned not long after, supported by Mark Antony
and a Roman army. The people were forced to acknowledge him for
their sovereign, and with a Roman body-guard he was enabled to take
vengeance upon his enemies. His daughter, Berenice, was the first
victim ; then followed those whose great wealth tempted bis cupidity.

 

Questions—15. Who succeeded him? What was her fate? What is said of Alexan-
der’s reiyn? Who was Ptolemy Auletes? To what position did he attain? State how.
16. What agreement did Auletes enter into? What were the consequences? Who then
became queen? Whctecame herhusband? In what way was the marriage brought about?
17. What was the first care of Seleacus? What became ¢f him? What further is stated of
Auletes?
3804 EGYPT. [B. ¢. 51

The Egyptians suffered these violences without a murmur; but when
a Roman soldier killed a cat, the whole authority of Ptolemy could not
prevent their tearing him to pieces.

18. Ptolemy Auletes died z. 0. 51, leaving two sons and two daugh-
ters. By his will he directed that Cleopatra, the eldest daughter,
should marry Proremy Dionysius, the eldest son, and reign jointly
with him, under the guardianship of Pompey the Great. These direc-
tions were followed; but three years after, the ministers of Ptolemy
having deprived Cleopatra of her share in the government, she escaped
to Syria. It was precisely at this juncture that Pompey, having fled
from the plains of Pharsalia, arrived in Egypt to claim an asylum from
his enemies. But Egypt was not the place to seek friends in the day
of adversity. The fear of Owsar had arrived there before him. The
artful ministers of the young king dared not counsel to receive the
unfortunate Roman, lest Cesar should call them to account; they
dared not send him away, lest he should retrieve his affairs, and return
to punish their ingratitude. The proverb, ‘‘Dead men do not bite,”
urged by the tutor of the king, decided the fate of the illustrious fugi-
tive. Ptolemy, with his parasites, went down to the shore, as if to
welcome the arrival of his guardian; and looked on with the greatest
unconcern, while those appointed to do the bloody deed assassinated
the noble Roman, cut off his head as a present for Cesar, and threw
his body naked on the strand.

19. When Casar, in pursuit of Pompey, landed in Alexandria, he
found every thing in confusion. Referring to the will of the late king,
he ordered Cleopatra and Dionysius to appear before him, declaring
that, as Roman consul, it was necessary for him to settle the differences
between the brother and sister, alias, the husband and wife. Cleo-
patra, conscious of the power of her beauty, determined to use it in
furthering her ambitious projects. With only one attendant, she was
rowed to the walls of the citadel of Alexandria in the night. There
her servant wrapped her up in a bundle of clothes, put a thong care-
fully around her, and carried her as a bale of goods into Casar’s
apartment. The first apparition of this lovely creature decided the
heart of the conqueror in her favor. The next day he decreed that
Cleopatra and her brother should reign jointly, according to the will, .
and that the younger brother and sister should have Cyprus.

 

Questions.—18. When did he die? Can you name any provision of his will? Why did
Cleopatra escape to Syria? What happened at this juncture? How did the Egyptians
reason about the reception of Pompey? What was the sequel? 19. Whom did Cusar pur-
sue into Egypt? What persons did Cwsar order to appear before “im? ‘tow did Cleopatra
effect her purpose? What decree did Caesar make?
B. 0. 47] CLEOPATRA. 305

20. Ptolemy was dissatisfied with this decision. He stirred up the
people to make an attempt upen the Roman fleet. To prevent his
galleys from falling into the enemy’s hands, Cesar set them on fire.
Some of them were driven by the wind so near the quay, that the
flames caught the neighboring houses, and spread throughout the
quarter called Bruchion, consuming a part of the books in the famous
library. A series of similar attacks and reprisals went on between
Cesar and the Egyptians while he stayed in Alexandria. Finally, a
decisive battle was fought, and Ptolemy, attempting to escape in a
little boat, was drowned. All Egypt then submitted. Ceasar gave
the crown to Cleopatra, in conjunction with her younger brother,
Protemy XI., then eleven years of age. He took Arsinoé, the other
sister, with him to Rome, where she walked in his triumph in chains
of gold, but immediately after he permitted her to retire to Asia.

21. B.o. 41. At the age of fourteen, the young king demanded his
share in the government. Oleopatra therefore poisoned him, and
remained sole possessor of the regal] authority. After the battle of
Philippi, when Mark Antony passed over into“Asia to establish the
authority of the triumvirate, all the kings, princes, and governors of
the provinces were cited to appear before him. Among others, Oleo-
patra was summoned. This princess, then twenty-five years old, had
added to her unrivaled attractions all the fascinations which a culti-
vated mind and a graceful address can give to beauty of face and
elegance of person. She was a proficient in music; she could con-
verse with Ethiopians, Jews, Syrians, Medes, Greeks, and Italians,
without an interpreter; and she understood every blandishment which
a voluptuous court had devised to give effect to female charms. Pro-
viding herself with rich presents, large sums of money, and the most
magnificent robes and ornaments, she set off for Tarsus, where Antony
waited to receive her.

22. She sailed up the Cydnus in a barge with sails of purple silk,
and oars flashing with silver. A pavilion of cloth of gold was raised
upon the deck, under which she reclined, habited like Venus, with
beautiful damsels representing the Nereids and Graces worshiping
around her. Flutes, hautboys, harps, and the softest instruments of
music, filled the air with harmony, to which the gentle dip of the oars

 

Questions.—2U0. Who was dissatisfied with the decision? What misfortune to the world
of Jetters occurred? Give the final account of Ptolemy. _Who then were appointed to rule
Egypt? What is said of Arsinvé? 21. What becume of Ptolemy XI.? When did that
occur? What accomplishments of mind did Cleopatra possess? What is said of her other
acquiremenots? Whbatsummons did she heed? With what did she provide herself for the
eccusion? 22. Give a description of hur pageant.
306 EGYPT. [B. c. 41.

kept regular time, while the perfume of costly incense regaled the
senses of the multitudes who crowded the banks to gaze upon the
lovely pageant. A rumor was spread tliat the goddess Venus had
come to visit the god Bacchus, and if Cleopatra so well personated the
queen of beauty, Antony, on his part, sustained his character of the
prince of revelers, in all its essentials. As soon as the mimic fleet had
come to anchor, Antony sent to invite her to supper. She replied,
that she had already ordered an entertainment upon the banks of the
river, where she would receive him as her guest. Antony went; and
that interview sealed his fate.

23. His love of glory, wealth, and power was lost in his absorbing
passion for the fascinating princess; and while his wife, Fulvia, was
supporting his interest at home against Octavius Cesar, and his lieu-
tenants in the east were preparing for war in Syria, he was led off like
a captive in the train of Cleopatra to Alexandria. There the veteran
warrior fell into every idle excess of puerile amusement, and offered
at the shrine of luxury what one has called the greatest of all sacri-
fices—the sacrifice of time. There was no end to their feasts and
entertainments; each vied with the other in magnificence and expense.
On one occasion Cleopatra laid a wager that she would expend a mil-
lion (a sum equal to $250,000) upon one supper. Antony took up the
bet; and Plaucus, a mutual friend, was to decide it. The banquet was
prepared; Antony inquired the price of every dish, and after calcu-
‘lating the expense, said, ‘“‘ You are still far short of a million.” The table
was cleared, and a single cup of vinegar placed before the queen
“Now,” said she, with an air of triumph, ‘I will see if I cannot spend
a milion upon inyself alone.” She took tie cup, and, unclasping one
of the pearls from her ear, threw it into the vinegar, and, when it was
dissolved, swallowed it at a single draught! She was preparing to do
the same by the other,* when Plaucus stopped her, declaring she had
won the bet.

24. In the midst of these scenes of dissipation Antony received
intelligence that his wife, Fulvia, had been overpowered, and driven
out of Italy by Octavius Cwsar; and that the Parthians had subju-
gated Asia, from the Euphrates to Ionia. Waking literally from a fit
of intoxication, he set sail with a fleet of 200 ships to meet his wife

* This pearl was afterwards carried to Rome by Augustus, cut in two, and hung in the
ears of the statue of Venus

 

Questions,—22. What rumor was spread? What invitation did Antony extend? What
was the reply? 23. What followed? Give an account of the celebrated bet and banquet
24. What intelligence did Antony receive? What then did he do?
B. c. 39.] ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA. 307

in Greece. He found her at Sicyon, sick. After reproaching her for
being the cause of a war with Cesar, he left her to die among
strangers, and proceeded toward Italy. Cssar, not being prepared
for hostilities, threw all the blame of the late commotions upon Fulvia,
and offered to accommodate matters by dividing ‘the empire, giving
Antony that portion east of the Adriatic, while he took the west.
His sister, Octavia, a woman of great beauty and merit, was, by decree .
of the senate, excused from mourning for her husband, just deceased,
that she might cement the union by giving her hand to Antony.

25. The nuptials were celebrated at Rome, and Antony seemed for
a time to forget, in the society of this charming woman, the wrongs of
the dead Fulvia, and the love of the forsaken Cleopatra. He even
took Octavia back with him to Greece, and lived with her some time
at Athens; but when the Parthian war called him to Syria, the
fascinations of Cleopatra resumed their full power over his soul.
He sent for her to meet him again in Tarsus, and, upon her arri-
val, made her a present of several kingdoms. His attachment to
ber proved the ruin of the Parthian expedition, He was furnished
with a fine army and plentiful supplies, but his desire to return and
spend the winter with her in Alexandria, caused him to set off too
early in the spring, and to travel so fast that the engines of war were
left behind and seized by the enemy. Having penetrated into Media,
and engaged in a long and fruitless siege of a city in which the Par-
thian king kept his wives he was glad to accept of permission to
retreat in safety before the autumnal equinox.

26. In the backward march the Romans suffered every privation.
Such was the famine, that a barley loaf sold for its weight in silver;
and at one time great numbers of the soldiers partook of a root which
brought on madness and death. Thus, while his army was perishing
around him, Antony frequently exclaimed, ‘“O the Ten Thousand,”
alluding to the famous ‘retreat’? which Xenophon had effected
through the same dangers which now beset himself. The severity
of winter was such that he lost 8,000 men before he reached Sidon.
Accompanied by a small party, he went down to a little fort called
White Hair, and looked across the sea for the vessels of Cleopatra.
They were not in sight, and he had recourse to intoxication to drown
his impatience. Sometimes he would start, from the table and run
leaping and.dancing to look out for her approach. She came at length,

 

Questions.—?4. How did he treat his wife. Fulvia? What arrangement did he male with
Cesar? Whom did he then marry? 25, Did he live with Octavia loag? How did he fall
again into the society of Cleopatra? What was the consequence of his attachment to
Cleopatra? 26. Give an account of the sufferings cf Antony’s army. Of Antony’s conduct
308 EY eT [p. c. 85

bringing large quantitics of money and clothing for the troops. Octa-
yia, too, had collected soldiers, beasts of burden, money, and presents
for the officers, and set out to mect Antony. The infatuated general,
nevertheless, sent her word to remain at Athens, saying that he was
about to make another campaign against the Parthians. Cleopatra,
however, appeared so afflicted at his leaving her again, that he put off
his expedition and accompanied her to Egypt.

27. There he acted a farce more ridiculous than all his preceding
follies. He called a public assembly of the Egyptians, and ordering
two golden chairs to be placed on a tribunal of silver, one for himself,
and the other for Cleopatra, he crowned her queen of Egypt, Cyprus,
Africa, and Coelo-Syria, nominating Cesazio, her son by Julins Cesar,
as her colleague. His own two sons, Alexander and Ptolemy, then
took their seats on two thrones prepared at the feet of their mother.
Alexander, clothed in a Median dress, with the turban and tiara, was
proclaimed king of Media, Armenia, and Parthia, when it should be
conquered. Ptolemy wore the Macedonian long cloak and slippers,
with a bonnet encircled by a diadem. THe was made king of Phenicia,
Syria, and Cilicia. Cleopatra wore, on this occasion, the sacred robo
of Isis,* and gave audience to the people under the name of the “New
Isis.” Antony put the finishing touch to these absurdities by sending
a minute account of his measures to Rome.

28. When the injured Octavia returned to Athens, her brother
ordered her to quit Antony’s house, but she refused, and still con-
tinued to take care of Fulvia’s children, and her own, with all the
tenderness which the most devoted wife could feel for her husband’s
offspring. Her conduct, however, only injured Antony’s cause ; for
when the people saw the neglect with which such a woman was
treated, their indignation was aroused, and they were ready to listen
to all Czesar's insinuations against his colleague. The report of what
Antony had done in Egypt added fuel to the flame, so that when he
began to make preparations for renewing the civil war, and sent to
turn Octavia ont of his house, they readily concurred in the decree of
war against Cleopatra.

29. Antony had 500 armed vessels, 100,000 foot, 10,000 horse, and
a great many auxiliaries. Cesar had half as many vessels, three-
fourths, as many foot, and an equal number of horse. Cleopatra would

* This robe was of all colors, to signify the universality of the gouddess’s influence.

_ Questions. —26. What relief came? What is said of Octavia’s exertions? What word
did Antony send to his wife? Did he do sw? vi. What farce did he act? 28. Ilow did

Antony's treatment of Cleopatra affect his popularity at home? 29. Describe his prepara
tions to meet Angustus, :
Bu 31.] ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA. 309

go in person to this war (because she feared a reconciliation between
Antony and Octavia), and, what was worse, she insisted that the first
engagements should be fought at sea, though Antony’s land forces
were complete, and his ships had not half their complement of men.
The officers were in consequence obliged to pick up in Greece vagrants,
mule-drivers, reapers, and boys. The other preparations showed
equally the temerity and folly which governed the counsels of Antony.
While one ship brought soldiers, another arrived filled with players
and buffoons; one messenger came with news of the arrival of men
and provisions, while another announced the advent of a long-expected
theatrical apparatus. At last, in spite of all delays from adverse winds,
and Cleopatra’s caprices, Antony reached Actium with his fleet, while
that of Augustus was anchored not far off upon the coast of Epirus.

30. Barrie or Actium.—This engagement was fought in the bay
of Actium. The prows of the vessels were armed with brazen points,
which it was the object of the sailors to drive against the sides of the
enemy's galleys; but as Antony’s ships were very large, he could not
turn them readily, and one was often surrounded by two or three of
Cesar’s, the men of which threw firebrands, pikes, and javelins at the
crew, as though they were storming a town. While the fight was
going on, Cleopatra’s sixty galleys hoisted their sails, and took to flight
through the midst of the combatants. No sooner did Antony see her
vessel under way, than, forgetting the brave men who were shedding
their blood in his cause, he took a couple of friends with him, and
rowed after her with all his might. Having overtaken her, he went
on board her galley, but for three days, either through shame or
resentment, did not speak to her. At last the attendants effected a
reconciliation, and they proceeded together to Lydia, after Antony
had stopped long enough in Greece to recommend his followers to be
reconciled to Cesar. Having sent Cleopatra forward to Alexandria,
he shut himself up on a desert island and affected to act the part of
Timon, the inan-hater; but the strong attraction of the Egyptian
siren drew him from his retreat, and, once again embarked upon the
sea of dissipation, his guilty love knew neither pause nor stop till it
reached its proper end—destruction.

31. Cleopatra and Antony had before established a society called
The Inimitable Livers; they now instituted another, called The Com-
panions in Death! Though the Egyptian queen had destroyed all

 

Questions,—80. Where was Actium? (See map No. 2.) Give an account of the battle.
Of Cleopatra's conduct. Of Antony's subsequent conduct, 31. What is sai? of the two
Bocietics ?
310 EGYPT. [B. c. 30.

whom she suspected of being friendly to Cesar, yet, fearful still of fall-
ing into his hands, she formed the design of drawing her galleys over
the isthmus of Suez, and sailing in them down the Red Sea, in search
of some remote country where she might see no more war. This
plan was frustrated by the Arabians, who set her ships on fire. Know-
ing that Cxsar would sooner or later arrive in Egypt, and that her
fatal beauty would prove but an ornament for his triumph, Cleopatra
began to look to death for a refuge from disgrace, She collected all
kinds of poisons, and tried them upon criminals in the prisons, and
examined, also, the effect of venom upon the human system. By.theso
experiments she found that the bite of the asp produced death with
the least pain of body or contortion of visage, persons affected by it
sinking away as in a gentle sleep.

32. Meanwhile, Antony sent to beg his life of Casar; and Egypt
for Cleopatra and her children. The conqueror rejected Antony’s
petition, but said that Cleopatra might expect every favor if she would
banish or poison the man she had so long held in her chains. The
queen had caused a magnificent monument to be erected near the tem-
ple of Isis, into which she removed her treasures and a Jarge quantity
of flax, with a great number of torches. She gave orders to her govern-
ors to submit to Cwsar, so that when he came round by way of Syria
and Pelusium he found no obstacle till he reached Alexandria, where
Antony, in the last effort of expiring valor, determined to give battle,
by sea and land. Drawing up his army upon an eminence, he sent
out his galleys to the attack; but what was his despair and rage when
he saw Cleopatra’s admiral advance, and surrender the whole fleet to
the Romans.

33. He grew desperate, and sent to challenge Cesar to single com-
bat. Cesar replied, “If Antony is weary of life, there are ways
enough to die.” Ridiculed by Augustus and betrayed by Cleopatra,
he returned to the city only to be abandoned by his cavalry, which
went over in a body to the conqueror. IIe flew to the palace, deter-
mined to wreak his vengeance upon the enchantress who had wrought
his ruin. It was deserted—and word was brought him that, preferring
honorable death to shameful captivity, she had closed her life in the
tombs of her ancestors. The idea of her death completed his frenzy.
Ile passed from the excess of rage to the most violent transports of

 

Questions.—81. What plan of eseape did Cleopatra form? How was it frustrated? “Po
what did Cleopatra next turn her attention? 82. Bor what did Antony beg? What was
the reply? What 1s said of the temple built by Cleopatra? Of the orders given to Cleo-

palre’s governors? What then did Antony do? What followed? 33. What is said about
the challenge ¢ 7
B.¢.30.] DEATH OF ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA. 84]

grief, and thought only of following her to the grave. Retiring to his
chamber, and unclasping his coat of mail, he called upon his faithful
servant, Eros, to strike the fatal blow. Eros drew his sword as if he
designed to kill him; but, suddenly turning about, slew himself, and
fell at his master’s feet. Antony took up the sword, and plunging it
into his own body, fell back upon his couch, mortally wounded.

34. At that moment a messenger came to tell him that the queen
was yet alive. When the name of Cleopatra was mentioned, he
opened his eyes, and requested to be carried to her apartment. His
servants conveyed him in their arms to the monument. Cleopatra
would not suffer the door to be unbarred, but threw down cords from
a lofty window, and assisted her women to draw him up. “ Never
was there a more moving sight. Antony, all bathed in blood, with
death painted in his face, was drawn up in the air; turning his dying
eyes, and extending his feeble hands to Cleopatra, as if to conjure her
to receive his last breath; whilst she, with features distorted, and arms
strained, pulled the cords with her whole strength, the people below
encouraging her with cries.” She laid him on her bed, rent her
clothes, beat her breast, tore her hair, and, wiping the blood from his
wounds, called him her lord, her emperor, her husband, seeming to
forget, in her sympathy for him, that she had any miseries of her own.
Antony strove to comfort her, telling her that ‘he had conquered like
a Roman, and it was only by a Roman that he had been conquered.”

35. Scarcely had he breathed his last, when a messenger arrived
from Cesar, who had been informed of Antony’s rash deed. She
begged permission to bury Antony according to the customs of Egypt,
which was not refused. <A short time after, learning that Cesar
designed to send her away in three days, she requested the melancholy
satisfaction of visiting the grave of Antony once more. It was granted.
“ Alas! my Antony,” said she, kneeling down by his tomb, ‘it is not
long since with these hands I buried thee; they were then free; but
thy Cleopatra is now a prisoner, reserved to adorn the triumph over
thee. These are the last offerings, the last honors she can pay thee;
for she is now to be conveyed to a distant country. Nothing could
part us while we lived; but in death we are to be divided. Thou,
though a Roman, liest buried in Egypt; and I, an Egyptian, must be
interred in Italy, the only favor I shall receive from thy country. Yet
if the gods of Rome have power or mercy left (for surely those of

 

Questions.—34, 35, 36. Give an account of Antony’s subsequent conduct and death. Of
Cleopatra’s. When did Cleopatra die? Ans. s. v. 80, How old was she at the time of her
death? Ans, 39 years.
312 EGYPT. [B. 0. 30

Egypt have forsaken us), let them not suffer me to be led in living
triumph to thy disgrace! No! hide me, hide me with thee in the
grave; for life, since thou hast left it, has been misery to me.” The
unhappy queen, having thus bewailed her misfortunes, returned to her
monument, bathed, and sat down to a magnificent supper. Then, hav-
ing called for a basket of figs which a peasant had lately brought, she
wrote a letter to Cesar, and, ordering every one out of the monument
except her two women, made fast the door.

36. When Cesar opened the letter, and read “her last request to
be buried with Antony,” he suspected her intention, and sent his ser-
vants to prevent her carrying it into effect. The messengers ran all
the way, and, having broken open the door, entered. There lay the
last of the royal race of the Ptolemies, on a golden couch, arrayed even
in death with the greatest splendor. Iras, one of her maids, lay dead
at her feet; and Charmion, hardly able tu stand, was fixing the diadem
upon the brow of her beloved queen. ‘‘ Charmion,”’ said the messen-
gers of Cesar, ‘‘ was this well done?”—* Perfectly well,” said she,
“and worthy a descendant of the kings of Egypt.” Saving this, she
also sunk down and expired. No mark of violence could be dis-
covered upon the person of Cleopatra; and as the track of a reptile
was discerned on the sea-sands opposite her winduw, it was supposed
that the basket of figs contained an asp, which, having stung her and
her maids. was permitted to escape. In the tomb of Cleopatra was
deposited the last sovereign of the Grasco-Egyptian dynasty of Lagida,
a race that had ruled Egypt 294 years.

 

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

PAGE
1, Whose son was Ptolemy said to be?....... cece eeeeceeceeceees 293
2. What name was consequently given to his dynasty ?.............. 298
3. When did he assume the title of king?. 0.2.0... cece eee eee eens 298
4. What account can you give of the battle of Ipsus?...........00-. 275
5. What account can you give of Ptolemy T.?.. 0... ccccecceeceecee 298
6. Why was Ptolemy II. surnamed Philadelphus?.......... saneteey 298
7. Why might he better have been called Philemon?........e.ec0005 298
8. What additions did he make to the great library?.............004 298
9. What is said of the translation of the Bible?................, 298, 299
10. Of the watch-towers called Pharos?
REVIEW QUESTIONS. : 313

  

PAGER
11. Why was the next Ptolemy surnamed Huergetes?............. 299
12. What is stated of the constellation Berenice’s Hair............ 299, 300
13. Why was the fourth Ptolemy surnamed as he was?........... 300
14. Name the guilty acts of his reign... 0... ce cee eee ees 300
15. What: scene followed his death Poi. cic. seee cee eeeaeeecuaes 300
16. What territory did Egypt afterward lose?........ ec cece eee ee 300, 30.
17. What account can you give of Ptolemy VI.?...........000005 301, 302
TB OF Bitolemiyy Vols leis cn cces dnc calantit ve aed Liat sie ees lentes 302
19: OF BH FSCO ca ats, <b caceis Ghee seia Reh ensues Bye ereeeane ee 297-302
20.. Who was: Ptolemy Dathyrus 25.0. ss<d seca ee es vee cde ee Se 302
21.. What followed: after his reign ?\... .ca.ves sags vceesaan tee scenes 303
22. Give an account of Ptolemy Auletes ........ 0.0. .cceeeesees 303, 304
23, What children did he leave? :..cssnenmemiinsaceowede awed aes 304, 305
24. Give an account of the early life of Cleopatra..............0- 304, 305
25, Of the fate of Pompey... si. esccsaccssegeecrseaseeavins 304, 393, 394
26). OF Cesar mm, Bey plisce ia ecaded s Seesueare aan ws Hecaaegeaoeas 304, 305
27%. By what means did Cleopatra gain power?..............00005 304, 305
28. What accomplishments did she possess?... .......2.2.eee eee 305
29, Why did she make a visit to Tarsus?......... cece cece ee eee 305, 401
30; ‘Giye-an-accountof that Visit... syescr seuss eda oview sane can 305, 306
31. What was the consequence to Antony ?...........eeeeeeeeees 306
32. Give an account of the costly supper.........-... eee eee eee 306
33. OF Fulvia and her doings). < io.2c0%/saxesane sexes: vxies 26806, 307, 402
34. Who was Octavius Cresar’?ioi.cs.dee ces soee ce ea arene nee vias 306, 399
35. Give the names of Antony’s three Wives..............0.20- 306, 307, 402
36. Give an account of his Parthian expedition... ... | Pemeieveteree ais 307, 308
37. Of his crowning of Cleopatra, &C.... 0.20.0... eee cess eee cece 308
38, Of the cause and preliminaries of the battle of Actium......... 308, 309
39, Give:an accountof that battles. .acccsdaeenasear sean ce iave-s 309, 402
40. Of Cleopatra’s attempt to escape to a remote country.......... 309, 310
Al. Of her experiments with poisons... 2... 20... 0. cee cece eee eee 310, 312
42. Of Antony’s final failure, and his death....................-- 310, 311
43. What is said of the monument erected by Cleopatra?.......... 310, 312
44, Give an account of Cleopatra’s death... ............002 eee eee 311, 312
45, What was the conduct of Cleopatra at the battle of Actium?... 309
46. How did Antony then behave himself?............-..-0 00005 309
47, What account can you give of their subsequent course ?....... 309
48, When did the death of Cleopatra occur?.............06- Ans. B. C. 30
49. How many years had she reigned?.............. 2-2. e ee ee eee Ans, 22
50. How old was she at the time of her death7.............. Ans. 39 years.
61. How many persons named Cleopatra have played a considerable
part in mythology or history?............ 0... Ans. No less than 9.
52. Which was the most notorious?..... Ans. The one who married Antony.

14
CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION.

B.C.

Troy taken and burnt by the Grecks 1184
Return of the Heracleide - 1104
Commencement of the Olympiads 776
Death of Codrus, last king of Athens - 1050
Archons for life at Athens 1050-752
Homer, Iliad, and Odyssey about 850
Hesiod, ‘“ Works and Days,” “ ‘Teeny Co not far from 800
Legislation of Lycurgus—Sparta - 817
First Messenian War 748-724
Decennial Archons at Athens 752-714
Macedonian Monarchy formed 700
Archilochus, lyric poct - about 700
Nine Archons elected annually at Athens 2 594
Sccond Messenian War : - 685-668
Tyrteeus and Aleman, Spartan poets about 650
Thales, founder of the Ionic School of Philosophy - 640-550
Draco gives laws to Athens -~— - 624
Alczus and Sappho, lyric poets - 610-580
* Anaximander, successor to Thales . 610-547
First Sacred War - - - 600-591
Legistation of Solon - AOL
Pythagoras, founder of the Pythagorean School of Piltiosophiy 580-510
Reign of Pisistratus = - - > - 560-527
Anacreon, native of Teos - about 550
Aaschylus, tragic poet - 525-456
Pindar, poet - 518-442
Hippias expelled from Athens 510
Tonian revolt in Asia Minor 501
Miletus taken, and the Ionian revolt subdued 495
Sophocles, édipus at Colonus 495-405
"he expedition of Mardonius 492
Battle of Marathon : 490
Accession of Xerxes to the throne of Persia - - 486
Herodotus, first Historian in Greece - - 484-408
Aristides banished from Athens by Ostracism — - - 483
Hellenic Congress at the Isthmus a 8 8 - 481
Themistocles the leading man at Athens : - 481

Euripides, tragic poet - 5 eee 480-408
2 CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION.

Invasion of Greece by Xerxes—Battle of Salamis
Anaxagoras, most illustrious of the Ionic School
Mardonius winters in Thessaly
Battle of Platzea
'The Greeks assume the offensive
Pausanias takes Byzantium
Leadership transferred from Pausanias to Aristides
Confederacy at Delos—Athenian Hegemony
Successes of Cimon
Thucydides, history of Peloponnesian War, from 431-411
Themistocles banished by Ostracism
The Battle at the Eurymedon %
The Spartan Helots revolt
Cimon banished
The Age of Pericles
~~Tysias, Orator -
Death of Cimon—End of the Persian Wars -
Defeat at Coroneia -
Athens reaches the height of her power
Thirty Years’ Peace
Zenophon, Anabasis, Hellenica, Cyropedia, Memorabilia about
. Aristophanes, comic poet
Commencement of difficulties between Corinth and Corcyra
Potidzea revolts from Athens -
The Peloponnesian War between Sparta and Athens
es “conducted by Pericles
Death of Peric’es—Plague at Athens
Plato, founder of the Academicians
Cleon appointed to command in Thrace
Peace of Nicias
Battle of Mantinea -
Sicilian Expedition -
Destruction of the Sicilian Expedition
Transfer of the War to Asia Minor -
Alcibiades gains a victory at Cyzicus
‘ recovers Chalcedon and Byzantium
after the Battle of Notium goes into Exile -
Battle of Agospotami—Spartan Hegemony
Thirty Tyrants expelled by Thrasybulus
Battle of Cunaxa—Retreat of the Ten Thousand -
War of Spartans with Persia
Death of Socrates at the age of 70
Corinthian War
Battles of Corinth and Corona

““

B.C,
480
480-408
479
479
479
478
417
476
475-463
471-400
471
466
464
461
461-429
458
449
447
ano4a7tt)
445 furl
444-355 °°
444-38
436
432
431-404
431-429
429
428-347
422
421
418
415
413
412
A10
403
407
405

403 yy ay?

atl
399-9 2?

399

304

204
CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. 3

ZEschines, rival of Demosthenes 389-314
Peace of Antalcidas 387
Demosthenes, celebrated orator DEO
Aristotle, founder of ihe Peripatetics 384-322
War of Sparta against Thebes and Athens 379-373
Battle of Leuctra—The Spartans defeated by Epaminondas 371
Battle of Muntineia—Death of Epaminondas Bb2
Accession of Philip to the throne of Macedon 359

Social War
Sacred War
Epicurus, founder of the Epicureans
Battle of Cheeroneia— Marrdonian Hegemony
Accession of Alexander the Great -
Battle of the Granicus

s “~— Tssus; conquest of Tyre

“ Arbela
Demosthenes's Oration on the Crown
March to the Indus
The Voyage of Nearchus
Diogenes, the Cynic philosopher
Death of Alexander at Babylon
The Egyptian kingdom of the “ Ptolemies ” -
Euclid, Elements of Geometry
Virst War among the Successors
Antipater sole Regent
The Syrian kingdom of the Scleucide
The Battle of Ipsus
Zeno, founder of the Stoics
Death of Lysimachus—Conquest of Asia Minor
Invasion of Greece by the Gauls
Reign of Antiochus L, of Syria

es ee IL. -

Aratus, general of the Achwan League
Reign of Antiochus ILL (the ‘ircat)
Avis IV., king of Sparia im
Battle of Sallasia—Cleomencs defeated
Battle of Cynoscephalee—Philip defeated

Philopemen, “the last of the Greeks,” put to death
Battle of Pydna—End of the Macedonian Monarchy

Destruction of Corinth by Mummius

Greece made a Roman province under the name of Achaia

Syria made a Roman province
Cleopatra, queen of Exypt
Egypt made a Roman province

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280-261
261-246
243
223-187
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224

197

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ROME.

SECTION VII.

1. Rome, commencing B. 0. 753, and continuing till the year a. p, 476,
occupies a period of 1229 years. Rome, in Nebuchadnezzar’s Image,
was the “iron kingdom ;” and in Daniel’s Vision, the ‘ fourth beast,
dreadful and terrible, with great iron teeth.” By historians it is con-
sidered the last of ‘‘the four universal monarchies” which bore rule
in the earth before the Christian era.

2. Burtpines.—Rome was built by Romulus, upon the Palatine hill,
but, in the days of its power, embraced also within its limits the
Capitoline, Quirinal, Aventine, Ccelian, Viminal, and Esquiline hills.
On the top of the Capitoline hill was the capitol, or citadel of Rome
It was the highest part of the city, strongly fortified, and magnifi-
cently ornamented. A descent of one hundred steps led to the forum,
a large open space where the people held their assemblies. It was
surrounded with arched porticoes, inclosing spacious markets where
various commodities were sold. All the military roads terminated in
this place, at a point in which was set up a gilded pillar called mil-
larium aureum. Twenty agqueducts supplied the city with water,
and eight bridges, supported on lofty arches, spanned the ‘yellow
Tiber.” The dwellings of the Romans were at first simple cottages
thatched with straw. After the city was burned by the Gauls it was
rebuilt in a more solid and commodious manner, and, after its second
destruction by Nero, the houses were constructed with great attention
to elegance and splendor, each dwelling having a portico in front, and
an empty court, called a vestibule, before the gate. The gate was
reached by ascending several steps. A slave in chains, armed with a
staff, and attended by a large dog, performed the office of porter, and
kept a fire, round which the images were placed, always burning.

RomE.—Sectioa VII.—Questions.—1, 2. When was Rome founded? Who was its found-
er? What period of time does its history embrace? When end? In what light is Rome

viewed by historians? What relation does it bear to Nebachadnezzar’s Image? Give a
description of the building of Rome, 3. Of the dwellings and furniture, 7
B. 0. 753.] ORDERS OF THE PEOPLE 315

3. They had no chimneys, and were in consequence much annoyed
with smoke. At first, they made openings to admit the light; as
civilization increased, they used paper, linen cloth, and horn, to shut
out the wind and rain; and in the fourth century they arrived at the
luxury of glass windows. A nobleman’s villa, or country-seat, was a
magnificent affair. The building was laid out in dining-rooms, parlors,
bed-chambers, tennis-courts, baths, &c.; and the grounds were taste-
fully arranged with walks, terraces, parks, fish-ponds, garden, and all
kinds of delightful groves. The furniture also followed the law of
gradual improvement, from the simple four-legged square table, tu
the circular board inlaid with ivory, gold, and precious stones, till we
read of one that cost a sum equal to $35,000.

4. Ixnapirants.—Without stopping to discuss any disputed points,
it will only be necessary to say here, that the Roman citizens were
separated into two great classes—Patricians and Plebeians, whose rela-
tive positions will be more clearly defined in the following pages.
Among the original population of the city, every man that could show
a noble or free ancestry belonged to the patrician order, and had a
share in the government of the state. Of the rest of the people, each
man was attached, under the appellation of ‘“ client,” to the head of
some patrician family, whom he was obliged to serve, and who, in
return, was bound to protect him. There was also the order of
knights, consisting of young men chosen for cavalry, either from the
patricians or plebeians. They must be eighteen years of age, and pos-
sessed of u sum of money equal to $14,000. Their badges of distinc-
tion were a gold ring, and a strip of purple sewed on the breast of the
tunic.

5. The Roman matrons themselves took charge of the children in
their infantile years. Both boys and girls wore a loose robe, bordered
with purple, called toga pretexta. They were sent to publie schools,
where the greatest care was bestowed upon their style of reading and
speaking. Children of rank were attended to school by a slave, who
carried their books, writing materials, Gc. Books were written on
parchment, or on paper prepared from the leaves of the papyrus.
Pens were made of a reed sharpened at the point. Ink was the black
liquid emitted by the cuttle-fish, They wrote upon one side of the
paper, and then rolled it round a staff, whence-it was called a volume.
Children learned to write with a metal pencil, s¢y/us, upon tablets
spread with wax.

 

Questions.—4. Into how many and what classes were the citizens separated ? Who be-
longed to the patrician order? Who the plebeiaw ? 5, What is suid of the ewly eduecatior
of the cbildrez? How were books written?
316 ROME. [8. Cc. 753

6 At the age of seventeen, the boy exchanged the toga pretexrta
for the toga virilis, or “manly gown,’’ a loose, flowing robe, which
covered the whole body. To wear this garment eracefully was a
subject of intense study to the dandies of those days; and even per-
sons of a graver temperament made it a matter of serious considera-
tion, A tunie was often worn under the toga, and in cold weather
a cloak was 1dded. In early times all persons went bare-headed, but
when luxury increased, a woman's toilet was called ‘her world.”
Every lady of fashion had at least one hair-dresser. The hair was
anointed with the richest perfumery, curled with hot irons, adorned
with gold and pearls, or bound with gay ribbons.

7. Rericiox.—The religion of the Romans was idolatry in the gross-
est extreme. All the gods of the Greeks and Egyptians were duly
worshiped ; and the virtues and affections of the mind, such as Faith,
Hope, Concord, &e., were honored with altars and temples. The
Romans also regarded with superstitious reverence the Penates, or
powers of nature personified, and the Lares, or disembodied spirits of
their ancestors. If the soul of the dead, in passing from the body,
becaine a pure spirit, aud bovered with the wing of love over the
friends it had left behind, it was called ‘* Zar ;” but if, by reason of
crimes committed in life, it found in the grave no resting-place, it
appeared to men as a phantom; and its name, in that case, was Larva;
but, as there was no way of ascertaining precisely the lot of the
deceased, departed souls received the general appellation of Manes.
Every household, however, claimed its protecting lares, and victims
were sacrificed to them upon the domestic hearth.

8. The priests were chosen from the most honorable men in the
state. There were four pontiff, called together the Collegium, whose
business it was to see that the inferior priests did their duty. The
Pontifer Maximus was the supreme judge in religious matters.
Every year he drew up a short account of all- public transactions ;
and these .{mnals were exposed in an open place, for the inspection
of the people. The Augurs, or soothsayers, made observations upon
the heavens in the dead of night, explained omens, foretold future
events, aud exercised wonderful power over the superstitious by means
of atmospheric phenomena. The Septemviri prepared the games,
processions, and public feasts. The Quindecemviri had charge of the
Sibylline books. The pontiffs, angurs, septemvirs, and quindecemvirs,
were called ‘the four Colleges of Priests.” The Sacred Fire, renewed

 

Questions.—6 What is said of the garments worn? 7. Of the religion of the Romans *
& Of the pontiffs ?
8, 0. 753.) CUSTOMS OF THE PEOPLE. B19

every year on the first of March from the rays of the sun, was watched
by the Vestal Virgins, and whoever permitted it to go out was
scourged by the pontifex maximus. If any vestal violated her vow
she was buried alive.

9. Marriage.—No young woman could marry without consent of
her parents or guardians. When this was obtained, the auspices were
taken, and a sacrifice offered, from which the gall of the victim was
carefully removed. The bride was dressed in a long white robe, bor-
dered with a purple fringe; her hair was parted with a spear, and her
head covered with a vail. In the house of the lady’s father or nearest
relative, in the presence of at least ten witnesses, the pontifex maxi-
mus joined the pair in marriage, by causing them to repeat a set form
of words, and taste a cake made of salt, water, and flour. ‘In the
evening the bride was taken, apparently by force, from the arms of
her mother, and carried to the house of the bridegroom. Her maid-
servants followed her with a distaff, a spindle, and wool. As she
reached the door, her husband demanded who she was, to which she
always answered, ‘“ Where thou art Caius, there shall I be Cuaia.”
After binding the door-posts with woolen fillets, she gently stepped
over the threshold, upon which she was presented with the keys of
the house.

10. After the parties had both touched fire and water, the bride-
groom proceeded to give the feast. Nuptial songs were sung till mid-
night, and the guests were disinissed with small presents. At supper
the men reclined upon couches, and took their food without forks,
the boys sitting at the feet of their elders. The table was consecrated
by setting upon it the images of the Lares and salt-cellars. The feast
was opened by pouring out libations to the gods, and throwing a por-
tion of every article of food into the fire, as an offering to the guardians
of the domestic hearth. The guests were entertained with music and
dancing, plays and pantomimes, but the graver portion of the com-
munity preferred reading.

11. Tur Senate.—Senators were chosen from the patricians or
knights, by the kings, the consuls, the military tribunes, and by the
censors. The stated meetings of the senate were on the kalenids, the
beginning, and the ides, the middle, of every month. The power of
this body varied with the varying politics of the republic. Under the
regal government, the senators were the mere counselors of the king;
during the palmy days of the Roman Coinmonwealth, they had the

 

Questions.—9, 10. Of the marriage customs? 11. How were the senators ‘hosen? What
is said of their meetings? Of their powers and rights?
318 ROME. [B. 0. 753.

supreme authority ; and in the times of the emperors, being made the
tools of power, they sunk into complete insignificance. Their consti-
tutional rights gave them the direction of the treasury, the nomination
of envoys, and the receiving of embassadors from foreign nations ; also
the power of declaring war and deerecing peace, together itd the
granting of triamphs to victorious generals.

12. Maaisrrares.—There were three classes of magistrates in Rome:
1. The Questors, whose business it was to take care of the public
revenue, to exact fines, to keep the military standards, and order the
public funerals. 2. The .2Jiles, whose duty it was to inspect markets,
taverns, and all things sold in the forum; to throw nuisances into the
Tiber, and to examine the strength and structure of public buildings.
3. The Pretors, whose powers were expressed by do, dico, and
addico. By “do,” they gave the form of any writ; by ‘ dico,” they
pronounced sentence; and by ‘taddico,” they adjudged the goods of
the debtor to the creditor. When a cause was to be tried, the praetor
took his seat in the forum, on a tribunal or stage, in a chair called
curule, with a sword and spear placed upright before him, The jury
sat on lower seats, as did also the witnesses; clerks were employed to
record the proceedings, and cricrs, to proclaim the hour. On court
days, at nine o’clock in the morning, the prator went to the forum,
and there, being seated on the tribunal, ordered the crier to notify the
people that it was the third hour, and whoever had any cause might
bring it before hitn,

13. Trials were much like those in our courts of law. In criminal
cases judiccs were chosen, and after the cause had been heard, the
pretor gave to each judex three tablets; on one was written O., con-
demno ; on another A. adsolvo; and on the third N. L. non liquet,
“T am not clear.” Each judex threw which of these he thought
proper into an urn, The pretor took them out, counted them, and
decided the case according to this verdict. While the judices were
putting the ballots into the urn, the prisoner and his friends fell at
their feet, ey prayed, and used every method to excite compassion.
Criminals were punished with jines, bonds, blows, banishment, slavery,
and death. None but the whole Roman people could pass sentence
apon the life of a Roman. “Tam a Roman citizen,’ stopped at once
the proceedings of any tyrannical magistrate, and threw the accused
upon the mercy of his fellow-citizens. The body of a malefactor was
exposed for a time to publie exceration, and then thrown into the Tiber.

 

Questions.—12, Tow many classes of magistrates were there? Give their names and
Juties. 13, [ow were criminals sentenced and punished with them ?
B. 0. 753.] FUNERAL CEREMONIES. 319

14. Occupations.—Agriculture was the principal occupation of the
Romans, and was held in the highest esteem; but the constant wars
in whica the commonwealth was engaged made such large drafts upon
the time of the citizens, that useful employments finally fell to the lot
of slaves, while all the legitimate children of the republic became sol-
diers. When the Romans thought themselves injured by any nation,
they sent one of the Feciales* to demand redress. If it was not im-
mediately granted, 83 days were perinitted to elapse, and then the
priest went again to the confines of the nation, threw a bloody spear
upon the ground, and formally declared war. Every citizen was con-
sidered a soldier from the age of sixteen to that of forty-six; nor could
any person hold an office in the city who had not served ten cam-
paigns. The soldiers were formed into Jegions. Each legion was
divided into ten cohorts, each cohort into three bands, each band into
two centuries, or hundreds: to complete the legion, 300 horse were
added. They fought with slings, spears, javelins, and swords. The
standard of the legion displayed an eagle, with the letters ‘8. P. Q.
R.,” Senate, People, and Quirites of Rome.

15. The load which a Roman soldier carried was enough to break down
acommon man. Provisions for fifteen days, a saw, a basket, a mattock,
an ax, a hook, a leathern thong, a chain, a pot, &., &c., amounting
in all to 60 lbs. weight, besides his armor, which was not unfrequently
made of brass plates, or rings, impenetrable to the spear. When a
general, after consulting the auspices, had determined to attack the
enemy, a red flag was hoisted on the point of a spear from the top of
his tent. Then the trumpet sounded, the soldiers cried out ‘to arms,”’
and, pulling up their standards, rushed on to battle. After a victory
the general assembled his troops, and bestowed rewards on those who
merited them. The pay of a soldier amounted only to about five cents
a day besides his food, which he dressed himself. After a successful
campaign the senate granted a triumph to the general, a festivity in
which all the army were allowed to participate.

16. FuneraL Ceremonies.—The Romans, for the same reasons that
influenced the Greeks, paid the greatest attention to funeral rites.
When any one was dying, his nearest relative endeavored to catch
his last breath with his mouth, under the impression that in that the
soul took its departure. The eyes and mouth of the deceased were
immediately closed, those present repeating his name several times,

* A class of priests.

 

Questions.—14, 15 What is said of the occupations of the Romans? Of their cquipmenta
(or fighting? Of their fighting? Of their pay? 16. Of their funeral ceremonies?
320 KINGDOM OF ROME. [B. 0. 753.

Vu

and calling out Vale, “farewell.” The corpse, having been bathed,
and dressed in its richest robes, was laid on a couch in the vestibule,
and a small coin for the fee of Charon was put into its hand. The
funeral was solemnized in the night, with torches, the order of the
procession being regulated by law. A mingled train of musicians,
hired mourners, players, and buffuons, freedinen, friends, and relatives
attended the body to the place of burning or burial.

17. Fanvutous Huisrory.—The first pages of Roman history, like
those of the nations we have already considered, are but the intri-
cate fables of w dark age, embellished by the fancy of the poet.
At what point these mythic legends assume the form and substance
of probability and truth we shall not attempt to decide. We strongly
suspect that if the renowned Romulus were stripped of the drapery
which the glory of Rome throws around him, he would appear in the
form of «a barbarous robber, or melt away into one of those fictitious
heroes whose exploits serve only “‘to point a moral or adorn a tale.”
Virgil, the Homer of Rome, bas given in his /Encid an account of the
distinguished individual claimed by the Romans as their great pro-
genitor. From this poem we learn that Aineas, son of Venus and
Anchises, having escaped from the plains of Troy, after many romantie
adventures Janded in Italy, where the Lutins then lived in all their
savage simplicity. The chief of the Latins received him kindly, and
gave him his daughter Lavinia in marriage. The descendants of
Eneas and Lavinia were called kings of Alba, and continued to sit
upon the throne of that country for a space of 400 years, which brings
us to the century distinguished by the founding of that city, after-
wards the acknowledged Queen of the World.

18. B. o. 753. Rome Founpep ny Romutus.—The fourteenth de-
scendant of Aineas left two sons, Numitor and Amulius. To the eldest
the kingdom was bequeathed, while the youngest received the trea-
sures remaining of those brought from Troy. Amulius, not satisfied
with his portion, conspired against his brother, and succeeded in
depriving him of his throne. To remove all apprehensions of being
one day disturbed in his ill-gotten power, he pul his brother’s-sons to
death, and caused Rhea Silvia, their sister, to take the vow of a
vestal. Tlis precautions were vain. Rhea Silvia and (as it was
affirmed) Mars, the god of war, were the parents of two boys, whu
were no sooner born than devoted by the tyrant to destruction. The
mother was buried alive, and the cradle containing the helpless babes

(@uestions.—17, Of the fabulous history of Rome? 18. Who were Numitor and Amulius?
Uive the history of Numitor, Of Amulius.
B. 0. 153.] ROMULUS AND REMUS. 321

4

was thrown into the Tiber; but the river having overflowed its banks,
the frail bark drifted along the margin of the’stream till it becume
entangled in the roots of a wild vine, at the foot of the Palatine hill.
Faustulus, the king’s shepherd, found the children, and carried them
home to his wife, who named them Romulus and Remus, and brought
them up as her own sons.

19. The youths, ignorant of their real ancestry, grew to manhood
among the wilds of Alba, sharing the toils and perils of their foster-
father. The noble bearing and daring courage with which nature had
endowed them, early gave them the pre-eminence in the little world
to which they were confined, and they were soon honored as leaders
of the youthful herdsmen who banded together to resist the aggres-
sion of robbers or rivals. In a quarrel which arose between the ser-
vants of Amulius and Numitor, Remus was taken prisoner and carried
before his grandfather. While Numitor hesitated what punishment
to inflict, Faustulus and Romulus hastened to the place of trial, and
stopped all further proceedings by revealing the real origin of the
delinquent. The aged Numitor was rejoiced to believe that the two
noble youths who stood before him were the destined avengers of his
wrongs, and hastily acquiesced in their proposal to expel Amulius, and
restore the throne of Alba to its rightful possessor. Romulus, fol-
lowed by the young men who had so long acknowledged him their
leader, besieged the castle of Amulius, and in the confusion that
ensued the usurper was slain.

20. Numitor being thus reinstated in the sovereignty of Alba, the
two brothers requested permissiun to build a city of their own, upon
the spot where their lives had been so miraculously preserved, The
shepherds who had hitherto assisted them joined in this enterprise
with alacrity, and soon men enough were collected to commence the
work. -A dispute then arose between the brothers about the precise
location of the future city, and finally it was agreed to refer the mat-
ter to an augury from the flight of birds. Remus took his station upon
Mount Aventine, and Romulus sat down upon the Palatine hill. At
sunrise Remus saw siz vultures, and soon after Romulus saw twelve.
The partisans of Remus contended for him, as having seen the first
good omen, while the followers of Romulus insisted that his omen was
most complete. Romulus prevailed; and proceeded to mark out the
boundaries of the intended city.

 

Questions.—18, 19, 20. Of Remus. Of Romulus. What cireumstance made Romulns and
Remus acquainted with their origin? What fate awaited the usurper and murderer of
Amulius? What dispute is mentioncd? Now was it decided?

14*
322 KINGDOM OF ROME. [B. 0. 753.

21. Tue Crry.—Persons skilled in sacred mysteries were called tc
direct as to the manner in which every thing should be done. First, a
circular ditch was dug, into which each deputy cast a handful of earth
which he had brought from his own country. About three farlongs
from this point the city walls were marked out in a square, including
the Palatine hill, and a portion of land at its base. Romulus, having
fitted a brazen plowshare to a plow, drew a furrow around the boun-
daries, his attendants following, and carefully turning every clod
inwards. Four times he took up the plow and carried it a short dis-
tance, and in these places were built the gates.* This took place on
the 21st of April, z. 0. 753. While the wall was beginning to rise
above the surface, Remus leaped over it, saying contemptuously,
“Shall such a wall as this keep your city?” Upon which Romulus
struck him dead with the implement he had in his hand, exclaiming,
“So perish whosoever shall hereafter overleap these ramparts.” The
work then went on without interruption; and in a short time the
walls were raised to a suitable height, and a thousand thatched cot-
tages were built.

22. To increase as rapidly as possible the population of his new city,
Romulus set apart a grove as a sanctuary for malefactors and run-away
slaves; ‘‘every one that was in distress, and every one that was in
debt,” flocked thither also; those who were pleased with novelty, and
those who were fond of adventure, contributed likewise to the num-
ber of inhabitants; so that Romulus soon found himself at the head
of a people willing to drop all former distinctions for the yet untar-
nished appellation of Romans. To introduce order and sobriety among
such a mixed multitude, some kind of government was necessary.
Accordingly, Romulus was unanimously elected chief of their religion,
sovereign magistrate of Rome, and general of the army. He was pre-
ceded wherever he went by twelve lictors, armed with axes tiéd up in
bundles of rods. One hundred old men were selected to transact the
business of the state. They were called fathers, and their descend-
ants, patricians. By decrees of the senate, and authority of the
people, laws were made for the regulation of public affairs, and the
interests of religion were carefully guarded.

23. Unton wirn tue Sasines.—It will be readily imagined that the
character and prospects of the individuals composing the body politic

* Called portes, from porter, to carry.

 

Questions.—21, Give the particulars of the beginning of the city. Where were the gates
placed? When was that done? How did Remus lose his life? 22. How was the city
peopled? In what manner did Romulus sovern his city ? From what is the word patrician
derived? Ans. Pater, meaning father,
B.c.153] UNION WITH THE SABINES. 393

were not such as to invite the alliance of the surrounding tribes; the
proposals of marriage which the Roman youth made to several aristo-
cratic neighbors were rejected with scorn, and after striving in vain
to make their persons and their homes more agreeable to the fuir
daughters of the Sabines, it was decided, in the fourth month after the
building of the city, to obtain by force what was denied to entreaty.
Public shows and games were proclaimed, and persons came from all
parts, bringing their wives and children to witness the prowess of the
competitors. While every eye was intent upon the scene, the Roman
youth rushed in among the crowd, and, seizing the most beautiful girls
they could find, carried them off. The Sabines remonstrated in vain.
The Romans, having secured their wives, treated them with the utmost
kindness and attention; and the women, won by the unexpected ten-
derness of their captors, consented to ‘forsake their fathers and
mothers and cleave unto their husbands.”

24. The fathers and mothers were not, however, so easily satisfied.
As the Romans obstinately refused to restore their daughters, Tatius,
the Sabine king, led an army of 25,000 men to the very gates of Rome.
The Romans, unable to meet so strong an army in the field, having
placed their flocks upon the Capitoline hill, and strongly fortified it,
withdrew within their walls. Tarpeia, daughter of the commander
of that fortress, going to a neighboring spring for water, was seized by
the Sabines, and entreated to betray one of the gates to them. She
agreed to do so for what the soldiers wore upon their arms, meaning
their bracelets; but no sooner had she opened the gate than they
threw their bucklers upon her, and crushed her to death. From her
the cliff of the Capitoline hill was called the Tarpeian rock. The
Romans rushed out of their city to regain possession of this important
point, and soon a fierce engagement ensued in the valley between the
Capitoline and Quirinal hills.

25. In the midst of the conflict, the attention of the combatants was
diverted by loud cries and lamentations. While they paused in aston-
ishment, the Sabine women rushed in between the two armies, entreat-
ing their husbands to spare their fathers, and their fathers to spare
their husbands. The fierce warriors listened, and suffered their weapons
to fall from their hands. Affection finally mastered resentment, and by
the mediation of these amiable females a peace was concluded, on con-
dition that the two nations should be united in one, and Romulus and
Tatius reign jointly in Rome. The new citizens were called Quirites,

 

Questions.—23. Describe the manner in which the Romans secured wives for themselves,
24, 25. Who was the Sabine king? In what expedition was he engaged? Give an account
of the expedition and its results. a
324 KINGDOM OF ROME. [B. c 716

whence the initial Q.” in the royal standard. One hundred Sabines
were added to the senate, ard the number of men in the legion was
also doubled. Thus every event, however adverse, served to advance
the interests of the new city, and Romulus had the happiness of seeing
a hostile army converted into peaceful citizens in the course of a few
hours. :

26. The death of Tatius, about five years after, left Romulus
again sole monarch of Rome. He conquered Fidene, and, engaging
in a war with the Veians, compelled them to give up their salt-pits
near the Tiber. One day, while he was reviewing his army, a dread-
ful thunder-storm arose. The people fled in different directions to
seek for shelter, and when the tempest passed over Romulus was no-
where to be found. It was conjectured that he had been carried to
heaven by his father, the god Mars, a supposition that was confirmed
by: one Proculus, who declared that as he was returning by night from
Alba to Rome, Romulus appeared to him in a form of more than mor-
tal majesty, and bade him tell the Romans ‘that Rome was destined
to be the chief city of the world; that human power should never be
able to withstand her people; and that he himself would be their
guardian god Quirinns.”

27. v. 0.* 87.—B. 0. 716. After the death of Romulus, the senate
undertook to govern the city by each member’s acting the part of king
for five days in succession. The people submitted to this changing
government for a year, till, finding in it the authority of a monarch
without his paternal care, they insisted upon the election of a king.
They accordingly fixed upon Numa Pompilius, a citizen of Cures, who,
though married to the daughter of Tatius, had always lived in retire-
ment. Numa was born the very day Rome was founded, and was
consequently in his fortieth year when embassadors came to beg his
acceptance of the crown. He left the sacred groves, where he had
spent the best part of his life, with unfeigned reluctance, and prefaced
his departure with many sacrifices. The senate and people met him
on the way, and the women welcomed him into the city with bles-
sings and shouts of joy. Attended by the priests and augurs, he went

* Urba Condita, “after the building of the city.”

 

Questions.—25, Tow did the initial “Q.” get into the royal standard? What further ie
stated of the Subines? 26. What event made lomulus sole monarch of Rome a second
time? What successes in war did he have? What was the fabled account of the death of
Romulus? What of the propLeey ? 27, How was Rome governed during the next year?
What did the people desire? Who was chosen to wear the crown? How old then was
Numa? What account can you vive of his life up to that time? How was Numa met at
Rome? What were the qualifications for the throne?
B. c. 673.] TULLIUS HOSTILIUS. 325

to the top of the Tarpeian rock, where the chief augur laid his hand
upon his head, and, turning his face to the south, waited in silence till
several birds flew by, on his righthand. Then being invested with the
royal robe, Numa went down to the people and was hailed as their king.

28. No monarch could have been more suitable than Numa, for a
multitude whose opinions, tastes, and habits were unsettled. The
inhabitants of various petty states, lately subdued and but ill united,
needed a master who could soften their fierce dispositions, and intro-
duce among them the love of religion and virtue. Numa had super-
stition enough to awaken their reverence, and policy enough to turn
his power to good account. By the instruction of the goddess Egeria,
he founded the whole system of the Roman religion, he increased the
number of augurs, regulated the duties of the pontiff, and instituted
seycral new orders of priests,

29. Turrivs.—Ancus.—Tarquin.—s. 0. 7@@, Numa also divided
among his subjects the lands which Romulus had conquered in war,
and set landmarks, consecrated to the god Terminus, upon every por-
tion. He abolished the distinction between Romans and Sabines, by
dividing the artisans according to their trades, ‘and compelling all
those of the same profession to dwell together. He built the templo
of Janus, to be shut in the time of peace, and open in time of war;
and so profound was the quiet he had produced, that though this templo
was erected in the first year of his reign, it continued shut till his
death, which heppened in his 83d year.

30. B. c. 673. Tuxrirus Hosrinius. — After the death of Numa,
the senate again tried the expcr'ment of carrying on the government
themselves, till at length Tullius Hostilius, 2 man of Latin ex-
traction, was elected monarch. His talents and inclinations differed
entirely from those of his predecessor. He was more inclined to war
than even Romulus had been, and only waited a plausible pretext for
seizing upon the territories of his neighbors. An incursion of the
Alban shepherds gave him an opportunity to demand redress, and he
took care to do it in such a manner as to insure a refusal. War
being thus made necessary, the two armies were drawn out in battle
array, five miles from Rome. Just as they were about to engage, the
Alban geneial proposed that the matter should be referred tu three
champions, chosen from each side.

 

Questions.— 25. Why was the selection of Numa for king a good one? 29. What policy
dit Numa adopt in relation to conquered lands, landmarks, &c.? What distinction did
he abolish? What temple found? In what respects was he a good king? 86. Who
succeeded Numa? What was the character of Tullius Hostilias? What yretext did he
Gud tu gratify his warlike propensity? Where was Alba? (See map No. 4.)
826 KINGDOM OF ROME. [3. c. 649,

31. The offer was accepted. Three Horatii were chosen for the
Romans, and three Curatii for the Albans. The mother of the Horatii
was sister to the mother of the Curatii; and all six of the young men
were distinguished for courage, strength, and activity. When every
thing was arranged, the champions were led forth amid encouraging
shouts, and then both sides rested upon their arms, and gazed with
breathless anxiety upon the scene. Victory at first inclined to the
Albans. Two of the Horatii lay dead upon the field, and the third
seemed to fly, while the Curatii, all wounded, feebly pursued him.
The Romans were ready to give up in despair, when suddenly Hora-
tius, having separated his antagonists, turned and slew them, one after
another, sacrificing, as he said, ‘‘two to the manes of his brothers,” and
offering ‘‘the third to his country’s honor.” The Albans threw down
their arms and submitted to the Romans; and Horatins, having
stripped his cousins of their armor, returned in triumph to Rome.

32. Not long after, the Albans having engaged in a conspiracy
against the Romans, a decree was passed that Alba should be razed to
the ground, and the whole Alban people removed to Rome. The
walls of the city and every human habitation were totally demolished,
and new dwellings assigned to the houseless tribe, upon the Celian
hill. Thus another nation was incorporated within the limits of the
Roman state. Hostilius contributed to the comfort of the citizens by
inclosing an open space for the meetings of the Comitia, or assembly
of the people, and the building of a senate-house. Toward the close
of his reign his mind was affected with superstitious fears, and to
avert the anger of the gods, he had recourse to the sacred rites for-
merly practiced by Numa. His invocations had, however, a contrary
effect. His palace was struck by lightning, and himself, with all his
family, perished in the flames.

33. u. c. 640. Ancus Manrrus.—After an interregnum, as in the
former case, Ancus Martius, grandson of Numa, was elected king.
He strove to imitate the virtues of his grandfatier, and carry out
his maxims of government. He increased the number of his sul-
jects, by bringing several thousand Latins to Rome, and settling them
on Mount Aventine. He constructed the first bridge over the Tiber ; le
extended his dominions on both sides of the river to the seacoast, and
built the harbor of Ostia, thus securing the trade of the Tiber and the
salt-pits adjacent. He encouraged strangers to settle in the city; and

 

Questions.—31. Recite the story of the champions. Which way was Alba from Rome?
(See map No. 4.) 32, Give the further history of Alba. What good thines did Hostilius do
for Rome? Give the closing history of him. 83. Who succeeded Hostilius? What bene-
fits did Ancus Martius seek for his country? What did he accopiplish ?
B.c. 616.] LUCIUS TARQUINIUS PRISCUS. 827

one of these, an opulent Greek, having gained his peculiar favor, was
appointed guardian of his children.

34. B. v. 616. Lucrus Targuistus Priscus.—A merchant of Corinth,
having amassed considerable wealth, in trade, emigrated to Tarquinia,
a city of Italy. Dying, he left all his wealth to his only son,
Lucius. This Lucius married Tanaquil, a lady of high birth in
Tarquinia, and was by her persuaded to remove to Rome, then
the center of attraction for all adventurers. As they approached the
city, an eagle stooping from above took off his hat, and, flying round
his chariot for some time, with much noise put it on again. This his
wife interpreted as a presage that le should one day wear the crown,
and they both spared no pains to bring about the accomplishment of
the prophecy. This was the Greek who paid his court so effectually
to Ancus as to be appointed guardian of his children. When the
Romans met to elect a new king, he made a set speech to them, urged
the friendship he felt for them, and the fortune he had expended in
their service. The people acknowledged the justice of his claims, and
he was soon invested with the royal robes. To reward his partisans,
who were chiefly plebeians, he added 100 of them to the senate, thus
making that body 300.

35. He laid the foundations of the great circus, or amphitheater,
where gladiatorial shows were afterwards exhibited. The Latin states
having made incursions upon his territories, he engaged in u war with
them, during which he took and plundered nine towns. Tarquin also
overcame the Etruscans in several engagements, and received from
them a golden crown, an ivory throne and scepter, a purple tunic,
and a robe embroidered with gold. Such were the military exploits
ascribed to Tarquin; but his lasting fame was inlaid with the very
foundations of the city. The forum, with its rows of shops and orna-
mental porticoes, was marked out by his order, and a wall around the
city, of massy stones, commenced.

36. He built the cloaca maxima, or great sewers, to drain off the
water from between the Palatine and Capitoline hills. ‘This vast
drain was constructed of huge blocks of hewn stone, triply arched,
and of such dimensions that a barge could float along in it beneath the
very streets of the city. Earthquakes have shaken the city and the
adjacent hills, but the cloaca maxima remains to this day unimpaired,
an enduring monument of the power and skill of the people and the

 

Questions.—34, 35, 86. Who was Lucius Tarquinius Priscus? Relate the story of the
eagle. Why did that event prove important? Wow did Tarquin reward his partisans? In
what successful wars did he engage? What did his military exploits gain for him and
Eome? What monuments of his power and skill remain?
328 KINGDOM OF ROME. [B. c. 578

king by whom it was constructed.” The augurs, under the patronage
of Tanaquil, came into great reputation ; and such was the ascendency
which they finally gained over the mind of Tarquin, that no battle was
fought, no army levied, no assembly dismissed, nor peace proclaimed,
without due reference to the chirping and flying of birds.

37. Servivs.—Tarquin II.—Coxsuis.—s. c. GPO, Tarquin, in
the Sabine war, had vowed to build a temple to the three great deities,
Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, and preparations were going forward for
this magnificent work when the hand of the assassin dismissed him
from all public employments. The sons of Ancus Martius, impatient
to enjoy a throne which Tarquin had made so desirable, hired two
countrymen to murder the king. The ruffians entered the palace as if
to bring a cause before Tarquin, and struck him dead with an ax. The
lictors immediately seized them, and put them to death; but the sons
of Ancus made their escape. The rumor of the death of Tarquin filled
the city with confusion. The citizens ran in crowds to the palace to
learn the truth of the report. Tanaquil, who had her own purpose to
serve, assured them that her husband was only stunned by the blow,
and that he had deputed the government to his son-in-law, Servius
Tullius, till his recovery.

38. B. o. 578, Servius Turrius.—Servius comes before us arrayed
in the garb of fable, like his predecessors. Ie was said to have been
the son of a bond-woman. While an infant in the cradle a lambent
flame played around his head, which, as an omen of his futare great-
ness, secured for him the patronage of Tanaquil. Receiving hit into
her family, she gave him an education suited to the high station he
was destined to fill, and married him to her daughter. Upon the
death of Tarquin he issued from the palace, clothed with the ensigns
of power, and proceeded to adininister the government, as he said, by
directions of his father-in-law. When he had thas made good his
party, the body of the murdered monarch was brought out and buried,
and Servius aus proclaimed king.

39. The government of Servius Tullius paved the way for the repub-
lic. Ife divided the lands among the citizens, and built dwellings for
the poor; he was the friend of the people, and chose his habitation in
the plebéian quarter of the city. He ordained that once in &ve years
every man should resort to the Campus Martius,* clad in complete

* A large plain without the walls of the city, where the Roman youth performed their
gymnastic exercises, It is the principal situation of modern Joie,

Questions,—31. What vow had Tarquin made? What prevented its accomplishment?
JIow did Servius secure the throne? 88, Relate tho fable, also the history of Servius until
he was crowned king. 39. In what ways did he show himself to be a friend of the people?
B. 0. 534.) TARQUIN THE PROUD. 329

armor, and there make oath to an exact account of his family and for-
tune. This census was closed by a feast, called a lustrum. Servius
steadily carried forward the building of the Capitol, begun by his pre-
decessor ; and inclosed the Viminal and Esquiline hills also within the
walls of the city. This king is said to have engaged in war with three
of the neighboring states, which continued twenty years, and resulted
in an acknowledgment of the supremacy of Rome.

40. To secure the crown to his family, Servius, it is related, had
married his two daughters to the two brothers of his wife, Aruns and
Tarquin; and as both the women and men differed greatly in disposi-
tion, he sought to correct their tempers by marrying the imperious
Tullia to the gentle Aruns, and the ambitious Tarquin to her milder
sister. This very measure defeated his design. The imperious and
ambitious broke through the feeble bonds which their meek com-
panions imposed, and, having both murdered their consorts, were soon
united to each other. The first crime made way for the second, and
the second was but a preparation for the third. Tarquin and Tullia
saw a crown before them, and no remorse of patriotism or filial affec-
tion could prevent their grasping it. They encouraged every murmur
of discontent which reached their ears, and made a strong party
among the patricians by spreading a rumor that Servius intended to
abolish the regal form of government, and give to the plebeians equal
weight in the commonwealth with the more aristocratic part of the
community. —

41. Having thus every thing prepared, Tarquin went to the senate-
house, seated himself on the royal chair, and summoned the senators
to meet king Tarquinius. While he was speaking Servius entered,
and, accusing Tarquin of treason, offered to push him from his seat;
but the usurper seized the old man, dragged him to the door, and
threw him down the steps. A body of assassins followed the wounded
king as he was feebly making his way to the palace, and, having put
an end to his life, left his body bleeding and mangled in the street.
Tullia, mean while, mounted her chariot and drove to the senate-house.
After saluting her guilty husband as king, she set out on her return,
and the charioteer, by ber direction, drove over the body of the mur-
dered Servius. The blood of her father stained her chariot wheels,
and sprinkled the robe in which she had arrayed herself to be hailea
u queen,

42. B. 0. 533. Lucius Tarquinius Supersus.—Tarquin the Proud,

 

Questions.—40, 41. By what means did Servius endeavor to perpetuate the crown in his
own family? Describe the tragedy that followed the ambitious father’s folly. 42, What
character is given of Tarquin the Proud?
330 KINGDOM OF ROME. [B. c. 509

having thus seized upon the throne as a right, refused to submit to a
vote of the people, and every other act of his administration showed
the same disposition to make himself absolute, in defiance of all law or
religion. He surrounded himself with a body-guard, and either ban-
ished or put to death all whom attachment to the late king or love of
justice inclined to criticise his ineasures. The Latins and the Volscii
felt the power of Rome, and every fresh acquisition made Tarquin
more imperious and tyrannical. The capitol, upon which his prede-
cessors had labored so diligently, employed him four years; and an
occurrence which he reported contributed not a little to the zeal with
which the people wrought in the work.

43. One day a Sibyl* came to the palace of Tarquin with nine
books, which she said were of her own composing, but she asked so
high a price for the mysterious volumes that Tarquin refused to pur-
chase them. She went away, burned three of them, and returned,
demanding the same price for the remaining six. Again the king
refused to buy, and again she went away and burned three of her
precious works; but when she came into his presence the third time,
and insisted upon his taking the three books, without any abatement
of price, his curiosity was so excited that he sent for the augurs. By
their advice the volumes were purchased, and deposited in stone
chests, in the vault of the new capitol. Proper persons, called the
quindecemviri, were appointed to take charge of them; and thus
the sibylline leaves became the oracles of the nation. Tarquin also
finished the cloaca maxima, and reduced the city of Gabii by the
stratagemt of his son Sextus.

44. The tyrant father and dissolute son had filled Rome with
mourning; and Sextus, having crowned his enormities by violating the
honor of a noble Roman ‘lady, precipitated the doom which had so
long been hanging over the devoted house of Tarquinii. This lady
was Lucretia, wife of Collatinus, a descendant of the first Tarquin.

* The Sibyllw were certain females who lived in different parts of the world, and were
thought to possess the power of foretelling future events.

+ The stratagem was this. Sextus counterfeited desertion, and was kindly received at
Gabii. Being apparently successful in bis engazements with the Romans, the simple
Gabians made him general of their army. He then sent to his father for instructions, ‘Tar-
quin made the messenver no answer, but, taking him into the garden, silently cut down the
tallest poppies. Scxtus took the hint; and, under various pretexts, put to death or ban-
ished the most distinguished Galians, till the people, finding themselves completely in his
hands, submitted to his father without striking a blow.

 

Questions, 42, To what regulations did he refuse to submit? Wow did he treat the
frieuds of the murdered king? 48. Give the story of the Sibylline books, 44. Relate the
circumstances preceding the banishment of Tarquin,
B. 0 509.] EXPULSION OF TARQUIN. 331

Unable to pardon herself for the crime of another, she sent for her
husband and father, entreating them to come to her immediately, as
an indelible disgrace had befallen the family. They obeyed her sum-
mons, bringing with them Valerius, a kinsman, and Junius Brutus,
whose father Tarquin had put to death. In brief terms she related
what bad befallen her, and, having required a pledge that they would
avenge her injuries, she drew a knife from under her robe and stabbed
herself to the heart.

45. While the rest stood motionless and silent with grief and con-
sternation, Brutus, the pretended idiot, drew the bloody poniard from
the reeking wound, and, holding it up to the assembly, exclaimed:
“T swear by this blood, which was once so pure, and which nothing
but the detestable villainy of Tarquin could have polluted, that I will
pursue Lucius Tarquinius the Proud, his wicked wife, and their chil-
dren, with fire and sword; nor will I suffer any of that family, or any
other whatsoever, to reign at Rome. Ye gods! I call ye to witness
this my oath.” Then, presenting the dagger to Collatinus, Lucretius,
Valerius, and the rest of the company, he engaged them to take the
same oath. That the man who had so long been kept as an idiot in
_the king’s house, to make sport for his children, should thus stand
forth the friend of justice and the assertor of Roman liberty, was a
miracle that roused the feelings of the people no less than the wrongs
of the virtuous Lucretia.

46. The citizens came together in crowds, the gates of the city were
shut, and the senate decreed that Tarquin and his family should be
forever banished from Rome, and that to plead for, or attempt his
return, shovld be a capital crime. Tarquin, who was absent with the
army, hearing of these commotions, hastened to Rome without delay.
He found the gates barred against him, and the walls filled with armed
men. Disappointed and enraged, he turned again to join his army ;
but Brutus, taking another route, had reached the camp before him,
acquainted the soldiers with what had taken place, and enlisted their
feelings in the cause of justice. Thus this proud monarch, who had
reigned 25 years, being expelled from his kingdom, was forced to take
refuge in a little city of Etruria, and thus ended, with him, the regal
state of Rome, after it had continued 245 years.

47. ConsuLs.—The regal power being thus overthrown, Rome be-
came a republic, and two magistrates called Consuts were annually

 

Queations.—-45, 46. What course did Brutus take? How far was he successful? How
‘ong did the regal state of Rome continue? 47. After the overthrow of regal power what
did Rome become? By whom were the affairs of government administered ?
332 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [z. c. 509.

chosen to administer the affairs of government. No one could be con-
sul who had not before been questor, wdile, and praetor. The consuls
had all the badges of kings, except the crown; every one went out of
the way, uncovered his head, dismounted from his horse, or rose up
when these officers passed. Brutus and Collatinus were chosen first
consuls of Rome. Hardly was this new order of things established,
when embassadors came from Tarquin to say that he would peaceably
relinquish the kingdom if the Romans would send him his treasures
and effects. These embassadors had another object in view, which
they proceeded to unfold while the senate debated upon Tarquin’s
proposition.

48. They took up their residence in the house of the Aquilii, neph-
ews of Collatinus, and by their aid collecting such young men as had
been brought up in idle attendance upon the king, formed a conspiracy
to restore monarchy. Even the sons of Brutus, displeased with the
stern frugality of their father, entered into the scheme, and all toge-
ther bound themselves not to betray the plot, by the horrid ceremony
of drinking the blood of a man sacrificed for the purpose. A slave,
however, discovered the whole affair, and hastened to the upright
Valerius with the startling intelligence. Valerius, with a sufficient
force, proceeded immediately to the place, found the papers, and, seiz-
ing the conspirators, twisted their gowns about their necks, and drag-
ged them into the forum. The consuls, hearing the tumult, repaired
to the spot, and silence being gained, the accusation was entered and
proved. The young men pleaded nothing for themselves, but with
conscious guilt awaited their sentence in silent agony.

49. A melancholy stillness reigned; the tears of Collatinus and the
irrepressible emotions of Valerius stimulated some of the most com-
passionate to speak of banishment; but Brutus alone, seeming to have
lost all the softness of humanity, called upon each of his sons: “You,
Titus, and you, Tiberius, why do you not make your defense against
this charge?” This question he repeated three times, in a stern voice,
but receiving no answer, he turned to the lictors, and saying, “ Yours
is the part that remains,” resumed his seat, and with an air of deter-
mined iajesty beheld his sons stripped, scourged, and beheaded.
Collatinus, not equally firm, was just going to grant his nephews a
reprieve, when Valerius interposed, and the people voted that they

should receive the punishment they so well merited. This conduct

Questions,—4i, 48, 49. What qualifications were required for the office of consul? What
badges of distinction belonged to them? Who were the first consuls? What embassadors
were sent from Tarquin? What proved to be the real object of these embassadois? lelate
the story of the conspiracy, with its heart-rendi ng consequences,
B. 0. 506.] WAR WITH THE LATINS. 333

of Collatinus rendered him suspected by the citizens; he was deposed
from the consulship and banished, and Valerius, surnamed Publicola.
“the people's most respectful friend,” was elected in his room.

50. Tarquin now enlisted the Veians, and advanced with a consider-
able army toward Rome. Valerius Publicola and Brutus, having made
suitable preparations, went out to meet him on the Roman borders.
Aruns. son of Tarquin, seeing his despised playfellow at the head of
the Roman armies, spurred on to meet him; and Brutus, equally
enraged, rode out of the ranks, and engaged with him in single com-
bat. Nerved by the deadliest hate, neither thought of defending him-
self, and both fell dead upon the field. The battle, whose onset was
so dreadful, had not a milder conclusion. The carnage was terrible,
and continued till the armies were separated bya storm. On number-
ing the dead, it was found the Veians had lost one man more than the
Romans, and they accordingly confessed defeat. Tarquin fled to Clu-
sium, and enzazed Porsenna, one of the most powerful princes of Italy,
to undertake his cause. By his army the Roman commonwealth was
reduced to the very brink of destraction. The consuls were wounded
in the field, and forced to retire.

51. Rome was besieged, and the inhabitants were wasting under the
influence of famine, when the city was saved by an act of heroism
superior to any before related. A young man named Mutins, dis-
guised like an Etrurian peasant, entered the camp of Porsenna and
slew the king’s secretary, mistaking him for the king himself. Upon
his arrest he declared unreservedly who he was, informed the king of
his country and design, and added, that three hundred Roman youth
were equally resolved to destroy their enemy, or perish in the attempt;
then, thrusting his hand into a fire burning upon an altar, he held it
there with the utmost composure until it dropped off, saying: “You
eee the Romans know how to suffer, as well as how tu act.’ Por-
senna, charmed with his noble spirit, ordered him to be safely con-
ducted back to Rome, and offered the besieged honorable conditions
of peace.* .

62. Dicrators.—Txrpenes.—Decemvirs.—s. c. 300. Tarquin,

* It is said that the Romans actually submitted, and only recovered their city and terri-
tory on condition of giving up the use of iron, except for implements for husbandry.

 

Questions.—49. Who was chosen consul in place of Collatinus? 50. What steps were
then taken by Tarquin? Where did the armies meet? Ifva did the noble Brutus fall?
How did the battle terminate? By whose assistance did Tarquin once more wage destruc-
tive war upon Kome? SL. During the siege, what was the condition of the Romans? Give
the story of the heroic young man, Mutine ow did ois conduct affect the mind of Por-
senna? Who was Porsenna? Which way from Rome was Clusium® (See map Ny. 4)
804 GOMMONWSHALTH OF ROME. [p. c. £94

though often disappointed, was still unsubdued. He stirred up the
Latins to hostilities, united twenty-four towns in a confederacy, and
secretly worked by his agents within the very walls of Rome. The
Romans under their kings had only two ways of subsisting, by agri-
culture and by plunder. After the extinction of royalty, the senators
appropriated the conquered lands to themselves, and thus the soldier,
who left his family to enlarge the dominions of Rome, had neither
farm nor money for reward; besides, if the poor man fell in debt,
the rich creditor might sell him for a slave until the sum was paid.
This complication of evils filled the city with discontent and murmur-
ing; and when tbe consuls came to levy men in order to oppose Tar-
quin, all the poor refused to enlist, declaring they would not go to
war till their debts were canceled by a decree of the senate. The
number of the malcontents increased every hour, and the senate, who
saw the commonwealth upon the brink of ruin, had recourse to an
expedient, which in the lapse of ages proved fatal to the republic.

53. Diorarors.—Unable to raise an army to meet the threatened
invasion, they proposed to the people to elect a temporary magistrate,
who should have absolute power, not only over patricians, plebeians,
and magistrates, but over the laws themselves. The people complied,
and Lartiug was created the first Dicraror of Rome. He entered
upon his office surrounded with all the ensigns of royalty; and the
people, awed by his display of power, obeyed implicitly all his direc-
tions. Before his six months were expired the Latins were con-
qnered, the murmurs appeased, and at the end of his time he laid
down his authority, with the reputation of having exercised it with
blameless lenity.

54. Trrpunes.—When the term of his office expired, matters were
in no better state than before, and at last the great body of the ple-
beians resolved to quit the city which gave them no shelter from
oppression. They therefore formed themselves under their respec-
tive ensigns, chose new commanders, and retired to Mons Sacer,
a mountain about three miles from Rome, saying, as they went along,
that “Italy would anywhere supply them with air and water, and a
place of burial; and that Rome, if they stayed in it, would do no more.”
Message after message was sent to them in vain; the discontented in
the city scaled the walls to join them, and the senate was divided in

Questions, —52, 53. What machinations was Tarquin still employing to destroy Rome ?
What was the condition of the Roman people at that time? What difficultics did they
encounter in raising men to oppose Tarquin? What expedient was adopted by the senate ?
What power was delegated to the dictatur? Who first filled the otlice ? How far was suc
esss attained? 4. After the office of dictator expired, what new discontent arouse ?
B. 0. 491.] CORLOLANUS. 335

C2

opinion as to the course to be taken. Finally, a deputation of the
most respectable persons in the city went to them, and one, by birth
a plebeian, related to them the celebrated fable of ‘the Body and the
Members.”

55. This fable had an instantaneous effect upon the people; they
began to talk of an accommodation, and at length concluded to go
back, upon condition that five uew officers should be created from
their own body, culled Trisunes of the People, who should have the
power of annulling such decrees as bore hard on the plebeians. The
senate also agreed to abolish all debts; and things being thus adjusted,
the multitude returned in triumph to Rome. The new officers were
then appointed. They had their seats placed before the doors of the
senate-house, and, examining every statute, annulled it by the word
Veto, “I forbid it,” or signed it with T., which gave it validity.
Seed-time passed while the people were on the mountain; the fields
produced no harvest the ensuing year, and famine began again to
excite those murmurs which the concessions of the senate had appeased.

66. A fleet came laden with corn from Sicily, and the starving mul-
titude waited impatiently while the senate were deliberating upon its
distribution. Coriolanus, a general distinguished in the Volscian
wars, insisted that the senate should take this opportunity to secure
their former power. He had been seventeen years a wurrior, and waa
greatly beloved by the people till he began to oppose their aggressions.
Now, when he took so decided a stand against the distribution act,
they accused him of converting the spoils of the enemy to his own use.
He was consequently sentenced to banishment. He returned to his
house, embraced his mother, wife, and children, passed out of the city
gates, and took his solitary way, no one knew whither. Having after
some time matured a plan for humbling his enemiés, he proceeded to
the country of the Volscians, over whom he had gained so many vic-
tories. Finding out the house of Tullus, his most implacable enemy,
he entered, walked directly up to the fireplace, and seated himself
among the household gods, without saying a word. Tullug rose from
supper, and demanded, in astonishment, who he was, and upon what
business he had come. Coriolanus, still retaining his seat in the sacred
place, related the particulars of his exile, and laid before him his
desires of vengeance. The noble Volscian instantly gave him the
hand of friendship, and espoused his quarrel.

Questions.—54, In what manner was it reconciled? 55, What were the new oflicers called ?
How was the veto power first used? 56. What relief came to the starving people of Rome?
State the circumstances attending the banishment of Corivlanus. What measnres did ha
take to humble his eremies?

 
336 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. — [B©. 491

67. It was not difficult to find a pretext fur war, and the Volscians,
headed by Tullus and Coriolanus, invaded the Roman territories,
ravaging all the lands belonging to the plebeians, but leaving those of
the patricians untouched. The levies in Rome went on but slowly;
and the consuls feared, with a reluctant army, to meet the renowned
Coriolanus in the field. One town after another submitted to the
Volscians, and the injured exile finally pitched his camp within five
miles of Rome. The city, so lately the scene of turbulence and ani-
mosity, was now filled with timidity and despair. The people, who
had clamored for the banishment of Coriolanus, begged the senate to
recall the edict. The senate obstinately refused. However, when the
Volscians came up to the very walls and demanded the freedom of
Roman citizens, both senate and people unanimously agreed to send
deputies to Coriolanus, with proposals of restoration if he would draw
off his army.

58. The indignant general received the embassadors at the head of
his officers, informed them that, as commander of the Volscians, he
had only their interest to consider, and that if the Romans wished for
peace, they must conclude within thirty days to restore all the towns
originally belonging to Volscii. This deputation returned to Rome,
and another was immediately sent to entreat Coriolanus not to exact
of his country any thing improper for Romans to grant. He treated
these envoys with great severity, and only allowed the senate three
days for deliberation. A more dignified embassy was then prepared,
to move the heart of the stern general. The pontiffs, priests, and
augurs, clothed in sacred vestments, issued from the city, and, entering
the camp of the conqueror with imposing solemnity, conjured him by
the fear of the gods to giye peace to his country. He treated them
with respect, but dismissed them without lessening his demands.

59. When the people saw the ministers of religioa repulsed, they
gave up the commonwealth for lost. While all ranks were filling’ the
temples with despairing cries, the aged sister of Publicola suddenly
rose from before the altar, and, calling upon the matrons of Rome to
attend her, proceeded to the house of Veturia, mother of Coriolanus.
Actuated, as she said, by a divine impulse, she had come to beseech
her to go with them, and make one more effort to save Rome. Vetu-
ria obeyed the heavenly call, and, accompanied by Volumnia, wife of

Questions.—5i, Give an account of the snecess of Coriolanus, 53, How did he reccive
the message sent by the citizens and senate of Rome? In what manner did he reevive and
treat the sccond envoys? What term of time did he allow for delibery ation’ Ty what cir-
cumstances did they dignify the third embassy? State the result, 5u. What then were tho
feclings of the people? Give the interesting particulars that broug’, sufety to Rome.
Bo. 458,] CINOINNATUS. 337

Coriolanus, his two children, and the principal ladies of Rome, took
her way to the camp of her son.

60. Coriolauus saw the mournful train from a distance, and deter-
mining to deny their request, sent for the Volscian officers to witness
his resolution ; but when his little ones clasped his knees, and his wife
hung upon his neck in tender entreaty; when his aged mother fell at
his feet, and mingled the tears of an afflicted parent with the lofty
remonstrances of a Roman matron, his inflexible spirit gave way. He
raised her in his arms, and gazing upon her venerable countenance
with melancholy forebodings, exclaimed, ‘ Ah, my mother, thou hast
saved Rome, but thou hast lost thy son.’ The victorious deputation
returned with a truce to the city; and Coriolanus, pretending that
Rome was too strong to be taken, drew off his army. Tullus, who
had long envied the great popularity of Coriolanus, represented this ag
an act of treachery to the Volscians, and the noble Roman was soon
after slain.

61. Acrartan Law.—The people, thus delivered from threatened
destruction, and encouraged by the concessions already made, elamored
for the passage of the Agrarian law; but the senators steadily resisted
the demand. Thus matters grew worse and worse. The Equii and
Volscii continually made incursions upon the Roman territories with-
out, and the plebeians as constantly made encroachments upon the
privileges of the patricians within. One consul was killed in battle;
the other, intimidated by the aspect of affairs, said he could do nothing
alone, and must have a colleague. The senate fixed upon Qnintius
Cincinnatus for this office. He was aman of unblemished integrity,
who, though a patrician and a soldier, had given up all ambitious
thoughts, and retired to a small farm beyond the Tiber. The deputies
found him in the field, diligently following the plow.

62. He appeared little elated with the ensigns of power they brought
lim, or the pompous ceremony with which they addressed him, but
instantly responded to the call of the senate, saying with regret to his
wife, as he changed the homely garb of a husbandman for the purple
robe of a consul, “J fear, my Atilla, that for this year our fields must
remain unsown.” His skill, moderation, and humanity reconciled the
contending factions; the tribunes ceased to urge the passage of the
obnoxious law, and the senators adopted more conciliatory manners.
Searcely had Cincinnatns retired from his office, when the Equii and

 

Questions.—60. What was the fate of Coriolanus? 61, 62. What new internal commotions
distracted the commonwealth? What was the agrarian law? Ans. A law to divide all the
lands equally among the people. By whom were the difficulties reconciled? What was tba
enviable character of Cincinnatus ?

15
838 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [B. 0. 458

Volscii made new inroads into the territories of Rome. The general
sent to repel them, through want of skill or want of courage, suffered
his troops to be driven into a defile between two mountains, where
the enemy blockaded them, presenting the three terrible alternatives,
Sulvanvieedion, fuming, or death. A few knights escaped, and carried the
news to Rome, Consternation seized all ranks of people, and again
Cincinnatus was summoned from his cheerful libors to assume the
unlimited power of dictator, B. e. 158.

63. On entering the city, he gave orders that every person capable
of bearing arms should repair before sunset to the Campus Martins,
with necessary equipments and provisions for five days. At the
head of this foree he commeneed his mareh that night, and before
daybreak arrived in sight of the enemy. Coming up in the rear of
the Volscian army, his soldiers set up aloud shout, whieh was gladly
echoed by the Romans within the defile. The Volscii, amazed to find
themselves between two encmics, commenced the attack, but were

 

entirely beaten, and compelled to beg a cessation of arms. Cincinna-
tus gave them their lives, but obliged them to pass under the yoke, in
token of servitude. Thns, having reseued a Roman army, defented a
powerful enemy, and gained an immense amount of spoil, he returned
to Rome and resigned his dictatorship, after enjoying it four days.

64. The next year, however, all the tribunes Joined together, and
required that Mount Aventine should be given to the plebeians; this
was ceded, but the people were not sutisticd. ‘The Agrarian law was
constantly agituted, and disputes upon the subject. often ended in
blows. A day was finally fixed for the public discussion of this impor-
tant measure; and to this mecting came one Stecius Dentatus, a well-
known patriot. THe had served his country in wars 10 years; had
been an ollicer 30, first a centurion, then a tribune; he had fouwht 120
yattles ; had wained 14 civic,* 3 mural, and S wolden crowns, besides
$3 chains, 60 bracelets, 18 gilt spears, and 23 horse-trappings > he had
reccived 45 wounds, the sears of which he evhibited > yet he had never
obtained possession of any of those Jands which his courage had won

* A civie crown, made of oak-lenves, was given to him whe had saved the life of a eitizen,
sa taural crown was wwarded to him who first senlod the walls of a city, and a golden erown
was the tribute to the brave soldier who first mounted the rampart in the face of the

enemy,

Questions.—b2, What troubles reentled Cincinnatus? = What power was given hhin?
When did that oceur? 63. What commands did Cincinnatus issue? What mareh com:
menee? Whatarmy conquer? What enemy subjugate? What spoils necumulate? Low
was the yoko made? Ans. By setting two spears upright and placing another aeross the
top of them. Tow long was Cincinnatus dictator ? By what act did he cease to be sneh?
G1 What troubles followed during the next year? What is suld of Deutatus ?
r. 0. 451.) THE DECEMVIRI. 339

and his valor defended. THis had been a life of poverty and contempt,
while others enjoyed in indolent security the fruit of his labors. The
wrongs of Dentatus created such a clamor as drowned the voices of
those senators who wished to speak against the law. Reason could
no longer be heard; and the young patricians, seeing the people aboat
to vote, ran in among the throng, broke the balloting-urns, and dis-
persed the crowd. This, for the time being, put off the hated law.

65. Soroy’s Laws srovent to Romz.—The commonwealth of
Rome had been for 60 years fluctuating between the contending
orders which composed it, and each side began to wish for something
more settled and definite than decrees of the senate and votes of the
people. They therefore agreed to send embassadors to Athens, to
bring home such laws as by experience had been found best adapted
to the purposes of a republic. Three senators were chosen for this
solemn deputation, and three galleys were fitted out to convey them
to Greece in a manner suitable to the majesty of the Roman people.
In about a year they returned, bringing a digest of Solon’s laws, and
a collection of the principal civil codes of Greece and Italy. The tri-
bunes then required that a body of men should be appointed to put
their new laws into proper form, and enforce their execution. After
long debates, ten of the principal senators were elected, whose power,
continuing one year, should be equal to that of kings and consuls,
without any appeal. Thus the whole constitution took at once a new
form, and all magistrates resigned their authority.

66. Decemviri.—These officers agreed among themselves to reign in
succession, one day at a time, the ruler of the day only bearing the
ensigns of power. By the help of an interpreter they formed a body
of laws from those brought from Greece, submitted them to the appro-
bation of the people, and then, causing them to be engraven on plates
of brass, hung thei up in the most conspicuous part of the forum.
The people supposed that they would lay down their power at the end
of the year, but, pretending that something still remained to the com-
pletion of their purpose, they retained their office another term; and
the third year they seized upon the administration of government, in
defiance of senate and people, and ruled without control. The tyranny
of the decemviri, however, like that of Tarquin, was overthrown by
the virtue of a Roman female.

67. Srory or VirGinra.—Appius, sitting one day upon his tribunal,

 

Questions.—64. What circumstance put off the hated law? 65, What new form of gov-
ernment did they then seek? What instructions in government did they get from abroad?
66. What is said of the decemviri?
340 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [B. c. 449

saw 2 maiden of exquisite beauty, passing to one of the public schools,
attended by a matron, her nurse. The next day, she passed again;
her loveliness uttracted his attention, and awakened his curiosity.
He made inguirics concerning her name and parentage, and finding
that her father was a centurion in the army, he gave up all thoughts
of marriage; for the very laws he had been so industriously preparing,
forbade the intermarriage of patricians with plebeians. After vainly
endeavoring to.corrupt the fidelity of her nurse, he had recourse to an
expedient still more criminal. One Claudius was instructed to claim
her as a slave, and refer the cause to the tribunal of the decemvir.
Claudius accordingly entered the school where Virginia was playing
among her companions, and seizing upon her as-_his property, was
about to drag her away by force, when he was stopped by the crowd
drawn together by her cries. At length he prevailed so far as to be
permitted to lead the weeping girl to the tribunal of Appius, where he
stated that she was the daughter of his female slave, who, having been
sold, and adopted in infancy by the wife of Virginius, had been edu-
cated as the child of the centurion. He begzed time to collect his
witnesses of these facts, and insisted on retaining possession of the
maiden, as her lawful master.

68. Appius, with the air of an impartial judge, decided this to be a
just demand; and Clandins was taking her away, when Icilius, her
lover, seconded by the multitude, raised such a commotion that Appius,
fearing an insurrection, thought proper to suspend his judgment till
Virginius could return from the army, then about eleven miles from
Rome. The day following was fixed for the trial, and Appius, in the
mean time, sent letters to the generals to contine Virgiuius, as his
arrival in town might excite sedition. These letters were intercepted
by the centurion’s friends, who gave him a full relation of the affair.
Virginius immediately obtained permission to leave the camp, and
flew to the protection of his child. At the appointed hour, to the
astonishment of Appius, he appeared before the tribunal, leading his
lovely daughter by the hand, both habited in the deepest mourning.
Claudius was there also, attended by a female slave, who swore posi-
tively that she had sold Virginia to the wife of her reputed father.

69. Virginius then introduced the most unanswerable proofs of his
paternity, and was proceeding to make an appeal to the people, when
Appius interrupted him, by saying that he was sufficiently instructed
in the merits of the case. ‘ Yes,” said he, * my conscience compels

 

Questions.—6T, 68, 69, 70, Tl. Relate the story of Virginia, and the merited vengeance of
the suffering father.
8, 0. 449.) MILITARY TRIBUNES. B41

me to declare, that I myself am a witness to the truth of the deposi-
tion of Claudius. Most of this assembly know that I was left guardian
to this youth, and I was very early apprised of his right to this young
woman ; but the affairs of the public, aud the dissensions of the people,
then prevented my doing him justice. However, it is not now too
late, and by the power vested in me for the public good, I adjudge
Virginia tu be the property of Claudius, the plaintiff. Go, therefore,
lictors, disperse the multitude, and make room for a master to repos-
sess himself of his slave.”

70. The lictors, in obedience to this command, drove off the crowd,
and, seizing upon Virginia, were delivering her up to Claudius, when
Virginius, seeming to acquiesce in the sentence, mildly entreated
Appius to be permitted to take a last farewell of one whom he had so
long considered as his child. With this the decemvir complied, upon
condition that their endearments should pass in his presence. Virgi-
nius took his almost expiring daughter in his arms, supported her head
upon his breast, and wiped away the tears that rolled down her
cheeks; then, gently drawing her near the shops that surrounded the
forum, he snatched up a knife that lay upon the shambles, and crying
out, ‘‘ My dearest, lost child, this alone can preserve your honor and
your freedom,” buried the weapon in her breast! Then holding it up,
reeking with her blood, ‘‘ Appius,” he exclaimed, “by this blood of
innocence, I devote thy head to the infernal gods.”

71. Appius ordered him to be seized, but in vain. As if maddened
by the dreadful deed, Virginius, with the bloody kuife still in his
hand, ran through the streets of the city, calling upon the people to
strike for freedom; nor did he stop till he had reached the camp, and
displayed before the soldiers the terrible instrument which had taken
away the sweet Virginia’s life. He asked their pardon, and the par
don of the gods, for the rash act he had committed, but ascribed it to
the dreadful necessity of the times, and conjured them, by that blood
which he held dearer than his own, to redeem their sinking country
from the hands of its tyrants. One thrilling sentiment of sympathi-
zing indignation filled every bosom ; the soldiers called to aris, plucked
up their standards, and, marching to Rome, seized upon Mount Aven-
tine. The feelings of the senate corresponded to those of the army.
The former government was restored; Appius and Oppius died by
their own hands in prison; the other eight decemvirs went into volun-
tary banishment; and Claudius was driven out after them.

72. Muirary Trrpunes.—Quiet was scarcely restored, when the

 

Questions.—T1. What became of Appius and Oppius? Of the other offenders? .
842 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [B. 0. 444

tribunes proposed two laws: one to sanction the intermarriage of ple-
beians with patricians, and the other to admit the plebeians also tu the
consulship. The senate, with great reluctance, granted the first, with
the limitation, that a woman marrying a plebeian should lose all her
patrician rights; and evaded the second, by proposing that six gov-
ernors should be elected, called Muirary Tripunus, with consular
authority divided among them all; and at the end of a year, it could
be determined whether these tribunes, or consuls, should administer
the government. The people eagerly embraced the proposals. Both
patricians and plebeians put on the white robes of candidates, and
vegged the votes of the comitia; but so fickle were the multitude, that
ill the new officers were chosen from among the patricians. Their
rower was, however, of short duration. The augurs found something
wniss in the ceremonies of the election, and in about three months
they were compelled to resign to the consuls.

73. Censors.—B. 0. 443.—To lighten the weight of the consular duties,
two new officers, called Censors, were chosen to take an account of
the citizens. Seated in their curule chairs, the censors reviewed the
senate, deposed those proven unworthy of their high office, dismounted
such knights as did not merit their spurs, and required of every citizen
an exact account of his family and fortune. This calm was broken by
a famine. At the next election the tribunes insisted upon having
military tribunes instead of consuls, and during the succeeding twenty
years the goveinment changed from tribunes to consuls, and from
consuls to tribunes, four times; besides which, dictators were chosen
upon several occasions.

74, Things continued in this state of commotion for a long period,
factions becoming every day stronger, and government weaker. The
barbarous neighbors of the Romans seized every opportunity to en-
croach upon their territories, and whenever levies were to be raised,
the tribunes of the people vetoed the decree, until some concession
was made increasing the anthority of the lower orders. The citizens
were at the saine time husbandmen and soldiers ; the hands that drew
the sword in one season, held the plow in another, and every man was
obliged to furnish his own arms and provisions during a campaign.
The hopes of plunder, and the honors of returning in triumph, were
the chief incentives to enlist. But it often happened that the cam-
paigns lasted through seed-time and harvest, and then debts were con-

 

Questions.—i2, What is said of the military tribunes that followed? Iow long were
they in power? 73. What new officers were then chosen? What duties did the censors
perform? What was the condition of the government for the next twenty years? 74. What
revolution finally took place and changed that mode of warfure ?
B. 0. 400.] CAMILLUS. 343

tracted which led to a train of extortions and exactions, which kept
the plebeians constantly irritated against the patricians, and covetous
of power for themselves. To remove these constant sources of disquiet,
the senate laid a tax upon every citizen, and from this fund paid a
regular sum of money to every soldier. Thus the whole method of
warfare was changed, and regular lengthened campaigns took the
place of mere predatory excursions.

75. Ven Taxey.—Rome Burnep By THE GauLs.—Samyire War.
s. 0. 400,—The city of Veii had maintained with Rome many gal-
laut disputes for glory and power. The senate, now reconciled to the
people, and masters of an army that they could keep in the field as
long as they thought proper, determined that, cost what it might, Veii
should fall; and the Romans in consequence encamped before the
place, prepared for a long and obstinate resistance. The soldiers had
been accustomed to make a summer campaign, and return home to
winter, but now they were obliged to stay year after year in the
enemy’s country, living in tents made of the skins of beasts, and suffer-
ing, as might be supposed, every hardship from the sallies of the
besieged and the inclemencies of the weather. The length and expense
of the war excited murmurs and discontent, both in the camp and at
home; and in the tenth year, tridunes and consuls having been alike
unsuccessful, the senate appointed Fabius Camillus dictator.

76. This officer soon changed the aspect of affairs. Keeping up the
regular attacks, to amuse the enemy, he employed w great part of his
soldiers in digging a mine beneath the walls. The work was pursued
with vigor, and the subterranean passage was finally terminated directly
beneath the temple of Juno, in the citadel. An assault was then made
without, to call the Veians to the walls, while a select band, marching
underground to the temple, removed the pavement over their heads,
and suddenly appeared to priests before the altar. They fled in dis-
may. Fresh bodies of Romans poured in, and the city was taken after
a short but ineffectual resistance. Thus, like a second Troy, Veii fell,
after a ten years’ siege. The army returned home greatly enriched
by the spoils, and Camillus triumphed with excessive pomp, painting
his face with vermilion, and riding through the city in a chariot
drawn by four milk-white horses, a distinction which displeased most
of the spectators, and excited that envy which afterwards wrought his
ruin (B. c. 39).

77. Extn or Camitius.—Not long after, the tribunes proposed

 

Questions —15, 76. Describe the siege and taking of Veil. What circumstance of folly
destroyed Camillus? Why did Camillus act thus? Ans, Ip imitation of the gods,
344 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME [B. c. 396

that the senate and the people should be divided into two equal parts,
and that one part should remain in Rome, while the other settled in
Veii. Camillus opposed this measure, and invented delays of various
kinds, to keep it from being brought before the comitia. The trib-
unes, in revenge, accused him of converting two brazen gates, taken
from Veii, to his own use. He was cited to appear before the people.
The proud spirit of Camillus could not brook the infamy of a public
trial. After embracing his wife and children, he departed from Rome.
As he passed the gates, he turned his face tu the capitol, and, lifting
his hands to heaven, entreated the gods, that ‘‘if he were driven out
without any fault of his own, the Romans might quickly repent their
envy and injustice, and express to the world their want of Camillus.”

78. About two centuries before this time, the Gauls had sent out
vast nuinbers of emigrants in search of more fruitful lands than the
frozen shores of the Baltic. A band of them settled in the northern
part of Italy, took eighteen cities from the Tuscans, and, invited by
the softness of the climate, but more especially by the softness of the
wines, spread themselves still farther to the south. Hordes of these
barbarians, wild from their original deserts, were now besieging Clu-
sium, under the command of Brennus, their king. The inhabitants of
Clusiuin entreated the assistance of the Romans. The senate, who
had long made it a maxim never to refuse succor to the distressed,
sent embassadors to the Gauls, to inquire what offense the citizens of
Clusium had given them.

79. Brennus received the deputies with great complaisance, listened
to what they had to say with due respect, and replied with becoming
gravity: “The injury the Clusians do us, is their keeping to them-
selves a large tract of ground while they can only cultivate a small
one, and refusing to give a part to us, who are numerous and poor.
We follow, like the Romans, the most ancient law, which directs the
weak to obey the strong; cease then to commiserate the Clusians,
lest you teach the Gauls to pity those who have been oppressed by
your own people.” The Roman embassadors, instead of returning
home with this cutting answer, entered the city, and, forgetful of their
sacred characters, headed a sally of the besieged, and one of them was
surprised in an attempt to strip a Gaul whom he had just slain.
Brennus, calling the gods to witness that against all the sacred laws of

 

Questions.—77. What accusations were brought against Camillus to effect his banish-
ment? What did Camillus do? 78. What is said of the movement of the Gauls? Where
was Clusium? (See inap No, 4.) What assistance did the Clusians ask for? Wow did the
Romans respond? 79. What reply did Brenous make? What then did the embassadors
do? To what did their conduct lead ?
B. 0. 390.] THE BURNING OF ROME. 345

nations an embassador had acted as an enemy, immediately led off his
army toward Rome.

80. Rome Burnep sy tHE Gaurs.—The prodigious numbers of the
Gauls, their glittering arms, their fury and impetuosity, struck terror
wherever they came; Brennus, however, neither pillaged the fields
nor insulted the cities, but passed on as rapidly as possible, crying out
that he was at war with the Romans only, and considered all others
as his friends. Six military tribunes at that time commanded the
Roman army. They met the Gauls on the banks of the river Allia,
about eleven miles from the city. The Romans engaged in a dis-
orderly manner, were shamefully beaten, and put to flight. Some
escaped to Rome, and some to Veii. The account of the fugitives
filled all ranks of people with terror. The Gauls, however, not know-
ing the extent of their victory, continued two days feasting upon the
field of battle. In this time all the Romans capable of bearing arms
retired to the capitol. which they fortified with strong ramparts and
provided well with arms, The Vestal Virgins took up the Sacred
Fire and holy relics, and fled away with them to the little city of
Care.

81. The priests and most ancient of the senators could not think of
leaving the city. Therefore, clothing themselves ia their holy vest-
ments and robes of state, in a form dictated by the pontifex maximus,
they devoted themselves for their country, and, seating themselves in
their ivory chairs, in the most conspicuous part of the fornm, calmly
awaited their fate. The rest of the people, a poor, helpless multitude
of old men, women, and children, sought shelter in the neighboring
towns, or shut themselves up in their houses, to end their lives with
the ruin of Rome. On the third day, Brennus appeared with all his
forces before the city. None disputed his approach; the walls were
undefended; the gates stood wide open to receive him, so that at first
he,suspected some stratagem; but, finding that the people had really
given up to despair, he entered by the Colline gate, set a strong guard
before the capitol, and went on to the forum.

82. There he beheld the undannted senators sitting in their order,
leaning upon their staves, in the most profound silence. The splendid
habits, the majestic gravity, and the venerable looks of these old men,
awed the barbarians into reverence; they took them for the tutelar
deities of the place, and commenced a species of adoration, till one,

 

Questions.—S0. What further can you state of the conduct of Brennus? Where did the
Bomans meet the Gauls? What was the result? What then followed? 81. Give an ao
count of the course taken by the priests, senators, and other people of Rome. Of the taking
of Rome by Brennus.

15*
846 COMMONWEALTH OF ROWE. [B. c. 390

more forward than the rest, stretched oat his hand, and stroked the
long white beard of Papyrius, the former dictator. The indignant
senator, lifting his ivory scepter, struck the savage to the ground.
The Gaul returned the blow with his sword; a general slaughter
ersued, and every one of the devoted band poured out his blood upon
the spot where he had dedicated himself to the infernal gods. Nor
did the carnage stop here. The savages continued the slaughter three
days, sparing neither sex nor age, and then, setting fire to the city,
burned every house to the ground.

83. The capitol alone resisted all their efforts. Every thing without
that fortress was an extensive scene of misery and desolation—every
thing within showed that resolution which springs from despair.
Those magnificent buildings which were once the pride of Rome were
a heap of shapeless ruin. All the neighboring towns shared a similar
fate; for Brennus, taking up his quarters in Rome, sent out foraging
parties, who ravaged the country with fire and sword. It happened
that a body of the barbarians strayed into the neighborhood of Ardea,
where Camillus, since his exile, had lived in absolute retirement. The
noble-minded Roman, having engaged the youth of Ardea in his service,
was waiting an opportunity to strike a blow for his country. The
Gauls, loaded with plunder, encamped upon the plains in a disorderly
manner, and night found them intoxicated with wine, and overcome
with sleep. Camillus attacked them about midnight; the sounding
of the trumpets aroused the Gauls in such haste and confusion, that
they were incapable of concerted action. A few, whom fear made
sober, snatched up their arms and fell fighting; but the greater part
of them, buried in sleep and wine, were surprised, and easily dis-
patched.

84. The fame of this action reached the neighboring cities, and drew
crowds to Camillus. The Romans who had fled to Veii flocked to his
standard, and urged him to take the title of dictator, and lead them
to the relief of the city, but he refused to do so till legally appointed
by the Romans in the capitol. It seemed impossible for a messenger
to pass into the citadel, surrounded as it was by enemies. However,
a young man named Pontius Cominius readily undertook the fearful
task. Having dressed himself in mean attire, under which he con-
cealed large pieces of cork, he traveled all day, and reached the Tiber
about dusk. There he took off his clothes, wrapped them around his

 

Questions —S2 Of the slaughter of the senators, Of the further carnage. What else did
the Gauls do? 83, In what effort were the Gauls foiled? Deseribe the then condition of
Rome. In this emergency what was the conduct of Camillus? 84. Who was Pontius Co-
minius? Deseribe the part he tuok in the drama,
B. 0. 390.] THE CAPITOL SAVED. 347

head, laid himself down upon his cork buoys, and easily swam across
to the city.

85. The siege had now lasted more than six months; the provisions
of the garrison were almost exhausted; the soldiers dispirited with
continual fatigue; and the sentinel, as he walked his weary round,
saw nothing within but haggard, despairing countenances, and nothing
without but the ruins of his loved city. Suddenly his attention was
arrested by the sight of a man climbing up the steep rock, and making
his way directly toward him. He hailed the strange intruder, and
received a reply in the native Latin. This was Pontius Cominius,
bringing tidings to the besieged. The old and the young gathered
around with tearful interest while he told them of the efforts their
brethren were making for their relief, and assured them that the
generous Camillus was levying an army, and only waited for the order
of the senate to enter the field and give the barbarians battle. The
small portion of the senate that remained immediately issued a decree,
by which Camillus was made dictator; and the messenger, having
received assurance that they would sustain the siege to the last extre-
mity, returned the way he came, and, escaping all the dangers of his
perilous route, arrived at Veii in safety.

86. A few days after, Brennus discovered the tracks which Comi-
nius had made in climbing to the citadel. In the evening he assem-
bled the lightest and most active of his troops, and offered the highest
rewards to those who would reach the top by the same path. A num-
ber readily undertook the dangerous enterprise, and before midnight
a band of the bravest had scaled the precipitous steep, and stood upon
the very wall. The sentinel was fast asleep; the dogs within gave no
signal, and the enemy stealthily advanced to the surprise, when the
Romans were awakened by the gabbling of some sacred geese kept in
the temple of Juno. The besieged awoke at once to a sense of their
danger, and each, snatching the weapon he could most readily find,
ran to oppose the assailants. Manlius, a patrician, was the first who
inspired courage by his dauntless bravery. He encountered two Gauls
at once, killed one with his sword, and dashed the other down the
precipice; then, standing upon the rampart, he shouted to his fellows,
and soon the summit was cleared of the enemy. Having thus escaped
this imminent danger, they threw the sleepy sentinel down the rock
after the vanquished foe, and decreed to Manlius all they had to bestow

 

Questions.—85. How were the tidings of Pontius Cominius received? What afflictions
were still pressing upon the besieged? What action was taken by the portion of the Ro-
man senate remaining in the capitol? 86, What discovery did Brennus make ? What offer
did he make? How was it responded to? Give an account of what followed.
348 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [B. ©. 390
—the allowance of each man for one day—which was only a half a
pound of bread and a small draught of water. =

87. From this time the Gauls began to lose courage. Provisions
were scarce; they could not forage for fear of Camillus; and the
besieged, though starving, threw over several loaves into their camp,
to convince them that they had no fear of famine. Sickness, too,
which took its rise from the unhealthiness of an atmosphere filled
with ashes, and corrupted by the effluvia of dead bodies, destroyed
many of their bravest men, and depressed the spirits of the remainder.
The Romans, equally in want, and unable to hear any thing of Camil-
lus, began to incline toward a treaty. The advanced guards com-
menced conversation, and proposals of accommodation soon passed
between them. It was agreed that the Romans should pay the Gauls
one thousand pounds of gold ($225,000), and that the Gauls should
immediately quit the city and its territories. The conditions having
been confirmed by an oath on each side, the gold was brought out,
but while they were weighing it, the Gauls kicked the beam. The
Romans expressing their resentment, Brennus, in a contemptuous
manner, threw his sword, belt and all, into the scale, and when one
inquired what that meant, ‘‘ What should it mean,” said he, “ but woe
to the conquered?”

88. Some of the Romans were highly incensed, and talked of taking
away their gold; others contended that the indignity lay not in pay-
ing more than was due, but in paying any thing. The dispute was
rapidly progressing to blows, when a new speaker suddenly appeared
upon the stage. This was Camillus. At the head of a large army, he
had silently entered the gates, and sending the main body through the
principal streets, marched rapidly himself, with a select band, to the
scene of debate. The Romans instantly gave way, and received the
dictator with respect and silence. He took the gold out of the scales,
and giving it to the lictors, with an air of authority, ordered the Gauls
to be gone, telling them ‘it was the custom of the Romans to ransom
their country, not with gold, but with iron;” adding, “It is I, only,
that can make peace, as the dictator of Rome, and my sword alone
shall purchase it.’* A skirmish ensued, but the Gauls retreated to
their camp, and in the night Brennus drew his forces out of the city,

* Many contend that the Gauls kept their gold, and left Rome voluntarily.

 

Questions.—8T. Tow were the Ganls affected? What sufferings did they undergo?
What accommodations wero prepared? In what manner was the pledge rejected? 88. Tp
this crisis who came to the relief of the Romans? State how. Give an account of the skir
mish and battle that followed. What took place in process of time?
B.C. 384.] ROME REBUILT. 349

and pitched his teat eight miles distant, on the Gabian road. Here a
battle was fought, in which the Gauls were completely routed ; and in
process of time the Roman territories were entirely cleared of the
formidable invaders, who had occupied them from the ides of July to
the ides of February.

89. Rome Repurtr.—The refugees returned with their wives and
children; the famishing denizens of the capitol met them with teara
of joy; and the priests and vestals brought back the holy things into
the city. But there were no houses for the people to dwell in, no
temples to receive the venerated images; the tribunes, who main-
tained a respectful demeanor while the Gauls were in sight, began
again to urge the removal to Veii; and so fearful were the senate of
this event, that they would not permit Camillus to lay down the office
of dictator, though no person had ever before held it more than six
months. The people, affected by a heartless despondency, urged that
they had no materials for building, and no means of purchasing any;
that their bodies were weak, and their strength insufficient to patch
up the ruins of a deserted city, while Veii stood entire, and ready to
receive them.

90. The senate, on their part, showed them the monuments and
tombs of their ancestors, and begged them to remember the holy
places consecrated by Romulus and Numa. They reminded them of
the predictions that Rome was to be the head of Italy, and they urged
the disgrace it would be, to extinguish again the sacred fire which the
vestals had lighted since the war. Camillus, after exerting all his elo-
quence in favor of his native country, called upon the oldest senator
to give his opinion. Just then a centurion, passing the house with the
day-guard, called out to the ensign ‘to stop, and set up his standard
there, for that was the best place to stay in.” The senator, who had
opened his mouth to speak, thanked the gods for this seasonable omen;
and the others, equally affected by superstition, decided that Rome
should be their future residence. The people acquiesced, and all
hands were speedily united in the work of rebuilding walls, temples,
and dwellings.

91. Bo. 884.—The bravery of Manlius in defending the capitol did
not go unrewarded. The Romans erected a house for him near’ the
place where he so distinguished himself, and appointed him a public
fund for his support. But his ambition was only increased by an

 

Questions.—89. What difficulties attended the rebuilding of Rome? 90, What did the
senate do on their part? What Camillus? What happened just then? What was the
effect? 91. How was Manlius rewarded? How did he then act?
B00 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [B. c. 367

acknowledgment of his merits. He labored to ingratiate himself with
the populace, paid their debts, and railed at the patricians. He talked
about a division of land among the people; insinuated that there
should be no distinction of rank in the state. and was always attended
by a crowd, whom he had made his very dear friends by repeated
gifts. To counteract the effect of his seditious speeches, the senate
proposed Camillus for military tribune; and no sooner was he installed
in office, than he appointed Manlius a day to answer for his crime.
Manlius made no defense, but pointed silently to the capitol, as if to
remind the people of his contest with the Gauls. Camillus, perceiv-
ing the effect of this upon the multitude, had him taken to the Pete-
line grove, and there, being out of sight of the scene of his exploits,
the people condemned him to be thrown from the Tarpeian rock.

92. Tue Licty1an Law.—Buat this sacrifice did not give quiet to
Rome. Many of the plebeians, during the distresses of their country,
had acquired large fortanes, and were desirous to add to them a share
of the honors of Rome. Fabius Ambustus had married his eldest
daughter to Sulpicius, a rich patrician, and the youngest to an ambi-
tious plebeian, named Licinius Stolo. It happened one day, when the
wife of Stolo was visiting at the house of her sister, that Sulpicius
came home from the forum, and his lictors with the staves of their
fasces thundered at the door, She was greatly frightened, but her
sister langhed at her as one lamentably ignorant of high life. This
ridicule she could not endure, and from mortification and envy fell
into a settled melancholy. The father and husband, having been made
acquainted with the cause of her distress, assured her that her state
should soon be made equal to that of her sister; and from that time
Ambustus and Stolo exerted themselves in putting forward a plebeian
for consul. To give popularity to the proposal, they coupled with it
the Agrarian law.

93. The contests which those hated measures excited were so great,
that for five years no supreme magistrates were chosen, the tribunes
and ediles administering the government with as much moderation
as the anarchy of the times would permit. Then they chose military
tribunes two years; then made Camillus dictator; but this excellent
man, finding the people resolyed upon a plebeian consul, soon resigned
his office; the senate created another, but he did nothing more remark-
able than making Stolo master of the horse, an office which no plebeian

 

Questions—91, What ambitious views destroyed him? What was done to counteract
the effect of his speeches? What then followed to Manlius? 92, 93. 94. Relate the story of

Scolo’s wife and her sister. What first gaye existence tu the Licinian law? Relate the
blory of Stolo’s success,
B. 6, 343.] THE SAMNITE WAR. 351

had before held. Stolo also gained another point, which, though it
did not bring his wife into the higher ranks, had a tendency to bring
the higher ranks down to her. He secured the passage of a law* for-
bidding any person to own more than 500 acres of land; but, unfor-
tunately, having afterwards possessed himself of 1,000, he was punished
by his own edict. In this manner the flame of contention continued
to burn, till it threatened to destroy all the virtue and patriotisin of
Rome; and so far was the impudence of the people carried, that, on
one occasion, the tribunes sent lictors to take Camillus off the public
tribunal, where he sat dispensing justice, and carry him to prison.

94. The patricians who stood around boldly repulsed the lictors,
but the plebeians cried out, “Down with him, down with him.”
Camillus, perceiving that the people were determined upon having a
consul, called the senators into a neighboring temple, and entreated
them to give peace to the city by their compliance; then, turning his
face to the capitol, he vowed to build a temple to Concord in case lie
saw tranquillity restored. In consequence of his advice, a law was
passed that one of the consuls should be a patrician and one a plebeian ;
and Licinius Stolo having been duly elected to this office, his wife
enjoyed the supreme felicity of hearing her husband’s lictors thunder
at the door. Thus Camillus, having spent a long life in the service of
his country (being now above eighty), laid down his dictatorship, and
commenced the more peaceful occupation of superintending the erec-
tion of the temple of Concord, built by a vote of the people, on a spot
in the forum, fronting the place of assembly. He was five times dic-
tator, five times military tribune, had the honor of four triumphs, and
was styled ‘The second founder of Rome.’ He died the next year,
of pestilence, which carried off a prodigious number of the inhabitants,{
B. c. 361.

95. Samyite War.—The Romans having triumphed over the Sa-
bines, the Etrurians, the Latins, the Equii, and Volscii, began to look
for greater conquests. About one hundred miles east of their city lived
the Samnites, a hardy nation, descended from the Sabines, who pos-
sessed a large tract of country, were strong in nuinbers and discipline,

* This law was called the Licinian law, from ZLicinius Stolo.

t+ About this time a gulf was opened in the forum, which the angurs declared would never
close till the most precious things in Rome were thrown into it. Quintius Curtius, a young
Roman of great bravery, declaring that nothing was more truly valuable than patriotisio

and military virtue, leaped into it, horse and all; upun which, says the histurian, the gulf
closed immediately, and Curtius was never seen again.

 

Questions.—94, What temple was built by Camillus? What was he called?) Why was
he so called? In what year did he die® How old was be then? 95. What success led the
Romans to desire greater conquest?
3852 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. |B. c. 310

and linked with confederated states. Some incursions sie eae
panians offered a pretext for a war, which lasted 71 searsy o1 anes
the Romans, finally, with the Grecian states. The Latins also TEND ted,
and engaged with the Samnites. As the Romans were originally
descended from this people, spoke the same language, and wore a
similar dress, great care was necessary to prevent confusion in the
battle; and Manlius Torquatus issued orders that no Roman should
leave the ranks upon any provocation, under penalty of certain death.
With these injunctions both armies were drawn ont in array, and
ready to begin, when the general of the Latin cavalry pushed out from
his lines, and challenged any knight in the Roman army to single
combat.

96. There was a general pause, no soldier daring to disobey orders,
till Titus Manlius, the consul’s own son, burning with shame to see
the whole Roman army standing as if intimidated, rode out into the
open space, encounteréd the challenger, killed him, stripped him of
bis armor, and returned amid the shouts of his companions. Yet,
doubtful of his reception from his father, he advanced with a modest
air, and laid the spoils at his feet. He was made sensible of his error
when the stern general, turning away, ordered him to be led forth in
presence of the whole army. Then, addressing him with a firm voice,
though the tears streamed down his cheeks, ‘‘ Titus Manlius,” said the
afflicted parent, ‘tas thou hast regarded neither the dignity of the
consulship nor the command of thy father, as thou hast destroyed
military discipline and set a pattern of disobedience by thy example,
thou hast reduced me to the deplorable extremity of sacriflcing my son
or my country. But let us not hesitate in this dreadful alternative.
Thou thyself wilt not refuse to die, when tly country is to reap the
reward of thy sufferings. Go, lictor, bind him, and let his death be
our future example.”

97. The whole army remained silent with horror while the inflexi-
ble father pronounced this sentence; but when they saw the head of
their young champion rolling in the dust, their execrations and groans
filled the air. Their indignation found vent upon the enemy ; the
battle was joined with inconceivable fury. and victory seemed equally
balanced for a long time. The augurs had declured that if any part
of the Roman army should be distressed, the commander of that por-
tion must devote himself to his country. Manlius commanded the
right wing, and Decius the left. The latter, finding his men overborne

 

Questions, —9, 96, What pretext for war was given them? What mela
related of Titus Manlins? 97. low was the futher’s sentence rece
What circumstance finally gave victory *o Rome?

neholy story ig
ived by the soldiers?
B.C. 281] PYRRHUS SHIPWRECKED. 353

by numbers, clothed himself in a long robe, covered his head, stretched
forward his arms, and, standing upon a javelin, devoted himself to the
celestial and infernal gods for the safety of Rome. Then, arming
himself and mounting on horseback, he drove furiously into the
enemy, carrying terror and consternation wherever he went, till he
fell, covered with wounds. The Romans considered his death a cor
tain presage of victory; and the Latins, equally superstitious, fled ir
dismay.

98. This was the last battle of consequence that the Latins eve
fought with the Romans. They concluded a peace upon the hardest
conditions, and were brought into entire submission. The remainder
of this century was spent in the Samnite war. Each party suffered
severe defeats; several truces were made and broken, and many brave
men were killed in battle. At one time a whole Roman army was
taken prisoners at the Caudine Forks, and compelled to pass under
the yoke, a disgrace which was inflicted in turn upon the Samnites.

99. Pyrrovus Derearep.—First anp Szconp Punio Wars.—zs. o.
300.—The Samnites alone could not have sustained so long a con-
test with the Roman power. The neighboring states assisted with all
their forces. Among others, the Tarentines entered the lists, but,
finding in the sequel that they had drawn an implacable enemy upon
themselves, they sent messengers across the narrow sea which separated
them from Epirus, to entreat the assistance of Pyrrhus, then the most
renowned warrior of Greece.

100. 8. c. 281.—Pyrrhus, who had always been ambitious to rival
Alexander in the extent of his conquests, gladly accepted the call. He
left the shores of Epirus with 20,000 foot, 3,000 horse, and 20 ele-
phants. A great tempest agitated the Ionian Sea during his passage.
The wind, as if in league with the Romans, drove a great part of his
vessels a wreck, and prevented his landing, till at last he was com-
pelled to leap into the sea and swim ashore. He found the Tarentines
occupied with the pleasures of bathing, feasting, and dancing, quite
willing that he should fight their battles and earn the fame he had
come so far to gain. The measures he took to inspire a more warlike
spirit were not the most agreeable to them, and many left the city, as
they said, to escape slavery.

101. In the midst of these flattering prospects, he received intelli
gence that the Roman consul, Leevinus, was coming against him with

 

Questions.—98, How was the remainder of the century empwyed? What was gcing on
in Greece at that time? 99, What difficulties commenced with the third cefitury BC?
100. What eall did Pyrrhus accept? Ifow large was the furee which he had? £% te the
difticulties he encountered. °
854 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [B. c. 280

a great army. Though all the Samnite cities had not yet joined his
standard, nor all his own forces arrived, yet, looking upon it as a dis-
grace to sit still, he took the field with what troops he had, first send-
ing proposals to the Romans to act as umpire between them and the
Tarentines. To this message Leevinus answered, “That the Romans
neither accepted Pyrrhus as a mediator, nor feared him as an enemy.”
War being thus determined, both armies pitched their tents in sight
of each other upon the opposite banks of the river Lyris. The Roman
consul, with the impetuosity of inexperience, gave orders for fording
the river; and the Grecian, as might be expected, stationed Ins troops
in such a manner as to oppose the attempt. In spite of the efforts of
the Thessalian cavalry and Epirean foot, the Roman legions effected
their purpose, gained the southern bank of the river, and formed in
good order in face of the enemy.

102. The envagement then became general, and victory was long in
suspense, The Romans had seven times repulsed the enemy, and had
been seven times themselves driven back, when Pyrrhus sent his ele-
phants into the midst of the battle. The Romans, who had never
before seen creatures of such magnitude, were terrified by their fierce-
ness, and by the castles upon their backs, filled with armed men. The
horses shared in the general consternation, and, throwing their riders,
fled snorting from the scene of terror. The rout became general. A
dreadful slaughter of the Romans ensued; 15,000 were killed, and
1,800 taken prisoners.

103. The conquerors were also severe sufferers, and Pyrrhus was
heard to remark, ‘Ove such vietury more, and I am undone.” Next
day he entered the deserted Roman camp. As he gazed upon the
bodies of the dead, and marked the noble resolution still visible upon
their countenances, he exclaimed, “O, with what ease could I conquer
the world, had I the Romans for soldiers, or had they me for their
king.” The Samnites and Luecanians joined him after this battle, so
that with a recruited army he advanced within thirty-seven miles of
Rome. But the Romans, though defeated, were still unconquered.
They used all diligence in levying forces and forming alliances, and
never was there a time when their military and patriotic virtues shone
with clearer luster.

104. Tue Orator’s Sucorss.—Pyrrhus, who boasted that he had
won more cities by the eloquence of Cineas than by the force of arms,

 

Questions.—101, Give the preliminaries of the first battle between Pyrrhus and the Ro-
mans. 102, Give an account of the battle. 103. What were the frnits of sach a victory ?
What then was the condition of Rome? What efforts did the Rumaus make? ,
sc. 280.] COUNSEL OF APPiUS CLAUDIUS. 855

sent his famous orator to negotiate a peace. The crafty Grecian,
accustomed to the corrupt bribery which had wrought so many revo-
Intions in his own country, took with him splendid presents, not only
for the senators, but for their wives. The Roman matrons, however,
refused his gifts, saying they would accept his presents when the senate
had decided to accept his friendship. A public audience was granted,
and the disciple of Demosthenes used all his eloquence to persuade the
Romans to enter into a treaty with Pyrrhus, which should secure
safety for the Tarentines. Some inclined to peace, urging that they
had lost-one great battle, and had still greater disasters to expect. An
illustrious Roman, named Appias Clandius, who, on account of his
great age and the loss of his sight, had retired from public business,
ordered his servants to carry him in his chair to the senate-house. A
respectful silence ensued upon his appearance, and all listened with
the deepest interest, while he delivered his sentiments in the following
terms :—

105. “ Hitherto, I have regarded my blindness as a misfortune, but
now, Romans, I wish I had been as deafas I am blind, for then I
should not have heard of your shameful counsels, so ruinous to the
glory of Rome. Where now are your speeches; so much echoed about
the world, that if Alexander the Great had come into Italy when we
were young, and our fathers in the vigor of their age, he would not
now be celebrated as invincible, but, either by his flight or his fall,
would have added to the glory of Rome. You now show the vanity
and folly of that boast, while you dread that very people who were
ever a prey to the Macedonians, and tremble at the name of Pyrrhus,
who has all his life been paying his court to one of the guards of that
Alexander. Do not expect to get rid of him by making an alliance
with him. That step will only open a door to many invaders, for who
is there that will not despise you, and think you an easy conquest, if
Pyrrhus not only escapes unpunished for his insolence, but gains the
Tarentines and Samnites, as a reward for insulting the Romans?”

106. As soon as Appius had done speaking, the senate voted unani-
ously for the war, and dismissed Cineas with this answer: ‘* That
when Pyrrhus had quitted Italy, they would enter upon a treaty of
friendship and alliance with him, if he desired it; bat while he con-
tinued there in a hostile-manner, they would prosecute the war against
him with all their force, though he should have defeated a thousand

 

Questions.—104, 109, 106, By what means did Pyrrhus undertake to neyutinte a peace?
How were his gifts received by the Roman matrons? Who was Appius Claudius? What
order did he give? Who decided the question of peace or war? What were the arguments
of Appius Clandius? With what answer was Cineas dismisoud ?
356 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [B® 279

Levinuses.” Cineas made a faithful report of all he saw in Rome to

Pyrrhus. He said, that ‘the senate appeared to him like an assembly
of kings; and as to the people, he was afraid that he had to do with a
Lernwan hydra.” But the character of the Romans was exhibited in
a position still more elevated when Fabricius, an ancient senator, a
pattern of cheerful poverty and virtue (who, though formerly a Cons
sul, had no plate in his house but a silver cup, the bottom of which
was horn), came to treat with Pyrrhus upon exchange of prisoners.

107. Pyrrhus received him with great distinction, and privately
begged him to accept of a large sam in gold, as a pledge of friendship
and hospitality. Fabricius refused the presents. Pyrrhus pressed
him no further, but the next day he ordered an elephant to be armed,
and placed behind a curtain. Upon a concerted signal the huge ani-
mal raised his trunk over the venerable warrior’s head, and used all
his arts to intimidate him. Fabricius, without being the least discom-
posed, said to Pyrrhus, smiling, ‘‘ Neither your gold yesterday, nor
your beast to-day, has made any impression upon me.” Pyrrhus,
charmed with the equanimity of a barbarian who had never learned
philosophy, granted him all the prisoners without ransom, on the
assurance of Fabricius that they should be returned in case of a
renewal of the war.

108. Tur Seconp Barriz.—s. 0. 279.—By this time, the Romans
were ready again to take the field against the Grecians. Both armies
met near Asculum, being about 40,000 strong. The Romans fought
with more than common valor, but the Grecian phalanx stood immov-
able amidst the desperate slaughter; and the elephants, pressing into
the midst of the legion, again decided the victory in favor of the king.
The Romans left 6,000 men dead upon the field, nor had Pyrrhus
great reason to boast of his triumph; 4,000 of his soldiers were slain,
including officers, and friends who had followed him from Greece; so
that when one congratulated him upon his victory, he exclaimed
again, “One such triumph more, and I am undone.’’ This battle
finished the campaign, and both parties retired into winter quarters.
The next spring, Pyrrhus having received new supplies from home,
and the Romans having made Fabricius consul, two armies, equal to
those formerly victors and vanquished, were led into the field.

109. While they were approaching, a letter was brought to Fabri-
cius from the king’s physician, in which the writer offered, for a suit-

 

Questions.—106, 107. What report did Cineas make? What purity of patriotism was
exhibitcd by Fabricius? What was its effect upon Pyrrhus? 108. Describe the second
battle. In what condition did the armies meet the following spring?
B.C. 279)] END OF THE SAMNITE WAR. 257

able reward, to take his master off by poison, and thus rid the Romans
of their most powerful enemy. Fabricius, indignant at the base pro-
posal, sent the letter to Pyrrhus, telling him that he had chosen men
of virtue and honor for enemies, and knaves and villains for friends.
“ Admirable Fabricius,” cried Pyrrhus, at this new proof of his mag-
nanimity, ‘‘it would be as easy to turn the sun from its course, as thee
from the paths of honor.” THe punished the physician as he de-
served, returned all his prisoners without ransom, and again desired
peace.

110. The senate, not to be outdone, sent back the same number of
captive Samnites and Tarentines, but refused peace, except on the
former condition. Pyrrhus was divided between shame and necessity.
Tle was ashained to leave the war unfinished, and he saw how hopeless
was the prospect of subduing the Romans. An entreaty of the Sici-
tians for assistance against the Carthaginians relieved his embarrass-
ment. He placed a garrison in Tarentum, and embarked with all his
forces for that island; and the Romans, profiting by his absence, car-
ried ou the war with vigor for two years. At the end of this time
Pyrrhus returned, and another battle with the Romans ensued.

111. Tue Tairp Barrrie.—Pyrrhus, finding the balance turning
against him, had recourse once more to his elephants. But for these
the Romans were now prepared. Waving ascertained that fire was the
most effectual weapon against the huge creatures, they threw burning
balls of flax and rosin against them, and drove them, mad with terror,
back upon their own ranks. Pyrrhus in vain attempted to stop the
flight and slaughter of his men; the panic was general. Ue lost in
that disastrous affair 23,000 of his best troops, and his camp was also
taken. This last conquest was of the greatest service to the Romans.
The Grecian method of encampment became thenceforth their own,
and many of their succeeding victories were the direct result of the
lessons they lad learned of the unfortunate Epirots.

112. Pyrrhus returned to Tarentum. Finding it impossible to raise
another army among the disheartened Samnites, lie privately embarked,
and returned to Epirus with the remains of his shattered forces, leav-
ing a garrison in Tarentum, merely to save appearances. This garri-
son lorded it so inhumanly over the poor luxurious Tarentines that
they surrendered; and thus ended the Samnite war, after continuing

 

Questions.—109, How did Fabrieius treat the offer of the king’s physician? What excla-
mation burst from the lips of Pyrrhus? 110. How did Fabricins’s conduct influence his
actions? How long before «nother battle was fought with Pyrrhus? 111. Describe the thir¢
little. Of what service was the conquest to the Romans? 112. What movements did
Pyrruus tucn make? By what act did the Samnite war end? How long had it continued!
358 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME, [B. c. 264.

Tl years. The Ronan commonwealth was at this time rich. There
were 200,000 citizens capable of bearing arms; and such was their
renown abroad, that Ptolemy Philadelphus sent embassadors to con-
gratulate them upon their success, and entreat their alliance.

113. First Puxtot War.—We come now to consider Rome in a
most interesting period of her history; when, venturing beyond the
bounds of Italy, she stretched her arms across the sea, and began the
conquest of other lands. About 100 years before the foundation of
Rome, Dido, sister of Pyginalion, king of Tyre, fled from the tyranny
of her brother, with a select band of followers, and landed in Africa,
near the spot where Tunis now stands. There a city was founded,
which extended its commerce along the shores of the Mediterranean,
and became one of the richést and most powerful cities in the world.
Carthage also possessed, in the opinion of Aristotle, one of the most
perfect governments of antiquity. At the time of the Panic wars she
had under her dominion 300 of the smaller citics of ,Africa, with their
territories, The expulsion of Pyrrhus from Italy—the subjugation of
the Samnites and Tarentines—had made the Romans masters of the
garden of Europe. Sicily was their granary, but, not content with
the supplies of corn annually received, they secretly desired to possess
the island itself, the more, perhaps, because Carthage claimed soine
of its cities, and sent ler fleets unquestioned into the bay of Tarentuin
and up the Adriatic.

114. A trifle could serve as a pretext for declaring war when both
parties were predisposed for the contest, and that trifle was found in
Sicily. Liero, king of Syracuse, making war upon the Mamertines,
entreated the aid of Carthage; and the Mamertines, tu escape impend-
iny ruin, threw themselves upon tlie protection of the Romans. The
Romans caine to the point at once, and boldly declared war against
Carthage. But a serious difficulty presented itself in the outset. The
Carthaginians were the greatest mariners in the world. The Romans
had never been out of sight of land. The genius of Rome, however,
patiently leveled every obstacle in its way to empire. A Carthaginian
vessel was driven ashore upon the coast of Italy. The Romans imme-
diately set about imitating this ship, and in two months had 120
galleys ready for sea. Men long accustomed to husbandry alone now

* Called “ Punic,” from Phenicia, the parent state.

 

Questions.—112, What then was the condition of the Roman commonweaith? Who sent
embassadors? To whom were they sent? For what parpose were they sent? 115, 114.
What war do we next come to? What was the origin of Carthage? What is said of ita
gevernment? What gave rise to the frst Punie war? What difliculty was oyercome by a
seeming acci lent?

  
B. 0. 256 J FIRST PUNIC WAR. 359

became sailors, and committed themselves to the sea in their clumsy
fleet.

115. The consul Duillius, though ignorant of maritime affairs, in-
vented an instrument which, upon an impulse of two ships, kept them
grappled together, so that by this means the Romans had an oppor-
tunity of engaging their enemies hand to land. When the rival fleets
met, he gained the victory by the superior courage of his soldiers, and
took fitty of the enemy’s ships. This unexpected success so gratified
the senate that they decreed Duillius a signal triumph, and ordered
that whenever he went out to supper a band of music should attend
him. The contest went on by land in Sicily, iu the mean time, with
varying success; victory sometimes declaring for the Carthaginians,
and sometimes for the Romans. The latter took Agrigentum in
Sicily, Alberia in Corsica, and the islands of Lipari and Malta.

116. Expepition to Arrioa.—IDnt these trifling successes could not
satisfy the ambition of the Romans. The conquest of Sicily they saw
was only to be obtained by humbling the power of Carthage at home.
They decided, therefore, to carry the war into Africa. A fleet of
500 sail was fitted out, manned with 140,000 men, and Regulus and
Manlius were created consuls to corduct the expedition. This arma-
ment, the greatest that had ever left an Italian port, was met by the
Carthaginians with a fleet as powerful, manned by sadlors rather than
soldiers, The Carthaginians managed their vessels with the greatest
skill, and seeined at first to have the advantage; but when the ships
came in close contact the Romans prevailed; the enemy’s fleet was
dispersed, and 54 ships were taken. No further obstacle intervening,
the consuls made a descent upon the coast of Africa, captured a Car-
thaginian city, and took 20,000 prisoners. Soon after, Manlius was
recalled to superintend the Sicilian war, and Regulus directed to con-
tinue his conquests in Africa, and as his term was nearly expired be
was made general, with the title of Proconsul.

117. At first, Regulus was successful in his contests with the Car-
thaginians. He defeated them in a pitched battle, and filled the land
with such terror of the Roman name, that 80 towns submitted to his
arms. The Numidians united with him, and ravaged the lands of Car-
thage; the peasants fled on every side ty the city, and filled it with

 

Questions —115. Who wus Duillius? Whatinstrument did he invent te aid the Romans?
Give an account of the naval contest. How was Duillias rewarded? What towns a.d
islands did the Romans afterward take? 116. In what manner did these trifling sucevsses
affect the Romans? What did they consider necessary in order to humble Carthage? What
expedition was sent? Give an account of the naval battle that occarred. What further
success did the Romans have? Why was Manlius reca‘led? ‘To what pousitivn was Regulus
appointed? 117. Give an account uf the snecesses of Legulus.

 
360 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [B. ¢. 279

despairing cries for bread. The Carthaginians, as a Jast resort, sent
to the Lacedemonians for help, offering to give their general the com-
mand of the army. To provide also for the worst, they dispatched
some of their principal men to Regulus, to beg a peace. This noble
old general had long wished to return to his native country. Ife had
heard that his steward was dead; that his servant had stolen all his
instruments of husbandry; that his farm of seven acres lay unculti-
vated; and that his children were in danger of suffering actual want.
All his personal feelings were therefore in favor of peace; yet, con-
sidering the duty he owed his country as paramount to all others, he
dictated such terms as he knew the Carthaginians would refuse.

118, The treaty was consequently broken off, and both parties pre-
pared for another engagement. Xanthippus, the Lacedemonian gene-
ral, arrived in due season; and by a skillful disposition of his forces,
and the aid of his elephants, succeeded in defeating the enemies of
Carthage. The Roman army was almost entirely destroyed, and Regu-
lus was taken prisoner.* Nor was the defeat of their army, and the
capture of Regulus, the only misfortune that befell the Romans. They
lost Agrigentum; their whole fleet perished in a storm; they built
another, which shared the sgme fate; they built yet another, which
the mariners drove upon quicksands; and, finally, they gave up for a
time all hopes of rivaling Carthage by sea. They however continued
their efforts by land, till they gained the greater part of Sicily.

119. Ruoeurus.—The Carthaginians, exhausted by the length of the
war, determined to send embassadors to Rome, to negotiate a peace,
accompanied by Regulus, whom they had now kept in prison four
years. A promise was exacted from him, that he would return in
case the senate did not accept of their offers, and he was given to
understand that his life depended upon the success of his mission.
When the venerable general approached the city, his friends came out
to meet and conduct him home; but Regulus refused, with settled
melancholy, to enter the gates, saying that he was but a slave to the
Carthaginians, and unfit to partake in the liberal honors of his country.
The senate asseinbled without the walls, to give audience to the em-

* Roman historians say that the Carthaginians attempted to assassinate Xanothippns,
that he might not take the honor of this victory away from them.

Questions.—11i. What aid did the Carthaginians solicit? What private feelings did
Regulus surrender to his patriotism? 118. Who aided to defeat the Romans? (Give an
account of the battle that then oecurred, What is said of LKesulus? What evils to the
Romans followed in rapid succession? What advantage did they gain in Sicily? 119.
Why did the Carthaginians again make offers of peace? To what place did they send em-
bassulors ? Who accompanied the embassadors? Under what conditions was Reyulus sent!
in what manuer were they reccived by the Roman senate ? :
B. 0. 241.] FIRST PUNIC WAR. 261

bassadors, and. Regulus opened his commission, as directed by the Car-
thaginians. The senate, wearied with an eight years’ war, were
willing to accede to almost any proposals which would terminate it
with honor; nor was it a slight consideration with them, that peace
would liberate a brave old general, whoin all the people revered and
loved.

120. Regulus, as one of the senate, had also the privilege of giving -
his opinion. When he came to speak, to the surprise of all, he insisted
upon continuing the war. He assured the Romans that the Gartha-
ginians could not hold out much longer; he said the people were
harassed out with fatigues, and the nobles with contention; and he
supported his opinion by the consideration so weighty with the Romans,
that their ancestors had never made peace till they were victorious.
Advice so unexpected and magnanimous filled every one with admira-
tion. The senate could not deny the justice of his remarks; every
fecling of patriotism enforced the counsels of Regulus; and every sen-
timent of humanity cried out against consizuing the noble captive to
torture and death. But Regulus himself relieved their embarrassment
by breaking off the treaty, and rising fo return to his bonds.

121. It was in vain that the senate and all his dearest friends
entreated him to stay; in vain his wife and children begged permis-
sion once nore to embrace him; he persisted in keeping his promise;
nor would he see his friends, lest their despair should move his resolu-
tion. Without taking leave of those he should never again behold, he
departed with the embassadors for Africa. Nothing could equal the
disappointment and fury of the Carthaginians when informed by. their
deputies of the part Regulus had taken, and the intlzence he had
exerted against them. The utmost ingenuity of savage cruelty was
exerted to torture him, In the darkness of his prison, his eyelids
were cut off, and then he was brought out and exposed to the burning
rays of a tropical sun. Finally, le was put into a barrel stuck full of
nails, that pointed inwards, and left to die of agony.

122. Tue Treary.—DBoth sides now took up arms with more than
furmer animosity. The Romans, though so often wrecked, once more
fitted out a fleet to dispute with Carthage the empire of the sea. In
this effort they were again unsuccessful, and finally became so dis-
couraged by the disasters they sutfered from winds and waves, that
for seven years they abstained from all naval expeditions. But their

 

Questions.—120, 121. What was the advice of Regulus? What course did he then take?
What is said of the consequent disappointment and fury of the Carthaginians? What was
the fate of Regulus? 122. How was the war then prosceuted? What is said of the next
coutest on the sea? Of its effeets upon the Romans?

16
362 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [B. o. 241

inflexible spirits could not be broken. In seven years the boys had
become men, and the memory of storms and tempests had ceased to
intimidate the former mariners. Another fleet was constructed, and
by two splendid victories their fortunes were retrieved, and the power
of Carthage so humbled at sea, that she was forced to conclude a
pence on the yery terms which she had before refused to Regulus.
‘Vheso were, that the Carthaginians should lay down 1,000 talents of
silver to defray the expense of the war; that they should pay 2,200
more in ten years’ tirme; that they should quit Sicily and the adjacent
islands; that they should never make war against the allies of Rome,
or come with any vessels of war within the Roman dominions; and
that all Roman prisoners and deserters should be delivered up without
ransom. To these hard conditions the Carthaginians subscribed; and
thus ended the first Punic war, which had lasted 24 years.

123. Peack,x—War wirn THE Gavrs.—This war being closed, a
profound peace ensued, in which the temple of Janus was shut for the
second time since the foundation of the city. The Romans now
turned their thoughts to dowestic improvement. They began to have
a relish for poetry. Dramas were acted upon the’ Grecian model;
elegiac, pastoral, and didactic compositions assumed new beanties in
the Latin tongue, und satire was invented by Lucilius. The Gauls,
having again crossed the Apeninnes, entered Etruria, and wasted all
with fire and sword, till they came within about three days’ journey
of Rome.* The celebrated Marcellus, afterwards culled ‘The Sword
of Rome,” was appointed to lead forth the army against these in-
vaders.

124. Viridomarus, king of the Gauls, clothed in armor set off with
gold and silver, rode out on horseback, and challenged the Roman
eeneral to single combat. Marcellus, who never refused a challenge,
aor ever failed of killing the challenger, spurred on his horse to the
-vntest, vowing to consecrate the armor of the barbarian to Jupiter.
With a mighty stroke of his spear he pierced the breastplate of the

_ Gaul, and with two or three more blows dispatched hin. The two

* The Romans, who still retained the remeinbranve of the sufferings of their city from
these barourians, made extraordinary preparations to meet them. They applied ‘to tho
tibyls’ books for counsel, and, in compliance with the oracles, buried alive two Greeks (a
than and a Woman), and two Gauls also, in the beast market,

Questions—122. Of the two victories gained by the Homans? Of the terms of peace
exacted by Rome? Ifow many years had the Punic war lasted? 123, 124. During the
peace that followed, what advancements were made in literature and science ? What ditli-
culty with the Ganls diverted the attention of the Romans? Who was appointed to lead
the Roman sems 2? Who was king of the Gauls? Deseribe the encounier between the twe
Ja Toonages,
Bc. 218.] SECOND PUNIC WAR. ties

Ole

armies then met, and a prodigious slaughter of the Gauls ensued; till,
entirely beaten, they sued fur peace. The triumph of Marcellus was
one of the most splendid ever seen. The general, having eut the
trunk of an oak into the form of a trophy, adorned it with the glitter-
ing armor of Viridomarus, and, setting it upon lis shoulder, rode
throngh the city in a chariot drawn by four horses, while the army
followed, singing sonzs and odes made for the occasion, and displaying
the spoils they had taken from the enemy.

125. SEcoND Punxio War.—-B. c. 218.—The peace between Rome
and Carthaze had now continued 23 years. During this time, a man
had grown up in the latter city to whom historians give the highest
place as a general and a warrior. This was Hannipat, the son of
Hamilear, former general of Carthage. When his son was only nine
years old. Hamilear took him to the altar, and, laying liis hand upon
the victiin about to be sacrificed, made him swear that he would never
be in friendship with the Romans, nor desist from opposing their
power, till he or they should be no more. This hatred, so early
implanted, and so sedulously cultivated in the breast of Hannibal,
had grown with his growth and strengthened with his strength; and
now, in the prime of life, he prepared himself to try whether Rome
or he shoald fall.*

126. The Carthaginians, who made peace only because they were
no longer able to continue the war, having now recovered from their
embarrassments, were excited by Hannibal to throw off their burden-
some tribute, and attempt to regain the cities they had lost. To open
the campaign, Hannibal crossed into Spain with a considerable body
ot forces, and laid siege to Saguntum, a city in alliance with the Ro-
mans. As soon as news of this affair reached Rome, embassadors

* The testimony of the historian may aid us in forming an idea of this extraordinary
man, “IIe was possessed of the greatest courage in opposing danger, and the greatest
presence of mind in retiving from it. No fatigue was able to subdue bis body ; no misfor-
tune could break his spirit. Ie was equally patient of heat and cold; anid he was frequently
found stretched upon tbe ground among his sentinels, covered only with his watch-cout.
He was the best horseman and the swiftest runner of his time. He was experienced, si+1-
cious, provident, bold, prudent in carrying out the most extensive desivus, and ferule in
expedients to perplex bis enemies.” In consequence of his history having been written
by those in Roman interest, the cruelty, fuithlessness. and hypocrisy ascribed to bim have
found no friendly hand to palliate their enormity, and the faiure of his mizhty plans to
redeem his country left him without a panevyrist; so that, great as he unquestionably was,
and wonderful as were his exploits, his character stands befure us in a position which
obscures its splendor and represscs our admiration.

 

 

Questions —1?4, The battle that followed. Marcellus’s manifestations of triumph. 125,
For what peno! of time did peace continue bi tween Carthage and Rome? Give the early
history of Hannid J, with his father’s consceration and vow. 126. To what did Uanniba!
ir cite the Carthagiuians? Where did Le upeu the campaign ?
364 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [B. © 218

were sent to Carthage to comph lin of the infraction of the treaty, and
to require that Hannibal should be given up. This demand Seals
refused, The principal cmbassador, pereviving the stute of fecling
among the Carthaginian ministry, held out the shirt of his robe. siay-
ing, that “She brought them peace or war, and they might choose
between them.” They desired him to deliver which he thought
proper. “Then let it be war,” said the indignant Roman, and imine-
dintely took lis departare.

127. War being thus declared, nothing was left but again to build
fleets, levy armies, raise supplies, and in every possible way prepare
for conflict. Saguntum surrendered, and Hannibal soon overran all
Spain with his vietorious troops. Then, having collected a large army
of all languages and nations, he resolved to carry the war into Italy
it-elf, as the Romans had before carried it into the dominions of Car-
thage. With 50,000 foot and 9,000 horse, he passed the Pyrenees
into Ganl, traversed the vast forests, defeated the savage enemies, and
crossed the rapid rivers which opposed his march, and in ten days
arrived at the foot of the Alps, over which he had determined to
explore a new passage into Italy.

128. Passage ov mie Avps.—It was midwinter when this aston-
ishing project was undertaken. The mighty elaciers which had been
acemmulating for ages frowned upon him from above, and vast caverns,
through which the mountain ‘torrents roared fearfully along, yawned
from below; the rade cottyes whieh seemed to hang upon the sides
of the presipices offered no friendly sheller; and bands of people,
barbarous and fieree, dressed in skins covered with long, shaggy hair,
rendered the prospect more forbidding, and the wilderness more ter-
rible. But nothing could subdue the cour
his followers that they were now sealing, not the walls of Italy, but of

 

ee of Hannibal. Assuring

Rome, be led them up the sides of the mountains, along the dizzy
heights, over the icy paths; and, driving back the barbarians, after
nine days of incredible fatigue, gained a summit whenee his soldiers
could desery the fertile vales of Italy, spread out in beauty beneath
the warin miuys of the sun.

129. After two days’ rest, they prepared for the deseent——a work
more perilous than even the ascent had been. Prodigious quantities
of snow had fallen, in whieh multitudes were buried; every new
advance seemed to inerense the cl mere, rs dll, at last, they eame to the

 

 

Questions —126. In this ervisis, of what did Che Roniuns. ‘sual vin? What did they re
quire? Tho wtutt manner was war finally deehued 2 127. What snecess attended Hannibal %
Pad Describe (he piss Vrebiariver’ (May
No. 4.)

 
 

hover the Alps. Waere was TPieinium ?

 
B.C. 218.] SECOND PUNICO Wark ge%

verge of 2 rock above 300 yards perpendicular, which seemed utterly
impassable. Desp:ir appeared in every face but Hannibal’s. He could
not go round it; he would not turn back. He therefore made prepa-
rations to Jeve? the obstruction. Great numbers of trees were felled,
piled against it, and set on fire. “The rock, being thus heated,” says
Livy, ‘was softened by vinegar, and a way opened throngh which the
whole army might safely pass.’ Then, as they descended, the valleys
became inore fertile, the cattle found pasture, and at the end of fifteen
days Hannibal found himself upon the plains of Italy with about half
his army—the rest having fallen victims to the inclemency of the
weather, or the hostility of the natives.

130. Batries or Tictntum anp TreBiA. B. 0. 218.—The senate,
during all this time, had not been idle. The army, headed by Scipio,
had been ordered into the field to intercept the course of the invader ;
and before the Carthaginians had recovered from their fatigues, they
were attacked by the Romans near Ticinium. The consul was wounded
in the beginning of the fight, and would have been slain, had not his
son Scipio (afterward Africanus) saved his father’s life at the hazard
of his own. The engagement was for some time carried on with equal
valor on both sides, till a party of Numidian horse, making a circuit,
attacked the Romans in flank, and routed them with considerable loss.

131. le Gauls, having been treated with great respect by the Car-
thaginiang joined tne army of Hannibal. Sempronius, the other con-
sul, resolving to repair the injury sustained by his colleague, gave
battle again upon the banks of the river Trebia. Hannibal, aware of
Roman impetuosity, sent off a body of 1,000 horsemen, each with a
foot-soldier behind him, to ravage the country, and provoke the enemy
to engage. The Romans drove them back, and they, seeming to be
defeated, took to the river. The consul pressed on after them, and not
till he had reached the opposite bank did he perceive that the day was
lost; for his men, fatigued with wading the river, and benumbed with
the coldness of the water, which reached their armpits, could not
withstand the tremendous charge of the Carthaginians, and 26,000
were either killed or drowned in the river.

132. The loss of these two battles did not intimidate the Romans,
nor, lull Hannibal into false security. Preparations for the ensuing
campaign were carried on with the greatest vigor on both sides. The
Carthaginian general approached Rome by way of Etruria, throngh the

 

 

Questions.—150. Where did the enemies meet for the first battle? What service did
Scipio render his father? What circumstance decided the fate of the battle? 131. What
new foree joined Hannibal? By what stratagem did Hannibal provoke a second battle ?
Give an account of it. 132. Give a further account of Hannibal’s march toward Rome.
266 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [pc 3?

All the former fatignes of his army tere

marshes of the river Arno.
For three days

nothing in comparison with what they suffered here.
and three nights successively, they marched up to the knees in water,
without sleep or rest; the hoofs of the horses came off, and multitudes
of the baggage heats were left dead in the mud.

133. Hannibal himself rode upon an elephant, the only one he had
left, and, in addition to the feelings oceasioned by the complicated
distress of his army, suffered sv much from an inflammation in his eyes
that he lost one of them entirely. Tearing that Flaminius, with his
army, lay in the direct road toward Rome, he turned aside, as if desi-
rous of avoiding him, and ravaged the country with fire and sword,
This had the desired effect. The consul could not bear to wait quietly
for w re-enforcement, while the enemy was thus laying every thing:
waste around him, and, contrary to the advice of his friends, deter-
mined to risk an engagement.

134. Barrie or Trrasymenvs. Fanrus.—Hannibal took a position
with his army near Lake Thrasymenus, upon a chain of mountains,
between which and the luke was a narrow passage, leading to a valley
embosonied in hills. Into this valley Flaminius led his men to the
attack. <A mist rising from the lake obscured the sight of the Romans,
so that they could not perceive the number or position of their ene-
mies. They were accordingly defeated without having been able to
do any thing worthy of the Roman name.* 15,000 fell in the valley.
and 6,000 surrendered prisoners of war. Flaminius did every thing
that valor could do to ratty his forces, and finally died fighting alone in
the midst of the enemy.

135. When this news reached Rome, the praetor assembled the
people, and made the following proclamation: ‘Romans, we have
lost a great battle; our army is cut to pieces, and Flaminius is slain;
think, therefore, what is to be done for your safety.’ After the first
consternation had subsided, they unanimously agreed to elect Fabius
Maximns dictator; a man whose spirit and disnity admirably fitted
him for the office. THis house was one of the most illustrious in
Rome, for the Fabian family once undertook alone to cope with the
power of Veii, and 506 of them perished in one expedition. It was

* While the battle lasted, an earthquake overturned whoule cities, changed the course of

rivers, and tore off the tops of mountains; yet so desperate was the fight, that neither party
perceived the violent motion,

 

Questions,—155. By what means did he hasten another buttle? 124, Where did the two
armics meet? What gave the advantage to the Carthaginians? With what suceess was it
followed? What was the fate of Flaminius? 135, At this crisis, who was niade dictator of
Kiome? What was the character of Fabius? What is related of his house ?
3.0. 217.] SECOND PUNIC WAR S67

the poliey of Fabius* to harass, rather than fight, the Carthaginians.
He always encamped on the high grounds, out of the way of the
enemy's cavalry. When they sat still, he did the same; when they
moved, he showed himself upon the hills, as if preparing for action ;
he straitened their quarters, cut off their provisions, and kept them in
constant fear of surprise.

136. Hannibal, finding it impossible to bring on a general engage-
ment, used all his arts to make Fabius appear the coward, rather than
the skillfal general. This impression actually pervaded the Roman
camp, and some of the officers called Fabius the pedagoguet of Han-
nibal; and his general of horse sneeringly inquired “if he intended to
take his army up into heaven, or to screen them from the enemy with
clouds and fogs.” Fabius bore all their taunts with the greatest
equanimity ; nor would he change his tactics, thongh he witnessed the
ravaging of Samnium, and the plunder of many flourishing cities. At
last, Hannibal determined to make use of a stronger bait, to draw the
dictutor from his impregnable station. For this purpose, he ordered
his guides to conduct him to the plains of Casinum ; but they, mista-
king the word, throngh his barbarous pronunciation, led him to Casili-
num, a valley stretching out to the sea.

137. As soon as he had entered, Fabius seized the narrow outlet,
and there held him in a most disadvantageous position, without any
place of egress. Hannibal crucified his guides for their mistake, and
set his African cunning at work to devise some means of escape. The
plan he adopted was this. One dark night, he ordered lighted fagots
to be tied to the horns of 2,000 oxen. The creatures were then driven
slowly toward the pass, like an army marching with torches. The
Romans took them for what they appeared; but when the fire burnt
.to the quick, and the animals, mad with pain, ran up the hills with
their foreheads flaming, and filling the air with unearthly sounds, the
detachment set to guard the outlet, expecting they knew not what,
fled to the main body. The Carthaginians seized the pass, and Han
nibal escaped through the detile to Apulia.

138. The Romans now murmured more than ever against Fabius,

and his office soon after expiring, a violent contest arose about the

* Washington has been called the American Fabius.
+ The office of a pedagogue was tu attend children, to carry them about, and conduct them
home.

 

Questions.—136, 137. By what policy did he thwart the wishes of Hannibal? Into
what strait was Lannibal by mistake driven? Ilow did he free himself from the thaeatened
ganzer? Where was Lake Thrasymenus? Casinum? Casilinum? (Map No. 4)
363 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [p. c. 216

election of consuls. The citizens at length chose Varro, a man SPEUnS
from the drégs of the people, rash and self-confident, and joined with
him Emilius Paulus, father of that Panlus Emilius who so distinguished
himself afterwards in Greece, and father-in-law of Scipio the Great.
Fabius, who saw the danger that threatened the state from two such
ill-natched commanders, entreated Emilius to guard against the
devices of Hannibal and the rashness of Varro. Emilius promised to
heed his caution, and set forth with his plebeian colleague at the head
of 90,000 men, the flower of Italy. Hannibal, who had only about
‘two-thirds as many troops, was encamped upon the plains of Canna,
in such a position that the south wind, which raised clouds of sand
from the dry plains, would drive directly in the faces of an, approach-
ing enemy.

139. Barrte or Canna#.—On the first day of their arrival it was
Emilius’s turn to command, and though Hannibal did all in his power
to bring him to battle, yet he declined fighting under circumstances so
disadvantageous. The next day, Varro, without waiting for the con-
currence of Emilius, hung out the scarlet mantle, and, leading his
troops across the river Aufidus, set the battle in array. Hannibal,
who had been from daybreak marshaling his forces, disposed them in
such a manner, that when the main body should give way before the
impetuosity of the Roman charge, the wings should surround the
enemy, and thus engage on all sides at once. This was the principal
cause of the carnage that followed. The Romans, penetrating the
center, were completely embosomed ; and Hannibal’s army, taking the
form of a crescent, closed in behina them, and suffered none to escape.

140. Varro fled with a few horse, and Emilius, covered with darts,
which stuck in his wounds, sat down in anguish and despair, waiting
for the enemy to dispatch him. His head and face were so disfigured
with dust and blood, that many of his friends passed by without know-
ing him. At last Lentulus, a tribune, flying on horseback, came up
to the spot, and recognizing him, dismounted; “ Emilius,” cried he,
“you at least are guiltless of this day’s slaughter; take my horse,
while you have any strength remaining; I will assist you, and will
defend you with my life.’’"-—‘‘I thank thee, Lentulus,” cried the dying
consul, ‘but go, I command thee, and tell the senate to fortify Rome
against the conqueror. Tell Fabius, also, that Emilius followed hig

 

(uestions.—138, Who was chosen in place of Fabius to lead the Itoman army?) Why
wus not Fabius rechosen? What is said of Varro? Who was Emilins Paulus? What
advice did Tannibal give to Emilius? 139,140. Why did Emilius deeline to give battle?
What course did Varrv pursue? Describe the battle that foilowel, Relate the conversa
tien between Emilius and Lentulus. By what name is that battle known?
B. 0. 216.] SECOND PUNIC WAR. 369

directions to the last, but was first overcome by Varro, and then by
Uannibal.” While he was yet speuking the enemy approached, and
Lentulus, before he was out of sight, saw the consul expire, feebly
fighting in the midst of huudreds.

141. In this battle the Romans lost 53,000 men, several officers, and
so many knights, that it is said Maunibal sent three bushels of gold
rings to Carthage, which those of this order had worn upon their fin-
gers. Hannibal’s friends advised him to follow the fugitives imme-
diately to Rome, assuring him that in five days he might sup in the
capitol; but he did not think proper to attempt the sieve of a city
sheltered by walls and ramparts till he had formed alliances with the
neighboring states. The battle of Canuw so changed the face of affairs,
that the Carthaginians, who had been obliged to move from place to
place, like a great band of robbers, now saw the best provinces of
Ttaly in their power; and Capua, the most considerable city, open to
“receive them.

142. At Rome, nothing was heard but shricks and lamentations ;
one-third of the senators were slain; one-half the city were in mourn-
ing for their dearest friends; and an enemy, whose vindictive cruelty
had been fully proved, was daily expected at their gates. Fabius
aione walked about the city with an unruffled countenance, encourag-
ing the muayistrates, placing the guards, and adopting suitable precau-
tions for the safety of the commonwealth. The people found in his
judgment their temple, their altar, and their Lope; and from his calm
demeanor sevined to gather new resolution and confidence. When
Varro arrived, the senate, instead of reprimauding him for his rash-
ness, went out to meet him, and returned him thanks that he had not
despaired of the safety of Rome. Hannibal did not come on as they
had expected; and inspired with fresh courage, they enlisted slaves,
and made all possible preparations fur another campaign.

143. Fabius the shield, and Marcellus the sword, of Rome, were
appointed to lead her armies; and though Hannibal offered peace
it was refused, but upon condition that he should quit Italy. This
general took up his winter quarters iu Campania. In the fertile vales
of that state a new scene of pleasure opened to his soldiers, which
served to destroy the energies of barbarians unaccustumed to uny lux-

 

Questions.--140. What became of Emilius? 141. How many did the Romans lose in this
engarenent? Iow many gold yings were sent to Carthaye? To what did Ifannibal’s
friends advise him? Why did he not act as advised? 142, What then was the condition
of Rome? In the emergency, who alone was found able to advise? How was Varre
received by the Romans? 143. Who were appointed to lead the Rouans ip the next eau
paigu’ Who made proposals of peace? Where was Campania? ‘Map No. -t)

16*
270 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [B. 0, ald
ary. Though Rome had lost four important battles, she could yet
bring into the field four times as many men as Hannibal. Marcellus,
who often engaged in skirmishes, gained frequent advantages, while
Fabius straitened the movements of the Carthaginian general, and, like
a constant streain, undermined all his defenses.

144, The Romans, however, do not deserve all the credit of the ruin
of Hannibal. He received his first fatal blow from his friends. Tis
glory had made enemies for him in the councils of Carthage; the men
he required were not sent; and the supplies that he demanded did not
arrive. For years he carried on the unequal conflict, sometimes
advancing, sometimes retreating, frequently destitute of money and
provisions, and feeling that the desperate game which he was playing
must finally turn against him, through the envy and ingratitude of his
countryinen, After the Romans had gained the city of Tarentum, he
acknowledged to his friends that he had always thought it difficult,
and now saw it impossible, with the forces he had, to conquer Italy. .

145. The senate of Carthage at length came to the resolution of
sending his brother, Asdrubal, to his assistance with a body of forces.
Asdrubal Janded in Italy without accident; but the Romans sur-
rounded him in a defile, into which he had been led by the treachery
of his guides, and cut his whole ariny into pieces. Hannibal had Jong
waited for these succors with great impatience; he was assured that
his brother was on his way, and the very night that he expected to
embrace him with renewed lope, Asdrubal’s head was thrown into
lis camp by the Romans! He saw in the bloody relic the downfal)
of Carthage, and observed with a sigh to those around him, “ Fortune
seems fatigued with granting her favors,”

146. Sizrar or Syracuse.—But it was not in Italy alone that for-
tune frowned upon the Carthaginians. The unconquerable Romans,
though surrounded with enemies at home, and still bleeding from their
defeat at Cunne, sent legions into Spain, Sardinia, and Sicily, and
undertook a new war against Philip, king of Macedon, for having
made a league with Hannibal. Marcellus, who had charge of the war
in Sicily, led his forces against Syracuse. here, for a long time, he
found all his efforts baffled by the arts of one man. This man was
Archimedes, the great mathematician. He was the kinsman of Iliero,

 

Questions,—143, What successes did Marcellus and Fabius gain? 144. From whom did
Mannibal receive his first fatal blow? Give an account of Iannibal’s “ ups and downs.”
HW Who at last was sent to the aid of Hannibal? Give an account of sidrubal’s Inistor-
tune. What was done with his head? 146. Where, beside Italy, did fortune frown upon
tue Carthaginians ? Against what place did Mnarecilus lead bis forces 7 Who, for a time,
balled him? Give an account of Archimedes. "
B.C. 212.J SECOND PUNIC WAR. - 871

the king of whom we have spoken as giving occasion to the first Punie
war, and in conversation had assured his royal patron, that with @
Sulerum and lever he could move the world.* To prove so startling
an assertion, he drew upon land the king’s loaded galleys by a machino
turned with one hand.

147. Ifero, astonished at the force of his art, prevailed upon Archi-
medes to make for him all sorts of engines which could be used in a
siege, for attack or defense. These machines, which had lain inactive
during the life of Hiero, were now brought out, and employed with
great effect by the inventor. When Archimedes began to play his
engines, the Romans stood aghast with terror. All sorts of missile
weapons, and stones of an enormous size, were sent forth with such
noise and rapidity that nothing could stand before thein. Unuge
beams were un a sudden projected over the walls, which, striking the
galleys, sunk them at once; sometimés burning glasses lighted mys-
terious flames in the sails; and sometimes a sort of iron crow with
two claws, let down by a lever, caught hold of the ships, drew them
towards the walls, whirled them about, and dashed them against the
rocks; so that the fear of this one man haunted them continually.
Finally, the Romans were so terrified, that if they saw a stick put over
the walls, they cried out that Archimedes was leveling some machine
at them, and fled in dismay.

148. Marcellus desisted for a time from his efforts against Syracuse,
but employed himself, meanwhile, in overrunning the island, and sub-
duing smaller cities. Then returning, he seized the town by surprise
one night, when the citizens had drunk to intoxication in honor of
Diana. Archimedes was in his study, absorbed in his scientific
researches, when the Romans entered; nor did he perceive that the
city was taken till a soldier entered his room, and commanded him to
follow him into the presence of Marcellus. Archimedes requested
him to wait till he had finished his problem, upon which the soldier

* So engaged was Archimedes with mathematics, that he neglected his meat and drink,
He was often carried by force to the bath, and. when there, amused himsclf with drawing
geometrical figures in the ashes, or marking lines with his fingers upon his body when it was
anointed. A jeweler had made a crown fur Hicro; but the king, suspecting that it had been
fraudulently alloyed with silver, set Archimedes to examine into the affair. Archimedes
thought upon the subject along time in vain, One day in the bath, perceiving that his
Lody displaced a qnantity of water equal to its bulk, the doctrine of specifie gravity
unfolded at once before bis mind. Transported with joy, he ran out into the street, erying

out Eureka ! Eureka ! “have found it! Lhave found it!” Then, by comparing the specific
gravities of gold and silver, he detected the che it of the jeweler.

Questions,—146, 147, 145. What assurance did be give to Utero? What means did the
people of Syracuse use for defense? What is said of the fear produced among the Komans?
By what surprise was the city finally taken? What caused the death of Archimedes?
372 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [B. ch 208,

drew his sword and killed him. Marcellus; much grieved, ordered his
body to be honorably buried, and a tomb erected to his memory.
This monument has ages since mingled with the dust, but the simple
instrument, wLredizedes’s serew, still survives, and interests every philo-
sophical student in the history of its great inventor. Marcellus, on
his return, was made consula fifth time, and again went to fight with
Hannibal. With a small detachment, he fell into an ambuscade and
was slain.

149. Sorrro Arricanvs.—The Romans also suffered some severe
reverses in Spain. Two of the Scipios were slain, but that youth who
saved his father’s life at the Ticinium, being appointed to the pro-
consulship in that country, though but twenty-four years old, soon
retrieved these losses. He was superior to Hannibal in tenderness
and generosity, and won the hearts of as many by his affability and
justice as by force of arms. Spain and Sicily were subdued, but Han-
nibal still maintained his ground in Italy, unsupported at home, and
but little aided by the alliances he had formed. For fourteen years
he had sustained himself by the most skillful management, and the
most judicious plans. He had never lost a battle, and his terror was
upon his enemies; but his old army was worn out; and while the
Roman youth were growing up, eager to distinguish themselves against
the Carthaginians, his friends and followers were dying about him of
fatigue or excess.

150. In this posture of affairs Publius Svipio returned from the con-
quest of Spain, and was made consul at the age of 29. With the fore-
sight of an older person, he determined to carry the war into Africa,
and make the Carthaginians tremble for their own city. Scipio had
not been long in Africa, when accounts were brought to Rome of his
glorious and wonderful achievements. A Numidian king was taken
prisoner, and two camps were burned and destroyed. Rich spoils
confirmed these cheering reports. The Carthaginians were so ter-
rified by these repeated defeats, that they sent u positive command to
Hannibal, their great champion, to return and defend Carthage. He
obeyed the mandate with a sad foreboding of calamity, and took leave
of Italy with tears, after having kept possession of its most beautiful
portions more than fifteen years. In that country he had lost his two

 

Questions,—148, By whom was he mourned? What still survives to tell the philosophi-
cal student that Archimedes lived? What became of Marcellus? 149, What losses did the
Romans suffer in Spain? What is said of Scipio Africanus? Of Hannibal's long success in
Italy? Of his decreasing army? 150. How old was Publius Scipio when he was made
consul? What success had he previously attained? What resolution as resards Africa did
he determine upon? What success did he have in Africa? Why was Hannibal recalled
home? What were his feelings upon leaving Italy ?

LP
8. v. 200.] SECOND PUNIC WAR. 373

brothers, his bravest generals, and most of those soldivrs who had
shared his toils and dangers from earliest youth.

151. After a melancholy passage he arrived in Africa, and marched
toward Zama, a city within five days’ journey of Carthage. Scipio Jed
his army on to mect him; and to show how much he felt his superi-
ority, sent back the spies of Hannibal, with a full account of all his
preparations. Unwilling to risk every thing upon a single battle, Han-
nibal invited Scipio to an interview. It was in an extensive plain
between the armies that the two greatest generals in the world met,
and silently regarded each other for « time with inutnal reverence.
Hannibal, dark, swarthy, one-eyed, with the sternness of the old war-
rior upon his features ; Scipio, in the prime of life, with all the energy
and vigor of the Roman beaming in every look. The arguments which
Hannibal adduced in favor of-a peace, Scipio said he would have
regarded had they been proposed in Italy; and both, parting dissatis- ,
fied, prepared to decide the controversy by the sword.

162. Barrre or Zama. B. 0, 202.—The battle of Zama was one of ,
the bloodiest: recorded in history. MHannibal conducted the charge
with the greatest skill; but Scipio’s army, composed of the flower of
Roman youth, was farsnperior in numbers and discipline to the worn-out
Carthaginians and their allies. The Romans were victorious, and Han-
nibal fled. The conquerors dictated the terms of peace, as sovereigns.
The Carthaginians were to pay 10,000 talents; to give hostages for the
delivery of their ships and elephants; to restore to Masinissa, the
Numidian king, all his territories; and they were not to make war,
even in Africa, without permission of the Romans.

153. Bs. co. SQ@O. Spars, Arrica, Maceponra, anv GREECE,
MADE Roman Provinoes.—Philip, king of Macedon, had attempted
to make an alliance with Hannibal while he was in Italy. The
war which resulted in Greece was still going on, and in the begin-
ning of this century the Macedonian monarch was defeated several
times by Galba, the Roman consul. He was compelled to raise the
siege of Athens; was driven from the straits of Thermopyle by Fla-
ininius; was again defeated at Cynocephale, and forced to conclude an
inglorious peace. Ten commissioners, with Flaminius at their head,
attended the Isthmian games, and gave to each Greciun state the
power of waking its own laws.

 

Questions.—151. Where did Hannibal and Scipio meet? In what way did Scipio show
his feeling of superiority? Give an account of the conference, 152. When was the battlo
of Zama fought? Give an account of it, What terms of peace were dictated? 153. Whe
attempted to make an alliance with Hannibal while in Italy? What defeats did the Mace
donian monarch experience? What was heat last compelled to do? What power waa
given by the ten commissioners to the Grecian states ?
oT COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [oc 183

vo

154. The next enemy of consequence who interfered with the
Romans was Antiochus the Great. Against him Scipio, brother of
the famous Africanus, was sent with the Roman legions. The ill-con-
certed manner in which Antiochus conducted his expedition has heen
already destribed. Scipio drove him out of Europe, defeated hin in
Asia, nid obtained from his suecess the surname of Asiaticus. The
proud suecessor of Alexander was glad to procure peace of the Romans,
on condition of paying 15,000 talents; giving hostages of fidelity ; and
surrendering Hannibal,* who had been some time a resident at lis
court.

155. In the third year after the war with Antiochus, the tribunes
of the people accused Scipio Africanus of defrauding the treasury, and
seta day for his trial. Scipio came at the appointed time, and listened
to the charges with a serene air. Instead, however, of attempting a
defense, he reminded his countrymen that on that very day, 15 years
before, he had won the battle of Zama, The assembly rose at once,
left the tribunes in the forum, and attended Scipio to the capitol, to
return their annual thanks to the gods for this victory. Scipio after-
wards retired to Cuimpania, and spent the short remnant of his days
in peace and privacy—testifying his displeasure against his conntry-
men only by this epitaph, which he ordered to be engraved upon his
tomb: ‘Ungrateful country—my very bones shall not rest among
you.” Hannibal, Philopeemen, and Scipio died the same year, B. ©.
183. The Second Macedonian war next engaged the Romar arms.
Emilias overthrew Perseus, and carried him in triumph to Rome, to

* The misfortunes of this illustrious man now drew to their tragical close. All that conld
be done for Carthuze he had done, even after the battle of Zama. Ilis ungrateful country -
men, hating any check upon their vices, accused him to the Homans ol Intriguing to renew
the war, ‘To escape the fate of a captive he left Carthage, and began his voluntary exile.
TIv sailed to Tyre, and thence found his way to the Syrian court, where he wa “kindly
received, and made admiral of the fleet. Here his skill and sigacity were exercised to
destroy the Romans; but when fortune turned against his patron, and he found his name in
the articles of treaty, be fled aguin to the king of Bithynia. He lived with Pr ts five
years; the Romans, however, having sent a demand for him, he again became a wanderer.
Finding that the enyoys of Rome were ever on ins track, he desired one of his followers to
bring him: poison, saying, © Let us rid the Romans of their terrors, since they are unwilling
to wait for the death ofan old man like me.” The poison operated specdily, and Rome w is
freed from the fear of her greatest enemy. ae

 

    
 

  

 

(Juestions,—154. Who was the next enemy that interfered with the Romans? Who was
sent against him? What success attended Scipio? To what terms of peace did the sue
cessur of Alexander submit? What interesting account is related of ILinnibal in the n at fi
155. What aceusation was brought against Scipio? By whom were the elfen mane
low were they punished for their ingratitude? Wika did Scipio die? chat li
epitaph? In what year did he die? When did Hannibal die ? .
the Roman arms? Who overthrew Perseus ?

What was lng
What war next cogaged
To what was Parscus subject ?
.

B. 0. 149.] THIRD PUNIC WAR. 375

walk before his chariot. These conquests brought immense riches inte
the Roman treasury, and J/ucedon became @ Roman pror ince.

156. Bb. o. 149. Trip Puxio War.—About this time, Masinissa,
king of Numidia, made some incursions upon the territory claimed by
the Carthaginians. This people, having recovered in sume measure
from the effects of their wars, repelled the invasion. Cato the Censor,
then nearly 90, was sent into Africa to inquire into the cause of the
infraction of the treaty. When he arrived at Carthage, he found that
city not in the exhausted and humbled condition which the Ro-
mans imagined, but full of men fit to bear arms; well supplied with
money and warlike stores, and in a fair way to regain all its former
greatness. Taving made these observations he returned home, and
represented to the senate the necessity of humbling a power which
might once more involve Rome in a long and dangerous contest for
empire. So fixed was this persuasion in his mind, that he never gave
his opinion in the senate, upon any point whatever, without adding,
‘And my opinion is that Carthage should be destroyed ;” so that
“ Carthago delenda est” passed into a proverb. Moved by his repre-
sentations, the senate ordered war to be proclaimed, and the consuls
set out with a resolution to destroy the ancient rival of Rome.

157. The Carthaginians tov late perceived the wisdom of Hannibal
in insisting upon public measures, rather than private interest. Now
alarmed by the Roman preparations, they punished those who had
quarreled with Masinissa, and most humbly offered satisfaction. The
senate demanded 300 hostages within 30 days. To their surprise and
regret, the Carthaginians sent their children within the given time;
and soon after the consuls landed at Utica, deputies waited upon
them to know what further the senate might require. The consuls,
who had express directions to destroy Carthage, were not a little per-
plexed at this ready submission. They now, however, demanded the
arms of the Carthaginians. These also were delivered*up. The Car-
thaginians were then ordered to leave their city, and build another iu
any part of their territories within ten miles of the sea. The deputies
employed tears and lamentations to gain a respite from so hard a sen-
tence; the consuls were inexorable; and with heavy hearts they
departed, to bear the gloomy tidings to their countrymen.

158. The unfortunate Carthaginians, finding that the conquerors

 

Questions.—155, How did these conquests affect Rome and Macedon? 156, Who at that
time encroached upon the Carthaginian territory? How did the Numidian king fare?
What report did the aged Cato bring from Africa? What was his advice to the Romans?
Was the advice taken? 157. What demands did the Carthaginians comply with? What
movement, at last, were the Carthaginians ordered to make?
376 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [p. c. 146

would not desist from making demands while they had any thing left
to supply, prepared to resist with all the energy of despair. Those
vessels of guld and silver which ministered to their pride were pon
verted into arms. The women parted with their ornaments for this
sacred purpose, and even cut off their hair to make bow-strings. ; A
general whom they had a short time before condemned for opposing
the Romans was taken from prison to lead their army; every thing
was done which prudence could suggest or ingenuity devise; so that
when the consuls arrived before the city, which they expected to find
an easy conquest, they met with such resistance as quite dispirited
their forces. Several engagements were fought before the walls, in
which the assailants were repulsed ; and the Romans would have been
compelled to retreat, with loss and dishonor, but for the gallant con-
duct of the son of Emilius (adopted son of Scipio Africanus). By his
skill in drawing off his forces after a defeat, and his talent at inspiring
new hopes, he quieted the murmurs whicb had arisen in the camp.

159. Pharneas, master of the Carthaginian horse, thinking bis coun-
try absolutely ruined, deserted to the Romans; and Scipio cut off all
supplies by land at the same time that he blockaded the harbor and
stopped all relief by sea. He soon after killed 70,000 wen and took
10,000 prisoners, and, having forced one of the gates, advanced to the
forum. Great numbers fled to the citadel, and Scipio took possession
of a city filled with heaps of dead and dying. Famine compelled the
refugees in the citadel to surrender; the Carthaginian general gave
himself up; but afew of the most resolute perished in the flames of
the temple. This magnificent city, 24 wiles in compass, was then set
on fire by the merciless conquerors, and continued burning 17 days.*
The walls were demolished; the lands given to the friends of the Ro-
mans; the slaves prepared for the market; and the consuls, having
completed their work of destruction, struck their tents, and returned
honie in triumph, B. o. 146.

160. In the same year, Corinth, one of the cities of the Achwan
League, having made war upon the Lacedemonians, was sentenced to
the same fate. So rich were its temples and dwellings, that it is said

* Though Scipio was obliged hy the orders of the senate to demolish the walls of Car-

thage, yet he wept bitterly over the tragical scene, expressing his fears that Rome would ut
some fature day perish in a similar conflagration,

 

Questions.—158. What course did they then deteymine upon? What preparations were
made? Give an account of tho siege. 159. Who deserted to the Romans ? Give the par-
ticulars of Scipio’s successes, Of the result of the siege. In what year was Carthage
destroyed? Where was Carthage? (See map No. 1.) 160. In what year was Corinth de-
stroyed? Who destroyed it? What is said of the richness of Corinth?
B. ¢. 133.] THE GRACCHII. 377

Corinthian brass became additionally precious from quantities of silver
and gold melted down with it. Spain was soon after entirely sub-
dued, and the Romans from this time began to look upon the world
as their own, and to treat all who withstood their arms as revolters.
The triumphs and spoils of Greece, Syria, Spain, and Africa intro-
duced a taste for splendid expense; the ancient modesty, plainness,
and severity of the Romans were exchanged for avarice, luxury, and
ostentation; and corruption commenced its work in the common-
wealth.

161. Tuz Gracoum.—Cornelia, daughter of Scipio Africanus, and
wife of Tiberius Gracchus, was left a widow with twelve children, all
of whom died young except three. To these children she devoted
herself with so much parental affection and greatness of mind, that
though her sons were gifted above all their Roman contemporaries,
education was said to have contributed more to their perfections than
nature. A lady who once visited her, having displayed her jewels,
desired to see Cornelia’s. She evaded the request till the return of
her children from school, and then presenting Tiberius and Caius to
her visitor, exclaimed, ‘“‘ These are my jewels.” And well did her
children reward her care. Her daughter was married to Scipio the
Younger, of whom we have already spoken; and her sons, beautiful,
wise, eloquent, and virtuous, sacrificed their lives in attempting to
stem the corruptions of the state, and preserve to Rome the freedom
and simplicity which had given the world to her arms. Indeed, Cor-
nelia is blamed for the untimely fate of her sons, because she fostered
their ambition. Plutarch says, that she used to reproach her sons
that she was called the mother-in-law of Scipio, rather than the mother
of the Gracchii.

162. The first public act of Tiberius was an attempt to revive the
Licinian law, which forbade any person to possess more than 500 acres
of land. The distinctions, patrician and pledeian, had faded away into
the still more obnoxious classification, rich and poor. The poor, who
perceived at once the benefit to themselves of this law, sustained Tibe-
rius, and inflamed his spirit by acclamations and blessings; the rich,
who were thus called upon to surrender a part of their ill-gotten gains,
opposed him, and represented that he desired to overthrow the con-
stitution. But the eloquent Tiberius easily silenced their invectives.
The people gathered about him when he ascended the rostrum, and

 

Questions—160. What country next fell under the power of Rome? What change took
place in the taste, habits, and honesty of the Romans? 161. Relate the story of Cornelia.
162. What was the first public act of Tiberius? What distinctions had faded away? Inte
what were they merged? Whit course did Tiberius pursue?
378 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [. c. 123

pleaded for the poor in language such as this: ‘‘ The wild beasts of
Italy have their caves to retire to, but the brave men who spill their
blood in her cause have nothing left but air and light. Without any
settled habitations, they wander from place to place with their wives
and children; and their generals do but mock them when, at the head
of their armies, they exhort them to fight for their sepulchers and
domestic gods; for, among such numbers, there is not perhaps a Ro-
man who has an altar that belonged to his ancestors, nor a scpulcher
in which their ashes rest.”

163. By these speeches were the minds of the poor inflamed; debate
ripened into enmity, and enmity into sedition. The law was passed ;
but Gracchus had made himself too conspicuous to escape the malice
of the rich. Attalus, king of Pergamus, dying, made the Roman peo-
ple his heirs. Tiberius found here another opportunity to gratify his
followers. He proposed that the money so left should be distributed
among the poor for the purchase of farming utensils. This bill pro-
duced greater disturbances than the other. Tiberius spoke eloquently
in its favor, but the patricians excited a mob, and one of the tribunes
struck the orator dead with a piece of a seat. Not less than 300 of
his followers shared a similar fate; many were banished; some put to
death by the public execution; and all who supported his measures
were found guilty of sedition. Ss

164. Caius Graccnus.—Caius, the other son of Cornelia, who was
but twenty-one at the time of his brother’s death, refrained from all
interference in political affairs for many years. During this time he
filled the office of queestor in Sardinia, and discharged his duties with
such ability that the king of Numidia, sending a present of corn to
the Romans, ordered his embassadors to say that it was a tribute to
the virtues of Caius Gracchus. The senate treated the embassy with
contempt; and Gracchus, stung by the indignity, returned from the
army and offered himself for tribune. The rich united their forces to
oppose him, but crowds came from all parts of Italy to support his
election; and the Campus Martius not being large enough to contain
them, they gave their votes from the tops of houses. Being elected
by a very large majority, he prepared to avenge the death of Tiberius,
and carry out those reforms which would throw the weight of govern
ment into the popular scale.

165. He procured the banishment of Pompilius, one of the murder-

 

Questions.—162, What arguments did he use? 163. Give a history of events until the
death of Tiberius. How was he killed? What then followed? 164. What was the name
of the remaining son of Cornelia? Whatis said of the present of corn? Why did Caius offer
himself for tribune? Give an account of his election. 165. What measures did he then take?
B. c. 112.] THE JUGURTHINE WAR. 379

ers of his brother; he secured the passage of an edict. by which the
price of corn was fixed at a moderate standard, and monthly distribu-
tions made to the poor—a measure which brought all the paupers in
Italy to Rome. With his associate tribunes, he then proceeded to
inspect the corruptions of the senate; und that body being found
guilty of bribery, extortion, and the sale of offices, the power of judg-
ing magistrates was transferred to three hundred knights, chosen for
the purpose. The senators now hated him more than ever; and Scipio
the Younger, who had opposed the measures of Gracchus, being found
dead in his bed, it was whispered about that Gracchus had murdered
his own brother-in-law. To escape the odium thus heaped upon him,
Gracchus procured a decree for rebuilding Carthage, and went him-
self with 6,000 families to Africa. Several unfavorable omens, how-
ever, Gampened the zeal of the adventurers, and he returned to Italy
within seventy days. Here he joined the party of Flaccus, in an
attempt to pass the Agrarian law, and went with an armed crowd to
the capitol. High words and blows ensued, and a lictor was slain.

166. Flaccus and Gracchus were summoned to appear before the
senate and answer for the murder. Instead of obeying the citation,
they. took possession of Mount Aventine, with a body of adherertts,
and proclaimed liberty to all the slaves who would join their party.
This was considered open rebellion, and the consul immediately
surrounded the place with his forces. Flaccus was taken prisoner
and dragged to execution, while Gracchus made his escape across
the Tiber. He took refuge in a grove dedicated to the Furies,
where he prevailed upon a slave to dispatch him.* Thus died Caius
Gracchus, about ten years after his brother Tiberius; and thus by
ambitious lives and untimely deaths did the children of Cornelia so
distinguish themselves, that to this day she is styled ‘the mother of
the Gracchii.””

167. Jucurruine War.—Micipsa, king of Numidia, an ally of the
Romuns, had brought up his nephew, Jugurtha, with his own sons,
Jliempsal and Adherbal. At his death he divided the kingdom equally
among the three boys. Jugurtha murdered Hiempsal, and was pre-
paring to seize Adherbal, when the young prince escaped to Rome,

* The consul had offered its weight in gold for the head of Gracchus. The soldier who

found his body cut off his head, carefully abstracted the brains, filled the cavity with lead,
and reevived seventeen lbs. of gold for it.

 

Questions,—165, 166. What is stated of Scipio the Younger? Give an account of the
enterprise Gracchus then undertook. Of his connection with Fiaccus. Of his death, How
is Cornelia still styled? 167. Who was Micipsa? How was the Jugurthine war com-
menced? Where was Numidia? (See map No. 4)
380 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [p. c. 89

and laid his cause before the senate. Jugurtha, however, by rich
bribes, turned aside the sword of justice, so that the successors of
those men who would not look upon the presents of Pyrrhus, pocketed
the gold of the wily African, and sent over commissioners to divide
Numidia between him and the surviving son of Micipsa. Emboldened
in crime, Jugurtha made war upon Adherbal as soon as he was estab-
lished in his government, took him prisoner, and put him to death.
The howicide was suramoned to Rome to stand a trial. His gold
enabled him to elude his fate, and as he left the city he exclaimed,
“Q Rome! how readily wouldst thou sell thyself couldst thou find s
man rich enough to purchase thee.”

168. Another act of treachery on the part of Jugurtha engaged the
senate in a war with him, which lasted five years. The glory of ter-
minating it fell to Caius Marius,* who fought a battle with the usur-
per, and took him prisoner. Jugurtha followed in the triumph of
Marius, and was afterwards starved to death in a dungeon. Thus
ended the Jugurthine war, 8. o. 106. Pompry and Ciozro were born
the same year.

169. Marius anp Syira.—s. 0. 100. In the year 90 B. o., the
states uf Italy, having waited long in vain for the promised title and
privileges of Roman citizens, united in an attempt to throw off their
allegiance to Rome. This contest was marked by frequent and bloody
battles; and during its progress Rome lost 300,000 lives. Marins and
Syllat were both officers in the army, but, while the former daily lost
popularity, the latter, by his free and easy manners, was gaining
authority and friends. The Sucial War, as it was called, was finally
terminated by concessions on the part of the Romans, which satisfied
the allies.

170. Miraripatio War.—Mithridates, king of Pontus, was one of
the most formidable enemies Rome ever encountered. He was distin-

* Caius Marius was the son of poor parents in Arpi. He was a man of gigantic stature,
great strength, and undaunted bravery. He was an enemy of the patricians, and conse-
qnently the idol of the people. In his first consulship he defeated Jugurtha; in his second.
he enjoyeda triumph for haying closed the war in Africa; and in four succeeding éonsule
ships distinguished himself by his bravery and cruelty. e

+ Sylla was the son of a poor patrician, but gifted and ambitious. He took Jugurtha
captive, and contended for the honor of terminatiny the war in Africa For this Marius

became his implacable enemy. Sylla espoused the patrician cause, and opposed the mea-
sures of Marius with success.

Questions.—167, 168. Give an account of its progress and end When did it end? Who
were born that year? 169. What disturbances occurred in Italy about that time? Mention
some particulars. How did the Social War terminate? 170. What is said of Mithridutes?
For what was he distinguished? Where was Pontus? (Map No. 3.)
B. 0. 88.] MARIUS AND SYLLA. 381

guished in his early youth by his bodily strength and daring spirit;
and in riper years by the sagacity of a statesman and the dignity of a
monarch. He was also the greatest scholar of his time, being able to
converse in twenty-two different languages. The Romans, in their
wars with Antiochus and his successors, had overrun a great part of
the east, and stationed troops in various parts. Mithridates, as sove-
reign of Asia, commanded all the Roman legions to leave his domin-
ions; but, before they had time to do so, a dreadful massacre was
commenced, in which 80,000 perished. The islands of the Egean,
with Athens, and several other cities of Greece, joined the standard
of revolt.

171. To avenge the blood of her slaughtered citizens, to humble the
power of Mithridates, and to bring back her provinces to their alle-
giance, now occupied the attention of Rome. Sylla was consul, but,
being absent from the city, Marius secured the appointment of com-
mander in Asia. Sylla immediately marched to Rome with his army,
crushed the opposite faction, drove Marius into banishment, restored
the authority of the senate, and departed with his army for the east.

172. Mantus.-—Marius, at the age of seventy, having been declared
a public enemy, escaped from his pursuers in the meanest disguise.
Being driven into the marshes, he spent one night up to his chin in a
quagmire. The next day he was taken and thrown into a prison.
The governor of the place sent a Cambrian slave to dispatch him. As
the assassin approached, Marius cried out in a stern voice, ‘ Darest
thou kill Caius Marius?” The barbarian threw down his sword, and,
rushing out of the dungeon, declared he could not kill him! The
governor, thinking this an omen in the unhappy exile’s favor, set him
at liberty. After many toils and dangers, Marius landed in Africa,
and, musing on the instability of earthly grandeur, went and seated
himself among the ruins of Carthage.

173. After wandering about for several months, like a wild beast
hunted from his thicket, he heard that Cinna, the consul, had over-
come the Syllian faction, upon which he sailed for Italy. Retaining
the miserable robe which he had worn during his misfortunes, with
untrimmed beard and solemn countenance, le went round among the
smaller states, and having collected a horde of robbers and semi-bar-
barians, approached Rome. The defenscless senate sent vut embassa-
dors to beg that matters might be accommodated in a peaceable man-

 

Questions.—170, 171. Give the origin of the Mitbridatie war. Give an account of it, In
what did it result? 172 What is said of Murius at the age of seventy? Give an aecount
of him until he arrived at Carthage, 173 174 Give a further account, including of bis
death. What is said of him by an historian 7
B85 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [eB c. 86

Ons

ner. Marius seemed willing to grant their request, but said, that
having been banished by a public decree, he could not enter the gates
till it was revoked. The frightened citizens undertook to authorize
his return, but scarcely had they begun to vote when he marched into
the city, sword in hand, and massacred without remorse or pity all
who had ever been obnoxious to him. His barbarians, infuriated by
the sight of blood, rushed on like wolves to the carnage, sparing nei-
ther age, sex, nor rank. 5

174. For five days and nights the slaughter was continned; the
streets of Rome were deluged with blood, and the grim monster,
enjoying the miseries of his country, gazed with savage delight upon
the heads which were ranged in the forum for his special gratification.
When his vengeance was thus fully satisfied, he made himself consul
for the seventh time, without the formalities of a public assembly.
He, however, enjoyed the power he had enslaved his country to gain
only seventeen days. Worn out with wars and excesses, his faculties
began to fail; and the intelligence that Sylla was returning with a
victorious army, filled his mind with inguietude. ‘ Ie died,” says the
historian, ‘with the chagrin of an unfortunate wretch who had not
obtained what he wanted.” :

175. Syrra.—When Sylla passed through Greece, on his way to
ineet Mithridates, every city except Athens sent tokens of submission.
To this place, therefore, the Roman advanced with his troops. His
impatience to return Jed him to push the siege with the greatest
vigor. He used a multitude of warlike engines, and when wood failed,
the sacred groves of the Academy and Lyceum fell beneath the sol-
dier’s ax. To supply his troops with money, he sent for the treasures
of Delphi and Olympia, which the Amphictyons, with many tears,
surrendered. Poor Athens, who had suffered so much from wars,
tyrannies, and seditions, was now seized with her Jast agonies. Within
was famine, without was the sword. The cily was finally taken by a
night assault. No computation can be made of the number of the
slain; but ancient writers tell us that the blood flowed through the
gates, and overspread the suburbs. Sylla at length gave orders to
stop the carnage, saying, that he ‘‘ forgave the living for the sake of
the dead.”

176. In Beotia, Sylla defeated the general of Mithridates, and, hav-
ing concluded a peace with that renowned king, hastened home to
meet again the Marian faction. No sooner had he landed in Italy, than

 

Questions.—_175. What is said of Sylla’s march through Greece? Describe the fata of un
fortunate Athens. 176. What followed until Sylla entered Rome a conqueror?
B. 0. 78.] DEATH OF SYLIA.

ew

83

the shattered remains of his party flocked to his standard; Crassus
and Pompey threw their influence upon his side, while Scipio and
young Marius took the field against him. In a great battle that ensued,
Marius was entirely defeated. The contest lasted till late at night,
and the morning sun arose upon more than 50,000 bodies of victors
and vanquished, promiscuously heaped in death. Sylla entered Rome
like a conqueror, at the head of his army. Immediately after, he
eaused 8,000 of those he esteemed his enemies to be shut up in a large
house and massacred, while he was addressing the people; and when
the senate, amazed at the horrid outcries of the victims, inquired if the
city was given up to plunder, the vindictive consul informed them,
with an unembarrassed air, that the sounds they heard were only the
shrieks of some criminals who were punished by his order.

177. The next day he proscribed forty senators and 1,600 knights;
and so, day after day, the work of death went forward; a public list
of the doomed being made out, and a reward offered for the heads of
those who succeeded for a time in eluding their pursuers. Sylla next
depopulated those Italian states which had joined the Marian faction,
aud parceled out their lands among his veteran troops. The office of
dictator, which had not been conferred upon any individual for 120
years, he now assumed without limit as to time; and thus the govern-
ment of Rome, having passed through the various forms of monarchy,
aristocracy, and democracy, seemed settled at last in despotism. Oras-
sus employed himself in buying up the effects of the proscribed; Pom-
pey put away his wife, to marry the dictator’s step-daughter; and
Julius Cesar, to evade a similar requisition, exiled himself from the
city. Sylla spared his life, but remarked, “ there are many Mariuses in
Julius Cesar.”

178. How great was the surprise in Rome, when one day the san-
guinary dictator appeared before the people, resigned his power,
divested himself of his official robes, offered himself for public trial,
and, sending away his lictors, continued to walk in the forum unat-
tended and alone. At the approach of evening he retired to his
house, the people following him in respectful silence. Of all that
great multitude whom he had robbed of relatives and friends, not one
was found hardy enough to reproach or accuse him; his act of abdica-
tion having, as it were, thrown a vail over the enormity of his crimes.
He died not long after, at his country-seat, leaving the following

Questions.—176. Give an account of the massacre of the 8,000. 177. Give a further
description of Sylla’s path to power. How did Crassus employ himself? What wrong did
Pompey commit? What movement did Julius Cesar make? 178, What event crowned
the publie life of Sylla? Give the particulars.

 

metrarlaBes 22a ee

«
854 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [B. ©. 67.

inscription for histomb: ‘Here lies Sylla, who was never out-
done in good offices by a friend, nor in acts of hostility by his
enemy.”

179. Pompry’s Exproirs.—After the death of Sylla, several years
of faction and animosity ensued, till finally the question of ‘who
should be greatest” seemed to settle upon Crassus and Pompey; the
former,* celebrated for his vast wealth, which he employed in feasting
the multitude at public tables, and buying comforts for the poor; the
latter, distinguished by his splendid victories in Spain, by his address
in terminating the Servile War,t and by his success in overcoming the
Illyrian pirates. The consul Lucullus, the personal friend of Sylla,
had been carrying on the war in Asia during eight years. Such was
his vigor and ability, that Mithridates, after repeated defeats, was
compelled to fly to his son-in-law, Tigranes, king of Armenia, Luecul-
lus pursued him into that country, and gained two victories; but the
mutinous disposition of his soldiers embarrassed his efforts, and his
enemies at home persuaded the people that he protracted the war on
account of the wealth to be gained from it, and he was consequently
recalled.t :

180. At this juncture the friends of Pompey proposed a law, © That
all the armies of the empire, with the government of all Asia, and the
management of the war against Mithridates, should be committed to
him alone.’ The question was warmly discussed, and the iotion
would have been Jost but for the eloquence of Cicero. The law was
passed by all the tribes, and Pompey departed for Asia, B. 0. 67.
When the Roman general arrived at the seat of war, he found that
Mithridates had retrieved his losses, and secured the various passes
and strongholds of the country. Pompey's first measure was to drive
the enemy out of Asia Minor, by garrisoning all the maritime towns
from Tyre to Byzantium. He then advanced to attack the camp of

* Crassus had increased a small estate to the value of $7,500,000,

+ A company of gladiators broke away from their fencing-school, and, enlisting fugitive
slaves, kept all Italy in alarm three years. This was called the “Servile War.” Both
Crassus and Pompey claimed the glory of terminating it.

¢ The account of the wealth brought home by Lucullus seems almost ineredible. Ha
exhibited in his triumph a statue of Mithridates in massy gold; and mules, loaded with
ingots, followed his car. He took no part in public affairs after his return, but devoted him-
self to the adorning of his villas with all the curious works of science and art which he bad
collected in the east. It was nothing uncommon for him to spend $6,000 on one supper.

 

Questions.—178, What inscription did he leave for his tomb? 179, Name the exploits
of Fempey, Who was his rival? For what was Crassus noted? What is said of Lueullus
in evnneetion with the warsin Asia? 180. In what year did Pompey depart for Asia? Give
the circumstunces preceding his going. Follow him until Mithridates effects his ese.pe
alter the siege.
Bo. 63.] CATILINE’S CONSPIRACY. 385

Mithridates in Armenia. The Pontian king stood a siege of forty-five
days, and then effected a retreat. F

181. Pompey overtook him again near the Euphrates. An engage-
ment ensued by night. The Romans were victorious. Mithridates
escaped with 800 horse, but no sooner did he reach the open plain,
than even this small remnant fled, leaving him with only three attend-
ants. At the castle of Inora the wretched fugitives stopped, and
there Mithridates bestowed his treasures upon all who joined him,
taking care to furnish each of his friends with a quantity of poison,
that they need not fall alive into the hands of the enemy. The unfor-
tunate monarch, hearing that his son-in-law had made alliance with
the Romans, directed his flight to Colchis; Pompey pursued him; and
the king, finding everywhere the terror of the Roman name, sought
shelter among the barbarous Scythians.

182. After two years’ war with these savage tribes, without gaining
any tidings of his enemy, Pompey turned his face to the south, ani-
mated, like Alexander, with the hope of extending his conquests to
the ocean which surrounds the world. Having subdued Syria, he
entered Judea. Aristobulus, the usurping priest, converted the vene-
rable temple at Jerusalem into a citadel for his soldiers, and resisted
the power of the Romans three months: 12,000 Jews were slain, and
the place was finally taken. Pompey entered the sanctuary with
mingled curiosity and reverence; he even ventured into the Holy of
Holies, and gazed upon those sacred mysteries which none but the
high-priests were ever permitted to behold. Respecting, however, the
feelings of the Jews, he left the holy things unprofaned ; and having
restored Hyrcanius to the priesthood, pursued his way to Arabia
Petrea. In the course of his march he had received the submission
of twelve kivgs.

183. B. o. 63.—CaTitine’s Consprracy.—While Pompey was thus
extending the empire of Rome over all the eastern world, the com-
monwealth had been brought to the brink of ruin by the machinations
of a few dissolute noblemen, who, having ‘“‘ wasted their fortunes with
riotous living,” were determined to revolutionize the government,
seize the lucrative offices, and reign together, each a Sylla. At the
head of the conspiracy was Lucius Catiline, a patrician of the most
fascinating manners, the most daring courage, and the most diabolical

 

Questions,—181. Give an account of the defeat and escape of Mithridates. Of his escape
to the Scythians. 182. With what ambition was Pompey animated? What success did he
have in Syria? What in Judea? How many kings had submitted to him? 183. How,
meanwhile, had Rome been brought to the brink of ruin? Who was at the head of the eca-
spiracy ?

17
380 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [B. c. 63

cruelty. In the bloody scenes of his youth he took an active part;
having been questor to Sylla, to please whom he murdered his own
brother. Associated with him were many persuns of rank and for-
tune. Lentulus and Cethegus, members of distinguished families; the
two Syllas, nephews of the dictator; and others, of equal celebrity,
were leaders of the plot.

184. It was proposed to enlist the veterans of Sylla, and the frag-
ments of his party about Italy; to kill the whole senate, and set the
city on fire in a hundred places at once; while Catiline, coming down
from Etruria with his army, should subdue the minor towns, and take
military possession of Italy. As a preparatory measure, Cicero, the
consul, was to be ussassinated in his bed. Scarcely, however, was
this plan of action settled by the conspirators, when every particular
was related to Cicero by a woman who lad persuaded her lover to
reveal the secret. The consul immediately convened the senate, and
warned them of the impending danger. Catiline also took his acens-
tomed seat with that august body, and, asserting his innocence, offered
securities for his good behavior.

185. Cicero, however, assailed him with a torrent of invective; and
the guilty Catiline, after vainly endeavoring to counteract the effect
of the orator’s eloquence, rushed out of the senate-house, threatening
destruction to all that opposed him. He left the city that night te
bring his army to the gates of Rome. Cicero secured the other con-
spirators, and, having obtained sentence against them, caused them to
be strangled in prison. Catiline, hearing that his accomplices were no
more, attempted to fly, but, finding that the passes were all secured,
he turned like a lion at bay upon his pursuers. A fierce battle was
fought in Etruria. Catiline died sword in hand, and most of his fol-
lowers imitated his example. The praises of Cicero were now the
theme of every panegyrist, and, by the advice of Cato, he was styled
the ‘t Father of his Country.”

186. Pomrey’s Triumpu.—To return to Pompey. Ssareely had he
pitched his camp in Petrwa, when he received the following letter
from Asia Minor: ‘“ Mithridates is dead. He killed himself upon
the revolt of his son, Pharnaces. Pharnaces has seized all that
belonged to his father, which he declares he has done for himself. and

 

Questions.—183. What is said of the deeds of his youth? Who were associated with Cati-
line in the conspiracy? 184. In what way was it proposed to carry out the conspiracy ?
What proposition is mentioned asa preparatory measure? How was the plot discovered ?
What steps were immediately taken? What course did Catiline take? 185, Give an
account of the overthrow of the conspiracy. By what title was Cicero afterward known?
1s6. What put an end to the war in Asia?
B.C. 60.] THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE. She

vo

the Romans.”* The campaign being thus terminated, the soldiers
gave loose to their joy, and Pompey made arrangements for settling
linmediately the affairs of Asia, and returning home with the laurels
of wu conqueror.

187. Rome had scarcely recovered from the distress into which the
conspiracy of Catiline had thrown her, when she was again agitated
by the intelligence that Pompey, like Sylla, was returning at the head
of his victorious legions. The alarm of the senate was, however,
changed to admiration when the conqueror of Mithridates arrived at
Brundusium, and, disbanding his army, journeyed to Rome in the
humble garb of a private individual. The whole city met him with
acclamations; «a triumph was immediately deoreed, and never had
Rome witnessed such grandeur and magnificence as were then dis-
played. Captive princes walked in his train; treasures and trophies
adorned his chariot; and a sum of money equal to $18,000,000 was
deposited in the treasury of the commonwealth.

188. He soon after erected a temple to Minerva, with an inscription
containing a summary of his deeds, He said that “he had finished-a
war of thirty years; had vanquished, slain, and taken 2,183,000 men;
sunk or taken 846 ships; reduced 1,538 towns and fortresses, and sub-
dued all the countries between Lake Meeris and the Red Sea.” He
had before extended his conquests in Africa to the Great Sea, and
stretched the Roman dominions in Spain to the Atlantic; his first
triumph had been for Africa, his second tor Europe, and now his third
was for Asia; so that when he threw aside his armor, and clothed
himself in the unostentations robe of a Roman citizen, he deserved,
both for his achievements and his moderation, the title of Pompzy THE
GREAT.

189. Firsr Trrumvirate.—s. 0. 60. Pompey was the most power-
ful man in Rome, and the idol of the army. Crassus was the richest
man in the state, and a favorite of the senate. Both were candidates

°

* After Pompey's departure, Mithridates returned to Pontus, and made himself master
of several places; Pharnaces, however, rebelled against him, in favor of the Romans. The
unhappy king sent to his son, offering to resign the crown if he would aid him in making
his eseape. The unnatural son bade the slave to tell his father that death was now all that
remained for him. Thus cut off from every hope, the wretched monarch assembled his
wives, and, presenting a cup of poison, bade them choose between death and captivity. To- {
gether tbey drank the fatal draught, and together they died in the palace of the Pontian
kings.

 

Questions.—187, What intelligence distressed the Romans? How was the distress
changed to admiration? Give an account of Pompey’s reception, 188, What temple is
spoken of? What inscription? What deeds were enumerated? What further is stated
of Pompey? 189. Who then was the wost powerful man in Rome? Who the richest? In
what year was the first triumvirate established ?
388 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [p. 0. 58

for the highest offices of the republic. At this juncture, when the
saffrages of the Roman peuple seemed vibrating between the two strong
attractions of gold and glory, Julius Ceesar* returned from his prastor-
ship in Spain. It was the time for electing consuls, and, perceiving
that if he gained the influence of one of these great men, he made the
other his enemy of course, he set about reconciling them. Having
frocured an interview between the rivals, he showed them the benefit
of a union of interests, and finally engaged them in a combination, by
which it was agreed that nothing should be done in the commonwealth
without their mutual coneurrence and approbation. This was called
the Firsr Triumvrrate.t

190. To cement this union, Cesar gave his daughter Julia in marriage
to Pompey, though she had long been afhanced to Marcus Brutus;
and both Crassus and, Pompey sustained the nomination of Cesar for
the consulship. He was successful, and then they ratified all his acts.
The triumvirate next agreed to share the world between them. Pom-
pey chose Spain and Italy; for, being already at the pinnacle of mili-
tary fuine, he wished to remain in Rome. Crassus selected Syria and
the East, because those provinces generally enriched their governors;
and to Caesar were left the unconquered territories of the Gallic tribes;
but as these promised little more than u harvest of danger, his com-
mand was granted for five years.

191. The obedient senate and the misguided people sanctioned all
these arrangements, and Cesar soon after marched to the north with
six legions. During the summer, he pushed his conquests among the
barbarous tribes inhabiting Gaul, Britain, and Germany; and every
winter he returned to Cisalpine Gaul, and passed the season very
agreeably with friends who came from Rome to see him. At one
time there were in his camp 120 lictors waiting upon their masters,
and 200 senators honoring him with their assiduities. At the end of
five years Crassus and Pompey visited him, and agreed to get his

*® This extraordinary man belonged to one of the most ancient and honorable families in
Rome, His aunt, Julia, was the wife of Marius, and he himself married the daughter of
Cinna, He was of a fair complexion, and delicate constitution; but ambition and cuny
exposure enabled him to endnre great fatigue. Such was his capacity for business, that ke
could dictate four letters at the same time.

+ Seon alter the triamvirate was formed, Cicero was driven into exile for having put
Catiline’s accomplices to death, and Cato was sent on an expedition to Cyprus.

 

Questions —189. What clatms had the rival candidates for the suffrages of the people ?
Who acted as conciliator? What combination was formed? 190. By what acts was the
union cemented? What division of the world did the three aspirants make? Why was
Cweear's portion the least enviable? What object had Crassus in going east? Why did
Pompey choose Spain and [taly? 191. What did the senate and people du? What con
quests did Cesar make? Tow did be secure his re-election ?
B. 0. 55.J POMPEY AND CASAR. 388

command continued five years longer, while he sent money to Rome
to buy votes for their election to the consulship,

192. B. 0. 55. This year Crassus departed for the east. The people,
who understood that he intended to make war upon their allies, the
Parthians, were very much displeased ; and when he went out of the city
one of the tribunes devoted him, and all who should follow him, to the
infernal gods. Undismayed, however, by this dreadful denunciation,
Crassus continued his course, and, landing in Asia Minor, soon overran
all Mesopotamia. He plundered the temple at Jerusalem, and took ap
his winter quarters in Syria. The next spring he set out for Parthia,
but, trusting an Arabian chief for guide, his forces were led over dry
and sandy plains, where neither stream, nor plant, nor tree appeared;
and finally, surrounded by an. active enemy in the midst of a’hostile
country, they all perished except Caius Cassius, and a band of 500
horse. The head and right hand of Crassus were cut off, and sent tu
the Parthian king.

193. Cesar extended the power of Rome far to the north. It would
be tedious to enumerate all his exploits. Suffice it to say, that “in
less than ten years he took 800 cities, conquered 300 nations, fought
1,000 battles, killed 1,000,000 of men, took as many more prisoners,
crossed over to Britain twice, and subdued all the tribes from the
Mediterranean Sea to the German Ocean.” The laurels of Miltiades
would not allow Themistocles to sleep; and the praises of Casar had
a similar effect upon Pompey. By the death of Crassus they were
left the sole competitors for supreme authority; and the decease of
Julia broke the tender tie which had bound them together. Pompey
effected the recall of Cicero, gained the favor of the stern Cato, and,
seeming to feel a deep anxiety for the welfare of the commonwealth,
proposed that Casar should be required to disband his army.

194. Cesar’s friends urged that the republic had more to fear from
the unlimited authority of one, than from the conflicting interests of
two, and therefore insisted that the rivals should both resign, or both
retain their power; but Pompey, who was enjoying the dignity of sole
consul, would not agree to this proposition. The senate, who were in
Pompey’s interest, passed a decree requiring Caesar to lay down his
military power within a given time, under penalty of being declared
an enemy to his country. Antony and Cassius vetoed the bill. The

 

(uestions.—192. When did Crassus depart for the east? Give an account of his exploits
and death. 193. What was Cwsar doing in Gaul at that time? Name some of his exploits.
How was the triple chain broken? What followed? 194. What did Caesar's friends urge
upon him? Why would not Pompey consent? What decree did the senate pass? Why
was the decree not carried out ¢
390 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [B. ©. 49.

oO

senate then had recourse to their highest prerogative, and directed the
consuls “to provide for the safety of the commonwealth.” Pompey
was appointed commander-in-chief of the armies of the republic.
Antony and Cassius, thinking their lives in danger, fled to the camp
of Czesar. :

195. Crsar passes THE Rusicon.—That general, perceiving that
the time had come to decide whether he should submit to Pompey or
Pompey to him, immediately broke up his camp in Cisalpine Gaul and
marched toward Rome. He paused upon the banks of the Rubicon,*
as if impressed with terror at the greatness of his enterprise. “If I
pass this river,” said he, ‘‘ what miseries shall I bring upon mny coun-
try! but if I now stop short, Zam undone.” At Jast, with an air of
stern resolve, he plunged into the water, exclaiming, ‘The die is
cast!” and was promptly followed by his soldiers. ‘*On his march,”
says Plutarch, ‘‘as if war had opened wide its gates, not individuals
were seen, as on other occasions, wandering about Italy, but whole
cities, broken up and seeking refuge by flight.”

196. Most of the tumultuous tide flowed toward Rome; and that
city was so filled with agitation and alarm, that the consuls were
unable to discharge the solemn trust of their office. Pompey, who
had all along assured the senate that “he could raise an army with
the stamp of the foot,” was now overwhelmed by censures from every
side. He could gain no certain intelligence of Cxsar’s movements, but
was continually embarrassed by terrifying reports. After vacillating
some time between hopes and fears, the conqueror of Mithridates left
Rome for Capua, where two legions, formerly in Ciesar’s service, were
stationed. The greater part of the senate and his own private friends
and dependents accompanied him; and all ranks of people followed
him some distance, with outeries and good wishes.

197. Cwsar, knowing that Rome would fall to the conqueror, did
not take that city in his way, but parsued Pompey to Capua. Pom-
pey retired to Brundusium, and embarked for Greece. Cvesar, being

* This was a little river which the Romans had ever considered the sacred boundary of
their domestic empire. The senate had caused to be engrayen on stone, and set up by the
side of the stream, an edict, devoting to the infernal gods, and branding with the crime of
sacrilege and parricide, any person who sleuld presume to pass the l:ubicon with an army,
a legion, or even a single cohort.

 

Questions.— 194, What then followed? What appointment was given to Pompey? What
course did Antony and Cassius then take? 195. What, finally, did Cassar perceive? How
is the Rubicon situated? (Map No. 4.) What is stated in the note about the Rubicon ?
How did Cwsar reason about crossing the Kubicon? Give the statement made by Plutarch.
196. What was the condition of Rome at that time? Give an aceount of Pompey’s move-
ments, 197. Give a further account of bis movements. Where was Capua? (Map No. 4.)
<€

B.¢.48.] THE PLAINS OF PHARSALIA. 391

unable to follow him for want of shipping, returned to Rome, with the
glory of having reduced Italy in sixty days-without spilling a drop of
blood. He treated all who surrendered with the greatest kindness,
telling them that he came not to destroy the liberties of his country,
but to restore them.

198. Caxsar Gors to Spaiy.—Securing the treasures of Rome, he
now determined to deprive Pompey of the assistance he expected from
Spain. Accordingly, having refreshed his men, he led them once
more a long and fatiguing march across the Alps, through dense
forests and over rapid rivers, into Spain; and when we consider that
every soldier carried 60 Ibs. weight of armor and ten days’ provision,
we must admire the address of a man who could, under such circum:
stances, retain the alleyiance of his army. Casar’s success equaled his
expectations. In forty days he subdued all Spain, and dismissed his
vanquished adversaries the richer and the happier for having been
conquered. When the victor arrived at Rome he was received with
demonstrations of joy, and created dictator and consul.

199. Dyrracuium.—While Cesar was thus employed, Pompey was
equally active in Greece. All the monarchs of the east declared in his
favor; crowds came from Italy to join his army; and Cicero and Cato,
the known advocates of freedom, secured for his cause the sanction of
the good throughout the world. Czsesar, resolving to terminate the
contlict as soon as possible, after much difficulty and danger, succeeded
in transporting lis troops to Epirus. <A battle was fought at Dyrra-
chium, in which Pompey had the advantage; but, neglecting to make
his success complete by seizing the camp, Ceesar reinarked, ‘‘ This day the
victory had been the enemy’s had their genera] known how to conquer.”

200. The scarcity of provisions soon after compelled Cxsar to remove
to Thessaly. Pornpey’s soldiers immediately cried out with one voice,
“Oesar is fled.” Some culled upon their general to pursue; others
advocated his return to Italy; others sent their servants to Rome to
hire houses near the forum; and not a few went over to Lesbos to
congratulate Cornelia, the wife of Pompey, on the conclusion of the
war. Pompey, however, thought it best to pursue Cesar, and wear
him out with famine; but when he overtook his rival upon the plains
of Pharsalia he suffered himself to be overruled, and orders were con-
sequently given to prepare for battle.

 

Questions.—197T. What is said of Casaur upon his return to Rome? 198. In what way did
he “head off” Pompey? What honors did he receive in Rome? 199. How was Pompey
wearwhile employed? Give an account of his successful preparations. Of the battle of
Dyrrachium. Where was Dyrrachium? (Map No. 2.) 200. What step was Casar com-
pelled tomake? What then did the soldiers of Pompey do? What did Pompey think it
best tu do? Where did he overtake Cesar? What change of pnrpose was then made ?
*

399 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [p. c. 43

vo

201. Barrie or. Puarsaria.—s. ¢c. 48. Cesar, who had in vain
used every art to bring on an engagement, was preparing early in the
morning to break up his camp, when his scouts brought intelligence
that the enemy were handling arms, as if getting ready for an attack.
Upon this news Cxsar joyfully exclaimed, “The long-wished-for day
is come when we shall fight with men, and not with famine.” Tho
red mantle was immediately displayed before his pavilion, and the
soldiers, with the greatest alacrity, harnessed for the battle. Cesar, to
obviate his want of cavalry, had trained six cohorts to fight between
the files of horsemen, not by discharging their javelins, according to
the usual custom, but by aiming directly at the visages of the enemy;
“For those fair young dancers,” said he, ‘ will fly to save their hand-
some faces.” The plain of Pharsalia was now covered with men, and
horses, and arms; and the two generals walked from rank to rank,
animating their soldiers with prospects of victory.

202. It was a fearful sight to see the same arms on both sides,
troops marshaled in the same manner, the same standards, the same
fierce Roman countenances; in short, the flower and strength of the
same city turned upon itself. On one side, Pompey prepared to do
battle against the man whom he had raised to power; on the other,
Gsar stood ready to tear the laurel from the brow of the husband
whom his departed darling Julia had loved better than life. The word
on Pompey's side was “Hercules the Invincible;” that on Cesar’s,
“Venus the Victorious.” Czesar’s soldiers rushed on with their usual
impetuosity, but, perceiving the enemy standing motionless, they stop-
ped short in the midst of their career. A terrible pause ensued, in
which both sides, being near enough to recognize the countenances of
their assailants, continued to gaze upon each other with dreadful sere-
nity; at length Czsar’s men, having taken breath, ran furiously for-
ward, first discharging their javelins, and then drawing their swords.
Pompey’s infantry sustained the attack with great resolution, and his
cavalry charging at the same time, Czsar’s men began to give ground.

203. At this moment Cwsar’s six cohorts advanced, and the cavalry,
just spurring on to victory, received an immediate check. The unu-
sual method of fighting pursued by the cohorts, their aiming at the
faces of the enemy, and the horrible disfiguring wounds they inade,
stopped the career of the ‘handsome dancers,” and caused them to
fly in great disorder. The cohorts then attacked the infantry in flank,

 

Questions.—201. When was the battle of Pharsalia fought? Give an account of the man-
ner in which if was brought about 202, 203. Give an account of the battle. To what was
Cwsar indebted for victory? Where was Pharsalia? (See Map No. 2.)
B.C. 48.] THE FALL OF POMPEY. 593

oO

and fresh troops coming up in front, that body also began to waver,
upon which Cesar called out, “Pursue the strangers, but spare the
Romans.’ The fight had continued from break of day till noon; the
soldiers were faint and weary; but Cesar, thinking his victory not
complete, summoned his men from the pursuit of the fugitives to
storm the camp.

204. Pomrry’s Friear.—As for Pompey, no sooner had he seen the
fate of his cavalry than he quitted the ranks like one distracted, and,
without considering that he was Pompey the Great, or making any
effort to rally his men, retired, step by step, to his tent, where he sat
down without saying a word. He was aroused by intelligence that
the enemy had commenced the work of plunder. ‘“ What,” cried he,
“into my very camp, too?” No time was to be lost. Silencing his
vain regrets, and hastily exchanging his armor for a disguise more
suitable to his present circnmstances, he took his solitary way through
the delicious vale of Tempe, wrapped up in such thoughts as a man
might be supposed to have who had been accustomed for thirty-four
years to conquer, and now felt for the first time the mortification of
defeat; as one who had lately seen himself guarded by fleets and
armies, and now was so meanly attired that his enemies passed him by
as of no consequence. He threw himself upon the ground, took his
evening draught from the river Peneus, and passed the night in the
hut of a poor fisherman.

205. The next morning he embarked in a small ship and sailed for
Lesbos, where Cornelia was waiting till he should come and take her
in triumph to Rome. When a messenger told Cornelia that her hus-
band had arrived with only one ship, and that not his own, she ran
down to the shore with tears and lamentations, and fell fainting into
his arms. A few friends speedily assembled, and embarked with the
fugitive pair for Asia Minor. They coasted along fur several days,
uncertain where to land, and fearing lest every ally should prove an
enemy; finally, Pompey, who had been a benefactor to Ptolemy
Auletes, decided on going to Egypt. The vessel came to anchor off the
coast, while Pompey sent a message to the young king, imploring pro-
tection. The corrupt ministers of the Egyptian court, thinking it
equally unsafe to receive or refuse him, proposed that he should be
invited on shore and sluin.

206. Exp or Pompey THE Great.—In pursuance of this treacher-

 

Questions.—204. How did Pompey behave directly after the battle? How, after the
enemy had commenced plundering his camp? Where did he pass the night? 205. For
what place did he.sail next morning? Where was the island of Lesbos? (Sec Map No. 2.)
Give an account of his flight to the time of his reaching Egypt.

V7
894 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [B. c. 48.

ous design, Septimius, formerly a centurion in Pompey’s army, and
Achillas, master of the Egyptian horse, embarked in a small galley
and rowed off toward the ship. The meanness of the preparations
excited the suspicions of the Romans; but Achillas: coming up, wel-
comed Pompey to Egypt with great cordiality, and apologized for his
little boat, by saying that the shallows prevented the sailing of a larger
one. After tenderly embracing Cornelia, Pompey stepped into the
galley with only two attendants. The most profound silence reigned,
till Pompey, recollecting the face of Septimius, remarked, “ Methinks,
friend, you and I were once fellow-soldiers together.” Septimius
nodded his head without saying a word.

207. In this manner they neared the shore; and Cornelia, who had’
never lost sight of the bark and its precious freight, began to breathe
more freely when she saw the people crowding down to the beach, as
if anxious to welcome her husband’s arrival; but the instant Pompey
rose Septimius stabbed him in his back, and Achillas immediately
seconded the blow. At this horrid sight, Cornelia shrieked so loud as
to be heard from the shore; but the danger she herself was in did not
allow the mariners time to look on; and, a favorable wind springing
up, they escaped the pursuit of the Egyptian galleys. Pompey’s mur-
derers, having cut off his head, caused it to be embalmed as a present
for Cresar; his body was thrown naked on the strand, a spectacle for
the idle or curious; his faithful freedman, however, kept near it, and,
when the crowd had dispersed, washed it in the sea. Then, gathering
the wrecks of a fishing-boat, he composed a pile and Se to
burn it.

208. While thus piously employed he was joined by an old Roman
soldier, who begged for “the last sad comfort of assisting at the fune-
ral of the bravest general Rome ever produced.” Together they stood
on that inhospitable shore, watching the flame till it died away; and
then, collecting the ashes of their beloved master, scraped with their
hands a little mound of earth over them, where afterward this inscrip-
tion was placed: ‘‘He whose merits deserve a temple can now scarce
find a tomb.””. Such was the end and such the funeral of Pompry THE
Great—a man who preserved a spotless character in the midst of
associates plunged in rapine and massacre; whose virtues were ob-
scured by the faults of the triumvirate, but whose melancholy and
undeserved fate converts all censure of his weaknesses into compassion
for his misfortunes.

 

Questions, —206, 207, 208. Of his inglorious death. What is said of Cornelia? Of the dis-
position made of Pompey’s body? Where did the scene take place?
Bo. 46] CHSAR VICTORIOUS. : 395

209. Cmsar aGarn.—Cxesar gave liberty to the Thessalians, in
gratitude for the victory at Pharsalia, and then pursued Pompey to -
Eeypt. We landed at Alexandria with a select body of troops, and,
soon after, the young king’s preceptors brought him the head and ring
of Pompey. He turned away with horror froin the ghastly counte-
nance of his rival, but he took his signet and wept over it. On the
spot where his humble grave had been made he ordered a magnificent
tomb to be erected, and treated every friend of Pompey with peculiar
Kindness. The attempts of Cesar to settle the succession to the
throne of Egypt in favor of Cleopatra involved him in a difficult and
dangerous war with the Egyptians. Tle first suffered from an attack
in the palace; next, his enemies stopped the aqueducts which supplied
him with water; then he was forced to burn his own ships to prevent
their being taken; and again he was near losing his life in a sea-fight,
when, leaping into the water, he swam from one vessel to another,
holding his Commentaries in one hand and his coat of mail in his
teeth. A re-enforcement arriving not long after, and Ptolemy being
drowned, Caesar was enabled to establish Cleopatra upon the throne.

210. The Egyptians submitted peaceably to her dominion, and Cesar
himself was completely captivated by her charms. Week after week,
and month after month, he lingered in Alexandria, till the brave vete-
rans who had followed his fortunes boldly rebuked his conduct, and
refused to accompany him in his excursions with the Ezyptian queen.
From this inglorious ease Ciesar was aroused by intelligence that
Pharnaces, son of Mithvidates, had seized upon Armenia and Colchis,
He immediately marched against the rebel, and reduced him with such
ease, that he wrote to Rome a letter containing only three words,
“Veni, vidi, viet” (I came, I saw, I conquered). Having settled
affairs in this part of the empire, gathered the revenues, and bestowed
provinces upon his followers, Caesar returned to Italy. During his
absence he had been created consul for five years, dictator for one
year, and tribune for life.

211. Exp or Cato.—Pompey’s party had, meantime, rallied in
Africa, under Scipio, Cato, and Juba (king of Maaritania). Scarcely,
therefore, had Ceesar laid aside his armor, when he was forced again
to buckle it on and embark for Africa. In the great battle of Thap-
sus he totally defeated his antagonists. Juba and his general killed

 

Questions,—209, How did Cesar treat the Thessalians? low did he act with relerence
to the head and friends of Pompey? How did he involye himself in a war with Exypt?
How did he establish Cleopatra upon the throne of Egypt? 210. What inflnence did Cleo-
patra exert upon Cassar? Upon what occasion did Owsar write his celebrated laconic letter?
Give the words of that letter, with their meaning. In what direction did Cwsar next go?
211. What account can you give of the battle of Thapsus? What became of Juba?
396 _ COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [B. C. 46

each other in despair; Scipio was drowned in un attempt to escape by
sea; so that of all the leaders of that unfortunate party, Cato alone
survived. After the battle of Pharsalia this extraordinary man had
led the wretched remnants of Pompey’s army through burning deserts,
infested by fiery serpents, to the city of Utica, where he formed the
principal persons into a senate, and established a government accerd-
ing to his ideas of liberty.

212. This city he attempted to defend against the whole force of
Cwsar, but, finding that the inhabitants were intimidated by the great-
ness of the undertaking, he resolved no longer to force them to be
free. Having, accordingly, made arrangements for some of his friends
to save themselves by sea, and directed others to rely upon Czwsar’s
clemency, he retired to his room, observing, ‘‘that as to himself, he
was at last victorious.” He read iu Plato’s Dialogue concerning the
soul till past midnight, when he fell into a profound sleep. Upon
awaking, and learning that his friends had embarked, he ordered his
attendants to leave the room, and, drawing his sword, gave himself a
mortal wound, As he fell upon the bed, he overturned a stand upon
which he had been drawing some geometrical figures; his family,
hearing the noise, rushed in, and found him in the agonies of death.
“ Cato,” said Casar, when he heard of it, “I envy thee thy death.”

213. Casar Dioratror.—The war in Africa being thus terminated,
Cwsar returned to Rome. Ile had conquered more countries than any
of his predecessors, and his triumph was proportionably splendid. It
lasted four days. The first was for Gaul; the second, for Egypt; the
third, for Asia; and the fourth, for the conquest over Juba in Africa.
Tis veteran soldiers, who had followed him from the frozen shores of
the Baltic to the burning sands of Africa; who had shared his toils
and dangers 13 years, now, all scarred with wounds, received their
honorable discharge, and accompanied him, crowned with laurel, to
the capitol. To every soldier he gave a sum equal to $700; double
that sum to a centurion; and four times as much to tLe superior olH-
cers. To every citizen he gave ten bushels of corn, ten pounds of oil,
.and about $5 in money. Te feasted the people at 20,000 tables, and
treated them to such games and shows of gladiators as drew immense
crowds into the city.

- 214. The Romans, charmed with his munificence, seemed eager to
find new methods of doing homage to their benefactor. He was

 

Questions. —211. OF Scipio? Where was Thapsus? (Sce Map No.1.) What had Cato
accomplished since the battle of Phar-ulia? 212. Give the particulars preceding the death
of Cato. Also, of his death, 213. The war in Africa being ended, what did Cursar then dot
How did he reward his soldiers? What did he give to each citizen? What else did he do
B.c. 45.) * HONORS TO CASAR. 397

created Magister Morum;* he received the titles of Emperor, and
Father of his country; his person was declared sacred, and his statue
was placed by the side of that of Jupiter in the capitol. While mat-
ters were going on thus prosperously at home, the sons of Pompey
again renewed the war in Spain. It took Cwsar nine months to quell
this revolt, and his danger was so great in one battle, that he observed,
“he had often fought for victory, but this was the first time he ever
fought for life.” One of the sons of Pompey was slain; the other col-
lected a fleet, and made his home upon the sea.t

215. Owsar, by this last blow, subdued all his avowed enemies... He
returned to Rome, to beautify and adorn it with all the works whick
art could furnish, and all the treasures which different climes could
bestow. Like Alexander, he conceived the project of consolidating all
governments into one great empire. It was his intention to visit
Parthia, avenge the death of Crassus, pass through Hyreania, enter
Scythia along the banks of the Caspian, cut his way through the
untrodden forests of Germany into Gaul, and so return to Italy. The
senate, with an adulation that marked the degeneracy of the times,
continued to load him with fresh honors. They called the month
Quintilis “‘July,” after his name; they stamped money with his
image;{ they instituted sacrifices on his birthday, and talked of enroll-
ing him among the gods.

216. One title, and one only, they denied him, and this title, above
all others, Cesar coveted. It was Kine. The crimes which the con-
duct of the Tarquinii had attached to that name, the hatred of it which
bad consequently been cherished in every Roman breast, made it inore
odious than ull other names beside. Old men who had hailed Sylla
perpetual dictator with joy; veterans who had saluted Pompey im-
perator, with enthusiastic acclamations; and young men who called
Ciesar emperor, father, god, were equally shocked with the thought of
his being Kina.

217. Exp or C.zsar.—Antony, at one of the public festivals, offered
Cesar a diadem; the multitude looked on in dejected silence; but
when Czsar refused the bauble, they rent the air with shouts. A few

* Master of the morals of the people.
+ Antony had taken possession of Pompey’s house in Rome.
+ See Mark xii. 13—1T.

 

Questions.—214. What follies did the Romans commit in doing homage to their bencfae-
tor? What happened in Spain? What became of Pompey’s sons? 215, After this victory,
what was the pursuit of Caesar? What ambitious views were burning in his heart? of
what adulation were the Roman senate guilty? 216. What is said of Caesar in connection
with the title of king? 217. How did Cesar reevive the offer of a diadem ?
398 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [B. c. 44

days after, Czsar’s statues were seen adorned with crowns. Two of
the tribunes went and tore them off, and the people applauded the
deed, styling the independent magistrates Brutuses; but Cwsar called
them Jrutes, and deposed them from their offices. These, and similar
acts, gave rise to a conspiracy, of which Caius Cassius was the head.
Marcus Brutus, the son-in-law of Cato, and about sixty senators, were
engaged in the plot. -Brutus was descended from that Brutus who
first gave liberty to Rome. THe fought on Pompey’s side in the battle
of Pharsalia, but Ceesar pardoned him, and loaded him with favors.

218. It was agreed to carry the plot into execution on the ides of
Murch, a day on which Csar’s friends proposed to invest him with
the title of king of all the conquered countrics, while he should still be
styled dictator in Italy. The augurs had warned him to beware of the
ides of March; and as his wife, the night before, dreamed he was
assassinated in ber arms, Cesar had determined not to go to the
senate-house that day. One of the conspirators, however, came in,
and, assuring him that the senate were waiting, prevailed upon him to
change his resolution. As he went along, a Greek philosopher handed
lim a paper containing the particulars of the plot, but Cesar guve it
to his secretary without reading. As he entered the senate-house, he
met the augur: “ Well, Spurinu,” said he, ‘the ‘ides of March’ are
come,”’— Yes,” replied the augur, ‘but not gone.”

219. No sooner had the dictator taken his seat, than the conspirators
crowded around him; and one, on pretense of presenting a petition,
knelt down and took hold of the bottom of his robe. Upon this signal
Casca stabbed him in the shoulder. Czeesar instantly turned, and
wounded the traitor with his stylus. All the conspirators now drew
their swords, and surrounded him in such a manner, that whichever
way he turned he saw nothing but steel gleaming in his face, and met
nothing but wounds. Still he defended himself, pushing back one
enemy, throwing down a second, and wounding a third, till Brutus,
coming up, thrust his dugger into his thigh. As if heart-broken with
the cruel wound, the dying Cwsar exclaimed, “ e¢ tu Brute,” (and thou,

. too, Brutus); and, disposing his robe so as to fall with decency, sank
down at the foot of Pompey’s statue, the base of which wus all dyed
with his blood.

220. Measurus or Tue Coxspiators.—There the mangled body
lay, while Brutus, raising his gory dagger, called on Cicero to rejoice
in his country’s liberty, and, ascending the tribunal, began to harangue

 

Questions,—217, 218, 219. What conspiracy followed soon after? Describe the tragedy in
the senate honse. 220. What was the course of Brutus? Of Antony?
Bo43.] ANTONY, OOTAVIUS, & LEPIDUS. 399

the sens ‘ors; they all fled, however, in such haste and dismay, that
their lives were endangered in the throng. Brutus and the rest of the
conspirators marched to the capitol, and garrisoned the place with a
band of gladiators. Next day Brutus made a speech to the people,
and congratulated them upon their freedom; while Antony and Lepi-
dus, taking possession of the forum, convened the senate, to decide
whether Cesar had been a lawful magistrate or a tyrannical usurper,
To stop commotions, to save confiscations and executions, this august
body approved all the acts of Cesar, and yet granted a general pardon
to his murderers. :

221. Antony, however, being determined to ride into power on the
waves of popular commotion, brought out the body of Cesar for
burial; and having read the dictator’s will, in which. every citizen was
munificently remembered, he so excited the minds of the people, that
they tore up the benches, and burned the body in the foram. Then
snatching flaming brands from the pile, they ran to set fire to the
houses of the conspirators, who fled from the city. The dead Caesar
was proclaimed a god, divine honors were paid to his memory, and an
altar was erected on the spot where his body was burned. While An-
tony was thus clothing himself with popular favor, the individual
before whose genius “the star of his destiny turned pale” appeared
in Rome. This was Octavius Cesar, grand-nephew of the late dicta-
tor. He had been in Athens at school, but, hearing of his uncle’s
death, hastened over to Italy to claim his inheritance, and bestow
legacies upon his friends. Antony, who was using this money to for-
ward his own plans, was little pleased to be called to an account; and
when the senate set up the young Octavius for his rival, his rage
knew no bounds.

222. Cicero joined the party of Octavius; and the senate passed a
decree that Antony should resign his government of Cisalpine Gaul,
and await their pleasure upon the banks of the Rubicon. Antony
indignantly refused to obey. The senate declared him an enemy to
Rome, and sent Octavius against him. A battle was fought, in which
Antony was entirely defeated, and compelled to fly to Lepidus, in Far-
ther Gaul. This victory made Octavius too powerful. The senate
refused him a triumph and the consulship. Perceiving ‘that it was
their intention to play him off against Antony, Octavius signified to
that general and Lepidus his desire of an accommodation. The place

Questions.—221, 222. What further is said of Antony’s course? Who was Octavius?
What was his business in Rome? What troubles portended? What battle was fought?

Why did the senate refuse Octavius a triumph and the consulship? What course did
Octavius then decide upon? Where is the town of Bologna? (See modern map.)
400 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [B. c. 43

appointed for the meeting was a little island in the Rhine, not far
from the present town of Bologna. They met as friends, and seated
themselyes in that isolated spot to settle a plan of operations which
should give to them sovereign power, and enable them to triumph
over their enemies.

223. Srconp Trromvinatre.—s. 0. 43. During the fatal three days
which the conference lasted, a Second Triumvirate was formed by
Lepidus, Antony, and Octavius; and there, with the world spread
before them as a map, they divided kingdoms, deposed governors, and
proscribed their fellow-citizens, with the utmost composure. Antony
was to have Gaul; Lepidus, Spain; and Octavins, Africa and the
islands of the Mediterranean. Italy and the eastern provinces were to
remain in common till the conspirators were subdued. The last arti-
cle of this agreement made Rome weep tears of blood. Each one
presented a list of his enemies for proscription. Lepidus gave up his
brother; Antony, his uncle; and Octavius consented to sacrifice the
immortal Cicero to the vengeance of Antony; besides which 200 sena-
tors and 2,000 knights were doomed to death. That was a dreadful
day for Rome, when the triumvirs, strong in their union, and strong
in the allegiance of the army, sent forth their assassins to seal with the
blood of her citizens the horrid compact made in the solitude of a
desert island in Gaul. Nothing but cries and lamentations were to be
heard within the walls, scarce a house escaping without a murder.

224. Cicero evaded his pursuers for some time, and put off to sea,
but soon landed again, declaring that ‘the would die in the country be
had so often saved.” The assassins of Antony found him, cut off his
head and right hand, and placed them over that rostrum where he
had so often declaimed upon the rights and privileges of Roman citi-
zens. Thus the proscription went on; many escaped to Macedonia,
where Brutus and Cassius were raising an army to restore the ‘ancient
liberties of the republic; and some fled to Sextus Pompey, who
covered the Mediterranean with his ships. At last the vengeance of
the triumviri seemed fully satisfied, and the executions being at an
end, Octavius and Antony marched with their army to oppose the
conspirators, leaving Lepidus to manage affairs in their absence.

225. Barrie or Puitippr—s. 0. 43. Brutus and Cassius had,
meantime, persuaded the Roman students in Athens to arm in the

 

Questions.—222, What is said of the meeting? 223, 224. By what means were Antony
and Octavius made friends? What object had they in common with each other? Whe
constituted the second triunvirate? Give an account of their proceedings. Of their pro-
scriptions, &c, 225. In what year did the battle of Philippi take place? Where was
Philippi? (See Map No. 2...) Who commanded the Roman youth ?
B. 0. 42.] tui DHATIT OF BRUTUS. 401

cause of freedoin ; auxitiaries also flocked to them from Macedonia and
Asia Minor, so that their army numbered twelve legions. and they
could count upon supplies fur protracting the war to any length of
time. Antony and Octavius encoantered them at Philippi. The first
engagement was indecisive. Brutus put the troops of Octavius to
flight, but Cassius was defeated and slain. Twenty days after, Brutus
was compelled again to give battle. His spirits were very much
depressed, and a sad foreboding of his fate diminished his natural
ardor.* He, however, led forward his troops and attacked the enemy
with great fury. As before, he was successful where he commanded
in person, but the troops of Cassius, remembering their former defeat,
fled before the impetuous charge of Antony, and victory soon declared
in favor of the triumvirs.

226. Brutus, surrounded by his most valiant officers, fought for a
long time with amazing valor, and not till the son of Cato and the
brother of Cassins had fallen by his side could he be persuaded to
leave the field. With much difficulty he escaped from his pursuers,
and concealed himself under the shadow of a bending rock. A few
friends gathered round, with whom he conversed for a time, upon the
adversity which virtue suffers at the hand of fortune. He then retired
to a little distance, and having persuaded Strato, his master in oratory,
to hold his sword, threw himself upon it and expired.t Antony
treated the body of Brutus with great respect, threw his own robe
over it, and caused it to receive funeral honors.

227. DissoLuTion oF THE TriumyiraTe.—After the victories at
Philippi, Antony passed through Greece and Asia Minor, settling the
revenues of the provinces, and calling governors to account with the
air of asovereign.{ But when the beautiful Cleopatra, queen of Egypt,
came to Tarsus to answer for having furnished supplies for the con-

* When Brutus was in Sardis he was in the habit of waking at midnight and studying
till morning. “ One night,” says Plutarch, “ when the whole army lay in sleep and silence,
Brutus, turning toward the door, saw a horrible specter standing silently by his side. ¢ Art
thou God or man? said the intrepid general. ‘I am thy evil genius, Brutus,’ replied the
phantom; ‘thou wilt see me at Philippi When the apparition was gone, Brutus called
his servants, but, finding they had seen nothing, resumed his studies, The night preceding
this second battle of Philippi it is said the specter came again and warned him of his doom,”

t+ It is observed, that of all those who had a band in the murder of Cesar, not one died a
natural death. Porcia, Cato’s daughter (the wife of Brutus), killed herself by swallowing
burning coals.

t+ He established Herod in the kingdom of Judea, and supported him against every
opposer.

Questions.—225, What auxiliaries flocked to their standard? What is said of the first
engagement? Of the sccond? Who were the victors? 226. What was the fate of Brutus?
227. After the victories of Philiy pf whatdid Antony do% W hat is said of him and Cleopatra?
402 COMMONWEALTH OF ROME. [B. o. 31.

spirators, the conqueror became a captive, and was led off to Egypt in
her chains. Octavius returned to Rome, where he commenced a train
of operations which finally put him in possession of absolute power.
He dispossessed the peaceful inhabitants of the fertile vales of Italy,
and established his veteran soldiers in their habitations. The poet
Virgil alone, of all the people of Mantua, was permitted to retain his
patrimonial farm. A civil war, excited by Fulvia, wife of Antony,
next distracted the Roman state. Fulvia, being conquered, went to
Greece and died there. Antony, roused by the trump of war, hast-
ened to Italy to fight with Octavius. They met at Brundusium; a
reconciliation took place, and Antony married Octavia, sister of his
brother triumvir. Though this was a political union, yet the virtue
and beauty of Octavia exercised a beneficial influence upon Antony,
and for four years he remained with her, in harmony with Octavius
and Lepidus.

228. A new division of the empire was made, by which Antony
received the east; Octavius, the west; Lepidus, Africa; and Sextus
Pompey, the islands of the sea. Antony undertook an expedition into
Parthia, but returned after an inglorious campaign to Cleopatra. Octa-
vius quarreled with Pompey, and drove him from one place to ano-
ther, till he was put to death by Antony’s lieutenant. He then com-
menced a war with Lepidus for the island of Sicily, and having secured
the person of his opponent, banished him. Antony was now the sole
obstacle of his ambition, and Octavius began his machinations against
him by rendering his character as contemptible as possible at Rome.
In this he was very successful, for Antony’s mismanagement in the
Parthian expedition, his neglect of the injured Octavia, his all-absorb-
ing devotion to Cleopatra, and his display of power in giving away
crowns and thrones, irritated the people, and disposed them to take
up aris against him.

228. Barrie or Actium, B. 0. 31. War between the rivals was
finally declared in due form. Octavius approached from Italy with
all the forces of the west, and Antony came on from the east with an
overwhelming army. The bay of Actiuin, on the coast of Epirus, was
the Pharsalia of these two triumvirs; and here again a decisive battle
sent the one a fugitive to Egypt. and gave to the other the empire of

 

Questions.—227, What did Octavius do? What is said of Fulvia? What induced Antony
fo hasten to Italy? Where did he meet Octavius? In what manner did they become
reconciled? 228. What new division of the empire was made? In what was Antony
unsuccessful? What became of Pompey? Of Lepidus? What machinations did Octavius
Instigate against Antony? How far was he successful? 229. Where was Actium ? (See
Map No. 2.) When was the battle of Actium fought? Give an account of it,
no. 3Ly AUGUSTUS. 403

the world. After having spent two years in the east, arranging the
affairs of Egypt, Greece, Syria, and Asia Minor, Octavius returned to
Rome. He had now no rivals and no avowed enemies, The laws of
the triumvirate were abolished, and after his seventh consulship he
resigned his power. The senate, however, besought him to retain it;
and with apparent reluctance he continued to do so, under the title of
PrinoE oF THE Senate. By degrees all offices of trust and dignity
were united in his person. He was styled imperator, or commander-
in-chief by sea and land; he was elected proconsul of all the prov
inces; perpetual tribune of the people; censor, and pontifex maximus ;
the laws were made subject to him, and the observance of them
depended upon his will.

230. Thus secure in power, he laid aside the vices which had
deformed his character, and strove to make the people forget in the
beneficent rule of the Emperor Avevstvs the tyranny of the triumvir
Octavius. The wars which he carried on in Spain, Germany, and
other countries, were all terminated in favor of the Roman arms; a
treaty was concluded with the Parthians, by which they gave up
Armenia, and restored the eagles taken from Crassus and Antony;
and thus completing the victories of his predecessors, and awing the
nations into peace, he made Rome the mistress of the world!* The
little city founded by Romulus 750 years before, now contained within
its massy walls 4,000,000 of souls, and held in subjection all nations
from the Euphrates to the Atlantic; from the Scandinavian wilds to
the immense deserts of Africa and the cataracts of the Nile.

* Tacitus thus sums up the causes which conspired to place Augustus in the position
he occupied: “ The fate of Brutus and Cassius being decided, the commonwealth had no
longer an army engaged in the cause of liberty. The younger Pompey received a total
overthrow on the coust of Sicily; Lepidus was deprived of his legions, and Mark Antony
fell on his own sword. In that situation the partisans of Julius Cesar bad no leader but
Octavius, w ho laid aside the invidious title of triumvir, content with the more popular name
of consul, and with the tribunitian power which he professed to assume for the protection
of the people. In a little time, when he bad allured to his interest the soldiery by a profu-
sion of largesses, the people by distributions of corn, and the minds of men in general by
the sweets of peace, his views grew more aspiring. By devrees and almost imperceptibly
he drew into his own hands the authority of the senate, the functions of the magistrates,
and the administration of the laws. To these encroachments no opposition was made.
The true republican had perished either in the field of battle or by the rigur of proserip-
tions; of the remaining nobility, the leading men were raised to wealth and honors in pro-
portion as they courted the yoke; and all who, in the distraction of the times, had fisen tu
affluence, preferred immediate euse and safety to the danger of contending for ancient 2
freedom.”

 

Questions.—229, 230. How did Octavius spend the next two years? Relate the history
of Octavius until the Christian Era. Bound the Roman Fmpire on Map No. 1.
THE CHRISTIAN ERA.
SECTION VIII.

1. a.p. LOO, Avarstvs* was now emperor of the world. For
=6 years he had reigned without arival. A perfect calm prevailed at
Rome. The younger part of the community were born since the battle
of Actium, and the old during the civil wars. Augustus, in the vigor of
health, maintained at once his own dignity, the honor of bis house,
and the public tranquillity. The temple of Janus was closed for the
third time; and the bloody trade of war was exchanged for the quiet
pursuits of the husbandman and artisan,

2. ‘In those days, when Herod was king in Judea, and Cyrenius
was governor of Syria, there went out a decree from Omsar Auustus,
that all the world should be taxed.’ Joseph and Mary, of the house
and lineage of David, in consequence of this decree, were called to the
little town of Bethlehem, and there was born the **Savieur, who is
Christ the Lord.’ Angels published his advent; shepherds worshiped
around the holy babe; and wise men, guided by his star, came from
the east and presented to him gifts—gold, frankincense, and myrrh;
but Augustus sat upon his gilded throne, in the palace of the Casars,
unconscious that in the far-off province of Judea, in the humble yil-
lage of Bethlehem, the Prince of Peuce had appeared to purchase and
establish a kingdom, before which » the gold, the silver, the brass, and
the iron” of all former dominions * should become as the chatf of the
summer threshing-floor.”

3. Augustus lived fourteen years after this event, every year inereas-
ing his fame by acts of beneticence, and by the splendid works with

* Augustus was something below the middle size, but well proportioned, THis hair was
of a yellowish brown, and inclined to curl; his eyes were bright and lively ; but the general
expression of his countenance was remarkably calm and mild.

 

Tue Curistran Era.—sSeetion VIUI—Questions.—1, At this epoch who was emperor of
the world?) How many years did he reign without a rival? 2. Give an account of the
birth and lineage of our Saviour, 3. Low many years did Augustus live alter this event?
A.D. 14.) TIBERIUS. 405

which he adorned his native city ;* and every year receiving new hon-
ors from the senate, and increased homage fram the people. Altars
were erected to him, and the month Sevéidius was named “ August”
in his honor, He had divorced his third wife to marry Livia, the wife
of Tiberius, an unprincipled wowan, who in his old age completely
ruled him. He had also many domestic troubles. His daughter Julia
he was forced to banish for her bad conduct; her sons, whom he had
appointed his successors, died young; Tiberius, the eldest son of Livia,
he had sent into exile; and Drusus, the youngest son, whom he ten-
derly loved, fell a victim to disease on his return from Germany.
These afflictions, and the infirmities of age, disposed him to seek the
quiet of the country. He died at Nola, in Campania, a. p. 14, in the
76th year of his age, and the 45th of his reign.

4. Trpertus.—Tiberius, the son of Livia, was immediately acknow-
ledged his successor. The time had not yet come when an aspirant
could assume the purple as an hereditary right. Tiberius, therefore,
affected to decline the homage of the senate, and to distrust his own
ability to sustain the weight of the empire. Ie proceeded, however,
to deliver the royal standard to the pratoriau guards, and to secure
their attendance upon his person; while he put to death Agrippa, the
last grandson of Augustus, as he said, by command of the late emperor.
These acts were but the commencement of the dark, crooked, and san-
guinary policy which marked his administration. Those whom he
bated, those whom he feared, and those whom he ought to have loved,
were alike suspected, watched, and destroyed. A gloomy jealousy
kept him constantly alive to the reports of spies and informers. The
law of violated majestyt became the occasion of numerous executions
and confiscations. ¥

5. Germanicus, the son of his brother Drusus, quelled a dangerous
revolt in Germany, and refused the title of emperor which the legions
insisted upon his assuming; but this display of virtue only roused the
suspicions of Tiberius. Germanicus was recalled, ostensibly to enjoy

* He beautified Rome so much that it was truly said of him: “Ie found it of bri ‘ and
left it of marble.”

t+ By a law of the Twelve Tables libels were strictly prohibited. Sylla construed all
aspersions upon bis character into violations of the majesty of the Roman people; and many
persons in consequence suffered under the penalty of this law. Augustus revived it, and
Tiberius made it a permanent law of the empire. Whoever was obnoxious to the prince or
his favorites was brought within the law of majesty. Every thing was a state crime, and
the trade of a public accuser became one of the most lucrative in the city.

 

Questions.—3. What were his domestic troubles? In what year did he die? At what
place? (Sce Map No. 4.) 4. Who was Tiberius? What deeds of cruelty characterized bis
reign? 5, What is said of Germanicus? Of his fate?
406 EMPIRE OF ROME. [a. D. 37

a triumph, and fill the office of consul. The noble general entered
Rome seated in a lofty triumphal car, with his five children, while his
followers displayed the spoils of the conquered, with various pictures
of battles, mountains, and rivers, or led in chains the captive barba-
rians. The people rent the air with acclamations; and Tiberius,
seeming to share in the general joy, distributed money to the multi-
tude in the name of hisnephew. Not long after, Tiberius laid the
condition of the eastern provinces before the senate, representing to
the fathers that he was now in the vale of years, and his son Drusus
yet a youth. His conclusion was, that to settle the troubles in Syria
and Armenia, recourse must be had to the wisdom of Germanicus.
The new consul was accordingly sent thither, accompanied by Piso, a
man capable of any crime. He never returned. His widow, Agrip-
pina, brought home his ashes in an urn, and demanded justice upon
the murderer of her husband. Tiberius gave up Piso to the senate.
The wretched man, not daring to accuse the emperor, escaped the
ignominy of a public execution by suicide.

6. A vicious Volscian, Sejanus, had ingrafted himself into the affec-
tions of Tiberius. During the eight years which this unworthy favor-
ite retained his influence over the emperor, Drusus, the only son of
Tiberius, was poisoned; the two oldest sons of Germanicus were put
to dgath, and Agrippina was banished. By his persuasions the em-
peror left Rome in the twelfth year of his reign, and took up his resi-
dence upon the little island of Capra. The impure orgies with which
this retreat was disgraced cannot be recounted here. Tiberius, who
was almost always intoxicated, gave up all the cares of state to Seja.
nus; and the servile senate bestowed upon him honors second only
to those of the emperor.

7. The law of violated majesty was strictly enforced by the sangui-
nary minister. The rich and noble, objects of suspicion to a jealous
tyrant, and obstacles in the path of an ambitious favorite, were daily
sacrificed to quiet the apprehensions of the one or the other; till
finally, the heirs of the imperial family being destroyed, the power of
the great enfeebled, and the pratorian bands gained over to his inte-
rest, Sejanus thought the empire within his grasp. The plot was
detected, and Antonia,* the mother of Germanicus, accused him to the
emperor. Sejanus was strangled by the executioner. His death wag
almost immediately followed by that of his royal master. The sick-
bed of the emperor was attended by Caligula, only son of Germanicus,

* This Antonia was the daughter of Antony and Octavia.

Questions.—b, 7. What of Sejanus? Of the law of violated majesty ?
A. De 87,] CALIGULA 407

who, having waited some time in vain for the last breath of the tyrant,
pressed a pillow upon his mouth, and avenged, though late, the
wrongs of his parents and brothers. The news of Tiberius’s death was
received at Rome with cries of “ Tiberius to the Tiber.” His body
was, however, carried to the city by the soldiers, and buried with
funeral honors, a. p. 31, aged 78,

8. In the eighteenth year of Tiberius’s reign, Jesus Christ was cruci-
fied. Shortly after, Pontius Pilate wrote to Tiberius an account of his
miracles and resurrection, upon which the emperor made a report of the
whole to the senate, requesting that Christ might be acknowledged a
god by the Romans. The fathers, however pliant upon other subjects,
were obstinate upon this, and, under plea of an ancient law, refused
the emperor’s demand, and ordered ali Christians to quit the city.

9. CatieuLa.—Caius Cesar spent the early years of his life in the
camp in Germany. He was a great favorite with the legions, and was
surnamed by them ‘* Caligula” from his wearing a little pair of shoes
(caligas), such as covered the feet of the common soldiers. After his
father’s death and his mother’s banishment, he lived with his great-
grandmother Livia; when she died, he removed to the family of his
grandmother Antonia. In his twentieth year Tiberius invited the
young Cesar to take up his abode with him upon the island, where he
displayed such wanton cruelty that the emperor predicted that ‘Caius
would prove a serpent to swallow Rome, and a pheton to set the
world on fire.” Caligula, however, was no sooner possessed of sove-
-reign power than he assumed an appearance of great virtue and mode-
ration. The authority of the magistrates was restored; the will of
Tiberius faithfully executed; and all prosecutions for treason were
forbidden.

10. This delightful state of things lasted eight months, when the
emperor fell dangerously sick, in consequence, it was supposed, of a
love-potion given him by his mistress. When he recovered, either
deranged by disease or wearied of dissimulation, he began his course
of cruelty and crime. In a short reign of four years, he so distin-
guished himself by every species of wickedness that ‘the tyranny of
Tiberius was forgotten in the enormities of Caligula.” With him,
prodigality and avarice went hand in hand. He dissipated the trea-
sures which Tiberius had collected in the most foolish and expensive
works, and found occasions against noble and wealthy people to get

 

Questions.—8. In whose reign was Christ crucified? In what year did it oceur? 9. Who
was Cains Cesar? Why was he called Caligula? What was the prophecy of Tiberins con-
cerning him? How did Caligula at first reign? 10. Give an account of his subsequ nt
reign. How did he proclaim his poverty ?
408 EMPIRE OF ROME. [A. D. 41.

possession of their estates. ° He sold all the property of his sisters, the
furniture of the old court, the clothes of Augustus and Tiberius, and,
having a daughter born, he proclaimed his poverty, and stood in his
vestibule to receive presents of all who came to congratulate him.

11. He made an expedition into Gaul, and even set sail for Britain;
but soun ordered his troops to draw back to the shore, and fill their
helmets with sea-shells. ‘This booty,’ cried he, ‘‘ravished from the
sea, is worthy my palace and the capitol.” His horse seemed to have
a peculiar claim upon his affections. It was keps in a stable of marble,
and fed trom a manger of ivory. Sometimes it was invited to the
table of the emperor, and presented with gilt oats, and wine in a
golden cup. The wanton murders and confiscations with which Rome
was filled had caused several conspiracies against Caligula, which,
being discovered, brought the usual train of impeachments and execu-
tions. Cherea, a tribune of the pretorian bands,* at last delivered the
empire from the tyrant, a. vp. 41.

12. CLaupits.—No sooner was the death of Caligula known, than
the royal guards began to wreak their vengeance upon all those whom
they supposed concerned in his murder. As they were hurrying
through the palace in their work of death, they found Claudius, uncle
of the late king, hiding in an obscure corner, and immediately pro-
claimed him emperor, assigning as their reason, “his relationship to
the whole fainily of the Ozsars.”t Claudius was now fifty years old;
he had been a rickety child, and disease, together with severe treat-
ment, had perpetuated the timidity and indolence of childhood.
Though styled * the silly emperor,” his imbecilities were to be attri-
buted rather to his vices than to his want of abilities. He embellished
Rome with many magnificent works, and went in person to the war
in Britain; but, suffering himself to be ruled by women of the most
abandoned character, he was induced to put to death many of the
nobles of Rome upon false charges of conspiracy, and to bestow their
estates upon his unworthy favorites.

13. Claudius married Agrippina, daughter of Germanicus, his niece.
She prevailed on him to set aside his own Britannicus, and adopt

* In every Roman camp the veneral’s tent was called the Pretorius. The soldiers who
formed the emperor's body-guard were called the pratorian cohorts, These soldiers were
quartered at Rome, till Sejanus, in order to forward bis own dark designs, persuaded
Tiberins to form a pretorian camp without the city. -

+ He was the brother of Germanicus, and consequently the nephew of Tiberius,

Questions.—11. What further account can you give of him? Jlow many years did ha
reign? What was the cause of his death? 12 Relate how Claudius was made euiperor
How old was be then? What was his character? 13, Whom did he marry ?
A. D. 64.] NERO. 409

Nero, her child by a former husband. The weak father having after-
wards shown a disposition to change the succession, Agrippina pre-
pared for him a dish of mushrooms, spiced with poison. Tt was noth-
ing uncommon for the emperor to eat and drink till he was perfectly
stupid; when, therefore, he was carried from the table to bed after
this fatal repast, no surprise was excited; and Nero, under the guid-
ance of his mother, had time to secure the guards and take possession
of the imperial authority before the death of Claudius was generally
known. He reigned almost 14 years.

14. Nero.—a. pv. 54. Nero, the fifth in descent from Antony,
though but seventeen years old, was hailed as emperor with joy by
the Roman populace, and with all due professions of respect by the
obsequious senate. He had been carefully educated by Seneca the
philosopher, and the first five years of his reign were distinguished by
justice and clemency. Agrippina, who had gone to such lengths in
crime to secure the throne for her son, was ambitious to share his
power. When, however, he rejected her counsels, and gave his con-
fidence to Acte, a female slave, the indignant queen broke out into
oven reproaches, and threatened to inform the soldiers of the means
by which Britannicus had been set aside. The death of Britannicus at
a banquet was the consequence of this threat. The funeral took place
the same night, and Nero followed the atrocious act by a proclamation
calling upon the Roman people to support him, ‘now the only branch
of afamily born to rule the world.” This murder forms the com-
mencement of Nero’s series of cruelties. He .divorced his wife
Octavia to marry Poppa, whom he had taken from her husband Otho.
This beautiful but uoprinecipled woman led him on to still greater
crimes. Agrippina continued her struggles for power; and Nero,
wearied of the contentions between her and Poppaa, caused his
mother to be assassinated.

15. In the year a. pv. 64, a fire broke out in the circus at Rome,
which raged about ten days with the greatest fury. It was believed
that these flames were kindled by Nero’s order, and a report was cir-
culated that during the conflagration he went to the theater and sung
some verses upon the burning of Troy. Wishing, however, to escape
popular indignation, Nero threw the odium of the act upon the Chris-
tians, of whom there were great numbers in Rome, and the most ter-

 

Questions.—13. Give the closing account of him. 14. Who was Nero? When did ho
become emperor? By whom had he been educated? What is said of the first five years
of his reign? What is said of Britunnicus? What crimes followed? 15. What fire oc
curred? What belief prevailed in connection with the fire? Give an account of the perse
cution of the Christians.

18
+10 EMPIRE OF ROME. [a. D. 64.

rible persecutions of these peaceable citizens consequently ensued.
“Some were covered with the skins of wild beasts, and eft to “be
devoured by dogs: some were crucified; great numbers were be-
headed; and many, covered over with inflammable matter, were lighted
up when the day declined, to serve us torches during the night. "*

16. For the convenience of seving this trazic spectacle, Nero lent
his own gardens, and varied the entertainments by driving round ir
his curricle and engaging in the sports of the circus. Nero caused the
city and his own honse to ke rebuilt with ruinous splendor. The
rubbish was removed to the marshes of Ostia; the streets were made
wide and long; the houses were carried up to a specific height,
and adorned with areas and porticos in front. In the same year the
Jews, roused to fury by the cruelty and impiety of Florus, their pro-
curator, took up arms to resist the Roman power; and such was the
desperation with which they fought, that Nero, with ill-concealed
terror, ordered Vespasian, an officer who had distinguished himself in
Britain, to repair immediately to the east. A conspiracy against the
emperor was discovered, and followed by the usual train of judicial
murders. Many innocent persons were put to death upon false accu-
sations, among whom were Seneca and the poet Lucan.

17. About the same time, Poppzwa died in consequence of a kick
received from her brutal husband. Childishness and eruelty at length
became the principal characteristics of the emperur. His voice was
weak and unpleasant, but, fancying himself a splendid singer, he deter-
mined to exhibit in the theater. No person was allowed to leave the
house while he was performing; svldiers were stationed in different
places to see that the audience bestowed the proper quantity of
applause, and one old senator, having unfortunately dropped to sleep,
came very near losing his life.

18. Wearied at last with the commendations of his countrymen, he
resolved to display his talents to the retined Grecians. Messenzers
were sent before the monarch, to require the celebration of all the
games in one year. At Olympia he undertook to drive ten horses
around the Stadium, and though he was thrown from his seat, yet the
obsequious judzes bestowed upon him the victor’s Wreath. The
Greeks, indeed, spared no pains to win his favor. They conferred
upon him 1,800 erowns! Nero entered Rome upon his return seated
in the chariot of Augustus, with his wild ‘olive garland around his

* In this persecution St Paul was beheaded and St. Peter cracified ?

 

Questions,—18, What is said of the rebuilding of Rume? Of the war with the Jews? ot
Seneca and Lucan? 17. Of Nero asa singer? 18. Of Noro in Grecee?
A.D. 68.J GALBA—OTILO. 411

head, the Pythian bay in his hand, and his 1,800 laurels by his side.

The whole city was illuminated; ineense was burned in the streets;

the pavements were strewed with saffron, and flowers were showered

upon him from the windows. The detestable acts of Nero and his

predecessors had filled the provinces with discontent, and a general

revolt was the consequence. Galba, the pretor of Spain, was pro-

claimed emperor by the legions, and immediately began his march to -
Rome.

19. Nero heard this intelligence while he was at supper. Te over-
turned the table with his foot; fell into a swoon; then into a violent
fit of rage, threatening to poison the senate, and turn the wild beasts
loose upon the people; then talked of taking refuge in Parthia, and
finally gave orders for packing his musical instruments, and preparing
his women for departure. The preetorian guards, meantime, declared
for Galba, and the citizens of Rome, rejoiced at the prospect of a
change in the administration, joined in the revolt. His friends
deserted him; his domestics plundered his house and fled; and the
senate condemned him to death. The unhappy tyrant made his
escape to the house of his freedman, where, after several ineffectual
attempts, he succeeded in giving himself a mortal wound, in the 32d
year of his age, and 14th of his reign. The race of Ciesar ended with
Nero. He was the last and the worst of that illustrious house, which
held the sway in Rome for more than one century.

20. GaLBa.—a. bv. 68. The united reigns of the three monarclis,
Galba, Otho, and Vitellius, did not amount to two years. Galba was
72 years of age when he returned from Spain to ascend the throne of
the Cwsars. He was rigidly attached to the ancient discipline, and
immediately made preparations to reforin the state. The army, how-
ever, clamored loudly against his efforts, and the various favorites
who surrounded his person artfully increased the dissatisfaction. One
ridiculed his simplicity, another exclaimed against his cruelty. Otho,
the husband of Poppa, having bribed two officers of the pretorian
bands, gained that whole body over to his interest, and was proclaimed
emperor. Galba caused himself to be carried out in a litter to sup-
press the mutiny, but the tumultuons shouts of Otho’s partisans so
frightened the litter-bearers, that they threw the old man down and
ran away. Galba, seeing the soldiers coming up, bent his head for-
ward and bade them strike it off, if it were for the good of the peuple.

 

Questions.—18. Of Galba? 19. Of the end of Nero? What race endedewith him? 20. In
what year did Galba ascend the throne? Wow old was he then? By what obstacles wiz
he opposed? How was he killed?
412 EMPIRE OF ROME. [4. D. 69

They took him at his word, and the bloody head of the emperor was
svon after exposed upon a lance to the sneers of the multitude. Te
reigned seven months.

21. Orno.—a. p. 68.—The exrly life of Otho was disgraced by
licentiousness and crime; his brief enjoyment of power was marked
by moderation and clemency. Vitellius had been proclaimed emperor
by the legions in Germany, before the death of Gulba; and seareely
was Otho seated upon the throne, when he was summoned to lead the
preetorian cohorts against their veteran brethren. Ife was defeated in
battle, and fell on his own sword, after a reign of ninety-five days.

22. Viretiius.—a. p. 69.—Vitellius had been long accustomed to
the atmosphere of the court. Ile ministered to the pleasures of Tibe-
rius in Capra; he drove a chariot for Caligula; he gamed with
Claudius; and he praised the singing of Nero. In all the corruptions,
crimes, and prodigalities of the age, he excelled his masters. Tis sol-
diers, in their march southward, committed every species of excess;
and when he reached Rome, he made the whole city his camp, and
filled all the hotses with armed men. The miseries which the empire
suffered at thé hands of Vitellius were fortunately soon terminated.
The legions in the east had scareely acknowledged Galba, when they
were called upon to ratify the usurpation of Otho. Now, when the
eruel and voluptuous glutton, Vitcllius, claimed their allegiance, they
openly revolted, and proclaimed Vespasian, their own general, empe-
ror. Vitellius attempted to make good his claims by the sword, but
the lieutenant of Vespasian, while his master was arranging the affiirs
of the east, stormed the camp of the guards, took Vitellius prisoner,
dragged him throngh the streets, and cast his mangled body into the
Tiber.

23. Vespastan.—a. p. 69. During five years Vespasian had pushed
the Jewish war with vigor. The maritime towns of the Mediter-
ranean had submitted ; all Galilee* was subdued, and the general was
just preparing for the siege of Jerusalem when the revolutions in the
empire changed the conrse of his destiny and reenlled him to Rome.

* At the city of Jotapata, in Galllee, he took Josephus prisoner, The captive. being brought
into his presence, thus addressed him: © LT come to thee, O Vespasian, as the Inessenger of

great tidings. Dost thon send me to Nero? Thou, O Vespasian, art Caesar and emperor,
thon and this thy son.” The Roman general did not then believe hii; bat afier the pro
pleey was fulfilled he released Josephus from his bonds and treated him with great favor

Josephus remained with Titus, and witnessed the destruetion of Jerusalent.

Questions.—21, Who next aseended the throne? What caused his death? How long
had he reigned? 22. By whom was he sneceeded? When did Vitellins commence his
reien? Who was procluimed emperor by the people? To what miserable death wag
Vitellins doomed? 23. When did Vespasian succeed him? In what wars did Vespasian
engaye 2?) What occurred to recall him to Rome?
A.D. 70.) JERUSALEM BESIEGED. 413

Leaving then the Jewish war in the hands of his son Titus, he returned
to Italy by way of Egypt, and, having overcome his cnemies, was
acknowledged emperor by the senate and people.

24. Jerusalem was built upon two mountains, and surrounded by
three walls on every side, except where the rocks rose so precipitously
as to be a natural defense. Mount Sion, the loftiest summit, was
fortified by three towers, the most impregnable and beautiful of which
was Antonia, <A deep valley, through which flowed the sweet waters
of Siloam separated it from Mount Acra, which bent toward it in the
shape of the moon when it is horned. <A third part of the city was
Bezetha, separated likewise from Acra by a valley partly filled up, and
defended by the outermost wall. The lofty towers which ran along
the steep brow of Sion were built of white marble, cut in large blocks,
joined so perfectly as to seem hewn out of the solid rock.

25. “High above the city rose the temple, uniting tl.e commanding
strength of a citadel with the splendor of w sacred edifice. It covered
a space of a furlong on each side, and the precipitous sides of the
rock were faced up to it on the east with huge blocks of stone.
Passing the marble columns of dazzling whiteness which supported
the splendid porticos of the outer court, the eye rested upon a lofty
arch, covered with gold, through which glittered the gate of the tem-
ple, sheeted with the same precious metal. Within, the golden can-
dlestick spread out its flowering branches; the golden table supported
the shew-bread, and the altar of incense flamed ‘with its costly per-
fume.” The roof of the temple was set all over with sharp glittering
spikes; the marble turrets reflected the beams of the sun with dazzling
radiance, and at a distance ‘the whole temple looked literally like a
mount of snow fretted with golden pinnacles.”

26. This beautiful but guilty city was occupied by three factions.
Eleazar, with a party called the zealots, kept possession of the temple;
John, who had been driven from Gischala, fortified himself in the
lower town; and Simon, with his followers, defended Bezetha. Such
was the city, such were its fortifications, and such its defenders, when
Titus, in the spring of a. p. 70, at the time of the general assembly of
the Jews to celebrate the feast of the passover, approached the devoted
place and pitched his cainp east of the vale of Cedron, upon the Mount
of Olives. The efforts of the Jews to compel the Romans to raise the
siege were almost incredible. They burned the engines of the enemy,

 

Questions.—23. To whom did he commit the command of the Jewish war? By what
authority was he then acknowledged emperor? 24, 25. Describe Jerusalem. 26. What
factions existed there? Give their names and locations, In what year was the city
besieged by Titus? Where did he encamp with his army?
2
70.
a ME. [a. D.
TMPIRE OF RO
414 E

and attack
eave up the ide:
diers in constructit
ates. ere the operations of the Romans intermitted than
a No ce. city raged with tenfold fury; battles were fought
wt ety company of assassins entered the temple and cut
oF loan 1 one general massacre; conflagrations

ury that Titus, quite dispirited,
“storm, and employed his sol-
t all egress from the

such fi
place by
ould preven

ed the legions with
. of taking the

ve a wall which w
D

o
DS

off Eleazar and his party in
destroyed great quantities of corn; so that when the day had come to

Jerusalem that “her enemies cast a trench about her and kept her in
on every side,” her own sons were lying like murdered victims upon
her altars, and her little ones were perishing in the streets with famine,
Portents and prodigies announced the coming doom. Swords glit-
tered in the air; embattled armies seemed hurrying to combat in the
sky; the portal of the temple flew open, and a voice from the excel-
lent glory pronounced, in no mortal tones, “ Let us depart!” <A ter-
rific sound, as of a multitude rushing forth, was heard, and then an
appalling silence reigned throughout the holy courts.

28. The Jews converted these fearful admonitions into omens of
speedy deliverance, and, disregarding the dreadful ravages of famine
and pestilence, obstinately refused the offers of accommodation which
Titus repeatedly made by the mouth of Josephus. The Romans,
wrought to fury by the desperation of the Jews, made incessant
attacks upon the walls, and finally gained possession of Antonia. At
length the day approached in the revolution of ages, the tenth of
August—the anniversary of that fatal day in which Nebuchadnezzar
burned the temple of Solomon. The daily saerifiee had tailed for
want of mnen to offer it; and the Romans, having overturned the foun-
dations of Antonia, bogan to ply their battering-rams upon the sacred
walls of the temple. A Roman soldier in the tumult, actuated as by a
divine fury, seized a smoking brand, and, climbing to the top of the
portico, threw it into one of the courts; and soon the whole building
was wrapped in flaines. 7

29. The wail of agony which the despairing Jews sent forth upon
seving the destruction of their temple, could not move the hearts of
the inforiated Romans, Titus, unable to make himself heard in tho
uproar, withdrew to the fort of Antonia, and, gazing upon the confla-
gration, exclaimed, with a sigh, “The God of the Jews has fought
against them; to Him we owe our victory.” The numbers who per-
ished amounted to 1,000,000; the captives to 100,000. John and

Questions.—27, 28, 20. Give a detailed acoount of the taking of Jerusalem.

 
A.D. 79.] VESPASIAN—TITUS. 415

Simon were taken. The former was imprisoned for life; the latter
was ‘‘conveyed to Rome, to clank his chains at the aliariok wheels of
the conqueror.”

30. When Titus returned with his victorious army, the senate
decreed a triumph to him and his father. Vespasian and his son
entered Rome in the same triumphal car. Upon the standards and
ensigns were painted all the events of the Jewish war. The green
vales of Galilee, the vine-clad hills of Judea, and the blue waters of
lake Gennesareth, encompassed and crossed by the Roman legions,
were depicted in the liveliest colors; while from the spreading can-
vas fair Salem’s towers and bulwarks displayed the Roman eagle
and the golden gates and pinnacles of the temple glowed in the ate
flames which terminated the tedious and bloody siege. The spoils of
the conquered nation gave magnificence to the scene; and the Book
of the Law, wrapped in a rich golden tissue, was exposed to the curious
eyes of the people.

31. The venal inmates of the palace found, upon the accession of
Vespasian, that truth and virtue were once more in fashion. Cruelties
and crimes were discountenanced; industry was encouraged; and he
was said to have founded and established the government of one thou-
sand nations. Julius Agricola subdued the Britons, and a profound
peace ensuing, the temple of Janus was closed for the fourth time. In
the civil war with Vitellius, the capitol was burned. It was now
rebuilt with the greatest magnificence. Vespasian loved a joke, and
was exceedingly fond of money. On one occasion, the inhabitants of
a city proposed to raise a statue in his honor. He held out his hand
and said, witb a smile, “Let this be the base of your statue; place
your money here.”” He was the second emperor that died a natural
death, and the first that was succeeded by-his son. He reigned ten
years.

32. Tirvs.—a.p. 79. Though Titus, whom Tacitus calls “the
delight of mankind,” was a wise and beneficent sovereign, yet his
short reign was filled with a series of disasters. Jn the first year
occurred that dreadful eruption of Vesuvius, by which Herculaneum
and Pompeii were destroyed.* The miserable fugitives who made

* After an interval of extreme drought, the whole plain around Vesuvius was shaken as
if by an earthquake. A column of black ashes arose into the air, hovered a few momenta
over the devoted cities, and fell, burying the inhabitants in their dwellings, the priests at

 

Questions.—30. What triumph and honors awaited Titus and his father? What is said of
the Book of the Law? 81. Give an account of the reign of Vespasian. How many years
did he reign?) By whom was he succeeded? 82. Whendid Titus become emperor? What
is suid of him? What series of disasters occurred in his reign ?
416 EMPIRE OF ROME. [a D. 101

their escupe, found an asylum in Rome; but a pestilence soon after
appeared, in which 10,000 died daily for a considerable period. A
fire succeeded, which raged till a great number of buildings were
destroyed. Titus gave liberally of the sums laid up by his father to the
relief of the sufferers, and rebuilt the edifices which had been con-
sumed, with increased magnificence. The famous Colossenm, begun
by his father, was completed by his care. The sports of the dedication
Jasted 100 days. On the last day of the games, the emperor appeared
dejected, and even shed tears. A fever ensned, which was rendered
fatal by the immoderate use of the bath. He died in the same house
where his father expired, after a reign of little more than two years.

33. Domrrran.—a. D. 81. Titus had named his brother, Domitian,
as his heir, and both the senate and the army hailed his accession to
the throne with the greatest joy. They soon, however, had cause to
repent of their raptures. In the character of Domitian, the gloomy
Aissimulation of Tiberius seemed combined with the ridiculous assump-
tions of Caligula, and the cruel levities of Nero. The usual train of
accusations, proscriptions, and executions kept the best families of
Rome in constant mourning; while the author of their calamities
demanded golden statues, and the worship of the gods. The Roman
arms, too, were unsuccessful in the north, and several disgraceful
treaties were concluded with the barbarians.

34. These were his public acts: in private, he varied the disgusting
round of his pleasures by catching flies, and nailing them to the wall
with bodkins. The empire, after suffering in all its departments for
fifteen years, was at length relieved of this monster by the hand of
the assassin. The senate decreed that his statues should be taken
down, his name erased from the annals, and his funeral omitted. He
was the last of the twelve Caesars. Nerva.—a. p. 96.--The first of
the five good emperors of Rome was a pattern of justice and clemency.
He reigned, however, not quite two years, during which time no im-
portant events occurred.

35. a. v. SO@. Tue Five good Emprrons.--Tacirus axp Piv-
varcn.—The life of Nerva, as it occurred, has also been given in the

their altars, and the flying multitudes in their fields. Darkness sank down upon the
plains, and for three days no light was visible but the lurid flames of the voleauo.

 

Questions.—32. What acts of liberality distinguished him? Wow long did he reign?
What caused his death? 33,34. Who was his successor? When did Domitian beeome
emperor? Give his character. What was the condition of Rome during his reign? How
Jong did he reign? What was the decree of the senate respecting him? Who succeeded
him? In what year was that? What is said of the reign of Nerva?
A.D. 117] TRAJAN—ADRiAN, 41%

preceding chapter. Before his death, he caused Trajan to be acknow-
ledged Casar* by the army and senate. Trajan was with the army in
Germany at the time of his adopted father’s decease, but immediately
marched to Rome, where he was received with the usual congratula-
tions. Plotarch,t his tutor, wrote him a letter, entreating him to fol-
low the counsels he had received in early youth. The emperor did
not, like Nero, disgrace the name of his preceptor. “He was equally
great as a ruler, a general, and a man. He conquered the warlike
Dacians, and, to facilitate his entrance into their country, built a stu-
pendous bridge across the Danube, the ruins of which continue to this
day. The dominions of the empire were thus extended beyond the
bounds of any of the former great monarchies.

36. The rejoicings at Rome upon the return of the victorious empe-
ror lasted four months, during which no less than 10,000 gladiators
fought in the amphitheater for the amusement of the multitude. The
Pillar of Trajan, which may yet be seen in the grass-grown Forum, was
erected in commemoration of this event. After adorning Rome with
many public buildings, Trajan turned his arms against the Armenians
and Parthians. He overran the greater part of what had been the
Assyrian empire, and, throwing a bridge across the Tigris, followed the
track of Alexander to the Persian Gulf. Regretting that his age for-
bade the thought of his invading India, he left the care of the army to
Adrian, his nephew, and returned to Syria. He died in Cilicia, after
a reign of nearly twenty years.

37. Aprian.—a.p. 117. The first care of Adrian was to conclude
a peace with the Persians, making the Euphrates the boundary of the
empire on the east. On his return to Rome, the senate decreed him a
triumph; he refused the honor for himself, but caused the statue of

* The emperor was styled “ Augustus;” the heir expectant was dignified with the title
of “ Casar.”

+ Plutarch was a native of Beotia. He was a student at Delphi, when Nero went to
Greece to display his wonderful skill in horsemanship und music, a. D. 66; he must at this
time, therefore, have been an old man. He visited Italy when quite young, and probably
remained there till Domitian, by a public decree, banished all philosophers from the coun-
tery. He wrote many works, some of which are lost, but his “ Parallel Lives” still exist, as
models of biography. Tacitus published his history some time in Trajan’s reign. It began
with the accession of Galba,and continued to the death of Domitian, comprising a period of
27 years, full of important events and sudden revolutions. It was written in 36 books, only
five of which are now extant. His Annals are recommended to the attention of every stu-
dent. Tacitus was the son-in-law of Agricola, and the friend of the younger Pliny,

 

Questions,—35. Whom did Nerva pronounce Caesar before his death? What events
occurred in the reign of Trajan? 86, What rejoicings at Rome took place? What success-
ful wars did Trajan undertake? Where did he die? How long had he reigned? 87. By
whom was he succeeded? When did that event occur? What was the first act of Adrian?

18*
418 EMPIRE OF ROME. [a. D. 138

Trajan to be carried in the pompous procession of the victorious army.
Adrian was remarkable for every manly and scientific accomplishment.
He was equally skillful in the war or the chase ; he was well versed in
mathematics and medicine; he wrote beautifully both in prose and
verse; he was a proficient in drawing and painting; he was an ele-
gant orator; a better singer than Nero; and his moral qualities were
equal to his accomplishments, if we except the envy and vainglory
which his rare endowments and the adulation of the people were
calculated to excite.

38. It was his maxim that an emperor ought to imitate the sun, by
dispensing favors to all parts of the earth. Accordingly, he spent
thirteen years in traversing his dominions. ‘Finding that the bridge
of Trajan proved as great a convenience to the barbarous tribes as to
the armies of the empire, he caused it to be broken down; passing
from Dacia through Germany and Holland, he sailed to Britain, where
he ordered a wall to be erected for the protection of his subjects from
the Scots; thence he journeyed south through Gan] and Spain, and
thence to Rome. He visited Asia Minor; wintered at Athens; sailed
for Sicily; examined Mount Etna, and directed his course to Africa,
where he rebuilt the city of Carthage, and called it Adrianople.
When he returned to Rome to take up his abode, the joy of the people
knew no bounds.

39. During his reign, an impostor, called the ‘Son of a Star,”
claiming to be the Messiah, persuaded the Jews to revolt. Three
years were employed in bringing them again into subjection. Asa
punishment, every sacred place was studiously profaned. A temple
was built to Jupiter on Mount Sion; a statue of Venus set up in the
place of crucifixion; and the grotto of Bethlehem consecrated to
Adonis. The Jews were forbidden the sight of Jernsalem, and no
descendant of Abrahain was perinitted to enter the city, except upon
the memorable tenth of August, the anniversary of its destruction.
Adrian died of a dropsy, after a reign of twenty-one years.

40. Anroninus.—a. D. 138. Antoninus, surnamed the Pious, lad
been made Cresar by the late emperor, and now peaceably ascended
the throne. Lis long and quiet reign allowed almost one generation
of Romans to pass away without the experience of distressing wars
abroad, and arbitrary executions at home. Even the Chiristians,
whose resolute refusals to worship idols kept the Romans constantly

 

Questions.—37, 98, 39. Give a description of his character? What events distinguished
his reign? When did he die? How long had he reigned? 40. Who was made Caesar
before his death? Give an account of the reign of Antoninus Pius,
A.D. 180.} MARCUS AURELIUS. 419

irritated, came in for a share in the clemency of this excellent monarch,
who proclaimed religious toleration by a letter from his own pen.
Such was his reputation for wisdom and virtue, that princes came from
beyond the bounds of the Roman empire to make him the arbiter of
their differences. He reigned twenty-two years.

41. Marcus Avrerius.—a. p. 161. Aurelius, the son-in-law of
Antoninus, claimed his descent from Numa. He was a stoic philoso-
pher, and a wise and virtuous monarch. He took for his colleague
Lucius Verus, a man whose vices served to show in stronger relief
the perfections of Aurelius. The two emperors were scarcely seated
upon the throne when the empire was attacked on every side by its
barbarous neighbors. Verus went to the east to repel the Parthians,
but stopped at Antioch while the war was carried on by his lieu-
tenants. They were successful, and Verus returned in triumph.
Rome had, however, little cause to rejoice. She was visited succes-
sively by a vicious, cruel emperor; a raging pestilence; clouds of
devouring locusts; dreadful earthquakes; distressing inundations; and
a wasting famine.

42. The priests, to avert the anger of the gods, offered the most
costly sacrifices in vain, till finally the Romans, attributing all their
calamities to the impieties of the Christians, commenced a dreadful
persecution, in which Justin Martyr and the venerable Polycarp,
bishop of Smyrna, fell victims to superstitious fury. Aurelius marched
to the north to repel the invasions of the Vandals and others, who
constantly harassed. the frontiers. a.p. 180. He died of the plague
at Vienna, expressing with his last breath his solicitude for the future
welfare of his country and of his son. He reigned almost nineteen
years.

43. Five bad Emprrors.—During the last twenty years of this cen-
tury five emperors assumed the imperial purple: Commodus, Pertinax,
Severus, Niger, and Albinus. Commodus* had accompanied Aurelius
on his expedition against the northern tribes, but no sooner was his

* With the reign of Commodus properly commenced the Decline of the Roman Empire.
The remaining events of its history are so exceedingly complex that it is impossible to
condense them into the brief limits of this work without creating confusion in the mind of
the pupil. For a true picture of the times the reader is referred to “ Gibbon’s History of
the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.”

 

Questions —40. What particular letter did he write? How long did he reign? 41. In
what year did Mareus Aurelius ascend the thrune? What was his character? Whom did
he take fur a colleague? What distresses did Rome suffer? 42. To what cause dill the
priests attribute the wars and judgments that were visited upon Rome? Who became
martyrs to this superstition? What caused the death of Aurelius? How many years did
he reign? In what year did he die? 43. How many emperors assumed the purple during
the last twenty years of this century? What century is meant? Name the five emperors.
420 EMPIRE OF ROME. (ap. 12

father dead, than, impatient to revel in the pleasures of the capital,
he concluded a disgraceful peace with the barbarians, and hastened to
Rome. The senate, army, and people acknowledged him as emperor
and Augustus, in consideration of his father’s virtues. He soon proved
that he had no merit of his own, being extremely ignorant of every
thing a monarch ought to know, and exceedingly indifferent to the
duties of an emperor, at the same time that he was eminently skillful
in useless accomplishments, and exceedingly fond of low company and
sensual pleasures.

44. He drew the bow and threw the javelin with wonderful address,
always killing the animal at which he aimed, though running at full
speed; he cut off the heads of an hundred ostriches in their swiftest
motions, with arrows headed in the shape of a half moon; a bird upon
the wing could not escape his unerring aim; and he came off vic-
torious in 735 gladiatorial combats. At first he left the administration
of affairs to the prefect of the pretorian guards; and after this mon-
ster was slain by his own soldiers, a Phrygian slave held the reins of
the government, while the monarch became himself a slave to the
worst passions of human nature, and distinguished himself by over-
coming wild beasts in the amphitheater. The senate showed their
degradation by styling him the Hercules of Rome, and offering to
change the name of the eternal city to Colonia Commodiana. These
were his public acts.

45. In the sacred hours of retirement he indulged in all the glut
tony, sensuality, and frivolity that disgraced Domitian, so that in one
may be seen the counterpart of the other. He kept a list of such per
sons as he designed for destruction; and his favorite mistress, Marcia,
having found her name among the proscribed, administered poison,
and thus the Roman world was delivered from its odious master, after
submitting to his cruelties twelve years. The friends and assistants of
Marcia wrapped up the body of Commodus as a bale of useless fur-
niture and carried it out through the drunken guards, who were first
made acquainted with the murder of their monarch by the shouts
which hailed his successor.

46. Pertinax.—a. pd. 192. This prince forms an exception among
the five bad emperors. His reign, however, was so very brief that his
character as a sovereign was not fully developed. The sudden and
striking changes that took place in his life gave him the surname of

 

Questions.—43, 41,45. Give a gencral outline of the character of Commodus, What was
his fute? 46. Who was his successur? In what year did Pertinax succeed him? What
account can you give of Pertinax ?
A D. 192.] THE EMPIRE SOLD. 421

“The Tennis Ball of Fortune.” Wis father was a dealer in charcoal ;
he himself had been a schoolmaster, a lawyer, a soldier, a captain, a
consul, the commander of a legion, and prefect of the city. When
the conspirators came to his house in the night, after the murder of
Commodus, he supposed they were sent by the tyrant to put him to
death, and cheerfully prepared for execution; and it was not without
reluctance that he suffered the praetorian suards to clothe him in the
purple; but the obedient senate sanctioning his election, he was pro-
claimed emperor on the night before the first of January, a. p. 193.
A few days of severe discipline, however, displeased the emperor-
mekers, and, disdaining any secret conspiracies or private contrivances,
they marched into the palace three hundred strong, slew their mon-
arch, cut off his head, and carried it back to the camp. He reigned
not quite three months.

47. Tne Roman Emprre Sorp.—The pretorians then offered the
empire to the highest bidder. The father-in-law of Pertinax, and
Didius, the foster-brother of Marcus Aurelius, were the only com-
petitors. The former made magnificent promises ; the latter bestowed
substantial presents. The guards accordingly proclaimed Didius em-
peror, and accompanied him in a body to the senate-house, where he
made a very short and comprehensive speech: ‘‘ Fathers, you want an
emperor, and I am the fittest person you can choose.” The senators,
convinced by the eloquence of Didius or the menacing looks of his
guards, acquiesced in this sentiment, but the people cursed him as he
passed the streets.

48. The legions of Syria, Dlyria, and Britain refused to confirm the
election of the pretorians. Each party chose its own monarch.
Niger was acknowledged by all the Romans and tributary princes of
Asia; Albinus was proclaimed in Britain, and Severus marched from
Illyria directly to Rome. All the towns and garrisons declared for
him; the pretorian guards forsook their wealthy prince to join his
standard; and the senate decreed that Didius should be slain, and
Severus reign in his stead. He reigned 66 days. The executioners
,ed the unfortunate monarch into one of the secret baths and struck
off his head; and Severus took peaceable possession of the palace of
the Cresars.

49. Severvs.—The first act of Severus was to banish the pretorian
auctioneers one hundred miles from Rome. Then, having promised

 

Questions.—46. How long had he reigned? 47. How then was the Roman empire dis-
posed of? Give an account of Didius. 48. After his death, who took possession of the palace
of the Cxesars? 49. What was the first act of Severus?
422 EMPIRE OF ROME. [A. D. 211.

the senate to rule with clemency and justice, he seized the children of
the officers in the east as hostages, and marched against Niger. The
battle between these two rivals was fought upon the plains of Issts,
on the very spot where Alexander and Darius met, more than 50C
years before. Niger was defeated and slain. Severus then returned
to settle the contest with Albinus. A tremendous battle was fought
near the present city of Lyons, and Albinus, being taken prisoner,
soon followed his colored brother, Niger, to the land of shades!

50. a. vp. 8420), Twenve Emprerors.—Tiurry Tyranrs.—Many
nobles of Spain and Gaul were put to death for having taken the part
of Albinus; and 29 senators also fell victims to his sanguinary orders.
Severus was w great warrior. The Parthians, who continued hostilities
jn the east, suffered a severe defeat at his hand, and Seleucia and
Babylon were taken. His next foreign war was in Britain. The
Picts and Scots were driven back into their mountain fastnesses, and
a wall twelve feet high was built across the island, to prevent their
future incursions. Severus died at York, heart-broken by the quarrels
of his children. Te reigned nearly eighteen years.

61. CaracaLLA AND GETA.—a. D. 211. The two sons of Severus
succeeded him, The first act of Caracalla was to assassinate Geta in
his mother’s arins, and every subsequent exercise of power showed
the same sanguinary spirit. All who had been connected with Geta
shared his fate, till the number of victims amounted to 20,000. The
people were forced to suffer in silence, for Caracalla, like Sylla,
attached the soldiers to his interest by the most liberal donations. He
professed to admire the character of Alexander the Great, and with
ridiculous affectation inclined his head to one side in imitation of that
monarch. He made an expedition into Asia, where he visited the
grave of Achilles, and sacrificed ong of his freedmen, to imitate the
grief of Homer’s hero over Patroclus.

52. Having treacherously seized the king of Armenia, he was
involved in a war with that people, in which he suffered defeat.
After this he went to Alexandria, where he made an offering of his
ornaments at the tomb of Alexander, and consecrated the dagger with
which he had slain Geta in the temple of Serapis. His reign lasted
more than six years, during which he did every thing to degrade the
throne of the Czesars, and many things to increase the magnificence of

 

Questions.—49. What war was waged? Where wasa battle fought? What was the fate of
Niger? Where was the next battle fought? What was the end of Albinus? 50, In what
character was Severus distinguished? What wars were successfully prosecuted by him?
How many years did be reign? 51.02. Who succeeded him? What was the character of
Caracalla? Give an account of his crimes. How did he secure the soldicrs to his interest %
A.D. 222.) ALEXANDER—MAXIMIN. 423

Rome. Some of the most splendid structures that graced the capitol
were raised by his order. Maorinus.—a. p. 217. Macrinus, the
prefect of the pratorians, who murdered Caracalla, was made emperor
by the army, and reigned little more than a year. He was succeeded
by the son of Caracalla.

53. Ueriogapatus.—a. p. 218. Heliogabalus, the son of Caracalla,
though only fourteen years old, was, by the intrigues of his mother,
proclaimed emperor in the east. Te was a vicious boy; a disgusting
glutton; and an odious sovereign. His actions were whimsical and
cruel. He gave a supper to eight blind men, eight lame men, eight
deat men, eight black men, and eight men so fat that they could
hardly sit in their chairs. Sometimes he smothered his guests with
roses, and sometimes let wild beasts loose upon them. Sometimes his
chariot was drawn by elephants, sometimes by lions, sometimes by
dogs, and sometimes by women. The soldiers finally revolted to his
cousin, Alexander, and Heliogabalus was thrown into the Tiber. He
reigned little more than three years.

64. ALEXANDER.—A. D. 222. Alexander was an excellent monarch,
but the eternal city had already passed the crisis of her fate, and
nothing could stop her decline. The Persians revolted in the east,
and, having overthrown the Parthian dynasty of Arsacidew, defied the
power of the Romans. The northern nations began to pour down
upon the more fertile portions of the empire. Alexander defeated the
Persians, and then marched into Germany, where his attempts to
restore discipline occasioned a mutiny in which he was slain, after a
short but glorious reign of thirteen years.

55. The army then elected Maximin, a Thracian giant, who became
the most cruel tyrant upon earth. During the next five years, five
emperors rose by treason and fell by conspiracy, while the empire was
assailed by the Persians, and enfeebled by seditions and civil wars.
The power of the senate was gone; the virtue of the people had been
buried in the grave of their patriotism; the army alone possessed any
authority, and this was seldom exercised for the good of the body
politic. About the middle of this century, the Goths commenced their
devastations in Thrace, and spread ruin on every side.

 

Questions.—52. How long did his reign continue? What account is given of Macrinus?
How long did he reign? Who succeeded him? 53, Who was Ueliogabalus? How old
was he when procl:imed emperor in the east? Give an account of him. What was his
fate? Who succeeded him? 54, When did Alexander become monarch? What is said of
him? What counteracted the healthful influence of his reign? How long did le wear the
ensigns of royalty? 55. Who was elected by the army? What followea during the next
five years? What were the Goths then doing in Thrace?
494 EMPIRE OF ROME. [a. D. 272

56. Tuirty Tyrants usurp Ton Torone.—From the resemblance
between the miseries of this period and those which Athens suffered
under the dominion of Sparta, it has been said that thirty tyrants
assumed the imperial purple; this exact number, however, cannot be
traced; and among the emperors who swayed the Roman scepter,
from A. p. 250 to 800 must be reckoned the good Valerian, the valiant
Aurelian, the venerable Tacitus, and the upright Probus. It vou.d
be tedious tu relate or read all the conspiracies, cruelties, and crimes
which raised, disgraced, and dethroned the thirty monarchs. Only a
few of the most worthy will be mentioned, in whose reigns important
events occurred.

57. The good Valerian was made emperor by the array in a. pv. 253.
In his reign the empire was attacked on all sides. The Franks, the
Goths, the Alemanni, and the Persians vexed the frontiers with con-
tinual incursions, and Valerian was compelled to commit Europe to
the care of his vicious son, Gallienus, while he marched into Asia to
oppose Sapor, king of Persia. He was defeated, and taken prisoner
by his enemies. ‘For seven years the Roman emperor bowed him-
self down, that his body might serve as a stepping-stone to the Persian
king when he mounted on horseback; he was at last flayed alive; and
his skin. stuffed in the form of a human figure, and dyed with scarlet,
was preserved in a temple in Persia.” The wicked Gallienus made no
effort to free his father from captivity, nor to avenge his death.

58. Avurretian.—When Aurelian ascended the throne, a. p. 270,
barbarians, fainine, pestilence, conspiracies, and proscriptions had
swept from the empire one-half of its inhabitants ; the western pro-
vinces were in a state of revolt, and the eastern lad been brought
under the dominion of the celebrated Zenopia, queen of Palmyra.*
She was the widow of Odenatus, a prince who strove to deliver Vale-
rian from Sapor, and had received from the Romans the title of A\ugus-
tus. After lis death, Zenobia, like Semiramis, assumed the command
of his dominions, and by her surpassing attractions and uncommon
abilities held beneath her sway the voluptuous Syrians, and the fierce
Arabs of the desert.

* Palmyra, or “Tadmor in the wilderness,” was built by Solomon in an oasis of ‘2a
Syrian desert, 140 miles east of Damascus. Sitnated as it was ina green and fertile spot,
sheltered by high mountains, on the great route from India, Persia, and Mesopotamia to
Syria, it became the resting-place of caravans, and was sovn enriched with all the treasures
of the east.

 

Questions.—56, What is said about the thirty tyrants? 57. In what year was the good
Valerian made emperor? What difliculties menaced his reign? To whom did he commit
the care of Europe? What indignities and cruclties did be sufler seven years? 58, When did
Aurelian ascend the throne? What then was the condition of Rome? Who was Zenobia?
a. dD. 284,] DIOCLESIAN. 495

69. Aurelian, determining to humble her power, marched with hig
army into Asia. He found the city of Palmyra defended by warlike
engines of great power, and when he summoned the queen to snr-
render, he received a reply so spirited that all his anger was roused.
He surrounded the city, cut off her supplies, and defeated three armies
which were marching to her relief. Finally, Zenobia attempted to fly
upon her dromedaries, but was taken prisoner at the fords of the
Euphrates. She was carried to Rome, and walked in the triumph of
the conqueror, loaded with chains of gold and costly jewels. Her sons
married distinguished Roman ladies, and she lived in splendor the
remainder of her life.

60. The characters of the Roman emperors seemed to exercise no
control over the decrees of fate. The purple was but the passport to
the poniard; the good and the bad, when clothed with authority,
were alike exposed to the assassin’s knife. Aurelian fell by the hand
of a general whom he had always loved and trusted; and the army,
with a respect which had long been unknown among the legions,
wrote to the senate, begging the fathers to place the emperor among
the number of the gods, and appoint a successor. For eight months,
the empire was quiet without an emperor. Finally, Tacitus, a senator
descended from the eminent historian, was persuaded to assume the
diadem of the Cesars. He reigned, however, only two hundred days.

61. Tue two AvauUSsTI aND THE TWO Casars.—The next emperor
we shall notice is Dioclesian, who, having been elected by the soldiers,
chose Maximian, a brave and uncultivated officer, for his colleague.
Finding, after the lapse of a few years, that the empire needed a sove-
reign in every part, these two monarchs adopted each a soldier as his
successor. Galerius married the daughter of Dioclesian, and Constan-
tius married the daughter of Maximian. The two emperors were
called Augustii; the two heirs-expectant, Cesars. The empire was
then parceled out to the monarchs. Dioclesian and his son-in-law
took that portion east of the Adriatic, while Maximian and his Cesar
shared the west. The barbarians were thus kept in awe, and the em-
pire was for a time prosperous and happy. Dioclesian defeated the
Persians, and forced them to conclude a treaty, by which they resigned
all the country west of the Tigris.

Questions.—59. Upon what did Aurelian determine? Give an account of his measures
and success. What further is stated of Zenobia? 60. By whose hand did Aurelian fall?
What state of things followed? Who succeeded Aurelian? How long did Tacitus reign?
61. To what position was Dioclesian raised? Who was Maximian? What compact was
made? How was it strengthened? What were the two emperors called? What name
was giver to the two hcirs-expectant? How was the empire divided 7
436 EMPIRE OF ROME. [A. D. 305.

62. a.pv. 400. Consrantine THE GREAT REMOVES THE SEAT
or GovERNMENT TO CONSTANTINOPLE.--THEODOSIUS DIVIDES THE Em-
pire.—Notwithstanding the nine bloody persecutions which successive
generations of Christians had endured, the leaven of the Gospel had
been constantly at work in the empire, and many persons of rank and
consequence professed the doctrines of the cross. In the year A. D.
303, Dioclesian issued an edict against the Christians, in consequence
of which the most dreadful persecution raged for ten years. The
churches were pulled down; the Scriptures were burned; and such
numbers of people perished, that at last the murderers declared that
the Christian name and superstition were rooted out of the empire.
This was the last persecution of the Christians by the Romans. In
the midst of these scenes of slaughter, Dioclesian and Maximian
triumphed at Rome, and once more regaled the multitude with the
combats of gladiators and wild beasts.

63. This was the last triumph the imperial city ever saw. Her
days of victory were nearly passed, the weakness of age had come
upon her, and the hour of her dissolution was rapidly approaching.
Not long after, Dioclesian resigned his authority, and required Maxi-
mian to do the same. Dioclesian retired to the southern part of Aus-
tria, and Maximian to the southern part of Italy. Constantius and
Galerius having thus become the Augustii, two new Cesars were
chosen. Constantius, however, died at York, in Britain, within two
years after his accession to power, and the army immediately saluted
his son, Constantine, as emperor. Galerius and the two Cesars
refused to ratify the act; and Maxentius, son of Maximian, being
invested by the senate with the imperial dignity, called his father from
retirement to give weight to his authority.

64. There were thus siz competitors for the empire; and a scene of
contention followed, scarcely paralleled in the annals of Rome. Maxi-
mian quarreled with his son, and was put to death. Galerius died not
long after, which reduced the number of aspirants to four. Maxentius
speedily commenced open hostilities, and Constantine, at the head of
a powerful army, marched toward Rome. During this journey, that
fainous change took place in his religion or politics, which resulted in
the overthrow of paganism, and the establishment of Christianity as
the religion of the empire. One evening, while employed in medita-

 

_ Questions.—62. Give an account of the progress of Christianity. 1n what year did Dio-
clesian issue an edict against Christianity ? Give a history of the persecution. 63. What
is turther stated of Dioclesian? Of Maximian? Whatis said of Constantius? Of Galerius?
64. What scene of contention is depicted? What caused the overthrow of paganism ?
A. D. 323.] CONSTANTINKE. 497

~

tion upon the conflicting opinions which agitated mankind, he sent up
his ejaculations to Heaven for divine direction. As if in answer to his
prayer, a luminous cross suddenly appeared above the declining sun,
bearing the inscription, “IN THis, overcomsE.’”’ The same night a
vision confirmed the miracle, and Constantine became a convert to
Christianity. A royal standard was made to resemble that seen in the
sky, and carried before him as an ensign of victory and celestial pro-
tection. Maxentius was defeated, and drowned in the Tiber. The
competitors were thus reduced to three.

65. Constantine entered Rome, and, disclaiming the adulation which
the servile Romans offered, set up a cross at the right hand of his
statues, declaring that he owed all his success to a superior power.
He restored the authority of the senate, reformed abuses, and banished
the pretorian guards, He then marched to Milan, where he formed
an alliance with one of the Caesars, and gave him his sister in’ mar-
riage; the other Cesar was overthrown and slain, so that only two
rivals remained of the six. In the year 323,* a battle was fought
between these two. Constantine was victorious, and became sole
monarch of the empire, after eighteen years of contention and civil
war. Being now possessed of unlimited power, he issued an edict
that in all the provinces of the empire the orders of the bishops should
be obeyed; anda general council, assembled at his request, condemned
the ‘t Arian heresy.” Perceiving the necessity of fixing his residence
in the center of his dominions, or wishing to rival the fame of Romu-
lus, Constantine formed the design of removing the seat of government
to the spot where the ‘“ Golden Horn” of the Bosphorus encircled the
oft-conquered and reconquered Byzantium.

66. With the wealth of the world at his command, nothing of course
was neglected which could contribute to the splendor of the new
capital. Magnificent churches, palaces, and private dwellings sprang
up with almost magical rapidity; while baths and gardens, parks and
private walks, exhibited all the refinements of eastern luxury. The
court followed the monarch to the rising city of Constantinople; and
Rome, who had suffered so much from a multitude of emperors, now
saw herself deserted by the one who had concentrated all authority in
himself. These were the principal events of the reign of Constantine.
In his old age he was guilty of great cruelty, and his conduct during

* Alexander became monarch of the world, $23 B.o. Constantine sole emperor, 323 a, D.

 

Questions.—64, What evidence, if any, did Constantine give of Christianity? 65. How
did he become sole monarch of the empire? What edict did he issue? Whatinauced him
to change the seat of government? 66, Whatis said of the building and yrowth of Constan
tinople? What is said of Constantine in his old age? What further is said of his conduct?
430 EMPIRE OF ROME. [a. D. 410

“rolled their ponderous wagons over the broad and icy back of the
indignant river.” The fertile fields of Greece were covered with a
deluge of barbarians, who roassacred the men, and drove away the
beautiful females, with the cattle of the flaming villages,

73. a.p. OQ. Irary prunperep By Gorn, VANDAL, AND Hon.
—AvgustuLvs, Last Emprror.—ALaRio’s THREE Invasions.—Between
the years 400 and 403, Alaric, at the head of his savage legions,
invaded Italy. Stilicho, the able and faithful general of Honorius,
defeated him, and finally hired him to enter the service of the Romans,
In 408, Alaric, not having received the stipulated sums, again led his
army into the garden of Europe. The qneen of the world purchased
her safety with the treasures of the capitol. During a period of 619
years, the seat of the empire had never been violated by the presence
of a foreign enemy; but when, in 410, the king of the Goths crossed
the Po, spread hi armys along the banks of the Tiber, seized the port
of Ostia, and threatened to destroy the magazines of corn, the terror
of fainine overcame the pride of the senate, and théy assented to Ala-
ric’s proposal of placing a new emperor upon the throne of the unwor-
thy Honorius. The gates of the city were thrown open, and Attalus,
the man whom Alaric had selected, was clothed in the purple of the
Cwsars, and conducted by Gothic guards to the palace of Augustus and
Trajan.

74, But Attalus wanted the spirit to command, and the docility to
obey. Alaric became tired of his puppet-king, and the next year
stripped him of his royal robes, and sent them to Honorius, who had
shut himself up in Ravenna. The king of thé Goths, no longer dis-
sembling his appetite fur plunder and revenge, now appeared in arms
under the walls of the capital; the senate were unable to guard against
the treachery of their domestics; a gate was silently opened, and the
inhabitants were roused from their slumbers by the tremendous sound
of the Gothic trumpet. 1163 years after the founding of Rome, the
‘eternal city” was sacked and plundered by the savage tribes of Ger-
many and Scythia. The gold and jewels of the nobles were first
secured; the massy furniture and silken wardrobes of the great were
piled upon wagons; exquisite works of art, once the pride of Athens,
Corinth, or the splendid cities of the east, were shivered in pieces;
and vases of the most beautiful workmanship were divided by the
stroke of the battle-ax and distributed among the rapacious soldiers.

 

Questions.—73. Give an account of the invasions of Alaric. What revolution was pro
duced in Rome? Who was selected for the palace of Augustus? 74 When weary of
Attalus, where did Alaric send him? Describe the plundering of the eity that followed.
a.D. 415.) BARBARIC INVASIONS 431

76. The Goths evacuated the city on the sixth day. At the head
of an army encumbered with rich and weighty spoils, Alaric advanced
along the Appian way to the southern point of Italy. There the fer-
tile island of Sicily attracted his attention, and his active mind imme-
diately formed the design of preparing a fidét which should transport
lis followers-across the narrow strait of Messina, and waft them to
the shores of Africa. The winds and waves, more potent than the
Roman arms, sunk or scattered his ill-constructed galleys; and death,
the conqueror of kings, soon after fixed the fatal term of his conquests.
His soldiers, with true barbaric grief, turned the course of the little
river Busentinus, and constructed his splendid sepulchre in its ancient
bed; the waters were then restored to their natural channel; and
thus have they flowed, age after age, over the tomb of Alaric the
Visigoth.

76. Adolphus, the brother-in-law of Alaric, succeeded to the sove-
reignty of the Gothic people. In the sack of Rome they had taken
captive the beautiful Placidia, daughter of Theodosius; and the noble
barbarian, won by her charms, now offered peace to Honorius on con-
dition of receiving the hand of his sister in marriage. The fair Placi-
dia consented, and the union was consummated before the Goths left
Italy. The bride, adorned like an empress, was placed upon a throne
of state, while her husband, clothed in the Roman toga, occupied a
less elevated seat at her side. Fifty beautiful slaves, dressed in silken
robes, presented her with fifty basins of gold, and fifty basins of
gems; yet even this extraordinary nuptial gift formed but a small part
of the rare and magnificent spoils of her country.

77. Adolphus retired with his bride and his people into Gaul, and
thence into Spain, where he founded the kingdom of the Visigoths. In
the year 415, Adolphus was assassinated by one of his domestics, and
Wallia, his successor to the sovereignty of the Gothic nation, led his
followers in the track of Alaric to the southern shore of Italy. The
tempestuous sea again prevented the projected expedition to Africa;
and Constantius, the brave general of Honorius, forced the barbarians
to conclude a peace, and exchange the unfortunate Placidia for 6,000
measures of wheat. The hand of the widow of Adolphus was the

 

Questions.—15. When did the Goths evacuate Rome? What did Alaric do? How did
he lose his life? Where was he buried? 76. Who succeeded to the sovereignty of the
Goths? How was peace consummated between Rome and Adolphus? Describe the cere-
monious splendor of the marriage. 77. What kingdom did Adolphus found? What was
the fate of Adolphus? Who was his successor? How was the expedition to Africa pre-
vented? Who effected a peace for Honorius? What became of the unfortunate Placidia?
What was the reward of Constantius?
432 EMPIRE OF ROME. ja. D. 433

reward of Constantius, and the care of her children, Valentinian and
Honoria, thenceforth occupied ber attention.

78. Tus VANpALs.—At the very time that the Goths were engaged in
the plunder of Italy, a similar devastation was going onin Spain. Tho
Suevi, ‘the Vandals, and the Alani furced the passes of the Pyrenees,
establishing themselves in the most fertile portions of that country,
and enslaved the original inhabitants. In the year 429, Genseric led
the Vandals across the strait of Gibraltar, and, re-enforcing his army
by enlisting the Moors, proceeded to wrest from the Romans all their
possessions in Africa. On a sudden, the seven fruitful provinces from
Tangier to Tripoli were overwhelmed by the bloody tide of war.
During eight years, the Vandals spread themselves like locusts over
the land, and completed their conquests by once more destroying Car-
thage, the capital of the African world. About the same time, the
Goths, the Burgundians, and the Franks obtained a permanent seat in
the provinces of Gaul.

79. As early as the time of Cicero, it was the opinion of the augurs
that the twelve vultures which Romulus had seen represented the
twelve centuries assigned for the fatal period of his city. Now, when
the loss of the provinces beyond the Alps impaired the glory and
greatness of Rome; when her internal prosperity was irretrievably
destroyed by the separation of Africa; and when the twelfth century,
clouded with disgrace and misfortune, was almost elapsed, the people
remembered the fearful omen, and logked forward with gloomy fore-
boding to the accomplishment of the prophecy. After a disgraceful
reign of twenty-eight years, Tonorius died of a dropsy, and the scepter
of the Western Empire desecnded to the feeble hands of Valentinian
IIL, the infant son of Constantius; Placidia bving declared regent.
At a suitable age, he was married to his cousin, Eudoxia; but his
mother still retained her influence, and ruled in his name for twenty-
five years,

80. Arria.—-The Goths and the Vandals, from whom the imperial
city suffered so much, fled before the Huns; but in the year 433 the
Huns themselves marched southward to the Danube, and under Attila.
surnamed the “Scourge of God,” became the terror of the world,
From the banks of the Volga to the banks of the Rhine, the savage

Questions.—78. What was going on in Spain at that time? Who forced the passes of the
Pyrenees? What was their object? Who led the Vandals across the strait of Gibraltar?
What possessions did they wrest from the Romans? What further conquests attended them ?
79. What became a proverb in the time of Cicero? To what were the people of Rome then
looking? What was the condition of Rome after the death of Honorius? 80, By whom

were the Goths and Vandals routed? What mention is next made of the Huns? Desecrive
the ravages of the chieftain Attila
Af, £53.) THE INVASION OF ATTILA. 433

chieftain extended his fearful sway, and, disdaining to dismount from
his horse, dictated to embassadors from Constantinople the terms of a
peace, each condition of which was an insult to the Roman name.
The treaty was soon broken, and the whole breadth of Europe wag
invaded, occupied, and desolated by the myriads of barbarians whom
Attila led into the field. In the year 452 he passed the Alps, subdued
Italy, and took Aquileia, Milan, and Pavia.

81. It is a saying worthy of the ferocious pride of the Hunnic chief,
that the grass never grew on the spot where his horse had trod. Yet
this savage destroyer undesignedly laid the foundation of a city, which
for a long time sheltered and nourished the sciences and arts. Before
this irruption, fifty Venetian cities clustered around Aquileia, and, sup-
ported by commerce and manufactures, gradually accumulated extra-
ordinary wealth. The peaceful inhabitants of these cities, scattered
like wild-fowl before the storm of war, found a safe but obscure rest-
ing-place in the neighboring islands; end there, nestling as it were
upon the bosom of the waves, where the swell of the Adriatic feebly
imitates the tides of the ocean, they reared the amphibious city of
Venice, which, in the middle ages, was the great commercial emporium
of Europe.

82. Valentinian fled from Ravenna to Rome, and his ministers pur-
chased the safety of Italy by paying to the barbarian the immense
dowry of the princess Honoria, and consenting to add the grand-
daughter of Theodosius to the list of his innumerable wives, within a
stipulated time. The king of the Huns then drew off his myriads, and
retired to his wooden palace beyond the Danube, where death found
fiim in the arms of sleep, and silenced forever his claims upon the
empire of Rome. His remains were inclosed in three coftins, of gold,
of silver, and of iron; and inv the darkness of night committed to the
earth, together with the spoils of nations and the bodies of slaughtered
captives.

83. a. p. 453. The death of Attila broke the power of the Huns,
but two years later Valentinian was assassinated by Maximus, a senator
of illustrious birth, who was proclaimed emperor by the senate and
people, while the bleeding corpse of his rightful sovereign lay at his
feet. This was the last day of his happiness; his hours were disturbed
by remorse or terror; and his throne was shaken by the seditions of

 

Questions.—81. In what manner did he give existence to Venice? 82. To what place di?
Valentinian flee? How was the safety of Ituly purchased? What is said of the death of
Attila? What disposition was made of his remains? 83. What became of Valentinian?
Who then was proclaimed emperor? How were the hours of the new emperor disturbed ?

19
434 EMPIRS OF ROME. [A. v. 455.

oO

the soldiers, the people, and the confederate barbarians. Eudoxia,
the widow of Valentinian, had been compelled to violate her mourn-
ing to appear as the bride of the usurper. From the east she could
expect no assistance; the scepter of Constantinople was in the hands
of astranger; and, despairing of aid from her own people, she turned
her eyes to Africa, and begged the aid of Genseric, the king of the
Vandals. The royal barbarian had already a powerful fleet in the
ports of the Mediterranean; and six hundred years after the total
defeat of the naval power of Carthage by the Romans, the ships of
Genseric, manned by a motley crew of Vandals, Moors, and Africans,
issued from the harbors of the city of Dido, to take vengeance upon
Imperial Rome.

84. When the Vandals disembarked at Ostia, Maximus prepared for
instant fight; but no sooner did he appear in the streets than the
infuriated populace assaulted him with a shower of stones, and his
mangled body at length found its grave in the Tiber. Rome and its
inhabitants were delivered to the violence of the Vandals and Moors.
The pillage lasted fourteen days and nights. The spoils of pagan tem-
ples and of Christian churches, the holy instruments of Jewish wor-
ship which had been displayed in the triumph of Titus, the gilded roof
of the capitol (which cost not less than $10,000,000), the imperial
ornaments of the palace, and the magnificent furniture of private
dwellings, were carefully collected and laboriously removed to the fleet.

85. Endoxia herself, who advanced to meet her delivercr, was
rudely stripped of her jewels, and with her two daughters, the only
surviving remains of the great Theodosius, was compelled, as a captive,
to follow the haughty Vandal to Africa. Her elder daughter, Eudo-
cia, became the reluctant bride of Hunneric, the eldest son of Gense-
ric; and the queen, with her younger daughter, after severa] years of
captivity, was honorably restored to the eustern emperor. The shores
of Italy, Spain, and Greece were afflicted by the incessant depreda-
tions of the Vandal pirates. In the spring of each year they sailed
trom the ports of Carthage, and Genseric, remarking that ‘ the winds
would transport them to the guilty coasts, whose inhabitants had
provoked divine justice,” suffered his ships to float at ease upon the
bosom of the Mediterranean, till the sight of some wealthy city
tempted him to land. Je continued thus the tyrant of the sea to an

Questions.—83. What was Eudoxia compelled to do? What afterward did she do. Was
she successful? $84, At what place in Italy did the Vandals disembark? Lelate the fate
of Maximus. What then followed? What is said of the pillage and spoils? 83. What

treatment did Eudoxia receive? What is related of the depredations of the Vandal
pirates ?
a. D. 476.] THE EMPIRE ENDED. 43

advanced age, and lived to witness the final extinction of the Empire
of the West.

86. In tho space of twenty years after the death of Valentinian,
nine emperors successively disappeared from the Roman stage, and the
last would be least entitled to the notice of posterity, if his reign,
which was marked by the fall of the Western Empire, did not leave a
memorable era in the history of mankind. In these times of confusion ‘
and discord, when Italy (now all that was left to Rome) was alter-
nately defended and ravaged by the barbarians who ranged themselves
under the banners of the sinking empire, Orestes, a Pannonian chief,
having gained the favor of the troops, invested his son, Romulus
Augustus * with the imperial purple, and scated him upon the throne
of the Cxsars. The youth who was thus made the instrument of lis
father’s ambition was distinguished only by his beauty and misfor-
tunes. The troops who had assisted in his elevation claimed one-
third of the lands of Italy as their reward; this insolent demand was
denied, and Odoacer, chief of the Heruli, roused them to revolt from
their inoffensive monarch,

87. Pavia was taken by storm; Orestes executed, and the helpless
Augustus, who could no longer command the respect, was reduced to
implore the clemency of Odoacer. The barbarian spared his life, and
the “last emperor of Rome,” having signed his abdication in due form,
was permitted to retire to the splendid castle of Lucullus, upon the
shores of Campania. Odoacer, despising the empty title of Augustus
and Cesar, caused himself to be proclaimed Hing of Italy ; and the
senate, mindful of their ancient dignity in the last hour of their
authority, addressed an epistle to the eastern emperor, solemnly dis-
claiming the necessity or even the wish of continuing any longer the
imperial succession in Italy, and consenting to receive the administra-
tion of justice from the hand of Odoacer.

Thus ended the empire of Rome, a. p. 476, 1,229 years after the
foundation of the city by Romulus.

* Romulus was corrupted into Jomyllus by the Greeks, and Augustus changed by the
Latins into the contemptible diminutive, Augustulus, * little Augustus.”

 

Questions,—S6, 87. What further is stated of the final overthrow of the Roman empire ?
By what means did Odoacer obtain power? In what year did the empire of Rome end?
How many years had it existed?
436 ROME.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

PAGER
1. Give an account of the building of Rome.............- eeneame 314, 315
2. What can you state of the inhabitants?............. 20 seen 315, 316
3. Of the religion of the Romans?....... cc. cece eee ee ee eee eee 316, 317
4. Of marriages among the Romans?.........eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 317
5. Of the government of Rome?....... 2. cece eee e eee ceeceee 317, 318
6. How were trials among the Romans conducted?.......+-..e0- 318
7. What can you state of the occupations of the Romans?........ 319
8. Of their preparations for battle?. 0.0... ccc cece eee cece eee 319
9. Of their funeral ceremonies? ..cc.e ccs cote nee ede ckee eae 319, 320

10. Of the fabulous history of Rome ?.......... cece eee sees eeneee 320

11. Give the-early history Of Rome. . occ. sss Seis dca aisieieene 320, 321, 322

12, The history as connected with that of the Sabines............. 322-324

13. Now give the biography of Romulus...........-..200000008: 314-324

l4. Give the biography of Numa Pompilius.............. 0.0000 324, 325

15, Give an account of the reign of Tullius Hostilius............. 325, 826

16. Of the reign of Ancus Martius........... cc cece c cece er eens 326, 327

17, Of the reign of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus..........0ee0e eee 327, 328

18. Of the reign of Servius Tullius. wc... 0... cence seca nee ceante 328, 329

19. Of the reigm of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus.............0000- 329-331

20. What change in the government then took place?............. 331, 332

21. What efforts did Tarquin make to recover power?............. 332-334

22. Tow was the conspiracy attempt frustrated?..............005 332, 333

23. How, the one to capture Rome by siege?.......... Cat eis 333

24, The one in which twenty-four towns were confederated?....... B34

25. Give the origin of the ‘‘ veto” power... .......0cccce eee eeces 335

26. Why was Coriolanus banished from Rome? ............00008 335

27, What then was his plan for vengeance ?............0cceveces 335

28. Give the particulars of his movements...........ccceeeceeeee 336

29. How, at last, was he influenced in favor of Rome?............ 336, 337

30. What farther can you state of Coriolanus?..............0.00. 337

31. Give the story of Cincinnatus........... 0. cece cece ee eeece 337, 338

32) -Of Siceius: Den tints? a ginivieewiosnie:dean are even mas akee Sa tienteatte 338, 339

33. What change then took place in the government of Rome?..... 339

34. Relate the story of Virginia............ ccc cece ce eeceeaccee 339-341

35. What changes, proposed by the tribunes, were adopted?....... 342

36. What other changes afterward occurred ?............ceeeecee 342, 343

37. Give an account of the taking of Veii.......... 0... cece s eds 343

38. Of Camillus till he departed from Rome...........00c. ee ee eee 343, 344

we
39.
40.
41.
42.

43.

44,
45,
46,
47.

48.

49,
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.

58.

59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64,
65.
G66.

67.
68.

69.
70.
tats
72.
73.
TA.
45.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 437

TAGD
WO was Brennus tics .ssis Reacts aeuuo aioe eelnaaere aun saree vealnts 344
Why did Brennus attack Rome?....... sce e cece ence cece eens 344, 345
Give an account of his successes... 1... eee cece eee ee ences 345, 346
Give an account of the success of Camillus..............00008 846
Of the success of Pontius Cominius............ cece e eee ee eee 346, 347
Of the: Bticcess: Of Manlius scsi c orvnnwe tenet ned wadaey eer aed 347, 343
What agreement was made between the Romans and Gauls?... 348
Why’ was it not carried OUbs..4 sci eaieistensdia le eee eeeieee ed erste 348
What further is stated of the Gauls?.............0. igh one 348, 349
What arguments were used against rebuilding Rome?......... 349
Why was it determined to rebuild the city?................-- 349
Give an-account-of Alanliuss. fc casa tuk deen gnuucdouw he oan 347-350
OFM US: StOloes. cher ar Seite wivaaersacuadareiis eae s autllesid 350, 351
WHO Were the SamniWles Pe cas cocseveig snnsiectierale, Wis tose esevestuang ase rete 351
With whom were they engaged in war?............0..0-. eee 351, 352
Who was Manlius Torquatus?............ Riise GIR are eidueteletdrsnans 352
Relate the story of Titus Manlius.............. eee cece ee eee 352
Give an account of the battle... 6... ccc ccc ee eee cer er eee 352, 353
How did Pyrrhus get involved in the Roman war?............ 353
Give an account of the movements of Pyrrhus................ 353, 354
Of his first victory over the Romans........... 0.0 eee ee eee 354
Of his conduct after’ the battles wx pace ccseeinwaie aware see iewaiwles 354
OF his failure to negotiate a peace... cc ce ccec cece cnccecn rece 354-356
State how Fabricius gained his point...............00. 22 eee 356
Give an account of Pyrrhus’s second victory. ..............2- 356
What further can you state of Fabricius?.......... 6. ce ee eee 356, 357
Give an account of Pyrrhus’s defeat... 1... ... cc cee eee eee eee S57
What movements-did he afterward make?...............000- 357
Give the early history of Carthage... 12.00... 50. cee ewes eee 358
What was the origin of the first Punic WAL The whey tah eauecsstre 358
How were the Romans enubled to cope with Carthage on the sea ? 358
Give an account of their first success on the sea...........0.6- 359
What successes did they have in Africa?..............00000- “359
What were the successes of Regulus?...... 2... -..26 eeeeee 359, 360
What misfortunes befell Tim:?...s, sii ie since ce wueecewie 6 oe uiaibienete sieve 360, 361
What failure next awaited the, Romans?........-..cc.ee eee 361
What success at last did they have?......... ccc cece weve eee 362
How did the Romans use the peace that followed?............ 362
In what war were they next engaged 2... co. 2s ccc v eee eee enes 362
Who: WAS VITidOMaTUG? cee seis sie Gres in are Warsi Gs Hiole wend oie Gs de aS 362
What challenge did he put forth ?...... 6... cece ee ee eee eee 362
State what folloWed. i. ccc s.ecdecsscee eee eect etemancewes 362, 363

What time elapsed between the first and second Punic wars.... 363
438

82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
a0,
OM,
92.
93.
94.
95.

96.

97.

98.

09.
190.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
110.
lll.
112.
112;
114,

115

116.
117.
118.
119.
P20,
121.
Lee
125.
124,

ROME.

PAGB
Who was) Hanmi bal fs iccaissies cnactt doce ne.aitee ai indaild ate Tecate score 363
Give the origin of the second Punic war.........-+ Loienstvaace 363, 364
Of Hannibal's success in Spain. .... 6... ee ee ee eee eee eee 364
Of his passage of the AlpS...........+-0200-- aes casaneens 364, 365
Of his first two battles with the Romans...........--..++06- 365
Of Hannibal s suosequent Movements. ...... 6. se cece eee eee 365, 366!
Of the battle of Thrasymenus......... cece cece cece ee renes 366
Of Fabius:and his: poliey..nccevaciors chad teat ce twee cele. 366-370
Of Varro and his defeat at Cann®....... 0... cece e eee eee 368
What were the consequences of that defeat?..........eee005 369
What misfortunes attended Hannibal?... 1.2.0.0... 0.2 eee eee 379-372
Give an account of the siege of Syracuse... ........ 0. ee eee 370, 371
What successes did Scipio Africanus gain ?............0ee eee 372
Give an account of the battle of Zama..............-e ees 373
What were the occurrences in Greece? ..........0 eee ence 373-375
What successes did the Romans gain over Antiochus?........ 374
Give the account of Scipio Africanus’s closing carcer......... 374
How did the third Punie war originate?. 2.2... 0... cee eee eee 375
What misfortunes befell the Carthaginians ?...........eee eee 375
Describe what followed till Carthage was destroyed......... 376
What added to the growing importance of Rome?...........- 376, 377
What is said of Cornelia Gracchus?...........0 000 eee ee ees 377
Give an account of Tiberius Gracchus............. 0002 ee eee 377, 378
Of Caius Gracchus and Flaccus........ cece cece ewes ee eees 378, 379
Of the: Jugurthine War. cc. cacacass gaeenn cena s Seudeda . 379, 380
Give an account of Caius Marius............. 0.0 ee eee ere 880,282
What can you state of the early career of Sylla?..........05. 380
How was the Mithridatic war commenced?...............05 881, 382
Give an account of its progress............ cece cece scenes 381, 383
Of the great victory gained by Scylla in Italy............... 382, 383
Of his subsequent career of crime.... ©... ee eee eee eee 383
Give the closing account of his deeds and death......... .. 383, 384
Give some account of Crassus.........:..2c:ceeteeeeeeeeaee 833-388
What were Lucullus’s successes in Asia?....... ccc cece eee 384
How came Pompey to supersede Lucullus?...........0.000. B84
Give the closing account of the Mithridatic war?............ 384-386
Give an account of Catiline’s conspiracy... 6... esse cece cece ee 385, 386
Of Pompey’s return to Rome... 22... ce cece cece ecccuenees 386, 387
How was the first triumvirate effected?..........000000008 387, 388
What division did the triumvirs agree on?.......eece ees cece 388
What successes did Caesar gain?. 0.00... cece ce eccccsueece 388, 389
What career did Crassus run?..........ccseceeecee cecueas 389
Name the events preceding the passing of the Rubicon....... 389, 390
REVIEW QUESTIONS. 439

PAGS
125. Give the particulars of that event... 2... 0... cece eee eee ee 390
126. What flight and pursuit then followed?..............0000008 390
127. Give an account of Cxesar’s next SUCCESS. ...... 0. ee eee eee ees 391
128. Of the battle fought at Dyracchium...............000eee eee 391
129. Of the next battle, that of Pharsalia....... 00.000. 0. ese eeeee 391-393
130, What further account can you give of Pompoy?...........4+ 393, 394
131. Why did Cesar go to Egypt?... 0... eee cece cece wena 395
132, What did he accomplish in Egypt?............. ee cece eee 395
133. What in Africa, west of Egypt? ......cocecserccceceececees 395, 396
134. What other successes did Caesar gain ?.......... 0. see ee eee "396, 397
135. Give an account of the end of Caesar...... 0... eee eee eee eee 397, 398
136. Deseribe What. followed cc .s6v-22 sestien eas oes asedaewseaaes 63 398-400
137. How was the second triumvirate brought about?............ 400, 401
138, What were the terms agreed upon by the triumvirs?......... 400
139. How was the “proscription” carried out?....... es eee e ee 400
140. State what took place in Greece... 0... ke ee eee ete eee 400, 401
141. Give an account of Antony’s next movements............... A401, 402
142. Of the aims and movements of Octavius.............-.0. 005 402
143. What new division of power was made?............. eee eA 402
144. What became of Pompey and Lepidus?........... eee ee eee ee 402
145. Give the particulars of what followed ............0.eeeeee ae 402
146. Of the battle of Actium and its consequences... .....-...666- 402, 403
147. Give the particulars of Octavius’s successes..........-22+00 403
148, What is stated of the reign of Augustus?............-e eee ee 404
149. Give an account of his family affairs and death ...........-- 405
150. What can you state of the reign of Tiberius?............+.6 405
151. Of Germanicus and his career?..... 6... ee eee eee ee eee eens 405, 406
152. Of Sejanus and his career?... 2.6... ee cere eee eee ee eee ee 406
153. Of the close of Tiberius’s reign, and of his death ? big ava. Reel 406, 407
154. Of Caligula, his career and death?......-+.. sees ee cree eeeee 407, 408
155. Of Claudius, his career and death?........c.e eee ee eee eens 408, 409
156. Of Nero, his career and death ?..... 6... cere ee ee eee eens 409-411
157. Of Galba, his career and death?......... cece eee eee ee eee 411, 412
158. Of Otho, his career and death ?... 1... eee eee eee eee ee ees 412
159. Of Vitellius, his career and death ?.......0:.. eee ee ee eens 412
160. Of Vespasian, and what he and Titus accomplished?......... 412-415
161. Of Titus, his career and death ?......... cece ee eee eee ee ee eee 413-416
162. Of Domitian, his career and death?..........- see eeee ee eee 416
163. Of Trajan, his career and death?......-.. sees ee eee e eee eee 416, 417
164. Of Adrian, his reign and death?.......... cece ee eee eee ee eee 417, 418
165. Of Antoninus, his reign and death ?..........sse ee eee eres 418, 419
166. Of Marcus Aurelius, his reign and death?...... potent ee eens 419
167. Of Pertinax, his reign and death ?......... 2. sees eee eee ees 420, 421
440 ROME.

168. What events followed the death of Pertinax?.......+0.++++0
169. What were the events of Servius’s reign ?.....--.+-+e serene
176. What the events during the next eighteen years?....
171. Give an account of the career of Caracalla......+..++seeeeee
172. Of Heliogabalus, his acts and death ...........e+- seers eee ae
173. Give the events during the next eighteen years............-.
174, What is stated in relation to the thirty tyrants?............-
175. In relation to Valerian, his acts and death?...........5+-+5
“176. In relation to Aurelian, his acts and death?............ ae ies
177. Narhe the closing events of the century..........25..- sees
178. What is stated of the ten persecutions?...........-55 Siem ieuete
179. Give the particulars of Constantine’s accession to power.....-
180. Of his important acts and death... ... 6... cece eee eee eens
181. Name the events of the next twenty-four years..........0+4-
182. Give the account of Julian and Jovian........... eee ee eee
NS3y. Of Valentinian 20. Guess ewe iste asmdeam ah eeinerees
184. Of Gratian and Theodosius... .. 0.0... 2. eee cece ee eee eee
185. Give the particulars of Alaric’s invasion...........-..e00eee
186. Of his subsequent acts, movements, and death...............
187;. Give-the story-of Placidiay...0.:.stisseiedv egies aed 6 eee ston nes
188. What misfortunes did the Vandals inflict?...............0..
189. What other misfortunes befell Rome? ....... digisrarasaheNere ereishacs
7190. What conquests were made by Attila? ...4..00c06e0ssewee eee
191. Give the account of Maximus............... cece ee eee e ee
VODs (Of MUON sive aad.e cis oe Gio Agha Wii ea Raat eats Ss ar eee alee
193. What did Rome suffer from ‘the Vandals and Moors?.........
194. Give the particulars of Genseric’s career... ........0...0 008s
195. Give the account of Romulus Augustus..................00-
196. Give the account of Odoaeer..c.cccew ese ee esee en ceag bas
197. When was the Roman empire brought to an cnd?............

PAGB
421

421, 422
422
422, 423
423

427, 428
428
423
428, 429
429
429, 430
430, 431
431, 432
432
432
432, 433
433, 434
433, 434
434
434, 435
435
435
435
CHRONOLOGICAL oe

 

Foundation of Rome
Reign of Romulus - - = - i
Numa Pompilius
- Tullius Hostilius
Ancus Martius is
Tarquinius Priscus -
Servius Tullius
Tarquinius Superbus
Establishment of the Republic
Three attempts to restore the Tarquins
Battle of Lake Regillus - -
First Secession to the Sacred Mount
Tribunes of the Plebs
Coriolanus banished
Agrarian Law of Cassius
The Publilian Law of Volero
The Decemvirate -
Canuleian Law for intermarriage between the two order
Military Tribunes with consular power
Censors first elected
Veii taken
Rome taken and burnt by the Gauls
The Licinian Law—equalization of the two orders
Plautus, Comedies -
The First Samnite War -
x The Latin War
The Publilian Laws
The Second Samnite War -
Defeat of the Romans by the Samnites at the Caudine Forks
The Third Samnite War
The Hortensian Laws—union of the two orders
The War with Pyrrhus
| The Conquest of Italy 4
The First Punic War
The Second Punic War -
Siege Saguntum = - 3
Ennius, ‘Annals, Satires - ‘

Battle of the Ticinus - zi
a Trebia " 7
Lake Trasimenus =
f Cann -

Syracuse taken by the Romans

509, 5

367
254-184
343-341
340-338

B89
826-304

821
298-200

281
281-278

265
264-241
218-202

219
239-169

218

218

217

216

212
2 CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION.

Battle of Metaurus at
Battle of Zama - o14. 205
‘The First Macedonian w ar Pe
“The Second “ “900
«The Gallic War ae
The Battle of Cynoscephale - ree
Terence, Comedies - 195- 195
‘The Spanish War - jon 190
‘Syrian War = i
Antiochus defeated at Magnesia 190
‘Death of Hannibal - 183.
“The Third Macedonian War - 171-168
Battle of Pydna 168
» The Achzean War—Corinth taken - 147-146
Spanish Wars - - 153-133
‘The Third Punic War 149-1 46
Lucilius, Satires - 148-103
Murder of Viriathus 140
Numantia taken 183
Death of Attalus—bequeathes his kingdom to the Romans - 1 3
Tiberius Gracchus elected tribune—his death 133
Asia made a Roman province 129
Caius Gracchus elected tribune 123
The proposal to give the franchise to the Italians - 125
Caius Gracchus tribune a second time 122
a put to death 121
Death of Micipsa, king of Numidia 118
Varro, Husbandry, Antiquities - 116-28
Invasion of the Cimbri and Teutones 118-101
Jugurthine War 112-106
Consulship of Caius Marius - 107
\/ Cicero, Orations, Letters, Dialogues 106-43
Teutones defeated at Aque Sextize - 102
Second Servile War in Sicily - 103-101
. Cresar, Commentaries —- - 102-44
Sixth ‘consulship ot Marius 100
Lucretius, Poems, “De Rerum Natura” 95-52
Drusus proposes to give the franchise to the Italians 91
Social War - -- " 90-89
First Civ War - §8-86
First Mithridatic War 88-84
Catullus, Miscellaneous Poems ad 7
Seventh Consulship of Marius - 86
Sallust, Histories - a 86-34
Second Mithridatic War 83-89
Second Civil War < 83-81
Sullan Constitution - 31-79
Third Mithridatic War F163
War with the Gladiators = - - - - 73-71
Virgil, Eclogues, Georgics, Aineid - - 70-19
Pompey, Consul S - e _ a 70
War with the Pirates - - 7 a = o 67
Horace, Satires, Odes, Epistles - 2 = = s 65-8

.
CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. 3

Mithridates’ death—Jerusalem taken—Catiline’s conspiracy— ea
Pontus a Roman province 63
First triumvirate - - 60
«Consulship of Cesar i = 59
Livy, Roman History - - 59-A. D.17
Ceesar’s Campaigns in Gaul - - - 58-51
Ceesar’s first invasion of Britain - 55
Crassus defeated and slain by the Parthians . 53
Second Civil War begins —- 49
Battle of Pharsalia—Pompey defeated 48
The Alexandrine War - + * 48-47
Battle of Thapsus 46
Tattle of Munda—Defeat of the Pompeians 45
Assassination of Cxsar - 7 4
Ovid, Metamorphoses, Fasti - 43-4. D. 17
Sceond triumvirate (Octavius, Antony, Lepidus) - “ 43
Pheedrus, Fables - . =
Battle of Philippi—Death of Brutus and Cassius 42
Battle of Actium - - 31
Death of Antony and Cleopatra 30
AD.
Reign of Augustus - 31-14
Roman Icgions under Varus defeated by the Germans 9
Tiberius, Emyeror - - 14-3
Persius, Satires - 34-62
Cuigula — - - - - 37-41
Claudius, Epigrams - 41-54
Martial, Epigrammatists  - - 43-104
Tacitus, Annals, History = - -- 50-117
Plutarch, Lives of Famous Men - - 46-12
Nero - 54-68
Galba, Otho, ‘Vitellius, ‘Emperors - 68-69
Vespasian, Emperor 69-79
Seneca. Philos, Letters, Tragedies - 65
Jerusa'em taken 70
‘Titus, Emperor 79-81
Domitian, Emperor - 81-96
Prosperity of the Empire = 96
Nerva, Emperor - - 96-98
Trojan a3 - - 98-117
Hadrian “ - - 117-158
Lucian ue - 120-200
Galen “ 130-200
Antoninus Pius, Emperor 138-161
Marcus Aurelius, “ 161-180
Commodus, e - 180-192
Pertinax, - 192-193
Septimius Severus 193-211
Caracalla 7 211-217
Macrinus, Elagabalus, Emperor - 217-222
‘Alexander Severus, 222-235
Maximin, ii - 235-238
Philip the Arab, “ : 244-249

Decius, et - - 249-251
4 CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION.

“Thirty Tyrants - 2 -

r

Gallienus

Aurelian a

Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, taken prisenee

Tacitus, Emperor - -
Probus, .

Carus,’ ff -

A.D.
258-259
259-268
268-275

272
275-276
276-282
283-283

Diocletian and Maximian, Emperors—Gallerius and Constantius,

“ Caesars ” :
Constantine, sole Emperor

Christianity the national religion - =

284-505
82.

Council of Nice—Trinity established—Constantinople made the

capital = - -
Three Sons of Constantine .
Julian the Apostate, Emperor—Paganism re-established
Jovian, Emperor - - - -

B25
337-861
361-3863
363-364

Vv alentinian, Emperor—Milan capital— ‘Empire divided—Valius

reigns at Constantinople =
Bishop “Ulphilas converts the West Goths :
Valius defeated and slain at Adrianople, by the Goths
Theodosius the Great, Emperor .

Final Division of the Empire

First invasion of Alaric - .
Rome sacked by Alaric - .
Kingdom of the Vandals Pounded 4 in Africa - -
Valentinian the Emperor

Defeat of Attila at Chalons

Maximus, Emperor—Rome plundered by Genserie
Romulus Augustus, last Emperor of the West

Odoacer, “King of haly™
Regaal Period — -
Patricians and Plebeians
Conquest of Italy -
Foreign Wars :
Internal Dissensions :
The Empire -

364-375
364-378
378

388

398

402

410
429-439)
425-453
451

- 455
- 476

476
7538-509
509-367
848-255

- 264-146
- 133-80
30-A, D. 476
INDEX

RULES FOR PRONUNCIATION.

Every accented vowel, ending a syllable, has its long sound, as Ca-to, the accent being
designated by an itudie letter. Every accented vowel, not ending a syllable, bas its short
sound, as May-lius. The diphthongs, @ and «, aro pronounced exactly like our English e; ed,
like our 2; ew is generally a part of two syllables, as, [-dom-e-ne-us; @, final, always forms a
distinct syllable, as, Pe-ned-o-pe. Cand gare hard before a, 0,and uw; and soft before e, 7, and
y; before ia, and like terminations, they assume sh, ag Ac-ci-us, Ca-du-ceus; Ch has
always the sound of 4, as Co/-chis; Jf, like other consonants, is silent before n, as Mne-mon;
P is silent before s and ¢, as Psammeftichus, Ptolemy.

The rules for accent will be best expressed by the following verse :—

“Each monosyllable has stress, of course;
Words of two syllables the first enforce:
A syllable that ’s long, and last but one,
Must have the accent upon that or none;
But if this syllable be short, the stress
Must on the last but two its force express.”

The pupils, in writing the biographies of the individuals here mentioned, will read the
pages specified, and such other authorities as may be found in the School Libraries, being
careful to designate the time when, and the place where, the person lived.

In describing a people, let the migrations, settlements, and political changes be carefully
noted.

In writing the history of a city, let all the remarkable events of which it was the scene
become the subject of thought, in chronological order.

This method will cultivate a taste for reading and a habit of research, at the same time
that it teaches composition and classification of ideas,

 

  
 
  
  
 
  

    
 
  
  
   
  

A-bed-ne-go............05 12] A-go-ra AN-drGS: oo0 sees tans 191, 192
Ab-ra-da-tes....48, 46, 47, 48 | Ag-ri-gen-tum 89 An-tad-ci-das. 5
A-by-dos ..... 67, 71, 187, 194 | A-grip-pa .... 405 | An-ti-och .
Abys-sin-i-a.......... 16, 4 Ag-rip-pt An-tig-o- nus..... a
Ac-a-de-mus ... Al-a-ric An-td-o-chus.. .191, aaa

 

 

 

   
  
    
 
 
 

 

 

 

 

 

  

A-chem-e-nes Al-bi-nus An-tip-a-ter

A-che@-us... Al-ci-bi-a 3 : An-to-ni-a .

A-cha-i-a... Ale-me@-on . 118-124 | An-to-né-us..... 2...

A-chil-las .. Al-e-man-ni ee An-to-ny..

A-chil-les. Al-ex-an-de A-ny-sis

Ac-ti-um.. Al-li-a... A-pis

A-cra..... 3 3 | A-ma-sis A-pol-lo

Ad-her-bal. . aus A-men-o-phis........- Bt Ap-pi-us.

Ad-me-tus Am-phic-ty-on.... A-pri-es..

A-dol-phus. es Am-phip-o-lis. . A-pu-li-a.

A-do-nis ox Am-phis-sa. Aq-ui-le-i-a

A-dri-an .... Am-phi-tri-te. A-ra-bi-a...

A-dri-an-o-ple 418 | A-my-it..... ans A-ras-pes

A-dri-at-ic...... , 433 | A-mu-li-us.. ...820, 321 | Ar-a-tus ..

Ag-a-mem-non ...-243 | A-myn-tas....,..73, 208, 223 | Ar-ba-ces.

Ag-a-ris-te ... ....160 | An-a-cyn-dar-ax-es...... 246 | Ar-be-la.. 4. 251-25

A-gath-o-cles........ 289, 298 | An-ax-ag-o-ras ..-160 | Ar-ca-di-a... 6, 191- oT

A-ges-i-la-us....126, 902-219 | An-ché-a-lus........+..., 246 | Ar-ca-di-us.. -- 88, 4z9

A-ge-sip-o-lis... .... 126, 209 | An-cus...... 825-325 Arche-He-us.. 0" ge
«126, 185-280 An-cy-ra iene ahersts 246 | Ar-chi-as... » 209, 210, 241
449 INDEX

Ar-chi-da-mus. 127, 159, 170
Ar-chi-ime-des.. B10
Ar-e-op-a-sus. 160

   
 
   
 
 

  

Ae

A-ris-to-bu “lus.

A-ris-to-de- mus

Ar-is-to-gi-ton..

Ar-is-tom-e nes 11
ts

 

Ar- -Me-Ni-d.sseeeeeTy
Ar-ta-ba-nus .
Ar tebe 4 -Zus,

Ae ie xere- es.
Ar-te-mis-i-a
Ar-sa-ces.
Aresin-0-@ .
As-dru-bal .
Ash-dod..
As-pa-si-a .
As-pen-dus.
Ass-har..
As-syr-i-a
As-ty-a-ge
As-y-chis
Ath-ens..
Ad-ta-lus.
At-ti-la,
At-tos-sa
At-ro-pos..
Au-gus-tu-l
Au-gus-tus.

 

 

Au-le-tes. 297, 303. B04
Au-re-lius . - 419, £21
Au-ro-ra. ap

aA-zo-tus ..

Ba-bel
Bab-y-lon
Bac-chus....
Bac-tri-a...
Bu-go-as.
Bel-e-sis...

Bel- shaz-zar.

 

Ler- -e-ne-ce
Bes sus..
TBez-e-ta .

 

 

 

Bi-thyn-i-

Bo-o-tia.

Bo-re-as.. 137,
Bos-pho-rus . 60, 189, 427
Bras-i-das.. . 173, 174
Bren-nus, 844-347
Brit-ain. oa 418, 421, 426
Bri-tan- sagen neces 408
Brun-du-si- aah 390, 402
Bru-tus..... 881-832, 38S401

  

AND PRONUNCIATION.

By-zan-ti-wm ..80, 81, 153-427

Cad-me-ia
Ce@-sar.
Cw-sar (Oe

    
  

98, 200. 211

  

  

  
 
 
   
   
 
  
   
  
  
 
  
 
 
  
 
   
 
 
  
 
   
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
   
   
 
 
 
  
 
  
 
  
  
 
  
  

Ca-lig-u-la.
Oul-lis-the-nes .
Cal-lic-rat-i-das
Cam-by-ses..

    
    
 
 
     
 
  
 
  

Ca-si-num...
Cas-san-der .
Cas-si-us ..
Cat-i-line .
Cat-a-na

S901

Ce- -pbren- i-us .
Ce-rau-nus,
Cer-be-rus.
Ce-the-gus
Chal-ce-don
Chad-chis..
Chal-cid-i-ce
Chal-de-a ...
Cham-po/-lio
Char-i-de-mus.
Char-i-la-us.
Char-mz-on 7
Cha-ron. .93, 95, 210, 211.3
Cher-o-ne-a.. se. 8Y,

Cher-so-ne-sus 61, 1001
CHEOSe Vs Feajcis yale ‘od J
Chit-tim
Christ ..
Chry-sos
Cic-e-ro .
Ci-lé-ci-a
Ci-mon .
Cin-cin-nu-tus
Cin-e-as.
Cin-na.
Cir-rha..
Ci-tha-on.
Clau-di-us ..
Cle-ar-chus....
Cle-om-bro-tus
Cle-om-e-nes
Cle-on.....
Cle-o-pa-tra .
Clis-the-nes .
Cli-tus ..
Clo-tho ..
Cly-tem-nes-tra.
Co-drus..
Col-chis..
Col-la-t¢-nus
Col-os-se-um ..
Com-mo-dus
Co-non
Con-stan-tine
Con-stan-ti-uo-ple

 

 

“408, 409
6, 78, 201
126, 209
. 123-282
-1TL-175
-- 804401
- 123, 160
244, 255

9!

 

 

  
  
 
 
 
  

23, 99, 895
"330-333
- 416

 

Bu-ceph-a-lus...258, 252, 261
Bu-sen-té-nus 451
Bu-sé-ris ... 220)

 

Con-stan-ti-us... ..

   
  
  
  
   
    
  
  
  
 
     
  
   

 

 

   
     
   
  
  
  
 
   
 

COr-C7/-T A in3 esa saaate
Cor-inth ...
Co-ri-o-la-nus .
Cor-ne-lia....
Co-ree-Lus
Cras-sus

  

Cu-ra-ti-i.
Cur-ti-us.
Cy-ax-

  

Cy-lon..... a

Cyn-o-ceph-a-le, 292, 373
“Cyn-o-sar-ges 130, 150
Cy-re-ni-uS........0.--+ svt
Cy-rus.......14, 15, 29, 84-50

Da-ci-a.....
Da-mas-cus
Dan-iel...

ciesiareoe Al 418
10

 
  

Da-ri-us IIL.
Du-tis w....
Da-vid..
De-ci-us..
Dej-o-ces 3d, 36,
De-los..149, 161, a 108 201
Del-phi....... BO, | 3-160
Dem-a-ra-tus ...

De-me-tri-us.
De-me-tri-us I...
De-me-tri-us H, 290

  

 
   
   
   
 
  
  
  
   

De-mor-the-tes II
Den-ta-tus
Den-ea-li-on.
Di-a-na..
Did-i-us
Di-do...
Di-o-cle-si-an.
Di-og-e-nes ..
Di-o-do-rus .
Di-o-nys-i-us.
Di-o-me-des
Do-do-na...
Do-mi-di-an
Do-ri-ans.
Do-rus..
Dra-co..

 

Dyr-rach-i-um ....... 2-81

85, 204, 214
S-67, 100-147
-.70, 136-169

Ee-bat-a-na.
E-ge-an...

  

K-le-a-zar..
HANS Sos 208
E-mi2-i-us
E-o-li-a,
K-o-lus.
ean UGH URS,
k dpi es -nus.
INDEX

 

   
 
 
 
  
   
 
 
   

Eph-o-ri ...154, 185, 204-980
E-piph-a- nes... 90-301
E-pip-o-la.
B-pi-rus....

B-re-tria......

E-sav-had-don..
E-thi-o-pi-a ..
E-tol-i-an.....
E-tru-ri-a..
Eu-be-a..

Eu-cli-des .
En-do-cia...
Eu-dow-i-a..
Eu-er-ge-tes..
Eu-me-nes .
Eu-pa-tor....
Eu-phra-tes.
Eu-rip-i-d

  

 

 

Eu-ry-bi-a-des..
Eu-rym-e-don,......
Eu-rys-the- nes. 104, 138, 126
Euxine (Yuw@ in).. L07
E-vag-o-ras “195, 206
E-yil Mer-o- ld, 15, 39
Fa-bi-us Ca-mil-lus .....848

 
 
 
   
    
   
  
   
 
 
  
   
 
 
 
  

Fa-bi-us Maw-i- mus...
Fa-bri-ci-us .

Faus-tu-lus.
Flac-cus....

Flo-rus.

Ge-nes-a-reth.

- Gen-se-ric....
Ger-ma-ny......

i 1405, 406

422

Go-bry-as..
Go-mor-rah.
Go-na-tus ..
Gor-di-um..
Gor-di-us.
Goths.....
Grac-chus...
Gran-i-cus. .
Gra-tian ..
Greece
Gry/-lu
Gy-lip-pus .
Gis-chaslas. ets cumnceses

 

“184, 243) 258
42

Hal-i-car-nas-sus...-..... 245
Ham
Ha-mié-car

  

Hel-i-con

 

AND PRONUNCIATION.

He-li-op-o-lis...... 21, 23, 250

Hed-len....

 
  
  
 

Hel-las....
Hel-les-pont.
He-lot

cu-les..

Her-Odsiccas sisg és
al

He-rod-o-tus
Hes-i-od....
Heeg ea
Hi-e

Hi- ans S
Hlip-par- -chus.

oT, os, 108
Hed-le... — és

   
   
 
 

Hip-pi-as...... 62-64, 12180

Hip-poc-ra-tes...
His-té-ve-us...

Hol-land..
Ho-mer...
Ho-no-ri-a..

   
  
   

Hy-per-bo-lus
Hyr-ca-nius:
Hys-tas-pes. ...

I-dom-e-neus
J-lus, or I-i
ll-lyr-i-a..
In-a-chus.

Ju-li-an,
Ju-no.
Ju- -pi-ter Am-mon..

 

Jo-seph..
Jo-se-phu
Jo-vi-an

Ju- eplter

Jer-o-bo-am.
Je-ru-sa-lem .

 

    
 
  
  
 

7 61,3 a o

(49-435

: 200, 261, 263

2,

 
  
  
  

  
 
  

91, 108, 278-347

9-108

La-bor 0s-oar-chod..... 14-44
Lach-e-sia
La-co-ni-a
Lac-e-de-mo
Le-gus.... é
Lam-a-chus.
Lamp-sa-cu
La od-i-ce..
Lath-y-rus.
Len-tu-lus...
Le-on-i-das I.
Le-on- mAdas: IL

 
   
  
  
  

Tee on-d- tus.

Lep-i-dus....... 3!

“184-207, 391, 293
- . 89, » HIS0

Les-bos..
Le-ucé-ra

i-cin-i-an.
Liv-i-a.
Liv-y..

 

 

 
  
    
    

 

  
    
 
   
    
   
 

Lu-cre-ti-a.

Lu-cud-lo

Lua-or.

Lyb-i-a.

Lyc-i-a. 293
Ly cur-gus : iL 190
Lyd-i-a.... -.14, 37-267
Ly-san-der 14, 190+ 200
Ly$#aI- Cras ..32 sere carssisnee 289
Ly-sim-a-chus...272, 275, 289
ToO2 Cri. ses saictis 186, 216, 274
Mac-e-do-ni-a.....71, 181-229
Ma-cré-nu8........+.-006 423
Ma-nas-seh . ioe ddd.
Man-da-ne . -38, 39
Man-li-us.. 347-859
Mauan-ti-ne-a..

Mar-a-thon ..
Mar-cel-lus .

  
   
 
  
    

Mar-do-ni-us... . TW-223
Mar cus sel
+380
875
-. 419
Mav-i-mus, 433, 434
MG-Gi-d)o.5 cia renseecs 13.
Medes..
Meg-a-by-sus ..... 59, 72, 161
Meg-a-cles........... 113-166
Meg-a-ra....107, 169, 209, 273
Mel-i-tus. +. 200
Me-lon ...

Mem-phis
Mem-non..

Men-e-la-us

Me-nes 9
Men-tor.. - 88
Mer-cu-ry Ol!
Me-sab-a-tes . 1

 

Mes-se-n
h

 
    
   

DP
Me-tho-ne

 

 

  
  
  

Mi-cip-sa 279

Mi-le-tus. 61-T5, 124-245
Mil-ti-a-des......61, 127-160
Mi-ner-va.. 2 92-28T
Mé-nos.. -94, 105
Miz-ra-im... wacky 1S
Mith-ri-da-tes -81, 886
Mne-mon .... 14, 201
444 INDEX

Me-ris ....
Mo-los-sus
Moors saa
Mount Si-on.
Mount A-cra.
Mount of Ol-ives
Mount Ié-na.
Mam-mi-us

   
   
 
   
  

..20, 26, 357
5

My-cé-ni
Myn-da-rus.

   
    

 
 

NG-Disssa se gece exes
Na-bo-po-las-sar.11, 15, 23, 38
Ni@#HUO so acss dane 23 eters 383
Ne-ar-chus...... 264, 265, 268
Neb-u-chad-nez-zar... 11-87
Ne-brus ui
Ne-cho.

Ner-e-g 14, 15
Nep-tune....92, 103, 149, ‘87
Ne-ro. “409-411, 412-418
NePevacasnancdloniavesn ans 416
Ni-ca-tor. 290, 291
Nic-i-as. 172-1
Ni-ger... ae 419, 421, 422
Nim-rods.icccececscces &
Nin-e-veh.

Ni-nus.....

  

O-lym-pi-as. . 95-109, i833
O-lym-puas... 88-91, 102-231
O-lyn-thus. “173-210, 223-232
O-res-tes 4-485,

    
  
 
  
 
    
 
 
  
  

Or-phe-us .. 22 OF
On-o-mi7'-chus. Ta29
Op-pi-as . B41
08-88 icles vj scemncrepeeis 38, 135

i-r'is 16, 17, 19, 25
Os- tia. pAGains uae 410, 434
Os-y-man-dy-as . -. 20, 54
O-ta-nes......... - 56, 5T
ONO iis: stecacs 409, 412
Ox-y-ar-tes ..... 22.258
Pac-to-Ins ......... ~ 48

Pal-la-dium
Pal-es-tine....
Pal-my-ra......
Paum-pbyZi-a,
Pan-do-ra, .
Pan-the-a
Pan-the-on.
Pan- i-tes..
Paph-la-go-ni-a
Pectin. os.cscic
Par-nas-sian. 118, 1

Pur-thi-a.. 399, 306, 397, 402
Par-thi-ans.......... 417-422

 

 

AND PRONUNCIATION.

   
  
 
   
  
 
  
  
  
    
   
 
 
 

Pa-rys-a-tis ..
Pa-ros ,
Par-a-lus..
Par-e-to-ni-um.. Rosine
Par-me-ni-0...... i
Pat-ro-clus .
Pau-lus...
Paw-sa-n

Pel-o-pon-ne-sus .

Pe-lw-si-am. . 2-52
Per-dic-cas.......
Per-i-cles...
Per-ga-mus.
Per-sep-o-lis.
Per-se-us.
Per-si-ans..
Per-ti-nax
Pe-tre-a....
Phal-e-roum.
Pha-ra-oh. ..
Phar-na-bu-ces.
Pha-ros......
Phar-na-ces
Phar-ne-as
Phar-sa-lia.
Pha-yl-lus ...
Phe-né-ci-a...
Phil-a-ded-phus.
Phi-lé-mon...

 

"986, Bid

   
 
  

   
     
   
    
 
 

 
 

 
    
 

  

    
 
 
 

 
 

Phil-o-me-lus..
Phi-lo-p@-men..
Phi-lop-a-ter,...
Phi-lo-tas..
Phié-us...
Pho-cis.
Pho- ~ci- on.
i-das

Pho-bi-das.
Phra-or-tes.
Phryg-i-an .
Phryc-us.
Phys-con.
Pi-r@-us.

Pi-sid-i-an..
Pi-sis-tra-ti-dw. .121, 123, ip
Pi-sis-tra-tus........ 120-127
PE BO cia issainio'es
Pé-thom,
Pla-cid-i-a
Pla-te-a.
Pla-to..
Plaw-cus..
Plis-tar-chus .
Plis-the-nes,
Plis-to-nax,

      
   
 
   
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
  
 
   
 
  
 
 

 

 

219, Praerts
93-95, 133
aise 5

  
 
   
 
   

Pol-lux...
qoly eee
Po

Po- ess per-chon
Pom-pe-ii

 

Pom-pey........ 884, eee
Pom-pey (Sextus)
Pom-pi/-i-us .
Pon-ti-us.

Pop-pe-a... ;
Por-sen-na
Po-rus....
Pot-i-da-a,
Po-tiph-e-ra .
Prex-as-pes.
Pri-am..
Pro-bus
Pre-tors.
Pro-cles.. os
Pro-me-the-us

Pro-pon-tis...

Prop-y-le-s
Pro-te-us .
Proz-e-nus..
Pryt-a-nes,.

 
    
    
   
  
  
 
  
  

260, 261, 263
163-174, 2u¢
at

35
Psam-me-ni-tus, 30, 31, 52, 53

Psam-met-i-chus.. .27, 28) 31
Psam-mis...... se 99. 31
Ptol-e-my...
Pub-lic-o-la.
Pul
Pyd-na..
Pyr-e-necs
Pyth-i-a.
Pyr-rhus. .
Py-thag-o-ras
Py-thon.....
Py-thon-ess

   
 
  
 
 
 
 
   
   
   
    
 

 

Oures-torsisyenisiaasu wees
Quin-de-cem-vi-
Quin-ti-us.
Qui-ri-tes,

Rav-en-na.... 0...
Ra-ma-ses
Reg-u-lus ..
TRe-ho-bo-am
Re-mus

Rom-w-lus...814-949, 427-
Rox-a-na...228, 258, "269, 2
271,

Ru-bi-con

Sad-a-chus ..
Sa-cun-tum .
Bail aise acre
Sa/-a-inis 52.
Sal-ma-nas-er,
Delile eoerek
Sa-mu-ri-a

Sam-ni-tes
Sa-mos..
Sa-por..
Sar-dan-a.
Sar-a-cus..
Sa-ron-ic..

  

  
  
 
  
  
  
INDEX

Se-lew-cl-da... aA, 290, 291
Se-leu-cus :
Sel-eu-cd-a.
So-mir-a-mis
Sen-e-ca ......
Sen-na-che-rib.
Sep-tim-i-us...
So-ra-pis..
Ser-vi-us..
Se-sos-tris.
Ses-tos....
Se-ve-rus
Sor-tua....
Sha-drach.
Shem....
Shi-shak.
Sie-il- ve
Bee don,

    
 
 
 
  
 
  
  
 
 
 
    
   
  
 
 
 
    
 
 
    

Soc-ra- tes
Sud-orn,

: 22)
So-lon....... 30, 199, ae $39
Soph-ro-nis-cus
Spain... 94.

Spar-ta
Spho-dri-

epictam-e-n nes.
Sta- gi- ra.
Tr

Stry-mon..
Su-sa......
Su-ni-um ...

  

 

Tac-i-tus......... 78, 415-425
Van-e-quil........... 327-829 |

AND PRONUNCIATION.

 
 
  
  
 
  
 
 
  
    
 
   
   
   
 

  
   
   
 
   
 
 
  

Tan-gier... TN Gos aitesce aces
Tan-ta-lus.. Tyn-da-rus
Tar-quin I. TYPO seinen

Tar-quin II..
Ta-ren-tum

U-cho-re-us.
Tar-sus.

U-lys-ses.........

Tar-ta-rus...

Ta-ti-us ... Pah ers. ael
‘Ta-yg-e-tus. a Va-le-ri-us ..

Te-ge-ans. .149 | Va-lens...

‘Ted-lus... -. 119 | Van-dals

Tem-pe.... -88, 185 | Var-ro .

Ter-mi-nus.. . 825 | Ve-i -i-ans.

Thap-sa-cus . 3

‘Thap-sus.

The6-a-is. says

The-bes ....... .19-209 | Ves-pa-si-an

The-mis-to-cles - 70-188 | Ve-su-vi-us. 2 ALS
The-o-do-si-us,......426-434 | Ve-tw-ri-a. . 386

‘Ther-am-e-nes.......193-198 | Vi-en-na ..

Ther-mop-y-le.68-98,126-205 | Vir-gin-i-a

The-se-us 95 | Vir-gin-i-us. .

Vi-ted-li-us 411, 412, 415
233

 
 
 
 
 
    
 
 
   
 
   
 
 
  
 
 
  

Thes-sa-ly Vol-sci-i 0-33
‘Thes-sa-lo: Wnl-Ca es cscsrasceses 26, 27, 92
Thrace en

Thra-ci-ans.. ‘ Walliasssssese aemehia ete 431
‘Thras-y-bw-lus... 192-207

‘Thras-y-me-nus . .--866 | Xan-thip-pns..,.181, 149-160
Thym-bria..... -44-45, Hance: pe is 200
Thu-cyd-i S 122-183 | Xerw-es

Tiber asiceans . 423-434 | Xerwv-es II...

Ti-be-ri-us ..
Ti-cin-i-um
Ti-gra-nes ..

.40540T | Xen-o-phon
: oe Xu-ther ...

 

  
 
  

 

 

Ti-gris

Ti-man-dra ...........65 198

Tis-sa-pher-nesT4-82, 184-202 | Za-cyn-thus..........+.- 172
Tir-i-ba-zus......... 207, 208 | Za-ma .... 878
Ti-thraus-tes.... ...... Zan-cle... 112
Ti-tus..... Zech-a-ri-ah - +08
To-ro-ne. Zed-e-ki-ah. 12, 29
Tra-jan Ze-no-bi-a 424, 425
Trip-o-li. ZLeph-y-rus -92
Tro-pho-ni-us...........+- OG Ze-rah ~. 251
Troy -.......92-101, 248-343 | Zop-y-rus. . 59, 72
Tul-lia. 829 | Zor-o-as-ter. 82, 84
Tud-li-ug..... welaidierdoaca Zo-ro-ba-bel.....ccee evens 61

 
CHRONOLOGICAL CHART.

FIRST MIDBGENNIOM.

 

 

CENTURY, |A.M.|B. 0.
Ist. 1v0 s.¢| In the beginning God created the Heavens and the Earth. Man was placed in the Garden of Eden, transgressed, and was driven forth to possess the
| World. Cain and Abel born.
2d. 200|3900) Murder of Abel, Cain builds the first City and calls it Enoch, after his son. Adam has many sons and daughters, among whom Seth is particularly
: distinguished,
3d. 300!3800 Enos, third from Adam in the line of the Messiah, lives, “Then began men to call upon the name of the Lord.” Irad, Cain’s grandson, born.
ith. 400,8700| ‘Cainan, the fourth in descent from Adam, born. Mahujeel, Cain's fourth descendant, lives.
5th. 500|3600| Mahalalee! and Jared, the fifth and sixth from Adam, born. Methusael, Cain’s fifth descendant, born.
Gth. 600/3500| Each of these Patriarchs had many Sons and Daughters besides those here mentioned. Lamech is supposed to have killed Cain.
ith. 70/3400] Enoch, seventh from Adam, walks with God; names his son Methuselah, signifying “adart.” Jubal invents Musical Instruments. Tubal-Cain works

in Brass and Iron.

§00/3800| Adam, Seth, Enos, Cainan, Mahalaleel, Jared, Enoch, and Methuselah, with their numerous descendants, all living at this time. Enoch foretells Christ's
second coming.—See Jude 14.

9th. 900/3200! Lamech, Son of Methuselah and Father of Nosh, lives. No mention is made of Cain's posterity after this period,

doth. 1000|3100| Adam dies, aged 980 years. Enoch is translated at the age of 365. Ue “received the testimony that he pleased God, and was not; for God took him.”

8th.

 

i SECOND MILUEANNIOM.

 

CENTURY, |A.M./B, 0.

ist 11003000] Seth ies, aged ti years. Noah, a type of “rest,” is born. “ All flesh hath corrupted their way upon the Earth, so that the Creator repented that he
had made Man,”

2d. 1200/2900) Enos dies, aged 905 years, Enos, grandson of Adam, conveys to Noah the Traditions concerning the Creation of the World.

8d. 4300/2800] Cainan dies, aged 840. Mahalaleel dies, aged $30. “There were Giants in the Earth in those days; mighty Men, which were of old; Men of renown.”

4th. 4400/2700] The Patriarchal form of Government prevails among the Antediluvians, The Inhabitants of the Earth increase in numbers and wickedness.

5th. 150012600} Jared dies, aged 962, Noah, a preacher of righteousness, warns his fellow-men ot the destruction which shall come upon the ungodly.

6th. 1600|2500| God declares, “ Jfy Spirit shull not ahoays strive with Man ;" “yet his days shall be an hundred und twenty years.” During this time the Ark is
built, and Noah’s three Sons are born,

Tth. - 1700/2400] 1656 a.m. 2344 8.0. Methuselah dies, aged 969, The DELUGE destroys all the Inhabitants of the Earth, except Noah and his Family, and the

Creatures with them in the Ark.
8th. 4800/2800} The Earth divided by the confusion of tongues, 100 years after the Flood. Japheth’s posterity settle the West;

Shom'’s, the East; and Ham’s, the South. , 3

: ‘ ASSYRIA—founded by Asshur
Oth. 1900/2200] Terah, father of Abraham, born. Misraim, son of Ham and grandson of

WJ
| Noah, migrates Southward, and founds 3 é ¥ ‘i | EGYPT—Memphis | a

10th, 2000/2100! “The Isles of the Gentiles divided” built B. 0, 2700. | @ | Nimrod builds Babylon.
i

 

 

among the children of Japheth. rR ECE—settled ry |
the suns of Ion. Busiris, Osymandias. | * * * * * *

Kas TEIRD Mp ANE Me

 

 

i ~

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  
      

 
         

     
  

 

 

 

 

 

   
     
  
 
 

 

 

 

 

 

CENTURY, A. mB o.| ‘ |
Ist. 2100 2000) 1921 B.c. The calling of Abraham. He passes from Ur of the \
{ Chaldeans to Canaan, Suh ha ge 5 ws Cyclopic style of '
| | Architecture. . | Uchoreus, Meris.. | o
ad. 2200) 1900 Sodom destroyed, Isaac, Jacob, and Esau, born. Ismael and Mid- S
| ian settle in Arabia, . é A : , 7 fi é . |B. oO 1856, Argus] : a
i | founded. . ., | Shepherd Kings, Fab-) §
Bd. ae 1800] The twelve Patriarchs. Joseph is sold into Egypt and becomes, ulous Ages. ‘ e
} ruler of the whole land. . 3 . ; ‘ “ é he four Hellenic 5
* tribes. . | Joseph, minister of | &
4th. 24001 100 Jacob and Joseph die. The children of Israel grievously oppressed Pharaoh. j r
| by the Egyptians. F . : % 6 4 : . }| 1616, Corinth founded. | Statue a Memnon
t erected. 4
5th. 2500/1690] Aaron and Moses raised up to deliver Isracl. Moses kills an,
Egyptian and flees into Midian. ‘ 7 : . : . || Athens and Sparta
founded. . | Ramases Miamun, the
6th. 260011650] 1491, The Exodus. The Law given, After 40 years’ Israel enter cruel. . ‘ ‘
Canaan. Joshua, Othniel. . ee We Yee . _.| Amphictyons. Thebes |
+| founded by Cadmus.| Amenophis III. Se-
Tub 270011656] Judges rule Israel, Ehud and Shamgar deliver them from their op-) sostris, j
pressors. ‘ ¥ . * : ‘ 5 % . A Pelops names the Pe-
loponnesus. . < = * * ®
8th. 2800/1800! Deborah and Barak; Gideon, Abimelech, Tola, and Jair, judge
= Israel. . . . . . . . . . . . || The Argonautic Expe-
¢| dition. . . .| Proteus. . * 5 Ninus and Semiramis.
9th. 2900|1200] Jephthah, Ibzan, Elon, Abdon, Samson, and Eli, judge Israel.)
Wars with the Philistines, 4 : i é s ‘ . Trojan war. Return
of the Dorians. . | Cheops, Cephrenius. Ninyas.
1orh. 3000/1095} Saul, first king of Israel. David reigns 40 years. Solomon com-
mences building the Temple. . 7 . é . ‘ . | Codius, last king of
‘ Athens, . . | Mycerinus, the good.
i Asychis. : * * * < .
FOUR TEX MIDBoENNITUM.
CENTURY. |A.M.|B. 0. ;
Ist. 3100/1015) 1000, Temple dedicated. Rehoboam, Abijam, Asa and Je- ;
hoshaphat, reign. Ten tribes revolt. m ¥ 4 . | Homer and Hesiod
2d. 3200] 900] Jehoram, Ahaziah, Athaliah, Jehoash, and Amaziah, reign in flourish. : . | Shiskah. Zerah.
Judah. Jehu reigns in Israel. . ‘ 3 : 7 : . 3| Olympic Games. Ly-
8d. 3300| 800] Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah, reign. | curgus’s Laws. | * * * Jonah preaches in Nineveh.
Israel carried captive, 0. 721... « /ROME-founded | i
B.C, 158, . 1776, First Olympiad.
4th. 3400) 700] Manasseh and Amon. Josiah slain. Necho de- Messenian war, . | Anysis. Sabachus.
thrones Jehoahaz. 4 é Tullius. Ancus. Sethon.. . . | MEDIA, Dejoces. \ Era of Nabon-
Tarquin. Messenia subdued. assar, 747.
Sth. 3500] 600! 588, The TEMPLE destroyed. The Jews / ree Draco’s La Das = aeons a mance
ar / { carried Captiv Soy] Servius, Tarquin | ; Phraortes. Oyaxares. \ Chaldean dy-
II. Consuls. D AWS. i nasty begine.
6th. 3600} 500! The Tempe rebuilt by Ezra. The Jews re- Pisistratide. Amasis. Psammeni-
turn to Judea, Nee ae . « «+f Dictators, Tribunes. | tus. Egypt subdued. | Astyages. Cyaxares. Cy \ rus takes
, . / Decemvirs, . ‘| The Persian invasions.}__———_——_ —— Babylon
Ith. 8700} 400] The Persians commit the government tos Peloponnesian war. | Darius. Xerxes the Great. Artaxerxes I. and I. 4
the High Priests. . . . . Veli taken. Rome
: burned. Samnite war.:| Theban supremacy. MACEDONIA, Philip. Alexander the Great, conquers Asia.
8th, 3s00| 300! Seventy-two Elders translate the Scrip- / Battle of Ipsus. The Empire divided into four parts.
tures for Ptolemy. « : . . // Pyrraus defeated, 1st - -
and 2d Punic wars. . | Achsean league.
9th. 3900| 200] The Maccabees resist the power of War with Rome. |THRACE, Lysimachus.|SYRIA, The c s
Antiochus LY. Z a . . / Spain, Africa, Macedonia, Seleucida. (EGYPT, The three good
and Greece, subdued. . | Greece becomes a Ptolemies.
Roman province. |Subdued by the Romans./10 kings reign
; US in this century.|4 wicked Ptolemies reign.
10th. 4000| 100} 68, Jerusalem taken by Pompey. — . le 4
_ Herod is made King... Marius and Sylla. Catiline’s conspiracy. Crassus, Pompey, and Omsar (First Trium-|°
a virate). Battle of Pharsalia, Lepidus, Antony, and Octavius (Second Triumvirate).
- Battle of Actium. % 7 : ‘ c cs . i . i: A Cleopatra. Egypt subdued

 

 

THE CHRISTIAN ERA.

r

 

 

 

 

        

CENTURY. |A.M./A. D. {
4100) 100) Jerusalem _ de-

 
  
   
  
  

ist.
stroyed by Titus.| ENGLAND, Ca .
] § ractacus. Augustus Tiberias, Caligula, Claudius, Nero. Galba, Otho, Vitellius. Vespasian, Titus, Domitian. Her-
2d. 14200} 200) Third and fourth culansum and Pompeii destroyed.
' 5 Persecutions. First Roman Wall
built in Britain, . Nerva, Trajan, Adrian, Antonius, Aurelius, the good Emperors. Tacitus and Plutarch, historians. Five
8d. 4800] 800] St. Cyprian, bish- bad Eimperors,
op of Africa. . | Second Wall. Britain
i ruled by the Romans,\ Twelve Emperors reign in the frst half of this century. In the last half, thirty tyrants usurp the
4th, 4400} 400) Union of Church throne. Zenobia,
{ and State. . | Invasion of the Scots.
Dominion of Theodesits.| Constantine the Great removes the seat of government to Constantinople. Theodosius divides the
sth. empire.

4500} 500/The Pelagian He-
resy. . | Hengist and Horsa come \
from Saxony to Britain

with an army... ‘ rae Clovis revolts from Rome, 486. | Italy plundered by Goth, Vandal, and Hun.

 

 

| The Dark Ages Augustus, the last Emperor.

commence.

 
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“el th ELO "ww

IDOTIONOUWHO

 
ANDERSON’S SCHOOL HISTORIES.

 

PRACTICAL BOOKS BY A PRACTICAL TEACHER.

 

A Grammar-School History of the United States.

By Joun J. ANDERSON, A.M., late Principal of Grammar School Nc
31, New York City; Author of a Manual of General History, A Picte-
rial School History of the United States, etc., etc. Tllustrated with
more than 40 Maps. 16mo. 258 pages.

CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES.—1. The narrative is written with great clearness and
concigeness, and is brought down to the present time. 2. Unimportant matters are en-
tirely omitted, or only incidentally alluded to. 3. The history and the geography are
taught together. 4. Th book is fully supplied with Maps, and the location of every
place mentioned is accr atelyshown. 5. All the proper names are accurately pronoanced
in connection with the aames as they occur. 6. The plan affords frequent and syatematie
reviews by topics. ‘ Two entirely different sets of questions run through the book.
8. It contains the Constitution of the United States, with full explanations and class-
exercises. 9. It contains Washington’s Farewell Address. 10. It contains, at the ciose
of the book, a complete resumé of the whole history, arranged for topical study and
recitation. 11. It contains but 260 pages. 12. It is sold at a moderate price.

The publishers believe that teachers who are tired of the cumbersome histories of our
country now largely in use, and desire a book with which they can produce satisfactory
resulls, will find that this work will exactly meet their wants.

DEPARTMENT OF PuBLIC IN8TRUCTION

Superintendent's Office, City of New York
“T have carefully examined Anderson’s Histories, adopted by the Board of Education,
and used in the Public Schools of this city, and cheerfully commend them to the favorable
regard of teachers and School officers, as well adapted to the purposes of instruction in
this branch of etudy, and as excellent and tomprehensive compendiums of the leading

events of history.” 8. S. RANDALL, Sup’t of Schools.
“ Anderson’s Histories have been in use in the Grammar Schools of this city from the
date of their publication, and, as far as I know, have given the highest degree of satisfac-
tion. They are written in a clear, concise atyle, are unusually accurate, and abound in
exercises which only a practical teacher could have constructed, and which make them
invaluable Class Manuals. They can scarcely. fail to prove acceptable wherever practi-

cally tried.” ENRY KIDDLE, Asst Sup't of Schools.

From Fifty-seven Principals of Grammar Schools in the City of New York.

“We are using Anderson’s Histories in our schools with complete success. For claga-
room instruction they are, we believe, superior to any other works on the subject with
which we are acquainted.” .

DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION,
.. Superintendent's Office, Brooklyn.

“This is to certify that Iam well scqueinted with Anderson’s Histories, they having
been in the Public Schools of this city during the last three years. After having seen a
variety of works on the subject tried here, I am confident that ANDERsoNn’s are decidedly
the best for class-room instruction. They give the teacher just the aid he necds tu
produce satisfactory results, and I therefore give them my unqualified recommendation.”

J. W. BULELEY, Sup't of Schools.

“Mr, Anderson has, I think, found the golden mean in nearly every feature that sbould
characterize a judicious school history.”

JAMES CRUIKSHANK, Ass’t Supt of Schools.

From the Principals of the Grammar Schools in the City of Brooklyn.

“Tt gives ua pleasure, after using Anderson’s Histories in our schools during tne !as
two ges, to say that we like them. The plan of instruction, combining the perl
with the chronology of the narrative, is one which gives the books a decided su eriority
over the works of other authors on the subject. They have our hearty commendation,”®

 

 

L PustisHeD BY CLARK & MAYNARD, New York.

 
 

 

ANDERSON’S SCHOOL HISTORIES.

Anderson’s Pictorial School History of the United States.

By Joun J. Anperson, A.M., Late Principal of Grammar School
No. 31, New York City; Author of a Grammar School and other
Histories of the United States, and of a Manual of General History.
Beautifully illustrated with about two hundred maps, portraits, vignettes,
etc. With an appendix containing the Constitution of the United
States, with questions and explanations, and the Declaration of Inde-
pendence. 12mo. 400 pages.

The distinctive features of this work are:—1st. A system of maps, with map questions
and references, combining the geography with the chronology, thus teaching by the eye
48 well as the ear, and consequently making the impression upon the memory more last-
ing. 2d. A second set of questions differing entirely from the first. These, by associat-
ing facts belonging to the same class or train of events, require answers of a topical
character, and thus compel the student to review his lessons with thoughtfulness.

From the Hon. H. H. \ax Dron, former Superintendent of Publie Instruction for the
State of New York.

“The books comprising Anderson's Series of School Histories have been in my pos-
session during the last six months. I have examined them with considerable care, and
find them works of decided merit. There is a directness, clearness, and conciseness in
the statements, and an admirable method connected with the chronological and geogra-
phieal features of the narrative, that commend them to my judgment. To the instructor
who aims at thoroughness in the knowledge imparted to his pupils of our country’s
history, these books are certainly invaluable. I recommend them without reservation.”

From C. B. Parsons, D.D., LL.D., Chairman of Committee of Examination and Control
of Public Schools, Louisville, hry.

“T have carefully examined the ‘Pictorial History of the United States,’ by John J.
Anderson, and unhesita tingly pronounce it the best of its kind that has fallen under my
observation. Its remarkable comprehensibility, so concisely given, ‘‘ multum in parvo,”
with its excellent arrangement of adaptation to the purposes of instruction, cannot fail
to penne it to general use. I most cordially approve of its introduction into our
schools,”’

From Rev. J. M. ANDERSON, Principal of Ohio Female College, College Hill, Ohio.

‘““The book stands well the most careful scrutiny. I am particularly pleased with the
Fairness of its statements as to the results of battles, etc. The history of our country is
rich enough in great deeds to warrant the historian in telling the whole truth, and
nothing but the truth, as to her reverses and misfortunes. Without truth, history is a
delusion and a snare. In point of method, clearness, and succinctness of narration,
also, I regard this book as incomparably the best manual of the kind that has appeared
None but a practical and experienced teacher could have produced such a model class-
book. We shall lose no time in introducing it into this Institute.”

From Mies JANE A. BaRTHOLOMEW, the well-known teacher of History in the Connecticut
tate Normal School.

“In respect to symmetry of plan, proportionate arrangement of matter, correctness,
clearness, and conciseness of statement, and in variety of explanatory information, it is
superior to any other text-book in United States history used here. The seals of the
States and miniature maps are valuable additions to the book; while the charts and
questions for review, condensing gradually, as they do, its whole contents, meet a want
which many teachers have neither the means nor ability to supply.”

PUBLISHED BY
OCnAKRK ce MAYNARD,
NEW YORK.

 

 
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