iparsierpare a i Manica re eahege atta aon ay net a git 2 en 1o3 I 658 ISoo = CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND GIVEN IN 1891 BY HENRY WILLIAMS SAGE BERMUDA: ITS HISTORY, GEOLOGY, CLIMATE, PRODUCTS, AGRICULTURE, COMMERCE, AND GOVERNMENT, FROM ‘THO EARLIEST PERIOD TO THE PRESENT TIME; Witt HINTS TO INVALIDS. BY THEODORE L. GODET, M.D. LONDON: SMITH, ELDER AND CO., 65, CORNHILL. ee M.DCCC.EX. [The riyht of translation is reserved.| DEDICATION. To his Excellency Colonel Freeman Murray, Governor and Commander-in-Chief, ge. §c., of Bermuda, or Somers’ Islands. Sir,—It is with the highest gratification that I avail myself of your kind permission to dedicate this volume to your Excel- lency—not only as a memento of my personal esteem, but from a conviction that no one can more appreciate any efforts in behalf of this Colony than your Excellency, who has the power of rendering them available. T have had the pleasure of finding myself encouraged in the publication of this work by numerous subscribers; but to your Excellency I am indebted for many additions to the names that adorn the list. I have the honour to subscribe myself, with every sentiment of gratitude and respect, Your Excellency’s Very obliged and humble servant, T. L. Gover. Hamilion, Bermuda, 1860. PREFACE. ae Tue aim of this volume is to give an historical account of the origin and progress of the settlement made by emigrants from England in Bermuda, or Somers’ Islands, and of the constitutional establish- mont, internal government, and political system maintained by Great Britain in these Islands. I have also endeavoured to describe the mamners and ilispositions of the presont inhabitants, as influenced by climate, situation, and other local causes; and have offered some observations on the character and genius of the coloured race in this colony. In these pages will be found a more comprehensive account than has hitherto appeared of the agricul- ture of these Islands in general, and of their staple commodities, and the various branches of the com- vi PRs ACE, merce of Bermuda; pointing out the relations of each towards the other. On the subject of the character of the coloured inhabitants so much has been said of late by others, that it may be supposed there remains but little to be - added by me; it is certain, however, that my views of the character and genius of the coloured inhabi- tants differ very essentially from the representations that have lately been given in a variety of pub- lications, From having resided many years in Bermuda—of which place I am a native—I presume to think that I am somewhat better qualified to judge of the influence of climate and situation on the disposition, temper, and intellect of the inhabitants, than some of those writers who have not had the same ad- vantages. The precarious position of our commerce, and the agitated and morbid condition of our white and coloured population, sufficiently attest the im- portance of a correct knowledge of the relative circumstances of the two races that compose the people of Bermuda. PREFACE. vi I do not attempt to conceal from myself the direct bearing of the observations I have made on the Colonial Government of these islands; for I feel the full responsibility which, under the circumstances of the times, devolves on any one who adventures on * the dangerous precipice of telling unbiassed truth,” regardless of the prepossessions of party, or the pre- judice of class interests. Having no personal interest with which that of the community of Bermuda is not identical, I have ’ sought to benefit the colony by a full and fearless development of the truth. In so doing, I feel that I am acting in accordance with the spirit which ani- mates the able representative of her Most Gracious Majesty, and humbly aiding in promoting the inte- rests of Bermuda, and those of Great Britain, so far as the-colony is concerned. T. L. GODET. CONTENTS. Setmnneiia ik ceememned Cnarter I, HISTORY, PaGts Modern Cathay—-New highway of nattons—Coast ecenory— Discovery—Shipwreck of Barbotldre and Henry May— Of Sir George Somers—Extension of charter by King James I. to the Virginia Company — Formation of tho Bermuda Company—Colony under Governor Moor— Governor Tucker— Governor Butler — First cultivators of the soil—The black African—The kidnappers—Com- position of the first General Assembly — Distinguished emigrants—Edmund Waller—His Battel of the Summer Xslands—Is a member of the Long Parliament —- Con- spiracy, escape, and residence in the Bermudaz ‘ 2 4 Cuarrsr IT, CLIMATE Warmth of the Gulf Stream—The Island celebrated by the Bard of Erin—Hffeots of residence in Bermuda on persons predisposed to scrofula or pulmonary consumption—Hifects of the Gulf Stream on the climate of Bermuda— The operations of the climate on agricultural produce — Seasons-—Sailing directions between Bermuda and New York or the Chesapeake— Yellow fever-——H. M.’s hulk Thames—The unhealthy character of the Tenedos—The medical board—Some account of the yellow fever of 1858 —Its severity among the natives—Less fatal to Huropeans —Hints to invalids from northern climates as to the pre- servation of health in Bermuda ‘ : : ‘ . 18 x CONTENTS. Cuarter III. GOVERNMENT. PAGE Medical Practitioners— Government — Practical Republics— The colonies of a free State—The Spanish possessions in America—The evils and absurdities of the Constitution of Bermuda—Party spirit—Private relations of life—A Tory and a Radical—Families of different parties—The public spirit extinguished— Tyranny of a majority— Reform—Vice-regal government, with a Council of Advice —Bitterness of party spirit in the House of Assembly— Insult to the Representative of the Sovereign . Cuarter IV. BRITISH WEST INDIES. The British establishments in the West Indies—The branches of the Legislature— The Governor—The Council—The House of Assembly . 3 ‘ : Cuarter V. JUDICATURE, LEGISLATION, REVENUE, ETC. Church Establishment— Courts of Law—The Court of Chancery—The Court of General Assize—The Court of Exchequer—The Court of Ordinary—Instance Court of Vice-Admiralty —The Court of Quarter Sessions — The art of legislation—The Public Press—Trade—Revenue Cuarter VI. FISHERIES, TOPOGRAPHY, ETC. Fisheries—The most esteemed fish—Their brilliant colours— Peculiar fashion of baiting a hook—A “ full bait”’—The fisherman taking it easy—-The goat-fish—The doctor-fish, and their curious glassy lancets—The soap-fish, &c.— Description of Bermuda—The group of islands—Their 40 49 60 CONTENTS. xl PAGE calcareous formation—Subterranean channels—Oval form of the group—Eight ‘“tribes”—The town of Hamilton and its general aspect—The shops—The houses in the suburbs—The semi-circular suburb—Mount Langton— Flag-staff—The public buildings a . 5 . ae Cuaprer VII. GENERAL DESCRIPTION. Paget Tribe—Warwick and Sandy’s Tribes—Ireland Island— The Royal Dockyard—Naval Establishment—Hospital— The officers’ residences—Anchorages—Grassy Bay—Boaz Island—New convict prisons—Somerset Island—Ellis Har- bour—Reef extending from Spanish Point—Natural break- water to the Great Sound—Romantic road from Clarence Lodge to Hamilton—* Brackish Pond ”—* The Wells”— Wreck Hill—Gibbs’ Hill—Description of Lighthouse on Gibbs’ Hill—Telegraphic post—The “Sand Hills’’—The direction of the great road—Shore of white sand—Holo- thuria— Views from the hills—Deep chasms—Declivities— Surfaces of sand-hills—Incrustation of the layers of sand —tTransition of sand into crystalline limestone—Castle Harbour—St. George’s Island—Harbour of St. George— Description of scenery by Thomas Moore—Fort Cunning- ham— The streets—The houses—The barracks — The roadstead . ‘ 7 . . ‘ 7 . rs 88 Cuarter VIII. AGRICULTURE. Neglect of agriculture—Ignorance of the Bermuda farmers— Continual spring—Bermuda takes the lead of all the Northern markets, in exporting her farming produce— Fertility of the soil—Proposed agricultural and horti- cultural Society—Advantages of Societies of scientific men—Proper rotation of crops, &c. &c.—Little attempt to improve stock—The state of horticulture in Bermuda— The funds for carrying on its operations—The business of the Society . 2 . . i a : : . 98 ss XH CONTENTS, Cuarten IX, PRODUCTIONS OF THE SOIL PAGE The flax plants—The opuntia—Inexhaustible source of wealth ~-Negligence of the Colonial government in not furthering scientific objects—Loeal prejudices—Agriculture—Soil of the Bermudas—Practical directions in agriculture and horticulture, with a calendar, &c, &e.—Agricultural asso- eiations of Englend and Scotland—The Home Govern- ment-—Sympathy from England te cae ae ae OS: Cuarter X. INHABITANTS, The white people—Delicate languor of the women-—The Tuckers—Rose of the Iskes—Tom Moore and Nea— Difrent classes of people of colour—Distinetions of the tribes by Don Antonio de Ulloa—Little knowledge of imitative arts—Development of the vocal organs—Display in vocal harmony — Improvisateri— Christmas holidays —Pyrrhie dance of the Gomhays—Their dress—Preju- dice against people of colour less in Bermuda than in the United States — Enjoyment of municipal righta, &e. — _. People of colour not often united with the white popula- tion in matrimony—Jealousy of public fecling-—Cheerful -- disposition of people of colour proverbial-——Their natural kindness to offspring and friends is equally well known as characteristic of the people of colour—The rising genera- tion of the coloured race—Their readiness of perception aveater than that of their progenitors — Social state of coloured population superior to that of the States of America—The want of intelligence a drawback—The census shows a steady increase of the inhabitants . 9. 147 CONTENTS. xii Crarter XT, EDUCATION. Varied classes of the population — Enterprising and indus- trious Americans—They contribute to maintain and sup- port the energies of the Bermudans —Extraordinary resources of Bermuda cannot be viewed with indifference by the philosophic and contemplative mind—Diifusion of se the humanizing arts—Character of Berkeley Collego—A ---—~ >, magnificent charity—Great desideratum of a place of study and retirement for young men—Berkeley College should be 5, thrown open to white and coloured people ia the West Indies—Great advantage of the college to Bermuda— ---- National feeling—School education of young people of colour—Prejudice of the white population—Bishop Berkeley The colony a centre of commerce and its advantages— The spirit of Nterature and philauthropy—Free schools —Facts relating to the education of the poor 6.153 PACH, Cuarren XI. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. Evening assemblages —Balis— Dinner-parties —Shooting— Fishing — Boating — Regatta —- Spectators — Bermuda damsels—Royal Bermuda Yacht Club—Superiority of sailing-boats —Sea-bathing—Mishing on the open sea— Intellectual resources <1 8, (ah Bo ae U4 edleo Carrer XT. NATURAL HISTORY. Native birds—Mangrove-trees—Cceasional visitants — Ento- mology —Genus Diurna (or butterflies) —Genus Sphinx (or the hawk-moth)—Genus Phalena (or moths)—Coleop- tera—Cidarie—Chanteuses (or singers)—A phidii (or plané- lice)— Genus Coceus (or acale insects)—Coceus cacti Cor cochineal insect)—-Insect changes—Apterous inseets— Jigger (Pulex penetrans)—Death-wateh (Anobium per- tinax)—Genus Forfioula (or earwigs)—Genus Biatte (or cockroaches) — Arachnides (or spiders)— Genus Scorpio (seorpions)—Silk-spider (Tetragnatha extense) ‘ . 198 xiv CONTENTS. Cuaarrer XIV. SHELLS. PAGE Crustacea—Cancer Pagurus—Gelasimus vocans—Genus Maia —Genus Calapa—Genus Ranina—Mollusca (or Shells)— Circulation—Organs of respiration—Form of the body in the Mollusca—The nervous system, &c.—Octopus cepha- lopoda—Sepiaria—Pteropoda—Gasteropoda—Pulmonea— Testacella—Vitrina — Helix—Pupa—Clausilia— Bulimus —Achatina—Succinea—Aquatic Pulmonea—Genus Lim- neus—Genus Physe—Genus Auricula—Nudibranchiata— Genus Tritonia—Inferobranchiata—Genus Ancylus—Rec- tibranchiata — Bullea — Heteropoda— Genus Carinaria— Pectinibranchiata — Trochoides —Trochus zizyphinus — T. cinerarius—T. maculata—T. jujubinus—Genus Turbo (or Periwinkles)—Turbo littoreus—T. chrysostomus—T. pica—Genus Phasianella—P. Rubeus—Genus Nerita—N. peloronta (or bleeding tooth)—N. versicolor—Capuloides —Genus Crepidula—C. onyx—Buccinoides—Genus Conus —Genus Cyprea (Cowries)—C. pediculus—C. coccinella— Genus Colombella—C. mercatoria—Genus Buccinum (the Whelks)—B. undatum—B. lunatum—B. reticulatum— Genus Purpura—P. patulata—P. lapillus—Genus Cassis— C, rufa—C. testiculus—C, flamnea—Genus Strombus—S. gallus—Tubulibranchiata—Genus Vermetus—Genus Ma- gilus—Scutibranchiata—Genus Fissurella—F. Greca— Genus Emarginula—E. Fissura—Cyclobranchiata—Genus patella (or Limpets)—P. pellucida—Genus Chiton—C. marginatus—Acephala—A. testacea—Genus Ostrea (the Oyster)—O. folium—O. crista galli—O. parasitica—Genus Pecten—P. concentricus (or Scallop)—Genus Arca—Arca- cee (or Ark Shells) —Arca Noew—A. barbata—Genus Lima—Lima glacialis—Mytilacee—Genus Mytilus—My- tilus exustus—M. elongatus—Carnacea—Genus Chama— Chama arcinella — Cardiacea — Genus Cardium (the Cockles)—Cardium levigatum—C. unedo—C. cardissa— Genus Tellina—T. radiata—T. depressa—T. tenuis—Genus Venus—Venus gemma—V. granulata—V. plicata—Genus Cytherea—C. tigerina—C. castrensis—Genus Cyclas—C. \ CONTENTS. xV PAGE cornea—Myae—Genus Mya—M. arenaria—M. truncata —Genus Anatina—Mya globulosa—Genus Solen—Solen endis—Genus Teredo—T. navalis—Acephala nuda—A. Segregata—Genus Ascidie—A. rustica—A. lobifera—A. Aggregata—Genus Pyrosoma—P,. Atlanticum—Brachio- podes—Cirrhopodes—Genus Anatifa—Lepas anatifera— Genus Balanus (or Acorn Shells)—Balanus tintinna- bulum ‘ “ . : j i % : é . 211 CHAPTER XV. CORALS. Polypifera—Alcyonium digitatum—Alcyonidium gelatinosum —Alcyonidium echinatum—Asteroida —Fungia, or Sea- mushrooms—Meandrina cerebriformis, or Brainstone coral —Gorgonia—Isis hippuris—Gorgonia flabellum (or Sea- fan)—Flabellum Veneris (or Venus’ fan}—Gorgonia anceps —Gorgonia verrucosa —Gorgonia placomus — Gorgonia lepidifera—Actinee (or Sea-anemones)—Holothurie (or Sea-slugs) — Mammalia — Balena mysticetus — Balena nodosa—Reptilia . ‘ : a é : . 244 Conciupinc Remarks. A ae SS BERT APPENDICES . s “i : ‘i ‘ : s . 259 BERMUDA. CHAPTER I. HISTORY. Modern Cathay—New highway of nations—Coast scenery— Discovery—Shipwreck of Barbotitre and Henry May—Of Sir George Somers—Extension of charter by King James I. to the Virginia Company—Formation of the Bermuda Com- pany—Colony under Governor Moor—Governor Tucker— Governor Butler—First cultivators of the soil—The black African—The kidnappers—Composition of the first General Assembly— Distinguished emigrants—Edmund Waller—His Battel of the Summer Islands—Is a member of the Long Par- liament—Conspiracy, escape, and residence in the Bermudas. In searching into the scanty records of the voyages of Columbus, we find no evidence of his having visited Bermuda in his extraordinary mission to the New World, and in his eager and absorbing anxiety for the final discovery of Cathay—that region of gold, pearls, and diamonds, which was to enrich every hardy adventurer. But I think the reader will perceive, after perusing this work, that although we find neither 1 2 BERMUDA. gold, pearls, nor diamonds in this modern Cathay, , yet, nevertheless, there are other gems of equal value in its climate, soil, and fisheries. In tracing the general history of this ancient and important settlement, the object which has chiefly prompted the author, is to develop its resources, to assist its commerce, to make it better known, as it deserves to be, in the Old World. In the new highway of nations speedily to be opened up across that part of the Isthmus of Central America, having for its points of arrival and departure the harbour of Puerto Cabellos in the Gulf of Honduras, on the Atlantic side, and the capacious and beautiful bay of Fonseca on the Pacific side, Bermuda will derive a share of the abundant benefits which will accrue to all parts of the world from the new route of ‘travel, as we think can be easily made apparent. A. fleet of steamships will regularly cross the Atlantic between England and Honduras, and Bermuda occupies a remarkable position as the place for a “house of call” for the passenger- ships travelling over this desirable line. A stock of coals for seven days’ steaming would be all that these packets would require on leaving Hon- duras; and, if in good trim, and having the Gulf y HISTORY. _ 3 stream in their favour, they would invariably make a rapid run to Bermuda. Here, with one- third of their passage already accomplished, they could replenish their fuel for the remainder of the homeward trip, reaching England within eighteen days from the time of quitting the shores of Central America, But the importance of establishing very speedily a steam communication with Great Britain is be- coming every day more obvious. As we may fairly conjecture that steam is to supersede sailing vessels for war purposes, and as it is not probable that the Americans will always continue at peace with us, it becomes necessary, in order to protect our colonies and their commerce, that we should have a more rapid and steady communication with Halifax and the West Indies—since Bermuda, con- jointly with Halifax, holds in check the whole Atlantic coast of the United States, upon which nature has bestowed no equivalent for naval pur- poses, and also controls the West Indies, the Gulf of Mexico, and the south coasts of the United States. Since the extensive Government works at Bermuda have been undertaken, the island is found more convenient, in conjunction with Halifax, as the seat of naval power, as it greatly facilitates 12 4 BERMUDA. the despatch of ships to the West India stations and the American Atlantic coast. In 1522, when the discovery of insular America had become well known in the Old World, we find that Berrauda was first visited by Juan Bermudas, captain of a Spanish ship, Za‘ Garza, when on a voyage from Old Spain to Cuba with a cargo of hogs, and by that illustrious historian of the Indies, Gonzales Oviedo. History informs us that the Spaniards’ benevolent intention of leaving a few hogs, which might breed and be useful afterwards, was frustrated, on the eve of their debarking, by the springing up of a strong gale, which obliged them to steer off, and be con- tented with only a partial view, as they thought, of a single island. Bermuda, sometimes called the “ Bermudas,” after the name of the individual who first saw them, is a cluster of small islands situated in the North Atlantic Ocean. That portion of the coast which looks to the east and to the south is in general shelving towards the sea, with a flat, ‘shallow beach; while the western and northern shores rise almost perpendicularly from the ocean to a height of from twenty to thirty feet; and except in some of the small creeks, where steep sandy beaches occur, under * HISTORY. 5 the rocky cliffs, the water is deep close to the shore. The south-eastern coast, to the extent of six or eight miles, exhibits a mixed character; the low land sinking very gradually under the sea, and the rugged and conical hills terminating, not in wall- like precipices, but sloping abruptly to a flat, extended beach. Bermuda is encircled with coral reefs: many of them extending a considerable distance from the land ; but the greater part of them lying under the surface of the water, at no great distance from the shore. In 1543, Ferdinand Camelo took formal possession of Bermuda, and is stated to have cut his name on a rock still known as the “Spanish Rock,” on the south side of the main island. : On the 7th December, 1593, Barbotiére, a French captain, was shipwrecked here, and with twenty-six, out of fifty composing the crew, escaped to the shore; among them was Henry May, an Englishman, who afterwards published an account of the shipwreck. Again, it was not until after an English vessel was wrecked here, being one of an expedition con- sisting of nine ships and five hundred men, on their way to Virginia, and the capabilities of Bermuda were examined into, that these islands excited any attention in Europe. 6 BERMUDA. The expedition, after a favourable run to the Gulf of Bahama, encountered a severe hurricane. The vessels were each driven in a different direction, and the crew of the principal one, the Sea Adventure, with whom were Sir Thomas Gates, Admiral Sir: George Somers, and Captain Newport,—the former to act as deputy governor under Lord Delaware,— were miraculously preserved from a watery grave, by the vessel being wedged between two rocks,” at the east end of Bermuda; and by means of a boat and skiff, the whole, to the number of one hundred and fifty men, with a great portion of the provi- sions and tackling, were landed. With as little delay as possible after their sad disaster, the crew of the ill-fated vessel got in readiness and despatched the long-boat, with Raven the mate, and eight men, to Virginia, to bring ship- ping for. their conveyance; but after eight months had elapsed, no tidings of the boat’s crew arrived; . and Sir George and his men built two cedar vessels, one of eighty tons, the Deliverance, and the other of thirty tons, the Patience. There was but one bolt of iron in Sir George’s vessel, and that was in her keel. The seams of both vessels were closed up * The shore is now called, from the name of the ship, Sea Adventure Flat. HISTORY. 7 with a mixture of lime and oil, for the purpose of making them water-tight. In commemoration of the unfortunate shipwreck, Gates attached a wooden cross to a large cedar-tree, and placed a silver coin, together with an inscription on a copper plate, in the middle of it, which ran as follows: —“ That the cross was the remains of a ship of three hundred tons, called the Sea Adven- ture, bound, with eight more, to Virginia. That she contained two knights, —Sir Thomas Gates, Governor of the Colony, and Sir George Summers, Admiral of the Seas,—who, together with her captain, Christopher Newport, and one hundred and fifty marines and passengers besides, had got safe ashore, when she was lost, 28th J uly, 1609.” Gates and Somers left Bermuda for Virginia on the 10th May, 1610, in their little cedar vessels, having left two men behind; and they arrived at Jamestown on the 23rd May. Sir George, after remaining but a short time at Jamestown, left that place for Bermuda in company with Captain Argall, afterwards Go- vernor of Virginia. They were driven northwards by contrary winds, near to Cape Cod, where they were enveloped in such dense fogs that their two vessels were separated, and Argall returned to his 8 BERMUDA. station. Somers, whase name the islands then bore, though the original one of Bermuda has since pre- vailed, pushed steadily on, and arrived at Bermuda on the 19th June; but from age, and fatigue of the voyage, he survived only a short time; his body was embalmed; and the colonists, alarmed at the untimely fate of their energetic commander, dis- regarded his dying exhortation to use their utmost endeavours for the benefit of the plantations, and to return to Virginia, sailed for England with his remains, in the little vessel of thirty tons, and, shortly after their arrival, the embalmed body of their hero was buried in White Church, Dorsetshire. In a narrow enclosure, at the lower end of Govern- ment House Garden at St. George’s, in the midst of weeds and rubbish, a mutilated slab, of a coarse de- scription of stone, may be perceived, on which was engraved the following epitaph, composed to the me- mory of Sir George Somers, by Governor Nathaniel Butler :— “In toe Yerurn 1611. “ Noble Sir George Summers went hence to Heaven, Whose well-tried worth, that held him still imploid, Gave him the knowledge of the world so wide; Hence, ’twas by Heaven’s decree, to this place He brought new quests and name to mutual grace ; At last his soul and body being to part, He here bequeathed his entrails and his heart.” HISTORY. 9 Attempts were now seriously made by England to colonize Bermuda, and on the 11th July, 1612, a vessel with sixty emigrants arrived, and was conducted into harbour by three men who had been left on the islands. They were attracted hither by the hope of finding ambergris. The attention of England was now roused in favour of Bermuda by the report of Captain Matthew Somers, the nephew and heir of Sir George. Publicity was given to highly-coloured statements, and great exaggerations, in contrast with the dark ideas formerly prevalent. Jourdan remarks that “this prodigious and enchanted place, which had been shunned as a Scylla and Charybdis, and where no one had ever landed but against his will, was really the richest, healthfullest, and most pleasing land ever man set foot on.” Strachy sums up his pithy remark by saying, that the Company “ liked it very well.” The Virginia Company, after having bestirred themselves in representations to King James L., showing the vast importance and the proximity of Bermuda to his Majesty’s “plantation” of Virginia, succeeded in procuring an extension of their charter, on the 12th March, 1612, to embrace Bermuda in their boundaries, for the purpose of trade with the 10 BERMUDA. mother country and British America; and England was now actively engaged in fostering it. Shortly afterwards the islands were sold by that Company to one hundred and twenty gentlemen, who formed a company of their own, under the name and style of the Governor and Company of the City of London, for the “ plantation” of the Somer Islands. Amidst all this additional strength to its resources, Richard Moor was sent out as Governor for Bermuda. Governor Moor’s administration was an active one; he Jaid the foundation of eight or nine forts, and had everything placed in readiness in case of hostili- ties or aggression. He removed the seat of govern- ment from Smith’s Island to St. George's, and having built a cabin, which he thatched with palmetto leaves, as a residence, the rest of the colonists soon followed his example. He built, also, a church of eedar, which was in time destroyed by a tempest, and he afterwards directed another to be built of palmetto branches, in a place better sheltered from the weather. Scarcity and want prevailed for two years, to an alarming extent, and the colony was covered with a veil of gloom and despondency, which was in- creased by a fatal sickness, of which many died. Some time after, the ship Welcome arrived with HISTORY. ll stores, which afforded relief to the people. About this time the potato and tobacco were first cultivated. During Governor Moor’s administration, the com- pany employed Richard Norwood in dividing the island into tribes and shares, fifty shares being allotted to each tribe. Moor displeased the Com- pany by opposing their projected division of the colony into shares, in which he insisted that neither his own interest nor that of the colonists was duly considered. This displeasure of the Company was followed by Moor’s recall, and the ship Welcome took him home, leaving the administration in charge of six persons, who were to rule, each in turn, one month. Governor Moor was indefatigable in — his exertions for the benefit of the colony. He was a man of ordinary condition, a carpenter by trade, but by his firmness, prudence, and popular manners, he soon silenced all impertinence, and shamed all attempts at opposition in England. He was succeeded by Daniel Tucker, in May, 1616, when a very important era dawned upon the island, as a Court of General Assize was held at St. George in the second month of Tucker’s admi- nistration, being the first real attempt to establish law and justice in the island. This measure met with the usual opposition, and 12 BERMUDA. a Frenchman was hanged for speaking “many distasteful and mutinous speeches against the Go- vernor.”* The discouraging and afflicting circum- stances of the state of society at this period naturally required a remedy, and it was thought necessary by Tucker to make an example of the first culprit for the suppression of the mutiny. Tucker appears to have been a most persevering and painstaking Governor, and although thoroughly initiated into the mysteries of his duties, yet in attempting to establish order among the boisterous colohists, and to correct the mutinous spirit which then existed among them, he appears to have adopted high-handed measures. The island, however, underwent many convulsions, and society was in a wretched condition, owing to the constant animosity between the Governor and the settlers; the latter being still held more in check by the absurd policy of the Governor: the cruel dis- cipline and severe labour which he exacted of them created great disgust, and excited many to attempt desperate means to escape from the island. Five per- sons succeeded in building a boat of three tons, under, the pretence of its being for the use of the Governor ; and previous to their departure for England, one of * Smith’s History of Virginia, &c., vol. ii. p. 137, HISTORY. 13 the party borrowed a compass of Hughes, for whom he left a very ludicrous note, recommending patience under the loss.* Three weeks after they sailed, they encountered a strong gale, but their little craft was fortunate in her contest with the winds and the waves, and after great privations the bold-hearted sailors arrived in Ireland; there their cruise was held to be so marvellous, that the Earl of Thomond ordered that they should be received and entertained, and their brave little bark hung up as a monument of the extraordinary voyage.t The Governor was highly enraged at their escape, and threatened to hang the whole if they returned. Shortly after Governor Tucker’s arriva] he was successful in obtaining from the West Indies “ Figgs, Pynes, an Indian, and a Negar.” These were the first slaves brought to the islands; but slavery became very general as early as 1632. The ship Diana arrived from Europe with a supply of stores and men, and, after remaining a few weeks, returned to England with 30,000 pounds of tobacco, which gave great satisfaction to the proprietors, * Mr. Hughes had preached several sermons on patience about this time. } Smith’s History of Virginia, &c. vol. ii. p. 137,138; Murray’s British America, vol. ii. p. 155. 14 BERMUDA. Great complaints, of Tucker’s cruelty were for- warded by this ship, and, to justify himself, he went home in December, 1628, leaving the government "in charge of Captain Kendall. The Company did not think fit to send him back, but appointed in his place Captain Nathaniel Butler, who sailed in July, 1619, and arrived in October, with four ships and 500 men: this doubled the number already in the colony. Butler gave great satisfaction, by modelling his administration on the principle of the Home Government. We have seen that disputes, while as yet their numbers scarcely amounted to hundreds, composed the chief portion of the early history of the colo- nists. The first cultivators of the soil, being _white labourers, were soon found unequal to the fatigues of agriculture in a warm climate, and it therefore became necessary to procure Africans. These, at the time of their first importation, were actually considered an intermediate race between man and monkey. : Such a doctrine, I believe, was really promulgated, for the purpose of removing somewhat of the dis- gust which had come to prevail against the traffic of buying and selling our fellow-creatures. There were at this time, and long afterwards, as is well HISTORY. 15 known, monsters in human shape, who sailed the seas, and made it their chief business to steal the Helpless and unwary from the shores of England; whole villages were laid desolate, and the inhabitants carried off and sold in the colonies. No animal more savage than such men. But the curse of God was upon these pirates and man-stealers. The colonists refused to purchase their Christian brethren, or to receive their fellow-creatures into slavery from these kidnappers; and hence it became necessary, as I suppose, for the traders to assert that the black African was only half human. The reader may smile at this assertion; but the subject was seri- ously discussed, both at home and in the colonies, and it was decided at one time that they were unworthy of baptism, and ought not to be allowed to enter where the word of God was preached. The first General Assembly for the despatch of public business was held at St. George’s, according to instructions from England, on the Ist August, 1620. The Assembly was composed of the Go- vernor, council, bailiffs, burgesses, and a secretary, numbering thirty-two in all; and during the session fifteen Acts were passed, and approved by the pro- prietors in England. Butler divided the islands into parcels, which were soon peopled: for, in 1623, 16 BERMUDA. there were above 300 English inhabitants. After that time the population was increased by blacks, who now form more than one-half of the entire population. The colony continued to enjoy a high reputation, and at the period of civil commotion, along with Virginia, was the resort of distinguished emigrants. The islands gained additional lustre from the fact that Edmund Waller, the poet, chose them for the theme of his Battel of the Summer Islands, saying, in the most flattering strains,— “ The kind spring which but salutes us here, Inhabits there, and courts them all the year ; Ripe fruits and blossoms on the same trees live, At once they promise what at once they give,— So sweet the air, so moderate the clime, None sickly lives, or dies before his time; Heaven sure has kept this spot of earth uncurst, To show how all things were created first!” Waller was a member of the Long Parliament, and at first joined the party against the king; but after- wards entered into the conspiracy against the Par- liament, for which Chaloner-and Tompkins were executed. Waller, more fortunately, escaped by paying a fine of 10,0001. Having spent some time in the Bermudas, he proceeded to France, and on' the elevation of Cromwell to the Protectorship, he returned to England. HISTORY. 17 The archives of the colony present nothing worthy of notice after the Civil Wars, when many sought a refuge from the tyranny of the ruling party in the distant sanctuary: tradition only handing down a succession of quarrels between the Governor and the people. 18 CHAPTER II. CLIMATE. Warmth of the Gulf Stream— The Island celebrated by the Bard of Erin—Effects of residence in Bermuda on persons predisposed to scrofula or pulmonary consumption—Effects of the Gulf Stream on the climate of Bermuda—tThe operations of the climate on agricultural produce—Seasons— Sailing directions between Bermuda and New York or the Chesapeake— Yellow fever—H. M.’s hulk Thames—The unhealthy character of the Yenedos—The medical board—Some account of the yellow fever of 1856—Its severity among the natives—Less fatal to Europeans—Hints to invalids from northern climates as to the preservation of health in Bermuda. Tue climate of the Bermuda islands has a mean temperature between that of the West Indies and British North America, partaking neither of the extreme heat of the one, nor the excessive cold of the other. It is greatly improved by the warmth of the Gulf Stream, which sweeps along between Bermuda and the American continent; the winter months resembling the early part of October in England, but without its frosts. The sweet strains CLIMATE. 19 of the Bard of Erin have sounded the praises of the éedar-groves and wood-nymphs of the “ Fairy Isles,” as the Bermudas have been styled by Shak- speare— “No: ne'er did the wave in its element steep An island of lovelier charms; It blooms in the giant embrace of the deep, Like Hebe in Hercules’ arms; The blush of your bowers is light to the eye, And their melody balm to the ear; But the fiery planet of day is too nigh, And the Snow Spirit never comes here.” The official returns of deaths among the troops, and the prisoners, confined, as they are, to the un- wholesome atmosphere of the hulks, prove the place to be remarkably healthy. Bermuda is not so much subject to diseases as are the more northern climates. Epidemics are of un- frequent occurrence; and deaths from all causes, as shown by the statistical tables, amount to no more than 14°5 per cent. annually. The climate of Bermuda would prove eminently eligible for those natives of cold countries who, from general delicacy of constitution, are unable to undergo active continuous labour with exposure, or who other- wise suffer from a cold and variable climate. As far as the author’s observation goes, the effect of resi- dence in Bermuda, on such persons, is usually bene- 2—2 20 BERMUDA. ficial; especially on those who are predisposed to scrofula or pulmonary consumption, or who "have evinced a peculiar tendency to colds and bronchial affections during the winter months. In such cases, the physical energies usually undergo a rapid and marked change, resulting in permanent good health. I believe that immigrants of this description, by observing common prudence in their mode of living, might, with perfect safety, and with every prospect of improved health, engage as farmers in the islands generally. The effects of the Gulf Stream on the climate of Bermuda are very manifest. This powerful current, after rising under the tropic, and flowing from the Gulf of Mexico through the Straits of Bahama, runs in a north-easterly direction along the American coast, washing the Great Bank of Newfoundland, and, after flowing upwards of 3,000 miles, finally reaches the Azores, and even the Bay of Biscay. The tem- perature of the water of this current is 8° above that of the surrounding sea at the Great Bank, and 5° above the temperature of the sea at the Azores. Rennel estimates the dimensions of the current and the tract that receives it at 2,000 miles in length, and 350 in breadth. Both are marked by the sea- weed, and are well known to mariners. By this CLIMATE. 21 cauldron of warm water the icebergs from the north are dissolved; the surrounding waters and superin- cumbent atmosphere are warmed, and the tempera- ture of the neighbouring continent elevated. A proper | retreat is also afforded to the various kinds of fish after their season of spawning has passed, and while the severity of the frost drives them from the shores. Such are some of the leading operations perceived in the economy of nature in this part of the world. The atmosphere brought over the land from the south-west, being loaded with vapour given off from the warm sea surface, is frequently charged with rain; and the condensation carried on by the cooler land surface along the coast in the spring pro- duces fogs. The atmosphere over the interior lands soon acquires the temperature necessary to dispel these fogs; and therefore, while some of the shores are obscured by them, the inland districts enjoy a clear sky. From the proximity of Bermuda to the Mexican stream, it enjoys the improved climate thus produced in a higher degree than any of the British provinces. The effects of the climate upon the agricultural produce are more favourable than in other coun- tries under the same mean annual temperature. Besides many of the fruits of the temperate regions, 22 BERMUDA. the heat of summer permits those of a tropical character to flourish; hence a greater variety may be produced than in any other part of the world. The season for vegetation is sufficiently extended to ripen a great many kinds of grain, vegetables, and fruit. The most agreeable season at Bermuda is the winter, or cold season, which lasts from November to March; the mean temperature being 60°. The prevailing winds are then from the westward; but if from, the north-west, fine, hard weather, with a clear sky, accompanies them, the thermometer vary- ing from 50° to 56% This weather often terminates in a very fine, bright day, with a very slight wind and partial calms ;—afterwards the wind invariably changes to the south-west, and the weather becomes hazy, damp, and attended with heavy rains and gales; the thermometer rising to 66° and 70°. These alternate north-westerly and south-westerly winds prevail during nine months of the year, the wind remaining at no other point for any length of time. The change is shown by a difference of 14° in the temperature.* _ Spring commences at the end of February, and’ the weather usually continues mild, with refreshing * Vide Appendix A. CLIMATE. 23 showers of rain and gentle breezes from the south and west, until the end of May. The summer begins in June, and the weather becomes hot. Calms about this time generally re- place the gentle breezes of May; the atmosphere becomes sultry and oppressive, and long droughts are common, which are usually succeeded by severe thunder-storms. The weather in September changes its character, and again becomes mild and agreeable. It may not be unimportant to the general reader to give the following sailing directions between Ber- muda and New York, or the Chesapeake :*— “ The first half of a revolving gale is a fair wind from Bermuda to New York, because in it the wind blows from the east; but the last half is a fair wind from New York to Bermuda. During the winter season most of the gales which pass along the coast of North America being revolving gales, vessels from Bermuda, bound: to New York, should put to sea when the north-west wind, which is the conclusion of a passing gale, is becoming moderate, and the baro- meter is rising to its usual level. The probability ‘will be, more particularly in the winter season, that * From the latest edition of Sir William Reid’s work on the Law of Storms. 24 BERMUDA. after a short calm, the next succeeding wind will be easterly, the first part of a fresh revolving wind coming up from the south-west quarter. “ A ship at Bermuda, bound to New York or the Chesapeake, might sail whilst the wind is still west and blowing hard, provided that the barometer indi- cates that this west wind is owing to a revolving gale, which will veer to northward. But as the usual track which gales follow in this hemisphere is northerly or north-easterly, such a ship should be steered to the southward. As the wind at west veers towards north-west and north, the vessel would come up, and at last make a course to the westward, ready to take advantage of the east wind at the setting in of the next revolving gale. ‘“* A vessel at New York, and bound to Bermuda at the time when a revolving wind is passing along the North American coast, should not wait in port for the westerly wind, but sail as soon as the first portion of the gale has passed by, and the north-east wind. is. veering towards north—provided it should not. blow too hard; for the north wind will veer to the westward, and become every hour fairer for Bermuda.” Yellow Fever.—These islands, which are generally and properly allowed to be healthy, have only been CLIMATE. 25 afflicted a seventh time since their settlement —a period of above two centuries—with yellow fever. I happened to be employed on board H.M.’s hulk Thames, as acting assistant-surgeon, at the breaking out of the yellow fever at Boaz Island, early in September, 1856. I had charge of all the fever patients at that time on board the Thames; but not- withstanding the notoriously unhealthy character of that hulk, I was more fortunate with my patients in 1856 than the medical officers were even in that queen of hulks, the Tenedos, in 1853; less than half the number of deaths (in the same ratio) occurring in the Thames hulk. I must not omit to give due praise to the officers, and especially to the prisoners who acted as nurses after their own recovery from the yellow fever. Yet in spite of every exertion the fever raged fearfully, and after five weeks’ hard work became so virulent, that the medical board deemed it prudent to have the Thames cleared out —which being accomplished, the sick prisoners were conveyed to Boaz Island, and placed under the medical charge of Doctors Beck and Warner.* At the same time I was placed in medical charge of the two prison-ships Dromedary and Medway— both containing nearly 1,000 prisoners. I merely * Since dead. 26 BERMUDA. state these facts to show how short the Council establishment was of medical officers, and how neces- sary it is; during an epidemic, to have sufficient medical aid. The yellow fever which prevailed in 1856, and of which I am about to give some account, for the most part attacked the natives; persons from Europe, and more particularly seamen and soldiers, were not entirely exempt, but to them it rarely proved fatal. This fever was ushered in by the same sensations which precede other fevers—such as lassitude, stiff- ness, and pain of the back, loins, and extremities—and was generally accompanied by some degree of coldness. These symptoms were soon succeeded by a severe pain . in the head; a sense of fulness of the eyeballs; in- tolerance of light; dry skin, which imparted a burning heat to the hand; full and quick pulse; tongue covered with a whitish mucus, but often not materially altered from the state of health, I may here remark that the actual degree of heat, as indicated by the ther- mometer, was not in proportion to the intensity communicated to the touch. It generally varied between 97° and 100°, very seldom exceeded 102°; yet the skin imparted a burning, caustic sensation to the hand at these times. If the patient had been attacked in the night, | CLIMATE. ; 27 he awoke with oppressive heat. Headache and other symptoms of the fever were ushered in by an instant loss of muscular power and immediate depression of nervous energy. The patient fell down as if he were stunned by a blow, his eyes swimming in tears. In those cases delirium was an early symptom. In a few hours the pain of the loins increased, and in aggravated cases stretched forward towards the umbilicus; the countenance was flushed ; the white of the eye was as if finely injected by blood-vessels ; the albuginea appearing, through the interstices of the network of vessels, of a peculiar shining cartilaginous whiteness. During the first twelve hours, the patient was not particularly restless, enjoyed some sleep, and when covered by the bedclothes had partial perspirations on his face, neck, and breast. About the end of this period there was a great exacerbation of the fever; the patient became rest- less ; the heat and dryness of the skin increased ; there was much pain of the eyes and frontal sinuses ; the pain of the thighs and legs was augmented ; thirst was increased, with a sensation of pressure about the region of the stomach. Nausea and vomiting occurred towards the end of the first twenty-four hours. If the fever was not checked within thirty- 28 BERMUDA. six hours from its commencement, the patient was in imminent danger, and all the symptoms were aggra- vated; the pulse became strong and full, and pulsa- tion of the carotids appeared distinct on each side of the neck. The skin continued hot and dry; the thirst was increased; there was much anxiety, the patient continually shifting his posture; all his un- easiness was referred to his head and loins. A sensation of pain was felt about the umbilicus when pressed upon; the white of the eye now appeared of a dirty concentrated yellow colour, and apparently thickened, so as to form a ring round the margin of the cornea. The blood-vessels of the eye appeared more enlarged and tortuous; the knees drawn up to the abdomen; frequent vomiting; mucus and the common drink only being ejected. Delirium came on about the end of the second day. There was now a dryness, or slight sensation of soreness of the throat when swallowing; and, about this. time, an urgent sensation of hunger frequently came on, and a remarkable want of power in the lower extremities, resembling partial paralysis of the limbs. ‘About this time, also, the pain of the loins was so severe that the patient expressed himself as if his “ back was broken.” The third day, or stage, began by apparent CLIMATE, 29 amelioration of the bad symptoms, the vomiting and thirst excepted. The matter ejected had small, mem- branous-looking floculi floating in it, resembling the crust washed from a port-wine bottle. The: thirst was urgent, and there was an incipient demand for cold water, which was almost immediately rejected by the stomach. The heat of the skin was reduced ; the pulse sank to, or below, its natural standard ; the patient, for an hour or two, expressed himself to be greatly relieved, and, at this time, a person unacquainted with the nature of the disease would have hopes of his recovery. This state, however, was of short duration, and the delusion soon vanished. The delirium increased ; the matter ejected from the stomach became black as coffee-dregs, and was some- what viscid. There was an acrid, burning sensation of the stomach, and soreness of the throat, extend- ing along the whole course of the csophagus, in attempting to swallow; eyes as if suffused with blood ; skin, a dirty yellow; parts round the neck, and places pressed upon in bed, of a livid colour; more or less hemorrhage took place from the nose and mouth. The delirium became violent; the body as it were writhed with pain; the knees incessantly drawn up to the body. ‘The patient, with convulsive grasp, seized his bed, or anything 30 BERMUDA. within his reach, and preferred the hard floor to his bed. The pulse now sinks; respiration becomes laborious; the countenance collapsed; the lustre of the eye gone. For some hours, he lies in a state of insensibility before death; at other times, expires after some convulsive exertion, or ineffectual effort to vomit. The tongue is sometimes but little altered during the course of the fever; and if loaded in the early stages, it often became clean and of a vivid red before death. Such was the regular succession of symptoms which characterized this fever, but of longer or shorter duration, according to the violence of the disease, or strength of the powers of life to resist it. In weakly habits, the vascular action at the begin- ning was less marked ; and in these cases, the fever was generally more protracted, and the patient ex- pired unaffected by the laborious respiration and convulsive motions which attended the last struggles of life in the more violent degrees of the fever. Very often the patient retained his senses till within a few minutes of his death, and sometimes would predict, with considerable precision, the hour of his dissolution. In the early stages of the worst cases, there was much anxiety in the countenance of the patient, CLIMATE, 31 who expressed a despair of recovery. This fear did not seem to arise from any natural timidity, but seemed rather a symptom of the disease. In the last stage, there was as much resignation to his fate as there was apprehension at the beginning. Not a few of those attacked by this fever, if proper remedies to subdue it had been employed, recovered from its first stage. They exhibited sure symptoms of improvement within the first twenty- four, or, at farthest, thirty-six hours, from its first attack. Very many recovered from the second stage—that is to say, before black-vomiting commenced; but only a few recovered from the last stage. In the former cases, the stomach gradually became retentive; the eyes and skin became of a more vivid yellow. They had refreshing sleep, but continued extremely weak and languid for a long time. The oozing of blood from the fauces and gums also continued for some days. Pain of the back, early stretching round to the navel, soreness in the throat and cesophagus, heat and acrid sensation in the stomach, urgent thirst, hunger, want of power, resembling paralysis of the limbs, violent delirium, despondency, enlargement of the blood-vessels, and a red-yellow colour of the 32 BERMUDA. white of the eye, either singly or collectively, indi- cated extreme danger; and when the black vomit had appeared, scarcely a hope remained. The peculiar habit favourable to the morbid motions which constitute this fever, is excited into action by a variety of causes; the chief are—intem- perance, excessive fatigue in the sun, perspiration checked by being exposed to a current of air, or sleeping exposed to the dews, &c. In fact, whatever becomes an exciting cause of fever in any country is equally so in this; but, unfortunately, it is not the same fever that is induced. Contagion, as the chief source of this fever, is entirely rejected by those professional men who have had the greatest opportunity of information. Some hints to invalids from Northern climates, for the preservation of health in Bermuda, may here be given with advantage. Dress.—The necessity which tyrant custom—per~ haps policy—has imposed on us, of continuing to appear in European dress on almost all public occa- sions, and in all formal parties, under a burning sky, is not one of the least miseries of a tropical life; but, fortunately for Europeans, there is some inter- mission of solar heat in Bermuda; we are roasted only three months in the year; whereas, in the West CLIMATE, 33 Indies, the burning heat never ceases all the year round. It is true that the custom of European dress is often waived in the more social circles that gather round the tea-table, where the light, cool and elegant vestures of the East supersede the cumbrous garb of Northern climates. It “ were a consummation devoutly to be wished,” though, I fear, little to be expected, that the Euro- pean badges of distinction, in exterior decoration, could be dispensed with’ at all festivals, public and private, formal, social, or domestic, in warm latitudes. It requires but the most superficial glance to per- ceive that coolness during our repasts is salutary, as well as comfortable; and that, from the extensive sympathies existing between the skin and several important organs, particularly the stomach and liver, the converse of the position is equally true; espe- cially as, in the latter case, we are led a little too much to the use of “ gently stimulating liquids” to support the discharge. The newly arrived European justly observes that he finds himself drenched with perspiration three or four times a day, in which state he cannot remain with either safety or comfort. Certainly, it would be useless to point out the evil without suggesting the remedy; and, happily, it may be obviated, to 3 34 BERMUDA. a considerable extent, in a very simple and easy manner. It must be recollected, that the tempe- rature of the atmosphere, sub dio, in the summer season, exceeds that of the blood by many degrees ; therefore, cotton, from its slowness as a conductor of heat, is admirably adapted for the hot season, and cooler than linen, inasmuch as it conducts more slowly the excess of external heat to our bodies. Cotton, also, abstracts more slowly the heat from our bodies, and thus preserves a more steady equili- brium there, when. a vicissitude takes place, and the - atmospherical' temperature sinks suddenly far below that of the body. To these must be added the facility with which cotton absorbs the perspiration : while linen would feel quite wet, and if exposed to a breeze, under such circumstances, would often occasion a shiver, which might be followed by dan- gerous consequences. Flannel, on the contrary, is superior to cotton in the cooler months, and is adopted by many expe- rienced and seasoned Europeans. To guard against coup de soleil, a light palmetto hat, covered with white cotton, should be worn when exposed to the sun, between the hours of ten and four in the day. Food.—That vegetable food, generally speaking, CLIMATE. 35 is better adapted to a warm climate than animal, I think we may admit; and particularly among unseasoned Europeans, as it is not so apt to induce plethora. The newly-arrived European invalid should con- tent himself with plain breakfasts of bread-and- butter, with tea or coffee; and avoid indulging in meat, fish, eggs, or buttered toast. In regard to dinner, Europeans appear to study convenience rather than health, by deferring that meal till after sunset. The gorgeous table,'the savoury viands, the stimulating wines of the evening feast, prolonged by the fascination of social converse, greatly exacerbate the nocturnal paroxysm of fever imposed on us by the hand of nature, and break with feverish dreams the hours which should be dedicated to repose. The consequences resulting from this are quite obvious. It may be observed that the natives them- selves usually make their principal meal soon after four o’clock, when the heat is less distressing, and insects neither so numerous nor teasing,:as they generally are in the summer months; but during winter we are freer from these little pests and all the disagreeableness accompanying hot weather. He, then, who consults his health in Bermuda, or 3—2 36 BERMUDA. in the tropics, will beware of indulging in the evening feast, particularly during the period of his probation, but will rather be satisfied with the early dinner, when tea or coffee, at six or seven o’clock in the evening, will be found a grateful refreshment. After this, his rest will be as natural and refreshing as can be expected in such a climate, and he will rise next morning with infinitely more vigour than if he had crowned a sumptuous dinner with a bottle of wine the preceding evening. - + We think it unnecessary to speak of supper, as it is a mere matter of ceremony in warm climates, excepting after assemblies, or on some public occa- sions. A moderate indulgence in fruit during the first year is prudent. Good ripe oranges are very grateful in hot weather, from their subacid and cooling juice ; also lemonade, to allay the unpleasant sensation of thirst. Plantains and bananas are wholesome and nutritious, especially when frittered. Drink.—The new-comer should never exceed one or two glasses of wine after dinner, or, on any account, admit it to his lips between meals, unless in cases where excessive fatigue and thirst render drink indispensable, when cold water alone might be injurious. CLIMATE. 37 It should be borne in mind, that when a course of temperance is fully entered on, no consideration should induce us to commit an occasional debauch, especially during our seasoning; for we are at those times in infinitely greater danger of endemic attacks, than the habitual bacchanal. Exercise.—The principal object and effect of exer- cise appear to consist in keeping up a proper balance in the circulation, in supporting the functions of the skin, and promoting the various secretions. It will doubtless appear strange to the general reader, that by observing strict temperance in eating and drinking, with regular habits, the European can with safety enjoy his customary exercises in Bermuda, and far excel the native white or black in laborious exercise, even under a burning sun. We have a remarkable instance of that superiority in the case of European convict labour on the public works in Ireland Island, which is pretty well tested; strict temperance being one of the standing rules of the convict establishment, and carried out as far as practicable in the treatment of the convicts at Bermuda. Therefore, when we hear Europeans talk of the climate being so debilitating, we must attribute the debility to irregular habits and intemperance in eating or drinking; as, certain 38 BERMUDA. secretions (the biliary, for instance), perspiration, &c. being already in excess—which excess very soon leads to debility and diminished action in the fanc- tions alluded to, with a corresponding want of equilibrium in the blood—it becomes necessary to counteract these by active exercise in the winter, and exercise of a more passive kind in the summer, such as the climate will admit of, and at particular periods of the day. This distinction must be carefully guarded if we mean to preserve our health. Bathing.—To moderate the action of atmospheric heat, nature, or instinct itself, points out the external application of cold water te the body. The cold bath not only counteracts the influence of heat by sus- pending its operation for the time, but it safely inures us to the sudden access of cold, the fruitful source of so many disorders. By keeping the skin clean, cool, and soft, it moderates excessive, and supports natural and equable cuticular discharge; and from the cutaneo-hepatic sympathy, so often noticed, the functions of the liver partake of this salutary equilibrium—a circumstance hitherto over- looked. It is, however, imprudent to bathe while the pro- cess of digestion is going on in the stomach, as it disturbs that important operation. Where visceral CLIMATE. 39 derangements of any extent, particularly in the liver, have taken place, the cold bath must be hazardous, from the sudden afflux of blood directed from the surface to the interior, and also on account of the subsequent vascular reaction. Another and less hazardous form of using cold water is by the appli- cation of a wet sponge to the surface of the body, followed by friction with a coarse napkin. The last resort—the tepid bath—if care be taken to avoid a chill afterwards, will, in these cases, be substituted with great advantage. Sleep.—The hour of retirement to repose should never be protracted beyond ten o’clock; and at day- light we should start from our couch to enjoy the cool, fragrant, and salubrious breath of morning. Early hours are here indispensable. The fashionable dissipation of Europe would soon cut the thread of our existence in these regions; but the order of nature is never inverted with impunity, even in the most temperate climates. 40 BERMUDA. CHAPTER IIL GOVERNMENT. Medical Practitioners —Government— Practical Republics—The colonies of a free State—The Spanish possessions in America —The evils and absurdities’ of the Constitution of Ber- muda—Party spirit—Private relations of life—A Tory and a Radical Families of different parties—- The public spirit ‘ extinguished—Tyranny of a majority —Reform—Vice-regal government, with a Council of Advice—Bitterness of party spirit in the House of Assembly—Insult to the Representative of the Sovereign. Tue climate being so healthy, a stranger might naturally suppose that there would be very few of the medical faculty in Bermuda; nevertheless, the island is overstocked with M.D.’s—the young men finding the United States so easy of access, the expenses so trifling, and the good people of Bermuda so easily satisfied with anything approaching to the ‘degree of doctor—in fact, anything in the shape of an American diploma is sufficient. to entitle any one to practise in the medical profession. GOVERNMENT. 41 “Most of the medical practitioners in Bermuda are able, intelligent, and well-educated men; but still, any man who has a diploma from an American college or university—or whether he has a diploma or not—may commence practice as a doctor, with- out being called upon to exhibit any proofs of his knowledge or experience. The profession ought to. be better regulated; and in a community now so rapidly increasing, and where men of learning and talent abound, some arrangement should be made to prevent the mischief which ignorance and impudence are calculated to produce in a population not yet sufficiently enlightened to distinguish the true phy- sician from the false pretender. I doubt not that the present Governor of the colony is fully disposed to support any measures which the faculty themselves may suggest for the better ordering of their depart- ment; and I do hope and trust that the leading men of the profession will take the matter into their serious consideration, and agree upon an ordinance to be passed by the Governor and Council, for regu- lating the practice of physic and surgery. As to the form of government, Bermuda, and most of the West Indian colonies, appear externally ‘to be governed on the model of England; but in reality they -only possess in a small degree the 42. BERMUDA. genuine spirit of the mother country. They are practical republics, and present as faithful a picture of the petty states of old Greece as the change of manners and religion will allow. There is the same equality amongst them, the same undue conception of their own importance, the same irritability of temper, which has ever been the characteristic curse of all little commonwealths. The forms, indeed, of the English Parliament are too gigantic for the capacities of little islands; the colonists are not elevated by the size, but lost in the folds of the mighty robe, which was never destined for their use. The colonies of a free State are more embarrassing problems of government than those of a country where the monarch is absolute. The Spanish posses- sions in America were twenty. times as large as Old Spain; yet for three centuries they were regulated by a European council, which, with the exception of its errors in commerce, and prejudices concerning race and rank, governed them well, and ultimately effected the introduction of those humanizing decrees which have justly raised the name of the Spanish colonists over those of any other nation. A different relation, however, arises between a free nation and its distant settlements; the colonists GOVERNMENT. 43 carry their freedom with them, and claim a right to the same or similar privileges that exist within the pale of the mother country. A thousand Englishmen leave England and settle on an island in another hemi- sphere. How shall they be governed? Not by the Queen alone—for the Queen of England is no despot; not by Parliament—for they are not repre- sented in Parliament. Therefore the spirit of the Constitution is obliged to grant to them and their heirs the forms of the Constitution; and they must govern themselves, accordingly, like the rest of their fellow-subjects, with the consent of the common Executive. If, then, they have a charter, or a right without a charter, to be governed in this manner, where is there room for the Parliament of another part of the empire—in which their property does not lie, where they themselves do not reside, wherein they are neither actually nor virtually represented— to legislate absolutely for them? They insist that they have a right to be governed by those only who, according to the provisions of the Constitution, represent them —that they are not represented actually in the British Parliament, because they depute no member to that assembly—and that they are not represented virtually in the British Parlia- ment, for the best of all reasons, that they are 44 BERMUDA. actually represented elsewhere. So slow is the march of opinion in Bermuda, that the political con- stitution which pleased the islanders two centuries ago, pleases them still; and as regards the mass of the people, there is yet no dawn of that crisis, which must ever arrive where intellect advances and poli- tical institutions stand still. I shall now briefly state what is the Constitution of Bermuda, in the hope that by making its evils and absurdities generally known, a step may be made towards its amendment. The Legislature consists of three branches—the Governor, who is the Queen’s representative; the Legislative Council, consisting of a limited number, appointed by the Queen; and the General Assembly, consisting of thirty-six members, elected by the people. The members of the Assembly and Council are each paid eight shillings sterling per diem when on duty; this sum is voted annually, and entails on the colony a considerable expense. The three branches of the Legislature enact laws in a way similar to the Queen, Lords, and Commons at home; but any Act may be set aside by the Queen’s disallowing it. The islands are divided into nine parishes, and each parish sends four members to the House of GOVERNMENT. 45 Assembly. The representative must be a person qualified by possessing real estate of 2401. sterling in value; and an elector must have a qualification of 601. sterling in real estate. Thirty-six members, who compose the House of Assembly, are thought necessary to represent a population of only 12,000 inhabitants. At no time ‘does party spirit run so high as at the election of a member. Upon such occasions, the whole island isina ferment. To vote, is to stamp a man of one party or another. It is utterly impossible for any one unacquainted with Bermuda to form an idea of the length to which party spirit is carried. It enters into the most private relations of life. A tory and a radical are as distinct, and have as little in common between them, as if they were men not only of different. countries, but of countries hostile to each other. The most admirable proposition that united wisdom and patriotism ever contrived, if emanating from one party, would be received with coolness by the other. In private society, too, the distinction is very strongly marked: families of different parties do not mingle; and even tradesmen find their custom affected in a considerable degree by these political divisions. 46 BERMUDA. Although this party spirit is in itself so thoroughly unimportant and contémptible — to all, excepting ‘those who are under its influence—yet it deserves this notice in as far as it influences the state of society, in impeding the progress of civilization and the march of improvement. It has extinguished public spirit, which exists only among a few: for the petty triumph of party is preferred, at all times, to the public good. The community have too frequently been encour- aged to condemn all Government measures as imbecile, and ruinous to the colony. “It requires, therefore, no ordinary firmness and integrity of purpose to bear up against such attacks, carried on as they are in so limited a population, with the rancour of political enmity, and (where personal yanity has been touched) with the bitterness of wounded pride and personal hatred. Even the tyranny of one man over a whole colony, however galling and severe it may be, can never be so intole- rable as the tyranny of a majority over the minority, particularly when the former feel that their power is only transient, and that no time is to be lost in revenging the annoyances and injuries received from their opponents. This is the case in Bermuda, and in almost all GOVERNMENT. 47 the British colonies: where it is not only the con- stant change and the individual tyranny of a governor that are ruining the country, but the much greater calamity of one great party continually trying to supplant and destroy the other at all hazards. All persons of intelligence must allow that—the natural advantages of climate and productions of this colony being so great—if there were a government, how- ever severe, which had the will and power to ensure protection to capital and investment, and to suppress the evils attending on the periodical elections to the House of Assembly, Bermuda would become one of the richest colonies of the western world. To remedy these evils, and to bring about a whole- some state of things, we must have reform in the colonial legislature, so as to keep pace with the times. I would suggest, therefore, that instead of the old system, a viceregal government with a Council of Advice should be substituted; the Council to be composed of three elements, or three different classes of persons: Ist, the representatives of the people ; 2nd, the official servants of her Majesty; 3rd, the unofficial nominees of the Crown. The last general election in 1856, of members for the House of Assembly, fully shows to what a degree 48 BERMUDA. of bitterness party spirit may be carried in the colony—even to the subversion of all law and order ; so little regard did the majority of the House of Assembly entertain for the representative of our gracious Sovereign, and so small was the value which they attached to the proper administration of govern- ment. Before dismissing the subject of the civil govern- ment, I think that it will not be out of place to give some explanation to the general reader on the subject of British establishments in the West India colonies. 49 CHAPTER IV. BRITISH WEST INDIES. The British establishments in the West Indies—The branches of the Legislature—The Governor—The Council—The House of Assembly, ‘Tue British establishments in the West. India colonies conform very nearly, in their internal constitutions, to that of the mother-country. Their different orders of judicature are exactly like those of England; and their legislatures, in general, respectively consist of three distinct branches, 7. e. a Governor, representing the Crown; Council, or Upper House; and a body of Delegates, representing the people at large. Of the powers and privileges claimed and exer- cised by these branches respectively in their own little sphere, and the source whence they are derived, I give the following brief account. Governor.—Every chief governor in the British colonies is appointed by letters patent under the great seal of Great Britain. He receives by courtesy 4 50 BERMUDA. the title of Excellency, and is vested with the fol- lowing powers :— First. As captain-general and commander-in-chief, he has the actual command of all the land forces within his government (except only when a general officer is employed on the staff), and he commissions all officers of the militia. He appoints the judges of all the different courts of common law, and in all the islands, except Jamaica, I believe these gentlemen hold their seats during the Governor’s good pleasure. He nominates and supersedes at will the custodes, justices of the peace, and other subordinate civil officers; and, although in respect to some of the above appointments and dismissions he is directed to ask the advice of his Council, this direction is of little avail, inasmuch as the members of this body are themselves liable to be suspended by the Governor on the most frivolous pretences, or even without any cause assigned: a circumstance, by the way, which not unfrequently happens: and having thus reduced the board under a number limited by his instructions, he can immediately restore it to its full complement. He has the power, with the advice of his Council, to summon General Assemblies ; he appoints the place of their meeting ; and when _met, he possesses a negative voice in the legislature: BRITISH WEST INDIES. 51 for without his consent no bill passes into a law ;— and he may from time to time, as he alone shall judge needful, adjourn, prorogue, or dissolve all such General Assemblies. He has the disposal of all such civil employments as the Crown does not dis- pose of; and with respect to such offices as are usually filled up by the British Government, if vacancies happen, the Governor appoints pro tempore, and the persons so appointed are entitled to all the emoluments, until they are superseded from home, and until the persons nominated to supersede them arrive in the colony. The Governor claims the privilege also, in extraordinary cases, and has been known frequently to exercise it, of suspending even such civil officers as act immediately under her Majesty’s authority, or by commission from the Board of Treasury or Admiralty, in high and_ lucrative employments, such as the Attorney and Advocate General, the Collectors of the Customs, &c., and of nominating other persons to act in their room, until the Queen’s pleasure shall be known therein. He is also empowered to extend the Queen’s gracious pardon to all criminals, except only in cases of murder and high treason; and in these cases, the Governor is allowed to reprieve, until the signifi- cation of the royal pleasure. 4—2 52 BERMUDA. Secondly. The Governor has the custody of the great seal, and, in most of the colonies, presides solely in the High Court of Chancery. It is the practice in some of the Windward Islands for the Council to sit as judges in the Court of Chancery with the Governor. Process, however, is issued by the Governor alone, and tested in his name ; and the Governor commonly exercises within his jurisdiction the same extensive powers as are pos- sessed by the Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain. Thirdly. The Governor is Ordinary, and collates to all vacant church benefices. He has also the power of granting probate of wills, and administration of the effects of persons dying intestate. He grants licences for marriages, and licences for schools, &e., and is sole judge in all matters relating to the con- sistorial or ecclesiastical law. Fourthly. The Governor presides in the Court of Error, of which he and the Council are judges, to hear and determine all appeals, in the nature of writs of error, from the superior courts of common law. Fifthly. The Governor is also Vice-Admiral within the extent of his government. As such, he is entitled to the rights of jetsam, flotsam, &c.; and in time of BRITISH WEST INDIES. 53 war he issues his warrant to the judge of the Court of Vice-Admiralty to grant commissions to privateers, Lastly. A Governor of a colony, besides various emoluments arising from fees, fines, forfeitures, and escheats, has an honourable annual provision settled upon him by Act of Assembly, for the whole term of his administration. For, in order that he may not be tempted to prostitute the dignity of his station by improper condescensions to leading men in the Assembly, he is restrained by his instructions from accepting any salary, unless the same be settled upon him by law, within the space of one year after his entrance upon the government, and expressly made irrevocable during the whole term of his resi- dence in the administration, And this, in my opinion, is a wise and most necessary restriction. Armed with such authorities, and possessing such transcendent pre-eminence and privileges as above described, it is not to be expected, from the common fallibility of human nature, that every Governor of of a colony (placed at so great a distance from the mother country,) should, on every occasion, bear his honours meekly. Great caution is therefore un- doubtedly necessary, on the part of a British Minis- ter, in the choice of persons for a trust of such great weight and dignity; the powers in question being 54 BERMUDA. more extensive than those which the laws of England allow to the Sovereign herself. It is, however, a melancholy truth that party zeal and connections are commonly the most forcible recommendations with which a candidate for a distant government can present, himself. The Council—The members of this board are severally appointed by the Royal mandamus, directed to the Governor, and countersigned by the Secretary of State, and the names of the several members for the time being are inserted in the Governor’s in- structions. In Jamaica their full complement is twelve, in some of the smaller islands ten; and in case of as many vacancies, by death, absence, or suspension, as reduce the board under seven, the Governor, or Commander-in-Chief, is empowered to fill up to that number, but no further. Their privi- leges, powers, and offices are as follows :— ; First. They are by courtesy severally addressed in the colonies by the title “ Honourable;” they take precedence next to the Commander-in-Chief; and, on the death or absence of the Governor, the senior military officer in command of the, troops succeeds to the government, under the title of President. Secondly. They are a Council of State, the Gover- nor, or Commander-in-Chief, presiding in person, to BRITISH WEST INDIES. 55 whom they stand in the same relation as the Privy Council in Great Britain does to the Sovereign. But although every Governor is directed by his instruc- tions to advise with his Council on most occasions, I do not know that in his executive capacity he is absolutely bound to abide by their advice. Doubt- less he is at liberty to act in most cases not only without, but even against, their concurrence; he may, it is true, by so doing, incur the Sovereign’s dis- pleasure, but his proceedings are nevertheless efficient and legal within the colony. Thirdly. They are named, in every commission of the peace, as justices throughout the colony to which they belong. Fourthly. The Council, together with the Gover- nor, sit as judges in the Court of Error or Court of Appeal in civil causes from the Courts of Record ; and in some of the islands two or more of the members sit with the Governor in the Court of Chancery as Assistant-Commissioners of the Great Seal, as I have before stated. Appeals from Chan- cery, therefore, lie not before them, but are, by the Sovereign’s order, transmitted before her Majesty in Council. Fifthly. The Council is a constituent part of the legislature, their consent being necessary in the enact- 56 BERMUDA. ing of laws. In this capacity of legislators they sit as the Upper House, and in most of the colonies are distinct from the Governor; claiming privilege of Parliament, ordering the attendance of persons and the production of papers and records, and committing for contempt. They enter protests on their journals after the manner of the House of Peers, and have their chaplain, clerk, usher of the black rod, &c. It might appear singular that the same body of men should act in two such different capacities and functions—as a Privy Council, sworn to secrecy and fidelity, and as an Upper House of Legislature. “The admitting such a distinction,” says a late Governor, * may be supposed even ‘to free them from all obli- gations of the oath they take as councillors; because their duty to the people as legislators may seem to oblige them very frequently to support opinions repugnant to a Governor’s schemes.” . But to this it may be answered, that if the Governor’s schemes are, in the opinion of the Council, repugnant to the true interests of the people, their opposition to such schemes cannot be deemed a violation of their oath of fidelity, nor does it neces- sarily follow that they thereby divulge what they have sworn to keep secret. We shall find that the colonial parliaments are re- BRITISH WEST INDIES. 57 quired to copy, as nearly as circumstances will admit, the example of the Parliament of Great Britain. The freeholders are assembled in each town or parish respectively by the Queen’s writ; their suffrages are taken by an officer of the Crown, and the persons elected are afterwards commanded, by royal proclamation, to frame statutes and ordinances for the public safety. When met, the oaths of allegiance, &c. are administered to each of them ; and a Speaker being chosen and approved, the session opens by a speech from the Queen’s repre- sentative. The Assembly then proceed, as a grand provincial inquest, to hear grievances, and to correct such public abuses as are not cognizable before inferior tribunals. They commit for contempts; and the courts of law have refused, after solemn argu- ment, to discharge persons committed by the Speaker’s warrant. They examine and control the accounts of the public treasury; they vote such supplies, levy such taxes, and frame such laws, statutes, and ordi- nances as the exigencies of the province or colony require. Jointly with the Governor and Council, they exercise the highest acts of legislation, the judges being sworn to give effect to their ordinances even in matters of life and death; and many persons are known to have undergone capital punishment ‘ 58 BERMUDA. awarded by laws passed in the colonies, even before they had received the Royal assent. On the whole, provided their commercial laws be not repugnant to those of Great Britain, there are no concerns, of a local and provincial nature, to which the authority of the colonial legislature does not extend. _ As the legislative power of Great Britain, there- fore, is supreme only in a relative sense even within the realm where the people themselves participate in its authority, much less can it be said to be supreme, in all cases whatsoever, over the colonies. It has indeed been solemnly declared by Parliament itself, that it has such a power. Nevertheless, it would not be difficult to point out many cases, and to imagine others, wherein the authority of Parliament has been, and may again be constitutionally exerted, in regard to the colonies, without abolishing every restriction on the part of the Governors, and extin- guishing every right on the part of the governed. It is beyond all question, that every. addition to the wealth and greatness of the colonies contributes at the same time to the augmentation of the mother country’s own riches and power. And such, before the unfortunate divisions which occasioned the De- claration of Independence of the United States of America, was the commercial system adopted by BRITISH WEST INDIES. 59 Great Britain, and submitted to by her American dependencies. To descant on the several parts, pro- perties, and effects of the system of restriction and monopoly,—to show that it secured every degree of authority in the parent over the child, which is compatible with the happiness and freedom of man- kind; and, finally, that it might have answered in the highest degree, if Great Britain had happily confined her pretensions to the limits originally prescribed by herself, for these purposes—it would be necessary to enter into a large and comprehen- sive discussion, to which the design of my work does not extend. 60 BERMUDA. CHAPTER V. JUDICATURE, LEGISLATION, REVENUE, ETC. Church Establishment—Courts of Law—The Court of Chancery —the Court of General Assize—The Court of Exchequer— The Court of Ordinary—Instance Court of Vice-Admiralty— The Court of Quarter Sessions—The art of legislation—-The Public Press—Trade—Revenue. Or our church establishment we have nothing to say disparagingly, and can speak in very favourable terms of the clergy in general. The Episcopal is the established Church in Ber- muda. It is comprised in the see of Newfoundland, and the clergy are maintained on fixed salaries voted by the legislature, and voluntary, contributions of the people. The rectories are five, and there are ten churches, and also five Episcopal chapels. In the parish of Warwick there is a Presbyterian kirk, also a smaller one in Hamilton. The Wesleyans have a fine chapel in the town of St. George, a commodious one in Hamilton, and seven smaller places of worship JUDICATURE, LEGISLATION, REVENUE, ETC. 61 throughout the islands. The Roman Catholics have very recently built a neat chapel in the town of Hamilton. A few remarks concerning the constitution and jurisdiction of the courts for the administration of the laws in the colony, may not be out of place here. And first as to the Court of Chancery.—This court is constituted by the Governor and Council, or any five of them, of whom the Governor must be one; and has power and authority to hear, examine, determine and decree all causes and matters whatever, as fully and amply as the High Court of Chancery in England. The nest in order is the Court of General Assize, or Court of Record, which is held at the town of Hamilton twice a year (in May and November) by the Chief Justice of the Colony and one or more— not exceeding two—Assistant Justices; or, in case the latter are absent or unable to attend, by the Chief Justice alone. Should the Chief Justice be absent, or prevented by illness, the court may be held by two Assistant Justices. It was regulated by a Colonial Act passed in 1814, and its proceedings and practice have been simplified and amended by an Act passed in 1834. In this court are vested the same rights, powers, jurisdiction, and authority as belong to, or 62 BERMUDA. are enjoyed and exercised by the Courts of Queen’s Bench, Common Pleas, Oyer and Terminer, General Gaol Delivery, and Assize in England. The assizes commence on the first Mondays in May and November, and continue, if necessary, for the trial of jury causes until the second Saturday following, on which day the juries are discharged. The court has then power to adjourn for a period not exceeding sixteen days, when it may sit for hearing matters of law. This court holds pleas in all manner of causes and actions, civil and criminal, and has power to make rules and regulations re- specting merely the practice of the courts, as may be expedient, and, as nearly as conveniently may be, agreeable to the practice established in the Common Law Courts at Westminster Hall. An appeal lies from this court by writ of error to the Court of Errors, consisting of the Governor and Council, or any five of them (except such as may be judges of the court appealed from), of which five the Governor must be one; and if the judgment. entered, or debt, or damages. laid, exceed 300/. sterling, an appeal lies from this court to the Queen in Council. This court may also make rules of practice merely, agree- able to the laws and practice in England. The other courts of justice are,—a Court of JUDICATURE, LEGISLATION, REVENUE, ETC. 63 Exchequer, a Court of Ordinary (of limited powers), an Instance Court of Vice-Admiralty, and a Court of Quarter Sessions; and their proceedings are in conformity to the laws and practice of England, as nearly as local circumstances will admit. We now come to speak more particularly of the legislative machinery. It must be admitted by every right-minded person, after due reflection, that the present system is too costly, too intricate,,and far too extensive for a colony like Bermuda. No question was ever made of this, except from some one who directly or in- directly received or expected to receive advantage from the continuation of the system. In the early history of the. colony, we learn that at various times attempts were made to reduce the number of the Assembly-men; and, in later years, successive Governors, if they have not openly attacked the system, have in various ways evinced their sense of the inconvenience attendant on it. It is well known that Governor Reid was fully aware of the absurdity of having thirty-six representatives for so limited a population. Governor Elliot, on one occa- sion, expressed himself in a decided manner as to the protraction of the session unnecessarily, —a subject of complaint intimately connected with the 64 BERMUDA. extraordinarily large number of members; and other persons well versed in colonial institutions, have expressed their conviction that such a cumbrous machinery is quite out of proportion to the limits and requirements of the colony. In the following table will be seen the cost entailed on the country for six years’ pay to members of the House of Assembly. For facility of calculation, we give the amount in dollars, as they are commonly understood in Bermuda :—- In 1850 the House of Assembly cost wee $1,844 », 1851 ee Me as 2,320 »» 1852 See ey. casg > Cate. tee G688 : » 1853 we wee! us ae. ase BG », 1854 i ees we, ws eves» BROOD 3) 1855 yea) Casi “arn Site eee SRIARG $13,716 From the above statement it appears that in six years the House of Assembly cost the country, for members’ salaries only, 13,716 dollars; but this is very far from the actual expense of six years’ legisla- tion. The allowance to the Legislative Council, which amounts on an average to nearly one-fourth of that of the Assembly, the pay of officers of the two Houses, and other occasional charges, such as law expenses, will double this amount. The gross expense there- JUDICATURE, LEGISLATION, REVENUE, ETC. 65 fore of six years’ legislation in Bermuda is certainly not less than twenty-siv thousand dollars! After comparing the expenditure with the revenue of the colony, it will be found that upwards of one- twelfth of the gross income from all sources is swallowed up by the process of law making, mend- ing, and renewing. It does not follow that, as the House of Assembly absorbs but one-half of this gross cost, it is therefore an economical institution. We must not lose, sight of the fact that the expenses of the Legislative Council, and all the other larger items, bear an exact proportion to the length of time the Assembly sits; and as a matter of course, the whole expense of legislation always bears an exact relation to the time consumed in the Lower House. In 1852-3 the House of Assembly cost but 1,456 dollars, and the Council 388 dollars; whilst in 1853-4, the former House entailed a charge of 3,002 dollars, and the latter, in consequence, 798 dollars. - The public will hardly be prepared to learn to . what an extent the temporary measures, so much ~ in vogue in this colony, are carried. It will be seen by a few figures, that the principal object of these enactments is the making work for future legislators. Hence, a constant circle of employ- 5 66 BERMUDA. ment is provided for the House, and a constant drain is kept up on the public chest, or rather, to speak more plainly, on the private chest; the private pocket of each " tax-payer being, in fact, the source from whence all this expenditure is met. As matters now stand, every man, woman, and child in the colony, of all ages and colours, pay, on an average, nearly 2s. a year for legislation alone; and, as a large number pay very little, or nothing at all, a great many, of course, contribute considerably more than this. : The following figures may throw some light on law-making in Bermuda:—In 1850, 17 laws were passed; in 1851, 10; in 1852, 24; in 1853, 11; in 1854, 19; and in 1855, 14; making a total of 95 Acts. Of these laws, 27 were permanent, and 68 temporary. In 1850, of the 17 Acts passed, 6 only were temporary, and 12 were permanent; but in 1851 there was only 1 permanent Act to 9 tempo- rary Acts. In 1852 there were 5 permanent to 18 temporary Acts. In 1853, of 11 Acts passed, not one was permanent! ‘In 1854, 6 out of 19 were permanent, but several of these 6 were in their nature limited in point of time. In 1855 there were 3 permanent, and 11 temporary Acts passed. As many persons, perhaps, may not know what is JUDICATURE, LEGISLATION, REVENUE, ETC. 67 meant by permanent and temporary Acts, a few words here in explanation may not be deemed out of place. A few of our Bermuda laws are passed without any particular time being named during which they are to continue in force; and therefore they remain in force until the legislature repeals them. The great majority of them are passed for a few years only, and require every now and then to be con- tinued. For instance, all the laws passed in 1853, however excellent they may be, must, notwith- standing, die a natural death within eight or ten years of their enactment, unless by some subsequent Acts they shall be continued in force. We are aware that in former times, in some of the colonies, Houses of Assembly adhered to this temporary mode of legislation with great tenacity. There are “temporary Acts,” which continue to be renewed from time to time in Bermuda, that have been in force for half a century ! * The result is, that law-making becomes a much more costly affair than there is any occasion for,— since each successive House of Assembly is always engaged in reviving the moribund measures of its predecessor, and saving them from untimely death. Eleven out of twenty-three Acts passed in 1852 * Vide Appendix B. 5— 2 68 BERMUDA. would have been unnecessary, had the laws which. they were merely passed for the purpose of “con-. tinuing” been allowed to remain in operation, without any limitation of time. Of the eleven Acts passed, in 1853, four were for the purpose of prolonging, for a short time, enactments already in force; and the other seven (as has been already intimated) were only to continue in force for a few years, after which they must again be subjected to the same process of renewal. This is certainly a very ingenious mode of consuming time, if it were nothing ‘else. Truly, the science of legislation is brought to great. perfection in the Bermuda House of Assembly! I would wish my readers to understand, that I con- demn the system, not the individual members; for “ they are all—all honourable men.” . ‘Of the Public Press a few words may be said here. Doubtless, every European is very much astonished, on his arrival, at the manner in which the press is conducted in Bermuda: at the screaming fits—to speak in medical parlance—with which it is afflicted, when it fancies itself to be suffering under. some grievous moral wrong, or attacked by some daring assailant of public virtue. It is fortunate for some of the quiet people of our little community, that there are now only two JUDICATURE, LEGISLATION, REVENUE, ETC. 69 ‘journals to contend with, these journals being the organs of one or other of the two parties; and so fearful are they of giving offence to the party which patronizes them, that anything like freedom of opinion is seldom or never found in their columns. ‘The party spirit of one of these journals must be characterized as furious: it is conducted apparently with the sole view of pleasing a few of its patrons. The acrimony, invective, and personal abuse, which formerly figured in its columns, and which are far different now, undoubtedly surprised any stranger who had been accustomed to the more gentlemanly ‘tone of the English press, and certainly reflected no credit upon the taste of the public, who were not only satisfied, but delighted with this style of writing, and who, with few exceptions, looked upon the most -powerful and most nervous writing as tame, if it were not seasoned with personality. There was, indeed, one excuse for this depraved appetite on the part of the public: it was that in the House of Assembly an example was set. The harangues in that House were too frequently a tissue of person- ‘alities—such as in no well regulated assembly would be endured for 2 moment; but I am happy to state that, owing to Governor Murray’s showing a timely and conciliating spirit, a better state of 70 BERMUDA. affairs now exists. Nothing, by-the-by, can be a better illustration of the indifference of the natives of Bermuda towards all that lies beyond their little world, than the contents of the local papers. These are small sheets: one and a half or two of these small pages, are filled with island news, the proceed- ings of the House of Assembly, and original articles and letters upon local politics. The most scanty space imaginable is made to suffice for the world at large. The most important debates in the British Parliament are despatched in a paragraph; and the foreign intelligence of Europe is evidently a matter of very minor consideration. These journals enjoy a large circulation, and are conducted with a good deal of talent, though unhappily made subser- vient to the narrow views of party. Up to the year 1843, the trade of Bermuda had ‘been considerable, but, till within a recent period, it has considerably decreased, in consequence of the warehousing system having been abolished, which assisted in supporting the commerce of the Bermudas, by giving the British shipping the privilege of carrying foreign pork, beef, and flour to the West Indies, after having been landed in the North American Provinces.* * Vide Appendix C, JUDICATURE, LEGISLATION, REVENUE, ETC. 71 But little attention has as yet been paid to agri- culture, nearly all the articles of food being im- ported. Manufactured articles of almost every de- scription are brought from England. Articles of food—such as beef, pork, lard, butter, corn, flour, pulse, rice, &c.—are principally imported from the United States of “America; while dry salt fish, salmon, mackerel, &c. are brought from Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. Sugar and coffee are of late years generally imported from the West Indies. The revenue covers the expenditure of the colony ; and an ad valorem duty of 3 per cent. levied on imported articles in 1843 has since been reduced to 24 per cent.* The imperial duties are collected by a small staff of officers, with the colonial trea- surer at their head, whose designation now is that of receiver-general, and who also superintends the collection of the local revenue. For his services as collector he receives a salary of 300). per annum, thereby making the collection of the revenue cost a much lower rate than formerly. For statistics, see the annexed tables. * Vide Appendix D. BERMUDA. 4 Gt oesoly IL FI O6801F L 1 L66°8F IL OPI 6 § 8% IL 1 Ist 8 PF Isl O I 281 eR ES b PF 98g 8 9 B8IF 0 61 Lar € FL 608 9 61 88% 0 61 918 4 Lt 0028 F 9 86c'e OL 61 946% 0 0 FF 0 F 103 0 91 08 8 & .S8F b 1 ose I 8st 9g¢ 0 9 626% FO sel'g 6 2 969F ps F ps F ps F# sy see oes pun, ‘snooue]jeost7y eee ooo eee *** aBI0ax) “4G ‘aomO ysog [e1ouex) mos sesvysog oe s][0}-3y SVT CT xe}-uoyony wee te ‘ sqaodunr zoqyo ITV ter tee eee ee gga goog aa *** saeSI0 pus ‘Gnus ‘ooovqoy, “ saonbyy yyeur pue ‘ours ‘syridg “9S8T “9STE POLE, Surpua 1v9ay “GSST S18 Yoel surpue ieax “PGSI ISLS Yous, Sulpue 1eax ‘onuaAdy JO soonog "SUVEX DAILANGSNOD GRUB], Od VOAWATG sO GONTATY FHL 10 SISEONAG TALLVUVANOG JUDICATURE, LEGISLATION, REVENUE, ETC. VALUE oF ImPoRTS THAT PAID ad valorem Duty. Year ending 31st March, 1853 ww. £96,189 1 4 ” 7% 1854, = 89,919 15 9 $s i 1855... ~—97,199 14 11 i: ‘ 1856 =... -—:119,090 15 8 73 ABSTRACT OF THE PPOCEEDINGS OF THE HONOURABLE House or ASSEMBLY. Estimated, Revenue and Expenditure at the Colonial Trea- sury, from 31st March, 1859, to 31st March, 1860. 1859. June 1.—To payments from the Treasury from 3lst March to 1st June, 1859 sak To quarterly salaries and other fixed expenses for quarter ending 30th June, 1859 sas oes To Treasury liabilities for grants undrawn per statement to this date ... «» £5,880 5 4 Less on account of Causeway, 1,3811. 4s. 7d. Ditto St. George’s Church, 600... «ew, 981 4 7 To expenses for legislature for 1859 <4 cat Public bills from 30th March, 1858, to the 30th April, 1859 ... «. £1,157 12 7 Less amount paid quarterly under Act No. 4, 2nd Session, 1851 ... 790 17 8 To Balance brought down ... ie ale To official salaries and annual expenses for the service, ending 30th June, 1860, per statement To public bills for the same period, estimated at To expenses legislature for 1860, ditto... aa To lighthouse expenses for same time, ditto ie £ Ss. d, 867 13 2 1,340 10 0 3,899 0 9 550 0 0 366 14 11 £7,023 18 10 3,679 5,922 1,200 550 250 £11,601 8 oooo @ 5 alhlooocse 74 BERMUDA. 1859. March 81.—By balance in Treasury this date as per report Auditing Committee eae June 30.—Revenue for quarter ending 30th, 1859, estimated at oes aay one aoe 4% ws Totaleesse.) ase we POAD 11,092 telccsial PES lap | 1,002.5 a4? Oo. on Census, 1843. iio at” Pembroke...) 422 572 444 641 | 2,079 Devonshire ...... 120 208 173 224 729 Smith ............ 81 122 113 126 442 Hamilton ......... 152 209 303 327 991 St. George ..... 260 375 394 -578 1,607 Paget........ aia alae 176 276 189 231 867 Warwick i 170 267 201 256 895 Southampton ...J 125 232 231 800 888 Sandy’s davervausoey 213 354 414 451 1,432 Total......) ... aes | oe | sie 9,930 155 CHAPTER XI. EDUCATION. Varied classes of the population — Enterprising and industrious Americans—They contribute to maintain and support the energies of the Bermudans—Extraordinary resources of Ber- muda cannot be viewed: with indifference by the philosophic and contemplative mind—Diffusion of the humanizing arts— Character of Berkeley College—A magnificent charity—Great desideratum of a place of study and retirement for young men —Berkeley College should be thrown open to white and coloured people in the West Indies—Great advantage of the college to Bermuda—National feeling—School education of young people of colour—Prejudice of the white population—Bishop Berkeley —The colony a centre of commerce and its advantages—The spirit of literature and philanthropy — Free schools— Facts relating to the education of the poor. From the review taken in the preceding chapters, it will be seen how varied is the population of this archipelago, both in character and employments; and that it consists both of agricultural and commercial classes of different ranks in the scale of each—from the poorest, who seek a precarious subsistence in the 156 BERMUDA. fields and around the shores, to the civilized Ber- mudan, who has drawn forth the riches of the soil; and from the petty trader, who collects the scattered produce of the islands, to the native capi- talist, who receives and disperses it to more distant regions. Situated between the rich and populous continent of America on the one hand, and the West Indies on the other, the demand for the produce of the colony is unfailing ; and that produce is only limited by the extent of the population. When we consider that Bermuda is situated on the very threshold of America—a country overflow- ing with an enterprising and industrious people, anxious and eager to settle wherever security and -protection are afforded ; that it is the Americans who ‘have chiefly contributed to maintain and support the energies of the population, and diffuse the stimulus of their own activity wherever they have settled ;— if we consider this, the resources of these islands will at once appear unlimited. Circumstances like these cannot be viewed with indifference by the philosophic and contemplative mind. The diversified form in which the human character is exhibited, the new and original features which it displays, the things which have restrained EDUCATION. 157 or accelerated the development of men’s nature in these regions, offer sources of almost inexhaustible inquiry and research. Children of the ocean, as we may call the inhabi- tants of this archipelago, and maintaining with the adjacent continent a constant and rapidly increasing intercourse, the means ought to be afforded them of prosecuting literary and scientific studies with facility and advantage. Such may be the range of inquiry open to the philosopher; but to him who is interested in the cause of humanity, who believes that the diffusion of the humanizing arts is as essential to the character of our nation as the acquisition of power and wealth, and that wherever our flag floats it should confer the benefits of civilization on those whom it protects,— to such a man it will seem no less important that, in proportion as we extend the field of our researches and knowledge, we should equally endeavour to promote the advantage of those with whom we are connected, and diffuse among them the means of moral and intellectual advancement. To this end the revival of Berkeley College was attempted. The object was merely, with the least possible pretension, to commence an institution. This institution, although in its infancy, and at present 158 BERMUDA. all but useless, may be made the foundation and instrument of a great and lasting change in the entire West Indies. That it was originally intended as a university for youths, and not a mere school for boys, is evident from the terms of the founder’s will; and it is in this light alone, and with a view of commencing and ultimately perfecting its original design, that it deserves the most serious attention of the trustees of the insular legislature, and even of the Government at home. It is quite ridiculous that the object of such a magnificent charity, with such large actual funds, should be left wholly to the support of the people of colour. | A great desideratum in Bermuda is a place of study and retirement for young men. 4s it is, those who cannot afford the heavy expense of gonig to Oxford or Cambridge, are obliged to break off the yet unfinished work of their education, to set up at seventeen or eighteen for men, and undertake duties for which they are utterly unqualified. They come away from school half educated in heart and intellect, and are then for the most part placed in situations where every temptation to licentiousness besets their path, and many dangerous privileges are of necessity committed to their discretionary exercise. EDUCATION. 159 A college on the plan of a university—that is to say, where a reasonable approach to universality of instruction is proposed—would supply this deficiency, remedy the consequent evils, and be a blessing and a source of blessing to the colonies. Its hall and lec- tures should be thrown open to every white resident, as well as to the people of colour, in the British West Indies. For their rooms and commons the students should of course pay, and the surplus funds of the charity should be laid out in the erection of fel- lowships, in salaries to professors, and prizes for youthful talent. Tutors of undoubted zeal and ability should be provided, and the principal should be a man of that nerve and judgment which will be requisite to govern and defend a great and novel institution. The domestic economy of the college would be on a much simpler and less expensive plan than that of the universities in England; less than half what is now spent by the creoles in travelling or idleness, , would decently maintain them. In the widely-extended operations of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, this college might be made to exercise an influence prolific of incalculable good; and with all deference to the members of that venerable body, I exhort 160 BERMUDA. them most earnestly to give this subject closer atten- tion than heretofore, and examine with hope and faith its capabilities of benefiting mankind. It is 10 be wished by every philanthropist that no obstacles may arise in any quarter to a thorough reformation of the present institution, but that it may be made ‘capable of communicating its advantages to the natives of the other islands. Bermuda itself would increase. in importance and wealth from the constant influx of strangers, and the excitement of domestic industry. As Englishmen, we obey the impulse of our nature in striving to raise all mankind to a level with ourselves. We believe that the Queen’s com- mission should in all places impart equality of pro- tection; that justice, in the east and west, should plant the staff; and that a charter should lie in the waving flag of England. To this national feeling the colonists must be respectful ;—it is a feeling too virtuous to be hurt by insinuation and too powerful to be resisted by violence. In regard to school education and religious in- struction of young people of colour in Bermuda, though they have time and unrestricted liberty to attend to such subjects, and though perfect toleration is secured by law to religious teachers of all denomi- EDUCATION. 161 nations—yet the means of imparting knowledge are very inadequately provided, and the encouragement given to improve these means is far less general and hearty than the urgency of the case demands. If anything is to elevate the character of the people of colour, it is the inculcation of moral and religious principles, and the imbuing of their minds with knowledge. In no other way can they be taught self-respect, and effectually guarded against the de- teriorating tendencies of their situation. Yet this is a point, to the importance of which long prejudice blinds the understandings of the white people, and which the British Parliament seems not fully to have considered, or at least not to have adopted adequate means to attain. Bishop Berkeley most wisely selected Bermuda as the most suitable place for a college, from whence as a centre its influence may be diffused, and its sphere gradually extended, until it at length embraces even the whole of that wide field whose nature has already been shown. The rays of intellect now divided and lost, will be concentrated into a focus, from whence they will be again radiated with added lustre, brightened and strengthened by European ‘light. Thus will our colony not only become the centre of commerce and 11 162 BERMUDA. its luxuries, but of refinement and the liberal arts. If commerce brings wealth to our shores, it is the spirit of literature and philanthropy that teaches us how to employ it for the noblest purposes. It is this that has made Britain go forth among the nations, strong in her native might, to dispense blessings to all around her. If the time may come when her empire shall have passed away, these monuments of virtue will endure when her triumphs shall only be a name. Let it still be the boast of Britain to atts her name in characters of light; let her not be remem- bered as the tempest, whose course was desolation, but_as the gale of spring, reviving the slumbering seeds of mind, and calling them to life from the winter of ignorance and oppression. Let the sun of Britain arise on these islands, not to wither and scorch them in its fierceness, but like that of her own genial skies, whose mild and benignant influence is hailed and blessed by all who feel its beams. In the tables given at pp. 187, 188, will be found returns of free schools in operation in the colony from the 30th day of June, 1854, to the 30th day of June, 1855, and 3lst March, 1857, to 30th June, 1858, for the education of the poor; by whom taught; under what superintendence; the average EDUCATION. 163 daily attendance of pupils; the present salary and emoluments of the teachers, and from what source derived. The colony owes much to the benevolence and kindness of Bishop Spencer, in promoting education among the poorer classes and coloured inhabitants. He established and maintained not only many others, but promoted the few schools which he found, by his influence. Facts are stubborn and sturdy things to deal with, and it will be sufficiently seen and proved by the annexed tables. The extent of the grievous calamity the poor of Bermuda suffer in this respect may be gathered at a glance from the most cursory view of these two returns of free schools for the education of the poor in operation in Bermuda, between 30th June, 1854, and 30th June, 1855; also 31st March, 1857, and 30th June, 1858. The latter return, with the report of the committee, is parti- cularly interesting. Let us now compare the average daily attendance with the census of the population in 1851; wherein it will be seen that these poor people have few chances of enlightening their minds. Additional light may be thrown on the subject by the following report by W. H. Mayor, Esq., Inspector of Public Schools, dated June 7, 1859 :— ll—2 164 BERMUDA. 1 Report by Witiiam Henry Mayor, Esq., Inspector of Publie Schools, on the Parochial and other Schools in Bermuda receiving aid from the Public Treasury, to his Laxcellency the Governor, the Honourable Members of her Majesty's Council, and the Members of the Honourable House of Assembly, in Legislation. Sandy’s Parish, Bermuda, GENTLEMEN, June 7th, 1859. On the lst October last, I received from his Excellency the Governor, my appointment, and, a few days subsequently, my commission, as Inspector of Public Schools, under and by virtue of a certain Act of your legislature, intituled “An Act to aid in the Establishment, and to provide for the Inspection of Public Schools;” and by the 9th section of the said Act, it is enacted, that “Reports of all the schools receiving aid from the Public Treasury shall annually be made to the Legislature by the Board of Education and by the Inspector of Schools.” In conformity with the said enactment, I beg, respectfully, to submit the following report :— On the 29th October, I received my instructions from the Board of Education, directing me “ to visit, inspect, and report upon” twenty schools, “ for which EDUCATION. 165 application had been made for aid.” In accordance with the said instructions, I commenced my first visit of inspection on the 2nd, and completed it on the 19th November. I found the school at Tucker’s Town (one ‘on the list) without a teacher, conse- quently nineteen schools only were given in to the Board as having been visited and inspected. A report was made, separately, upon each school, which, proving satisfactory to the Board, the whole were admitted on the list of schools to receive “ aid.” I found the teachers, generally speaking, possessed of sufficient knowledge of the several branches of education which they professed to teach to enable them. to conduct the description of schools in which they were engaged. But, in many instances, they were deficient in other qualifications, essential to constitute them efficient teachers. It is admitted, that among all the great improve- ments which have taken place within the last thirty years in the several arts and sciences, one of the most valuable (at least to the rising generation) is that in the science of imparting knowledge and instruction to the young—as particularly adapted to those schools in Bermuda which it is my duty to inspect. Some quarter of a century ago, the old parish clerk and ancient dame of the village 166 BERMUDA. were the keepers of the rural parochial schools in England; and they had an idea (never having been better instructed) that the birch rod, with an occa- sional rap with their horny knuckles upon the poor pates of their unfortunate pupils, was the best, if not the only method, of instilling “the rudiments.” But this state of things happily exists no longer. In the place of these (doubtless well-intentioned) worthies, are to be found well-educated and enlightened teachers, of both sexes, who have been regularly trained for their work in colleges set apart for that purpose, in which, it may be said, they graduate— if acquiring a first, second, or third-class certificate, according to their attainments, may be so termed. When a vacancy occurs in a charity school in England, it is, without delay or difficulty, filled up with a properly trained and efficient teacher. Not so in Bermuda. If a vacancy occurs, say in one of the parochial schools, it is perhaps closed for weeks before the rector can hear of any person whatever likely to fill it. When he does, that person may not be one after his own heart; but, rather than the school should remain longer closed, makes the engagement, though, perhaps, at the same time, very dubious of the person’s competency. The same difficulty is doubtless experienced by other EDUCATION. 167 denominations in procuring suitable teachers for their schools. The charity schools in Bermuda cannot possibly keep pace with similar schools in Great Britain, Ireland, and America, or with our military schools at St. George’s, and our convict schools at Boaz Island, unless the teachers are trained to their work. The art of teaching, or imparting knowledge, according to the method and discipline of the im- proved system, is in itself a science, and, like all other sciences, must be learnt and acquired. To improve the present defective system, which, with few exceptions, exists in the schools receiving aid from the Treasury, and to provide efficient teachers to fill any vacancies which may occur in them and in other similar schools at any future time, I would, with the greatest deference, recom- mend that a trained master, with a first-class certifi- cate, should be introduced into the colony. Such an one would doubtless be induced to come out if an annual salary of 801. or 90/. were guaranteed to him for a period of two years. This trained master might keep one of the central schools, which would become “the model.” A few young men would, doubtless, gladly avail themselves of 168 BERMUDA. an opportunity of qualifying themselves as teachers, paying a moderate premium for the privilege, and in a short time they would become competent to fill any vacancies. This trained master, thus keeping one of the central schools, might give his weekly holiday. on Friday, instead of Saturday, which would enable him on Friday to visit the several schools in rotation, in order to give instruction to the teachers; and on Saturday the teachers might attend, occasionally, at his school for that purpose. Should this suggestion be considered expedient and feasible, it would appear that the emoluments arising from the school (say 60/. or 701.), together with the premiums to be paid by the training pupils, would nearly equal the amount of the salary guaranteed. So that a small amount only would be required from the public chest. In case that I shall be continued in the office of inspector, and that my. visits be rendered less frequent, it will afford me much pleasure to relinquish a part of my small emoluments, if it might in any way assist in attain- ing so desirable an object. I beg to apologize for this lengthy digression—my deep sense of the great. importance of the subject must plead my excuse. In resuming my report, I would beg to state that during my visits I have received from the teachers,. EDUCATION. 169 without exception, every facility in the examination of the schools, and much courtesy—many of them expressing their conviction that the periodical visits of the inspector would have a beneficial tendency ; not only in exciting an increased diligence in their pupils, but would also be the means of correcting any errors in their system of tuition of which they might be unconscious. I found the registers, with few exceptions, pro- perly kept. Two or three of them, however, did not distinguish whether the pupils attended both parts of the day or not; proving that the roll, in these cases, had not been called twice a day; although'so important to be done, in order to pre- serve proper order and discipline. This error has since been rectified. In many of the schools, errors existed in the method of tuition: the principal one, most prevalent, appeared to be an over-anxiety on the part of the teachers to get their pupils through a certain book, without due regard to frequent repetitions and cate- chetical exercises, to cause them to retain and understand what they had previously committed to memory. The consequence was, that a class which had gone through the greatest part of the geography or grammar, when examined by questions on the first 170 BERMUDA. two or three pages of their book, the answers were very imperfectly given, if at all. The pupils are frequently placed in books too difficult for them. A class may be in Carpenter’s spelling, as far as words of five or six syllables, with theit meanings; but when tested by writing from dictation or memory, they were found deficient in spelling correctly very simple monosyllables. In reading also, pupils had been frequently placed in the Bible class, when just out of the primer; the result was that they stammered and guessed at every word; thereby, through their blunders, converting the Holy Scriptures into nonsense, if not into some- thing worse. The excuse in many schools was, that they had no intermediate books between the primer and the Bible, such as the second and third books as issued by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge; many of the children being orphans, and the parents of others being too poor to purchase them. I do not consider that religious instruction is sufficiently attended to in the schools generally. I fear that the pupils are more anxious to acquire the knowledge of writing, grammar, geography, and arithmetic, rather than to be able to recite correctly and to understand thoroughly, scripture history and EDUCATION. 171 the catechism: and the teachers, perhaps, in some instances, may consider that they gain more credit with the parents of their pupils by advancing them in those branches, even if it be attained by the partial neglect of their Christian knowledge. I do not scruple to endeavour to impress upon the minds of the teachers, that the Legislature contemplates, and the Board of Education expects and requires, that religious instruction shall constitute a prominent part of the education given in the schools receiving aid from the Public Treasury, and to the catechists of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (comprising sixteen out of the nineteen teachers), I state, that the very name of the society which patronizes them should be a constant memento, that “ Christian knowledge” is especially expected and required to be inculcated in their schools. In some of the schools the pupils read and recite very indistinctly ; more particularly in reciting the catechism; so much so, that it is difficult, if not impossible, to ascertain whether they say it correctly or otherwise. To test the state of the case in many of the schools, I set such of the pupils who were competent, to write from memory the Lord’s Prayer, the Creed, a Commandment, or some other part of the catechism. The result sadly proved my fears 172 BERMUDA. to be too well founded,—that they understood not what they said. Words of somewhat similar sound, but of quite different meaning, were in some cases substituted; in others, words appeared to be coined without any meaning in them at all. These errors, in many instances, were committed by pupils learning grammar and geography. I am happy to report, however, that some improvement has since taken place in this respect. The infant portion of the pupils (comprising more than one half) are the greater sufferers for the want of the improved system being introduced into the schools. The teachers, with few exceptions, consider that until their pupils can read, no other instruction can be given them. Consequently, in a great ma- jority of the schools, no oral instruction is intro- duced, so well calculated as it is to call forth and expand their reasoning faculties, to strengthen their memories, and last, not least, to relieve the tedium and monotony of their A B C’s and monosyllables. On my second visit, I found in one school nineteen children who could not read, said the Lord’s Prayer very imperfectly, and knew nothing of the Creed. I inquired of the teacher “why they were not taught the Creed?” I was answered, “because they cannot read.” I took the nineteen children, and made them EDUCATION. 173 all repeat the Creed together for half an hour; at the expiration of that time, many of them could answer simple questions upon it. On a subsequent visit, I found that they had made considerable pro- gress; but evidently sufficient pains had not been taken. In another school, I found twelve or fourteen infants in their A BC who were entirely ignorant of the Creed. I took them up as in the former case, with similar success: at my next visit these infants could not only separately say the Creed perfectly, and answer questions on the same, but could also recite some other parts of the Church Catechism. The teacher appeared much pleased with his success, and stated that the children were very much in- terested in this exercise, and that, at my next visit, he hoped they would be able to say the Command- ments also. In one school, Mrs. Trimmer’s Teacher's Assistant is used with much success. It is a book containing a series of instruction on various subjects, chiefly religious, by question and answer, adapted entirely to the capacity of infants. ‘ Lessons” from this work are on the catalogue of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, and are to be obtained at the depository. I have strongly recom- mended the book to several of the teachers. In the schools generally are taught reading, 174 BERMUDA. writing, arithmetic, grammar, and geography, and in three or four geometry. The latter science was introduced into many of the schools by the late lamented Sir William Reid, who paid a sergeant of Royal Engineers to give instruction to the teachers every Saturday afternoon, at Hamilton—he paying the passages per mail of those residing at a distance. Some persons (perhaps without due consideration) have ridiculed the idea of geometry being taught in these schools, but it must be admitted that this science is particularly useful to the mechanic or artisan, whether he be a mason, a house or ship carpenter, a wheelwright, or even a gardener; not that he need dive into the abstruse problems of Euclid, but merely that he should understand the first principles. The history of our mother country, to my surprise, is not taught in any of the schools. Psalmody is practised in every school, and taught in several. This delightful recreation is much en- couraged in the parochial and other charity schools in England. Indeed, in the training colleges for masters or mistresses, instruction is given in vocal music; and in some of the colleges for masters, instrumental music is taught also, to qualify the pupils for organists and choir-masters for the several EDUCATION. 175 parishes in which they may be engaged. Sacred music is found to have a, very beneficial effect upon the pupils, in calming their passions and softening and elevating their minds and feelings. It is natural that they who have been taught, or they who have practised sacred music, should take a deeper interest in public worship, enabling them to join in the chants and other services of the church, or of any other place of worship they may attend: and these habits and feelings, thus engendered, will probably continue with them through life. The teachers, in too many instances, do not appear to hold that position with regard to the parents of their pupils which they ought to do. The teacher receiving aid from the Treasury, and a further small gratuity from some charitable society, is considered by many to keep a “free school;” consequently, , those parents who can well afford to pay something towards their children’s schooling, do so very irregu- larly and reluctantly—more as a matter of favour than of right and duty; and after placing their children at school, they think that they can be sent to school or kept at home at pleasure. Children are frequently kept from school for weeks together, with- out any reasonable cause (as sickness, &c.), and sent again without the slightest excuse being offered for 176 BERMUDA. their absence. The teacher receives them, and is content to lose his small emolument which ought to be paid for the time they were absent; but he has also the additional trouble of teaching over again what their absence has caused them to forget. This conduct is allowed to be repeated with impunity, the teacher fearing to be too particular, lest the pupils should be withdrawn altogether. Great irregularity exists in some of the schools in consequence of the pupils not attending punctually at the appointed hour. The teacher, instead of remonstrating with the parents, postpones calling the roll and opening the school for perhaps half an hour or more, awaiting the arrival of the pupils. This course only encourages and increases the evil, and is subversive of all good government and discipline. I regret that the teachers do not evince more firmness and independence as regards their conduct, both towards pupils and parents. If they are in want of a motto, I would recommend this rather hackneyed one—Suaviter in modo, fortiter in re— some possess the one, some the other; but unless both are combined, a teacher, with all his other qualifications, will not be sufficient. A code of rules for the regulation of teachers, EDUCATION. 177 pupils, and parents would have a very salutary effect. By them, the parents should be obliged to make their weekly payments regularly, inclusive of the time their children are kept from school without reasonable cause. They should also be obliged to provide such books and other requisites as the teacher may direct; for they now furnish such as they please, or as may be most convenient for them to procure, causing such a diversity, that the teacher is prevented properly classifying his pupils, thereby greatly retarding their progress, and giving consider- able additional trouble to the teacher. So badly do the parents supply their children even with slate- pencil, that frequently a class is called up for exercise, and it is with much delay and difficulty that a sufficiency can be found in the whole school for that particular class. In the schools, with few exceptions, books and other school requisites are much needed and required. In every school there are orphans and other children whose parents are too poor to provide them. The XIVth Section of the Act relating to Public Schools provides that orphan children may be sent by the vestries to the several schools receiving aid from the Treasury, and that the teacher to whom the order is sent shall receive and educate the same. 12 178 BERMUDA. It will appear by the tabular statement annexed, that only two children have been received by the teachers under the Act, and those two in Sandy’s parish. It seems that an order for six children was made to Mrs. H. Nichols by the vestry of that parish, but four of them had been previously admitted into her school. I cannot attribute the circumstances of one vestry only having taken advantage of this enactment, to any supineness, or neglect, on the part of the gentle- men constituting the several vestries; but I should rather consider that it reflects credit on the several teachers; inasmuch that I have every reason to suppose and believe that they have sought out and taken the very description of children which the Act provides should be sent to them. It may be inferred, therefore, that the orphan children, contemplated by the Act, to be sent to these schools, are now there, and receiving education; but your Legislature has made no provision for books and other requisites for them, There are also in these schools other children, whose parents are too poor to provide those necessaries of books, &c; I therefore, with great deference, venture to hope and trust that your Legislature may be pleased to grant a small sum for the purpose of providing the necessary books EDUCATION. 179 and other school requisites for the use of these poor orphans, and such other children, whose parents, from sickness or destitution, are unable to provide them; so that the benevolent intentions of your Legislature may not be frustrated. In justice to the teachers, I must state that I believe that they do all in their power to remedy this evil; but it is unreasonable to expect that they should furnish all the requisites for these pupils at their own expense. - An impression exists in the minds of many, that the pupils remain after their education is completed, and until after they have arrived at the age of puberty; merely for the purpose of placing in the pockets of the teachers the annual sum of five or six shillings capitation money. This appears too absurd to require refutation. The Board of Education, understanding that such an idea was prevalent, directed me to take a census of the classified ages of the pupils ;—this I am now doing in my fourth inspection; and when completed, the result will prove that this impression is quite erroneous. There are a few instances of pupils being above the age of fifteen years; but they are those whose education was entirely neglected in 12—2 180 ‘BERMUDA. early youth. The complaint, by teachers generally, is, that the pupils are removed too prematurely, before it is possible for them to have received the necessary instruction. I postponed commencing my visit of inspection at the proper time (15th May), understanding that the attendance of the pupils at school was interrupted by their assisting in the crops; and at the com- mencement of last week (when I intended to visit St. George’s) the weather looked so suspicious that I did not venture, knowing that if it were rainy, the pupils would not attend, and my journey would be for nought. Yesterday I intended to visit St. George’s per Siren, but to my disappointment found that she was not going, It was not my intention to begin this report, until I had finished the inspection, in order to be enabled to complete the tabular state- ment annexed (page 182); but, as it will take a week, at least, to accomplish it, and understanding inquiries were being made for the report, I have thought it best to submit it without delay, leaving the tabular - return to be completed afterwards. I will conclude by stating that improvements have taken place in the schools generally, but not to the extent I had hoped and expected very sanguinely, EDUCATION. 181 would have been the case. I found several of the schools in a very creditable state, both as regards system and discipline; the teachers having spared neither time nor expense in availing themselves of every advantage the islands afforded to qualify for their important office; and their schools evince that their time and money were not expended in vain. Iam somewhat dubious whether your Legislature may not expect and require a separate report on each of the schools; if so, it will give me much pleasure to furnish it, as also any other information you may be pleased to call for. I have the honour to be, &e. W. H. Mayor, Inspector of Schools. BERMUDA. 182 “HOLL OT “SIT "Treqoing *g ‘AIT = * B,091005 "49 “UOSUIHITM BSI |S fC ‘UV DPW > 8 * UOTE “eM “sa |¢ ke “ “eSpiiqieyng “Assi | * | * S.qy1UIg “BUIBIITIM “S* Sstyq | * . . “ “uHWS "VS" ]* ** earysuoaeq *IOHONL “7 Jojog ‘ay | * $ . ae ‘uosulH ‘a “a ssiyq | * . . “ 19} 0% | IF | 09) OS} OF) "| ss | OB] zt; Bo} os}azj;ss}* *° * * semoq,-H ea] * * ° oXosqueg 86) OT | at) ca; er; ae) ee | tl ct) ar} aa} ee} ad ati]* lute spOmmMIs "DM AW PS OT lft 8 je ;@& ferj;e pr [ss yey cspe jetisrierjs }* ° + * wempoy-g‘sm]> °° * gaaeg et)}8 js Jaris jk |e tes y ests taieria {es fo oc PIOQMON LS ss] " °° = sb) 5) 16) 8h] eS) es) oe | es] Pet] es] soy oe; sys * tt aeyonE pura] s+ yore at} b | 8 Pst} s FOr; ss ys) s str 1} ee] es], | sr]: ° * spuomkgsawygsayy i]s el)’ (6 jer;e | or; syst yes ye st ety arte |i]: ° * * poqsen mesa] * ° uo}dueyynog Ov) LT) 6S jor) LT] 8@] se |c'/s js |ebleciizjzej* * ° ‘sowinN-g-asme] : °° < 818 | wr} ce} sr} oz)} cs} esis |e | se] ee] on | e2 " * * epem somuprayy} s**t s,Apueg ABBR BEEERERBAE ; FISlS|ElE 2 (el/aialeis(Elele ¢ & “18/la{e]8 & °. = = - oe Pe “1OOBay, JO OUIBNT “saysIVg = a aR) y - “moroedsuy 48 | ‘oouspucyy B = “nosy *19}sIZey TO queselg esvieay pegrsseyy - aqoquioN —‘uoyoedsuy yyanog -Amsvory, oqng oy} wos pre Suratsoer vpn “6ST ‘oung pue Lepr WING UI sfooyog 19430 pues [eTpoorIv” [BIaAVS 94} UI SOlTS9A [BIOASS 04} WoIy srapio Aq padteoar JoqunyNy pue ‘ Ajoyenbepe Surfed sequmyy { uoroadsuy ye yuesord soqumyy pur ‘souepueyye Apep oSeioae Ur sequny,. ‘seSy poyisseg { s9ystZey uo stidng jo tequNN{ JO LNANGLVIG UVIOGV], W EDUCATION. 183 Report on the Pustic ScHooLs in operation between 83lst March, 1857, and 30th June, 1858.—Pre- sented to the Legislature, 13th September, 1858. The Committee of the Council and Assembly ap- pointed to inquire and to report to both Houses as to the number of schools in operation in the colony, between the 31st March, 1857, and the 30th June, 1858, for the education of the poor, by whom they were taught, and under what superintendence, and other particulars respecting the same, has the honour of now submitting the result of its inquiries. The particulars of the schools in the parishes of Saint George, Devonshire, Pembroke, Paget, War- wick, Southampton, Sandys, Hamilton, and Smith, will be found in the tabular return given at page 187. The particulars respecting the schools in the two last-named parishes, namely, that formerly kept by Benjamin Burchall, and afterwards reopened under Nathaniel Gardiner, and that kept by Eleanor Outerbridge, were received from the Ecclesiastical Commissary, the Rev. Dr. Tucker, who, in the ab- sence of the rector, and during the vacancy in the living, issued, as the committee learns, the certificates required by the District Committee of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. These schools 184 BERMUDA. have been superintended by the rector of the parish, but the committee would remark that during a con- siderable time the rector was absent from the colony, and during the remainder the living was vacant, The committee, therefore, concludes that what is meant is that since the living was filled, that is to say, within the last month, the schools referred to have been visited by the new rector. The committee is informed that during the vacancy the school of Miss Eleanor Outerbridge was visited by the officiating minister. But there are, or have been, other schools in ope- ration in the two parishes in question, of which no particulars have reached the committee through any official channel. Two of these have been accustomed to receive aid from the Public Treasury in former years, namely, Mrs. North’s and Mrs. Wells’s. Mrs. North closed her school on the 26th August, 1857, and her connection with the Society for Pro- moting Christian Knowledge on the 30th June, 1857. Mrs. Wells kept school in connection with the Society during the whole period embraced by the report, it seems. The particulars of Mrs. Wells’s school have been furnished by her to a member of the committee as follow, namely :—Number of pupils, 38, including 13 males and 25 females; daily attendance, 28; sub- jects taught, the usual branches, with grammar, EDUCATION. 185 catechism, and sewing; salary from Society for Pro- moting Christian Knowledge for year ending 31st March, 1858, 4/., and receipts from pupils, 3/. Os. 5d. ; school superintended by the officiating minister, the Rev. Francis J. B. Lightbourn. In Hamilton parish there is a large school kept by John G. Allen, who has himself furnished the com- mittee with the following particulars. The school is supported by the Hamilton Parish Temperance Society, which guaranteed the teacher 301. a year, hoping to obtain a similar sum from the public. There are on the books 74 males and 55 females, total 129, and in daily attendance, on an average, 83. Besides the usual branches are taught grammar, geography, stenography, vocal music, and catechism. The school was established 24th August, 1857, and, according to Mr. Allen’s report, has been superin- tended by the rector; but, for reasons before adverted to, this can only mean that since the period em- braced in the return the new rector has visited the school, which the committee learns to have been the case. Indeed, the committee has received from the Rev. Frederic J. M. Evans, the rector, a certificate of his having inspected this school, and being satisfied with the manner in which it was conducted. Mr. Evans found 99 children in attendance. A 186 BERMUDA. member of the committee was present on the occasion referred to. In conclusion, the committee must express its regret that it has no means of reporting to the legis- lature the state of efficiency, actual or comparative, of any of the schools seeking aid from the Public Treasury, with the single exception just mentioned, which afforded one member of the committee an opportunity of judging favourably of one of the schools. This question, the most important con- nected with these institutions, the present system of pranking aid provides no machinery for solving. Taos. A. DARRELL, T. W. Mercer, S. Browntow Gray, J. H. Harvey, 10th September, 1858. Committee. EDUCATION. 187 Return of Pusiic Scwoots, having been in operation in this Colony between 31st March, 1857, and 30th June, 1858. No. of Pupils. ® 8 Salary Received . Bg Subjects of Tuition. from Other Date of from : Superin- ‘ ts March 31, , Whence : Treasury for Parishes. Teachers. opselcs a § (N.B.—The usual branches are Spelling, 1857, to | Whence derived. | Emolu- ; Establishment | Year ending tended by| ¢ | 8 | 3 | 2% | Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic.) June 30, derived. March 31, g 2 e a B> 8, FiCmene 1858. ments. of School. 1857. £s. d. £5. da. £ s. d. St. George’s .| Eliza Trott . é Rector of | 9} 9] 18 | 14 | Theusual branches and catechism, sewing | 12 0 0 | District Committee | 6 3 | From pupils 1855 30 0 0 . Parish. and knitting. of S. P. C. K. Ditto . Benjamin Burchall Ditto 46 | 40] 86 | 55 Do. do. do. grammar and geography 410 0 Ditto 12 16 4 Ditto Jan. 1, 1858. Nil. Ditto * George Nathaniel Only Ditto 24116) 40} 36 Do. do. do. 8 00 Ditto 31 4 0 Ditto Jan. 1, 1857 . 710 0 Ditto t William Henry Mallory | Ditto | 23] 14] 37] 29 Do. do. do. 310 0 Ditto 315 0 Ditto Jan. 1, 1858 . Nil. Devonshire .| Eleanor J. Williams Ditto 13 | 11 | 24| 17 | The usual branches . 12 0 0 Ditto 030 Ditto 1856¢ . 2210 0§ Ditto . Rebecca A. Newbold . Ditto 14413] 27] 21 Do. do. and sewing 12 0 0 Ditto 25 6 Ditto 1849 30 0 0 Pembroke Ellen Hinson Ditto 3] 8) 11} 11 Do. do. do. grammar and geography 013 4i) Ditto 016 Of} Ditto June 1, 1858 Nil. Ditto . Peter F. Tucker . . Ditto 26} 14] 40] 80 Do. do. and psalmody, do. ard do. 12 0 0 Ditto 11 0 0 Ditto Sept., 1836 .| 30 0 0 Paget . Sarah Redmon. Ditto 10] 6] 16] 12 Do. do. and catechism . ‘ F 12 0 0 Ditto 915 0 Ditto 1854 30 0 0 Ditto] Israel T. Richardson Ditto 15 | 19 | 24] 20 Do. do. anddo. grammar and geography | 10 13 4 Ditto 13 3 6 Ditto 1839 30 0 0 Warwick Anne Moore . Ditto 9] 3/12] 10 Do. do. and catechism . 12 0 0 Ditto 8 00 Ditto 1839. 30 0 0 Ditto . David Tucker Ditto 84] 27) 61 | 45 Do. do. and do. grammar and geography | 12 0 0 Ditto 26 11 0 Ditto 1839 30 0 6 Southampton | Elizabeth Newbold Ditto ll} 5] 16] 14 Do. do. and do. 120 0 Ditto 800 Ditto 1841 30 0 0 Ditto . w. O. F. Bascome i Ditto 16 | 18 | 34] 28 Do. do. and do. grammar and geography | 12 0 0 Ditto 14 0 3 Ditto 1838 30 0 0 37:16 4 Ditto Sandy’s Honora B. Nichols Ditto 31) 16) 47} 42 Do. do. do. do. with book-keeping and| 12 0 0 Ditto { 210 0| From ‘Gaamerees 1818 30 0 0 composition, and needlework for girls. Lodge. Ditto. James Wade i Ditto 23125 |48| 84 | The usual branches and grammar, geo-| 12 0 0 Ditto 12 2 10 | From pupils 1836 30 0 0 graphy and catechism. Report of Pustic Scuoots in Hamron and Smitn’s ParisHes, which were in operation between 31st March, 1857, and 30th June, 1858. , £s. da £s.d. £ sd. Hamilton .| Benjamin Burchall** .| Ditto | 39{ 14/53) a4 | Reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, | 3 0 0 District Committee | 8 6 2] From pupils .| July 1, 1857. grammar, geography, singing, and of S.P.C. K. catechism. < . Ditto . Nathaniel Gardiner tt . Pe 33 | 15 | 48 | 37 at ae Nil Ditto 315 0 Ditto Smith’s. .| Eleanor Outerbridge Ditto 4| 12] 16 9 | Reading, writing, arithmetic, spelling, | 4 0 Ott Ditto 440 Ditto July 1, 1854.| 30 0 0 grammar, geography, and catechism. * Tucker’s Town. t St. David's Island. d 1854; again closed, and re-opened 1856. § For nine months. || For one month. { Closed April 30, 1858. t Opened 1836; afterwards closed ; re-opene ** From July 1, 1857, to December 81, 1857. ¢t From April 2, 1858, to June 30, 1858. tt From March 31 to Aug. 22, 1858, 12—6 188 BERMUDA. A Return of Free Scuoots for the Epucation of the Poor in operation in Bermupa, between 30th June, 1854, and 30th June, 1855. Parish. | Sandys . . Ditto... Southampton Ditto. . Warwick . Ditto. . Paget . . Ditto . Pembroke . Devonshire . Smith’s. . Ditto. . Hamilton . St. George’s . Ditto. Tepcher’s Name. Honora B. Nichols : James Wade . . .« Elizabeth Newbold . Wm. Bascome* . . Ann Moore . : . David Tucker,t George Kimball,t A. Corbu- sier.$ Sarah B. Redmon . . Israel T. Richardson . Peter F. Tucker . H Rebecca A. Newbold Amelia E. Wells . Eleanor M. Outerbridge Martha M. North . John G. Allen Eliza Trott . . . Superin- tended by. Rector of Parish. Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto . When Esta- plished. 1839 1836 1841 1851 1838 1838 1852 1838 1836 1848 1847 1852 1850 1839 ‘1838 Number of Pupils belong- ing to the School. Males. |Females.) Total. 27 16 43 36 26 62 13 7 20 22 7 39 8 9 Wy 12 6 18 8 9 Wz 31 al 52 38 12 50 7 7 34 12 14 26 3 10 13 17 31 48 33 6 39 8 10 18 Average Number in daily attend- ance, 38 42 18 36 14 16 14 36 36 28 18 9 20 34 18 Subjects Taught. Spelling, reading, writing, grammar, arithmetic, geography, Church Cate- chism, sewing. Do. do. do. do. do. do. do. . es Do. do. do, do. catechism, sewing Y Do. do. do. do. grammar, geography, catechism, gardening. Do. do. do. do. catechism, sewing ‘ Do. do. do. do. grammar, geography, catechism. Do. do. do, do. grammar, catechism, sewing. Do. do. do. do. grammar, geography, catechism, drawing. Do. do. do. do. grammar, geography, catechism, psalmody. Do. do. do. do. grammar, geography, catechism, sewing. Do. do. do. do, catechism, sewing ‘ Do. do, do, do. grammar, geography, catechism, sewing. Do. do. do. do. grammar, catechism, sewing. Do. do. do. do. grammar, geography, catechism. Do. do. do. do. catechism, sewing. Legislative Grant for | Annual| From what Other Year ending 7 Som sane Salary. |Source derived.|Emoluments. £5. a. | £8. Te sd. 2210 0 4.0 |SocietyP.C.K.) 2216 0 22 10 0 4 0 Ditto 816 0 22 10 0 4.0 Ditto 10 16 0 2210 0 40 Ditto 23:3 «4 2210 0 | 10 0 Ditto 612 0 2210 0 | 10 0 Ditto 210 0 2210 0 | 10 0 Ditto 15 18 0 2210 0 | 10 0 Ditto 26 3 4 16 17 6 | 10 0 Ditto 16 9 3 2210 0 10 0 Ditto 110 7 2210 0 4 0 , Ditto 6 on 22:10 0 4 0 Ditto 10 2 0 ar 4 0 Ditto 800 2210 0 | 10 0 Ditto lo 0 2210 0 | 10 0 Ditto 100 From what, Source derived. Parents of children. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. * Trom 14th August, 1854, ¢ From 30th June, 1854, to August, 1854. § 15th February, 1855, to 15th March, 1855. } 15th August to 31st December, 1854. \| Broken period. 189 CHAPTER XII. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. Evening assemblages—Balls—Dinner-parties—Shooting—Fishing —Boating — Regatta —Spectators— Bermuda damsels—Royal Bermuda Yacht Club—Superiority of sailing-boats—Sea-bath- ing—Fishing on the open sea—Intellectual resources, THE amusements of the higher classes in Bermuda are much the same as in other colonies; and as all are engaged either in public or private business, or professional pursuits, their hours of relaxation are spent either in dinner-parties, or in evening assem- blages at each other’s houses, where quadrilles and dancing keep the younger members of society in pleasant occupation, whilst their elders look on, play at cards, or converse upon the topics of the day. The Government House has usually given the ton in dinners and balls, with now and then a state dinner to the superior officials. The Admiralty House, too, is usually gay during the visit of the 190 BERMUDA. Admiral and his squadron. All these parties are carried on during the winter. Some fine shooting of migratory birds may be mentioned as a source of amusement during the winter months; but it is confined chiefly to snipe, plover, and wild duck. In summer, fishing and boating in the harbour form other recreations. The young men usually get up a regatta on Hamilton Water for sailing and oared boats, and some very spirited matches take place; when the adjacent hills and vales are covered by spectators of both sexes, representing the Cau- casian as well as the Ethiopian race, and there are damsels of divers hues,—the sable Venus, the bright mulatto, the delicate mustee, and the fair Bermudan sylph. The “ Royal Bermuda Yacht Club,” too, a little later in the season, usually come out very strong, and afford a great degree of amusement to lovers of aquatic sports. They usually wind up the enter- tainment with a ball to the inhabitants, where the Bermudan fair are seen to great advantage in the dizzy waltz, the graceful polka, or the stately quadrille. The far-famed sailing-boats of the Bermudans are rigged with one, and some of them with two MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 191 shoulder-of-mutton sails, are extremely stiff, buoyant, work well, and sail remarkably fast, but require to be well ballasted. These little vessels are very numerous, and are, like the larger vessels, built of the native cedar, an expensive but durable wood. They do not rise in a lively manner in a heavy sea, in consequence of their having generally iron ballast, but throw the spray over the deck, the lee gunwale, when it blows hard, being under water, which is protected by a deck of about eighteen inches wide, that extends from the forecastle to the stern. These little boats are unsurpassed in their good qualities, and are more easily managed than any similar class of vessels we have ever met with in Europe. Sea-bathing is very delightful along the shores to those who are accustomed to that source of health and enjoyment. A walk along the margin of the ocean, from Middleton’s Beach to Port Royal, is one of the best relaxations to a stranger who is fond of walking, and musing, as he goes, on man and nature; for there the sea in all its grandeur on a stormy day wages war with the land. There, too, late in spring, you may see the huge whale gam- bolling; and there man, busy man, is fishing for the finny treasure of the sea in a boat, reduced by 192 BERMUDA. distance to almost a speck, for the means of sup- porting his existence, whilst the angry waves rolling over the coral reefs and bellowing on the precipices under your feet, give ample evidence that his occu- pation is precarious. Horse-racing, and amateur theatricals also, are occasional pastimes. Amongst the resources of mental indulgence, we have a good public library in the town of Hamilton, established in 1839, by the Colonial Government, at the recommendation of Governor Reid. Access to the books is easy, and the subscriptions are very small, thereby placing at the disposal of every mem- ber of the community a fund of information. A museum has also been established in the colony, but I am sorry to say very little interest is taken in enriching its shelves with curiosities of nature. 193 CHAPTER XIII. NATURAL HISTORY. Native birds—Mangrove-trees—Occasional visitants — Entomo- logy—Genus Diurna (or butterflies)—Genus Sphinx (or the hawk-moth)—G enus Phalena (or moths)—Coleoptera—Cidarie —Chanteuses (or singers} — Aphidii (or plant-lice)— Genus Coccus (or scale insects)—Coccus cacti (or cochineal insect)— Insect changes—Apterous insects—Jigger (Pulex penetrans)— Death-watch—(Anobium pertinax)—Genus Forficula (or ear- wigs)—Genus Blatte (or cockroaches )—Arachnides (or spiders) —Genus Scorpio (scorpions) — Silk-spider (Tetragnatha extensa). Birds.—To the naturalist, the groves, fields, bays, and shores of Bermuda are full of interest. The groves and fields of these sunny islands ring with the melody of some of our native birds. The clear whistle of the white-eyed greenlet, or chick of the village (Virco musicus), like the shrill flute, resound from the fruit-trees, among whose deep green foliage his gay hues—rich green, white, and black—glance fitfully, as he shoots to and fro; and his companion the cardinal grosbeak, or red bird (Pitylus cardinalis), accompanies his shrill notes with fe 194 BERMUDA. strains full of soft warbling music. It is the music of the red bird that makes our sunny glades and shady groves eminently melodious by day, sustaining almost the whole burden himself. On account of the beauty of its plumage and notes, it is often reared in cages. Among the other native birds we may enumerate ' the following: viz. the common blue bird (Sylvia sialis) resembles very much in its manners and habits the Sazicola rubicola, or robin redbreast of Europe. It is very useful in destroying multitudes of noxious insects. We have a species of merle, the black merle, or blackbird, commonly called cat- bird, also improperly called mocking-bird (Turdus merula), a mistrustful species. Its plumage is entirely black. It inhabits gardens and sylvan dis- tricts, and is very frugivorous, and is remarkable, particularly, for the singularity of its note, which consists of a few harmonious sounds. It is a loud but monotonous songster, heard throughout the year. The ground dove (Columba passerina) is the smallest and only American species peculiar to Bermuda. It has a pretty cooing note, resembling that of the ring- dove. Lastly, the tropic-bird, or longtail (Phaeton Athenus), belongs to a species which fly very far from land, on the high seas; and as they rarely quit NATURAL HISTORY. 195 the boundaries of the torrid zone, their appearance serves to indicate to mariners the vicinity of the tropic, whence their common name of tropic-birds. On Jand, where they seldom resort, except to feed, they perch upon trees. They are closely related by affinity to the gannets. The occasional visitants are very numerous, many of them accidental and of great interest. Eminently characteristic of a tropical shore is the dense belt of mangrove-bushes which lines a bay at Somerset, termed Long Bay. To a European, it is a strange sight to see a grove of trees growing actually out of the sea; and his admiration is not diminished when he examines more closely the struc- ture of these singular ‘plants. The trunk of every tree springs from the union of a number of slender arches, each forming the quadrant of a circle, whose extremities penetrate into the mud. These are the roots of the tree, which always shoot out in this arched form, often taking a regular curve of six feet in length before they dip into the mud. The larger ones send out side-shoots, which take the same curved form at right angles; and thus, by the crossing of the roots of neighbouring trees, and of the subordinate roots of each, a complex array of arches is produced, on which one may 13 196 BERMUDA. securely walk for several yards, about eighteen inches above the mud, or above the surface of the water when the tide is in. The average thickness of these natural bows is about an inch, and if stretched straight, they would hardly support the weight of a man; but their vaulted form greatly increases their strength, and though they frequently swerve a little under the foot, I never knew one to break. There seems to be a continual encroachment of the land upon the sea in certain parts of Hamilton Harbour by the agency of this tree. The mangrove, growing irregularly, projects its sombre shrubberies into the sea in capes and points, inclosing little bays, which, by the gradual growth of the encircling points, by and by become lagoons, or shallow salt lakes. On the sheltered expanse of these beautiful but treacherous lakes, the seeds of the surrounding groves begin to root, and presently we see rising here and there rounded clumps of mangroves, like little wooded islets spotting its broad bosom. These continually increase in extent, approach each other, and, in the course of years, unite into a continuous grove. Occasional Visitants—The unbroken silence and sheltered retirement of these lagoons offer tempta- NATURAL HISTORY. 197 tions to aquatic fowl, of which they are not slow to avail themselves. The shallowness of the water, which often does not exceed eight or ten inches in depth, the abundance of marine animals that inhabit the mud, and the facilities for roosting presented by the arching roots and spreading branches every- where around, enable these birds to pass their short sojourn here in security. Among the autumnal and winter visitants may be seen the Virginian rail (Rallus Virginianus), slowly running over the vaulted roots, or hurrying through the shallow water from the shelter of one clump to another, or wading about, picking up the small crabs on which it habitually feeds. Many of the little gambets and sandpipers (Tringe and Totani) also run about here; and, occasionally, that very curious bird, the hooded merganser (Mergus cucullatus), and many of the Ardeada@, from the American bittern and the elegant egrets, to the great blue heron (Ardea Herodeus), and the great American white egret (Ardea egretta), with its sweeping plumes of snowy whiteness, are commonly to be found here. One of these, the black-crowned night heron, or Qua bird (Ardea nycticorax), is peculiarly characteristic of these sombre solitudes; for though its jealous wariness precludes it from being’ often seen, its hoarse voice, 13—2 198 BERMUDA. long, sudden, and startling, not unfrequently surprises the traveller as he passes near their obscure depths. Entomology.—Among the riches of the Bermudan entomology, I have noticed, among the species of butterflies, the Pieris brassice, the great garden white butterfly, &c. The Argynnis Paphia, the Heliconia, and the Nymphalis, are common enough at all times, and in almost all situations. Others are abundant at a particular season or locality; but, in general, butterflies are to be obtained only occasionally. -The insects belonging to the genus Diurna (or butterflies), and among the first family of the Lepidopterous order, are possessed of four wings, which are gene- rally covered with microscopic scales, frequently exhibiting the most beautiful colours. The larve are provided with feet and a distinct head; the mouth of the perfect insect is a long spiral proboscis. The butterflies, so conspicuous for their beauty, are well-known representatives of this order, and the usual forms of these insects in the larva, pupa, and imago state are familiar to all. To the second family of the Lepidoptera belong the Crepuscularia. They mostly fly either in the morning or evening (twilight). This family com- poses the genus Sphinx. They make a humming noise during flight. The Sphina (or the hawk-moths) NATURAL HISTORY. 199 are a genus distinguished by the antenne or horns tapering at each end, which are generally short in proportion to the animal 5 and are also remarkable from the thickness of their bodies, which mostly ter- minate in a point. The species are numerous and of very large size ; one of the largest and most common is the death’s- head moth (Sphinx atropus, belonging to the sub- genus Acherontia), remarkable for the skull-like patch on the back of the thorax, and for the squeak- ing kind of noise it emits. The caterpillar is of a very large size, and feeds on potatoes, jasmine, &c. The third (and last) family of the Lepidoptera, the Nocturina, presents to us ordinarily the wings bridled in repose by a bristle or bunch of hairs arising at the base of the outer edge of the lower pair, and passing through a ring on the under side of the upper. The wings are horizontal or deflexed, and sometimes rolled round the body. The antenne gradually diminish to the tips, or are setaceous. This family is composed, in the Linnean system, of the single genus Phalona, or moths. These insects in general fly only during the night or after sunset; many are destitute of a proboscis ; some females are destitute of wings, or have only very small ones. 200 BERMUDA. The classification of this family is exceedingly embarrassing, and our systems are yet but imperfect sketches. The great swift or ghost moth (Hepialus humuli) is a very common insect; the male, with silvery white wings, and the female, buff with reddish marks. In the summer season, and more particularly on rainy nights, that section of nocturnal Lepidoptera, Noctualites, the Pyralis, the Phalonites, also that of the Tineites, &c., fly in at the open windows in great numbers, and speckle the ceiling or flutter around the glass shades with which the candles are protected from the draughts. A great number of small beetles and other insects also fly in on such occasions ; and several interesting species may then be met with. But in general beetles and the other orders are extremely scarce, and especially Diptera. During the month of August the shrubs and trees that border the roads are alive with insects of all orders, but particularly Coleoptera. Many species of Longi- cornes, Cassidariz (or tortoise beetles), Chrysomelius, Coccinella (or lady-birds), &c. occur by hundreds on the twigs and leaves; and the air is alive with butter- flies, Hymenoptera, and Diptera. Throughout the summer months, in the hottest part of the day, the “chanteuses,” or singers, produce a monotonous and noisy kind of music. These NATURAL HISTORY. 201 “ chanteuses,” which are a species of Cidarie, com- prise the Cicade masinifere. The cicade are found upon trees or shrubs, of which they suck the sap. The female pierces the small twigs of dead branches of trees as far as the pith with her ovipositor—which is lodged in a semitubular sheath, formed of two valves, and composed of three scaly pieces of a narrow and elongated form, two of which are terminated like a file—in order to deposit her eggs therein; the number of which being great, the female makes a succession of slits, the place of which is indicated by so many elevations on the exterior. The young larve quit their birthplace, however, in order to descend into the ground, where they increase in size and become pupx. Their fore- legs are short, the fore-thighs being very strong and armed with teeth, fitted for burrowing in the earth. The Greeks devoured the pupee—which they called tettigometre—as well as the perfect insect. Before coupling the males were preferred, but afterwards the females were selected, being filled with eggs. The male insect is the musician. The organs of sound are placed at each side of the base of the abdomen, internal, and covered by a cartilaginous plate, like a shutter, which is an appendage of the under side of the metathorax. The cavity which encloses these 202 BERMUDA. instruments is divided into two partitions by a scaly and triangular edge, seen from the under side of the body ; each cell exhibits anteriorly a white and folded membrane, and in the hollow part a stretched-out, slender membrane, which Réaumur calls the mirrors. If this part of the body be opened from above on each side, there is seen another folded membrane, which is moved by a very powerful muscle, composed of a great number of straight and parallel fibres, extend- ing from the scaly ridge; this membrane is the timbale. The rouscles, by contracting and relaxing with quickness, act upon the timbales, stretching them out or bringing them into their natural state, whereby the sounds are produced, which, even after the death of the animal, may be repeated by moving the parts over each other in the manner they act whilst | alive. The Cicada Ormi, by puncturing the elm, causes it to discharge the saccharine fluid which has been termed manna. All the homopterous hemiptera section feed only upon the fluids of vegetables; the females have a scaly ovipositor generally composed of three denticu- lated plates, and lodged in a scabbard of two valves. They use this instrument as a saw, to make notches in vegetables, in order to deposit their eggs. Cuvier divides this section into three families—Cicadaria, w NATURAL HISTORY. 203 Aphidii, and Gallinsecta—the former of which (Cica- dariz) we have already discussed. The Aphidit, commonly called plant-lice, are dis- tinguished from the preceding by having only two points in the tarsi, and the antenne filiform, or like a thread, and longer than the head, composed of from six to eleven joints. The winged individuals have always two wing- covers and two wings. These are very small insects, having the body generally soft and the wing-covers very similar to wings, differing only in being larger and somewhat thicker. They multiply with exceed- ing rapidity. The third family of the homopterous hemiptera, the Gallinsecta, have only a single joint in the tarsi, with a single hook at the tip. The male is destitute of a proboscis, has only two wings, which shut hori- zontally upon the body; the abdomen is terminated by two threads. The female is without wings and furnished with a proboscis. The antenne are fili- form or threadlike, and often eleven-jointed. These insects compose the genus Coccus (or scale insects). The bark of many of our trees appears often warty, by reason of a great number of small oval or rounded bodies, like a shield or a scale, which are fixed to them, and in which no external traces of the insect 204 BERMUDA. are to be observed. They nevertheless belong to this class of animals, and to the genus Coceus. The Cocci appear to injure the trees in causing by their punctures a too abundant overflowing of the sap. Hence they require the attention of those persons who cultivate peaches, oranges, figs, and olives. Some species attack the roots of plants, some are precious on account of the splendid scarlet colour they furnish for the dyer. Further researches on these insects might detect others equally useful in this respect. The female of Coccus cacti (the cochineal insect of commerce) is of a dark brown colour, covered with a white down, flat beneath, convex above, margined, with the segments rather distinct, but becoming obliterated at the period of oviposition. The male is of a dark red, with white wings. It is cultivated in Mexico upon a species of cactus or opuntia, and is distinguished by the name of Mestique, or fine cochi- neal, from another closely allied species, smaller and more cottony, called the wild cochineal. It is cele- brated for the crimson dye that it produces; it also furnishes carmine. This production is one of the chief riches of Mexico. Coccus Polonicus (or the scarlet grain of Poland) was also employed in that country as a considerable NATURAL HISTORY. 205 object of commerce, before the introduction of the Coccus cacti as a dye. It lives upon the roots of Scler- anthus perennis, and some other plants. The colour produced from this species is almost equal to that of the Coccus cacti. A species from the East Indies pro- duces gum lac, and another is employed in China for the manufacture of wax tapers. Insect changes.—The metamorphoses of the insect race offer very curious and wonderful natural pheno- mena for contemplation. “We see,” says an old author, “some of these creatures crawl for a time as helpless worms upon the earth, like ourselves; they then retire into a covering, which answers the end of a coffin or a sepulchre, wherein they are invisibly transformed, and come forth in glorious array, with wings and painted plumes, more like the inhabitants of the heavens than such worms as they were in their former state. This transformation is so striking and pleasant an emblem of the present, intermediate, and glorified states of man, that people of the most remote antiquity, when they buried their dead, embalmed and enclosed them in an artificial covering, so figured and painted as to resemble the caterpillar in the in- termediate state; and as Joseph was the first we read of that was embalmed in Egypt—where this custom prevailed—it was probably of Hebrew origin.” 206 BERMUDA. We may easily perceive in the caterpillar a faint and imperfect symbol of the metamorphosis awaiting our own frail bodies, with the many intermediate degrees of corporeal and spiritual perfection, result- ing in one universal chain of being. Among the Apterous insects we shall notice the jigger (Pulea penetrans). Its beak is of the length of its body; it introduces itself under the nails of the feet and hands, and the skin of the heel particularly ; other parts of the feet and hands are also attacked by this insect, but not so frequently as the before-men- tioned parts. No vigilance can prevent the attacks of the jigger ; even the stockings and shoes of Europeans are not proof against the insidious assaults of this tiny flea; the very cleanest persons of the highest rank in society are obliged to have their feet examined regularly. The presence of a jigger beneath the skin, during the process of its gradual increase, com- monly produces a titillation, rather pleasing than pain- ful; but as no pain is felt till the sore is produced, the extreme laziness of the lower order of the blacks fre- quently makes them neglect the precaution of extract- ing them, till all kinds of dirt getting into the wound increases the difficulty of a cure, and sometimes the consequence is lameness for life. The blacks, from mutual practice on each other, NATURAL HISTORY. 207 are quick at discovering, and skilful in extracting them. The operator begins with a short needle to open and widen the minute orifice in the cuticle, between which and the cutis vera (true skin) the swollen body of the pregnant female has taken its place; slowly and cautiously the depredator is ex- posed, until at length he removes the insect uninjured, without giving any pain, or drawing the least drop of blood. The great danger to be guarded against is the rupture of the delicate skin of the jigger’s abdomen, stretched and attenuated as it is by the great increase of its contents; if this should occur, the nits would escape into the wound, and produce a dreadful ulcer ; such, however, is the skill of the sable practitioners, that it very rarely occurs. After the operation, a little grease and the ash of tobacco is rubbed into the empty cavity. There are two species of jigger, the white, and the green or poison jigger, both of which are very numerous and annoying, Among the numerous family of the Coleoptera we have a species of the genus Anobium. Anobium pertinaxz is of uniform brownish-black colour, and is very common in our houses. The two sexes in the season of love have the habit of calling one another by beating with the mandibles upon the 208 BERMUDA. wood-work on which they are stationed, for a suc- cession of times, mutually answering each other. This noise, similar to the accelerated beating of a watch, has occasioned their receiving the vulgar name of death-watch. We find among the family of the Orthoptera, a species of the genus Forjicula—the earwigs—Forfi- cula auricularia; the body is elongated, ferruginous brown, shining, with a reddish head; the female guards her eggs with much care, as well as her young, for a considerable time. Also, the well-known genus Blatte, or cockroaches. Two species of the genus are very commonly known here: 1st, the Blatta orientalis—the body of which is of a deep brown colour, of a soft texture, head small, almost triangular, elytra and wings alittle longer than the body; has six legs, feet spinous; it sheds its skin once a year, when it obtains wings, but does not make much use of them. 2nd, the Blatta occidentalis is a larger species of cockroach; it is termed hard- back ; a very disgusting looking animal. The animals belonging to the class Arachnides (or spiders) differ from the Crustacea, in having their respiratory organs always in the interior of the body ; and also, from the insects in not undergoing a metamorphosis. Some live on land, others in the NATURAL HISTORY. 209 water, and a third group are parasitical, and live on different animals. The terrestrial species are in general solitary ani- mals, and of a forbidding aspect; many of them shunning the light, and living in concealment. Several of these are poisonous, and their bite dangerous. Many have mandibles, which exercise the office of a sucker, and others have an isolated sucker, often, however, joined with mandibles and palpi. The genus Scorpio (scorpions) furnishes a species known in these islands as the Scorpio afer. The body is blackish, with the joints of the feet and antenne white. It grows sometimes to the length of four or five inches, but when they breed in houses they do not then attain above half the size before mentioned. Among the species termed, by Latreille, sedentary spiders, we shall notice the silk spider (Tetragnatha extensa). The body is of a light brown colour, with diagonal stripes of green, its fore feet of a yellowish colour. It is about two inches in length. Its legs are very long and slender, the first pair longest, then the second, and afterwards the fourth. It spins a large silky web of very firm texture, equal, if not superior, to that of the silk-worm, but which is put to no manner of use in Bermuda. This species is common in our woods. They make their webs with 210 BERMUDA. regular meshes, arranged in concentric circles, crossed by straight radii extending from the circumference, and meeting in the centre, where the insects remain stationary and in a reverse position. They have the external spinnerets nearly conical. The jaws are straight, and perceptibly wider towards their upper extremity.* . * Appendix E. 211 CHAPTER XIV. SHELLS. Crustacea—Cancer Pagurus—Gelasimus vocans—Genus Maia— Genus Calapa—Genus Ranina—Mollusca (or Shells) — Cir- culation—Organs of respiration—Form of the body in the Mollusca—The nervous system, &c.—Octopus cephalopoda— Sepiaria—Pteropoda—Gasteropoda—Pulmonea — Testacella— Vitrina—Helix—Pupa —Clausilia—Bulimus—A chatina—Suc- cinea—Aquatic pulmonea—Genus Limneus—Genus Physe— Genus Auricula—Nudibranchiata— Genus Tritonia—Infero- branchiata—Genus Ancylus—Rectibranchiata—Bullesa—Hete- ropoda—Genus Carinaria — Pectinibranchiata—Trochoides — Trochus zizyphinus—T, cinerarius—T. maculata—T. jujubinus —Genus Turbo (or Periwinkles)—Turbo littoreus—T. chry- sostomus—T. pica—Genus Phasianella—P. Rubeus—Genus Nerita—N. peloronta (or bleeding tooth) —N. versicolor— Capuloides — Genus Crepidula — C. onyx — Buccinoides — Genus Conus—Genus Cyprea (Cowries) —C. rediculus —C. coccinella—Genus Colombella—C. mercatoria — Genus Buccinum (the Whelks)— B. undatum — B..lunatum — B. reticulatum—Genus purpura—P. patulata—P. lapillus—Genus Cassis—C. rufa—c. testiculus—C. flamnea—Genus Strombus— 8. gallus —Tubulibranchiata— Genus Vermetus— Genus Ma- gilus—Scutibranchiata—Genus Fissurella—F. Graca—Genus Emarginula—E. Fissura—Cyclobranchiata—Genus patella (or Limpets)—P. pellucida—Genus Chiton—C. marginatus—Ace- phala—A. testacea—Genus Ostrea (the Oyster)—O. folium— O. crista galli—O. parasitica—Genus Pecten—P. concentricus 14 212 BERMUDA. (or Scallop)—Genus Arca—Arcacee (or Ark Shells)—Arca Nox—A. barbata—Genus Lima—Lima glacialis—Mytilacee— Genus Mytilus—Mytilus exustus—M. elongatus—Carnacea— Genus Chama—Chama, arcinella—Cardiacea—Genus Cardium (the Cockles)—Cardium levigatum—C. unedo—C. cardissa— Genus Tellina—T. radiata—T. depressa—T. tenuis— Genus Venus—Venus gemma— V. granulata—V. plicata — Genus Cytherea—C. tigerina—C. castrensis—Genus cyclas—C. cornea —Mye—Genus Mya—M. arenaria—M. truncata—Genus Ana- tina—Mya globulosa—Genus Solen — Solen endis — Genus Teredo—T. navalis—Acephala nuda—A. Segregata—Genus Ascidia—A. rustica—A. lobifera—A. Aggregata—Genus Pyro- soma—P. Atlanticum—Brachiopodes—Cirrhopodes— Genus Anatifa—Lepas anatifera—Genus balanus (or Acorn Shells)— Balanus tintinnabulum. Crustacea (or Crabs.)—The Crustacea are generally catnivorous, feeding on dead or decomposed animal matters. Some are constantly fixed on cetaceous animals, aquatic reptiles, and fishes. The greater portion live in the sea, at different depths, and in localities proper to their various habits; others are found in fresh water, or on land. Those which have fin-like feet swim on their side or back, and the greater part of the others walk sideways or back- wards; some run with extreme rapidity, and others are constructed for climbing trees. Many species afford an agreeable food, and are taken for this pur- pose in numbers, or for bait. The members of the Crustacea, when injured or disabled, are speedily reproduced, and they change their crustaceous covering annually. SHELLS. 213 The single genus Cancer (according to Cuvier) comprising the numerous species of crabs, is divided into sections. Of these, the majority have the legs attached at the sides of the breast, and always exposed. The species thus characterized constitute the first five sections—Pinnipedes, Arcuata, Quadri- latera, Orbiculata, and Trigona. Amongst the first section (Pinnipedes), we may especially mention a species of swimming crab (Lupa forceps). It is very active and fierce, extending its open claws in a threatening manner when danger is near; but if allowed to escape by swimming, it does so rapidly, bending up the claw of the side which happens to be foremost, and allowing the other to stretch out behind. Probably this is the arrangement in which these unwieldy members offer least resist- ance to the water in progression. In the second section (Arcuata), we find the com- mon edible crab (Cancer pagurus) of Bermuda. During the summer months it is very abundant in our bays. The carapax is granulated, and arched along the sides, with nine folds on each side, and the middle in front, with three short teeth. The third section (Quadrilatera) have the carapax almost square, sometimes heart-shaped, widened and rounded at the anterior angles, and truncated trans- 14—a 214 BERMUDA. versely at the posterior extremity; front advanced, .and more or less inclined; none of the feet termi- nated by a fin. In this section we find the genus Gelasimus—the typical species is the calling crab (Gelasimus vocans). This. species of land-crab has the carapax smooth, entire, sinuous anteriorly, and nearly quadrilateral, but rather broader in front; right claw generally larger than the left, the fingers of the smaller claw being spoon-shaped ; colour, soiled brown above, with a bluish-green mark on the anterior part of the shell. This species burrows oblique and very deep holes in our marshes near the seashore with its large claw ; in its movements, which are very rapid, it holds up the large claw in front of the body, upon the slightest alarm, and extends the fingers in a menacing attitude, This bold demeanour has doubtless given rise to the name of Soldier crab. It has also obtained the name of calling crab, from its habit of holding up the large claw in front of the body, as though beckon- ing to some one. The fourth section (Orbiculata) have the carapax somewhat.orbicular, or ovoid, and always very solid. To this section belongs the genus Leucosia. The animal which forms the type of this genus is the Leucosia braniolaris: shell smooth above, depressed SHELLS. 215 on each side before, with the anterior margin crene- lated, front slightly advanced, tridentate, arms warty> length five inches. The fifth section (Trigona) have the carapax gene- rally triangular or subovoid, with the anterior extre- mity narrowed and pointed, ordinarily very rough and uneven, with the eyes lateral; claws often larger in the males than in the females. Many of these crabs are commonly called Sea Spiders. In this section we find the genus Maia. The animals of this genus live on rocky or muddy shores around Bermuda, and conceal themselves among fluci. The type of this genus is the Maia squinado. Another species common to Bermuda is the Hyas araneus, belonging to the genus Hyas. The sixth section comprise the Cryptopoda. A few species of the animals of this section withdraw their feet within the vaulted margin of the shell when at rest, with the exception of the large claws. Belonging to this section we find the genus Calapa. Of this genus we find only one representative around our shores—the Calapa granulata. The seventh and last section—the Notopoda—is formed of crabs having the two or four posterior feet inserted on the back, or above the line of the others. In the Notopada we find the genus Ranina , 216 BERMUDA. The animals of this genus differ from all other Brachynra, in having the abdomen extended; and from the other Notopoda, in having the six inter- mediate legs terminated by oval plates or fins. Shell, wedge-shaped, or oblong; truncated anteriorly. The typical species most common around our shores is the Ranina serrata. Mottvsca (or Shells)—The mollusca, or shells and shell-fish, as they are usually called, although several have no shells or calcareous coverings, pre- sent many objects of interest to the naturalist, and are not unimportant in their various uses to man. As the great vertebrate division includes the four distinct classes of beasts, birds, reptiles, and fishes, so does the great division of mollusca contain six classes, distinguished by characters which I shall presently enumerate. It has been observed, as a distinction between the vertebral and the invertebral animals, that while in the former the bones or hard parts are more or less formed of phosphate of lime, the hard parts of the latter, such as the shells of the mollusca and crus- tacea, and the stony matter of corals and madre- pores, are chiefly composed of carbonate of lime. The Mollusca present every kind of mastication and deglutition ; their stomachs are sometimes simple, SHELLS. 217 sometimes multiplicate, often furnished with peculiar armatures, and their intestines are variously elon- gated. They have, in general, salivary glands, and always a liver of considerable size, but no pancreas or mesentery; several have secretions which are peculiar to them. The food of the mollusca consists of almost all sorts of substances, animal and vegetable—in all states, living or dead, fresh or putrid; but each species is in general confined to a certain kind. All the senses common to the higher animals are found in the mollusca, though some are, doubtless, wanting in the humble classes of the division. In the Cephalopoda, the organs of sight and hearing ~ are distinct and well-developed; and Professor Owen is of opinion that the Nautilus, an animal of this class, possesses an organ of “ passive smell.” The Gasteropoda are almost invariably furnished with eyes; and, according to M. Siebold and other zodlogists, have ears—a pair of round capsules, placed near the bases of the tentacles, and enclosing one or more crystalline globules, called otolites. Some of the Conchifera are furnished with numerous eyes placed among the tentacles, examples of which are found in the claws and scallops (Pecten) of our own shores. . 218 BERMUDA. The circulation is complete in the mollusca. The heart is situated, in general, in the back, above the intestinal canal. It is not contained in a true peri- cardium, but in a muscular cell of the imperfect diaphragm which separates the visceral cavity from the branchia. The organs of respiration vary considerably, not only with respect to their form and the place which they occupy in the animal, but also with respect to structure. The form of the body in the mollusca is extremely various. It is frequently oval, more or less elon- gated, convex above and flat beneath, as in the genera Doris, Limaz, &c. It is also sometimes oval, and equally convex above and below, as in the Sepie; elongated and cylindrical, as in certain Loligines; globular, as in the Octopodes. It is often more or less compressed on the sides, as in the Scyllee. In very many cases a large portion of the body is rolled up in a spiral form. A considerable number of these animals present a very distinct separation between the head and the rest of the body, as in the Octopodes; this distinction is some- times much less marked, as in the genus Doris. The distinction of neck,. breast, abdomen, and tail is still less obvious, the body forming only a simple mass. SHELLS. 219 The nervous system consists of a central part or brain, situated above the intestinal canal; of ganglia for the different organs of sense, as well as for the locomotive apparatus; of a few visceral ganglia, together with conducting filaments or nerves. To the first class of Mollusca belongs the Cepha- lopoda (or head-footed). The fleshy, flexible feet are instruments of locomotion, the animal being enabled to crawl awkwardly upon this circle of feet head downwards. But their chief use to the animal is as organs for seizing and holding prey, and for this purpose they are eminently qualified. Each arm is furnished with a double row of sucking disks, each of which, on being applied to any surface, adheres to it at the will of the animal with immense force, so that it is easier to tear away the substance of the limb while the creature maintains its hold, than to release it from its attachment; and even after death the suckers continue to retain a consider- able power of adhesion. The skin of these animals, particularly of the Octopus, changes colour, in patches and in spots, with a rapidity greatly superior to that of the chameleon. These animals are voracious and savage; and as they are agile, and are furnished with numerous 220 BERMUDA. organs for seizing their prey, they destroy many fishes and crustaceans. The animals of this order, which are found around the shores of Bermuda, naturally arrange themselves under three divisions, which are as follows :— 1. Naked Cephalopoda; no shell, either internal or external. 2. Monothalamous testaceous Cepha- lopoda: the shell unilocular, entirely external. 3. Polythalamous testaceous Cephalopoda: the shell multilocular, subinternal. I. Cephalopoda Sepiaria :— The Sepiaria are marine animals, some of which creep along the bottom, and others swim at large. They are all destitute of shell. In the first division we meet with the two following genera around our shores :— 1. Genus Octopus (the Polypes).—Body fleshy, obtuse beneath, and contained in a sac, which is destitute of wings; no internal dorsal bone, or only a very small one; mouth terminal, surrounded with eight simple, elongated arms, furnished with sessile cups. The only species known here is the Octopus octopodia. Body rounded, smooth, mantle con- nected with the head behind; suckers sessile, in a single row; arms six times as long as the body. SHELLS. 221 2. Genus Loligo.—The species known here is the Loligo punctata. The body is generally lengthened, more or less flattened, with the skin dilated on each side, so as to form a pair of wings or fins. Its usual mode of swimming is by dilating its body and filling it with water. The body is then suddenly contracted, and the water forcibly ejected, so as to propel it backward with great rapidity, shooting like an arrow through the water. The animals comprising this genus have been celebrated from the earliest times for their singular property of surrounding themselves with an inky fluid, with which they envelop themselves to evade pursuit. They are carnivorous, destroying many fish and crabs. II. Cephalepoda monothalama :— This division contains only one genus, viz. Argo- nauta; but we have seen no species to represent it. III. Cephalopoda polythalama :— The greater portion of the shells of this division are fossils, and many of them very minute. Only one species is known here of the genus Spirula, viz., Spirula peronii: shell white, fragile, about a quarter of an inch in diameter, with two or three spiral turns, which do not touch each other. The place of the partitions of the chambers within 222 BERMUDA. are exhibited by circular grooves in the shell. The beautiful little shell belonging to this species is occasionally picked up along our shores after heavy storms. To the second class of Mollusca belong the Ptero- poda. This is a very small class, comprising a few species of curious structure. They swim, like the Cephalopoda, in the sea, but cannot fix themselves there, nor creep, from want of feet. They are all characterized by having a membranous expansion, resembling a large fin, on each side of the head. Some genera only are furnished with a thin, cartila- ginous, or horny shell. The only genus known here is the Limacine, which is represented by a single species—Lunacina helicialis. Its body is terminated with a spiral tail, and is lodged in a very thin shell, of one whorl and a half. The shell serves the purpose of a boat; and when the creature wishes to swim on the surface, it uses its fins as oars. To the third class of Mollusca belong the Gastero- poda, Cuvier has given the name of Gasteropoda to all the animals of this class which have a foot or muscular disk proper for crawling, whether this foot extends the whole length of the lower surface of the body, or adheres only to the base of the neck. The SHELLS. 223 Gasteropoda constitute a very numerous class, of which the slug and the snail give a good general idea. Some species of this class—few as compared with the great body—are naked, but the majority are protected by a shell, in some cases very thin, brittle, and glassy, in others somewhat horny, but more generally of a stony texture, and of great solidity and hardness. The upper surface of the body of this class of animal is covered with a fleshy cloak, the edges of which usually project in a greater or less degree, overlapping the foot-disk and other organs. This is called the mantle, or cloak. These shells are secreted by the mantle, which in one family—that of the Chitons—consists of several pieces; but in general it is simple, and takes the form of a hollow bone, produced in various degrees. In the limpets, which we see adhering abundantly to our sea-side rocks, the cone is low and nearly sym- metrical; but in the great majority of this class the bone is greatly lengthened and twisted upon itself, so as to form a spire. The species of Gasteropoda are very numerous around Bermuda, among which we shall briefly enumerate a few of the most interesting. We will follow Cuvier in his division of the class into the 224 BERMUDA. following orders—the characters of which he has drawn from the position and the form of the branchiz. I. The Pulmonea.—These animals breathe the atmosphere, receiving the air within a cavity, whose narrow orifice they can open and close at will: they are hermaphroditical, with reciprocal copulation; some have no shell, others carry one, which is often truly turbinate, but never furnished with an oper- culum. Many of the species inhabit fresh waters; but the greater number are denizens of the land— requiring, however, a damp atmosphere to preserve them in health and vigour. The aquatic species form, notwithstanding the element in which they live, no exception to the leading character of the order ; they also breathe air, which they obtain by coming periodically to the surface. Those of them which have no apparent shell, form 1. The genus Limaz of Linnzus, or slugs, as they are more commonly known. The species known here is the Limazx cinereus ; they are very voracious, and destroy kitchen vegetables and ripe fruits in field or garden, wherever they are found. 2. The Testacella—These animals resemble the slugs in all respects, with the exception of the shell, which is earshaped, and placed at the posterior extremity of the body. One species is found here, SHELLS. 225 living under ground, and feeding principally on earth-worms ; viz. the Testacella haliotidea. 3. Vitrina: species Vitrina pellucida—shell minute, earshaped, slightly spiral at its summit; aperture large. When the aperture of the shell assumes a crescent-like figure, and the lunated aperature is wider than it is deep, the shells belong to Helix. In some, the shell is globular. 4. Heliz—Shell globular, spiral, varying very much in its form, and receiving the body more or less completely. The species observed here are not very numerous. Helix concava and H. hortensis are commonly observed. The great majority of the species deposit a number of eggs glued together into a mass, and concealed under rubbish, the bark of decaying trees, dead leaves, or moss, or beneath the surface of the ground. 5. Pupa.—The species are very small, living in moist situations, amongst mosses, &c. One species is very common here, the Pupa chrysalis; they derive their name from the resemblance of the shell in shape to the pupa or chrysalis of an insect. The animal resembles the Helix. 6. Clausilia.—Clausilia papillaris is a type of the genus, resembling the Helix in shape, but more slender. 296 BERMUDA. 7. Bulimus.—These animals are terrestrial, and some of them are remarkable for the size and stony hardness of their eggs. This genus is numerous in species, and may be represented by Bulimus lubricus. 8. Achatina—We have a species, the Achatina columaria, one of the most remarkable of land shells; it is reversed, and the columella forms a winding pillar, visible within, quite to the summit of the spire. A small species found in the South Sea Islands is strung by the natives, and used for an ornament. 9. Succineaa—We have a species which we shall call Succinea Bermudiensis. Shell, ovate-oblong, very thin, pellucid, yellowish; spire short; aperture dilated. . The Aquatic Pulmonea have only two tentacula; they come ever and anon to the surface to breathe, so that they can only inhabit waters of inconsiderable depth; thus they live in fresh waters or brackish pools. . 1. Genus Limneus (the fresh-water snails)—The species observed here is the Limnza auricularia. 2. Genus Physe.—These animals are most fre- quently found on the under side of the leaves of aquatic plants; they have a very singular way of SHELLS. 227 adhering to the surface of the water with the shell downwards, and crawl in that direction with as much apparent ease as on a solid surface, and they will occasionally let themselves down gradually by a thread. This power of crawling under water against its surface is not wholly confined to this and the preceding species. The Physa fontinalis is a representative of the genus. 3. Genus Auricula.—The name is derived from a fancied resemblance to the ears of some animals. They are for the most part covered with an epidermis, but some are often delicately sculptured. One . species is found here, near the sea-shore, Auricula Mide. II. Gasteropoda Nudibranchiata. — These have neither a shell nor a pulmonary cavity, but their branchie, or gills, are exposed naked upon some part of the back. The animals of this order are remark- ably elegant in their forms, which present great variety. Their motions aye graceful and lively, their colours peculiarly brilliant, and their history and economy marked by points of great interest. They often swim in a reversed position, the foot applied against the surface, and made concave like a boat, and they assist their progress by using the edges of the cloak and the tentacula as oars. 15 228 BERMUDA. We know of only one genus representing this order, viz. the Tritonia. The Mollusca which form this genus have the body oval-oblong. The species observed here is the Tritonia arborescens. III. Gasteropoda Inferobranchiata.—These have nearly the habit and organization of the preceding order; but their branchiz, instead of being placed on the back, resemble one or two long series of lamine under the mantle, either surrounding the body, or on the right side only. The species are strictly littoral, being gasteropodous, and incapable of swimming. Genus Ancylus represents this order; the species is the Ancylus rivularis. It is found adhering to stones and aquatic plants in ponds. IV. Gasteropoda Rectibranchiata. —'These have their branchie on the back, a little inclining to the right, composed of laminz more or less divided, but not symmetrical, generally protected by expan- sions of the mantle, in which there is usually a small shell. They are hermaphrodites, like the Nudibranchiata and Pulmonea; and resemble the Pectinibranchiata in the form of the respiratory organs, and, like them, live in the sea. The genus belonging to this order is the Bullea. SHELLS. 229 The shells of this genus are very simple in form; they are all slightly rolled up, without being spiral. The only known species is the Bullza aperta; shell somewhat rounded, pellucid, slightly striated trans- versely, and the aperture very large; it climbs aquatic plants well, but swims badly. V. Gasteropoda Heteropoda.— These are distin- guished from all other Mollusca by their feet, which, instead of forming a horizontal disk, are compressed into vertical muscular lamin, which they use as fins. They swim horizontally, and can inflate the body with water in a manner which is not yet well under- stood. The only representative of this order is the genus Carinaria, and the species observed here is Carinaria cymbium. VI. Gasteropoda Pectinibranchiata.—This order comprises almost all the univalve spiral shells, and many that are simply conical; it is consequently the most numerous in species. Cuvier arranges these Mollusca under several families, from the form of their shells, which appear to be in sufficiently con- stant harmony with those of their respective animals. The first family of Pectinibranchiata,—the Tro- choides—are recognized by their shell, being of a conical form, with the spire more or less elevated, and the base generally flat or concave, rarely convex. : 15—a 230. BERMUDA. The genera are as follows:—1. Trochuside. The species of this genus are the Trochus Zizyphinus, the Trochus cinerarius, the Trochus maculata (spotted Trochus), and the Trochus jujubinus ; which last is remarkable for its peculiar colouring; the upper whorls being blackish, whilst the apex and two last are red or flesh-coloured. Many species are very iridescent at the mouth and under the epidermis. 2. Genus Turbo.—The species of this genus are the Turbo littoreus, or common periwinkle, which is used as an article of food, and is found on the shores in great numbers. The shells are often highly iridescent; and the mouth, in some species, as in the Turbo chrysostomus, is of a deep and beau- tiful golden colour. The Turbo pica is a very hand- some species. 3. Genus Phasianella.—The shells of this genus are smooth, shining, without an, epidermis, and orna- mented with agreeable colours. The Phasianella rubeus is a beautifully coloured species. 4. Genus Nerita.— The Nerite are all marine shells, solid, thick, and agreeably coloured. They are remarkable for their oblique columella, relative to the axis of the shell, which gives the opening a semicircular form. We have a familiar example of the genus in the Nerita peloronta. It is called SHELLS. 231 “bleeding tooth,” from the red appearance of the teeth on the inner lip. We have also another species, Nerita versicolor. Its shell is thick, transversely sulcated, and tesselated with red and dark spots in transverse rows; inner and outer lip toothed, and the latter striated within. The second family of the Pectinibranchiata are the Capuloides. Cuvier divides this family into five genera. All of them have a widely open shell, scarcely turbinate, without an operculum, and with- out emargination or canal. Genus Crepidula is the only representative of this family. The species known here is the Crepidula onyx. This is a curious and often a very beautiful shell, and of the most brilliant colour—black in the inside, with the little half-deck, as it may be called, of a beautiful white, and having the margin of the shell tinged with a rich brown. The third family of the Pectinibranchiata are the Buccinoides. Cuvier groups this family into genera according to the length of the sinus or canal (when it exists), the greater or less width of the aperture, and the various forms of the columella. The following genera belong to the Buccinoides, viz.: 1. Genus Conus, which is the most beautiful, most extensive, and most interesting of the spiral and unilocular univalves. It contains shells remark- 232 BERMUDA. able for the regularity of their form and variety and elegance of their colours, and which are highly prized by collectors. They are all marine. Many species of this genus are marked with the most beau- tiful and extraordinary figures, some of them re- sembling Hebrew, Greek, or Arabic characters, and bearing a most exquisite polish ; in other varieties the colours are arranged in almost endless shapes, being clouded, veined, marbled, dotted, striped, and banded in every kind of form. Many of them are ‘very rare; and the specimen of the Conus gloria maris has been sold for as much as one hundred guineas. The famous Conus cedo nulli, formerly in the cabinet of Lyonnet, at the Hague, is said to have been sold for three hundred guineas. 2. Genus Cyprea (Cowries).—The shells of this genus are distinguished, if not for elegance of form, yet for beauty of colouring and richness of polish. The polish is preserved by the animal, while alive, enveloping the shell in a membraneous fold. The young shell presents the appearance of an olive, having the spire acute, the outer lip sharp, and both lips destitute of teeth. Many of the species, which in their perfect state are spotted, are when young transversely banded. We have found on our shores the Cyprea pediculus and the Cyprea coccinella. SHELLS, 233 When at rest, the Cyprea remains buried under the sand at the bottom of the sea at a short distance from the shore; it occasionally traverses the rocks and coast, and may be found under stones and corals. 3. Genus Colombella.—These are small, short, and in general prettily coloured shells. Colombella mercatoria is the only species of the genus known at Bermuda, 4. Genus Buccinum (Whelks) comprises all the shells furnished with an emargination, or short canal, bent to the left, and whose columella is not plaited. The following species are generally found on our shores—viz. Buccinum undatum, Buccinum lunatum, and Buccinum reticulatum. 5. Genus Purpura.—The species are two: Pur- pura patulata.—It was from the animal of this species that the Roman purple dye was obtained. The shell is ovate, transversely sulcate, tubercular, reddish black; spire, shortish ; aperture, patulous ; columella, reddish yellow; outer lip, white within. The other species—Purpura lapillus—affords also a ‘purple dye. The colouring matter occurs in a vesi- cular reservoir near the stomach. It is no longer used, however, the discovery of cochineal having furnished an abundant supply of equally beautiful and more easily procured colour. 6. Genus Cassts.—The shells of the Cassis rufa 234 BERMUDA. and other species are exquisitely sculptured by Italian artists in imitation of antique cameos, the different strata of colouring matter resembling those of the onyx and other precious stones. Of these, a great variety of ornaments are made; and of late ‘years a considerable trade has been carried on in them on the Continent. We have a species very common in our bays, viz. Cassis testiculus and Cassis flamnea. 7. Genus Strombus.— The Strombi are distin- guished generically from the right lip being much dilated and entire, and by the canal at the base being very short, truncated, or notched. Strombus gallus is an example of the genus. The shell is turbinate, tuberculated, transversely sulcate, variegated with white and red; the last turn crowned above with large compressed tubercles. The tubercles are united by a transverse ridge. Lip thin, extended above into a long lobe. The animals of the Strombus occasionally produce pearls. VII. Gasteropoda Tubulibranchiata.—Cuvier dis- tinguishes these from the Pectinibranchiata, with which, nevertheless, they have many affinities, because their shell, in the shape of a more or less irregular tube, and only spiral at its apex, is permanently fixed to other bodies. _ SHELLS. 235 The genera are as follows:—1. Genus Vermetus, which is represented by the Vermetus lumbricalis. 2. Genus Magilus. The Magilus antiquus is the only species known in Bermuda. The animal esta- blishes itself in the excavations of madrepores; and as the coral increases round it, the Magilus is obliged, in order to have its aperture on a level with the surrounding surface, or near it, to construct a tube, the growth of the coral determining its length. VIII. Gasteropoda Scutibranchiata.—The shells in this order are very open, having no operculum, and the greater number are not in any degree spiral: so that they cover their animals, and particularly the branchiz, in the manner of a shield. The following are the genera belonging to this family :—1. Genus Fissurella have the perforation on the top of the shell, very much resembling a key- hole. This aperture is for the purpose of respiration, as the water thus communicates to the branchial cavity, which is placed, something like that of the Doris, on the forepart of the back. The Fissurella Greca is a familiar example of the genus. 2. Genus Emarginula, the Emarginula fissura being an example. IX. Gasteropoda Cyclobranchiata.—The genera of this order are the following :— (236 BERMUDA. _ 1. Genus Patella.—The Patella (or Limpets) have the body entirely covered with a conical shell. We have an example of the genus in the species Patella pellucida. 2. Genus Chiton.—The Chitons crawl upon their feet or fleshy disks, and are attached to rocks and stones, like the limpets. They are found along our shores at no great depth. They have power of rolling themseves up into a ball, like the woodlouse ‘or hedgehog. Chiton marginatus is an example of the genus. To the fourth class of Mollusca belong the Acephala, The animals of this class are divided by Cuvier into two sections; the-first, which is most numerous, con~ tains all the bivalve and some of the multivalve shells. The other, Acephala nuda, comprises those in which the shell is replaced by a cartilaginous membrane. I. First Order of Acephala: Testacea (or Ace- phales with four branchial leaflets)—The shells of this elass are more or less inequivalve, and open by a hinge. A considerable number of bivalves possess what is called a byssus, that is, a bundle of more or less delicate filaments issuing from the base of the foot, and by means of which the animal fixes itself to foreign bodies. It employs the foot to guide the SHELLS. 237 filaments to the proper place, and to glue them there; and it can reproduce them when they have been cut away; but their true nature is not yet well ascertained. The first family of the Acephala Testacea com- prise the Ostrea, or oysters. As to the testaceous Acephales, known in a living state, Linnzus has united under the genus Ostrea all those which have neither teeth nor transverse lamine in the hinge; the valves being held together by a ligament lodged in a little cavity on both sides. Among the species common to our shores, we may notice the Ostrea folium, the Ostrea erista galli, and the Ostrea parasitica. To this family also belong the following genera, viz. :— 1. Genus Pecten.—The shells of this genus are in general of a depressed form, more or less inequi- valve, always eared, and almost always rayed longi- tudinally by ribs more or less fine. The valves are in general thin, of the same size, the upper one being flattened. The species most usually found in our bays is the Pecten concentricus. This is known under the popular name of scallop, or scallop- shell. 2. Genus Arca.—The Arcacee, or ark-shells, are 238 BERMUDA. distinguished from all the others by their nume- rous teeth, which have the appearance of those of a fine saw, and form a straight or curved continuous line. That handsome species, the Arca Noe, is found ‘here, the shell of which is strongly striated in a longitudinal direction, with the apices incurved and very remote; margin entire and gaping; colour whitish, with diagonal, parallel, zigzag chesnut stripes. The Arca barbata is another species, but smaller than the preceding. 3. Genus Lima.—The shells of this genus are all marine, and almost always white. The Lima glacialis is a species usually seen on our shores. The Lime swim rapidly by flapping their valves. To the second family of the Acephala Testacea belong the Mytilacee. These are commonly known by the name of Mussels. The Genus Mytilus have the shell somewhat triangular. The species known in Bermuda are the Mytilus exustus and Mytilus elongatus. To the third family of the Acephala Testacea belong the Carnacea. According to Cuvier, this family comprises only the genus Chama, the shells of which are generally found at no great depth. They are always seen attached by their larger valve to rocks or corals, or grouped together in various SHELLS. 239 forms. The only species known in Bermuda is the Chama arcinella. The fourth family of the Acephala Testacea com prise the Cardicea, the greater part of which are furnished with longitudinal ribs, and have the shape of a heart when viewed anteriorly. To this family belong the following genera, viz :— 1. Genus Cardium (Cockles).—The species of cockle are numerous on our shores, among which we may notice Cardium laevigatum (the smooth cockle), Cardium unedo, and Cardium cardissa. In the latter species the valves are flattened, but in a contrary manner to the generality of flat bivalves. 2. Genus Tellina.—The Tellinas are all attractive, from their beautiful colour and elegant shape. The species are as follows: Tellina radiata, Tellina de- pressa, and Tellina tenuis. 3. Genus Venus is one of the most beautiful among the conchifera. The following species are some- times found:—Venus gemma, Venus granulata, and Venus plicata. 4. Genus Cytherea.—This genus resembles much the Venus in beauty and colouring, but the fourth cardinal tooth, which is supposed to distinguish it, is sometimes scarcely visible. The species are Cytherea tigerina and Cytherea castrensis. 240 BERMUDA. 5. Genus Cyclas.—The shells of this genus are not larger than a hazel-nut, and some of the species are very thin and transparent, striped transversely with light colours. Cyclas carnea is a familiar species. To the fifth family of the Acephala Testacea, belong the Myce, which comprise the following genera:—1. Genus Mya. These burrow in the sand, and. project a long tube to the surface. The species most common on our shores are the Mya arenaria and M. truncata. ; 2. Genus Anatina.—The shells of this genus are distinguished from the Myz by their having a spoon- shaped tooth in each valve, while the Myz have only one. Mya globulosa is the most common species found near Bermuda. 3. Genus Solen.—The Solen, or razor-fish, has a shell in the form of an elongated cylinder. A few species, more especially the Solen endis, are found on our shores. 4, Genus Teredo.—The Teredines do much injury to the timbers of ships, perforating them in all directions, and rendering them unserviceable. Teredo navalis is a very familiar example of the genus. II. Second Order of the Acephala: Shell-less Acephales (A. nuda).—The animals of this order, SHELLS. 241 according to Cuvier, form a group under the name of Acephala nuda, arranged immediately after the testaceous Acephala. Cuvier divides the order into two families, viz. :— The first family of the Acephala nuda being the Segregata, and embracing the genera whose indi- viduals are isolated and without mutual organic connection, although they often live in societies. Only one genus represents this family, viz. :—Genus Ascidie. The Ascidiz live in the sea, fixed to rocks, shells, or marine plants. The species are Ascidia rustica and Ascidia lobifera. The second family of the Acephala nuda com- prise the Aggregata. These are more or less ana- logous to the Ascidie, but are always united, and constitute a common mass by their union. The Pyrosoma is the only known genus found here belonging to this family. The animals of this genus are gelatinous and transparent, and, placed horizontally in the sea, appear capable of executing slight movements. They are very phosphorescent, . and during the darkness of night often exhibit masses of floating light of the most brilliant and varying colours. A small species is known in our harbours (Pyrosoma Atlanticum), in which the animals are arranged in very regular rings. 242 BERMUDA. The fifth class of Mollusca embrace the Brachio- podes. There are no genera, to our knowledge, which represent this family. The sixth class of the Mollusca comprise the Cirrhopodes. These animals are soft and destitute of head or eyes; they are testaceous, having the body fixed, and provided with a mantle; they have also tentacula, with curled tufts. The arms vary in number and are unequal in size; the shell is either sessile, or elevated on a flexible pedicle, and it is composed of several valves, which are sometimes moveable, sometimes fixed. There are two genera to this family, viz.:— 1. Genus Anatifa.—This genus, as well as the fol- lowing one, is found attached to ships, logs of wood, bottles, corks of nets, fuci, floating testaceous mol- lusca (the Jantha,, for instance), and even to whales, turtles, and serpents. The most numerous species in our seas (Lepas anatifera, Linn.) derives its name from the opinion once seriously entertained, that it was the young of a kind of goose. 2. Genus Balanus (or Acorn Shells).—The shell of the Balani is immovable in all its external parts. It is of a conical shape, sometimes elongated ; and is found adhering to rocks, stones, and marine bodies. SHELLS. 243 Balanus tintinnabulum is an accidental visitor of the Bermudan shores. Its shell is purplish, with the valves irregularly and strongly marked in a longitudinal direction, and the interstices deli- cately striated across their surface. . 16 244 BERMUDA. CHAPTER XY. CORALS. Polypifera— Alcyonium digitatum— Alcyonidium gelatinosum— ’ Alcyonidium echinatum — Asteroida — Fungia, or Sea-mush- rooms — Meandrina cerebriformis, or Brainstone coral—Gor- gonia—Isis hippuris— Gorgonia flabellum (or Sea-fan) — Flabellum Veneris (or Venus’ fan)— Gorgonia anceps — Gorgonia verrucosa—Gorgonia placomus—Gorgonia lepidifera —Actinee (or Sea-anemones)—Holothurie (or Sea-slugs)— Mammalia—Balena mysticetus—Balena nodosa—Reptilia. Corallide (or Corals).—The family of zoéphytes necessarily embraces many corals. They are as interesting as they are important to man, being, during the span of their existence, the original founders of many countries, in which, when nature has clothed them with luxuriant verdure, the human family subsist in affluence and abundance. When we see the profusion of fragrant vegetation and delicious food almost spontaneously produced in these lovely islands, it is startling to reflect that they are almost entirely formed by the cells of deceased ‘ CORALS. 245 polypi, which, rising up in beautiful and delicate forms, displace the mighty ocean, defying its gigantic strength, and displaying a shelly bosom to the expanse of day! The vegetation of the sea, cast on its surface, undergoes a chemical change ; the deposit from rains aids in filling up the little gaping catacombs; the fowls of the air and of the ocean find a resting-place, and assist in clothing the rocks; mosses carpet the surface; *seed brought by birds, plants carried by the oceanic currents, animalcule floating in the atmosphere, live, propa- gate, and die, and are succeeded by more advanced vegetable and animal life. This process continues while generation after generation is passing away; and at length these coral islands bloom out like a paradise, filled with the choicest exotics, most beau- tiful birds, and most delicious fruits—where man may indolently revel to the utmost desire of his heart ! Polypifera (Polypes).— Several species of z00- phytes, or polypes, are found in the water around the smaller islands. The Alcyonium digitatwm (which signifies toes, or claws) is one of the commonest of the polypes, being attached to almost every stone or shell brought up from the bottom of the sea. Sometimes it is very small, but when larger, it is 16—2 246 BERMUDA. named by the fisherman cow’s-padps; and others, which differ a little in form, are called dead-men’s toes, or dead-men’s hands. Alcyonidium Gelatinoeum.—This is found attached to old stones and shells, and is a jelly-like, trans- parent, spongy zodphyte, growing to a height of nearly a foot, sometimes much longer. It is branched, and of a brown colour, dotted with polypes, which are attached to the cells, and through angular openings they protrude their arms or feelers. Alcyonidium Echinatum.—This parasite incrusts dead univalve shells exclusively, and is about one- twentieth of an inch in thickness. When taken out of the water, it is soft and spongy, but becomes rigid on drying. It has little sharp-pointed, spinous, nipple-like protuberances. Asteroida.—The next order of zodphytes that claims our notice is named Asteroida, from the polypes presenting the form of a star on the surface of the fleshy mass in which they reside. Their orga- nization is superior to those previously described ; there being this difference, that instead of the animal domiciling in a hard cell, it exists in a fleshy, tough crust, which is supported by hard, calcareous spicula; and others have thick branching processes, which CORALS. 247 perform the part of the skeleton in the human frame. This central internal support is usually denominated the axis. The fleshy mass, or cover- ing, possesses sensation, and is ramified by various tubes and canals for the sustenance and other vital functions of the polypi. The Asteroida are fre- quently thrown on the sea-shore, and when dried by the sun the skeleton weighs but a few grains. Allied to the Turbinolia and Caryophyllia are the Fungia, or sea-mushrooms. These elegant forms are found in a great variety; the corals are white, of a flattened, round shape, made up of thin plates or scales, around which is a translucent, jelly-like sub- stance, and amidst it a large polype; for, unlike others, they exist as individuals; the lower part is of a strong nature, by which the animal is affixed to the rock whereon it lives. Another very abundant coral around our islands is the Brainstone coral, or Meandrina cerebriformis,— so named from its surface resembling the convolu- tions of the medullary matter in the human brain. It attaches itself by a strong stony secretion to rocks. Gorgonia.—The Gorgonie are found widely diffused around the reefs of Bermuda; they appear to dwell usually in deep water; when observed in shallow water, their colours are richer, deeper, and brighter. 248 BERMUDA. The Gorgoniz are flexible, and seem like plants growing from the rocks to which they are fixed. Some are branching, and covered with lace-like work; others are like a feather or a fan; while some, again, are straight, and some of a drooping form. The stems are flat, angular, or round, and of a dark colour, with an outer crust of a soft substance, full of pores, out of which the polypes thrust themselves. When a dry branch is macerated in mineral acid, a considerable proportion of carbonate of lime is entirely removed, without altering the original size and figure of the branch: this shows the framework to be an irregular close texture of corneous ‘fibres, the interstices of which had been ey filled in part with a gelatinous fluid. Isis hippuris is the type by which this oe is illustrated. It has a jointed stony stem, which rises into many loose branches. The bone or support of the animal consists of white, cylindrical, stony- channelled joints, connected together by black, con- tracted, horny, intermediate ones. The flesh is whitish, plump, and full of minute vessels; the surface of it is full of the little mouths of the cells, which are disposed in a quincunx order, covering the polypes with eight claws. CORALS. 249 There are also the Gorgonia flabellum, sometimes called the Sea-fan, Flabellum Veneris, or Venus’ fan. It grows in the form of a net, with its branches compressed inwardly. The bone is black, horny, and slightly striated on the large branches. We have many other beautiful species; among which, we shall describe the following :— The Gorgonia anceps is branched nearly in a subdivided manner. The bone is roundish, being small at the ends, of a horny nature, somewhat in- clining to leather. The Gorgonia verrucosa is much and irregularly branched, the branches spreading laterally, being cylindrical, flexuous, barked when dry with a white warted crust. The segments of the cells are unequal and obtuse. The Gorgonia placomus has irregular branches, which are disposed in a dichotomous order, of a flattish form, cylindrical, and warty; the cells are protuberant and conical, and are surrounded at the top by little spines. The Gorgonia lepidifera is dichotomous; it is almost covered with mouths, which are placed close toge- ther, hanging over one another. These mouths are bell-shaped, bent downwards, and full of small scales. The flesh is covered with minute whitish scales. There is in the larger branches testaceous sub- stances like bone, and the smaller ones resemble horn. 250 BERMUDA. Around Hamilton Harbour, and the sea-shore generally, we frequently observe the Actiniz, or “‘sea-anemones.” These polypes have the body fleshy, often brilliantly coloured; and the tentacula are arranged in several rows round the mouth, some- what like the petals of a double flower. They are very sensitive, to light, and expand or close their tentacula acccording to the fineness of the day. When the tentacula are retracted, the aperture from which they proceed closes like the mouth of a purse, and the animal appears a simple fleshy tubercle, adhering to the rock. Many Actiniw, when their tentacula are expanded, have as gay an appear- ance as the flowers of almost any plants. Besides the above-mentioned, ‘the Holothuria (sea- slugs) are very numerous, and many of them are splendidly coloured; so that, together with the Radiata, they make the sea-bottom, when seen by the light of an almost vertical sun, look as gay as a tropical garden. A remarkable feature of Bermuda is the paucity of its mammalia—of the wild animals. There are three indigenous species of rats properly so called (Mus, Cuy.) The water-rat is very common (Mus MAMMALIA—REPTILES. 251 amphibius). The fur is blackish gray, slightly mixed with yellow, and lighter beneath; the tail is black. It is a little larger than the common rat, There is also the Arvicola alliarius (Desm.), which is about four inches long; fur, ash-coloured above, white beneath; ears large, almost naked. Lastly, the Arvicola socialis (Desm.), (Mus gregarius, Linn.); fur, pale gray above, white underneath; ears short, broad, almost naked. About 23 inches long; tail, one inch. In the order Cetacea we find the common whale (Balena mysticetus, Linn.) ‘This species seems gra- dually diminishing in number as well as in size. The species most usually captured on our coast is the hunchback (Balena nodosa, Desm.) The flesh of this whale, when properly cooked, is very wholesome for consumptive persons, and is considered a great luxury by the native blacks. We find, then, that the only representatives of the class Mammalia are the rat tribe and the whales among the wild animals. In the class Reptilia (reptiles), we find the order Chelonia (the turtle tribe). This order is represented by the green turtle (Chelonia mydas, Holbrook); and the hawk’s-bill (Chelonia carretta, Holbrook) is more or less brown or rufous. 252 BERMUDA. In the order Sawria we have the lizard tribe. The saurian reptiles are distinguished from the chelonian by the want of a shield and by the presence of teeth. The blue-tailed skink (Scincus nasciatus, Holbrook) and the Scincus ocellatus (Da.) are representatives of this order. The Scincus ocel- latus burrows in the sand so quickly that it is out of sight in an instant, and appears rather to have found a hole than made one. In the class Reptilia, we have had occasion to name but a few genera and species; so barren are these islands in that class of animals which respire by lungs, having red and cold blood, and bodies covered with horny or cartilaginous plates, or with hard scales. 253 , CONCLUDING REMARKS. In the preceding pages I have endeavoured to give an honest and correct general account of the Bermudas, from the period of their settlement to the present time. The original formation of the islands is a matter of doubt, unless, indeed, they may be considered as the remains of the vast conti- nent (Atlantis) which tradition informs us: was, with its immense population, submerged in the ocean, after being shaken for three days by the incessant and hourly increasing concussions of an ‘ earthquake.* ; It may ‘be necessary to notice one great evil existing in Bermuda, which arises from the minute subdivision of land. Modern writers on Political Economy mention the subdivision of landed pro- perty as the principal cause of the poverty and barbarism which have long prevailed in Ireland: the misery proceeding, not from the smallness, but from * This is the recorded tradition of Plato and the ancients. 254 BERMUDA. the uncertainty of the tenure; and the land being so parcelled out, as barely to suffice, even in the growth of potatoes, to sustain the occupier’s family. The poor are then made to outbid one another in the price at which they may obtain possession—the term being so short,-and the rent so high, that the object of the occupier is not to improve the spot, but to procure a miserable existence for the year. In Bermuda, the interest of the occupier in the soil is also limited and precarious; hence, as in Treland, the general discontent of the poorer agri- cultural classes. Improvement is not, therefore, to be expected, until a permanent interest in the soil is afforded to the tenant. Nevertheless, throughout Bermuda there has been remarkable progress in agriculture during the last fifteen years. The following statistics of the culti- vation of the potato, at three distinct periods, go far to prove the fact :— In the year of 1843, the quantity of potatoes raised in Bermuda was 13,436 bushels. Eight years afterwards, namely, in 1851, the growth of the same esculent had increased to 24,946 bushels, or, in other words, had just doubled. Six years later, in 1857, the quantity rose to 97,500 bushels—nearly CONCLUDING REMARKS. 255 four times the production of 1851, and more than seven times that of 1843. We need no further evidence to show what can be accomplished with industry in the culture of but one product—the Trish potato. The remark of a late author, to the effect that the capabilities of this colony cannot be much further developed, is merely the reverse of true. There are hundreds of acres of the finest arable land still lying in a state of barrenness; in fact, there is no reason why the colony should not be raised to a high degree of wealth by infusing into the colonists a better spirit of agricultural enterprise. During the past year we have witnessed the arrival of numerous steam-vessels, from ports to the south of these islands, for the purpose of procuring fuel for the completion of their voyage to Europe. This fact tells strongly in favour of Bermuda as a convenient stopping place for steamers plying between America and Europe. We had hoped that the magnificent project of the Atlantic Electric Telegraph would not have proved a failure: and that the Old World and the New would have been linked ere now in ties of amity and friendship which no future disagreement should 256 BERMUDA. ever interrupt. Three quarters of a century ago, England had sought, by means of the sword, to win back her intractable American colonies; and it was a thing earnestly to be desired, that the peaceful victories of intellect and science might be able to effect, in a far different manner, that which brute strife had failed to accomplish ;—binding free Ame- rica to the mother country in a union closer and more lasting than had ever existed before. We had fondly trusted that this close alliance of Britain and America would be the means of connecting all parts of. the world, and of incalculably hastening the triumphs of Christianity and of civilization. The people of Bermuda still eagerly look forward to this glorious consummation ;—since it is closely con- nected with the future advancement of these islands ; but it remains for them totturn all their resources to account, so as to prove to the foreigner that it is to his own advantage to visit these shores: “ Those leafy islets on the ocean thrown, Like studs of emerald on a silver zone.” It was a lamentable act of the Home Government, when, with the view to perform a laudable deed in favour of free trade, it so seriously compromised the character of great and free England, by inflicting CONCLUDING REMARKS. 257 untold miseries on our sugar colonies, which were just then emerging from a state of bondage into liberty. The inconsistency of abolishing slavery in the British dominions is seen in the importation of slave-grown sugar, and the levelling competition with slave-employing countries, over which the British Parliament has cast its shield. The present Government appears disposed to do something for our colonies; and if our colonists would only put their shoulders to the wheel, forgetting their old grievances and local differences, and looking upon their interests as identical, they might excite the favourable attention of the British Parliament. Were the vor populi universally heard, no Govern- ment could resist it. There is wisdom, benevolence, courage, public spirit enough in England to wipe out the foul blot of free trade, as affecting her colonies, from British legislation. To go about the work in a business-like manner, deputations from each colony should be sent to England, where a regularly organized congress might be held. And there is no doubt but that our amiable Queen would give her royal assent most gladly to any measure which should have for its object to relieve the unprecedented injustice in- 258 BERMUDA. flicted on her loyal and much attached trans-Atlantic subjects. Although sugar is not the staple product of Bermuda, yet free trade, as before noticed, exerts a very baneful influence on the colony. Notwith- standing this, however, there is every reason to believe that with greater advancement in agricul- tural industry, and a more rapid communication established with the United States by means of steam-vessels, the islands may, ere long, be rendered very prosperous. APPENDICES. Appenpix A. Temperature of Bermuda.—Range of the Barometer and Thermometer, Average for Four Years. Barometer. Thermometer. Maximum bil .- 80°480 ... 85°85 Minimum aie wee 29°286 ... 49°00 Mean... ape « 29°858 4... 28°25 Oscillation or range we 11244... 85°05 Apprnpix B. A List of Acts, passed by the Legislature of Bermuda, during the Session which commenced on the 20th day of May, 1858, and ended on the 6th day of October, instant, viz. :-— 1. An Act to continue the Acts to establish Regulations for the performance of Quarantine, and certain other Acts in addition to and amendment thereof—In force to end of 1869. 2. An Act to continue the Act for the Regulation of the 17 260 BERMUDA. Public Gaols, and certain Acts in addition to and Amend- ment thereof.—In force to end of 1869. 3. An Act for raising a Revenue for the support of the Government of these her Majesty’s Islands, and to appro- priate certain Sums to the discharge of the Expenses of Government as therein expressed.—In force to 30th of June, 1859. 4, An Act to continue the Act intituled ‘“ An Act for the safe custody of Insane Persons charged with Offences.”— Indefinite. 5. An Act to continue and amend the Act for the regulation of an Hospital for Insane Paupers, and certain other Acts in addition to and Amendment thereof.—In force to end of 1869. 6. An Act to amend and continue the Acts regulating Prison Labour.—In force to end of 1865. 7. An Act to continue the Act for the summary Punish- ment of common Assaults and Batteries.—Indefinite. 8. An Act to continue and amend the Act for the better regulation of Vestries, Constables, and Churchwardens in these Islands.—In force to end of 1868. 9. An Act to amend the Law relating to the Election of : Members to serve in the General Assembly.—Indefinite. 10. An Act to continue and amend the Act providing an annual Allowance for the Provost-Marshal General.— In force to end of 1863. 11. An Act to continue and amend the Act intituled “ An Act relative to the Conviction of Offenders transported to these Islands from Great Britain, and other parts of his Majesty’s Dominions,” and certain other Acts in amend- ment thereof.—In force to end of 1868. 12. An Act to render transported Convicts liable to APPENDICES. 261 additional Terms of Penal Servitude at the Convict Esta- blishment at these Islands, in cases of Conviction of Offences within these Islands subject to Penal Servitude in the United Kingdom.—Indefinite. 13. An Act further to amend the Acts relating to Post Offices.—In force to end of 1860. 14, An Act regulating the Weight and Sale of Bread. —In force to end of 1860. 15. An Act to amend the Act “ Providing an Allowance for the Maintenance of Persons imprisoned for Debt.”—In force to end of 1860. 16. An Act to aid in the Establishment, and to provide for the Inspection, of Public Schools.—In force to end of 1860. 17. An Act to amend an Act intituled “ An Act to con- tinue the Act to maintain a Light House,” and certain other Acts in amendment thereof.—In force to end of 1868. APPENDIX C. Total Value in Sterling Money of the Imports and Exports of the Colony of Bermuda, from and to each Country in the Year 1857. Imports from Exports to s. d. £ os. d. Unitep Kinepom... 41,026 15 11... 4,728 0 0 British CoLonies :— Halifax... .. 6,144 0 0 656 18 2 Prince EdwardIsland 1,050 18 0 203 0 0 Newfoundland... 28 0 0 «... —_— Demerara ... -. 5,884 7 38 1,170 9 0 Carried forward 54,084 1 2 6,758 7 2 17—2 262 BERMUDA. Imports from Exports to 3s. d. £ & a. Brought forward 54,084 1 2 6,758 7 2 British CoLonies cont. :— Barbados ... 1,682 7 7 1,218 15 7 St. Vincent 13 7 0 831 2 0 Trinidad .. 1,244 8 10 827 5 0 Antigua _ 248 14 11 259 12 11 St. Kitts ... 442 6 0 216 4 0 Turks’ Islands 801 9 2 503 12 1 Nassau — 80 0 0 Fortran Countries :— St. Thomas 690 9 8 765 13 0 Porto Rico 3,304 7 8 1,089 7 0 Cuba wee 1046 7 2 738 9 O Hayti 1,272 7 0 —_— Dutch Guiana 804 2 0 — Brazil 869 14 0 — Oporto 481 8 8 —_ Egypt 426 0 0 .. — United States -» 70,552 12 11... 22,571 10 9 Martinique — 293 0 0 Total ...186,914 8 4 ... 35,102 18 6 Number of Vessels entered Inwards and Outwards, between 1st January and 31st December, 1857. Hamilton St. Georges Total ... Inwarps. Number. Tons. Men. .. 187... 19,997 1,100 83 23,059 1,345 . 220 43,056 2,445 APPENDICES. 263 Ourwarps. Number. Tons, Men. Hamilton aes os 185... 19,148... 935 St. Georges ne 3 -» 82 4... 28,851 ... 1,876 Total ... w. 217... 42,994 1... 2,811 Number of Vessels belonging to the Colony, with Amount of Tonnage and Number of Mariners. Year ending 31st December, 1857. Number. Tons. Men. 33 eae 3,250 ws 240 New vessels ... 4. ... 3387. — Exports of Vegetables,—1857 compared with 1858. Exported in Exported in Produce. 1857. 1858. Decrease. Potatoes (barrels) 87,657 ... 28,960 ... 8,697 Tomatoes (boxes) 13,764 ... 1,993... 11,771 Onions (Ibs.) ... 1,059,179... 575,167... 484,012 Apprennix D. Schedule of Duties payable at the Treasury Office, from Ist July, 1858, to 30th June, 1859, inclusive. Arrowroot, unmanufactured, TOs. per 100 Ibs. Arrowroot starch, 6d. per lb. Wine of all kinds, 20 per cent. on cost. Arrack, alcohol, brandy, gin, whiskey, shrub, cordials, peppermint water, 2s. 6d. per gallon. Rum, 2s. per gallon. 264 BERMUDA. Malt liquor, cider, and perry, on each and every hogshead thereof, not imported in bottles, 15s. ; when imported in bottles called quart bottles, for each and every dozen thereof, 9d. Cigars, per 1000, 8s.; or, at the option of the importer or consignee, on every pound weight thereof, including the weight of the packages, 1s. Tobacco and snuff of all kinds, other than cigars, 2d. per Ib. Oxen and cows, 4s. per head. On all goods imported, except articles subject to specific duties, and those contained in the Table of Exemptions, as follows :—Coal; agricultural implements—ploughs, harrows, scarifiers, rollers, seed drillers, corn shellers, corn mills, hay forks, hay rakes, iron rakes, potato forks, weeding hoes, scythes, reaping hooks, chaff-cutters, pruning knives; spades and shovels; machinery for the manufacture of arrowroot; bullion; books, not reprints of British publications; coin; coals; diamonds; fresh fruit; ice; implements and boats for whaling; manures; specimens of natural history; plants and trees for plant- ing; provisions and stores of every description for the use of her Majesty’s land and sea forces, or for her Majesty’s establishment for convicts transported to these islands, subject to certain conditions; passengers’ bag- gage, apparel, and professional apparatus; the personal household effects of inhabitants of these islands dying abroad, and not intended for sale; shrubs; seeds for planting; fresh vegetables, potatoes, and empty barrels —23 per cent. Goods in the bonded warehouses to be subject to existing duties. APPENDICES. 265 No goods to be warehoused unless the duties amount to 51., or unless intended for ulterior market. No goods to be taken out of warehouse unless the duties amount to 21., &. Personal property sold at auction (property sold under execution for debt or belonging to estate of deceased persons excepted) subject to duty of 25 per cent., less 23 per cent. on such duty to auctioneers, for collecting and paying the same. Parties exporting goods are entitled, on certain conditions, to the whole of the duty paid on the importation thereof, when said goods are of the value of 25/. and upwards. The auctioneers’ bonds expire on the 30th June. Light Duties. 4d. per ton on merchant-vessels. Steam-packets carrying royal mails, and steamers coming to coal, exceeding 600 tons, 3/.; not exceeding 600 tons, 1/. 4s. Store-ships and other vessels wholly employed in her Majesty’s service are exempt from this duty. Apprenpix E. Some species of spiders are known to possess the power of not merely forming a web, but also of spinning, for the protection of their eggs, a bag, somewhat similar in form and substance to the cocoon of the silkworm. At the commencement of the last century, Monsieur Bon discovered, in France, a method of procuring silk 266 BERMUDA. from these spiders’ bags, and its use was attempted in the manufacture of several articles. M. Bon has noticed only two kinds of silk-spiders, and these he has distinguished from each other as having either long or short legs, the last variety producing the finest quality of raw silk. M. Bon asserts that the silk formed by these insects is equally beautiful, strong, and glossy with that formed by the Bombyx. The spider spins minute fibres from fine papill, or small nipples, placed in the hinder part of its body. These papille serve the office of so many wire- drawing irons, to form and mould a viscous liquor, which, after being drawn through them, dries on exposure to the air, and forms the silk. An objection that has been urged by M. Réaumur against the rearing of spiders, was the small quantity, as well as deficient quality of the silk they produce. The advantages of the culture of silk from the silkworm, when compared with its production from spiders, are so prodigious, and at the same time so evident, that to prove the futility of M. Bon’s scheme needs not the aid of exaggeration. In the Mediterranean Sea is found the largest and most remarkable species of Limax—the Pinna, its shell being often found two feet long. In common with the mussel, it has the power of spinning a viscid matter from its body, in the manner of the spider and caterpillar, and of pro- ducing slender filaments, scarcely inferior in fineness and beauty to the single filament of the comparatively minute silkworm. Several beautiful manufactures are wrought with these threads at Palermo. They are in many places the chief object of the fishery, and the silk is found to be excellent. The produce of a considerable number of pinne is required APPENDICES. 267 to make only one pair of stockings. The delicacy of this singular thread is such that a pair of stockings made of it can be easily contained in a snuff-box of ordinary size. Stockings and gloves of this production, however thin, are too warm for common wear, but are esteemed useful in gouty and rheumatic cases. This great warmth of the byssus, like the similar quality in silk, results probably from both being imperfect conductors of heat as well.as electricity. At the close of the thirteenth century, the celebrated traveller Marco Polo gave to the world a narrative of his wanderings, wherein is contained a particular and interest- ing account of Cambalu, the royal city of China. In evidence of the abundance of silk in which it traded,— “No fewer,” he informs us, “than 1,000 carriages and pack-horses, loaded with raw silk, make their daily entry into the city; and silks of various textures are manu- factured to an immense extent.” He describes the whole country of China to be filled with great, rich, and crowded cities, thronged with manufacturers of silk and other valu- able merchandise. The climate of Bermuda is so congenial to the nature of silkworms, and the mulberry-trees so fertile, I know of no reason why a large quantity of silk should not be produced. It may not be uninteresting to the general reader to call attention to the examination of the various transforma- tions of the silkworm, or Bombyx, and to the study of its nature and habits. Silkworms proceed from eggs, which are deposited during the summer by a greyish kind of moth, of the genus Phalene. These eggs are about equal in size to a 268 BERMUDA. grain of mustard-seed ; their colour when first laid is yellow, but in three or four days after they acquire a bluish cast. : The whole of the curious changes and labours which accompany and characterize the life of the silkworm are performed within the space of a very few weeks. The three successive states of being put on by this insect are,—that of the worm, or caterpillar; that of the chrysalis, or aurelia; and that of the moth. In addition to these more decided transformations, the progress of the silkworm in its caterpillar state is marked by five distinct stages of being. When first hatched, it appears as a small black worm about a quarter of an inch in length. Its first indication of animation, is the desire which it evinces for obtaining food ; in search of which, if not immediately supplied, it will exhibit more power of locomotion than characterizes it at any other period. In about eight days from its being hatched, its head becomes perceptibly larger, and the worm is attacked by its first sickness. This lasts for three days, during which time it refuses food, and remains motionless in a kind of lethargy. At the end of the third day from its first refusal of food, the animal appears, on that account, much wasted in its bodily frame, a circumstance which materially assists in the painful operation of casting its skin. This it very soon proceeds to accomplish. This moulting is so complete, that not only is the whole covering of the body cast off, but that of the feet, of the entire skull, and even the jaws, including the teeth. In two or three minutes from the beginning of its efforts, the worm is wholly freed, and again puts on the APPENDICES. 269 appearance of health and vigour, feeding with recruited appetite upon its leafy banquet. Every fifth day it is attacked with sickness, and under- goes four successive moultings; at the end of its fourth sickness, it casts its skin for the last time in the cater- pillar state. The worm is now about one and a half or two inches long. This last change completed, the silk- worm devours its food most voraciously, and increases rapidly in size during ten days. The silkworm has now attained to its full growth, and is a slender caterpillar from two and a half to three inches in length. At the period above mentioned, the desire of the worm for food begins to abate. The first symptom of this is the appearance of the leaves nibbled into minute portions and wasted. The substance of which the silk is composed is secreted in the form of a fine yellow transparent gum in two separate vessels of slender dimensions, which are wound, as it were, on two spindles in the stomach. If unfolded, these vessels would be about ten inches in length. When the worm has fixed upon some angle, or hollow place, whose dimensions agree with the size of its intended silken ball or cocoon, it begins its labour by spinning thin and irregular threads, which are intended to support its future dwelling. During the first day, the insect forms upon these a loose structure of an oval shape, which is called floss-silk, and within which covering, in the three following days, it forms the firm and consistent yellow ball. At the end of the third or fourth day, the worm will have completed its task, and formed its cocoon. When the insect has finished its labour of spinning, it smears the entire internal surface of the cocoon with a 270 BERMUDA. peculiar kind of gum, very similar in its nature to the matter which forms the silk itself. When the formation of the ball is finished, the insect rests awhile from its toil, and then throws off its caterpillar garb. If the cocoon be now opened, its inhabitant will appear in the form of a chrysalis or aurelia, in shape somewhat resembling a kidney-bean, but pointed at one end, having a smooth brown skin. The weight and length of reeled silk that can be obtained from each cocoon are very variously stated by different authors. Miss Rhodes, of Yorkshire, found that one of her largest cocoons measured 404 yards. Pullein considers the average to be 800 yards. The attendance required for the care of silkworms does not wholly occupy the time of those employed, and it is, therefore, difficult to ascertain its amount with correctness. Pullein states, that for rearing the worms produced: from six ounces of eggs, two attendants are necessary until the fourth age; and that after this period five or six persons are required. : From these data, it is found that to obtain one pound of reeled silk, it requires twelve pounds of cocoons; that rather more than 2,800 worms are employed in forming these cocoons ; and that to feed these during their cater- pillar state, 152 pounds of mulberry leaves must be gathered. This pound of reeled silk is capable of being converted into sixteen yards of gros de Naples, of ordinary quality, or into fourteen yards of the best description. Experience has shown that some regulation of tempe- rature is necessary in producing the moths from the cocoons. If the heat in which these are placed, be above APPENDICES. 271 73 degrees, their transition would be too rapid, and their productiveness would be lessened. On the other hand, if the temperature be below 66 degrees, the development of the moths is tardy, and their produce equally falls below the due proportion. The moths should begin to issue from the cocoons in about fifteen days. The female deposits her eggs upon sheets of paper, or strips of linen, which are then hung in a cool situation, and when dry are preserved in an airy place, and securely shielded from damp and vermin, that premature hatching may be avoided in the winter months. Some fair specimens of cocoons were shown me a short time since by an Englishman, who spoke very sanguinely of what might be done in Bermuda with the silkworm. THE END. LONDON: PRINTED BY SMITH, ELDER AND CO., LITTLE GREEN ARBOUR COURT, OLD BAILEY, E.C. 65, Cornhill, London, December, 1860. NEW AND STANDARD WORKS PUBLISHED BY SMITH, ELDER AND CO, NEW WORKS NOW READY. —+1 The Conduct of Life. By Ralph Waldo Emerson, Author of “ Essays,” “‘ Representative Men,” &c. 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