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THE MECHANICIAN,
A TREATISE
ON THE
CONSTRUCTION AND MANIPULATION OF TOOLS,
FOR THE
USE AND INSTRUCTION OF YOUNG ENGINEERS AND
' SCIENTIFIC AMATEURS;
COMPRISING THE
ARTS OF BLACKSMITHING AND FORGING:
THE CONSTRUCTION AND MANUFACTURE OF HAND TOOLS, AND THE VARIOUS METHODS OF
USING AND GRINDING THEM;
THE CONSTRUCTION OF MACHINE TOOLS AND HOW TO WORK THEM;
MACHINE FITTING AND ERECTION ;
DESCRIPTION OF HAND AND MACHINE PROCESSES: TURNING AND SCREW CUTTING ;
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTING AND DETAILS OF MAKING AND ERECTING STEAM ENGINES;
AND THE VARIOUS DETAILS OF SETTING OUT WORK INCIDENTAL TO THE
MECHANICAL ENGINEER’S AND MACHINIST’S ART.
ILLUSTRATED BY 1147 ENGRAVINGS.
By CAMERON KNIGHT, ENGINEER.
SECOND EDITION..
BEPRINTED FROM THE FIRST.
SIBLEY Lies 558
APR 27 1931
LONDON: E. & F. N. SPON, 46, CHARING CROSS.
NEW YORK: 446, BROOME STREET.
1879.
PREFACE.
Tue Mechanician is essentially a book of processes, including all operations by which the
principal portions of engines are forged, planed, lined, turned, and otherwise treated. The
author endeavours to perform two things—to explain to uninitiated students how engines are
really made, together with the fundamental principles involved in making them, and also to
produce a book which shall be useful to practical mechanics for reference in the difficult details
of their business.
Of the six chapters constituting the work, the first is devoted to forging; in which the
fundamental principles to be observed in making forged articles of every class are stated, giving
the proper relative positions for the constituent fibres of each article, the modes of selecting
proper quantities of material, the steam-hammer operations, the shaping-moulds, and the manipu-
lations resorted to for shaping the component masses to the intended forms.
Engineers’ tools and their construction are next treated, because they must be used during
all subsequent operations described in the remaining chapters; the author thinking that the
student should first acquire a knowledge of the apparatus which he is supposed to be using in
the course of the processes given in Chapters 4, 5, and 6. In the fourth chapter, planing and
lining are treated, because these are the elements of machine-making in general. The processes
described in this chapter, are those on which all accuracy of fitting and finishing depend. The
next chapter, which treats of shaping and slotting, the author endeavours to render compre-
hensive by giving the hand-shaping processes in addition to the machine-shaping.
In many cases, hand-shaping is indispensable, such as, sudden breakage, operations abroad,
and on board ship, also for constructors having a limited number of machines. Turning and
screw-cutting occupy the last chapter. In this, the operations for lining, centring, turning, and
screw-forming are detailed, and their principles elucidated.
The Mechanician is the result of the author’s experience in engine-making during twenty
years; and he has concluded that, however retentive the memory of a machinist might be, it
would be convenient for him to have a book of primary principles and processes to which he
could refer with confidence. It is hoped that the descriptions given of the author's lining-tables,
pillar-tables, gap straight-edges, slottil, valin, monto, and other instruments, may cause them to
be more generally used by engineers, the author having proved them highly efficient during
many years.
The Tables of dimensions relating to sizes of iron for forging, cylindrical gauges, screw-taps,
and hobs, are also exactly in accordance with his practice ; also his method of shaping tap-screws,
hob-screws, dies, bolt-screws, and selecting screwing-whecls.
Frith, London, 1869.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
FORGING . . .
CHAPTER IL.
IOOLS . . . .
CHAPTER III.
TOOL-MAKING i & ho we a & we aw
CHAPTER IV.
PLANING AND LINING i ee SF Se a we Sw es
CHAPTER V.
SHAPING, SLOTTING, AND LINING . . . . . .
CHAPTER VI.
TURNING, SCREW-CUTTING, AND LINING
PAGE
1 ro 101
102 to 1387
188 To 204
205 To 242
243 To 308
309
e
DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER.
Plates to be placetl in consecutive order at the end of the Work.
INTRODUCTION.
An attempt is now made to illustrate and explain the details of engine-making. The author
knows by experience that there is no work in any language which enumerates a sufficient number
of details concerning engine-construction. We have written instructions about everything con-
nected with the subject, except concerning the actual manipulation of the tools and appliances
employed for the purpose.
The subject, as considered in the Mecuanictay, is rather extensive, and, in order to give
satisfaction both to mechanics and learners, it is necessary to treat each individual piece of ma-
chinery distinctly, to consider it as something that must be forged, previously to being shaped and
put into its place. The forging of the article is often of much more importance and expense than
any after-operation ; and although all acknowledge that some practical instructions on the sub-
ject are needed, it is also acknowledged that none exist. The only one among us who has
written anything reliable on forging is Holtzapffel. And even this industrious writer makes no
mention of engine-work in its details. He commences his chapter on smith’s work with a five-
ton paddle-shaft ; a subject which is rather sublime and overpowering, if not very comprehensible
toa learner. The more rational and easy method of teaching forging, so that the instruction
may be useful, is by first explaining the construction of those portions of a steam-engine which
have simple forms only. When these are made tolerably familiar, is the time to introduce the
compound ones.
This mode of dealing with the subject is adopted throughout the whole of the Mzcuanician
to the end: consequently the plan of the work is quite original.
Probably it is impossible for any single writer to exhaust such a tedious and intricate matter ;
for this reason, the author considered it prudent, in order to admit a large amount of information
on the subjects treated, to make the number of those subjects limited. And to make such a
literary work new, in the proper sense of the term, we should endeavour to write about those
branches of engine-making on which the least. is written. These are forging, lining, planing,
slotting, turning, and screw-cutting; a sufficient number for any one individual to manage
properly.
The work comprehends three principal parts. The first part is devoted to forging, and a
detailed description of engineers’ tools and appliances. And, in addition to descriptions,
sketches and detailed instructions are given in the several methods of making the tools that are
mentioned.
The second part includes the application of the tools to the practice of engine-making.
B
2 INTRODUCTION.
The third part consists of details of mechanical processes which are not usually included in
engine-making.
This arrangement is convenient to learners; because the names of tools and appliances must
necessarily be frequently made use of in the second and third parts, and those who do not happen
to know the particular form and method of making a certain tool, will refer to the first part for
the desired information.
The details of the work commence with forging such simple articles as bolts and nuts, keys,
straps, screw-keys, and similar articles. Several methods of making each article are mentioned,
so that individual makers of small work may select the plan most suited to their requirements.
The next treated are joint-pins, slide-valve rods, weigh-shafts, excentric-rods, piston-rods, con-
necting-rods, links, cross-heads, reversing-gear, paddle-shafts, crank-shafts, screw-shafts, propeller-
shafts, and other shafts, small and large; the small being first introduced in order to make the
work progressive and instructive to learners and to those who may not have previously studied
engineering.
After the forging, the various modes of shaping and fitting are introduced. These include
drilling, slotting, planing, turning, and screw-cutting; also drill-making, cutter-making, boring-
tools, screwing-tools, lathe-tools, planing-tools, slotters, shapers, excavators, and other assistants
in the necessary process of adapting pieces of machinery to each other, such as dies, screw-plates,
die-nuts, and taps.
Skilful mechanics must kindly bear with details which may be particularly valuable to
those who require them, and may be highly interesting to students and others who are com-
mencing the business. And it will be acknowledged that details are absolutely necessary to make
he work more or less useful to inechanics generally.
THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
PART I.
CHAPTER I.
FORGING.
Tue importance of good forgings in engine-machinery cannot be properly estimated except by
those who have been intimately connected with engine-making. All the working portions of an
engine that are intended to sustain the greatest strain must be forged. A few years since, engineers
used cast iron for such purposes, and, in order to obtain sufficient strength, made use of large masses
of metal; thus ensuring a certain, or rather uncertain, amount of safety. However large a lever or
shaft may be, there is always attending it some disagreeable apprehension of danger, if it is made
of cast iron, and the suddenness of the break is almost certain ; but, with forged iron, an instan-
taneous break, without some previous sign of approaching rupture, is extremely rare. Such a
division may possibly occur if the shaft, lever, or rod is made too small; and there is also a
small liability to such an occurrence with shafts that are too large. A well-proportioned forged shaft
or lever may be so much injured by improper hammering as to render it liable to break with less
than the ordinary wear and strain allotted to it. Good soft iron, of well-defined fibrous character,
may, by hammering, be made crystalline, and will. become as untrustworthy as the cast iron
from which it was originally made.
The outside dimensions of a forging often convey an incorrect idea of its internal strength;
and no engineer, however penetrating, can, by measuring a certain shaft or lever, ascertain
whether it is strong enough for the engine of which it is a part; neither can he point out its
weakest spot. The smith who made it should know much more about the strength of his forging
than any other inspector ; but smiths generally do not know. A good smith is a rare individual.
He knows that the fibres of the iron must be so arranged as to be in proper position for sustaining
the strain; and having succeeded in obtaining a proper arrangement of the fibres, he will not
change them into crystals by improper hammering.
A smith is a much more important individual than a member of any other branch of
engine-making. Planers, fitters, and turners are more dependent upon mechanical contrivances
than smiths. An intelligent turner can very soon learn all that is needful for his business; but
a good smith is more original and prescient than a member of any other branch. Much more
time is required to make a good smith than to make a good planer or turner.
It is, however, proper to admit that the engine-smith of the present day is not generally so
original or ingenious as the smith of olden time. An inferior smith can now produce good work
in large quantities, in consequence of the great aid afforded him by various inventions for reducing
the amount of labour, these inventions being the productions of studious mechanical men who are
B2
& THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
not necessarily smiths in the usual meaning of the term; but by placing a modern smith upon an
equality with one of old, without recent inventions, we discover the amount of ingenuity in each.
. Probably in a few years the forging process will become quite as mechanical as planing,
slotting, or turning, at which time the present foresight, skill, and labour accompanying forging
will be almost dispensed with ; but, until forging machinery becomes general, the smith must
continue to exercise his present amount of care, discretion, and skill.
The number of forging-machines is at the present moment very considerable, and some of
them produce better work than can be made by any kind of mere hand-labour, unless an
intolerably large amount of time is consumed during the process. We now have a variety of
machines for producing forgings by compression, bolt-machines, nut-machines, a great number of
rolling-machines, a variety of steam hammers, including the new patent steam striker and what
is named the rotary hammer. All these are daily becoming more intimately associated with
smith’s work of all kinds, large and small. Even at the present time, all those forging machines
that act by compression and cutting dies, can be adapted to produce all the necessary forgings for
small engine-work, and we may reasonably expect to obtain machines each more and more varied
in application than the preceding ; and the works produced will be more and more the result of
machinery, till the smith’s hand-labour and intellectual energy now required for his work be
reduced to a minimum. Probably, at the time the minimum of labour is reached, we shall reach.
the maximum of good quality. By referring to other branches of engine-making, such as turning
or planing, we discover that every mechanical contrivance introduced to diminish labour, at the
same time increases the good quality of the work produced. We may thus infer that similar things
will occur in the noble art of forging.
The advantage of a tolerable knowledge of smith’s work to engineers is hereby made
apparent to readers generally ; some remarks may therefore be submitted to students who wish
to acquire some knowledge of the internal structure of the various pieces of machinery, and not
merely how to shape their outsides.
Although we know that mechanical contrivances will become more and more extensively
applied to forgings of all kinds, we do not anticipate any change in the circumstances that determine
or control the production of good, sound work.
With relation to a good piece of smith’s work, three principal circumstances require
consideration. These are, the outside dimensions of the article when finished, the arrangement of
its component fibres, and the amount of wear and tear to which the article will be subjected when
in ordinary use.
The outside dimensions of a forging are ascertained by ordinary calculation, after it is
decided to what purpose the engine, machine, or lathe is to be applied.
The position of the constituent fibres of separate forgings, and the several duties to be
expected from them, shall now be considered.
This work is designed to be useful to those who are now actually working at the business,
and also to those who intend to become practically acquainted with it. It is therefore proposed that
all our younger readers first devote some careful attention to the forms and names of the forgings
that are used in engine-making. A correct knowledge of names is very important to all beginners
in engineering; consequently a number of outlines of forms are introduced immediately connected
with their corresponding names. See Plates 1, 2, 3.
After examining a few of the figures of Plate 1, the student is directed to the technical phrases
here introduced.
SIGNIFICATIONS OF TECHNICAL PHRASES,
To MAKE UP A StocK.—The stock is that mass of coal or coke which is situated between the
fire and the cast-iron plate through the opening in which the wind or blast is forced. The size
and shape of the stock depend upon the dimensions and shape of the work to be produced. To
make up a stock is to place the coal in proper position around the taper-ended rod, which is
named a plug. The taper end of the plug is pushed into the opening from which comes the blast ;
FORGING.
the other end of the plug is then laid across the hearth or fireplace, after which the wet small
coal is thoroughly battered over the plug while it remains in the opening, and the coal piled up
till the required height and width of the stock is reached ; after which the plug is taken out and
te made, the blast in the mean time freely traversing the opening made in the stock by
the plug.
Frre-rrons.—These consist of a poker with small hook at one end, a:slice, and rake. The
poker with small hook is used for clearing away the clinker from the blast-hole, also for holding
small pieces of work in the fire. The slice is a small flat shovel or spade, and is used for battering
the coal while making up a stock. The slice is also used for adding coal to the fire when only a
small quantity is required at one time. The rake consists of a rod of iron or steel with a handle
at one end, and at the other a right-angle bend of flat iron, and is used to adjust the coal or
coke into proper position while the piece to be forged is in the fire.
A Rop.—This term is usually applied to a long slender piece of iron, whose section is circular.
A Bar.—Bar signifies a rod or length of iron whose section is square, or otherwise angular,
instead of circular.
Puatr.—This term is applied to any piece of iron whose length and breadth very much
exceed its thickness. Thin plates of iron are termed sheets.
To Taxe a Heat.—This signifies to allow the iron to remain in the fire until the required
heat is obtained. To take a welding heat is to allow the iron to remain in the fire till hot enough
to melt or partially melt.
To FINISH AT ONE HEAT is to do all the required forging to the piece of work in hand by
heating once only.
To pRaw bown.—Drawing down signifies reducing a thick bar or rod of iron to any
required diameter. There are several methods of drawing down: by a single hammer in the
hand of one man; by a pair of hammers in the hands of two men; five or six hammers may
be also used by five or six men. Drawing down is also effected by steam-hammers, air-hammers,
and rolling-mills.
To praw away.—This term signifies the same as to draw down.
To ursetT.—This operation is the reverse of drawing down, and consists in making a thin
bar or rod into.a thick one; or it may consist in thickening a portion only, such as the middle or
end, or both ends. The operation is performed by heating the iron to a yellow heat, or what
is named a white heat, and placing one end upon the anvil, or upon the ground, and striking the
other end with three or four hammers, as required. Iron may be also upset while in the
horizontal position, by pendulum hammers and by the new patent steam-striker, which will
deliver blows at any angle from horizontal to vertical.
ScarFinc.—This operation includes two processes—upsetting and bevelling. Scarfing is
resorted to for the purpose of properly welding or joining two pieces of iron together. When
the two pieces are rods or bars, it is necessary to upset the two ends to be welded, so that the
hammering which unites the pieces shall not reduce the iron below the required dimensions.
After being upset, the two ends are bevelled by a fuller or by the hammer.
Butr-weLpD.—When a rod or bar is welded to another bar or plate, so that the joint shall be
at right angles to the bar, it is termed a butt-weld.
A Toncusr-somnt.—This joint is made by cutting open the end of a bar to be welded to
another, whose end is tapered to fit the opening, and then welding the two bars together.
To puncn is to make a hole, either square or round, into a piece of iron by means of square
or round taper tools, named punches, which are driven through the iron by hand-hammers or by
steam-hammers.
To priFrr out is to enlarge a hole by means of a taper round or square tool, named a
drift.
Tue Hammerman is the assistant to the smith, and uses the heavy hammer, named the sledge,
when heavy blows are required. ; ;
Tue Tuyerz, on Taz TwEER.—This is a pipe through which the blast of air proceeds to the
6 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
stock, and thence to the fire. The nozzle of the tweer is the extreme end or portion of the tweer,
which is inserted into the opening of the plate against which the stock is built.
SEPARATE FORGINGS.
By perusing the foregoing definitions, the learner will be enabled to understand the details
given concerning individual forgings.
Rounp Kays witnour Heaps.—Fig. 1, Plate 1, represents a simple kind of round key ; and
this, with other keys shown in a line with it, are proper objects for learners to attempt during
their first essays at forging.
A round key is so simple that no forging is necessary to make it, unless the key is required to be
about half or three-quarters of an inch in diameter. Small round keys are made immediately from
the wire, which can be bought of iron or steel, of a suitable diameter, to avoid unnecessary labour.
All small keys should be made of steel, whether they be round or square. _ If the steel is obtained
small enough to obviate the necessity of forging, it should be cut to a convenient length for holding
while being filed to fit its place, which is named the key-bed or key-way. Steel wire is easily divided
by an'edge of a file. After being cut to convenient lengths, the pieces should be made not more
than red-hot, and allowed to cool gradually to soften them, remembering that such keys as we are
considering should not be hardened. The advantage in making them of steel consists in two
principal good qualities—their closeness of texture and their durability. A small pin or key of
steel will sustain much more hammering in and out of the key-bed than an iron key of the same
diameter and length. Small iron keys are liable to split while in use, through the number and
shape of the fissures that steel does not possess.
But if the steel requires forging, it must be considered whether the pin or key is to be filed to
fit the key-bed, or whether it is to be turned. A round key to be turned should be forged with a
small portion drawn down from the largest end (Fig. 58), for the convenience of holding it while
being turned in the lathe. Round keys are sometimes an inch and a half in diameter, and con-
siderably taper ; hence the convenience of the smaller portion at the larger end, allowing the key
to be turned throughout its whole length without interruption.
If the key is to be filed to fit, instead of being turned, the smith must be careful to ascertain
the proper angle or amount of taper required in the key, and also the finished dimensions.
Attention to these particulars avoids unnecessary waste of time while fitting the key. Taper
keys should be tried into their key-beds, before the forging of the key is finished. But when a
great number of large ones are to be forged, a double-gap gauge (Fig. 57) should be made, one
gap being for measuring the large end of the pin, and the other gap for measuring the small end,
and both openings of the proper width to allow only a small amount of filing to the pins while
being fitted.
“Phe proportionate lengths and diameters of round keys depend upon whether they are
intended for wheels, for levers and weigh-shafts, or for cranks. Fig. 1 shows the proportion
suitable for the middle of a wheel, which is named the wheel-boss. Fig. 3 indicates a round
key, of proportions suitable for a weigh-shaft or crank-lever, when the pin or key is inserted
through the middle of the lever and spindle by means of a hole bored through the two (Fig. 59),
instead of merely cutting a key-bed into the shaft, parallel to its length (Fig 60). Fig. 3, being
comparatively small in diameter, admits of a small hole in the shaft or spindle, instead of a large
hole, which would needlessly weaken both lever and spindle.
The round pin or key is superior to the angular key for many kinds of work, such as wheels
and crank-levers. This circular pin might be used oftener than it now is, because it can be
quickly fitted by turning, and also because the curved key-bed is not so liable to break the wheel.
The manipulation of a round key upon the anvil consists in drawing down the end of a lon
rod, care being taken that the steel is never hammered too near the small end of the key. It is
proper to commence the drawing or reducing at the large part of the key nearest the hand, and
deliver each successive blow more and more towards the further end, and never contrariwise.
For forging a small round key, no tools are required except the ordinary fire-irons and the hand-
FORGING. 7
hammer, tongs, and anvil-chisel, in the anvil; shown by Figs. 61, 62, and 63. The forging a
round pin is good and instructive practice for a beginner, to enable him to see the effect of his
blows upon the piece of work. Sometimes he will strike the anvil instead of the key, and there is
then a probability of the hammer bouncing up into his face. This will teach him to strike
the key gently until he has acquired the method of holding his work upon the anvil, and
also of striking upon the top of the key, instead of the side, which puts an ugly dent into
the key that he intended to be round, and drives it sideways along the top of the
anvil and down to the ground in a very unworkmanlike manner. But all such small difficulties
are soon overcome by patient practice. He will soon discover that, if he holds his left hand too
high, he will experience an indescribable tingling and jarring in the hand; and if he holds his
left hand too low, he will feel a curious jerking of the left arm all the way to his shoulder. One
remark concerning holding his work may be useful, and is, that if he is careful to keep two
points of the key bearing upon the anvil at one time, and is careful to strike always between
these two points, he will not undergo the tingling and jerking just referred to.
The pin should be forged to the proper diameter, and also the ragged piece cut off the small
end, by means of the anvil-chisel, shown by Fig. 63, while the work is still attached to the rod of
steel from which it is made. After having cut and rounded the small end, it is proper to cut the
key from the rod of steel, allowing a short piece to be drawn down to make the holder, by which
to hold it in the lathe. This holder is drawn down by the fuller, and afterwards by the hammer.
The fuller is first applied to the spot that marks the required length of key; the fuller is then
driven in by the hammerman to the required diameter of the holder, the bottom fuller being in
the square hole of the anvil during the hammering process, and the work between the top and
bottom fullers. During the hammering, the forger rotates the key, in order to make the gap of
equal or uniform depth ; the lump which remains is then drawn down by the hammers, or by the
hand-hammer only, if a small pin is being made. If the pin is very small, it is more convenient to
draw down the small lump by means of the set-hammer and the hammerman. The set-hammer
is shown in Fig. 66; and the top and bottom fullers by Fig. 67.
The double or alternate hammering by forger and hammerman should at first be gently
done, to avoid danger to the arm through not holding the work level on the anvil. The hammer-
man should first begin, and strike at the rate of one blow per second; after a few blows the
smith, or intended smith, begins, and both hammer the work at times, and other times the anvil.
The first attempt continues about a minute, after which the work receives a severe dent on one
side, and is knocked off the anvil, and sometimes out of the tongs. After a short time occupied in
collecting the various instruments, the operators begin again with renewed vigour.
Fig. 64 shows the top and bottom rounding-tools, for rounding large keys. These tools are
necessary for large keys, but it is proper for the learner to make a small key without them. This
he can do by rounding the work with his hand-hammer, and cutting off the pin by the anvil-chisel
instead of the rod-chisel (Fig. 65). The rod-chisel is so named because the handle by which the
chisel is held, is an ash-rod or stick (see Fig. 64). A rod-chisel is thin for cutting hot iron, and
thick for cutting cold iron. Fig. 63 represents the anvil-chisel in the square hole of the anvil.
By placing the steel while at a yellow heat upon the edge of the chisel, he can easily cut off a small
key by a few blows of his hammer upon the top of the work.
Rounp Keys wira Heaps.—Fig. 4 represents this kind of key; the thickest part of it is
termed the head, and the portion of the head at right angles to the small or thin part is named
the shoulder; the thin part from the shoulder is the stem. Such keys are used for wheels or
levers for spindles whose key-beds are parallel to the longitudinal axes of the shafts or spindles. In
all cases where no objection exists to a key-head projecting beyond the wheel or lever, the head
is admissible, because of its utility while driving out the key. When the stem of it is hidden by
the wheel, the shoulder of the head receives the blows while driving out. The tools for unfixing
keys are numerous, and will be treated in another place.
To forge a key with a head involves rather more labour than making a straight one. There
are three principal modes of proceeding, which include drawing down with the fuller and
8 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
hae also upsetting one end of the iron or steel; and doubling one end. of a bar to form
the head.
For proceeding by drawing down, a rod or bar of steel is required, whose diameter is equal
to the thickness of the head required; consequently, large keys should not be made by drawing
down unless steam-hammers can be used. Small keys should be drawn to size while attached to
the bar from which they are made; the drawing is commenced by the fuller and set-hammer.
Instead of placing the work upon the bottom fuller in the anvil, as shown for forging a key
without a head, the steel is placed upon the face of the anvil, and the top fuller only is used, if
the key required is large enough to need much hammering; but a very small key can be drawn
down by dispensing with the top fuller and placing the bottom fuller in the hole, and placing
the work upon the top, and then striking on one side only, instead of rotating the bar or rod by
the hand. By holding the bar or rod in one position, the head is formed upon the under side of
the bar; and by turning the work upside down, and drawing down the lump, the stem is
produced. A learner should make a small key in this manner by his own hand-hammer only ;
and, having drawn the stem, he should cut off any unsound part at the end, and then cut off
the key from the bar by the anvil-chisel ; after which take out the anvil-chisel, and put in the
bottom fuller, and draw down another key. When he has thus drawn and cut off a sufficient
number, he can heat them again, and shape the heads. The set-hammer is useful to square the
corner near the shoulders, and also to draw down the stems of very small keys, for which the
drawing by the hand-hammer is not convenient, through the shortness of the stems.
But large round keys with heads require the top and bottom rounding-tools for adjusting
the stems to their proper diameters. A double gap-gauge is also required, if a number of keys
are required to be of similar diameters. This gauge is shown in Fig. 57; but this is not
necessary for a few only. Instead of the gauge, two pairs of callipers are used, which may be
opened or closed to any required width. Callipers are made of all sizes to suit the ordinary
work. One pair of them is shown by Fig. 57. A pair of these callipers is adjusted to the
required diameter of the small end of the forging, and another pair is adjusted to the required
diameter of the large end, the callipers being riveted together sufficiently tight to prevent
shifting of the two legs with relation to each other, while in fair use, but not tight enough to
prevent them opening with the application of about twenty pounds of muscular force. The
method of adjusting callipers is by closing the two legs by the two hands of the operator until
the distance between the legs is about a sixteenth of an inch greater than the distance required ;
this sixteenth of space is then traversed by gently striking the edge of one leg against a soft piece
of iron until the opening is of the distance required. Adjusting callipers by other machinery will
be treated in another portion of this work.
If the work in progress is more than eight or ten inches in length, a straight-edge of iron
or steel is required, to ascertain if the work is too much bent.
Large keys need a little management and attention, if being made of steel, to prevent
overheating ; it is also necessary to consider the proper amount of bar to be drawn down, to
avoid waste by cutting off a large piece of the key after being drawn to the required diameter.
Two important considerations belong to this subject, which are, the unnecessary consumption of
time in drawing down more of the bar than is required, and the shape of the piece that is cut
off, which is often in such a condition as to be only fit for the scrap-heap.
Previous to driving in the fuller at the commencement of the drawing down of the stem, it
is necessary to determine the distance from the extremity of the bar or rod at which the shoulder
of the key is to be formed, and the stem of the key to begin. The author's plan of determining
this distance consists in comparing the amount of area of the key-stem required, with the amount
of area of the rod of steel from which the key is to be forged. And in the process he uses
this rule :—
As the mean sectional area of that portion of the bar to be reduced is to the mean sectional
area of the key-stem required, so is the length of the key-stem required to the length of that
portion of the bar which is to be reduced.
FORGING. 9
To apply this rule to the forging of a round key with head, such as we are now considering,
it is only necessary to know distinctly the dimensions of the key-stem required, and the dimensions
of the rod or bar from which the key is to be made. Both these things being determined, we
will consider it stated that the key shall be made from a rod of steel whose diameter is three
inches, and that the key-stem shall be eleven inches in length, and the shape of it conical, the
largest diameter near the head to be two and one-eighth inches, and the diameter at the small
end one and seven-eighths inches. The mean sectional diameter is therefore to be two inches.
And the mean sectional area of the stem required is, consequently, three, and one hundred and
forty-one thousandths of square inches. The diameter of the rod being three inches, its sectional
area is seven, and sixty-eight thousandths of square inches. On paper the complete proposition
is, therefore, thus indicated :—
7-068 : 3:141 :: 11: 4°889
The first of these terms represents the mean sectional area, in inches, of that portion of the
rod which is to be forged into a key-stem. The second term denotes the mean sectional area of
the required stem. The third term indicates the length, in inches, of the key-stem to be forged.
And the fourth term points out the length of bar or rod required, to produce eleven inches of
stem without requiring any portion to be cut off the stem when finished.
The proportions indicated by the symbols are not true; they are merely arithmetically correct
to the extent of the fractions employed. But, practically, we find them valuable, because they
inform us that four and nine-tenths inches of steel is sufficient for eleven inches of key-stem. This
being known to the smith, he should put a small dent into the steel by means of the chisel for
cold steel, at five and one-eighth inches from the end of the steel. This distance is more than
that which is indicated by the symbols, because a small portion will be taken from the steel by
heating, and the end of the stem will be unsound and may require welding or cutting off.
To ensure the necessary soundness at the end, it is curved, either by welding or by cutting
off any ragged or hollow portions; and this must be done previous to any attempt to draw down
by the fuller or steam-hammer ; because, if the steel is hollow at the end, at the time of com-
mencing to reduce it by the steam-hammer, and the steel too brittle to be welded, it will become
worse under the hammer, which will in a short time break it to pieces.
This curving just mentioned is also important for iron keys, either large or small, and is
always necessary in proportion to the amount of drawing the metal is to undergo, when it cannot
be welded again after being made unsound.
The end being curved, or what is termed rounded, and the dent put into the steel at the
proper place, by means of what is named the cold chisel, it is proper to commence drawing down
by driving in the fuller, to produce the shoulder. When the fuller is driven to about half the
. depth that will be reached when finished, draw the lump which is to form the stem to a square;
after which, drive in the fuller again at the shoulder, and make the gap deeper to admit of the
stem being again drawn upon the anvil—remembering to make the key four-sided, and to com-
mence the drawing down at the shoulder of the key, and draw the work towards you a short
distance, after each blow from the hammer, until the extremity is reached; then commence the
drawing again at the shoulder. The key-stem will, by such treatment, become compact, and, if
the steel is good, rather improved, but not if hammered while it is much below the red heat. If
the key is being made of iron, the openness of the grain is partly closed by hammering at a
proper heat; and keys require a very close texture to prevent splitting when the strain of tae
lever or shaft is applied to the side. Ifthe key should be made of layers of iron, welded together, .
instead of steel, the layers should be placed parallel to the side of the key-stem; in this position
the strain upon the key-side will tend to close the key together; but if the layers of iron are
parallel to the shaft, and the iron bad, there is a danger of the key being split into two, and
one piece being carried round by the lever, while the other piece remains in the key-bed.
The four-sided shape of the key is now to be altered to eight-sided, by placing one corner
upwards to receive the hammering, and afterwards the others, until a tolerable approach to
eight-sided is attained; after which, round the key-stem by the $ top and bottom tools (Fig. 64),
Cc
10 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
and adjust the key to its proper diameters at each end, by the half-round top and bottom tools, at
which time the double-gap gauge or the two pairs of callipers will be required to ascertain
the size; and the straight-edge will be useful to ascertain if the stem requires straightening.
These remarks equally apply to small keys. The four-sided and octagonal forms are easily
attained by the hand-hammer, and the learner will be pleased at the mechanical method just
indicated.
The particular uses, and pieces of work, to which round keys should be applied shall be
treated in another place. It is now necessary to mention the methods of upsetting to form the
head ; and the doubling of the iron to form the head.
Instead of commencing by making the stem, as in the drawing down, the head is first
formed at the end of the bar by battering it, either in the horizontal position while lying on the
anvil, or in the vertical position while standing on the anvil, or on a heavy cast-iron block,
the top of which is level with the ground, if the work is too long to be stood upon the
anvil. Till the present time, all the laborious upsetting, both of small work and large, has
been done by manual labour of a tiresome character. Although our wonderful and valuable
assistant, the steam-hammer, will upset a short piece of iron or steel, if it be only one or
two feet in length, we cannot use our powerful friend to upset a long rod or bar without some
means of making the steam-hammer strike the iron while in a horizontal position. This object is
now conveniently accomplished by what is called Davies’s patent steam-striker, which is an
appropriate term, because the machine will deliver blows at any angle from horizontal to vertical,
thus avoiding much of the troublesome upsetting by the hammerman. But if without such a
contrivance, it is necessary to use the pendulum-hammer, if the bar is very long, or to cut off the
piece to form the key, and upset it upon its end. The upsetting of iron generally should be done
at the welding heat; the upsetting of steel, at the yellow heat, except in some kinds of good steel,
that will allow the welding heat. And both iron and steel require cooling at the extremity, to
prevent the hammer spreading the end without upsetting the portion next to it. If the head of
the key is to be large, several heats and coolings must take place, which renders the process only
applicable to small work. A small bar can be easily upset by heating to a white heat or
welding heat, and cooling a quarter of an inch of the end; then immediately put the bar to the
ground with the hot portion upwards, the bar leaning against the anvil, and held by the tongs
(see Fig. 68). The end is then upset, and the extremity cooled again after being heated for
another upsetting, and thus till the required diameter is attained. When a number of bars are
to be upset in this manner, it is necessary to provide an iron box, into which to place the ends of the
bars, instead of upon the soft ground or wood flooring, injury to the floor being thereby prevented.
When the key-head is sufficiently upset, the fuller and set hammer are necessary to make a
proper shoulder, the stem is then drawn four-sided and rounded by the { top and bottom tools.
If the bar from which the key is being made is not large enough to allow being made four-sided,
eight sides should be formed, which wil tend to close the grain and make a good key.
The third method of making keys with heads is the quickest of the three, particularly for
making keys by the steam-hammer. By its powerful aid, we are able to use a bar of iron
an inch larger than the required stem, because it is necessary to have sufficient metal in order to
allow hammering enough to make it close and hard, and also welding, if seamy. If the bar from
which it is to be made is too large to be easily handled without the crane, the piece is cut from
the bar at the first heat ; and the length of the piece to be cut off is determined by aid of the rule
given in page 8. But if the bar is small, it can be held up at any required height by the prop,
"shown in Fig. 69. While thus supported, the piece to be doubled to make the head is cut
three-quarters of the distance through the iron, at a proper distance from the extremity. The
piece is then bent in the direction tending to break it off; the uncut portion being of sufficient
thickness to prevent it breaking, will allow the two to be placed together and welded in that
relation. A hole may also be punched through the two, while at a welding heat, as shown
by Fig. 70. The hole admits a pin or rivet of iron, which is driven into the opening, and
the three welded together. This plan is resorted to for producing a strong head to the key
FORGING. 11
without much welding; but for ordinary purposes it is much safer to weld the iron when
doubled, without any rivet, if a sufficient number of heavy blows can be administered.
At the time the head is welded, the shoulder should be tolerably squared by the set-hammer ;
and the part next to the shoulder is then fullered to about three-quarters of the distance
to the diameter of stem required. In large work the fuller used for this purpose should be
broad, as in Fig. 71. After the head is welded, and the portion next to it drawn down by the
fuller, the piece of work is cut from the bar or rod, and the head is fixed in a pair of tongs similar
to Fig. 72. Such tongs are useful for very small work, and are made of large size for heavy
work. Tongs of this character are suited to both angular work and circular. They will grip
either the head or the stem, as shown in the Figure. While held by the tongs, the thick lump of
the stem that remains is welded, if necessary. Next draw the stem to its proper shape, and trim
the head to whatever shape is required.
Tue Learner’s Duties.—To give a large number of instructions to a learner before he
begins to work involves a waste of time; because he cannot appreciate or understand everythin
that is told him until he has performed something. If he has tried to make an article and failed,
he will probably perceive the cause of failure when pointed out to him. But these causes of
failure are very little heeded by some individuals until they have really experienced the things
mentioned to them. Hence arises the necessity of giving as many instructions to a learner as he
can comprehend or make use of at the moment he receives them, but no more than the proper
number, if that number can be ascertained.
When a learner has knocked about a few pieces of iron or steel upon the anvil, possibly made
a few articles, and discovers that if he possessed a little more machinery he could make a few
more, he is in a condition to attend to a few remarks about his tools. It is scarcely possible for
him to begin forging by making his own tools, except to a very limited extent; but, as he pro-
gresses, he will become gradually able to make all he requires. At his present stage of progress
he should consider his hammer and tongs, to ascertain if his hammer-handle is tightly fixed in
the opening, or whether he has knocked out the wedge through striking the anvil too often
instead of the work ; also whether the rivets of his tongs are injured or broken by his own ill-
treatment of them. He should not attempt any work that requires the sledge-hammer until he is
provided with good tongs and rings to hold them tightly together ; these will prevent the sledge-
hammer driving out the work from the tongs into contact with some person’s limbs. There are
three kinds of tools that he can now make in a tolerable manner for his own use; these are
straight-edges, squares, and callipers. Before commencing to make these necessary articles, he
can make his handle tight, if it requires it, by making a wedge with ragged edges, either of ash or
iron, remembering that the wedge must be of very gradual taper, as it is termed, signifying that
the angle subtended by the two sides of the wedge should be five or six degrees. When the angle
of the wedge is too great, there is danger of it soon tumbling out, and the hammer flying off to
the injury of life or limb. As he advances in knowledge, he will learn how to make the opening
of his hammer, so that the handle shall properly fit, and also how to make the hammer itself;
but at present he must be content by making the wedge only. Having made his hammer safe,
he can make a rivet for his tongs by fitting a pin to the two holes and allowing sufficient length
of iron each side to form the two heads, at which time, while the tongs are apart, he can notice
their form, which will probably teach him how to make a new pair. No tongs is required to hold
the rivet or pin while he is making it, because he can provide a piece of iron or steel of sufficient
length to hold in his hand.
He should now make, firstly, his callipers, two or three pairs; secondly, straight-edges, one
or two; and, thirdly, a square, one or two.
The form of the callipers shown by Fig. 57 is merely of a simple character, easily con-
structed, and suitable for smiths, because a tolerable approach to precision in measuring is quite
sufficient. The more scientifically made and valuable kinds of callipers.suitable for fitters and
turners, will be mentioned in due order.
The smith can make his callipers in his own ordinary mode of punching small holes. It is
c2
12 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
proper to punch the two holes for the joint-pin P, previous to filing or otherwise finishing the edges
of the callipers. When the holes are punched, he can fix in a pin in a temporary manner, in
order to hold them together a short time, while he grinds the edges to any required shape by the
grindstone. But by careful shaping upon the beak of the anvil, he can avoid grinding the edges ;
and it will be only necessary to grind the ragged portions from the two sides that are to be put
together while riveting in the joint-pin.
When the callipers are made, the operator can proceed to the straight-edge. This he can also
make without proceeding to the erectory or turnery to borrow a straight-edge by which to make
his own; and he can make an edge sufficiently near to a straight one, without resorting to two
or three others, which is the custom if a near approach to precision is required. The mode,
among others, resorted to by the author for producing in a remarkably short time a useful instru-
ment, is thus indicated :—
If the tool required is to be twenty inches in length, procure a strip of thick white paper
twenty-two inches by four inches wide, and drive two round pins through the ends of the strip of
paper on the wall at about nineteen inches between the two pins, so that the line of distance
between the two is nearly vertical; but a little to the left of the lower pin is the proper place of
the upper one. Smooth the pins with a piece of emery cloth, and fasten a thread of black silk or
black smooth cotton to the lower pin, and place the other portion of the thread over the upper
pin, and allow the thread to hang with a weight attached, which will be on the left side of the
apparatus, if the pin which is uppermost is to the left of the lower one. It is now necessary to
drive into the wall, or board, if such is being used, a third smooth pin; the place of this pin is
about half an inch above the lowest one, and half an inch to the right side of it. If all the pins
are tight in the wall and the thread stretched tightly on the right-hand sides of the two upper
pins, the affair is fit for use by applying an edge or side of any tool that requires some lumps to
be taken off. This simple apparatus is capable of being adapted to straight-edges of any length
less than twenty inches by driving in another pin at various distances from the upper pin, being
careful to push the thread to the right hand while driving in the pin. By a little more con-
trivance, the thread could be made to subtend a near approach to an angle of ninety degrees to
the plane of the horizon: the longitudinal axis of the thread would then be something like a
geometer’s idea of a straight-edge.
When the smith has ground or filed one edge of the straight-edge to the thread, he can make
the opposite edge parallel by using his callipers.
In order to make a square, it is necessary for the smith to procure a piece of sheet iron, or
some kind of flat smooth surface, about twelve or eighteen inches across. Describe a circle whose
circumference shall reach nearly to the edges of the plate; and then, without any proper knowledge
of how to form or construct a right angle, he can divide the circumference into four by his com-
passes; he can then mark lines across the middle of the circle to the four points, and the angles
thus shown will enable him to adjust his square, which will be much nearer to correctness than
his forging will at any time require. Fitters’ squares are very different instruments, and require
quite different treatment, which will be fully demonstrated at the proper time. Probably, the
adjusting of a square is of little importance to the smith who is but a learner, when compared to
the forging of a square, which is performed in several ways. The simplest method is that b
which he should commence, and consists in welding the ends of two thin bars together, so that
the one bar shall be at right angles to the other. The next method consists in cutting a slit into
the ena of a bar to form the thick part of the square, and then welding a thinner bar into the
slit in order to form the blade or thin portion of the square.
The squares for fitters are forged of steel, and the blades are fullered down, processes that
are included in the portion of this work concerning tool-making.
After the learner has actually forged a few tools, he is also in a condition to understand
some remarks concerning the various qualities of iron; and he will, by experience, be enabled to
select the particular kind of iron suitable to his particular piece of work in hand. Probably he
will have noticed that some pieces of iron are very tough, and require more cutting than other
FORGING. 13
pieces, in order to divide one piece into two, while cold. If this tough kind of iron is also tough
while red hot, it is termed the very best kind of iron that can be produced. This kind is that with
which the learner should make his tools that do not require to be made of steel. Another variety
of iron will bear much twisting and hammering while hot, but very little while cold without
breaking. This sort is not suitable for tools or machinery that require much moving or rough
usage; but if, after being forged, such iron is to remain fixed, it is a very hard and durable
metal. There is another class of iron which is the most troublesome variety with which the forger
has to work. It is rather compact and tenacious while cold, but while hot it will split while
being punched ; it will break under the hammer; it will crack while being bent; and it is almost
useless for welding. But even this kind of iron is useful in the hands of an experienced man
who knows to what purposes it should be applied.
The varieties of iron may be thus noticed in a general manner; but the only true method of
ascertaining whether an individual piece of iron is suitable for an individual piece of work is b
forging a piece of the iron, and applying it to use. Then it is necessary to remember that the
qualities of iron become altered during a course of time; the new or the foreign qualities and
properties which the iron thus receives are the results of the agencies which have affected it.
These agencies are conveniently termed mechanical, chemical, and improper. The mechanical
agencies include a large number, such as those to which all pieces of moving machinery are
subjected. The chemical agencies include the action of the atmosphere, water, and heat and
cold. The improper agencies include ill-usage, such as hammering by careless workmen, improper
hardening, and several others.
The quality of the coal influences the quality of the forging. The learner will be much dis-
couraged by the unclean appearance of his work, and the trouble of welding, if he happens to be
working with bad coals. He will be enabled to distinguish good from bad, by the ashes and coke
which are found. Good coal produces a large quantity of coke, and but little white ashes. Bad
coal produce but little coke or cinders, and a large amount of white ashes, which consist of lime
and alumina and a few other earthy matters. Bad coal often contains much sulphur, which makes
the iron brittle while hot, and preventsit from welding; and there is always a large quantity of
clinkers formed by the fusion of the earthy matters which good coal does not contain. The
manufacturer, whether large or small, may thus perceive that bad coal is much dearer than good,
although the price is greater of the superior article. The name of the coal proper for forging is
Tanfield Moor: this coal is remarkably friable, and may be broken by the hands.
It is also proper for the learner to keep his work well covered while in the fire. The work
will thus become heated much sooner than if he allowed the heat to be blown up the chimney
by the blast. Iron becomes oxidised by long exposure to the fire and air at the same time;
consequently, by covering the work properly, coal, time, and metal will be economised.
-AncuLaR Kurys.—Details of forging are now resumed. Angular keys are much more
valuable, and more extensively used, than round ones, because, by proper forging, they may be
made to fit their respective key-beds, so that, by a small amount of filing, the key may be reduced
to enter the key-bed the whole distance required. The thinnest kind of angular keys is named
flat, because the width of it is greater than its thickness, and not because it is very flat or true
in any way, great numbers of them being used as they are forged, without any filing. Flat keys
are made with heads, when the head will be required for unfixing the key. But when the head
is not required, the keys can be made from a bar at a much quicker rate. Flat keys may be
short and thick, or long and slender. They may have screws at the ends, or small pin-holes
instead, as shown by No. 5, Plate 1. A flat key of this kind can be easily forged by a learner
who has had a little practice ; but the handling and forging of the round key is more instructive,
because it compels the learner to strike carefully to prevent the disfigurement of his work. The
smallest kind of flat keys are used for small joint-pins or ends of small bolts. A key-way is cut
through, near the end of the joint-pin or bolt; and the small flat key is placed in the key-way
so that the thin part of the key-stem is at right angles to the stem of the joint-pin or bolt. This
allows great strength to the flat key, without making a large key-way to weaken the bolt. The
14 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTUCTOR.
key is fitted tight against the washer, or against the outside of the nut, as represented by Figs. 73
and 74.
To forge a key suitable for a joint shown by Fig. 73 or 74 but little labour is necessary,
unless the steel or iron from which the key is made happens to be much larger at the commence-
ment of the forging. This will often be the case with makers of small work, and private indi-
viduals, who are bound to make use of remnants of various dimensions, in an economical manner.
In such circumstances, when a number of keys are required at one time of several sizes, it is
usual to first draw down the steel to the largest size required, and make that number of keys
required of the largest diameter, next draw down the steel to the second size, and afterwards
draw to other dimensions required.
Sprit Kuys.—Split keys are either flat or round, and are used to promote a feeling of
confidence concerning the safety of a certain joint-pin or bolt and nut. After the split key is
put into its key-way, the split part that protrudes beyond the side of the joint-pin or bolt is
opened, and a safe fastening is effected; and ordinary wear or proper usage of the key will not
have the effect of unfastening, which must be accomplished by straightening the key in order
to draw it from its key-way. Round split pins are extensively used, and for several years the
wire for making such has been made by the manufacturers into a semicircular shape, so that
by doubling the wire the split pin is formed. The split key is shown in Fig. 75; the split pin,
by Fig. 76.
x split pin is also a split key, because both are used to lock or fasten pieces of machinery
together. But the term split pin is properly applied to the circular variety, in order to make
some approach to a distinction of technical terms and names. To make names definite, it is
necessary that one name should not be used for more than one form.
The method of making the half-round wire into a split pin, fit for use, belongs to the portion
of this work devoted to fitting; because no forging is required. But the split keys are sometimes
made of large sizes, and, being forged in large numbers, demand some attention.
Small split keys are easily made by doubling the iron, and welding the two together at one
end. After being welded, the solid part, which is to be formed into the head, may be held by
the tongs while the stem is reduced to its dimensions. Although the stem is split, at the time of
being drawn down, it will bear a large amount of hammering without breaking, if the heat of
the key while on the anvil is not allowed to fall much below dull red. If the key is to have a
head, and the amount of iron used not very important, the piece may be cut from the
stem, in order to avoid drawing down.
Split keys, eight or ten inches in length, should be made from one bar, instead of welding
together two bars. A solid bar can be easily divided at one end to form the split, by means of
the rod-chisel or trimming-chisel. The chisel is driven half way through that part of the bar
which is to be the edge, or small side of the key-stem; when it is cut half through, turn the key
upside down, and drive the chisel through the uncut portion. When the opening is first made,
it is ragged; and it is necessary to cut off all the ragged pieces previous to smoothing the two
insides; because if the loose or semi-detached pieces are flattened with the key, it will be far from
solid ; and if the key should be afterwards very much drawn down, some part of it would break.
The method of smoothing the two insides is by a thick wedge being placed in the opening,
and the key being drawn while the wedge is in. After being smoothed, the wedge is taken out
and the key drawn without the wedge. The operation is shown by Fig. 77. It is proper to make
the wedge of steel, because it will be useful for split keys of various sizes.
In addition to machinery for making half-round pin-wire, we have machinery for making
split keys and other kinds of keys, at a quick rate, both of steel and iron. Large firms, who may
require large numbers of the articles, can avail themselves of the opportunity, when the ma-
chinery shall have become adapted to produce the kind and size required by different individuals.
And even at the present time, if those who require them will be careful to order the keys, so
that, when received, they will be a little too large, instead of a little too small, the small amount
of fitting necessary will not be of great consideration.
FORGING. 15
But these considerations have bat little relation to the private learner's advancement in the art
of forging. He will discover the great value of practice in key-making, because of his experience
in the several different processes. And it is necessary for him to commence forging simple
articles, that he may become skilful when forging compound ones.
When it is necessary to forge a number of flat keys with heads, and the keys are required
to be of similar length, breadth, and thickness, the method consists in making a long bar of the
required thickness of the keys, the width of the bar being a little greater than the required width
of the key-heads.
The bar must be thoroughly welded and drawn down by the steam-hammer, being careful
not to injure the bar by unnecessary hammering, or by making it too thin. Next to cutting off
the ragged part that may be produced at the end of the bar, the end of it must be carefully
squared, and then properly mark the size and shape of the keys upon the bar by means of a
pencil. The marking thus produced is shown by Fig. 78.
This method is only available with proper care to make the bar the proper width and
thickness, previously to commencing to cut. If each key is cut a little larger than it is required
to be when finished, the process will economise time and metal. The correct way of marking
consists in making a thin piece of sheet iron to the shape of the key-side. This piece of iron,
when properly filed to the dimensions, is termed a gauge: the size of it should always be a little
larger than the side of the key required.
The gauge is placed upon the bar, and a slate-pencil with a small end is used to mark the
shape; after which drive the chisel for cold iron into the middles of the pencil-marks. Both
sides of the bar are to be marked, the operator being careful to make the marks opposite to each
other, that he may avoid the danger of spoiling the keys. This disaster he can prevent by
marking and cutting out a few, and then marking and cutting out afew more. To mark a great
number before cutting out one is allowable, if the bar is marked upon one side only. The
length and width of a gauge for keys ten inches long and four inches wide should not be more
than one-sixteenth greater than the required keys.
Square Kuys.—These are very much used for engine-making, and require to be made
very compact by proper steam-hammering. If the iron should be too small to admit of being
welded and hammered sufficient to destroy the appearances of any plates or layers that may be
in it, these plates should always be parallel to the two sides of the key that sustain the strain while
in use.
The term, square key, is applied to any four-sided key whose width is nearly the same
dimension as its thickness: the geometer’s idea of a square is not signified; but the idea of
something resembling a rectangle is that which is implied when speaking of a square key.
While drawing a rectangular key upon the anvil, it is necessary to watch the form that is
produced by presenting each side to the hammer. If the key is improperly placed, the form of
a rhombus will be produced ; and if the width of the iron or key greatly exceeds:its thickness, a
rhomboid will result. Both these forms result from the blows being delivered at the wrong
angle to the side of the work, either by the hand-hammer or steam-hammer. To produce again the
proper form is always easy, by presenting the longest diameter of the rhomboid or rhombus to
the direction of the hammer’s blow, which may be either vertical or horizontal; consequently,
under the vertical steam-hammer, the proper position in which to place the longest diameter of
the piece of work in hand is vertical, as shown by Fig. 81. By placing the work in this position,
the two prominent corners or projections are battered in by the hammer, after which the work is
drawn down by hammering the four sides that are required.
All kinds of rectangular keys are flattened by a flatter, shown by Fig. 79, or by a short thick
set-hammer (Fig. 80). By careful flattening, keys may be nicely reduced to the finished width
and thickness, when it may be necessary to avoid the planing process. The amount of time saved
by a careful use of the flatter and several pairs of callipers is very great. Previous to adjusting
the callipers, the finished width and thickness of the keys required are ascertained by measuring
the key-beds or key-ways, and not by referring to any kind of sketch or drawing, which would be
16 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
useless in such cases. The callipers are adjusted to allow only sufficient to fit the key to its
place by filing; and when convenient, the key is also put into its key-way a few times, previous
to being finished by the flatter. During the final reducing by the flatter, the square is used to
ascertain if the work is rectangular and straight.
Giss.—A gib is also a kind of angular key, because it is used to prevent the two arms of
the strap (Fig. 25) from opening while in use.
The simplest method of making gibs is by cutting out a piece from a bar which is the width
and thickness of the gib required. The bar is supported by a screw-prop, while the shape of the
piece to be cut out is marked upon both sides of the bar by means of a pencil and straight-edge,
and the chisel for cold iron is driven into the middles of the pencil-marks, after which the piece
is cut out, while at a yellow heat. It is necessary to cut the piece small enough to allow the gib
to be afterwards flattened by the flatter to the required dimensions.
This mode of making gibs is available is cases of emergency or break-down ; but the econo-
mical method is by the fuller, and the application of the rule given in page 8. When the
length of iron or steel required is ascertained by this means, two dents are put into the edge of
the bar while cold; the distance between these two marks is the length of bar required to
produce the required length of the opening or gap in the gib. After being marked, it is heated
and fullered at the two marks by driving in a fuller, as shown by Fig. 82. The top fuller only is
required ; after which, reduce the middle portion to the required width and thickness by ham-
mering, and the gap in the gib will then be of proper length.
Strap Krys.—A key for a strap is termed a cotter; and if the name were not used for any
other kind of key, the term would be significant; but it is also used for piston-rod keys, crank-
pin keys, and keys in the ends of bolts; by such usage the name cotter is more confusing than
definite. The better plan would be to apply the term only to those keys which have rows of
small holes bored in the small ends for the admission of split-pins. The name cotter would be
suited to such keys, because they are neither split-keys nor gibs.
A key intended for a strap is thoroughly welded to allow the pin-holes to be bored into solid
metal; and strap-keys that require frequent fixing and unfixing may be made of soft steel. Small
strap-keys, being without heads, are quickly and conveniently made by tapering the end of a long
bar, and cutting off each key, when reduced to its dimensions, by means of the anvil-chisel and
stop, which is placed upon the anvil-measure, as in Fig. 85. When a large number of taper keys
are required, the author’s rule mentioned in page 8 is useful, in order to ascertain the precise
quantity of iron or steel necessary to produce the required length of key.
Screw Kuys.—Some kinds of taper keys have screwed ends, for the convenience of having a
nut to prevent the key slipping back from its place while in use. The longitudinal axis of the
portion intended for the screw is sometimes in the same line with the longitudinal axis of the
taper part of the key; it is always necessary for the smith to know the required position, that he
may not leave a larger quantity of iron for turning than is sufficient when the part to be screwed
is in its proper position. .
After the extremity is carefully welded and curved, the reducing to form the stem is com-
menced by top and bottom fullers. These are driven in at the spot intended to be the termina-
tion of the taper portion, and the commencement of the screw part. This screw part or stem is
first made eight-sided by reducing with the hammer, and then rounded by means of angular gap
tools, which thoroughly close together the fibres of the iron; if this is not done, a good screw
cannot be produced on the key-stem. If the extremity of this stem is hollow or concave,
instead of being properly curved, there is a liability of the stem becoming split in some part,
although the outside may appear solid. The split could be remedied by welding, but in some
cases the stem would then be too small. One kind of split-stem is shown by Fig. 83.
Bours.—Bolts are made in such immense numbers, that a variety of machinery exists for
producing small bolts by compression of the iron while hot into dies. But the machinery is not
yet adapted to forge good bolts of large size, such as are daily required for general engine-making.
Good bolts of large diameters can now be made by steam-hammers at a quick rate; and small
FORGING. 17
bolts of good quality are made in an economical and expeditious manner by means of instruments
named bolt-headers. There is a variety of these tools in use, and some are valuable to small
manufacturers because of being easily made, and incurring but little expense. The use of a bolt-
header consists in upsetting a portion of a straight piece of iron to form the bolt-head, instead of
drawing down or reducing a larger piece to form the bolt-stem, which is a much longer process ;
consequently, the bolt-header is valuable in proportion to its capability of upsetting bolt-heads of
various sizes for bolts of different diameters and lengths.
The simplest kind of heading-tool is held upon the anvil by the left hand of the smith, while
the piece to be formed into a head is hammered into a recess in the tool, the shape of the intended
head. Three or four recesses may be drilled into the same tool, to admit three or four sizes of
bolt-heads. Such a tool is represented by Fig. 86; and is made either entirely of steel, or with a
steel face, in which are bored the recesses of different shapes and sizes.
The pieces of iron to be formed into bolts are named bolt-pieces. When these pieces are of
small diameter or thickness, they are cut to a proper length while cold by means of a concave
anvil-chisel and stop, shown by Fig. 87, or by a large shearing-machine, if one be on the premises.
One end of each piece is then slightly tapered while cold by the hand-hammer or a top-tool.
This short bevel or taper portion allows the bolt to be driven in and out of the heading-tool
several times without making sufficient ragged edge to stop the bolt in the hole while being
driven out. Those ends that are not bevelled are then heated to about welding heat, and upset
upon the anvil or upon a cast-iron block, on, or level with the ground. This upsetting is con-
tinued until the smaller parts or stems will remain at a proper distance through the tool; after
which, each head is shaped by being hammered into the recess. During the shaping process, the
stem of the bolt protrudes through the square hole in the anvil, as indicated by the Figure (86).
This method is the cheapest that can be adopted by a maker of small numbers of bolts, be-
cause no expensive machinery is necessary. Bolts with conical heads, represented by Fig. 6, when
of small size, are easily made by means of the heading-tool just referred to. The recesses in the
tool are carefully and smoothly bored to the depths and diameters of the bolt-heads. And if a
stop is to be forged solid with the bolt-head, such as Fig. 6 indicates, a straight groove is filed
into one side of the recess with a small round file, the shape of the groove being the shape of the
intended stop. This method of forging a stop in one piece with the bolt-head is very simple; the
stop being formed by the same hammering and at the same time as the head itself. For several
kinds of work such conical heads do not require to be fitted by being turned in a lathe; in such
cases a large amount of time is economised that would be occupied in fitting separate stops to
the heads.
But when a large number of small bolts are required in a short time, a larger kind of
heading-tool is made use of, which is named bolt-header. One of these, indicated by Fig. 89, is
a jointed bolt-header. Another, of simpler character, is shown by Fig. 90. The actual height
of these headers depends upon the length of bolts to be made, because the pieces of which the bolts
are formed are cut of a suitable length to make the bolts the proper length after the heads are
upset; consequently, bolt-headers are made two or three feet in height, that they may be generally
useful.
The header represented by Fig. 89 contains a movable block B, upon which rests one end
of a bolt-piece to be upset; it is therefore necessary to raise or lower the block to suit various
lengths of bolts. In the header shown by Fig. 90 the movable block is not needed; the bolt-
pieces being supported by various lengths of iron, differing in length according to the different
lengths of the intended bolts. The pieces that are below the bolt are prop-pieces ; two or three of
them are sometimes necessary to maintain the bolt-pieces at the exact height. In the top of the
header is a circular steel die, D, through the opening in which the bolt-piece is put, in order to be
upset. The dies are of various sizes, and each die is tightly fixed into a die-block. The outside of
every block, being of the same size and shape, each one fits the opening in the top of the header,
which may be six-sided or circular. All the die-blocks are taper, to admit of being easily placed
in or taken out of the header. The dies are smoothly bored, and the upper edges of the holes are
D
18 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
carefully curved previous to hardening. This smooth curve prevents the die cutting the iron
while being driven down to form the bolt-head. In the figure the bolt is shown on the die after
the head is upset. Under the head are dots to indicate the bolt-stem and the prop-pieces
below, which maintain the bolt-pieces at the height desired ; consequently, if the pieces were pre-
viously cut to a suitable length, the bolts when forged are of correct length, and their heads of the
proper thickness.
After the head is upset, the bolt is driven out of the die. This is effected by the ham-
merman striking the short lever L, at the bottom of the apparatus. The outside end of this lever
being struck by the sledge-hammer, the inside end is raised, and the prop-pieces also; which drive
out the bolt, while the smith holds the bolt-head with the tongs. To prevent the die-block being
driven out at the same time, a key is ‘fitted across the side of the block, pointed out in the figure
by K. But in the jointed bolt-header two half-dies are used, which are opened sideways by a
treadle, to allow the bolt to be taken out, instead of being driven out by a sledge-hammer..
Small bolts sometimes require square holders, by which the bolts are held while being turned
in a lathe, or while being ground after being hardened. The holder is similar to that shown in
Fig. 59. In small bolts the holder is drawn down from the head; for larger bolts the holder is
reduced from the stems, to avoid the longer process of reducing from the heads.
The ordinary vertical steam-hammer is very efficient for bolt-making. By its powerful aid,
bolts are quickly made by reducing the iron to form the stems, instead of upsetting iron of smaller
diameter to form the heads. Large bolts for engines of all kinds demand extra care, because of
their important uses; and also because much time is needlessly consumed in the lathe process
with bolts that are badly made or forged too large. The tough Low Moor iron is exceedingly
good, and should be used for all bolts of importance, such as connecting-rod bolts, main-shaft
bolts, and coupling bolts.
Large numbers of small bolts are forged to a gauge, that they may be screwed easily by
dies, the bolt being neither too large nor too small. A bolt to be screwed by dies need not
be forged larger than the finished diameter of the screw ; but frequently it is necessary to forge
it smaller. The precise amount smaller depends upon the kind of screwing-dies used at the time,
which will be demonstrated in its place. ‘The safe method of proceeding is by carefully rounding
one or two bolts and screwing them, previous to forging the total number necessary. These are
rounded to the diameter of the one that was found to be correct, a gauge being made thereto. If
all dies were so constructed as to cut equally and similar to each other, it would be convenient to
make standard gauges by which to round the bolt-ends, and the result would be good screws
without the bolts being too large.
All bolts, large and small, that are to be turned in a lathe require the two extremities to
be at right angles to the length of the bolt, to avoid waste of time in centring previous to the
turning process; and connecting-rod bolts, and main-shaft bolts require softening, which makes
them less liable to break in a sudden manner ; and it is important to remember that hammering
a bolt while cold will make it brittle and unsafe, although the bolt may contain more iron than
would be sufficient if the bolt were soft. Great solidity in a bolt is only necessary in that portion
of it which is to be formed into a screw. The bolt is less liable to break if all the other parts are
fibrous, and the lengths of the fibres are parallel to the bolt’s length. But in the screw, more
solidity is necessary, to prevent breaking off while the bolt is being screwed, or while in use. _
However good the iron may be, the bolt is useless if the screw is unsound; and it is well to apply
a pair of angular-gap tools (Fig. 64) to the bolt-end while at welding heat.
hen Bessemer iron or steel is selected for bolts, it is particularly necessary to reject all the
brittle varieties, of which there is a large number. It is much safer to reject Bessemer product
altogether for bolt-making, until the process shall have become more capable of producing a tough,
reliable metal, sufficiently tenacious to resist the vibration and straining to which all bolts are
subjected. Although Bessemer product will sustain a greater tensile strain than Low Moor iron,
it would be highly improper to use such product for bolts unless it would bear the same amount
of bending, twisting, or vibration as Low Moor iron. We know by experience that this iron,
FORGING. 19
generally, is far superior to any kind of Bessemer product for bolts ; consequently, we must
continue to use Low Moor iron until the Bessemer process can supply our requirements at a
cheap rate.
Small connecting-bolts, not more than two or three inches in diameter, are made in an
economical manner by drawing down the stems by asteam-hammer. Those who have not a steam-
hammer will find it convenient to make a collar (Fig. 91) to be welded on a stem, in order to form
a head, as shown by Fig. 92. After being welded, the head may be made circular or hexagonal,
as required. The tools for shaping hexagonal heads are indicated by Fig. 93, and also by
Fig. 94, which is the more convenient of the two. Such an apparatus may be adapted to a
number of different sizes by fixing the sliding part of the tool at any required place along the top
of the block, in order to shape heads of several different diameters. The movable or sliding
block is denoted in the figure by S.
Fig. 8 represents a bolt with circular head and stop. This kind of bolt is used principally
for piston-rods and connecting-rods, and requires proper fitting by being turned in lathes, and
the stops are not forged solid with the heads, but are tightly fitted in the holes or slots, which are
made for the purpose after the bolts are turned ; consequently, the smith forges the bolts as if no
stops were intended.
Small bolts with six-sided heads (Fig. 9) may be quickly made by means of a small heading-
tool similar to Fig. 86, if the recess for shaping the heads is slightly tapered to allow the bolts to
be driven out easily from the tool. Large bolts with six-sided heads are made of two pieces;
one to be formed into the head, and the other piece the stem. The piece for the head, previous
to being welded to the stem, is named a collar. By referring to Fig. 92, it may be observed
that the collar is short enough to form a gap or opening between the two ends, after being
wrapped tightly round the bolt-stem. By this means the collar, when welded by a pair of angular-
gap tools, is both closed together and united to the bolt-stem at the same hammering; and if the
collar is of a suitable thickness previous to welding, the bolt-head, when produced, will be of the
desired dimensions.
To make a bolt-head by such means, it is not necessary that the bolt should be at welding
heat to the centre; it is sufficient if the outside of the bolt-stem is at welding heat at the time the
collar is in similar condition. To promote an easy weld, the iron of which the collar is formed
should be of the same tendency to fusibility as the iron for the stem, both pieces being of tough
Low Moor iron. The collar will thus arrive at welding heat about the same moment as the out-
side of the bolt-stem. Low Moor iron requires a very great heat for welding; and if attempt
should be made to weld a collar of impure fusible iron to a bolt of fibrous Low Moor iron, the
collar would fuse and burn to clinker before a welding heat could be obtained in the superior
metal.
But there exists no absolute necessity for welding a head to the bolt; for many kinds of
work it is sufficient if the two ends of the collar are welded to each other. The bolt-head is per-
manently fixed by upsetting about an eighth of an inch of the bolt-stem at the outside end of
the collar. Previous to welding, the bolt-stem is allowed to protrude only an eighth of an inch
beyond the collar; and during the welding, the eighth of an inch is upset or riveted, and the
shape of that part of the bolt within the head becorhes conical, and the larger diameter of the
cone is outwards, so that the strain upon the bolt-head while in use tends to tighten instead of
loosen it, the head being hindered from slipping off by the conical shape of the bolt-stem, al-
though the one may not be, and frequently is not, welded to the other.
Kzy-Hrap Botts.—Fig. 10 represents a key-head bolt, with a slot for a key, which is driven
into the slot or key-way after the bolt is put into its place; such bolts being used in circumstances
that do not allow room for an ordinary bolt-head. In many cases a careful smith can cut the
key-ways by punching, thus avoiding the drilling process. The punching is performed by thin
oblong punches instead of round ones. If a key-way of considerable length is required, the bolt
is placed into a half-round bottom tool, and a small hole or slit is first punched at each end of the
place of the intended key-way; the middle portion is next punched out in small pieces by the
D2
20 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
same punch. By driving the punch half way through the bolt from both sides of it, instead of
from one side only, the key-wav is made tolerably central. Ifa short key-way only is desired,
the punching is performed with a punch whose end fits the intended key-way.
After being punched, a steel taper drift is driven into the opening, which becomes gradually
smoother and larger, till the required dimensions are attained. The angle subtended by any two
sides of these drifts should not exceed one degree; for this reason the lengths of the drifts
require to be three or four times the thickness of the bolt to be punched or drifted. The extre-
mities of the drifts are curved, to avoid trouble in driving them into and out of the key-ways.
During the use of the drifts and punches, a slot-bolster is between the work and the anvil,
to permit the small end of the punch or drift to project into the slot. The dimensions of the slot
are greater than of the required key-way in the bolt; and the height or width of the bolster from
the anvil is sufficient to prevent the point or extremity of the drift touching the anvil while being
driven into the key-way.
The drift being of taper character, renders the key-way also taper. By driving the drift to
an equal distance from both sides of the bolt, the key-way becomes larger at the two mouths than
at the centre of the bolt. Parallelism of the key-way is attained by means of a parallel filler.
This filler is made of steel, and to the exact dimensions of the intended key-way. While the
filler is in, the bolt is rounded by rounding-tools, which produces the required cylindrical form for
the bolt, and at the same time the desired parallelism in the key-way. If the bolt becomes nearly
cold while the filler remains in the key-way, it is necessary to re-heat the part, that the filler may
be easily driven out by a soft iron punch or drift.
Fiance Bouts.—Fig. 11 represents a collar bolt or flange bolt. Such bolts are much used in
engine-making, large and small. The quickest method of forging small bolts of this character is
by drawing down or reducing the two stems from a rod or bar which is rather larger in diameter
than the collar required. In the Figure the two stems are indicated by A and B. The reducing
by fullers and ordinary hammers is a quicker process for small and short work than the method
of making separate collars and afterwards welding them to their places. Collar bolts of great
length are made by welding on separate collars, to avoid the lengthy process of reducing a piece of
iron of large diameter. In a collar bolt, the strain upon the bolt while in use affects the collar in
a small degree only; the principal strain is that of the nut below at the moment the bolt is
fixed to its place, after which the working strain upon the upper stem of the bolt removes the
strain exerted upon the collar by the nut below. Consequently, if the flange is not thoroughly
welded, no great harm will result from that circumstance. But in all cases that require a clean,
solid appearance to the bolts after the lathe process, great care in welding is necessary to promote
the desired result.
If the smith who makes them receives proper instructions, he will observe that a screw is to
be formed at each end of the bolt, and he will be careful to weld each end to ensure the necessary
solidity in the screw. After the collar is welded, a square is needed to ascertain whether the
sides of the collar are at right angles to the two stems, or whether too thick or irregular in one
or more places ; if so, a set-hammer is used to rectify the irregularities; and if the collar is too
thick, a trimming or paring chisel is preferable to cut off the ragged projections while hot ;
much time is thereby saved from the lathe process. The larger the bolt, the greater is the
importance of the collar being at right angles and of suitable dimensions previous to the bolt
being turned and screwed by a lathe.
Instead of bolts with circular flanges, bolts with four-sided flanges are sometimes used. The
methods of making these consist either in drawing down the stems from a square bar, or in
welding a collar to a circular bolt in the ordinary manner, and squaring the collar while at a
welding heat by applying large angular gap-tools.
Nout-neap Bours.—These are indicated by Fig. 12. Small bolts of this character are termed
studs, when one end of the bolt is to be permanently fixed by being screwed tight into a hole,
instead of a separate nut being used. When a nut is required for each end, the bolt is named a
nut-head bolt. These are made use of when it is necessary to put the bolt into its place without
FORGING. : 21
disarrangement of machinery. Such bolts are also frequently used as holdfast bolts for framing,
also for securing or holding down cylinders and condensers. Small studs or bolts of this kind
are sometimes forged to a diameter suitable for screwing by dies, instead of being turned and
screwed in a lathe by change-wheels. During the rounding and reducing of the bolts to the
precise diameter required, gap-gauges or callipers are necessary to measure the bolts in a
convenient and correct manner.
Bolts of all kinds, large and small, are injured by the iron being overheated, which makes
it rotten and hard, and renders it necessary to cut off the burnt portion, if the bolt is large
enough; if not, a new one should be made in place of the burnt one.
Long bolts that require the lathe process are carefully straightened. This is conveniently
effected by means of a strong lathe, which is placed in the smithy for the purpose. Long bolts
are also straightened in the smithy by means of a long straight-edge, which is applied to the
bolt-stem to indicate the hollow or concave side of the stem. This concave side is that which is
placed next to the anvil-top, and the upper side of the bolt is then driven down by applying a
curved top-tool and striking with a sledge-hammer.’ This mode is only available with bolts not
exceeding two or three inches diameter and of length convenient for the anvil, because in some
cases bolts require straightening or rectifying in two or more places along the stems. If a bolt
six feet in length is bent one foot from one end, the bent portion is placed upon an anvil, while
the longer portion is supported by’a crane, and a top-tool is applied to the convex part. The
raising of the bolt-end to any required height is effected by rotating a screw which raises a
pulley, upon which is an endless chain ; the work being supported by the chain, both chain and
work are raised at one time. It is necessary to adjust the work to the proper height while
being straightened ; if not, the hammering will produce but little good effect. The amount of
straightening necessary depends upon the diameters to which the bolts are forged, and also
upon their near approach to parallelism. A small bolt not exceeding one and a half inches in
diameter need not be forged more than a tenth of an inch larger than the finished diameter; a bolt
about two inches diameter, only an eighth larger; and for bolts four or five inches in diameter
and four or five feet in length, a quarter of an inch for turning is sufficient, if the bolts are pro-
perly straightened and in tolerable shape. This straightening and shaping of an ordinary bolt is
easily accomplished while hot, by the method just mentioned ; other straightening processes, for
work of more complicated character, will be given as we proceed.
After the bolts are made sufficiently near to straightness by a top-tool, the softening is effected
by a treatment similar to that adopted for softening steel, which consists in heating the bolts to
redness and burying them in coke or cinders till cold. A little care is necessary while heating
the bolts to prevent them being bent by the blast. To avoid this result, the blast is gently
administered and the bolt frequently rotated and moved about in the fire.
Neots.—The simplest method of making small nuts is by punching with a small punch
“that is held in the left hand; this punch is driven through a bar near one end of it, which
is placed upon a bolster on the anvil, while the other end of the bar is supported by a screw-
prop. This mode is adapted to a small maker whose means may be very limited. By
supporting the bar or nuts in this manner, it is possible for a smith to work without a ham-
merman. A bar of soft Low Moor iron is provided, and the quantity of iron that is required
for each nut is marked along the bar by means of a pencil, and a chisel is driven into the
bar at the pencil-marks while the bar is cold. A punch is then driven through while the
iron is at a white heat. Each nut is then cut from the bar by an anvil-chisel, and after-
wards finished separately while on a nut-mandril. The bar on the bolster is shown by Fig. 95,
and a nut-mandril for finishing is indicated by Fig. 96. . .
A more economical method, suitable for a smith who has a hammerman, is by punching
with a rod-punch, which is driven through by a sledge-hammer. By this means several nuts
are punched at one heating of the bar, and also cut from the bar at the same heat. A
good durable nut is that in which the hole is made at right angles to the layers or
plates of which the nut is composed. Some kinds of good nut iron are condemned because of
22 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
these plates, which separate when a punch is driven between them instead of through them.
By punching through the plates at right angles to the faces of the intended nuts, the iron is
not opened or separated, and scarfing is avoided. Nuts that have a scarf-end in the hole
require boring, that the hole may be rendered fit for screwing ; but nuts that are properly
punched may be finished upon a nut-mandril to a suitable diameter for the screw required.
Nuts for bolts not exceeding two and a half or three inches diameter can be forged with
the openings or holes of proper diameter for screwing by a tap. The precise diameter is
necessary in such cases, and is attained by the smith finishing each nut upon a nut-mandril of
steel, which is carefully turned to its shape and diameter by a lathe. The mandril is taper and
curved at the end, to allow the nut to fall easily from the mandril while being driven off.
Such nut-mandrils become smaller by use, and it is well to keep a standard gauge of some
kind by which to measure the nuts after being forged. The best kind of nut-mandril is made
of one piece of steel, instead of welding a collar of steel to a bar of iron, which is sometimes
done.
One punch and one nut-mandril are sufficient for nuts of small dimensions, but large ones
require drifting after being punched and previous to being placed upon a nut-mandril. The
drifting is continued until the hole is of the same diameter as the mandril upon which the nut
is to be finished. The nut is then placed on, and the hole is adjusted to the mandril without
driving the mandril into the nut, which would involve a small amount of wear and tear that
may be avoided. A good steel nut-mandril, with careful usage, will continue serviceable, without
repair, for several thousands of nuts. .
The holes of all nuts require to be at right angles to the two sides named faces; one of these
faces is brought into contact and bears upon the work while the nut is being fixed; consequently,
it is necessary to devote considerable attention to the forging, that the turning and shaping pro-
cesses may be as much as possible facilitated. If the two faces of the nut are tolerably near to a
right angle with the hole, and the other sides of the nut parallel to the hole, the nut may be forged
much nearer to the finished dimensions than if it were roughly made or malformed.
To rectify a nut whose faces are not perpendicular to the opening, the two prominent corners
or angles are placed upon an anvil to receive the hammer, as indicated in Fig. 97. By placing a
nut while at a yellow heat in this position, the two corners are changed to two flats, and the faces
become at the same time perpendicular to the opening; the nut is then reduced to the dimensions
desired. If the nut is too long, and the sides of it are parallel to the opening, the better plan is to
cut the prominences from the two faces by means of a trimming-chisel (Fig. 84), instead of recti-
fying the nut by hammering. Cutting off scrap-pieces while hot with a properly-shaped chisel
of this kind, is a much quicker process than cutting off in a lathe.
Hexaconat Nuts.—The most useful kind of nut at the present time is of hexagonal form,
and is indicated by Fig. 13. Such nuts, if small, are made at a quick rate by being compressed
and punched in steel dies, which are fitted to machinery specially made for the purpose. But we
have no machinery for making large nuts so efficient as the steam-hammer. Large nuts are
easily punched and drifted by a steam-hammer while the nuts are attached to the bars from which
they are made. The drifts for steam-hammers are short and comparatively thick, and the bolsters
underneath the nuts are of similar proportions. When a sufficient number of nuts are punched,
drifted, and cut from the bars, the shaping of the six sides is effected by placing and hammering
each nut in a three-sided tool, or anvil block. The nut is held in this shaping-tool by means of a
drift or mandril, having a long handle. This handle enables the smith to rotate the nut during
the hammering, in order to produce the hexagonal form desired. The nuts are placed in a large
forge fire or furnace, and heated to welding heat; one nut is taken out when sufficiently heated,
and the slag that may be in the opening is quickly scraped out, and the mandril or drift is then
put in; the hammering upon the outside will then form the six sides without affecting the
cylindrical form of the opening in the nut.
Fiance Nuts.—Fig. 14 indicates a six-sided flange nut. These are useful to obtain a large
bearing for the nut’s face, without using a heavy nut. And if contact with angles or corners is
FORGING. 23
to be avoided, the flange is curved as in Fig. 17, which denotes a handsome nut, well adapted to
bear upon brass or gun metal, or other soft metal, without wearing or tearing the surfaces in
contact. The forging of flange nuts is performed by forcing the iron while at a welding heat into
top and bottom tools, which are made to the required shape. Each nut is punched and cut from
the bar and afterwards heated to welding, and then compressed to shape by striking the top-tool
while the nut is on a mandril held by the workman. The mandrils for welding and shaping
the outsides of nuts need not to be turned by a lathe, because the opening in each nut is after-.
wards shaped and finished by a finishing mandril specially made for the purpose (Fig. 96).
Stor-Rine Nuts.—Fig. 15 points out an ordinary hexagonal nut for a stop-ring, which is
indicated by Fig. 16. This kind of nut is much used by engineers, who consider it a sort of
safety nut, by reason of the set-screw in the ring having some tendency to prevent the nut un-
screwing through straining or vibration of the machinery while at work.
Nuts of this character are made by cutting partly through a bar and doubling or trebling the
bar, and thoroughly welding the layers while in that relation. While the lump is still attached
to the bar, the opening is made by a punch driven through at right angles to the layers, and the
opening is then drifted to any required diameter; after which the nut is cut from the bar, and an-
other doubling-and welding is effected to produce another nut. When the desired number is ob-
tained, the outside of each nut is shaped while at a welding heat.
The short cylindrical portion named the stem is formed sometimes by cutting off the six
corners or apices by turning-tools, and at other times by cutting off the pieces while hot upon
the anvil, which is a much quicker process. The nuts are marked while cold by means of a
chisel, which is driven in at the spot which marks the required forged length of the stem; they
are then heated to a light yellow heat, and the pieces are cut from the stems with a trimming-chisel
and light hammer. Each nut is placed upon a mandril, and while supported by an angular-gap
tool in the square opening of an old-fashioned anvil, the chisel is driven in at the marks to the
distance required ; after which the nut is taken from the mandril and placed with the face-side
upwards upon the anvil; while the nut is in this position and gripped by a tongs with large
jaws, the chisel is driven down to meet the extremities of the six incisions previously made, and
the scrap-pieces are thus cut from the stem in an easy manner.
Nout Rives.—These are indicated by Fig. 16, and are forged by two methods. One mode
consists in marking the lengths required for the rings along a bar of iron or steel, and piercing
the bar midway between every two marks that denote the amount of iron required for one ring.
The openings are made by circular punches, or by circular punches which are both circular and
elliptical. Above the elliptical portion the punch gradually increases in diameter, and the shape
becomes circular; consequently, it is a circulo-elliptic punch. This kind of punch cuts out but a
small piece of metal, and at the same time makes a comparatively large hole, the precise diameter _
of which depends upon the amount of the punch that is driven through the iron.
The circular form for the outside circumference of the ring is partly developed by cutting off
the corners while the ring is still attached to the bar; after being thus trimmed with a chisel, the
ring is cut from the bar and shaped while on a mandril. Each ring is heated to welding, and
the rounding is performed with top and bottom tools. If it is necessary to enlarge the opening,
a taper mandril is used, and the ring is drawn or stretched by hammering the edge of it
while tight on the mandril. During this stretching, the mandril and ring are rotated by the
smith to produce an equal thickness throughout.
The economical mode of making large rings consists in forming them from a straight bar
which is of a suitable width and thickness. The bar is cut into pieces, each being of the
length required for one ring. The pieces are thickened at each end, scarfed on opposite sides, then
bent to a circular form, and the scarfs welded together.
Previous to cutting off the pieces, the bar is reduced to that thickness which will allow
not more than sufficient iron for boring and turning the rings to their finished width and
thickness. If the opening of the ring is to be bored in a lathe to 53 inches diameter, and
the thickness of the ring’s face-side to be § of an inch when finished, the forged thickness of
24 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
the ring should not exceed % of an inch; and this is the thickness to which the bar is to
be reduced previous to cutting off the piece or pieces.
If the bar is reduced to the required thickness, the length of each piece should equal the
length of the middle circumference of the ring’s face. The face-side of a ring is the side which
is placed next to the plummer-block cap, or to the connecting-rod cap; and if the required
forged thickness of the ring is +, and the required diameter of the opening or hole when forged
54 inches, the outer diameter is 71 inches. The length of the mid-circumference is therefore
20 inches, because its diameter is 63 inches. The length of bar required for one ring is conse-
quently 20 inches: nothing being allowed for scarfing, because, during the scarfing, nothing is
cut off, the scarf being drawn by a fuller while the piece is straight. After 20 inches of the
bar + thick is scarfed, formed to a circle, welded and flattened; the diameter of the opening is
54 inches, and the outer diameter is 71 inches; which will allow rather more metal than an
ordinary turner requires, to produce a ring 4 thick, and whose opening is to be finished to 53
inches as desired.
The precise amount required for boring and turning depends upon the smoothness or
roughness of the work; and also upon its form being, or not being, nearly circular. This is
attained by rectifying each ring after measuring it with callipers, both inside and outside. After
discovering by the callipers which is the longest diameter of the ring’s opening, it is rectified
by placing the ring upon the anvil with the longest diameter vertical, and striking it by hammer
apd top-tool.
It is always advantageous to make the bar or piece the proper thickness previous to making
the ring; although it is not absolutely necessary, because the ring may be stretched by ham-
mering, after being welded. Previous to welding, the piece may be thicker than the finished
forged thickness, but not in any case thinner. Whatever may be the precise thickness of the
bar previous to making the rings, the author’s rule here given is always applicable :
As the thickness of the bar from which the ring is to be made is to the required forged
thickness of the ring, so is the length of the middle circumference of the ring’s face-side to the
length of bar required for the ring.
The length of the middle circumference is discovered by referring to ordinary tables, or by
multiplying the diameter by 3:1416. The diameter of the opening of the ring when forged
being 54 inches, and the forged thickness to be 4; the outer diameter must be 74, and the mean
between 54 and 74 must be 6%, which is the diameter of the middle circumference required.
Multiplying 63 by 371416 produces 20 and a fraction, too small for us to notice in this case,
consequently 20 inches of bar is sufficient to make one ring, if the bar is 4 thick.
But if it should be necessary to use iron which is an inch thick, a shorter length of bar
would be sufficient. This is demonstrated by applying the rule and making a ring of a piece
of bar which is the length indicated. For example:
1 = “87S 3: 2002 = Lesa:
the first term denoting the thickness in inches of bar used, the second indicating the required
forged thickness of the ring desired, the third term representing the length of its mid-circum-
ference, and the fourth term pointing to the length of inch bar required. This length is
21 inches shorter than the proper length of bar, which is 4 thick. If bar + thick is used, the
complete proposition is thus represented :
‘875 : ‘875 :: 20°02 : 20-02;
twenty inches of 5 bar being used will obviate the necessity of drawing or stretching the ring,
either before or after being welded together.
French symbols of dimensions also are given, because of their great utility and simplicity.
Seven-eighths of an inch equals 22-2 millimetres, and 20 inches equal 508 millimetres, con-
sequently the proposition appears thus:
22°2 : 22-2 :: 508 : 508.
In forging a ring we do not require to measure the two-tenths of a millimetre, and the
FORGING. 25
result would meet the requirement if 22 were stated instead of 22:2. But in the case of bar
an inch thick being used it would be necessary to state 25:4 instead of 25 ; twenty-five millimetres
being about half a millimetre less than one inch. In millimetres, the proposition relating to bar
one inch thick is thus written :
254 : 22:2 :: 508 : 444,
To ascertain the number of millimetres contained in any mentioned number of inches or parts
of inches, it is only necessary to divide the mentioned number by ‘03937, always indicating the
ie ian by decimal symbols; and the quotient or result will indicate the number of millimetres
and parts.
And to ascertain the number of inches and parts of inches contained in any mentioned
number of millimetres, it is only necessary to multiply the mentioned number by ‘03937, and
the product or result will indicate the number required. For example, 500 millimetres equal
half a metre; and 500 x (03937 of an inch= 19-685 inches. And twice this amount of inches is
a complete metre of 39°37 inches. A nearer approach to precision is attained by using the
fraction indicated by 0393708, instead of 03937.
A few dimensions of rings are indicated by the Tables, as examples of lengths of iron
required for the different diameters.
Table 1 contains only the diameters and circumferences of the mean or middle circles of
the face-sides, the lengths of bar required being the same as the lengths of the circumferences.
These dimensions are only available when the thickness of the bar is the same as that of the
ring when forged, whatever the required thickness may be. It a ring is to be 11-5 centimetres
in diameter at the mean or mid-circle of the face, the necessary length of bar is 36°12 centimetres,
which is pointed to in the Table at line 14. The thickness of the bar may be 1, 2, or 3 centi-
metres, being the same as that of the ring itself.
But if it is necessary to use remnants of bar which are thicker than the rings intended,
the necessary length of bar for making a ring of the mentioned diameter may be seen in Table 2;
if not in this Table, the length may at any time be ascertained by applying the rule just given.
By reference to line 109 of Table 2 it will be perceived that 94 inches of bar + thick is
sufficient for a ring whose mid-circle diameter is to be 44 inches, and forged thickness to be 4.
And if remnants of + bar are to be used, it may be known what lengths of remnants are
required for drawing down to 4 thick. Also by referring to line 135 in the same Table, it will
be perceived that 49+ inches of bar one inch thick may be drawn down or reduced in order to
make a ring which is required to be = thick, and whose mid-circle diameter is to be 21 inches.
When cutting the lengths of bar, it is not necessary to add any for scarfing, because
whatever amount of iron may be upset will be afterwards drawn down in welding; but if the
iron is to be heated a number of times, an eighth of an inch should be added for that which may
be burnt or taken from the iron by the fire.
The width of a ring is sometimes named its height. No mention is here made of the widths
or heights of rings, because their widths are the same as the widths of the bars of which the rings
are made; consequently, the widths of rings are independent of the dimensions here given and
referred to.
26 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
TABLE 1.
Diameters of | Lengths of cir- Diameters of | Lengths of cir- Diameters of Lengths of cir-
mean-circles of | cumferences of mean-circles of | cumferences of mean-circles of | cumferences of
Line. face-sides of | mean-circles of Line. face-sides of | mean-circles of Line. face-sides of mean-circles of
rings, in centi- |face-sides of rings, rings, in centi- |face-sides of rings, . rings, in centi- /face-sides of rings,
metres. in centimetres. metres. in centimetres. metres. in centimetres.
1 x 5 15:7 Qh as 15 47-12 41... 25 78°54
2% 5-5 17:27 22 155 48°69 42... 25°5 80-1
3. 6 18-84 23... 16 50:26 43... 26 81°68
4. 6°5 20°42 Dan. gis 16°5 51:83 44... 26°5 83:25
Be 7 21:99 25... 17 53:4 45... 27 84°82
6. 75 23°56 26... 175 54:97 46...) 275 86°39
a~% 8 25°13 Bho ns 18 56°54 47... 28 87:96
8. 85 26:7 28... 18:5 58-11 48... 28°5 89°53
9 s%s 9 28:27 Does 19 59°69 49... 29 911
10 ee 9-5 29°84 30... 19°5 61:26 50... 29°5 92°67
Vl sa 10 31:41 31... 20 62:83 51... 380 94:24
12 i ws 10:5 82°98 B2... 20:5 64:4 52... 30:5 95°81
18.4% 11 84°55 383... 21 65:97 53... 31 97:38
14... 11:5 86°12 4... 21:5 67:54 54... 31:5 98:96
15. s 12 87°69 35... 22 69°11 DOs Se 32 100:53
16: 6 is 12°5 39°27 36... 225 70°68 56... 32°5 102°1
lf s&s 13 40°84 87... 23 72°25 57... 33 103-67
a ia 7 42°41 88... 23°5 73°82 58... 33°5 105-24
sox. 1 43°98 89... 24 75°39
20) 5% 145 45:55 40... 24:5 76°96
TABLE 2.
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28 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
To prevent burning of the rings, and to promote an easy welding, sand, loam, or powdered
glass is applied to the iron at the time it commences to melt. The sand is placed upon the iron,
while it is in the fire, by means of a ladle or spoon having a long handle; the blast being gently
administered at the moment. Large rings require a fire which is open in front, but closely
built on the opposite side, and having a strong, thick arch, to cause the flame to whirl around the
joint instead of being blown upon one side only. While the rings are being curved upon the
beak of the anvil, or while being welded, stretched, flattened, or smoothed, a tongs, represented by
Fig. 98, is required, by which to grip the rings in a convenient and safe manner.
When it is necessary to weld together the two scarfs of a ring so that the joint may be almost
as solid and strong as any other part of the ring, great care must be exercised in selecting a
tough, fibrous iron, and in having a weld free from burnt iron, slag, or other foreign matter. To
prevent the slag adhering to the joint, a large supply of sand is given, and, by the sand becoming
liquid while upon the surface of the iron, whatever slag may be formed upon the joint is washed
off. This slag is produced by the fusion of the impurities in the coal or iron, and constitutes part
of the clinker which accumulates at the bottom of the fire.
Crrcutar Nurs.—When it is necessary to insert a nut into a circular recess, and to fill, or
partly fill it, a circular nut is used, having holes bored into the outside face of the nut for fixing
or unfixing it.
Circular nuts are also used for ornament, and to prevent contact with corners. Fig. 18
represents one of this class, having a flange, and holes bored around in which to place the end
of a steel lever, named a tommy, by which the nut is fixed or unfixed.
The forging of circular nuts with flanges consists in drawing down or reducing a bar or rod
which is of the same diameter as the intended flange of the nut. After being partly reduced to
the finished diameter, the smaller part is made as solid as possible, by welding and hammering, to
give the necessary strength to the nut while being punched. After it is welded, the proper
quantity of iron to make the nut is cut from the bar and punched, and the hole then drifted to
the required diameter. The rounding of the outsides is accomplished by rounding-tools, while
the nut is upon a nut-mandril.
This method is economical if the proper length of iron is reduced, to avoid cutting off large
scrap-pieces; and is always available with good, soft, fibrous metal, that will bear punching
without splitting. The tongs for gripping the nuts while being punched is shown by Fig. 99.
SrzeL Nurs.—Several classes of nuts require to be frequently fixed and unfixed, involving
much wear and tear. All such are forged, either of steel, or of iron sufficiently solid and welded
to allow the nuts to be hardened after being screwed, turned, and shaped.
A soft steel nut is the most durable and efficient of all varieties with which we are acquainted.
Several obstacles, which have prevented the free use of such nuts, are now removed by the
manufacture of Bessemer steel. Soft Bessemer steel, being only half the price of charcoal-steel
is preferable for nuts, because Bessemer nuts are about as durable as those made of the costly
variety. The screwing or tapping and the turning and shaping processes are troublesome and
lengthy with the superior sorts of charcoal steel; consequently, the soft Bessemer steel is emi-
nently useful and applicable to nut-making. Such nuts are, in all cases, thoroughly softened.
and all slag or scale thoroughly cleaned off by chisels and old files previous to being screwed as
avoid injury to the taps, and also to facilitate the whole of the shaping processes to which all nuts
are subjected. ;
Disconnectinc Levers.—Such levers are used to lift the excentric-rod from the gap-pin; by
this disconnexion, motion of the slide-valve and engine is immediately arrested. The forging of
one, which is shown by Fig. 19, is performed with a straight bar of soft steel that is drawn to
its width and thickness, and then partly curved by bending, and partly by a trimming chisel.
By careful trimming, the precise dimensions of the gothic arch, and the necessary distance between
the two intended joint-pin-holes, can be easily attained,—these holes being, in all cases, bored by
careful drilling.
Excenrric-Rop Guarps.—When the excentric-rod is disconnected from the gap-pin, the
FORGING. 29
guard, which is fixed by screws to the underside of the excentric-rod, forms a parallel path, in
which is the gap-pin, instead of being in the excentric-rod gap. Very little abrasion attaches to
the guard, consequently, it is forged either of iron or of steel that is very fibrous. The guard,
with the two screws for fixing, are shown by Fig. 20.
The guards are made of thin bars of suitable width and thickness, which are then bent to
the shape desired. This bending is named cranking. There are several ingenious modes of
cranking adopted by smiths; of these methods it is necessary, in this place, to mention only one,
which is suitable for a thin, flat bar, and consists in first forming the two outside bends which are
nearest to the two ends of the guard, and afterwards making the two inner bends or curves.
The two outer bends are effected by heating the iron or steel to a bright yellow, and cooling
to an equal distance on each side of the spot intended to be the centre or middle of the intended
curve, named the corner; the cool end is then placed into a slot in a heavy block, and the work
bent while therein.
The length of iron placed into the slot is the length of the end required ; and while one end
is in the slot, the opposite end is in a tongs, shown by Fig. 100. The tongs, and the work to be
bent, together constitute the lever by which the smith bends the iron to a right angle; after which,
the corner is shaped by applying a flatter or a set-hammer. If a long curve is desired, instead of
a sharp angular corner, the end of the piece to be bent is put into a slot having curved edges,
instead of into a slot with angular edges, which is necessary to produce a sharp or square corner.
There is also a difference in the length of iron which remains heated after being cooled to the
proper distance. For a small corner, the length of the heated part is only sufficient to allow the
bar to be bent without the risk of cracking. For a longer curve, or curve of longer radius, the
length of the heated portion is about the same as the length of the curve required; if not, the
iron will require to be re-heated, and cooled to proper distances from the corner, in order to make
the curve to the correct length.
When one end of the work is thus bent to a right angle, the bent part is fixed in tongs
resembling Fig. 101, and the opposite-end of the piece is bent in a similar manner, so that the two
bent portions, or arms, will be on the same side of the work. The two inner bends are next
effected by placing the work, while heated, between two studs or pins loosely situated in two slots
or holes in the heavy cast-iron block. In some cases, the two studs constitute one solid tool,
having a square stem to fit the square hole in the anvil.
The two inner bends are produced by similar careful heating and cooling, to make the curves
of the correct length; and by bending in the opposite direction to that of the two previous
operations, the two cranks in the work are made.
Stups.—A stud is a permanently fixed bolt without a head, and is fixed either by a conical
portion in the middle or at one end. Studs intended for joint-pins or pivots are screwed at one
end; and screwed at both ends if intended for connexions for cylinder lids, slide-jackets, and
similar work.
Pivot-studs are made of tough, fibrous iron or steel, to resist the side strains continually
imposed during use. A pivot-stud is shown by Fig. 21. That part of a stud intended for a joint-
pin or pivot of any kind requires good welding and closing by the angular-gap rounding-tools,
which facilitates the production of a smooth surface for friction. A close texture is necessar
for those parts of studs or pins intended for wear, whether soft, hard, or case-hardened. The
conical part of a stud may be more fibrous than the parallel portion, which will be subjected to
continual abrasion while in use. The screw part, also, must be welded to a depth which is rather
greater than the depth of the intended screw-thread. Studs, which are represented by Fig. 21,
frequently need drilling and screwing at the centre to admit a small bolt for fixing a washer.
The place of the washer is indicated in the Figure by W. Much trouble will arise in drilling and
screwing the hole if the metal is not welded in that part; consequently, the smith obtains the
requisite solidity by upsetting and rounding the work while at a welding heat.
The screw-pin or screw-pivot, shown by Fig. 22, is quickly forged by reducing, with a fuller
and steam-hammer, a bar or rod which is the diameter of the intended pin-head. A portion of the
30 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
stem of the pin is parallel, and a part is conical. This conical part is that which holds the pin in
its place while in use, and should be soft and fibrous.
Tron and steel studs, of all classes, are in condition to wear properly, with but little friction,
if hardened. For this reason, attention to the forging and quality of the iron or steel from which
they are made is necessary to ensure a good friction surface. The careful labour of the turners
and grinders will be of little service if the metal contains cracks, small openings, or other defects
arising from careless forging. Such blemishes seldom appear till the work is turned by the lathe
nearly to the desired diameters, so that much time is consumed in the turning of articles that are
discovered to be unfit for their uses. Such errors in forging arise from the smith considering
merely the simple appearance of the article he is about to make, and not, at the same time,
reflecting or inquiring concerning the particular uses to which his work will be applied. Many
forgings of importance are entrusted to unskilful men, because the outside appearance of the forging
is of simple character, and the result, in many cases, involves a consumption of twice the amount.
of time that should be employed. A good smith is also a man of experience in general mechanical
affairs; without such experience he cannot produce good work, however skilful he may be, except
he happens to be working under a man who is able to tell him what to do, and also able to tell
him how to do it. The smith must know, at the time of commencing to forge the article, the
amount and character of the wear and strain to which his work will be subjected, and whether
tthe work will be exposed to destructive chemical action in addition to friction, side strains, and
abrasion.
It is only by such foreknowledge that a smith becomes a really valuable man—one who is
able to produce solid work, and to select the class of metal adapted to the requirements. Such
a man will not cut a piece from a straight bar of iron or steel and name it a forging, merely
because the outside shape of the piece cut off corresponds to the outside shape of the forging
desired. The internal structure may be different to the structure necessary; and is often dis-
covered after several hours of lining, centring, planing, turning, and screw-cutting. Every
operation may progress favourably till the screw is being made, which is often the last process ;
and if the portion intended to be formed into a screw is not welded, it will tumble off while
being screwed, and the elegant piece of turning and screw-cutting becomes fit for the
scrap-heap.
Rops.—When speaking of engine-making, the name rod signifies a transmitter of motion or
force from an active agent to a passive object. And in all cases where practicable, the sectional
area of the rod is greatest midway between the two ends; because, when the rod is parallel, the
centre or mid-portion of it is weakest. ;
The variety of rod indicated by Fig. 23 is sometimes made by upsetting each end to form.
the circular portions termed bosses. This mode is tedious, and requires much welding if the
iron should not be very soft and tenacious ; consequently, upsetting is seldom adopted except for
small work, or for work which is short and thick.
A very efficient mode for general work consists in preparing a bar to the suitable diameter
for producing the bosses by a small amount of upsetting, and a small amount of reducing to
form the intermediate portion. If the boss portions are upset, curved, and welded, a circular
arrangement of the fibres is obtained, which ensures the necessary solidity for the boss after the
holes are bored.
After the boss is upset, while at welding heat, and the extremity put into a circular form b
hammering, and by large curved rounding-tools, top and bottom fullers are driven in to form
the inner extremity of the boss, shown in the figure by A. By this means the whole of the
fibres in the boss are put into a circular arrangement, which is a desideratum. The interme-
diate portion of the rod is then reduced to its proper diameter and shape, and the length increased
to the length desired.
This method of making such rods is very economical, and produces a solid kind of work
without waste of metal, if the piece was originally cut to a suitable length, ascertained by appli-
cation of the rule in page 8.
FORGING. 31
Another mode of proceeding is by making separately each boss with a short stem; these
stems are then scarfed, and welded to the intermediate portion, which may be of the diameter
required, to avoid reducing. When this plan is adopted for long heavy rods, a tongue-joint is
made, instead of a scarf-joint.
To produce a good tongue-joint, the two ends to be welded are upset, either by Davies's
patent striker or by a pendulum-hammer. The length of the upset part is about equal to the
length of the rod’s diameter previous to upsetting; after being upset, the diameter is one-third
longer than previous. After the two ends are upset, the taper part, named the tongue, is drawn
down from one of the pieces, by first driving in a broad fuller, at a short distance from the
_ extremity, and from two opposite sides of the rod or bar. The fuller is driven to a short distance
only, and the lump that remains is conveniently tapered by the patent striker, which is adjusted
to deliver its blows at an angle of 45° or 60°, as desired. During the tapering, the work may be
placed along the top of an anvil, or the anvil may be shifted to suit the position of the striker,
and the work laid across the anvil.
The opening, or orifice in which the taper end is fitted, is named the mouth ; and is produced
by cutting open the end with a chisel, and afterwards enlarging by driving in a wedge. The use
of the wedge produces a large mouth without the necessity of cutting out a large piece of the
iron, which may be needed during the heavy blows when welding and rounding is being per-
formed. The depth or length of the mouth from the extremity of the rod should not be more
than twice the length of the rod’s diameter, to prevent the joint-edges becoming too thin while
being reduced or rounded after being welded.
The next operation is shaping those portions of the mouthpiece which will receive the
hammering during the welding. These portions are curved, either by hammering or by a
trimming-chisel; this curving prevents the hammer from spreading out the outside of the mouth-
piece and making a series of thin ragged edges. And if the hammers or rounding-tools are thus
made to strike a curved lump, instead of an angular projection, the iron is closed in towards the
centre of the rod, instead of being spread out at the circumference.
After the mouth and tongue are properly prepared, the stock near the tweer is mended, or
made anew if necessary, and the two pieces are laid together in their proper positions in the fire
or fireplace. And if the work is long and heavy, each piece is supported by a crane at each
side of the forge; the endless chains around the work allowing it to be rotated to expose the
entire circumference to the action of the blast, that one portion may not become heated previous
to another. In order further to promote a proper distribution of the heat, the fire is of the two-
stock character: one stock being opposite the other stock near the tweer. Both stocks as built
gradually taper upwards to four or five inches above the work. The stocks are well hammered
and battered together ; and a thick arch is built, which is supported by each stock, and prevents
the heat escaping. A good arch is made after the work is laid in the fire, by laying sticks of
wood around the top of the work, and piling to five or six inches thick. Pieces of coke and
coal are then placed upon the wood, and among it; and wet small coal is then put into all the
cracks and piled up, and battered closely together. After the wood is consumed, the arch
remains, and the only escape for the flame is by the two openings at the sides of the fire.
These two openings are also partially closed, when necessary, by placing pieces of coke that are
heavy enough to withstand the force of the blast.
When the welding heat is nearly attained, the blast is moderated, and while gently blowing,
a large supply of sand is administered through the two openings or outlets for the flame. The
ladle having a long handle is used for applying the sand, which causes much of the slag which
is formed around the joint to slip off the work into the fire, instead of being welded into.
the joint. |
When the welding heat is reached, the joint is welded while in the fire, by striking the end
or.ends of the work with a pendulum-hammer. These blows are very effectual for welding the
joint to the extreme depth of the mouth, ifthe iron is properly heated to the centre, which cannot
be done by hasty urging of the blast. The outside will in all cases become a few degrees hotter
32 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
than the middle; but, with ordinary care, the difference is not sufficient to prevent a good weld
and a good joint. After being welded by a pendulum-hammer, or as it is sometimes termed, an
oscillating-hammer, the work is taken from the fire by swinging out the two cranes to place the
oint upon an anvil; or the work is conveyed by a truck and railroad, if necessary. The welding
of the joint is then completed by hammering, or by large angular-gap tools, which are effectual
for closing the iron and welding a greater part of the circumference at one blow than could be
welded by one blow of the hammer only. For steam-hammer work, the angular-gap tools are
very thick and strong, to avoid liability to break while in use. Large tools of this character are
not used for ordinary sledge-hammers, because the blow given by such a hammer would have no
visible effect upon the work beneath, the force of the blow being absorbed by the metal which
constitutes the tool.
Whether it is more economical to punch and drift the eyes or holes in the bosses, or to leave
them solid to be entirely bored by a boring or drilling machine, cannot be decided in any general
manner. If a man possesses a number of good boring machines, he may prefer to cut out the
lumps by boring-bars and cutters, because he may not have much forging machinery. In most
cases, it is both quicker and cheaper to drift the eyes to a proper diameter, leaving only sufficient
metal to bore out to the dimension required. If, by punching and drifting, a large hole is made,
a large boring-bar can be immediately inserted ; but if a little hole only is made, it is almost as
useful as none, because an extra boring-tool must be used to admit a large boring-bar of suitable
diameter.
And in addition to an economy of time and metal by drifting, there is the advantage of
securing an approach to a concentric disposition of the fibres in the boss. This disposition is
attained by the metal being swelled out by the drift, and by being well hammered and stretched
while the drift is in the opening.
The making of large holes or eyes will be again treated in the portion devoted to crank-
lever forging.
Luvers.—A lever which is represented by Fig. 24, if small, is easily made by drawing
down the two ends from a bar which is large enough to be formed into the fulcrum boss of the
lever, which is situated near the middle, or, in some cases, near one extremity. Short levers are
quickly made by this method, and the work produced is of close, solid character; but for long
levers the bosses are separately forged with short stems, and afterwards welded to the smaller
portions which are termed the arms. A considerable amount of drawing down is thus avoided,
which is often of great importance to a maker with only a small amount of machinery.
In levers of all classes, the fulcrum boss is that which sustains the largest share of the
whole strain that is applied to the lever while in use; consequently, this boss is the strongest
part. And the lengths of the fibres of the iron or steel in the boss should constitute a series of
concentric rings, whose centre is the centre of the boss.
This form is produced by two or three methods; one of which is by selecting a soft fibrous
bar, and punching a small hole into that part intended to be the boss, and then drifting the hole
to any required diameter while the iron is at a bright yellow heat, or, if the iron is large enough,
at a welding heat. The fibres are thus curved, and will have some resemblance to the arrange-
ment desired.
The next method of making a boss consists in using a large bar and placing it between a
pair of top and bottom fullers, to reduce the metal on each side of the intended boss. This mode
of drawing down produces the required circular arrangement of the fibres without punching
and drifting, if the metal at the commencement were large enough, but is a more lengthy mode
of proceeding because of the greater quantity of metal to reduce.
One other plan of making a lever boss consists in laying and welding three pieces together,
the middle piece constituting the lever itself, and the other two the boss. The two pieces
for the boss are of sufficient length to be welded a considerable distance into the arm of the
lever. :
Upsetting also will produce a lever boss, and is sometimes resorted to in small work. To
FORGING. 33
ee a good boss by upsetting, an excellent tenacious iron or steel is necessary, to avoid risk
of splitting. .
Those two parts of a boss which project from the two sides of a lever are named the boss-
ends. The producing and forming of these ends is effected by driving in fullers and set-hammer ;
and afterwards by top and bottom die-tools of the required shape, and also by trimming with a
trimming-chisel. The shaping by these die-tools or bossing-tools is the cheapest in cases of
large numbers of bosses being required. If large bosses are needed, these tools are made in pairs,
jointed together, and strong enough for a steam-hammer. For small work the bottom tool fits
the square hole of an old-fashioned anvil, the top tool being supported by an ordinary ash or
hazel handle in the hand of the smith. Such bossing-tools are not difficult or expensive to
make; the simplest variety are not made with guides and jointed together, but are distinct, and
are easily bored by a lathe or boring-machine to any desired diameter and depth, according to the
length of the intended boss. While making these tools, it is important to smoothly bore the
holes, and to make each hole larger in diameter at the entrance than at the innermost end; the
hole, being made of regular conic form, will allow the bosses to be driven in and out of the tools
with rapidity. The metal around the holes of these tools must be thick, to prevent the tendency
to split during a severe hammering.
The use of bossing-tools greatly facilitates the processes of turning and shaping by the boring-
‘machine; and in many classes of small levers the entire shaping can be done upon an anvil.
In those cases that require levers to be finished without turning or boring, the joint-pin holes
or connecting-pin holes are punched and drifted to the finished diameter ; and a square is used to
ascertain if the hole is at right angles to the length of the lever. A drift is driven tight into the
hole, and, while in, a square is applied to both sides of the two arms of the lever; or to both
sides of one arm, if the boss under treatment is at the extremity of the lever. And if the drift
is not parallel to the blade of the square, the hole is not at right angles to the lever, and must
therefore be altered, until a near approach to the desired position is attained.
The adjusting consists in bending one arm, or both arms; and sometimes a twist is needed.
Twisting is effected in small work by tightening one arm of the lever in a vice, and twisting the
other arm by applying a twisting-lever (Fig. 102). If a vice is not near, two of these twisting-levers
are used, one upon each arm of the lever that is to be adjusted ; while the smith holds one twister,
the hammerman holds the other, and each man pulls in opposite directions, by which the adjust-
ment is easily effected if the work is sufficiently heated. To twist a large lever it is only necessary
to place the boss or one arm upon a steam-hammer anvil, and to gently let down the hammer to
the arm or boss, and there to fix it by the steam. While thus fixed, twisting-levers are applied
to one arm, or to both arms if necessary.
Another kind of adjustment is needed when the two faces of the boss or bosses are not
parallel to each other, or not parallel to the lever-arms, or not at right angles to the sides of the
lever boss. In such cases the hole is first adjusted to a right angle with the arms, the boss is then
pared by a chisel to produce the necessary parallelism with the hole; after which, the two pro-
minent projections are trimmed off the two faces.
The lengths of the fibres in the lever-arms require to be parallel to the length of the
lever itself, to avoid sudden breaks. For many varieties of small levers Bessemer steel is used,
and, if of soft fibrous character, is very advantageous for the production of smooth friction
surfaces for the joint-pin holes. Levers that are made of steel are drawn down from a piece
which is sufficiently large to produce the fulcrum boss of the lever ; and by applying the author's
rule, no steel need be wasted, through not knowing the length of metal necessary, previous to
drawing down.
Srraps.—The variety of strap denoted by Fig. 25 is used for connecting crank-pins with
connecting-rods; also beam gudgeons with side-rods and connecting-rods.
The proper arrangement of the constituent fibres is obtained by bending the straps from
straight bars which were previously welded and reduced to a suitable width and thickness.
F
34 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
Those portions of the arms which are indicated in the Figure by A are thicker than the adjoin-
ing portions, because the key and gib-way detracts from the strength of the arms. ;
The thicker portions of the arms are made by doubling the piece at each end, and welding
by good steam-hammering; after being welded, and while being reduced to the thickness, the part
intended for the semicircular portion is allowed to remain a little thicker, to compensate for waste
while being heated several times for bending, and also for stretching. ee
The bending or curving is effected by heating the intermediate portion to a length which is
equal to the entire length of the curve required in the strap. It is then bent by placing one end
into a slot in a heavy block, and pulling down the opposite end; after which, the two arms of the
strap are flattened and smoothed by placing a filler into the mouth or opening, and hammering the
outsides.
Straps of great weight and dimensions are bent by long and strong levers, which have gaps
or openings at the ends, one end of the strap being gripped by the lever while the bending is
effected. Several heatings are necessary, the precise number of which depends upon the thickness
of the work, the quality of the implements employed, and the promptness with which the power
is applied.
ce fillers for shaping the curved parts are made of cast iron, and of various dimensions to
suit various sizes of straps. Each filler has a wrought-iron handle, which is fixed by the iron
being poured around one end of the handle, at the time of casting the filler. Another class of
filler also is used for shaping, and consists of a piece of cylindrical iron or steel, which is sup-
ported at each end by two heavy cast-iron blocks. On the upper side of the blocks are two
angular gaps, into which the two ends of the cylindrical filler are placed. The distance between
the two blocks is only sufficient to allow the two arms of the strap to hang freely while the
curved part is supported by the piece of round iron, the ends of which are in the two angular
gaps (Fig. 142).
Round iron of any suitable diameter may be selected as a bearing for the strap; and, while
thus supported, either of the two arms may be gripped by tongs, and any part of the bent portion
may be stretched, flattened, smoothed, or adjusted.
WeicH-Suarrs.—Fig. 26 indicates a weigh-shaft with the three levers, that are usually con-
nected, by which motion is transmitted from one to the other. The levers are distinct from the
shaft, and are keyed to it, sometimes near each other, and at other times near the two extremities
of the shaft ; the whole arrangement depending upon the length of the shaft or spindle, and the
width and class of engines for which the levers are designed.
That lever which is indicated by L B in the Figure, transmits all its moving power to the
shaft and the other two levers; consequently, the lever L B is one class of prime mover of the
weigh-shaft. | When this lever is fixed midway between the other two levers, instead of being at
one end of the shaft, the arrangement is suitable for some classes of land engines, and tends to an
equal distribution of the friction, and consequent equal wear of the bearing surfaces.
Soft steel is suitable for weigh-shafts, by reason of the closeness of its texture, which facili-
tates the production of good friction surfaces, and because of the superior strength of steel as
manifested in its resistance to torsion.
Weicu-Suarr Levers.—Weigh-shaft levers are usually forged of tenacious iron to facilitate
the fitting of them to their shafts. In some cases the levers are tightly fixed by making them
hot and shrinking them while in their precise situations on the shaft. In such cases, the con-
traction of the boss would have a greater tendency to tear it asunder, if made of steel, than if
made of iron. ‘
The necessary strength of the boss is obtained either by adopting a long boss of short
diameter, or by a short boss of long diameter; these bosses are made by doubling or trebling a
bar at one end, and thoroughly welding the layers together, and then punching and drifting
the opening or orifice to the required diameter, which produces the desired circular disposition of
the fibres in the boss. After which a welding heat is again given to the boss, and it is shaped by
a sledge-hammering equally administered around the boss, while it is upon a cylindrical filler,
FORGING. 35
similar to that mentioned for strap-shaping. This hammering is needed to produce a tough
fibrous boss. After the boss is thus made at the end of the work, broad fullers are driven in to
reduce that portion next to the boss; the adjoining part is then reduced to the shape of the lever
arm, and a piece is allowed to remain, which is of sufficient dimensions to be formed into the
smaller boss at the other end of the lever. The next operation is cutting the work from the bar,
and making the smaller boss, either by doubling or trebling if necessary. When both the holes
are made and drifted, and the outsides of the bosses well hammered, they may still be too large;
if so, a trimming-chisel is used to trim the bosses to their respective dimensions. The bosses
a ee flattened, and also smoothed with curved rounding-tools, whose gaps are of suitable
width.
Weigh-shaft levers are also made by reducing the ends of two bars, and welding the reduced
portions together. By this method, all doubling or trebling to make the bosses is avoided. But,
after being punched, they require the same welding, drifting, and hammering as other bosses, for
producing the circular arrangement of the fibres. This mode of drawing down to produce half
the lever arm from each boss is economical for all kinds of short levers, because only a small
amount of reducing is necessary to attain to the length desired; but for long levers, whether
large or small, the plan is not adopted without making two joints for each lever. By this means,
a piece which is of the finished forged width and thickness is welded into the two stems which
were reduced from the bosses.
Supz-Vatve Rops.—Several varieties of slide-rods are used ; a few of which are represented
by the Figures in Plates 1 and 2. Steel is useful for slide-rods, because it is less liable to wear by
the friction of the packing in the packing-box. When slide-rods are of iron, they require the
fibres of the metal to be well closed by angular-gap rounding tools; when this is well done, the
durability of the rod is much greater than with iron of open texture, which collects grit and
other foreign matters. Iron of close texture is also necessary to ensure a smooth surface to the
rod after being hardened, which is sometimes done.
When steel is used for slide-rods, it must be of very fibrous character, and be thoroughly
softened by heating and gradual cooling in coke or charcoal. Such treatment will tend to pre-
vent sudden breaks down, which will occur with hard steel of all kinds.
When the old-fashioned D slide-valve is employed, a rod similar to that shown by Fig. 27
is made use of to connect the two D portions; and two valves are thus formed, connected by one
rod. The intermediate portion of this rod is therefore in the steam space of the slide-box ; and, to
protect the iron from the ravages of the steam, the rod is coated with gun-metal throughout the
length of the intermediate part, including the two flanges or collars denoted by CC.
The diameter of the iron hidden by the gun-metal should not exceed the diameter of the
screw at each end of the rod; and, being of this dimension, the cheapest method. of forging the
rod is by welding a collar to each end, at a proper distance from the extremity. By this plan,
the two portions intended for the screws require upsetting or thickening to admit of a good weld,
and also hammering to obtain the requisite solidity for the screws.
The lower D valve is fastened to the rod by one or two nuts; the upper D valve is secured
by a joint-nut, which is denoted by Figs. 28 and 29. Into the joint-gap of the nut is placed the
square boss of the upper or gland slide-rod shown by Fig. 30. The connexion is effected by
a square pin or bolt being fastened in the joint-nut after the boss of the upper slide-rod is put
into the gap.
The forging of the joint-nut consists in thoroughly welding and hammering a square bar of
iron, and cutting off a solid piece which is long enough to make the nut; the gap in which is
afterwards made by drilling and slotting.
The upper slide-rod may be made of soft fibrous steel, for the advantage of having a good
sliding surface for contact with the packing in the packing-box. If the rod is made of steel that
cannot be welded, it is sometimes necessary to make the whole of the sliding part and screw por-
tion by reducing it from a bar whose width and thickness are about two-thirds the width and
thickness of the intended square boss. The sliding part may be produced at the end of the bar ;
F2
36 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
or may be reduced while a lump is allowed to remain at the extremity, for the convenience, if
necessary, of upsetting to form the boss. By upsetting, a part of the drawing may be avoided.
In either case, the length of bar required is ascertained by applying the rule in p. 8, and sub-
stituting slide-rod stem for key stem.
These upper slide-rods are also made of iron which is well hammered by a steam-hammer,
and also well closed by a pair of angular-gap tools. Very little reducing is sufficient when iron
is employed. The square boss is formed by doubling and welding a lump at the end of a bar or
rod, which is equal in diameter to the diameter of the required sliding part. The diameter of
the iron made use of is only sufficient to admit a good welding and closing, to reduce it to the
desired diameter of the slide-rod when forged.
Rive Sumez-Rops.—The class of slide-rods shown by Fig. 32 is forged of three pieces. One
of the three constitutes the intermediate part of the rod, indicated in the Figure by BB; the second
piece is formed into the circular portion, denoted by C C; and the third piece becomes the friction
portion and the screw part, represented by A.
The intermediate piece is first made, by punching a hole into and cutting open the end of
a bar whose diameter is about 14 times the diameter of the intended sliding part. The two ends
thus produced are carefully separated while at a bright yellow heat, and shaped into the form of
aT. The length of the three arms of the T-piece are sufficient to allow the other two pieces to be
conveniently welded to it. The proper length and thickness of the two smaller arms are attained
by driving in a fuller at the two curved parts, BB, and afterwards reducing the remaining lumps
to the dimensions desired ; a thick portion being allowed to remain at the ends of the two thin
arms, for being formed into a scarf. The larger arm is next reduced by a fuller to the forged
diameter required ; a lump remaining for a scarf, as for the two thin arms. By this mode, all up-
setting of the T-piece is avoided.
After the T-piece is made, the length of bar necessary for the circular portion may be ascer-
tained by subtracting the lengths of the two thin arms of the T-piece from the entire length of the
ring’s mid-circle circumference, and that which remains indicates the length of the ring-piece
required, if the thickness of the bar previous to being welded is equal to the thickness of the
ring after being finished to the forged dimension. It is always convenient to use a rather shorter
length of bar than the symbols indicate ; and also to select bar which is rather thicker than the
finished forged thickness, because the ring can be stretched or lengthened after being welded,
but it cannot be upset or shortened without trouble.
Previous to joining the ring-piece to the T-piece, the two thin arms are curved to their proper
form; and the bending or curving of the ring-piece is also partly effected previous to welding
it to the T-piece.
After being scarfed while straight, the ring is formed across the anvil beak until nearly
circular, to avoid contact with that arm of the T-piece which is not to become part of the joint
first made; and after the first joint is made, the ring is properly curved to its circular form, and to
fit the scarf of the other thin arm; and while in this relation, the second joint is made by
welding; after which the ring is stretched, if necessary, while on a piece of large round iron which
is placed upon the blocks having angular gaps. Another mode of lengthening is performed by aid
of a long cast-iron conical filler, slightly tapered to suit rings of various diameters.
After the two ring-joints are effectually made by using a large supply of sand and a rapid
hammering, the lump at the end of the thick arm of the T-piece is scarfed, and a piece of iron is
prepared for the parallel portions of the slide-rod. The diameter of this piece is only equal to the
forged diameter of the sliding or friction part of the rod ; and the length of the piece is sufficient
for the sliding portions and the screw part.
A slide-rod which is indicated by Fig. 33 requires but little more forging than welding and
closing the fibres of a bar of good iron or fibrous steel, and then cutting the rod to a proper
length, and squaring or curving the extremities to facilitate the centring process, previous to
turning. In that part of the rod’s parallel portion which is to be outside the packing-gland, two
flats are made for the convenience of rotating the rod while in its place. A spanner which fits the
FORGING. 37
two flats is employed to rotate the rod, whereby the position of the slide-valve is altered at plea-
sure. These flats being very shallow, no attention need be given them by the smith, who makes
the rod sufficiently solid throughout its whole length.
Fig. 34 represents a slide-rod whose small end is fixed in the slide-valve by nuts on each
screw, the valve being between. An opening, which is four-sided instead of circular, contains the
block and pin by which motion is given to the valve-rod. In the figure this opening is indicated
by F; and when of small size, the whole of the rod may be forged of one piece which is large
enough to produce the boss by being flattened and spread out by a steam-hammer, the four-sided
opening being afterwards made by drilling and slotting.
more convenient mode of making large rods of this character consists in using a shorter
piece of iron, which is only sufficient to make the boss and two short stems. These stems are
reduced from the lump by fullers and hammering, and produced to a convenient length for
welding to two other pieces, which are to be formed into the friction parts, indicated by
Aand B. These two pieces are of a suitable diameter, to admit only a small amount of
Ae and hammering to attain to the forged diameter, and to ensure sufficient solidity for
the screws.
Rods that are to have large frames in the middles, to fit the outsides of slide-valves, require a
different method of forging. Instead of forging a solid boss and leaving it to be drilled and
slotted, the square frame itself is forged upon the anvil. In such cases, six pieces are necessary
to make onerod. Of these six, two are formed into T-pieces, whose thin arms constitute portions
of the intended square frame, and whose thick arms are scarfed for welding to the two cylindrical
friction parts of the intended rod. After the T-pieces are made, two thin bars are bent to the
forms of crotchets or brackets, thus (_), and the thin arms of the two T-pieces are welded to the
two crotchet-pieces. When the square or rectangular frame is thus complete, it is welded to the
two cylindrical ends of the rod, by which the forging is finished.
In many cases the friction portions of the slide-rod are keyed or screwed into the bosses of the
valve-frame; such a frame may be made of four pieces only, as indicated in Fig. 134.
Connectine-Rops wit Insipz Screws.— Fig. 31 indicates a rod having an inside screw, which
is occasionally used to connect the upper end, or what is sometimes the outer end, of a slide-rod.
Six or eight sides are formed upon the boss for the convenience of rotating the rod with a spanner.
It is not necessary to forge any opening or orifice whatever in the rod, because drilling or boring
such small holes is a preferable process. It is generally most convenient to forge such rods of
one piece, which is welded and made solid with hammering, to produce the larger boss in which
a screw is to be made. The intermediate portion is next reduced by fullers and hammering, and
a lump is allowed to remain for the smaller boss, in which is placed the joint-pin. Rods of this
character must be welded to a proper distance from the outside; if not, the screw will be unsolid
and liable to break. .
Rods with inside screws are also used, which are of great length. In such cases, the larger
boss is forged with a short stem only, which is afterwards welded to the intermediate portion of
the rod that is of a suitable diameter to avoid reducing. Another smaller boss, or sometimes a
joint-piece, is also made, and welded to the intermediate piece to complete the rod.
Linxs.—Links are of two principal varieties—slotted and solid. The forging of that which
is termed a solid link is about equal to the forging of a slotted one, because both are forged
without the slot.
The simplest class of links, and the easiest to forge, is that named solid, and having no bosses
whatever in any part of the link. Such a link is almost as easy to make as a straight bar, until
the curving commences, which may be carefully managed to leave only a small amount of iron
or steel for finishing the link, or may be so carelessly done as to require a greater amount
of shaping than should be administered. Consequently, at the time of reducing the bar, the
smith leaves more or less metal for shaping, according to the amount of care he intends to bestow
upon the curving.
Soft fibrous steel is exceedingly good for links of all varieties, and especially for those of
38 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR
the solid class. Such links may be produced by flattening a bar of steel until the required
width and thickness is attained, after which the curving is effected by a series of heatings
and hammerings while across a cylindrical shaper, which is supported by the blocks having
angular gaps.
Two arcs are necessary for adjusting the link, and to ascertain if any needs cutting off with
a trimming-chisel. These two arcs are marked upon a flat surface-table of large dimensions,
which will allow the links to be laid conveniently to the arcs to detect any irregularity in the
forging. A light radius-rod is used to construct the arcs, which are marked upon the surface-
table through a layer of soft chalk or whiting that is spread evenly on the surface. The distance
between the two arcs is an eighth of an inch greater than that distance across the link which is
' the width of it when forged; and when the link is placed midway between the two arcs, each
one will be a sixteenth of an inch distant from the link, which will enable the smith to see
clearly which part of it needs rectifying.
Heating the link for bending commences by heating a few inches at one end, and a small
amount only of hammering will effect the small curve desired in that part. After a few blows
are administered, the link is put between the two ares to ascertain if more hammering is needed.
As soon as the first few inches of the link-end is bent to a corresponding number of inches of the
arcs, the adjoining portions are successively heated and bent in a similar manner. A succession
of heatings are thus conducted until the curving is completed.
Linxs witH Bosszs.—Links are also forged with bosses—either one, two, or three—as
represented by Fig. 35. The slot of such a’ link is easily made while cold, and properly
shaped by a machine for the purpose; consequently, it is not necessary to forge any slot in
the link, except the maker is compelled to do so through want of slotting machinery.
When a link is to have one, two, or three bosses, the mode of procedure consists in
making a link which is equal in width to the total width of the link, the bosses included.
After such a link is reduced to the necessary width and thickness, and also curved, the bosses are
produced by cutting off the superfluous iron or steel that surrounds the intended bosses.
The link is marked upon both sides of it while cold, and a chisel for cold metal is driven into
the marks, and the superfluous metal is afterwards cut off while at a yellow heat, and thus the
bosses are produced.
Another mode of making link-bosses consists in forging each boss separately, and after-
wards welding them to the link. The boss-pieces are made by driving in fullers at each end of
a thick piece, thus forming a boss between two stems that are welded to the link. A boss thus
formed possesses a concentric arrangement of the layers and fibres, and, consequently, is very
durable.
But the strongest sort of link results from forging it of one piece, and producing the bosses
by driving in a fuller at the extremities of each intended boss, and afterwards reducing the
intermediate portions of the link to its proper width.
This mode requires a little arithmetic, to ascertain the precise length of metal necessary
previous to drawing down or reducing by a fuller to form the bosses.
. Previous to driving in a fuller, the link is reduced to its total forged width and thickness :
the length of metal required is then discovered by applying the author’s rule in this form:
As the mean width of the link previous to forming the bosses is to the required mean width
afterwards, so is the required mean length of the link to the mean length previous to forming
the bosses.
The mean width of the link is ascertained by adding the width across the link at one of the
bosses to the width across the link at that part which is without a boss. The sum of both
dimensions is then divided by 2, and the quotient is the mean width required.
For forging purposes, it is sufficient to consider the link’s mean or mid-curve to be an arc of.
a circle’s circumference, and the length of this arc is the required mean length of the link when
forged, supposing that no bosses were necessary. In such cases, the length of straight iron
required would equal the length of the mean or mid-curve. But, bosses being intended, it is
FORGING. 39
necessary to add the lengths of the semicircular parts of the bosses, and subtract the lengths of
those parts of the link which will be occupied by the bases of the bosses.
The length of the link’s mid-arc is ascertained by multiplying the number of its degrees by
017453, and multiplying the product by the length of the arc’s radius.
The rule applies especially to small work, of iron. Steel links require the same length of
metal as the mean length of the link after forging. Driving a fuller into the edge of a steel one
produces a burr instead of lengthening the work, and a trimming-chisel is needed to cut off the
burr to prevent it being hammered into the link.
Thick links are lengthened by fullers and ordinary hammering on an anvil, but thin ones
require to be placed edge upwards in a groove, for the convenience of holding or maintaining the
work in an upright position during the hammering upon the edges.
Linx-Stots.—Cutting a link-slot while on the anvil is managed by first carefully marking
the two arcs which determine the width of the slot. To mark properly, the link is laid upon a
table, and a radius-rod having a steel scriber is made use of. This steel scriber is that which
marks the two arcs upon the link, while the other end of the radius-rod is fixed in a centre-punch
cavity in the surface-table upon which the link rests. After the two arcs are delineated, and the
two ends of the slot also indicated, a chisel is driven in at the marks, and the link is then turned
upside-down, and a similar pair of arcs are made upon the other side. Cutting out is then com-
menced while at a bright yellow heat by punching holes at each end of the intended slot. The
unch for making these holes is a circular one, the diameter of which is only one-third the
forged width of the slot. With this punch two holes are made at each end of the slot, leaving
between each two holes a piece of metal which is one-third the width of the slot. After the ends
are thus treated, a row of holes is made along the middle of the slot, and the portions which still
remain around the holes are then easily cut out with a trimming-chisel.
Excentric-Rops. —In an excentric-rod, represented by Fig. 36, the mouth or orifice
indicated by O is usually cut while cold by slotting, the rod being forged solid at both
ends, although a gap is shown in the Figure, which should be the case with any sketch or
drawing by which the smith may be working. He will then exercise sufficient care to arrange
the fibres, that they may be in a suitable shape and position after the mouth or gap is cut.
The two ends of such a rod are first forged separately, each piece having a stem with a
good scarf for welding to the intermediate portion of the rod. To form the gap end or fork end,
a thick bar is doubled at one end and welded together. The length of the doubled part is
sufficient to extend a considerable distance into the stem that is to be scarfed, to prevent cracks
being formed at the inner curves of the boss.
Another method of making a good fork-end consists in welding and reducing a bar to the
outer dimensions of the fork or fork-piece, and then driving in a fuller at the inner extremity of
the solid or boss part of the intended fork. After the boss is thus produced by a fuller, the
adjoining stem is reduced to its width and thickness and increased to a convenient length for
welding to the intermediate piece, a lump being allowed to remain to avoid upsetting
for scarfing.
In a fork-piece thus made, the orifice may, if necessary, be formed by first punching a round
hole at the inner extremity of the intended opening, and afterwards cutting out with a chisel.
The chisel is driven from both sides half way through the work, and every semi-detached piece is
cut out previously to smoothing the inside, which is performed by placing a filler into the opening
and hammering the outside. The filler is made of soft steel and to the shape of the opening
desired. While this kind of filler is in use, the outer end is in a gap-stop, to avoid being shaken
out by the hammering. A gap-stop in the square hole of an anvil is shown by Fig. 77.
After the fork-piece is made, the T-piece is formed for the opposite end of the rod, which is
similar to that indicated by A in Fig. 37. A good arrangement of the fibres in the T-piece is
obtained by punching a large hole into a bar of good soft iron or steel, and afterwards splitting
open the end by cutting a slit to meet the round hole, the hole being at a proper distance from the
extremity. When the two ends thus produced are separated and properly bent to a right angle
40 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
with the bar, the lengths of the fibres will be at right angles to the bar, and, consequently,
at right angles to the stem, which is to be welded to the intermediate portion of the intended
rod; and this disposition of the layers and fibres is that which is necessary for strength in the
T-piece.
- After the T-piece is tolerably shaped, it is cut from the bar with sufficient length to be
formed into a stem and scarf; and when cut off, the stem is produced and the scarf formed for
welding.
The intermediate part is then made of a suitable width and length to complete the forging of
the rod. The width and thickness of the intermediate piece is rather greater than the required
forged width and thickness, for the convenience of stretching or drawing the rod to its exact
length at the conclusion of the forging; consequently, the length of the piece is shorter than the
finished length. After the three pieces are welded together, the rod is hammered to the precise
length, which is measured from the centre of the fork-eye, or hole, to the centre of the T-piece,
or its extremity.
While lengthening the rod to its exact length, a simple variety of gauge is made use of to
ascertain the precise amount of stretching which is necessary. Such a gauge is made of a thin
bar of 4-inch iron, the width of which is at least 1 or 14 inches. Ten or twelve inches at each
end of the bar are tapered, and afterwards bent edgeways to the bar and at right angles to it,
which produces the form of a bracket, thus: ————; the distance between the two extremities
being the length of the excentric rod. These two pointed ends are filed to a circular form, and to
half a millimetre in diameter, which is much too large for other work, but small enough for
forging an excentric-rod. The mode of adjusting the gauge to its exact length consists in opening
or closing the two legs of the gauge until the distance between the centres of the two circular
extremities is the distance desired.
Fig. 38 represents an excentric-rod for oscillating and other classes of paddle-engines. In
the Figure, the gap is indicated by G, which is intended for the gap-pin. In one particular,
the forging of such a rod is similar to the forging of other excentric-rods ; the rod being forged of
three pieces, which are welded together at the first forging, or afterwards, when the engines are
in the ship, as circumstances may require.
The forging of the T-piece is similar to that mentioned for Figs. 36 and 37. The forging of
the gap-piece is performed with a piece whose width and thickness are sufficient to make
a solid lump for the gap-boss. A fuller is driven in at each extremity of the intended
boss, and the two straight stems are then reduced to a suitable width and thickness for
the intermediate portion; a larger piece remaining at the extremity of the boss-piece for
scarfing. If the stem of the gap-piece is to be turned in a lathe, a lump is allowed to remain
at the taper end, instead of reducing the whole of it to the thickness when finished. Both
of the extremities of the gap-piece stems are made square and solid, to conveniently admit the
centring process previous to turning. No cutting or punching of the gap-piece is necessary,
because it is afterwards bored while cold.
StgEL Gap-Livers.—These are indicated by Fig. 40, and are dovetailed in the gap of
Fig. 38. After these liners are worn too thin, or the openings too wide, a new steel liner is put
into the rod, without interfering with its gap.
Forging a small liner of this class requires two principal tools—a bottom fuller, to place in
the anvil for shaping the inside, and a top-tool for shaping the outside of the liner while it is
supported by the bottom fuller in the anvil.
The only part of such a liner which is subject to wear, is the curved or half-round portion,
consequently this should be the thickest. If the liner is not required to have sharp corners at
the entrance to the gap, the forging of it is performed with a bar of flat steel which is the thickness
of the thickest part of the intended liner.
After this bar is reduced on both sides of the thickest part of the intended liner, one of the
two outside arms is bent, by heating to a bright yellow heat, and placing the end into a slot in
the heavy block, or by placing the end a proper distance beyond the anvil edge, and driving down
FORGING. 41
the projecting end with a hammer, while another much heavier hammer is held on the part that
remains on the anvil. When one arm is thus produced, the entire work is cut from the bar; the
piece cut off being of sufficient length for the entire liner. To ascertain the length necessary, the
lengths of the parallel sides of the gap are added to the length of the semicircumference which
constitutes the bottom, or, as it may be termed, the top, of the gap. These lengths, added to
the length of the other arm, denote the length of bar necessary
After the piece is cut off, the length of the gap boundary is properly marked upon the
work to indicate the commencement of the other arm. Marking the place for bending is performed
by a céntre-punch, having a broad conical end instead of a narrow one. A punch with a broad
end will make a hole that can be seen, without making it too deep, which would injure the work.
The situation of the mark also is of consequence. When a large hole is made in a careless
manner with a sharp punch, into the side of a thin bar, and the bar is bent where that deep
cavity is situated, the cavity becomes a long rent, of dimensions too great to be obliterated without
spoiling the work; but if the cavity is made into an edge, or both edges of the bar, and with a
blunt punch instead of a sharp one, the work when bent will not be disfigured, and, if necessary,
the dot or cavity can be easily erased.
After two dots are thus made into the two edges of the work, the other arm is produced from
the same side of the bar as at the first bending. The two arms will then be extended from the
same side of the bar, and parallel to each other.
The gap-curve is next formed by placing the work upon a bottom fuller, which is of a
suitable height to prevent the work touching the anvil, and of sufficient thickness to form the
gap desired. At the first heating for this curve, the liner is placed upon the fuller with the two
arms of the work upwards, and while the fuller is precisely midway between the two arms, a
broad half-round top-tool is employed to force down the gap sides; and when the top-tool will
not force the metal further without thinning the top of the work, a smaller top-tool is applied,
and the curving is completed by hammering, and also stretching, to lengthen the gap to the
proper dimensions.
Another method of making these liners consists in forging them from a bar of steel which
is three or four times the thickness of the intended work. A boss is formed upon one side
of the bar by driving in a fuller at two places, the boss being between. ‘T'wo small or thin ends
are then made, which extend from both sides of the boss to a short distance. A hole is next
punched into the boss with a punch of elliptic section ; or, as a substitute, an ordinary circular
punch. The hole is made at a short distance from the edge of the work; after which, the thin
piece is cut out bya chisel, and the gap is thus partly formed. The gap-sides are next lengthened
by hammering, while on a narrow bottom fuller, on the anvil, and also while on a fuller having a
long handle, which is held by the smith. Lengthening the gap is also performed by driving a
top fuller into the gap while it is in a half-round bottom-tool in the anvil.
By this method, all upsetting, to produce what are named square corners, is avoided. Assoon
as the hole is punched, and the thin piece adjoining cut out with a chisel, the angular corners or
entrances to the gaps are produced, and so continue till the forging is complete.
Stup Rivuts.—These are occasionally used for beams or other work when it is necessary to
penetrate entirely through and effect a fastening at the other side. The shortest method of forg-
ing one, which is denoted by Fig. 39, consists in making a collar or flange, and welding it to the
stud, at a proper distance from the extremity. Such studs must be made of soft iron, for the con-
venience of riveting; and if it is necessary to frequently fix or unfix them, a screw and nut are
used instead of a rivet.
Piuneer Jomnts.—Such joints are applied to what are named hollow plungers, or trunk-
plungers, and consist of two principal parts—the connecting-rod and the joint-head bolt. At the
end of this bolt is a screw for a gun-metal nut, by which the bolt is secured to the plunger.
By referring to Fig. 42, it will be observed that the boss B of the connecting-rod is about
equal in dimensions to the rectangular portion or boss at the other end; and the smith will thus
perceive that the shortest and most economical method of forging is by steam-hammering a bar
G
42 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
to the dimensions of the two ends of the connecting-rod, and then by reducing the intermediate
part till the desired length is attained. And to do this in a scientific manner instead of by a
series of random hammerings and cutting pieces off, he will learn precisely how much metal is
necessary to produce the rod to the proper length by applying the rule stated in page 8.
When the bar is reduced by sufficient welding and hammering to the dimensions of the two
larger portions of the rod, the sectional area may be stated, the rule applied, and the length of
bar necessary will be ascertained. If the sectional area of the lump which is being forged is
123 inches, and the required sectional area of the intermediate to be 7 inches, and the required
length of the intermediate between the two bosses to be 20 inches, the proposition appears thus :
124 : 7 :: 20 : 11,3, nearly:
11:2 is the true amount. And although this is but little more than half the length of 20 inches,
the smith may drive in a fuller at each extremity of the indicated distance, allowing only an
eighth or a quarter of an inch for heating and burning the iron, and also for the metal being closed
into a smaller space by hammering.
The forging of the joint-head bolt which is attached to the connecting-rod consists in making
a bolt with a large solid head, the fibres in which are circularly arranged. This arrangement is
obtained by heating a thick end to welding heat and placing it into a large half-round bottom-
tool, which is on the floor if the work is too long to be stood lengthways upon an anvil. The
cold end of the work is then struck by hammers until sufficiently upset, after which, the stem or
screw end of the bolt is produced, either while the bolt is attached to the bar, or after being cut
from the bar and held by the bolt-head.
The amount of iron necessary to produce the stem to its proper length is ascertained by the
same method as for the connecting-rod, and the length of bar may then be cut off; but it is
generally more convenient to reduce the bolt-stem to the diameter desired previous to cutting it
from the bar.
_ Smatu Cranx-Suarrs.—While speaking of crank-shafts, the three names, shaft, spindle, and
aXe, are synonymous, of which three “axle” is correct. The arm of a crank is a lever, and if a
crank has two arms, it is a two-lever or double-lever crank. That part of the lever at which the
power is applied is a handle, and in a crank is named acrank-pin. The two arms, together with
the crank-pin, are termed the crank, and also the throw.
Fig. 43 represents a two-arm crank, and Fig. 44 indicates a one-arm crank. In both these
Figures the letters L signify lever, and the letters P signify crank-pin. §S denotes the portion
named the axle or spindle, and B shows the bearing surfaces.
Small crank-axles are sometimes forged with cranks of circular section, which are named
round-throw cranks. These are used for small machinery, such as foot-lathes, small pumping-
engines, steam-cranes, and similar work.
Small round crank-axles are made by two principal methods. The one consists in bending
a straight rod of iron or steel on an anvil, or anvil-beak, until the cranks are produced; and the
other method is by forcing the work into cast-iron shapers or dies, which are of suitable
dimensions to produce the throws to the necessary length, width, and shape.
To forge a small two-arm crank-shaft of round iron or steel, and without dies, it is usual to
proceed by selecting a soft, tenacious metal which may be upset without opening or splitting.
The diameter of the iron selected is that which is required when the crank is forged. If the
entire crank-axle is to be of great length, the crank part is forged separately, and afterwards
welded to the other part of the spindle; but if only a short axle is wanted, the entire length of
metal necessary is ascertained, when the length is cut from a bar or rod, and the crank-
axle made of one piece. The first requisite is to determine the position of the intended
crank-pin. This is done by adding the length of the intended arm to the length of one end
of the axle. These two lengths added together indicate the commencement of the crank-pin,
and from this spot to a short distance beyond the other end of the crank-pin is the part of the
work which is to be first upset. This portion is heated to a welding heat and upset till the rod’s
diameter is about a fourth greater than its previous diameter. The next step is to upset two
FORGING. 43
other portions of the work, and the situations of these two portions are equidistant from the
portion that was upset for the crank-pin. A dot is put into the work at an equal distance from
either end of the crank-pin to indicate the length of the lever, because both levers must be of
the same length. The work is then heated and upset at the place indicated by one of the dots,
and the diameter increased to about the same as that of the crank-pin. Another upsetting is next
performed at the place marked by the dot showing the length of the other lever. (See Fig. 135.)
After the three portions are upset, the first bending is effected at one end of the intended
crank-pin. The next bend will be at the other end of the pin, but if the crank-pin is to be very
short, instead of two bendings, one is sufficient.
When this portion of the crank is made, the two ends of the intended shaft are parallel to
each other, and the distance between the two centres should be the same as the length of the
crank-pin, if measured from the centres of the lever ends. If the length of the heated part
previous to bending were too short or too near the centre of the crank-pin, the bent part
must be re-heated and adjusted, or stretched and lengthened by fullers of proper thickness ;
and if the heated part were too long, the crank-pin is also too long; in such cases it is
oe by re-heating and cooling to the right place and closing the two ends of the work
together.
During forging, the diameter of the crank-pin is not so important a consideration as the
length of it. Ifthe pin is upset beyond the finished diameter, and the pin too long to admit of
being stretched, it is afterwards reduced to the right diameter by the lathe process.
When the crank-pin is formed, the throw is then produced by bending back the two ends of
the shaft while the pin is cool enough to prevent any alteration of it during the bending which
produces the levers. The cooling is effected by placing the bent portion already made into the
water until a proper amount of the intended two arms is cooled, while the remainder is still hot
enough for bending. It is then placed between two studs of a suitable length and width on a
heavy block, and bent by forcing the end back with levers or tongs which are fixed at the end
of the work.
The length of the heated portion at the time of bending should be the length of the curve
desired ; consequently, the iron is cooled until the punch-mark is exactly midway between the
two extremities of the curve intended. If the curve is not made in the right place, the throw
will be either too long or too short; the work is then re-heated and cooled to lengthen or shorten
the throw to its proper length. During this lengthening or shortening, top and bottom tools and
fullers are also needed to produce the necessary curved outline of the work.
Adjusting the crank and shaft is next performed by making the two levers parallel to each
other, and in the same plane with the crank-pin and crank-axle. Another sort of adjustment also
is performed by the aid of a long straight-edge. This is applied to the axle of the work to
indicate whether the longitudinal axis of one end is nearly in line with the longitudinal axis of
the other end. Ifthe work is not properly adjusted at the first forging, it must be adjusted at
some other time previous to being turned, and also at a needless expense. .
Cutting the extremities to a suitable length is next performed. The precise length will
depend upon whether or not the axle-ends are to be steeled. Steel ends may or may not be
necessary, according to the intended use of the axle. Such ends are often used for lathe crank-
axles when each end is to be supported by a screw whose end fits the end of the axle.
If steel ends are needed, their attachment is effected by driving in a small punch and making
hole in line with the axis of the axle, and then welding in a piece of steel, the length of which
1s according to whether the end of the axle is to be tapered or whether the parallel portion is to
be continued to the extremity. If an inch or two of steel is necessary, the pieces are scarfed, or
a tongue-joint made in the usual manner.
rank-shafts of round iron are also made by first forming the two outer curves of the crank
instead of first making the two curves at the end of the crank-pin. A long crank-pin is easier
formed after the two outer curves are made, and a short crank-pin may be produced at one
bending, which is conveniently done at the commencement of the forging.
G2
44 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
Those who make small crank-shafts in large numbers require the dies or moulds, into which
the iron is pressed and hammered to the shape desired.
These moulds consist of cast or wrought-iron blocks, which are sufficiently thick and heavy
to bear much hammering without breaking. They may be so shaped as to produce crank-axles
of either round iron or square, and effect a large economy of time and labour.
The lower die or block is that which receives the piece of straight iron that is to be cranked,
and the upper block is that by which the work is forced into the die; and both blocks, when
together without the work between, form a cavity which is the shape, or, in some cases, nearly
the shape, of the crank required. Lach pair of shapers is jointed together, or guided together
with guide-rods, that both dies may be in their exact relations to each other when brought
together by hammering.
But to make a small crank with square corners a different method is adopted. Cranks with
angular corners are used for small land-engines, or small pumping-engines, and are of different
forms, according to their intended destinations and positions. They are made with but one arm,
having the crank-pin outside, as in Fig. 44, or, as in Fig. 43, with two-arm cranks having the
axle-bearings at a distance, depending upon the amount of room desired between the main
framing.
The crank-pin represented in Fig. 44 is distinct from the crank-arm, being secured to the
arm by a nut, to avoid weakening the pin by cutting a key-way into it. The lever and
axle constitute one piece, and the forging of this piece consists in either upsetting the axle and
bending it to a right angle, or in cutting a slit into the end of the shaft and welding in the end
of the lever.
The strongest work is produced by bending, and the upsetting previous to this bending must
be well done; or a larger bar is selected and reduced on each side of the intended apex or
corner until the dimensions of the intended lever and axle are attained. This reducing of a bar
which is too large is as effectual as upsetting a bar which is about the diameter of the shaft. But
whichever plan is adopted, it is necessary to form a thick lump at the place of the intended
corner. The inner side of this thick part is then reduced by a broad fuller and hammering,
which makes the bending comparatively easy, prevents the inner edges being squeezed up during
the bending, and renders the bending process altogether less difficult, while the thick portion.
outside remains to be formed into the sharp or square corner desired.
The bending or angling is commenced by driving a fuller, which is held on the axle while it
is lying across an opening in a large heavy bottom-tool, or some other convenient gap. After
being thus partly formed, the angling is continued on an anvil edge, while heavy hammers are
held on the work; or the work is put upon a steam-hammer anvil, the hammer of which is fixed
upon the work by the steam. While thus fixed, the sledge-hammering is administered sideways
to the work.
The final squaring of the corner is accomplished by upsetting it while ata bright yellow heat.
During this upsetting, the blows are given both to the cold end of the lever, and to the cold end
of the axle. By such treatment, if necessary, a well-defined corner will be produced, without
cutting a gap into the corner, and welding in a piece which is named, for some funny reason, a
sticking-piece.
The mode now to be mentioned, of making a small one-arm crank-axle, obviates much
upsetting, or large amount of reducing; and is also a quicker method of proceeding than by
angling, but care is necessary to ensure good work.
The plan consists in welding the lever to the axle; and requires a large opening or gap to
be made in the end, into which is fitted a stem that is tapered down from the lever. The depth
to which this gap should extend from the extremity is 14 times the finished diameter of the axle.
Such a depth of gap admits a stem of great strength ; and to allow as much strength as possible
to the axle, the bottom of the gap isin the shape either of a long curve or of an angular > form.
If the end of the lever is then spread out and tapered or fullered down to fit the gap, a
tolerable joint may be effected with about three welding heats; consequently, every provision
FORGING. 45
must be made to secure sufficient iron for a large amount of welding and hammering. If such a
joint happens to be thoroughly welded in all its parts, the work is equal to a shaft made of one
piece ; and for many classes of small work such a joint can be made.
The forging of a small two-arm crank-shaft, represented by Fig. 43, includes two or three
methods; the particular plan selected depending upon the dimensions of the work and upon the
resources of the maker. A simple mode consists in welding and preparing a bar whose width
equals the total width of the crank, measured from the outer extremity of the crank-axle to the
outer extremity of the crank-lever. When such a bar is made, the crank is formed by cutting
out three large pieces: the cutting out of one piece produces the gap which adjoins the crank-
pin, and the cutting out of the other two pieces forms the spaces at the outsides of the two levers.
After carefully marking upon both sides of the work while cold, the cutting out is commenced
at a yellow heat by punching a round hole at each spot which marks the forged width of the
lever, and also marks the forged thickness of the crank-axle. Two chisel-cuts are then made at
right angles to each other, and whose vertex is the inner extremity of one of the holes. By these
two cuts, one of the larger sunerfluous pieces is cut out; and the other similar piece is then cut
out by similar means.
The gap-piece is next cut out by first punching a row of holes which is parallel to the
length of the crank-pin, and at the bottom of the intended gap. Two other rows of holes are
then made at right angles to the first row, and to meet it; the gap-piece is then separated by a
chisel which is driven half way through from both sides. A crank-piece of this character is shown
by Fig. 136.
Crank-axles made by this mode require the iron to be very close and welded in the lever
portion ; if not, the crank will certainly break while in use, although it may be of twice the
ordinary necessary dimensions of a good crank for the same engine. And the rupture will occur
because the lengths of the fibres in the levers are at right angles to the proper position. This
position is parallel to the length of the lever, and not at right angles to it.
One other method to be mentioned of making a small two-arm crank-shaft consists in making
a solid crank, or solid throw, and leaving the superfluous gap-piece to be cut out by drilling and
slotting.
The forging of such a crank commences by welding and reducing a bar until the width
of it equals the total length of the crank-lever, and then drawing down a portion of the bar
each side of the intended crank. ;
The length necessary for each end of the axle is discovered by applying the appropriate rule
in the ordinary manner; after which a fuller is driven in at the intended commencement of each
axle-piece, and the ends are lengthened by ordinary hammering. If the axle-pieces are too short
to be reduced while attached to the bar, it is necessary to cut off the work, and grip it with
angular-gap tongs of suitable dimensions.
The making of large crank-axles will be mentioned in due order.
Hoop Excentric-Rops.—These are also named band excentric-rods, and are indicated by
Figs. 45 and 115. The forked or hoop portion is of one piece with the remainder of the rod; al-
though it is first forged distinct from the straight part, the two being afterwards welded together.
The hoop portion is formed by spreading out the end of a thick piece which is of sufficient
length to be conveniently handled by means of tongs, or by a bar named a porter, which is
welded to the work at the commencement of the forging. A round hole is made at the inner
extremity of the intended gap, or concave portion of the hoop, and a slit is cut from the hole to
the extremity of the work. After being thus divided, the two ends are reduced to a proper width
and thickness, and increased to a suitable length, care being exercised to leave a thick piece at
each end to be formed into bosses for the connecting-bolts.
After the semicircular portion is formed, a stem is made of the thick part of the work, which
is produced to a convenient length for welding to the straight part of the excentric-rod. This
straight part is then made of proper length, width, and thickness, and welded to the hoop-piece
for completing the rod.
46 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
Large hoop excentric-rods for marine engines are made of several pieces, which are then
welded together. One piece constitutes the boss part which is bolted to the link; another piece
is made into the intermediate parts of the rod; the next piece is formed into the fork junction,
being that which connects the intermediate piece with the fork-ends; and these two fork-ends are
the portions required for completing the rod.
After the whole number are welded together, such large rods need careful adjusting to place
the band portion at right angles to the straight part of the rod. To effect this adjustment, a
straight line is marked upon a large surface-table, the length of the line being a few inches
ereater than the total length of the rod. At one extremity of the line another is made at right
angles to the first, and across it, the length of the second line being equal to the total breadth across
the gap and the bosses included. From the centre of this line two concentric circles are described,
the distance between their two circumferences being an eighth of an inch greater than the distance
between the two curves of the hoop-forks. Next mark the shape of the intermediate part of the
rod, by drawing a line on each side of the first one made, and making the distance between the
two outer lines an eighth of an inch greater than the width across the rod.
By placing the rod between these lines on a surface-table, any irregularity in the band or
straight part of the work will be easily observed, and corrected accordingly.
Semi-Hoors.—The forging of the separate semicircular bands of excentric rods consists in
preparing and curving a straight bar which is of proper length, width, and thickness. (See Fig. 140.)
If the bar is first well hammered and reduced while straight, after the band is curved to its form,
the fibres will be in a suitable position for sustaining the strain while in ordinary use. After the
piece is reduced to its width and thickness, the length of bar necessary for the band is equal to the
lengths of the two bosses added to the length of the band’s mid-semicircumference ; and the
length of the semicircumference is known by being half the length of the entire circumference
of the band’s mid-circle.
The bending or curving of the straight piece to a semicircle is accomplished by first heating
a few inches of one end, and bending it to a few inches of the curves that are marked on the
surface-table. The adjoining portions are afterwards successively heated and bent to the same
lines, until a near approach to circularity is obtained.
For large bands it is necessary to provide thick cast-iron rings, to hang on the cylindrical
pieces in the angular gaps. The bands are heated to a suitable heat, and then placed upon rings
of suitable diameter, and bent by large top-tools, or by hammering. .
A substitute for these rings consists of the conical filler that was mentioned for stretching
slide-rod rings. While the filler is lying in a horizontal position, in a convenient place, the band or
bands are held on that portion which is nearest to the diameter desired. While on the filler, the
bands may be curved, and lengthened by hammering if necessary.
Connectinc-Rops wit Screw-Enps.—A rod of this class is shown by Fig. 46. When such
rods are to be short, the forging is accomplished with two pieces, which are welded together at the
conclusion of the forging, the joint being in the middle of the rod.
The fork-piece or boss-piece may be forged either solid or with a gap. If forged solid, the
gap or opening may be afterwards formed by drilling and slotting. To forge a solid fork-piece
for a small rod, the smith commences by selecting or making a bar whose width and thickness are
about twice that of the intended piece. The work is welded and reduced by a steam-hammer to
the outer forged dimensions of the boss. After which, top and bottom fullers are driven into the
work at the inner extremity of the boss, which is denoted in the Figure by C. The fullers reduce
the metal in order to produce the inner curves by which the boss-piece is terminated and the in-
termediate part of the rod commenced. After two hollows or concave recesses which are parallel
to each other are thus formed by the fullers, the work is placed at right angles to its former
position, and two new hollows are formed. By such reducing with fullers, the fibres are curved
and arranged into a graceful position and relation to the boss, and to the intermediate part of the
rod; and the required shape of the boss-piece is obtained. The outer extremity of the work is
then curved by a half-round top-tool, or by holding the work with the hot end in a half-round
FORGING. 47
bottom-tool, and upsetting by sledge-hammering the upper cold end. When the boss is tolerably
shaped by fullers, top-tools, or upsetting, the boss-stem is reduced to its proper diameter, and
increased to its desired length to become the intermediate part of the rod.
For making the screw-end of the rod but little forging is needed, if the iron which is selected
were properly prepared by rolling; if not, it is thoroughly welded and steam-hammered, for two
reasons—to obtain a tenacious iron in which the lengths of the fibres are parallel to the length
of the rod, and to obtain sufficient solidity in that part which is to be formed into the screw.
When rendered sufficiently hard and close by hammering, the two pieces are united by a
tongue-joint, or by a scarf-joint, if the rod is not more than 14 inches in diameter.
Small connecting-rods of this class are sometimes used for imparting motion to the slide-
valves of land-engines, and are attached to slide-rods similar to Fig. 47.
Piston-Rops wits T-enps.—The brittle character of steel generally, does not prevent piston-
rods, small and large, being made of it, for several reasons; among which are their comparative
lightness and favourable arrangement of the constituent particles, and their greater capability of
resisting the destructive abrasion resulting from the friction of the packing in the packing-box ;
also because the amount of power absorbed and wasted by friction is small, the area of the rod’s
friction surface being comparatively small; and because manufacturers are now commencing to
make a strong tenacious steel that meets the requirements.
Small piston-rods may be forged with T-ends large enough to constitute guide-blocks, so that
the rod, crosshead, and guide-blocks together constitute one forging only. ‘To make a small rod
of this character, a bar of iron or steel is selected, or drawn down until its width is about the
same dimension as the length of the intended crosshead or T-part. A pair of fullers is then
driven in at the junction of the crosshead and cylindrical part of the intended rod. The thick
lump that remains is then reduced by hammering until the forged diameter is attained; or two
pieces may be cut off, leaving the rod between, if the economy of metal is not at that time being
considered.
Large piston-rods with T-ends need a more economical method. To avoid the lengthy
process of reducing, or the wasteful method of cutting off, the T-part is formed by splitting open
the end of a bar and upsetting it until the necessary right-angular form is obtained.
At the place intended to be the outer extremity of the T-piece a round hole is punched. A
slit is next made from the hole to the extremity of the bar by driving chisels half way through
from both sides, the length of the slit being equal to the distance of the hole from the extremity.
A thick wedge in a handle is next driven into the slit to partly open it, and the two ends thus
produced are afterwards opened to the necessary distance by sledge-hammering sideways while
the work is across the anvil.
' Upsetting is next performed to produce the flat bottom or bearing of the T-piece. For small
work this upsetting is done by two methods, one of which consists in putting the work into a heading-
tool and flattening the head by hammering; and the other plan is to place the T-part upon the
anvil and shape the work by striking the upper cold end. When the rod is too long for the anvil,
the upsetting-block, whose top is level with the ground, is preferable to the anvil. Upsetting the
T-piece of a large rod is performed by striking or battering the end with a pendulum-hammer.
During these upsetting processes the iron is at welding heat; if steel is being used, the heat
is as great as the character of the particular piece of metal will allow.
After the head or T-part is sufficiently upset, and its proper length, width, and thickness
attained, the part of the rod next adjoining is reduced by fullers to the desired forged diameter ;
tongs are then fixed to the T-part, and the lump for the cylindrical portion is welded, reduced to
proper dimensions, and well closed by angular-gap tools, the smoothing of the work being effected
by half-round tools.
The final process is straightening the round part with half-round top-tool and sledge-
hammer, or steam-hammer, and adjusting the T-end to a right angle with the length of the rod.
For this purpose a long straight-edge and a square are needed. ‘he straight-edge is applied to
several sides of the round part of the rod to discover the hollow places; these places are put next
48 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
the anvil-top while the upper sides of the rod are driven down by hammering. After the round
or cylindrical portion is sufficiently near to straightness, the T-part is adjusted to a right angle
by being struck with a pendulum-hammer, or by a sledge-hammer if the work is not too large.
CrossHEADS FoR ONE Piston-Rop.—In crossheads of this character the lengths of the
constituent fibres should be at right angles to the length of the corresponding piston-rod, and
therefore parallel to the length of the crosshead itself. To obtain this arrangement it is necessary
to draw down a bar of tenacious iron until its width and thickness equal the thickness and width
of the largest part of the intended crosshead, which is the boss or mid-portion.
A small crosshead is easily forged at the end of a long bar, and may be completed previous
to cutting off. A pair of fullers are driven in at two places in the mid-portion of the piece intended
for the crosshead; the boss is then produced in the middle as required. After the boss is thus
formed, the lumps adjoining are reduced by sledge-hammering to the suitable width and thickness.
A crosshead-piece is shown by Fig. 143.
By this treatment the fibres are properly arranged throughout the length of the crosshead,
the fibres of the boss being circularly disposed by driving in the fullers; and the fibres of the
adjoining portions are retained in a position which is parallel to the length of the work, being
the arrangement desired.
For a large crosshead a similar arrangement is necessary; but a difference of manipulation
is resorted to, by reason of the greater weight of iron requiring to be handled. For portability,
it is advantageous for the workman to know what length of metal is necessary to be drawn down
to any length of crosshead that may be desired, if the forging is to be of one piece only. The
engine-smith can then select a bar from a shingler who is appointed to build up the bars from
pieces, or from any other forgeman whose duty it is to prepare the bars. If the smith has thus a
suitable bar at command, he can commence forging by driving in the steam-hammer fullers to
produce the boss; but if the bar is too long, the necessary length may be ascertained by the
appropriate rule (page 8), and that which is not needed is cut from the bar at the first heat.
The fullers are then applied, and the adjoining parts reduced by steam-hammering, the work
being supported by endless chain and a crane during the whole of the forging.
It is not usual to forge any hole whatever in a crosshead-boss, the entire boring being done
in suitable boring-machines.
S1pE-Rops.—These, like crossheads, are used of all lengths and diameters, and for engines
of all classes. When used for small high-pressure land-engines, side-rods are at the same time
connecting-rods, being connected at one end to the main crank-shaft, and the other end of the rod
being attached to one end of the piston-rod crosshead.
However small the side-rod may be, it is advantageous to punch a hole into the eye or boss-
part. The punching is not needed to avoid drilling, but to produce the necessary circular
disposition of the fibres in the boss. For this purpose the punching is very effectual, if performed
at about welding heat; after which a six-sided or eight-sided drift may be driven into the eye
to shape it for the brasses when it is desirable to avoid shaping by other machinery.
After the boss and eye-part is forged, the adjoining portion of the rod is reduced by thorough
hammering while at about welding heat, to produce a tough intermediate portion for the rod.
The whole of a small side-rod may be forged at one end of a bar of convenient length to hold
without tongs, the work being cut off at the conclusion.
Large side-rods need a more careful management to ascertain the length of metal necessary
for the rod. By first distinctly stating the respective sectional areas of the iron to be used,
and the rod to be made, only a sufficient length of metal need be handled, which is advantageous
both for convenience of portability and economy of metal.
Side-rods are also made by another method, which consists in making two separate
pieces and afterwards welding them together, the joint being in the middle of the rod. The
length of iron required may be discovered in the appropriate manner, after which the eye is
punched and drifted, at nearly welding heat, to any desired diameter and shape; the proper shape
of the eyes in large side-rods being circular. When the two pieces are reduced to their proper
FORGING. 49
ae 1 Sa increased to a correct length, the two are strongly united by a tongue-joint
ig. 133). .
‘ Tur Learver.—A learner who is commencing the business, and has attended to the foregoing
Se may now be able to make a few more tools, and to understand a few remarks on
welding.
The easiest joint for a learner to make is that of two small flat bars united by a scarf-joint,
shown by Fig. 132. To weld such a joint either of two methods may be adopted, according to
circumstances. The first-mentioned plan is suitable for a smith who may be without a hammer-
man. In such cases the workman places a screw-prop at that side of the anvil which is usually
occupied by the hammerman. The distance of the prop from the anvil depends upon the length
of the work; the prop, being portable, may be in any desired situation for supporting one of the
bars to be welded; the fork is then screwed up or down to suit the thickness of the work, and
to make the scarf touch the anvil while the remainder of the bar is an eighth or a quarter of an
inch above the anvil.
After the prop is put into its proper situation and position, the two scarfs are placed into
the fire side by side, with the two extremities of the scarfs upwards, that they may not be burnt
off, and that the heat may be driven upon the entire surfaces that are to be welded together,
instead of upon the edges only.
When the welding heat is attained, a supply of sand is given to the two scarfs to cleanse
the slag or other impurities from the iron. When the scarfs are thoroughly cleansed, the
workman brings out both pieces at one time, one in each hand. The piece in his right hand he
puts upon the prop with the scarf end a quarter of an inch beyond that edge of the anvil which
is nearest to him. The piece in his left hand he then places upon the top of the other piece,
and with the scarf end of the upper piece a quarter of an inch nearer to the further end of the
work than the joint will be when welded. He then delivers a few blows with his hammer, which
drive the upper bar down to its proper position, which is in line with the other bar. These
few blows also stick the scarfs together ; and while the scarfs are still at welding heat the whole
work is turned upside down by the operator carefully twisting the part on the prop with his
right hand at the same moment that he twists the other part with his left hand. After being
reversed, the scarf end that was underneath is still at welding heat, because it was a short
distance beyond the anvil-edge. The welding is then completed by hammering the sides and
edges of the work until sufficiently solid for the purpose intended.
The second mode of making a scarf-joint, is managed by instructing the hammerman to take
out one of the pieces from the fire, and cansing him to supersede the screw-prop.
It may be also necessary to advise the learner not to draw down his work with a steam-
hammer until he has acquired the method of holding his work in a correct position on an old-
fashioned anvil. Serious effects to the arms will result if the work is held too high or too low,
the danger being in proportion to the force that may be imparted to the hammer at the
moment.
If the learner should be making any rings according to the instructions that were given on
the subject, he may refer to Fig. 139, in which he will see the mid-circle of the ring’s face marked
by M. And if he should meet any difficulty in finding any Figure that may be referred to,
he can avoid trouble by remembering that if the greatest number at the bottom of any Plate he
may be looking at, is one or two less than the number of the Figure he desires, he will know
that the required Figure is in the next Plate following, although the number of the Plate may
not be mentioned. Also, if the smallest number at the top of any Plate he may be examining
is one or two greater than the number he desires, he will know that the required Figure is in
the next Plate previous. The terms “Plate 10,” “ Plate 12,” and similar phrases, are often
omitted for brevity and to avoid repetition; the simple sentence, “‘ Fig. 122,” being more isolated
and easily remembered.
Connectinc-Rops with T-ENDs AND ForK-enps.—Connecting-rods are of three principal
varieties, the simplest form of these being the rod with two T-ends; the next class having hollow
H
50 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
or curved ends for circular brasses; and the third variety having a T at one end, and at the
other a fork.
Plate 13 represents the several classes of rods in their respective shapes during forging.
In this Plate, Fig. 144 represents a small connecting-rod in process of forging from one straight
bar. Fig. 145 indicates a connecting-rod with two T-ends, also in one bar. Fig. 146 shows a
similar sort of rod, but made of two pieces. Fig. 147 points out a connecting-rod intended to
have hollow ends for circular brasses. Fig. 148 denotes a rod having a fork at one end, and at
the other a T-end, which is at right angles to the fork; or, in lengthy language, at right angles
to a line through the centres of the two fork-eyes that are intended to contain the connecting-pin,
gudgeon, or gudgeon-crosshead.
Small connecting-rods with fork-ends are sometimes made without a T-portion at the other
end. Instead of a T-end, a screw is used, or key inserted. For such a rod the bar of which
the work is to be made requires to be split open at one end only, to produce the fork. To make
a rod with both fork-end and T-end, the bar is split at both ends; then opened and shaped to the
desired form. By these considerations it may be inferred that a tough tenacious iron is necessary,
if only the forging of the rod be considered. If brittle Bessemer iron be selected, it is troublesome
to make either a T or a fork, without great risk of cracking and spoiling the work during its
forging. The smith will therefore select the iron with due regard to its capability of being forged,
and to its durability afterwards.
The convenient mode of forging a small rod, shown by Fig. 144, consists in making the T-end
first, because of the upsetting which is needed. Ifa very small rod, a slit is cut at one end of a
bar whose length is convenient for handling, and the two ends thus formed are opened until
the T-piece is produced. A welding heat and upsetting is then necessary to thoroughly flatten
the extremity, and to erase the appearance of the split. Larger rods may need a hole to be
punched, previous to cutting the slit; the hole allowing the ends to be easily spread out and flat-
tened to a right angle. After the T-end is thus shaped, the necessary length of iron is ascertained,
when the work is cut from the bar and the fork-end produced.
The manner of splitting the bar for the fork depends upon the thickness. A small bar is
divided by a chisel-cut only ; a larger bar needs a hole to be punched, and a slit cut from the
hole to the extremity ; a still larger bar may require two chisel-slits from the hole, so that a piece
may be cut entirely out, to shorten the after process of thinning the fork-ends, after the slit or
opening is made.
After the opening is made, the curving and shaping of the intended fork is effected by first
hammering the work while on a round filler of suitable diameter, which is across a pair of blocks
as shown by Fig. 142. The fork being very small, a piece of round iron half an inch in diameter
may be large enough.
A pair of small fullers are next driven in to form the hollows that adjoin the circular por-
tions, in the middle of which are the holes or eyes for the gudgeon, or gudgeon crosshead.
The final flattening of the fork-gap is effected by hammering the fork-ends while on the edge
of a flat bar, which is in the gaps of the blocks that previously supported a round bar.
In those cases that require a large number of such small fork-ends to be finished on the
anvil, it is necessary to make a steel filler which is just the thickness of the intended gap; one
side of the filler, or what is named one edge of it, being curved to shape the bottom of the gap.
This filler is held in the fork-gap by a gap-stop, while the outsides are hammered to make the
insides of correct dimensions. A gap-stop in the square hole of an anvil is shown by Fig. 77.
When the fork-end and T-end are made, the intermediate part of the rod is drawn down and
the length increased to the length desired.
Figure 145 indicates a connecting-rod bar which is split at each end, and also fullered at the
inner sides of the intended T-portions. To make a T-end rod in such a manner of one piece, the
bar at the commencement of the forging may be equal in diameter to about two-thirds of the
entire length of the intended T-end. A shortslit, S, is first cut to allow the ends of the bar to be
FORGING. 51
spread to the desired length of the T-part. Fullers are next driven in to produce the hollows or
recesses indicated by H. The thick lump in the middle is then reduced by steam-hammering to
the desired diameter and length.
Rods with two T-ends are also made of two pieces, as shown by Figure 146; this mode being
adopted for portability, or for the purpose of using two short pieces of iron when one piece of
sufficient length is not comatable.
Reference to the Figure (146) will show that each piece has a slit at one end, corresponding
to the two slits in Fig. 145. The utility of these openings is rendered apparent, by considering
the economy of iron resulting from opening the end, instead of reducing the rod from a bar which
is as thick as the length of the intended T or head; also by considering the proper disposition or
arrangement of the fibres in the T-pieces. At all times when circumstances permit, the forging
should be so managed as to place the lengths of the fibres in the two heads at right angles to the
length of the rod itself.
To obtain this arrangement, it is only necessary to cut open the ends and upset the work as
indicated by the Figures—the ordinary method of upsetting heavy work being by the pendulum-
hammer ; and, in a few cases, with a steam-hammer. Although it is not convenient to upset work
of great length by a steam-hammer, it may be conveniently used for a short piece which has a
base or bottom of sufficient dimension to maintain the work in an upright position during the
hammering. Pieces not exceeding two or three feet in height may be managed with an ordinary
steam-hammer by driving a fuller into the middle of a short piece, as shown by Fig. 14¥, after
which the two prominent portions are driven down by the hammer and at the same time spread
out to form the head, or what is named the T. For this purpose, a hammer should be used whose
face is concave, and not flat.
__ A short piece of this character may also have a slit cut into one end, instead of a hollow made
with a fuller. Ifa slit is made, it is necessary to drive a thick wedge into the opening to make it
several inches in width, previous to upsetting; if the gap is not well opened with a wedge, or by
sledge-hammering while across an anvil, the blows of the hammer will shorten the work, without
producing the head or T-form that is desired. .
Another method of making a large T-end consists in laying and welding two bars together
as in Fig. 150. The bars are thoroughly welded in the intermediate portion, but not at the two
ends; these are opened, and one pair formed into a T, and the other two ends are shaped for
becoming part of a tongue-joint, by which the T-portion is welded to the remainder of the rod.
Either of these methods for making T-ends may be adopted, according to the resources of the
maker; whether he has small iron or large at command, and whether he has a number of small
remnants he may desire to forge.
When it is intended to forge the entire rod of one bar or piece, the necessary length of iron
is discovered at the commencement of the forging, by applying, in a modified manner, the rule in
page 8. Whether the original piece be four-sided or circular is of no consequence, if it is of
good quality and of sufficient sectional area. When the intermediate part of the intended rod is to
be of circular section, or what is commonly named round, a square bar is a very convenient one
to commence with.
If we consider it stated that the intermediate part is to be circular, and its forged diameter
to be 150 millimetres, the first step is to select a bar whose sectional area is about double or treble
that of the intended mid-portion. The dimensions of the bar selected depends upon the intended
length of the work. If the length of the intermediate is to be 1524 millimetres, the original piece
selected may be 230 millimetres square.
The next step is to ascertain the length of iron required for the circular intermediate part ;
then discover the length required for the two T-portions, and add all together to indicate the total
length requisite.
The bar selected being 230 millimetres square, its sectional area, 52900 millimetres, consti-
tutes the first term of the proposition. And if the mean diameter of the intermediate part is to be
H 2
‘
52 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
150 millimetres, its sectional area, 17671 millimetres, constitutes the second term of the proposi-
tion. The length of this part, 1524 millimetres, is the third term. The three terms, with the result,
appear thus:
52900 : 17671 :: 1524 : 510,
the fourth term denoting the length, in millimetres, of iron necessary; this result being
obtained by multiplying the second and third terms together, and dividing by the first term, in the
usual manner, avoiding minute fractions as of no use in this affair. The proper length of metal
for the intermediate is thus found to be 510 millimetres, if the bar is 230 millimetres square, and
therefore contains 52900 square millimetres in a sectional area.
The two T-parts next demand attention. These portions are sometimes short and thick; in
such cases the amount of upsetting required is but small; but, whether little or much is needed,
the requisite length of metal may be known by a little measurement. If it should be necessary to
make the length of the T-part three times the length of the rod’s diameter, the end may be either
opened, spread out, and upset to 450 millimetres, or it may be spread out in an easier manner
to the desired length, without upsetting; in which case the fibres of the head will be parallel to the
rod’s length, instead of at right angles to it, which is the preferable position.
To ascertain the length of bar that will be needed for the head or T-part, the rule is applied
in a similar manner to that for the intermediate. If it is decided that the length of one head shall
be 450 millimetres, and its sectional area 2 1000 millimetres, the necessary length of the original
bar appears in the fourth term of the complete proposition, thus:
52900 : 20000 :: 450 : 171.
171 millimetres of the bar being sufficient for one head or T-piece, 342 millimetres are
sufficient for both; this length is therefore added to 510 millimetres for the intermediate, which
result determines the total length of bar needed for one connecting-rod, to be 852 millimetres, if
its sectional area previous to forging contains 52900 square millimetres.
Through the necessity of heating the iron a number of times, a portion will be taken from
the lump by the fire, for which a few millimetres should be allowed, so that the length of bar
actually required and used is about 900 millimetres.
After a lump of these dimensions is selected, the first step is to either spread out or upset
both the T-parts; and when the desired shape of these ends is attained, the intermediate lump is
reduced to its intended diameter.
This reducing is facilitated by the two hollows at the inner extremity of each head. The
forged thickness of the head indicates the places for these hollows, shown in the Figure by H.
Steam-hammer fullers are driven in to an equal distance from both sides, after which the work is
lengthened and drawn down to its proper diameter.
To forge a connecting-rod in the manner indicated by Fig. 146, the proper quantity of iron
necessary for each of the two pieces may be ascertained, and each piece separately forged to the
required dimensions, and welded together at the conclusion.
Each of the pieces shown in the Figure is handled by a porter, marked P. These porters are
round at that part which is supported by the endless chains, for the convenience of being easily
rotated by the workmen. Fastened to a porter is seen a rotator, R, which is gripped by the men
for the purpose of reversing or rotating the work.
The two pieces represented by Fig. 147 are nearly the shape of those in Fig. 146. The dif-
ference consists in the heads or T-parts being of greater relative dimensions because of more iron
being required to surround the brasses. These brasses being circular, their recesses in the rods’
ends may be formed by boring holes into the ends of the rods that are forged solid with the cap
C, without any hole whatever.
To make a small rod of this class, it is not necessary to produce a solid head; the semi-
circular recess for the brass may be easily formed in the ends of the rod by broad fullers; and
the rod-cap also, may be conveniently and separately forged with its recess for the other brass.
When it is needful to forge the rod in one piece solid with the two caps, a lump of iron is
FORGING. 53
required for each head or end, and another piece for the intermediate, three pieces in all; two
welds are therefore made in the mid-portion.
By selecting a piece for the middle, and welding it to the two heads in this manner, the
drawing down of a large mass of metal is avoided; an important consideration with makers who
may have small steam-hammers instead of large ones.
But if the rod is to be short, two pieces, instead of three, are sufficient; the drawing down
for a short rod being comparatively small. The width and thickness of the lumps or bars selected
for a short rod being about the same as the thickness and width of the intended heads, upsetting
a SS avoided ; and by this method only one joint is required, which will be near the middle of
the rod.
In Fig. 148 a connecting-rod is represented having a solid fork-piece, which is intended to be
bored to produce the fork-gap, instead of forging it upon the anvil.
To make the fork-end, one piece of iron is used that is equal in width and thickness to the
greatest thickness and width of the fork-end when forged. A porter is welded to the end intended
for the intermediate part of the rod; and the forging commences by forming the two hollows or
recesses shown by R. These are made by broad top and bottom steam-hammer fullers being
driven from two opposite sides. The next reduction consists in drawing down a portion of the
intermediate until its thickness is about the same as the thickness of the work at the bottom of
the two hollows first made.
After a part of the mid-portion is thus reduced, the work is placed at right angles to its former
position, and fullers are again driven in, to form two other hollows shown in the Figure by J J,
which indicate the junction of the fork-end with the intermediate.
The fullers, being thus repeatedly driven into the work while in two positions at right angles
to each other, produce the desired shape of the fork-end, and also the two curves J J. The thick
lump remaining for the intermediate is then reduced to its intended thickness.
Another mode of making a solid fork-end consists in placing and welding two bars together
as in Fig. 152, a convenient method for using small bars. Each of these pieces is first attached
to a porter, then separately heated to welding, and welded by a steam-hammer or by angular-gap
tools. During the welding, care is necessary to thoroughly weld the work at the part intended
to be the junction with the fork; to weld the whole of the fork-end is not needful, because of the
intention to cut out the piece from the middle.
After being thus welded, one of the two porters is cut off, one being sufficient. By this one
the work is handled during the shaping, which is effected by fullers being driven into the work
while in two positions, at right angles to each other, as previously described.
A very strong sort of fork-end is made also by bending a straight bar and welding the two
ends together ; the two ends, after being welded, constituting a part of the intermediate. Such a
fork-end is represented by Fig. 151.
To forge the T-piece of the rod shown by Fig. 148, two bars may be welded together, as for
the fork-end; or the T-end may be made of one piece, either by drawing down a part of a large
bar or by upsetting a portion of a smaller bar, as in Fig. 176. When both T-end and fork-end
are forged, the two are united by means of a tongue-joint. During the preparation of the joint
for welding, the tongue-piece is flattened or tapered on the two proper sides to cause the T-end
to be nearly at right angles to the fork-end, when the work is welded together.
The rod being thus completed by welding, it is adjusted on a surface-table. The adjusting
consists in twisting the mid-portion of the rod in order to make the T-end at right angles to the
fork. The rod may be heated to redness, then fastened at one end to the table with bolts and
plates, while the opposite end of the work receives a few sledge-hammer blows that drive down
the end to its proper position. The convenient method is by fastening the fork-end tight to the
table, and supporting the T-end by placing a few blocks under the intermediate part next the T.
This T-part is then struck a few blows to make it parallel to the table. A rod of this character
may be adjusted also by fixing with the steam on a steam-hammer anvil, and twisting the work
with levers or hammering until adjustment is effected.
dd THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
Turust-Saarts.—All thrust-shafts are forged without the grooves in the thrust portion, so
that the smith makes it equal in diameter to the outer forged diameter of the intended thrust.
A small thrust crank-shaft may be forged of one piece solid with the crank-pin, as shown
in Fig. 106. When it is not intended to place the constituent fibres in their proper positions, the
crank-shaft may be made of a bar whose width equals the entire length of the intended crank-arm
or lever. At one end of the bar a piece is cut out adjoining the crank-pin. Another piece is cut
from the opposite side, leaving the lever between. Welding heats are next given to reduce the
intended shaft or axle and also the crank-pin to their circular form, and to obtain solid metal for
the thrust part. A lump is also allowed to remain at the end, to be made into the disc D, or,
in some cases the disc is produced by upsetting.
A preferable mode of making a small thrust crank-shaft consists in forging it of two or
ae pieces; one piece being for the disc and part of the axle, and the other pieces for the thrust
and crank.
By this method, the iron for the disc-end at the beginning of the forging is about the diameter
of the intended disc; and the short axle-piece adjoining is produced by driving in fullers at a
place which is the same distance from the extremity as the thickness of the intended disc. The
adjoining lump is next drawn down by hammering to the desired diameter of the axle.
To form the crank and thrust-piece so that it shall be without a joint, and also to place
the fibres in their proper positions, it is necessary to provide a piece of iron whose sectional area
is about twice that of the intended shaft. 2
When the iron is selected, it is first necessary to ascertain the place of the intended corner
or junction of the crank-arm with the shaft. Fullers are driven in at each side of this corner, to
about the thickness of the crank-arm at one side and to the diameter of the axle at the other side,
leaving the thick lump between to be afterwards made into a sharp corner. The corner is next
produced by bending, upsetting, and welding; after which, the mid-portion of the lever is drawn
down to its forged dimensions, leaving a lump at the end to be made into the crank-pin. The
crank-pin is then drawn from the lump at the side of the lever by driving in a fuller, or, if the
work is very small, a set-hammer.
Large crank-shafts of this class are made of several pieces. To make one of four pieces, the
disc-end and part of the axle constitute one piece; the remaining axle part and the thrust
portion are the second piece; the lever becomes the third piece; and the crank-pin the fourth
iece.
' Both the disc-end and the thrust-piece may be made of the same bar, or of two pieces of the
same sectional area, the area being about that of the disc when forged; or if upsetting of the
disc is to be entirely avoided, the area of the iron at the beginning is rather greater, to admit of
welding and rounding.
The short axle-piece attached to the disc is produced by fullers and drawing down to the
desired diameter; after which the thrust-piece is prepared by careful welding and reducing,
that there may not be any unsolid parts in the thrust after being turned. To one end of this
thrust-piece the lever is to be welded; a gap is therefore cut, in which to place one end of
the lever. At the other end of the lever, another gap or opening is made, in which to weld
the crank-pin.
Shafts of great length require one or two other pieces, in addition to those four that become
the principal components.
A very ordinary sort of thrust-shaft, without any crank, is shown by Fig. 107, and is made
of three pieces by reducing the axle-parts adjoining the two discs, from two pieces whose area
is equal to that of the discs, and welding a piece into the middle to the two ends. The
diameter of the middle piece is of the intended forged diameter, that no reducing may be needed
after the welding together.
In all thrust-shafts, the strain while in use principally affects the bottoms or junctions of
the circular ridges with the shaft. The smith, therefore, thoroughly welds and closes the iron in
the thrust part with angular-gap tools. This thrust portion needs also a sufficient hammering and
FORGING. 55
rounding to make it rather harder and more crystalline than the remainder of the shaft, the
wearing qualities being thereby improved ; and if the thrust is reduced from a larger straight bar
or rod, the fibres are in their proper position to resist the strains on the sides while in use.
InreRMEDIATE Suarrs.—The length of these shafts is sometimes twenty-five times the length
of their diameters, so that it is convenient to make them of several pieces. Two or three pieces
may constitute the intermediate, and be of the finished forged diameter, thus avoiding drawing
down ; but the two disc-ends should be made of lumps that are large enough to become the discs
without upsetting.
Such shafts may be made, also, by welding the two discs to the shaft-ends. In these cases,
the discs are made of flat cakes, having holes punched in their middles and drifted to the diameter
of the shaft. From the hole to one edge a piece is cut out previous to placing the disc upon the
‘shaft, that the opening may be closed at the time of welding. The holes in the discs are conical,
and the larger part of the hole is outwards when on the shaft; and during the welding the shaft-
end is sufficiently upset to fill the hole, by which the disc is riveted to the shaft. The straight
piece of iron selected for the shaft itself is of the required forged diameter; all drawing down of
this portion is therefore avoided.
But it is frequently advisable to make such an intermediate shaft of only one piece; the
sectional area of the piece selected being equal to, or greater than, the sectional area of the
intended disc. Ifthe lump is greater in diameter than the disc required, the proper amount of
reducing is given until the diameter of the disc is attained. After which, the necessary length of
iron selected to produce the required length of intermediate, is ascertained by applying the
appropriate rule in this form:
As the mean sectional area of the lump, is to the mean sectional area of the intermediate part
of the shaft; so is the length of the intermediate required, to the necessary length of the lump to
be reduced.
If the smith desires to make a shaft whose length of intermediate is 4500 millimetres, and
whose forged diameter is 180 millimetres, he may select a lump whose diameter is 450 milli-
metres. Omitting small fractions, the sectional area of the lump to be operated upon is therefore
159048 square millimetres, and the first term of the proposition. The second term is represented
by 25447, being the number of square millimetres in a sectional area of the intended interme-
diate. The length of this portion, 4500 millimetres, becomes the third term; and the fourth
term that indicates the requisite length of iron is seen in the complete proposition thus:
159043 : 25447 :: 4500 : 720.
To this length of 720 millimetres for the intermediate, the thickness of the two discs is to be
added. If the thickness of each intended disc is 90 millimetres, 180 millimetres are added to 720;
and their sum denotes the total length of bar or lump to make one complete shaft, to be 900 milli-
metres. To this length 100 millimetres should be added for that which will be burnt or wasted
during the several heatings. The precise amount requisite for the burnt portion principally
depends upon the number of times the work is heated; and this again depends upon the length
of iron heated at one heat, and also upon the capability and power of the particular steam-
hammer employed at the time.
Intermediate shafts and other screw-shafts of great length need considerable care in straight-
ening. For this purpose, a large surface-table should be provided in the smithy, that the shaft
may be laid upon it and straightened with a half-round top tool. In addition to the table, a
thick, smooth cord should be used. The mode of applying the cord consists in making a straight-
edge of it by stretching it along the shaft-sides. A man may stand at each end of the shaft and
stretch the cord while it is at an equal distance from the shaft at both ends; the cord being as
near to the work as the heat will allow, but always applied to the sides of the work, and never
above or beneath it. Another man may then observe any irregularities along the shaft by com-
paring them with the cord straight-edge, after which the work is rectified with hammer and top-
tool. Such straightening processes as these may be resorted to when it is not convenient to put
the work into a lathe.
56 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
PRopeLier-Suarts.—An ordinary sort of propeller-shaft for a small screw steamer is shown
by Fig. 109. The number of pieces made use of in forging the shaft is about three ; but if the
shaft is small, two are sufficient. One of these two becomes the shaft proper, and the other piece
the disc, which is welded to one end in the manner described for an intermediate screw-shaft.
The diameter of the piece selected may be only equal to the forged diameter, if the iron is
soft and fibrous; if not, the piece should be larger, that it may admit a welding and steam-
hammering to produce a tenacious metal. The smith will observe whether a screw is to be
formed at the propeller end; if so, he will be careful to make that part sufficiently solid.
Propeller-shafts may be made also by the drawing down of a lump whose sectional area is
the same as that of the disc; the stem thus produced being intended for part of the shaft or axle.
To this short portion two or three other pieces are welded to complete the work.
The two parts represented by G are linings of gun-metal, placed upon the shaft to receive
the friction. When these linings are made by the metal being poured around in a liquid state,
the shaft at those places needs no lathe-turning, being roughly forged to the finished diameter by
the smith. After the gun-metal is poured, the shaft becomes bent, and is afterwards straightened
in a lathe, either in the smithy or elsewhere.
The smith effects the straightening by heating the shaft and afterwards rotating it in a lathe,
and marking the prominent sides at those places which rotated truly previous to the casting.
These projecting sides are then put downwards, a few blocks are put upon the lathe-bed and
beneath the bent portion of the shaft; wedges are then driven in between the blocks and the
shaft, by which it is forced up and straightened while a few blows are given to the ‘upper side.
The amount of hammering needed is but small, if the shaft were heated to redness. During the
whole of such straightening the work should be well supported with chains; it is also necessary
that the centre recesses be large, and that the lathe poppet-screw be frequently screwed in, to fill
the gap made by the continual shortening of the work while in the lathe.
Pistoy-Rops wit ContcaL Enps.—These are of various lengths and diameters, according to
the lengths of cylinders and class of engines for which the rods are made. A few are indicated
by the Figures, No. 111 representing one for an engine having two piston-rods attached to the
crosshead, No. 112.
Such rods may be made of fibrous steel, when metal of that quality is accessible. Previous
to forging the rod, a piece of the steel should be subjected to a severe steam-hammering and
reducing while at a bright red heat, and be drawn down to a four-sided bar about half or a quarter
of an inch square. This small piece may then be further thinned on the anvil-beak, and made
round instead of square. The stretching on the anvil-beak should be performed at about a foot
from one end. If this thin part can be drawn to about a sixteenth without cracking, the steel is
good enough for a piston-rod.
Another mode of discovering the quality is by subjecting a piece of the cold steel to a
gradual tensile strain. If the steel breaks suddenly without stretching, it is not fit for a piston-
rod, or any other engine-work of consequence, however great the strain may be that breaks it;
but if, previous to breaking, it will stretch to a diameter which is about three-quarters of its
original diameter, the metal is about as tenacious as can be expected, and may be used with
confidence and advantage if it possesses the hardening properties,
If such steel is to be used for a piston-rod having a conical end, the cone may be formed by
upsetting a rod whose sectional area is equal to that of the rod when forged. Steel rods should
be forged so that not more than three-sixteenths is allowed for lathe-turning ; they should,
therefore, be carefully smoothed and straightened with rounding tools while on a surface-table, or
by means of a lathe, as previously described.
Fig. 113 denotes a piston-rod having a holder at the conical end, for the convenience of
holding the work while in a lathe. The holder may be made in the lathe by turning a short
portion of the rod to the desired diameter, or the holder may be forged on the anvil by fullers
and reducing, this being the shorter method.
Piston-rods of this character, also, may be made of fibrous steel, for the benefit of its superior
FORGING. 57
wearing qualities or non-wearing qualities. The conical end is commenced by first tapering down
a short portion of the end to about a fourth of its diameter. This part, being intended for the
holder, is cooled after the rod is again heated for the upsetting of the cone; and after repeated
coolings and upsettings, and when the cone is increased to its proper dimensions, a few pieces are
cut from around the intended holder, so that drawing or stretching it may be commenced. The
holder is next reduced, by fullers and hammering, till its desired form is produced. The work is
next cut to its length, and finally smoothed and straightened, the proper quantity of metal being
allowed for the lathe process.
Cranx-Pins.—A crank-pin, haying a screw for a nut, is shown by Fig. 114, and another
class of pins, for use without nuts, is indicated in Plate 4.
The forging of a crank-pin principally consists in well closing the metal in those places
intended for the friction part and the screw, if a screw is to be used. All the other parts of a
crank-pin should be fibrous.
The angle subtended by the two sides of a crank-pin cone should be less than that of a
piston-rod cone; so that a crank-pin requires no upsetting, the iron or steel selected being large
enough for the largest end of the cone.
For a pin whose largest end of the cone is to be outwards, a holder is sometimes made
resembling that in Fig. 113, for the convenience of holding while being turned.
CrossHEADS FOR TWO Piston-Rops.—The forging of a two-piston-rod crosshead is performed
by several methods, the plan selected depending upon the resources of the maker. A convenient
mode to avoid bending consists in making it of three pieces. The thickest or mid-portion of the
crosshead is made of one piece; and the other two constitute the two ends for the piston-rods.
These three portions are shown in Fig. 163.
To make the middle part, a lump is selected whose sectional area is rather greater than that of
the largest part of the intended piece. A porter is attached to one end, and the circular part is
shaped to its intended form. The length of this part is next marked by a chisel being driven in
at two places, and the work is reduced from the larger mid-portion to form the two square or
four-sided ends.
The two ends or stems thus produced, are next prepared for a tongue-joint, by making a
gap in each end, to which the other two pieces will be welded ; and, by allowing thick lumps to
reinain at the ends during the drawing down of the stems, upsetting for the joint will be avoided.
The other two pieces are next prepared, or may have been in progress at another furnace
during the forging of the middle part. Straight pieces are used for these two parts, with porters
attached, as for the middle part. After the bosses of these two pieces are formed, the projecting
stems are cut to a proper length and shaped to fit the openings in the stems of the middle piece,
and when the suitable length to admit a stretching after welding is attained, the three are welded
together. :
After being welded together, the four-sided parts, or arms, of the work are drawn until the
proper distances between the centre of the crosshead and the centres of the intended holes are
attained. The superfluous iron that then remains must be either cut off with chisels or allowed
to remain for planing and shaping. During the hammering for welding, and also during the
trimming with chisels, two protuberances should be allowed to remain for centring purposes. In
these projections the recesses are made, by means of which the circular portion in the middle is
turned. These centre-pieces are shown in Fig. 112 by dots and the two letters C C.
Two piston-rod crossheads are made also of one piece; the troublesome joint-making being
thereby avoided.
By this mode a lump of rather greater sectional area than the middle of the crosshead is
made use of; and the length of the iron required for one of the four-sided ends is ascertained
with proper measurement, and by the rule. This length is marked upon one end of the piece, at
a proper distance from the extremity ; fullers are next driven in, and the work reduced on both
sides of the intended mid-portion ; or, for portability, the entire length necessary for the crosshead
may be cut from the lump, if it is desirable to handle only the smallest quantity of metal that is
I
58 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
sufficient. During the drawing down, a lump is allowed to remain at each end of the work,
which is amply sufficient for the circular boss that is to contain the end of the piston-rod. Two
small projections also, are allowed to remain for the centre-pieces, C C.
When the work is lengthened nearly to its intended length, the bending or curving is
accomplished.
A short length of the four-sided part on both sides of the circular portion is in line with its
centre, so that it is necessary to prevent these two parts being bent or put out of position during
the angling or bending of the adjoining ends. Consequently, whether the work is to be angled
or curved, as in the Figure (112), the iron, after being heated to nearly welding, is cooled to the
intended commencement of the bent part. The bending is then effected either by a steam-
hammer or by affixing a lever and bending the work while on a surface-table.
A crosshead of only a few inches thick can be bent by a few men at one end of a strong lever
whose other end is attached to the work. The crosshead is fixed to the table by bolts, plates,
and studs being fixed to that end of the work not in course of bending. A strong lever is then
bolted to the outer end, and the work gradually bent by means of several heats and sledge-
hammerings at the time the power by the lever is applied.
When the crosshead is being forged with a porter attached, the diameter of this porter at
the end which is welded to the work should be nearly equal to the diameter of the crosshead
end. The porter will then be strong enough to be more eonveniently used as a lever than a
separate one that needs to be attached.
The bending of a large crosshead is readily effected without a porter. To commence the
bend, the work is placed beneath a steam-hammer and across a bottom tool or hollow anvil-
block. The upper side of the crosshead is that intended to be the hollow side after the work is
bent. While in this position, a few blows are administered to the work, by which it is partly
curved or angled, according to the shape of the top and bottom tools, or hammer and anvil-
block.
After being thus slightly bent, the work is again heated and cooled to the proper distance,
and a tongs is attached to the middle of the crosshead, which is then placed end upwards under
a steam-hammer of sufficient height, the lower end being tightly fixed in a recessed tool or anvil-
block. A few blows are then struck to complete the necessary angling; or if a great length of
metal were heated at the time of bending, it will be curved instead of angled.
One end of the work being thus managed, the other end is treated in a similar manner.
The bosses for the piston-rods are next shaped, the centre-pieces put into position, and the
arms lengthened and trimmed to the form desired, which is either curved or angular.
A substitute for these processes of shaping the arms consists in making a straight crosshead
whose thickness or sectional area is about a sixth greater than that of the circular mid-portion
when forged. The angular form is then produced by partly cutting and trimming on the anvil,
and afterwards by the planing process.
Linx Conyextoys.—A simple and also an old mode of connecting a link to its lifting or
reversing rod consists in fastening the eye-part or boss of the rod to the link stud-plate, the
stud-plate itself being bolted with small bolts to the link-side.
The forging of such a stud-plate is effected by drawing down the stud at one end of a bar
or rod, and then cutting off the stud with a slice of metal attached to it, which is to be spread
out and welded to two other thin ends, in order to complete the stud-plate. The stud with the
two plate-pieces are shown in Fig. 153.
A stud-piate of this class may be also made of one piece. By cutting open one end of a bar
and spreading out the ends, as indicated in Fig. 137, sufficient iron can be obtained for spreading
out to the entire distance across the link-side, which is the length of the stud-plate. -
A stud-plate shown in Fig. 116 requires rather more iron than the stud-plate last mentioned
through the connexion being effected with bolts in the edge of the link, instead of its side. The
forging is therefore managed with three pieces, as shown in Fig. 154; except the stud-plate is
very small, in which case it is easily made of one piece, in the manner described. The eye part
FORGING. 59
or boss of the reversing rod, R, is fastened to the link-stud with a screw-bolt and washer, or with
a split pin and washer.
The connexion represented in link 117 has the disadvantage of not affording any stay to
the mid-portion of the link, which is its weakest part. In other respects the rod with fork-end
is very efficient.
Link No. 120 is made of two separate pieces or sides, and connected together partly with the
two bolts at the ends, and partly with the bolts of the excentric-rods. The circular and sliding
block, B, is made either of gun-metal, iron, or steel; and is sometimes in one piece and at other
times of several pieces, having wearing strips, that may be rejected when too much worn, and
new ones put into their places.
Suipinc Sxcrors.—These sectors for oscillating engines need not be forged in one piece, as
indicated in the sketch No. 119; for the convenience of the turning and shaping processes, the
Seria may be keyed or screwed into the stud-boss of the sector, instead of being solid
with it.
When the rod is a distinct piece, it is often circular throughout its whole length, so that but
little forging is needed if the metal of which it is to be made is not too large in diameter.
Either steel or iron is suitable, by reason of the very small strain imparted to such rods.
The sector with its boss for containing the lower end of the guide-rod is shown in Fig. 155.
Such a piece is easily drawn down from a bar whose width equals the total width of the intended
sector, boss included. The ends shown by B (Fig. 119) are then thinned to their dimensions for
receiving the bearing brasses, and the boss is shaped to a circular form.
When a sector is thus made of one piece, the slot is drilled and shaped by a suitable
machine, instead of making any slot while on the anvil. Such a sector without a rod may be
made also of two straight pieces, as shown in Fig. 156. These pieces are scarfed, or a tongue-
joint made at the place indicated in the Figure.
To forge a sector entirely of one piece solid with the guide-rod, it is necessary to weld the
rod to the boss part of the sector, which is made either of one piece or two.
The boss, or that projecting part which is to be welded to the rod, should be midway between
the two ends of the intended sector-slot; and any alteration of situation that may be needed
should be done previous to welding it to the rod. To discover the proper place for the boss, the
length and place of the slot is marked upon the work; a pair of compasses is then used to ascer-
tain the middle or centre of the slot. This centre is also the centre of the intended boss or lower
part of the rod; so that if the boss-portion is not in its proper place, it can be put right. When
the boss is large enough, a piece or pieces may be cut from one side to make the boss central ; but
if not large enough to admit cutting, it is heated to nearly welding, and driven to its proper
situation by a few blows with a set-hammer
To avoid trouble with the boss, it is preferable to shape it before trimming the ends of the
sector to the finished length. For this purpose one foot of the compasses is placed at the centre
of the boss, or centre of intended slot, and the other foot is used to mark the half-length of the
work ; the two ends are then shaped, and finally cut to an equal length.
After all the joints are welded, the work needs adjustment, to produce the required curve
in the sector proper, and to place the rod at a right angle with the remainder of the work.
This adjustment is readily effected by making a few lines on a surface-table to indicate a full-
dimensioned outline of one side of the sector with its rod. The sector is then placed between
the lines, and any irregularity in the curve, or in the situation and position of the rod, is detected
and corrected accordingly.
Templates also, are much used in the adjustment of heavy work. These templates, being
made of thin sheet iron, are very portable ; also easily constructed, and applicable to either links,
band excentric-rods, or sectors.
A sheet-iron template is used also in those cases in which the sector is forged, slotted, and
shaped while distinct from its rod; the rod also being turned previous to welding it to the sector-
boss.
12
60 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
To make a sector template, a sheet of thin iron is provided and flattened. A straight line is
marked with a steel scriber along the length of the sheet. This line represents the centre of the:
guide-rod of the intended sector; and if one sheet of iron is not of sufficient length, part of
another sheet or a whole sheet is riveted to the first one. While the sheet is lying on.a table or
block, the two arcs that denote the extreme forged width of the sector are marked upon the iron
with compasses, and to an equal distance from both sides of the centre line; one foot or leg being
in some part of the centre line, while the other leg is sufficiently extended to mark the arcs
desired. When the template is large, it may be necessary to put one point of the compasses in
some part of the table, instead of the sheet; in these cases, the iron is fixed to the table or
block with a few weights around the edges, while the centre line is continued to any desired
distance along the table. Any point in this line may then be selected as a centre from which to
mark the arcs. The width or diameter of the guide-rod is also denoted by two other straight
lines, one at each side of the centre line.
When the shape of the sector ends also are marked, cutting out the template is next effected
with a chisel and hand-hammer ; or if the work is too large for a hand chisel, with a rod-chisel and
small sledge-hammer. Any additional corner pieces that may be required are then riveted to the
Toe and the shape completed by careful filing to the lines, and flattening on the table or
ock.
The use of such a template or gauge to the smith, results from the extreme lightness and
portability allowing it to be put upon the top of the work at any moment during the forging ;
also the convenience of referring to the gauge at any future time when a new sector is to be
made, or an old one mended.
Crankep Levers.—Fig. 118 represents a lever for an ordinary oscillating engine having
two slide-valves. The making of such a lever is conveniently managed, and good work produced,
by forging it of one piece.
The thickness of the lump selected is rather greater than the length of the gudgeon-boss, G.
Fullers are first driven in at each side of the intended boss; the adjoining lumps are next reduced
to a proper width and thickness, allowing a thick lump at each end, which is amply sufficient to
be formed into the two smaller bosses without upsetting.
During the thinning of the two arms or ends the work remains straight; so that it is
needful to know the necessary length of straight iron to be formed into the required
cranked arm.
The readiest mode of ascertaining the length of this arm is by making use of the full-
dimensioned outline of the bent or cranked side of the lever, this outline being that to which the
smith is working. A wheel measure is held in one hand, and driven along the middle of the arm
or arms on the table; and the distance thus indicated by the instrument is the length of the
required cranked arm, and also the length of straight iron necessary, if the straight arm at the
time is reduced to its finished forged width and thickness. But the proper mode is to bend the
arm while it is rather thicker and shorter than required to be when forged; so that, after being
bent, it can be thinned and stretched to its proper length.
Bending or cranking commences by first making that bend which is to be nearest to the
gudgeon-boss. During the first bending the lever is laid a few times to the sketch on the table,
to discover if sufficiently bent or angled, or if the work were heated in the proper place.
After being heated and bent a sufficient number of times to place the angle or curve into its
desired shape and situation, the work is cooled, or allowed to cool, and heated at the place for
the next curve, being careful to keep the whole of the lever cold except the part in course of
bending.
When all the cranking is completed, the three bosses are shaped by welding and trimming,
until the three lines passing through the centres of the bosses are parallel to each other. This
parallelism is known by the sides of the bosses being parallel to the boss lines when the lever is
put to the sketch on the table.
Cranked levers of this class are made also by welding together three pieces. By this mode
FORGING. 61
the middle boss is separately prepared with the short arms or ends for welding to two other pieces
intended to complete the lever. By adopting this method, little or no bending is incurred after
the work is welded together. The necessary angling is easier accomplished previous to making
the joints. A cranked lever in three pieces is shown by Fig. 157.
The bosses of all such cranked levers as we are now considering are forged solid, so that no
punching by the smith is necessary.
Crank-Suart Levers (L, Fig. 122).—The precise mode of forging one of these depends upon
the weight of the intended lever, also upon the relative proportions of any one lever; whether
the ie aia is to be long or short, and whether the bosses are to be comparatively large
or sma.
All crank-shaft levers should be made of soft, tenacious, new, puddled bar-iron, without any
mixture with old scrap ; although new, puddled scraps may be admitted, if they be first made into
the form of bars.
Whether the lever is to be a very small one, or one of great weight, it is desirable to forge it
so that the lengths of the fibres in the arm shall be parallel to the length of it; and that the
lengths of the fibres in the boss shall constitute a number of rings, whose centre is the centre of
the hole in the boss, and named the eye.
This arrangement is easily produced in the forging of a lever whose weight is a few pounds
by doubling two straight bars, and welding the four ends together, the weld being made in the
middle of the lever or arm. The width of one of these two bars is equal to the length of one of the
bosses, and the width of the other bar is equal to the length of the other boss. The thickness of
both bars may be about 14 times the thickness of the intended metal around the shaft or
crank-pin.
When two such bars are curved to the forged diameter of the required bosses, the holes in
the bosses thus formed will be small enough to admit of boring to the finished diameters. In some
cases it is more convenient for boring to fill up this hole that remains, which is done by roughly
welding in a plug to make the boss appear as if solid. In other cases the small hole which is
formed by bending is useful for fixing, and is therefore allowed to remain.
The first welding, after the boss is roughly formed, is performed at the boss itself, and is
managed by placing the work between a pair of fullers and thoroughly closing the metal while at
welding heat. This welding ‘being very near the extremity of the work in progress, the small
hole may become so flattened as not to be seen; if so, the work is probably sound at the weld,
and the hole may be again punched and drifted if necessary.
Another good weld is then given to the adjoining part intended for the arm, and the
straight ends may then be made into part of a tongue-joint or scarf-joint.
By thus making the two bosses with half the lever to each boss, both pieces may be easily
welded together while the thickness is rather greater than the required forged thickness; and,
after being united, the lever can be lengthened to its desired length. A lever made by this method
is shown by Fig. 158.
Another mode of making a small crank-lever is commenced by selecting a piece whose
sectional area is about 14 times the mean sectional area of the lever arm required. One end of
this piece is first tapered or curved on two opposite sides, and next upset, while at welding heat,
by striking the work while in an upright position. This produces the desired shape for the outer
extremity of the boss. The inner curved extremity or boundary of the boss, is next formed by
top and bottom fullers while the work is between.
When one boss is thus roughly shaped, the work is cut to a proper length, and the other boss
is produced in a similar manner: the lump in the middle for the arm is then reduced to the
requisite width, thickness, and length. (See Fig. 159.)
Small crank-levers are also made of two pieces without resorting to curving or upsetting, as
in Fig. 160. According to this mode, the upsetting of the bosses is avoided by using iron of the
requisite sectional area to make a solid boss, and from the boss half the lever is produced by
drawing with fullers and hammering while the boss is being formed at the end of the bar. The
62 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
boss and part of the arm being thus formed, the work is cut from the bar, and another boss-piece
is formed of the same bar, if necessary.
This plan is the shortest that can be adopted for making a crank-lever of two pieces.
The only existing objection to the method is that the constituent fibres at the outer extremity
of the boss are parallel to the length of the lever, because they were parallel to the bar
previous to forging, and no alteration of relative position has since been effected.
A partial remedy for this consists in punching a hole into the boss, and giving a few
welding heats and hammerings to it while a drift or mandril of some sort is in the hole.
When it is intended to adopt the welding for this purpose, sufficient iron is allowed for the
boss being burnt by the several heatings.
Small levers having bosses of great length are made also by bending and piling. For
this purpose three or four bars are selected whose thickness is about equal to the intended
thickness of the metal around the boss-eye or hole. The bars are bent to a circular form
which is smaller in diameter than the desired boss, and a sufficient number are employed and
piled together to produce a boss about 13 times the length of the finished boss. This pile is
then heated to welding, and upset, by which the boss is shortened in length and increased
in diameter to that which is necessary. Such piles are represented in Fig. 161.
The loose straight ends of the bars are next welded together for producing the arm of the
lever. To this another boss-piece is welded to complete the lever.
Fig. 162 represents a crank made by closing together a ring, and welding the middle to be-
come the arm.
_ For large crank-levers several pieces are needed, both for portability and to produce the
desired arrangement of fibres without a difficult bending of thick bars.
Lever-bosses for large crank-levers may be conveniently made of several thin bars, which
are separately curved and then welded together. The thinner the bars for this purpose, the
easier will be the bending, and the greater is the number that will be required. The width of
the bars is about the length of the intended boss, and their length should be only sufficient to
extend round the work and allow the ends of the bars to be welded together, or to a straight
bar that may be between.
The manner of bending consists in heating a bar to about welding heat in the mid-part, or
in that part which is to be bent. The bar is then put between a set of bending-rolls, or under
a steam-hammer, and across a bottom-tool or anvil-block having a deep curved gap. A cylindrical
filler or piece of round iron is next put upon the bar and driven down by a few blows with the
hammer, the hammer being of sufficient length to reach and strike the filler without coming
into contact with the two ends of the bar which are being forced up by the filler being driven
down.
When partly curved, the next bar is treated in a similar manner; or if only one bar is in
progress, the filler is taken off and the bending continued at the next heat by striking the ends
of the bar until both are near enough together to fit the middle bar, and a small hole remains
representing the boss-eye. A welding heat is next given, and a pair of fullers are applied to
thoroughly weld that part of the work immediately adjoining the hole, being careful not to
close or flatten the curved part at the extremity. The straight ends are next soundly welded
to the middle bar, and the work becomes a sort of nucleus for the reception of other bars.
Fig. 165.)
(ig One bar being thus bent and welded to the primary or middle bar, another is bent in a
similar manner, but with a larger filler, which is about equal in diameter to the diameter of the
boss in its present condition. This second bar is next welded to the work, and fullers again
employed to thoroughly weld that part near the hole. (Fig. 166.)
If the second boss-piece is not sufficient to increase the boss to its desired diameter, a third
piece is bent and welded to the work in a similar manner.
When all the welding that may be required by the fullers is completed, but not till then,
FORGING. 63
that end of the primary bar that protrudes into the boss-eye may be punched out; and the
welding of the boss may then be completed while on a filler or mandril in the boss-eye.
To conveniently weld the boss, a short porter is attached to the arm or lever portion of the
work, and the boss is heated to welding in a furnace which is large enough to heat the entire boss
at one heat. During the time of heating, the filler or mandril is put beneath the hammer and
supported at each end, allowing sufficient space for the lever-boss to be raised or lowered by the
chain which is attached to the porter, so that the boss may be partly rotated on the filler during
the hammering for welding.
The work is next put beneath the hammer while the mandril is being put into the hole, and
the welding of the boss is effected with two or three heats.
The next operation, after welding the boss, is to determine which is to be the centre line of
the lever, also what point in this line is to be the centre of the boss-face, or, as it may be
termed, the boss-end. A piece of wood is fixed for a short time in the hole at that end of the
boss which is to be the end projecting from the lever-side when finished. The centre of the boss-
face is then determined, and a circle marked with compasses; the diameter of this circle being
the diameter of the boss when forged. A chisel with thick cutting edge is then driven in at the
circle, and the work heated to produce the required boss-end that is to extend from one side of
the lever.
This projection is formed by driving a top-fuller into the lever at the circular chisel mark.
When a gap is thus made , the remaining thick lump of the arm is reduced by hammering to
the necessary width and thickness.
Bosses thus made with half the lever are welded together by means of a tongue-joint about
the middle, so that if the ends attached to the bosses are too long, they are cut to length and
trimmed to shape while preparing the joint-ends for welding.
By reference to the Figure 168 it may be observed that the joint is of great length in order
to secure a sound weld and thereby a good lever. The welding of the joint is effected by placing
the two pieces together in one fire or furnace that is open at two opposite sides, and welding
while in the fire with a pendulum-hammer. If a convenient furnace of this character is not
accessible, the two pieces of work are separately heated in two fires, and put together, end
upwards, under a steam-hammer, and welded by upsetting. Another welding-heat or two is after:
wards given to complete the welding of the sides and edges, and to drive in the prominent
scarf-ends.
Shaping and trimming the lever is next performed; after which the two bosses are trimmed
with chisels and smoothed to their forged dimensions. The lever is finally made red-hot from
one end to the other, all scale and clinker scraped off, and the work allowed to gradually cool.
Crank-levers made by this mode have a hole in each boss, so that a great amount of boring
is avoided, in addition to the advantage of securing a strong lever.
To avoid the bending processes, crank-levers having bosses of great length are made by
piling and welding several bars together until the desired length of boss is attained; the bosses
thus made being without any hole to the end of the forging. A pile of this character is repre-
sented by Fig. 169.
After a few short bars are thus soundly welded together with several heats, the extremity is
tapered on two sides; this taper or curved part being on those two sides of the work that are in-
tended to be the boss-sides, and not the boss-ends. The taper part is next heated to welding and
put beneath a hammer with the cool end of the work upwards, and the end at welding heat in a
bottom tool having a sharp curved gap. While in this tool, the work is upset with a few hea
blows, to produce an approach to the desired circular arrangement for the boss-fibres. Two or
three such upsettings are administered, after which the fullers are driven in at the place intended
for the junction of the boss with the lever; and thus the circular form for the boss is obtained.
The boss-piece then appears as in Fig. 170.
The bosses made by this process have stems or arms that may be of sufficient length to be
64 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
made into the lever, and also the boss at the other end of the work; or another solid boss may be
made, and the two stems or arms welded together to complete the lever. (Fig. 171.)
Pappie-Axtrs.—To produce a good paddle-axle, the smith commences by referring to the
sketch by which he is to work, and discovers the places of the bearings in the shaft he is about to
make. If no information is given in the sketch about the bearings, he should apply, or take a
walk to the individual who ought to have put it in; and when the smith has learnt something
about the intended use of the work, he can commence.
A paddle-shaft has two bearings, one in the paddle-box and the other near the crank-lever by
which the shaft is driven. Both these bearings being near the ends of the work, the smith will
measure the iron he selects, or the iron he is compelled to use, and endeavour to manage so that
what joints may be necessary shall be in some part of the mid-portion.
The whole of the bars selected should be of new puddled iron; and the first pile made use of,
a sufficient length to extend beyond one of the intended bearings of the shaft. Consequently
this first pile may be three feet in length and bound together with soft iron binders at both ends,
and having a porter or porter-tongs attached to one end. A sufficient length of the pile is then
heated to welding so that about two-thirds of the length may be welded at one heat ; or if the
furnace is large enough, the whole pile may be welded.
If the shaft is to be twelve feet in length, three such piles will be sufficient for the work, and
the two necessary joints will be in the intermediate part, and not in any portion of a bearing.
The convenient sort of joint for such a shaft is a tongue-joint. All such joints require
upsetting at the commencement of the welding, that the pieces may be firmly united previous to
the second welding or hammering, which closes the iron at the outside of the shaft, but does
nothing towards welding the inner parts of the joint.
After the preliminary upsetting with a pendulum-hammer, this second welding is administered
to the shaft while in the ordinary horizontal position on an anvil.
The best sort of paddle-shafts are made of one thick lump, that is drawn down to the diameter
and increased to the length of the desired shaft; the work being handled or rotated with a porter
during the forging.
If the original piece is soundly made of good iron previous to the forging of the shaft, the
work will be as good as iron can make it; having no tongue-joint in any part; neither requiring
upsetting in any place, so that the mode is also economical, if the good piece to commence with
can be obtained. A component piece of this character with a porter attached, is shown by
Fig. 172.
The particular shape of the piece is of no consequence. If it should be a two or three feet
cube, the smith proceeds by making it into a bar of four sides, and increasing the length to about
double. He next places one of the corners to the hammer and makes the work six-sided, and by
afterwards half rotating the bar it is made eight-sided.
The length of bar that can be drawn at one heat depends upon the capacity of the furnace
for heating, and upon the sort of crane in use. The better the crane, and the greater its capability
of moving the work forwards and backwards, the greater is the economy of time in working the
several heats. However large the furnace or the hammer, however great the length of iron that
is heated, the metal must become too cool to work, if a greater length of iron is heated than can
be managed at one heat with the crane.
Drawing down is facilitated by first heating that portion which is nearest to the porter; this
part is reduced until the metal requires another heating, which is given to the adjoining lump to
reduce it to the dimension of the part already drawn. The largest part is again heated and drawn
down, to make the whole length of the bar about the same diameter; by such a series of heatings
and drawings, the unreduced lump is always at that end of the work furthest from the smith or
smiths, which is its proper place, both for convenience of reducing, and to prevent cracks or
unsolid parts being formed at the shaft-end, which often happens when the end is much drawn
previous to thinning the middle.
By thus drawing the shaft so that the unreduced lump is always at that end which is furthest
FORGING. 65
from the porter, the work is made sound, and the fibres are put into the desired condition of
parallelism with the length of the axle. Towards the conclusion of the drawing or stretching,
angular gap-tools of suitable dimensions should be applied to the metal at welding heat, and with
especial care to well close the parts intended for bearings. The only portions of a shaft that
require a granular or crystalline form for the constituent particles are the bearings. For this
reason the smith may give an extra hammering with angular-gap tools, and also with curved gap
tools, to these parts, and while the iron is below redness, about 600° Fahrenheit.
When the shaft is reduced to its dimensions, smoothed, and also straightened by means of a
long straight-edge or cord, as previously described, the work is cut out from the two ragged lumps
at. the ends of the shaft, one being the porter-lump and the other the unreduced lump. This piece
is that which is first cut off; and the work is next heated at the porter-end, and a tongs fixed
to the finished end of the shaft. The ragged porter-piece is then cut off, and a sound shaft is the
result. A straight shaft of this sort is represented by Fig. 175; which is an ordinary shape at
the conclusion of forging.
Large paddle-shafts are sometimes taper, and are forged taper ; the shoulders of the bearings
also are formed during forging, by either reducing the adjoining parts, or welding collars to the
shaft at the ends of each bearing. Such collars for bearings are welded to the shaft, after the
cylindrical or taper character is produced; the making of the original piece is therefore nearly
the same for shafts of all sizes, whether taper or cylindrical. A taper paddle-shaft is shown in
Fig. 177.
To avoid the upsetting that was stated to be necessary for welding tongue-joints, another
kind of joint-making is adopted, by means of which welding is accomplished by ordinary draw-
ing with a hammer.
With this intention, all the necessary components of the shaft are united during the original
iling together of the constituent bars; and the shapes of the joint ends are those of long forks.
Rich a fork is obtained by welding together two bars at the middle only; and when the loose
portions not welded are opened, a piece having two fork-prongs at each end is the result. Any
required number of these original constituents may be employed, according to their thickness
and the desired dimensions of the shaft to be produced. When only two or three such forked
pieces are to be used, and welded together end to end, they may be fixed in position by closing
the four ends with hammering, previous to placing them in a furnace for a welding heat. But
when five, six, eight, ten, or any greater number of such pieces require piling and welding upon
top of each other, or side by side, instead of being united at their ends only, the pieces are
bound together with binders, which are attached whenever fresh piles are added. Fork-joint
piles are shown by Figs. 179 and 180. .
This method of interlaying and piling is applicable to paddle-axles, or any other axles of
similar shape, and also to the cylindrical portions of crank-axles, whether small or large. By
thus uniting the forked constituents, welding them together and forming a square bar, a cylin-
drical shaft of good quality can be afterwards produced, without any upsetting of tongue-
joints.
Mipviz Saarts (Fig. 178).—A middle shaft, or middle axle, is that which is between the
two paddle-shafts, and also in the middle of the ship. The simplest class have no crank forged
solid with the shaft, but are of cylindrical forms resembling paddle-shafts. Two crank-levers
are keyed to a middle shaft, one at each extremity ; instead of only one at one extremity, as on
a paddle-shaft.
At each end is a bearing, adjoining or a few inches from each crank-lever; the forging of
such a shaft is therefore similar to that for a paddle-shaft, the smith exercising the necessary
care to make the joints in their proper places, and to well close the bearing parts, although it is
not necessary to hammer the work sufficient to harden the metal at the centre ; this portion may
be fibrous throughout the total length of the work.
The mode of procedure resembles that for a paddle-shaft, and much depends upon the
K
66 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
shape of the iron at the disposal of the workmen. The quality of the metal is the same as that
of all other engine-axles, where iron is employed, and should consist of new puddled bars.
When convenient, these bars are made into a pile and welded by steam-hammering the
mass into a shape of a short thick bar, or into the form of a cubic lump. In these cases, the
porter which is used for reversing or rotating the work is welded to the middle bar of the pile ;
and thus remains solid with the work until the shaft is forged. But when a cubic lump is
selected from a piler or shingler, the engine-smith welds one of his own porters to the piece
selected.
A convenient and safe mode of attaching the porter consists in making a gap with a steam-
hammer fuller into one end of the piece, and placing into the gap a porter whose extremity is
rather thicker than the part next adjoining; the gap is next closed, and becomes what is termed
a dovetail joint. This class of porter attachments is shown in Fig. 172; when thus prepared,
a welding heat is given to the joint, and the work is fit for drawing down to the required
dimensions of any cylindrical shaft that is desired.
While finally reducing a middle shaft or any other shaft of similar character, gauge-blocks
may be conveniently used. These blocks are on the anvil, and packed up to a height from the
anvil which is equal to the required diameter of the work. The shaft is then slid along between
the blocks, and reduced until the hammer strikes the gauge-blocks at the same moment as the
work ; by which the proper diameter is attained without making any part of the shaft too small,
the rotator being used for reversing the work in the ordinary manner. By this mode of
finishing, the amount of smoothing required with halfround tools is very small, the circular
shape of the shaft resulting from its rotation by the workmen.
The larger the shaft, the greater is the necessity for clean orderly cuts at the conclusion of the
forging, to make the extremities of the work at right angles to its length. A few of the methods
for attaining this end shall be described.
One mode for producing a right-angular cut consists in using a straight chisel which fits a
steam-hammer, and also a broad arched anvil-chisel which fits an anvil-block, so fixed that,
when the two chisels are put together, both cutting-edges are opposite each other. By then
placing the shaft into the horizontal position upon the anvil-chisel, and striking with the hammer-
chisel; two cuts are commenced around the work; and if both the cutters are properly fitted, the
incisions will be opposite each other, and, by slowly rotating the work during the cutting, each
cut will be continued until both meet, forming a cavity or incision around the shaft which is at
right angles to its length, as desired. After this, the cutting off is completed by the hammer-
chisel only, the bottom anvil-chisel being taken away.
A right-angular cut is produced also by fixing a pair of half-round bands or clips to the
shaft, so that the distance between the extremities or faces of the bands and the intended cut
shall be equal to the breadth of the half-round anvil-block on which the work is to rest while
cutting off is effected. While putting the shaft into the horizontal position for cutting, the chain
that suspends the work is wound out, or what is called payed out, towards the centre of the
hammer, so that the clips shall bear tight against the anvil-block while the shaft is being rotated
by the men, and also while the hammer-chisel is being driven through the work. The shaft
being thus prevented from moving forwards or backwards, and the chisel being fixed in the
hammer-head, causes a square cut to result, however thick the shaft may be, and however
quickly the chisel may be driven through, or the work rotated.
A third method of cutting off is managed with a chisel having a long handle held by a
workman, or two or three workmen; so that one part is kept close to the side of the bottom
tool, while the other part of the chisel is driven through the work with the hammer, the shaft
being rotated by the men in the usual way.
While measuring for the final cutting to length of any large shaft, it is proper that the work
be as nearly cold from one end to the other as circumstances permit. The work may then be
cut much nearer to the finished length than by allowing a large quantity for lathe-turning, or
for shortening of the work while cooling.
FORGING. 67
Beam Gupcrons.—The shorter the projecting end or ends of any gudgeon, the greater is its
capability of resisting the strains imposed during use; these are always at right angles to the
length of the gudgeon; wrought iron or tough fibrous steel is therefore the suitable material
for making the gudgeon.
To make a gudgeon shown by Fig. 123, the smith provides, if possible, one thick lump
similar to that for a paddle or middle shaft; but if two pieces are to be used, the joint is made
in the middle.
To make a gudgeon shown by Fig. 124, a little more care is requisite to make each extremity
of the work of solid close metal, by reason of the intention to bore and screw a hole at the
centre of each end. Much trouble of plugging up cracks is avoided by proper attention at the
first forging.
The thickest parts of the gudgeon are fixed tight in the sides of the condenser, and should
be fibrous ; but the bearings adjoining may be hardened with a final hammering, similar to that
given to other bearings.
Bram Suass.—These slabs are rolled to any required thickness, according to the desired
width across the middle of the intended beam; the thinner the slab, the wider or higher is the
beam.
For small slabs, a bar may be rolled to a sufficient length to make several slabs, the bar
being afterwards cut with shears into the desired number of pieces.
Large slabs are conveniently made singly, the width of each one being the width of the
widest part of the slab when finished. After the component piece is rolled to a proper thickness,
the desired shape is next marked upon the side, and the superfluous pieces cut off with a broad
steam-hammer chisel. During the trimming of a beam slab, or other similar piece of work, a
thick plate of copper or soft iron is fixed to the anvil face, to prevent the chisel edge touching the
anvil. The mode of fixing or shaping the fender-plate to a small anvil or anvil-block consists in
heating the plate to redness and fixing it between the hammer and anvil; and, while fixed, the
portions that extend from the anvil are driven down with sledge-hammers. For such fender-
plates, a thick iron plate is preferable to copper, although copper is much used.
Cotumns.—The simplest class of columns are made cylindrical, and of three pieces. Of these,
one is the column itself, and the two other pieces are the collars or bearings. Each of these two
is separately forged, and afterwards fixed to the straight piece which may be called the column
proper. Such a method obviates the necessity for the drawing down of a thick piece which is
the diameter of the required collars.
Cylindrical columns of this simple form are much used for oscillating engines and some
classes of land engines; and when short columns are required, they may be forged also by
making the collars solid with the remainder of the work. With this object, two pieces, whose
diameters are equal to those of the collars, are drawn down to the desired diameter and length,
and so welded together that the joint may be about the middle of the column when finished.
The class of columns represented by Fig. 130 are used also as stays, and in the horizontal
position ; they are in such cases named stretchers, and should be forged as nearly as possible to
the intended form, by which a large amount of reducing during the lathe process will be
avoided. Small stays of this shape are easily forged to the required form, and the two collars
welded to the work at the conclusion. Large ones, also, are made of three pieces ; the screw end
and the adjoining collar are one piece, and the opposite end and collar constitute another piece.
These two are the pieces first made, when a large column is required, and are produced by draw-
ing down the ends of thick pieces whose diameters are about equal to those of the collars
required. After the proper length and shape of these two portions are attained, the third com-
ponent piece is forged to its shape and dimensions, and welded between the other two, to become
the middle or intermediate part of the stay or column. '
Large columns may be made also by forging the collars separately, and afterwards fixing
them to the column by either welding, or shrinking the collars to the column during the lathe
process.
K 2
68 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
CRANK-SHAFTS.—The bearings of axles of all classes demand much attention from the
smith during forging, and the greater the dimensions of the work in progress, the greater is the
responsibility of the workman who happens to be managing the particular forging being made.
No one but himself knows the quality of the metal employed, the relative position of the com-
ponents, or the treatment the work receives during the several processes.
Crank-axles involve an additional consideration to that of the bearings. The levers are
equally important, many of them being improperly made, either of unsuitable metal or of good
metal whose component plates or fibres are at right angles to the proper position. It is an
almost unknown occurrence for a smith to receive any instructions concerning these matters ; he
therefore depends upon what ingenuity or practical knowledge he may possess, and proceeds
accordingly. A good smith will therefore be careful to ascertain the quality of the bars he is
to use; and, when circumstances permit, he will superintend the shingling, and thus become
intimately acquainted with the metal with which he is supplied. The material selected for crank-
shafts should be of hard, close-grained, tenacious character; and the suitable degree of hardness
for the axle portions is attained with hammering, as previously described for other shafts.
A class of simply formed crank-axles is that having one-arm cranks; such axles have their
crank-pins extended or produced from the outer sides of the arms or levers. Of this class of
cranks, those that are made of two pieces are first described.
CRraANK-SHAFTS IN Two Pieces.—To forge one of this variety intended to have a separate
crank-pin, only two components are necessary, one for the lever and the other for the axle
proper. The forging of the axle-piece commences by either drawing down a piece whose
sectional area is greater than that of the axle desired, or upsetting a smaller piece at that end
which is to be welded to the lever, the object being to form a thick lump at the intended joint,
to admit two or three welding heats.
The preparation of the shaft end for welding to the lever consists in either punching a hole
into the upset part, or cutting a slit and forming a gap of the slit, for the purpose of fitting in
the end of the lever. When a hole is punched, it is drifted with an oval or oblong drift, thus
making the greatest width of the hole to be in line with the length of the shaft. The greatest
width of the hole should be about 14 times the diameter of the shaft, and the shortest width
about equal to the shaft’s diameter.
The shaft end being thus prepared, the lever is selected or drawn down of a straight bar,
until the sectional area and shape is that of the lever required. One end is next shaped to fit
the hole or gap in the shaft; this shaping consists in drawing down and spreading out a stem at
the lever end, the shape and dimensions of the stem being the same as those of the hole. At
the junction of the stem with the thick part of the lever, a concave shoulder is formed, instead
of a flat one. The hollow shoulder or bearing is made by driving in a fuller at each side of the
stem; to do this conveniently, the thick end of the lever is put to the ground, and the fuller
driven in at the two corners while the stem is upwards.
By thus hollowing the shoulder, it is made to partly resemble the circular form of the shaft ;
and when the two are welded together, a firm bearing and joint will be the result. When the
ae and axle are fitted sufficiently near to each other for welding, the two components appear as
in Fig, 181.
The method of welding consists in placing the two together in the furnace with the lever
end upwards ; and when welding heat is obtained, the work is carefully swung out from the fire
to the hammer, and, while still in the same relative position, the work is placed with the lower heated
portion in an anvil-block having a half-round gap of suitable width. A few blows are then
given to the upper end of the lever, which firmly weld the shoulder to the shaft. The work is
next partly rotated by the rotator, and a few blows given to one side of the joint; after which it
is partly rotated back again to present the opposite side of the joint to the hammer, and the
welding is then continued. When thus partly united, another welding heat is given, and the
joint finished by upsetting the shaft end with a pendulum-hammer, and with another upsetting of
the lever and hammering of the joint sides, if necessary.
FORGING. 69
After the joint is made sufficiently solid and the boss part reduced to a suitable thickness
and width, the superfluous metal is cut off, and the lever-boss is shaped with fullers and
hammering to the desired form.
CRANK-SHAFTS OF THREE Precus.—One-arm crank-shafts are sometimes made solid with the
crank-pin ; in these cases, three principal components are required, instead of only two.
To make a shaft of this sort, an opening may be made into the shaft end by punching; or,
instead of this, the lever end may be split open and the two ends bent together around the shaft ;
and the other end of the lever requires similar treatment for being welded to the crank-pin. By
this method the pin is first fitted to the lever. and the other end of the lever is next adapted to
the shaft. When both joints are prepared, the first joint welded is that of the pin with the small
end of the lever, after which the other end of the lever is welded to the shaft. The three
components together are represented by Fig. 182.
Of the three components, the first prepared is the crank-pin. This is reduced to its finished
forged diameter, and a thick part allowed to remain at one end for the joint, and is shaped for
either a tongue-joint, or for an oblong hole in the lever, or for a gap similar to that shown in the
Figure (182). The small end of the lever is next prepared, and the crank-pin joint then welded
and finished, after which the shaft end of the lever can be cut and prepared so that the lever shall
be about the proper length when welded to the shaft. The welding of the lever to the shaft is
next performed, and the lever adjusted to its required length.
From the centre of the shaft to the centre of the crank-pin is the length of the lever’s throw ;
and, after deciding which shall be the centre of pin and which the centre of the shaft, the smith
lengthens or shortens the lever to that which is desired. Adjusting to length is effected by
heating the lever to a yellow heat in the mid-portion and upsetting it, if too long; or by laying
it upon one side and drawing it, if too short.
When the proper length is attained, the superfluous metal is cut from the lever and from
the bosses, and the work is shaped with fullers and rounding-tools until the necessary curves for
the bosses are produced.
Two-arM CRANKS OF ONE Bar.—A class of simply formed two-arm crank-axles is represented
by the intermediate axle in Fig. 122. Short axles of this sort, having the bearings at a great
distance from the keyed crank-levers, are best when made of one piece; and an intermediate axle
of great length, whose bearings are to be close to the keyed levers, is conveniently made of three
pieces, the axle-pieces being made of proper length to cause the two joints to be made between
the middle crank and the bearings at the axle ends.
To make a short axle in one piece, the lump is selected, or a sufficient number of bars are
piled and welded together until a lump of the required dimensions is obtained, the amount of
metal in the piece being amply sufficient for the whole of the intended two-arm crank and the two
axle ends included. The shape of this component piece should be that of a bar having a thick
lump-.on one side and midway between each extremity, similar to that indicated in Fig. 183.
The thickness of the two axle parts is nearly double that of the finished thickness, and are,
therefore, much shorter than the finished length; and the thickness and width of the thick lump
in the middle are about equal to the thickness and width of the crank required. This thick
portion may be formed upon one side, as desired, by piling and welding short bars upon only one
side of the primary axle-piece; or by another process the lump can be made, which consists in
reducing a thick short bar at each end of the intended lump, allowing it to remain between.
When drawing down is adopted, the thick portion is made to project from one side of the bar by
means of drawing down, without turning the work upside down, the lump, by such treatment,
being produced from the upper side.
Cranxinc.—After the work is suitably shaped, the thick pazt is formed into the crank, partly
with bending and partly with chisels.
The first heating for bending is given to the lump, and also to portions of the axle ends;
the work is then put beneath a hammer and across a gap which is a few inches wider than the
width of the intended crank measured from one axle end across the crank to the other axle end.
70 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
The two upper corners or entrances to the gap are curved, to promote an easy bending; and,
while the work is lying across the opening, with the thick lump downwards, a fuller-hammer 1s
driven into the place of the intended crank-gap.
At the commencement of cranking, the length of the protruding fuller portion of the hammer
employed need not exceed four or five inches; consequently, when the fuller has been driven in to
the distance of four or five inches, the broad shoulder of the hammer will strike the two axle ends
at the same time that the thin fuller portion strikes the bottom of the newly made gap, at which
time the hammer will tend to straighten the work, which has become bent with driving in the
fuller. The fuller is next taken out, the axle ends further straightened, if necessary, and another
fuller put in, which is about eight inches in length. The fullering is resumed, the axle ends
straightened as before, and another longer fuller is driven in, if necessary. ;
During these gap-making processes, that part of the lump intended for the crank-pin should
be as nearly cold as the adjoining heated portions of the crank will allow, because it is ne-
cessary that the two arms and their junctions with the axle ends should be at nearly welding
heat. It is also necessary to remember that each successive heating should be further and further
from the crank-pin, and nearer and nearer to the ends of the axles, for the purpose of lengthening
the throw of the crank without injuriously stretching the two lever-arms. .
By such a series of fullerings, a crank of short throw, suitable for an intermediate axle, is
formed in a few heats, if the thickness of axle does not exceed seven or eight inches; and for
throws of any length, or metal of any thickness, the same method may be adopted, if the
hammers and anvil-blocks are of sufficient dimensions.
When a crank is thus roughly formed, the crank-pin portion may be lengthened by drawing,
or, if necessary, shortened by upsetting with a pendulum; any superfluous metal may be also
cut off, and the two crank-arms shaped to the proper form.
The crank being finished, the drawing down of the axle ends to their diameters is next
completed, the bearing parts well closed, the work cut to length, and allowed to cool slowly.
Of a crank forged in this manner two uses can be made. It may remain in its condition of
a two-arm crank, or it may be divided and become a one-arm crank, having the crank-pin outside
and solid with the lever. A crank made in this manner is shown in Fig. 185.
When it is intended to divide the work, the cut is made through that arm which is not
required to be part of the crank. The place of the cut is in line with the edge of the thick crank-
pin portion; and when the superfluous lever is cut off, the crank-pin remains already produced
from the lever as intended. The place of the cut is indicated in the Figure (185) by C.
The making of an intermediate crank-axle of three pieces consists in forming, by the method
described, a crank having two short axle ends, and welding them to two other pieces of any
required length and shape.
Several other processes are resorted to for producing two-arm cranks; of these methods the
principal shall be described.
So~ip Cranxs.—An easy mode of making a crank consists in piling and welding a number
of bars until the width and thickness of the mass is equal to or rather greater than the thickness
and width of the intended crank. When such a piece is closely welded and finished to suitable
dimensions, the two extremities of the crank are marked upon the work to indicate the junctions
of the crank with the two intended axle portions. At these two marks the drawing down is
commenced by driving in fullers, and afterwards continued with hammering in the usual manner.
All further forging of the work is performed upon the two thick portions remaining for the axle
ends, the solid crank part having been finished previous to driving in fullers at the two axle
junctions. The length of the component bar, and therefore the length of the two axle ends,
depends upon the length of the shaft required.
To make a crank by this plan of piling, and without cranking, the work may be of any
required convenient length, because no bending is intended, for producing the crank part; conse-
quently, no inconvenience will result through the irregular form that is produced during
cranking. And if, for portability, a crank having two short axle ends be first made, any
FORGING. 71
additional length of axle may be welded to the primary crank-piece, that the axle ends may be
a to the length required. A bar fullered in two places to produce a solid crank is shown
by Fig. 188.
CRANK-AXLES wiTH Discs.—To make an axle represented in Fig. 121, having a disc at each
end, it is necessary to use about three principal components, if the shaft is to be only three or
four ae in diameter; but for axles of larger dimensions five, six, or eight components are
required.
When only three pieces are to be used, one becomes the crank, which may be either solid
or having a short fullered gap, as indicated in Fig. 189. The two other components become the
discs, having a portion of the axle solid with each disc. These two are first forged together of
one rod, as denoted by Fig. 190; after which the work is divided into two at the middle, and
the required disc ends produced.
If the lump selected for the discs is cylindrical, its diameter is equal to the forged diameter
of the required discs; but if the shape is four-sided, eight-sided, or any other shape except
cylindrical, the shortest diameter of the lump must be equal to or greater than the disc’s diameter.
This shortest diameter is the distance between those two opposite sides of the lump that are
nearest to each other; and the only proper mode of measuring this distance is by means of
callipers of suitable dimensions. Ifthe shortest diameter is thus found to be equal to the disc’s
diameter, no upsetting is needed ; but, on the contrary, a small amount of reducing and rounding
is admissible, by which the work is made circular and to the diameter of either of the
intended discs.
When the piece is thus reduced to proper shape and diameter, the thicknesses of each disc are
added together and marked upon the mid part of the work. If the forged thickness of each dise
is to be four inches, the marking is effected by putting two indentations into the work with a
fuller, the distance between the two dents being eight inches, the length required for both discs.
Being thus marked, the work is heated to nearly welding, and a pair of fullers fixed, one
into the hammer-head and the other into the anvil-block, the fuller ends or extremities being, as
nearly as possible, opposite each other; a pair of side guides also are fixed at the sides; and when
the work is sufficiently heated, it is put as nearly as convenient into the horizontal position, and
upon the bottom fuller. While thus lying, the chain is adjusted until one of the two dents is
brought exactly beneath the hammer fuller, which is then driven in three or four inches, and the
worked turned downside up; after which, the fuller is again driven in a few inches, and the work
is next adjusted to be fullered while at right angles to its former position. This is effected by
placing the two newly made gaps opposite the pair of side guides, and, when adjusted, the fuller
is again driven in, and the work put upside down, as at the first fullering. After the four
recesses are thus made into the work from opposite sides, the four corners produced in the gap
are next driven down with the fullers, and a circular gap or recess around the work is the result ;
and when the gap is once regularly made, it may be further deepened without trouble.
After one gap is thus made, the other gap is formed in a similar manner, and eight inches
distant, as required, being made at the other dent, which indicates the extremity of the other disc.
When both the circular recesses are formed, the work appears as in the Figure (190).
Well-formed gaps of this character may be made also by means of semicircular concave
fullers, both top and bottom; side guides not being necessary in such cases.
Drawing down the two ends to the diameter of the axle is next performed ; after which, the
work is cut into two pieces, the division being made in the middle of the lump. This cutting is
effected with the concave bottom chisel, as used for other similar work, when a clean right-
angular cut is necessary. During such cutting off of large work the chisels are prevented
becoming too hot, through cooling the hammer-chisel by means of a ladleful of water, and cooling
the anvil-chisel by applying a mopful of water.
When the two components are thus made by cutting the work into two, each disc is
trimmed, flattened, and finished to its forged dimensions. The axle ends projecting from the
discs are next cut to a suitable length, and shaped for welding to the two short axle ends of the
.
72 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
crank-piece. And after the three components are united, and either stretched or upset to the
precise length required, the forging is complete.
A two-disc crank-axle, of ten or twelve inches diameter, may, in some cases, be conveniently
made of six or seven pieces, as shown in Fig. 191.
The seven components include the middle piece for the solid crank, the two axle-pieces to be
welded to the crank-piece, also two other axle-pieces to lengthen the axle ends to the desired
lengths, and the two portions for the discs.
The forging of all the components may be conducted at one time, at different furnaces and
hammers; by which the work is completed in about a quarter of the time that would be required
for forging at one furnace only.
To make the crank part, a pile of bars are welded and cranked, or allowed to remain solid in
the ordinary manner. The straight axle-pieces, also, are produced by either piling or drawing
down a thick lump, and the two discs are made of flat cakes or circular slices. The mode of
making and attaching discs is described in the section on intermediate screw-shafts. When a
crank-shaft is being made in this manner of several pieces, the attachment of the discs should be
the joints last made.
Crank-Bars.—An easy and common mode of crank-making is that by which the entire
crank, with its two axle ends, is cut from a straight flat bar. The length of this bar is equal to
the total length of the crank-axle when forged. The width of the bar is equal to the total length
of the crank-arm; and the thickness is equal to the distance through the crank-gap, or through
the solid metal at the place of the intended gap.
After the piece is piled, welded, drawn down, and flattened to these dimensions, the crank
is formed by one of four methods—by either cutting with steam-hammer chisels, punching rows
of holes, sawing with saws, or drilling rows of holes with a drilling-machine. The bar reduced to
its dimensions, and ready for cutting, is denoted by Fig. 192.
After the crank part is produced by either of these cutting processes, the axle portions are
reduced to the circular form, and the superfluous metal cut off to complete the forging. Crank-
axles made by this plan are objectionable, because the lengths of all the fibres are parallel to the
axis of the axle.
Crank-suarts or Four Preces.—To place the fibres into their proper positions, a method
may be adopted by which the two levers may be separately made, the axle and crank-pin also
separately made, and the four pieces welded together.
All the pieces may be separately forged at different fires, as for other large forgings, each
component being trimmed to shape and cut to length while adapting them to each other. The
two parts for the levers are made by reducing them of one straight bar of sufficient length for both
levers; or of two shorter bars, each of sufficient length for one lever. When both levers are
drawn down until their thickness and width are about equal to the required forged thickness and
width, the ends are cut open by first punching a hole, and next cutting a slit, as described
for other work. The gaps thus made are further enlarged and shaped to fit the two ends of the
crank-pin, and also to fit the axle-piece ; so that each lever has one of its forked parts shaped to
fit one end of the crank-pin, and the other forked part shaped to fit some part of the axle. The
length of this axle-piece may, therefore, be about three times the width of the crank between the
two axle junctions. For short axles, the length of the axle-piece may be equal to the entire
forged length, to avoid lengthening by welding pieces to it. The length of the crank-pin
piece is only a few inches longer than the finished length, to allow the crank-pin ends to be
riveted with upsetting, if considered necessary, during the welding of the pin to the levers. The
four components appear in Fig. 193.
The joints first made are those of the levers with the axle. By referring to the Figure, it
may be observed that the ends of the levers are of sufficient length to project beyond the axle,
and allow them to be closed towards each other previous to welding, by which the components
are retained in position until welding is effected.
The hammering for welding commences by first placing the work with the axle upwards ;
FORGING. 73
the axle is then driven down with a narrow hammer to thoroughly weld the bottoms of the lever-
gaps ; after which, the work is put down with one side next the anvil-face, and the lever ends
closed towards each other. After this the welding is completed at one or two other heatings,
with additional upsetting and welding of the lever sides, if necessary.
If it is intended to weld both levers to the axle at one welding, the thickness of the two
levers together should equal the total width of the crank, which is the distance between the two
axle junctions. The levers may then be put close together on the axle, having the lever ends
closed together sufficiently to maintain them in proper position until welded. By thus welding the
levers close together, the crank is made as if solid, although a slit remains which is the centre of
the gap intended ; and the same amount of boring and slotting will result as if the crank were a
single solid piece. But when it is necessary to avoid this boring, each of the levers may be
forged nearer to its desired dimensions, and welded to the axle, so that the distance between the
pe levers shall be equal to the forged width of the required gap. This arrangement is denoted
in Fig. 196.
After the levers are united to the axle, the opposite forked ends are adapted to contain the
crank-pin ; and the joint parts of the pin are trimmed or thinned at one side to fit the gaps in
the levers. The pin is next put in and tightened sufficiently to allow the work to be carried
about ; and, after heating, the welding is performed in a manner similar to that for the axle.
The crank is afterwards completed by cutting off the superfluous metal at the projecting fork
ends, and joining other axle-pieces to the primary one, if not already of sufficient length.
Crank forging by means of forked levers is specially applicable to all crank-axles intended
to have levers of comparatively great length, or whose levers are long when compared with the
axles. For short levers the next mentioned methods are more suitable.
Cranks oF Two Bars.—Cranks are made also of two bars welded together, so that the
width and thickness, when welded, shall be about equal to the thickness and. width of the crank
required. By this mode, the primary axle-piece may be of any convenient length, and is fitted
to the intended crank in a manner similar to that described for forked levers. The difference
consists in not making a separate crank-pin; this pin being part of the two bars of which the
crank is made.
It is necessary that the bars be soundly welded in the parts intended for the levers and
crank-pin; but the opposite ends may remain open, and will require cutting open, if the two
become united during the welding. After a thorough welding, the quantity required for the
crank is cut off, and the ends not welded are heated and placed upwards beneath a hammer. A
narrow fuller is next driven in between the two ends, and afterwards a broader fuller is driven
in, also a wedge or thick chisel, until a gap is produced similar to that in Fig. 194. The axle
is then fitted to its place, and there welded to complete the crank-shaft. The axle and crank are
represented by Fig. 198.
Instead of thus making a crank of two bars, one may be used, if circumstances permit.
When a piece of metal large enough to be formed into the entire crank, and a steam-hammer
chisel big enough to make the opening, are accessible, it is advisable to use one solid piece for
the crank, because in such a piece the metal for the crank-pin will be compact, and not so likely
to show any joint. The shape of the axle gap in a single piece is similar to the gap in a crank
made of two pieces; the crank and axle are therefore united together in a similar manner. A
solid crank-piece without a joint is shown by Fig. 195 Whether one bar or two be used for
such a crank, the lengths of the crank-pin fibres are at right angles to the proper position ; there-
fore this is an objection to the method, which should be partly remedied by making the crank-pin
part as solid as possible.
By a method similar to the one last described, two cranks may be made of one bar, or of
two bars welded together in the middle. In such cases, a lump is selected or reduced to proper
width and thickness, and a sufficient length to make two cranks. The work is next cut into two
at about midway between the ends, and the axle gaps are made with chisels and fullers, as for
other cranks. When two bars are welded together for the purpose of obtaining one bar of suffi-
L
74 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR
cient thickness, the axle gaps may be formed by omitting to weld the work at the ends, The
bar for making two cranks then appears as in Fig. 197.
Gap-makinc.—To avoid drilling and a part of the slotting, crank-gaps should be formed
while on the anvil. For this purpose three lines may be marked upon the solid crank part to
indicate the place of the gap when forged; and a chisel or small fuller is driven in at the marks
to a sufficient depth to allow the indents to be plainly seen when the work is heated. The crank
is next heated to about a yellow heat, and two cuts are made into the work at the two marks
that are parallel to the length of the levers. These cuts are conveniently made by driving
a chisel to an equal distance from both sides, but only a few inches into the place of the gap
from the entrance of it. After two short cuts are thus made, a gouge chisel, whose cutting end
is the width of the gap, is driven from both sides, and a portion of the superfluous gap-piece is
cut out. The straight chisel is afterwards again driven in, to extend the side cuts, and the
gouge again employed to deepen the gap.
Two-crank AxLes.—Two-throw crank-shafts are made by first forging two separate cranks,
either with gaps or without, and afterwards welding two of the axle ends together; the joint
being between the two cranks. Whether the cranks are to have curved extremities or angular,
the desired shape is produced previous to the final joint-making.
One of the two cranks is placed at right angles to the other by means of the joint; this is
made to fit and coincide while the two cranks are at right angles to each other, and welded in
that relation. The particular relative position of the joint ends with the cranks is of no conse-
quence, because the joint is thoroughly welded by upsetting while in the furnace; but the
situation of the joint may be at any convenient distance from either crank. To make a good
joint a large mass of metal is provided, to admit two or three welding heats; after which the
joint part is reduced to the forged diameter of the axle. By this treatment the extreme ends of
the original joint become extended to a great distance along the axle, and are so amalgamated
with each other that the men who made the joint cannot tell either its situation or position.
Two-throw crank-shafts are made also by piling up the cranks on the sides of a primary
axle-piece. This piling is of sufficient height and in the required. places to form the cranks to
the length desired, and also at the required distance from each other. Each of the piles being
at right angles to the other, the cranks are produced in the required relative positions, and with-
out much twisting of the axle or making a joint between the two cranks. At the conclusion of
forging, a small amount only of twisting is necessary, to adjust the cranks to a right angle with
each other. Cranks thus forged are shown in Fig. 199.
Two-crank Axuirs or Ont Bar.—A two-throw crank-shaft may be made also of one flat
bar. The length of this bar is equal to the total length of the axle; the width equals the total
length of one lever or arm; and the thickness equals the distance through the crank-gap when
tormed. When reduced to thickness, the work is carefully trimmed and flattened throughout
one small side, usually termed one edge. The work is then ready for marking.
The bar being thus prepared, it is laid upon some convenient table, and the thickness of the
intended axle is marked along the bar and at a proper distance from the flattened side, this
distance being equal to the forged diameter of the axle. The middles of the two intended cranks
are next marked by making two lines across the bar at right angles to the length of the axle.
From these two centre lines the forged dimensions of the two cranks are marked, after which a
chisel is driven in at each line.
When thus marked, the bar is ready to be formed into a two-crank axle, which is effected
by either drilling or sawing. When sawing is adopted, two rows of holes must be drilled at the
bottoms of the crank-gaps, each row being parallel to the length of the adjoining crank-pin part ;
the formation of the cranks is completed when the five superfluous pieces are cut out, at which
time the two cranks are extended on the same side of the axle instead of at right angles to each
other, as required.
AXLE-TWISTING.—Twisting the axle is resorted to for placing the cranks into their proper
positions. For small axles, this operation is conveniently performed at a bright yellow heat
FORGING. | 75.
while the work is in a furnace or other fire. The portion of the axle heated is that between the
two cranks. The first heat is given to that part which adjoins one of the cranks, and the length
of axle heated should be about two feet, if the fire will permit. By heating a great length of
axle, ‘the twist will be equally distributed along the work; but, if the fire is not large enough for
this purpose, a greater number of heatings and twistings should take place. The extent of twist
first given may be about thirty degrees ; the adjoining portion of the axle is next heated, and the
angular distance between the two cranks is increased with twisting to about sixty degrees ; after
which another portion of the axle is heated, and the distance increased to ninety degrees as
required.
The modes of applying the power for twisting are various; and the method selected is that
most suitable to the dimensions of the work. An axle of only four or five inches diameter can
be twisted while in the fire, by bolting one of the cranks to a table or to a pedestal fixed in the
ground. When one crank is thus tightly fixed, the other crank is conveniently made use of for
attachment. A lever is fastened to this crank, and the axle is twisted by a few men at the end
of the lever.
When a bearing or pedestal is specially made for such purposes, it is preferable to fix the
work by means of caps or clamp-plates across the axle, instead of attaching the plates to one of
the cranks. Ifthe axle is thus gripped, instead of a crank, the fixing-bolts and plates may be
quickly unfastened and refastened during the process. To facilitate the twisting, a few sledge-
hammer blows are struck at the moment the power by the lever is applied. Screws also are used
to gradually bring the cranks into proper position, instead of applying the power by the lever
only; but a few men at the end of a lever which is fastened to a crank or some part of the axle
is the quickest mode of twisting all kinds of small axles.
Large axles are twisted under a steam-hammer, instead of in a furnace, and, if convenient,
the twist is equally distributed along all that portion of the axle between the two cranks. The
axle requires supporting at two places, one bearing being placed to each of the axle ends. One
of the bearing-blocks is therefore near the anvil, or, if a large anvil, the bearing may be on the
anvil; the other bearing-block is at any convenient place along the axle end. For convenience
of handling the work during twisting, the axle ends are rounded previous to attaching the
fastenings to the bearing-blocks.
After two or three feet of the axle is heated to a bright yellow, the work is put upon the
bearings, and, with one crank beneath the hammer, the work is so adjusted that the crank-pin
portion shall receive the blows for twisting ; and during the twisting a space is allowed beneath
the crank ; all superfluous anvil-blocks are therefore removed from the anvil.
Fixing the opposite end of the axle during twisting is effected by attaching a lever to the
crank, or to some part of the axle, and fastening the power end of the lever to a pair of blocks
and tackle of sufficient strength. By this means the lever can be shifted during the successive
hammerings, that the work may be retained in position to receive the blows. A substitute for a
lever of great weight and dimensions consists of a pair of grips having angular gaps for attachment
to one end of the axle, the axle end being made four-sided to fit the gaps in the grips. Around
the rim of the grip are several holes large enough to contain the end of a strong fixing-pin ; and,
during the hammering for twisting, the work is retained in position through the fixing-pin being
tight in one of the pin-holes in the grip, at the time the pin is also tight in a block or iron post
fixed for the purpose.
Another means of facilitating the holding of the work in position may be briefly mentioned,
which consists in hooking a number of weights to the lever and crank. The greater the weight
thus applied, the more effectual will be the blows of the hammer. Whatever particular method
may be adopted for fixing, it is advisable to make the cap or clamp-plates for gripping the work,
of thick wrought iron, and with great gripping or bearing surfaces, that the work may be easily
tightened in any desired position at any moment while on the anvil.
Gap-BLocks.—Two-crank-axles made of straight bars, or made by any other mode, may be
twisted also by a method which obviates the use of levers and all their necessary attachments.
L2
76 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
This plan is applicable to an axle of one inch diameter, or to another of twenty inches, and
is accomplished by supporting one crank in a gap-block or pedestal, while the other crank is
on an anvil and beneath a hammer of any size to suit the dimensions of the work. The gap-
block may consist of any desired number of tons of metal, and be of the needful dimensions for the
usual work. In the upper part of the block, and in the vertical position, is the gap or opening for
containing the cranks; and across the gap, at the top of the block, is a cap-plate to prevent the
work being much shaken with hammering. The precise width of the gap is of no consequence,
but it is necessary to make the opening a few inches wider than the thickness of the thickest
crank to be put within, in order to allow the crank to be inclined about ten or fifteen degrees
while adjusting it for twisting. When a small crank is in the gap, any required number of
packing-plates can be inserted to fill the openings that remain.
After a great length of the axle is heated, the work is put upon the anvil and into the gap,
and, while suspended with the crane, the shaft is adjusted until the crank-pin part is beneath
the hammer, at which time the fixing-cap is tightened and the hammering for twisting
commenced.
When a sufficient length of axle is heated at the first heat, the entire twisting can be
performed at one heat; but if only a short length is heated, the process of reheating should be
adopted. A two-crank axle supported by a gap-block is shown in Fig. 201.
After the cranks are thus put nearly at right angles to each other by some of the methods
described, and the outsides of the cranks tapered, or sometimes smoothed, by being hammered
into moulds, the work is cut to length and adjusted.
Crank Apsustments.—The final adjustment of all sorts of crank-shafts includes straight-
ening the axles, and placing the centres of the two crank-pins at right angles to each other.
The entire adjustment can be effected while the shaft is either entirely supported by the anvil,
or partly supported by the anvil at one end, while the other end is in the gap that was used
for twisting. To ascertain the amount of adjustment necessary, an iron template is made,
having two arms at right angles to each other, representing the two cranks. This template
or gauge fits the intermediate portion of the axle, and, being portable, is easily applied.
To rectify a shaft without such a gauge, it is necessary to put the shaft upon a table,
of sufficient length; and in many cases such a table is not accessible; hence the convenience
of a portable gauge.
To straighten the axle, the anvil having the largest face that the framing will admit should
be put into position ; and the face of the anvil should be concave to the extent of about half an
inch or an inch at the middle. To indicate the part of the work which needs a blow, a wooden
iron gap-straight-edge, or straight-edge of wood only, is supported at different sides of the axle
by three or four men while the smith walks along and observes the distances between the straight-
edge and shaft at several places throughout its length. He then measures the distances with
inside callipers having a long handle, if the work is hot enough to require it. And when the
differences of the distances between the straight-edge and shaft are thus discovered, the concave
parts or hollow parts of the axle are also discovered; these parts are then put next the anvil-face
and a few blows given; after which the straight-edge is again supported and applied to the work
by the men, to ascertain if the axle has been improved with the hammering, and which part is
next to receive a few blows.
By means of a long gap-straight-edge thus handled, or by means of a large surface-table,
the crank-shaft can be adjusted while it is still hot at the conclusion of forging, and previous to
putting it intoa lathe. The gaps in thestraight-edge are to admit the fulcrum ends of the cranks
that extend beyond the axle sides; the gaps should therefore be five or six inches deep ; by this
means the straight-edge can be put close to, or near to, the axle throughout its total length.
When it is considered inconvenient to make a long gap-straight-edge, the axle must be put
into a lathe to ascertain the places of the bent portions, because short straight-edges are of little
use for work of great length. During the application of the straight-edge to a shaft of great
FORGING. 77
ane the work requires supporting at several places to prevent it bending through its own
weight.
STEEL Crank-sHarts.—All crank-shafts are best when made of a hard metal that will admit
beautifully polished surfaces for the crank-pins and axle-bearings. For this reason, a hard,
highly tenacious steel, which will resist strains of vibration without being very liable to break, is
pre-eminently the very best material of which crank-shafts can be made. And the reason why
large crank-axles are not made of it is because it is an exceedingly rare product ; and, when it
is comatable, great difficulty is encountered in forging it into a large crank-shaft without spoiling
it, or placing the lengths of the fibres into the wrong positions. But the great advance lately
made in steel-making by the Bessemer process enables us to hope that a steel which will be
tough, hard, and also easily forged, may be produced at a not very distant time.
Summary.—From the foregoing remarks and details of processes given in the previous
sections of this chapter, an attentive student will learn that, however good the iron or steel may
be which is used for forging, it is always desirable to devote some attention to the relative posi-
tions in which the several forging components are to be welded to each other, and the positions
of the fibres in the work after being forged. From the details of processes already given, these
six general rules may be deduced :
1, That all piston-rods should be so made, as to place the longitudinal axes of the constituent
fibres parallel to the lengths of the piston-rods.
2. That the straight portions of all levers should be so forged, as to arrange the longitu-
dinal axes of the fibres into a position of parallelism with the lengths of the levers.
3. That the lengths of the fibres in any curved junction of a fork-end or T-head with its
respective rod should be parallel to or concentric with the curve itself.
4, Also that the lengths of the fibres in all lever bosses and fork-end bosses should con-
stitute portions of rings whose centres are the centres of the holes in the bosses.
5. Also that the fibres in the arms of all crossheads should be disposed into a position of
parallelism with the lengths of the crossheads.
6. And that all axles should be so made, as to put the lengths of the fibres into a position
of parallelism with the lengths of the axles.
These general deductions relate to the principal portions of engine work, and may be
reduced to this comprehensive general statement :
That the lengths of the fibres in all piston-rods, connecting-rods, and other rods generally,
should be parallel to the line or direction of the motive force applied while in use; and that the
lengths of the fibres in all levers, crank-pins, and axles generally should be at right angles
to the direction of the force applied while in use.
To enable a beginner to appreciate these deductions and statements, it will be necessary for
him to refer to the opening sections of this chapter, and to devote some attention to the sketches
in Plates 1, 2, 8, and 4, that he may obtain a general idea of the shapes of the forgings he is
considering.
The character, formation, and uniting together of forging components having been thus
for the first time generally described, a description of the appliances and implements for facili-
tating the various processes is now added.
SHAPING IMPLEMENTS.
During the making or using of these implements, the fundamental principles of forging
stated in the first sections of this chapter should be remembered in all cases that require good
work; by no other means can good forgings be produced when ordinary bars or rods are used,
whether they be Lowmoor, Bessemer, or any other product; therefore every tool, shaper, mould,
or other implement that can be used or made to facilitate the forging by the first principles should
be eagerly employed ; but all those implements or machines that put the metal into the outside
shape without properly arranging the fibres should be avoided when circumstances permit.
78 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
Shaping moulds for forging purposes are more applicable to Bessemer ingots than to
laminous bars, and especially when a Bessemer product nearly free from phosphorus and sulphur
is accessible.
The principle involved in forging with moulds consists in shaping the metal to the required
form by adopting the shortest method, entirely disregarding the internal arrangement of fibres ;
for this reason, tenacious Bessemer metal is very suitable for forging in moulds of all classes,
small and large. Such metal can be upset without splitting; and, when newly cast, Bessemer
product is devoid of an orderly side-by-side arrangement of fibres. While in this condition, it
may be shaped, pressed, bent, or upset in any direction, if the metal itself is good.
It may be stated generally, that bending and pressing are the two principal operations in
these shaping processes, and that the tools and shapers employed are of cast iron or of Bes-
semer metal; also that the great economy of time resulting from the use of shaping moulds
requires that they should be employed by every manufacturer who has regularly to perform or
conduct any kind of smiths’ work, whether it be very small or, on the contrary, very large.
Such shaping tools are equally applicable to work of all dimensions, whenever many articles are
required to be of the same or similar shape.
The bending and shaping tools, and appliances for smal work, shall be first described.
Tor Toous.—Plate 20 contains a number of sketches of shapers for small work; in this
Plate, Fig. 202 denotes a top rounding tool that may be used in the usual manner with another
bottom rounding tool, for rounding small work to a cylindrical form; or the top tool may be
separately used for producing work of semicircular section, usually named half-round. When
such a form is required, the work is put upon an anvil or some other convenient flat surface,
instead of into an ordinary bottom rounding tool ; the top tool is then applied with hammering,
to produce the required half-round shape.
Top tools are used also for curving those two sides of a flat key which are named the edges,
when keys of this form are required.
Such top tools are very durable when made of Bessemer steel, and can be easily formed by
splitting open one end of a piece, with punching a small hole at a short distance from the
extremity, in the usual manner, and afterwards shaping the two ends thus produced, until the
desired concave form is obtained. The required curve is effected with hammering the work
while it is on a piece of round iron or steel, whose diameter is suitable for producing the desired
curve in the tools being made. During the shaping of the curve, the round iron or steel is
supported in any convenient gap, or in a pair of angular gaps similar to those in the two blocks
shown in Fig. 142.
Another mode of making top rounding tools consists in forming the curved or fork portion
of steel, and welding a piece of iron of any desired length to the steel fork part. The straight
soft iron portion is therefore that which receives the hammer; and when any of the thin pieces
become detached from the top of the tool during the usual hammering, the mischief resulting
through the pieces being driven about is not so likely to be as extensive as when the entire tool is
made of one piece of brittle steel. But now that a soft Bessemer steel is attainable, the complete
tool can be made without any joint. ,
The upper extremities of all top rounding tools should be curved; and, in all other tools
rods, or bolts that are intended to sustain a severe hammering, the extremities that receive the
hammer should be also curved, by which the desired shape is retained a greater length of time
The curved outlines of such extremities are clearly shown in the larger sketches of this class of
tools in Plate 7.
The smoothing of the gaps of rounding tools is done with half-round or round files: the tool
is next hardened and tempered to that degree which the particular piece of steel requires to
prevent it breaking with the ordinary hammering. The upper ends of such tools do not require
any hardening process. q
Fuiers.—Fullers are used in all cases that require recesses with curved bottoms to be made
into any piece of work during its forging; and according to the width of the recess required, so
FORGING. 79
is the width of the particular fuller employed. Fullers are used also for scarfing, in which case
the end to be scarfed is put upon an anvil, or a bottom rounding tool, and the fuller is driven
into that side of the work which is intended to be bevelled. Fullers are useful also for the
drawing down or otherwise thinning of work that is too small for the ordinary set-hammer.
The forging of a fuller is properly done when the entire tool is made of one piece of steel,
ie ‘ easily tapered, or upset at one end, until the required curve and thickness of fuller is
obtained.
The mode of holding a fuller, or other similar top tool, during its use, is by means of either
a straight ash handle or a tough rod, which is twisted around the outside of the tool, and tightly
fixed with two iron clips. The straight handle allows the tool to be kept firmly upright, and
should be used when good hammermen are comatable, who are not so liable to hit the handle
instead of the tool-head; but the twisted handle is preferable when it is likely to receive a severe
blow, which would break the handle without injuring the arm of the man who holds it. .
Those tools that are intended to have straight handles should have the handle-holes punched
and drifted, instead of being drilled, because the drifting spreads out the metal around the hole
and strengthens the tool, the eye part being the weakest portion.
The final shaping of a fuller end is effected by hammering the tool while its lower end is
heated and in a gap of a bottom rounding tool, the curve of the gap being that which is required
for the fuller. Such shaping drives out a few ragged edges, named burrs, which are produced at
the angular extremities of the fuller; these burrs are not hammered in, but filed off, and the
curve of the fuller itself is also smoothed with filing; after which the fuller part of the tool is
hardened, and is then ready for its handle.
Carriers.—These are of various shapes and dimensions, to suit both small work and large;
and are used to grip the various pieces of work while being carried about from a fire to a
hammer or to a shaping implement. Carriers are represented by Figs. 204, 205, and 206.
The cranked carrier shown by Fig. 204 is a very safe instrument to prevent the hot piece of
metal slipping away from the middle of the carrier while being carried about. A carrier of this
class is made of a straight piece of round iron or steel; and the cranking is effected on an anvil-
beak, or on a block in which are studs or pins to hold the work while being cranked. Such studs
for bending purposes may be placed also in some of the slots in a table shown at the bottom of
the Plate (20).
The hook carrier, denoted by Fig. 205, is useful to a hammerman for carrying about small
rods or bars of great length. While the smith carries one end of the work, the other hot end is
suspended with the hook, and carried by the hammerman. Such carriers are useful also for
twisting and bending small work.
Fig. 206 indicates a class of carriers for carrying long bars or plates, the work being gripped
by one of the gaps in the cranked part. Hither one, two, or three such carriers are employed by
one or more hammermen, according to the dimensions of the work to be moved about.
To make such a carrier, two components are necessary; one of these is a straight bar for
the cranked portion, and the other piece is a rod of iron of sufficient length to make any length
of handle that is required. The bending of the bar to the shape of the crank is effected in a
manner similar to that for making other cranks, which is by means of studs on some con-
venient block or table. After the gaps are made to the width desired, the crank part is welded .
to its handle, and the carrier is complete.
Bousters.—Bolsters are used to support a piece of work at a proper distance above an
anvil, while being punched or drifted ; consequently the greater the length of drift that protrudes
beyond the work being drifted, the greater is the height or thickness of the bolster. Some sorts
of bolsters consist of thick circular rings having holes of various diameters; other bolsters are
slotted, or may have a long narrow gap, as in Fig. 207. The forging of one of this class consists
in bending one end of a long bar and closing the work together until the gap is of the proper
width. After the bolster is finished, it is cut from the bar which was used as a handle during
the forging.
80 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
AncGuLar Suaprrs.—To shape angular extremities, it is often convenient to hammer the
work while at yellow heat, or sometimes at welding heat, while the heated portion is in an angular
gap. The angle of the gap-sides is that of the work required to be shaped. An angular
shaper is shown by Fig. 208; and when the gap-sides subtend an angle of sixty degrees, the tool
is sometimes used for shaping the outsides of six-sided nuts of several sizes.
The material used for making such blocks should be Bessemer steel, cast into sand moulds
that were shaped by wood patterns whose shapes resemble the shapes of the required blocks. _
When it may be necessary to forge such a block, instead of casting it, the square stem is
first produced at one end of a bar, fullers being used to commence the drawing down, in the
usual way; and when the stem is reduced to nearly its finished dimensions, it is placed in some
convenient hole or slot, with the thick part of the work upwards; while thus fixed, chisels and
wedges are driven in at the place of the intended gap, until its required dimensions are
attained.
Cortar SHApers.—Several classes of small bolts and studs have collars or flanges near one
end, or near the middle. For such studs, a shaping-block denoted by Fig. 209 is employed,
together with another top tool having a recess similar to that in the bottom block.
The use of such blocks obviates the necessity of welding separate collars to the bolts, because
the stud or bolt may be made of one single piece, which, in diameter, is equal to the diameter of
the collar desired. When such a piece is used, it is first fullered in two places to produce the
required collar between the two fullered recesses. After being thus roughly formed, it is again
heated to about welding, and put between the top and bottom collar shapers; and, while between,
a rapid hammering produces the shape required.
These collar shapers are used also for welding and shaping flange bolts when made of two
pieces instead of only one, the collar being bent around the bolt as previously shown (Plate 8).
In such cases, the collar is welded to the bolt by means of the usual hammering, while the
work is between the shaping tools.
Cast iron or steel being used for these shapers, it is easy to shape the gaps to any form of
flange that is required. If needful, the gaps may be made to produce four-sided flanges,
and also four-sided bolts, instead of circular ones; but, whatever form of bolt is required, it is
desirable to make the bottoms of the recesses smaller than the mouths or entrances, to prevent the
bolt sticking in the block after being hammered into it. If the bottom of any such gap should be
larger than the entrance, instead of smaller, or if any irregular hollows or holes in the block
should exist, when newly cast, at the sides of the gap, the work after being hammered into it will
remain in, securely dovetailed, until drilled out piece by piece.
Drirts.—It is often necessary to punch small keyways, or other slots of similar shape, into
small pins and bolts, to.avoid drilling; and, after punching, thin drifts of various lengths and
thicknesses are driven into the slots to enlarge them to the required dimensions. A thin drift,
having curved extremities to resist the hammering, is shown by Fig. 210.
Drifts are made also of circular, oval, rectangular, hexagonal, and octagonal transverse
sections; and are used for drifting nuts, joint-pin holes, small connecting-rod eyes, lever-bosses,
fork-joints, spanners, machine-handles, and several other articles, when the object is to economise
the time that would be occupied in shaping with more expensive machinery.
Whatever may be the particular shape of the drift, it should be of excellent steel, very smooth,
and as near to straightness as can be made. For general work, it may be stated that the angle
subtended by any two opposite sides of a finishing drift should not exceed one or two degrees,
which is termed very slightly taper.
Drifts for enlarging the holes in large work during forging should be very taper, the angle
subtended by the sides being about. fifteen degrees.
StorreD Borrom Toots.—A slotted bottom tool having a half-round gap is very convenient
for supporting a bolt or pin, or other cylindrical piece, while being punched or drifted. The tool
may be of sufficient length to extend beyond the anvil-edge, to allow the end of the drift to clear
the anvil while in the slot or key-way. In other cases a shorter bottom tool may be used, having
FORGING. 81
the slot directly above the anvil-face; in either case the slot in the tool is formed entirely through
it, to allow the punched pieces to be easily cleared away.
When such tools are made of cast iron or cast steel, the slots can be formed at the time of
casting, and are afterwards finished with filing. If the tool should be made of wrought iron or
wrought steel, the slot may be punched, or, if too small for punching, it may be drilled and
afterwards finished with filing. A slotted bottom tool is indicated by Fig. 211.
Puncues.—The usual shapes of all punches are conical, and the angle subtended by two
opposite sides should be about six or seven degrees. The outlines of the transverse sections of
punches do not differ so much from each other as the sections of drifts, the only two general
forms for punches being circular and rectangular, termed round and square. Round ones are
used for piercing holes into nuts, joint-bosses, rings that are to be forged without a joint, spanners,
and many other classes of ordinary work; also for making flat-bottomed recesses into iron or
steel previous to punching smaller holes at the centres of the flat-bottomed recesses, the shapes
of the smaller holes being either round or square. Square punches are required for square bolt-
holes, key-ways, also rectangular gaps in the ends of rods or bars. In this case, the square hole
is first punched at a proper distance from the extremity, and the superfluous piece afterwards cut
out with chiselling. Square punches are useful also for making many other rectangular openings
in thin bars and plates.
Four-sided punches for making small holes are made ten or twelve inches long, for the con-
venience of holding the punch with one hand while the other hand is employed to drive the
punch through or partly through the work. Large punches that require a sledge or steam-
hammer are made of the shortest possible length that is sufficient, that: the hammering may not
bend the punch to any considerable extent. A short square punch is represented in Fig. 212.
Whether the punch is round or square, a short one requires an iron-wire handle, twisted around
the punch, instead of a wood handle; an iron handle, being thin, will allow a great length of the
punch to be driven into the hole during the hammering for punching. .
Punches small or large, long or short, require to be made of the best tough, hard, cast steel.
When such metal is accessible, the only hardening that the tool requires is given when it has been
driven into the work and become nearly or quite red-hot; at such times, the punch is put into
water in a bucket provided for the purpose. .
Key-sHarers.—To facilitate the forging of keys of various shapes and dimensions, a number
of blocks are cast having recesses and grooves of different shapes corresponding to the shapes of
the keys required. For round keys, half-round taper recesses are formed; for square and other
kinds of rectangular keys, the recesses are about the same depth as the thickness or width of the
intended keys, some of the gaps being used for shaping the keys while their small sides are
upwards, and other recesses being used for shaping the keys while their broad sides. are
upwards. The bottoms of the gaps may be either flat or curved, according to the required shapes
of the key-sides.
Keys having heads are shaped by hammering them into gaps that are shaped to receive the
heads in addition to the stems of the keys. The gaps for the heads may be open at the front end
of the shaping-block near the workman, or the recess for the head may be made nearer to the
middle of the block-face; the recess will then be surrounded with metal, except at the place for
containing the key-stem. This situation for the heading recess is necessary for shaping’ great
numbers of headed keys, that they may be firmly retained in their respective recesses instead of
being pushed out with the hammering.
The tools that are required while hammering the metal into the shapers are half-round
top tools and flatters, or, in some cases, the hammer only. The half-round top tools are used
for round keys and the small sides of taper flat keys, also one of the small sides of a gib.
Flatters are necessary for all sorts of rectangular keys; and when considerable numbers are
wanted of similar width and thickness, the required dimensions are obtained by hammering
each key into two gaps, one gap being just the width of the required keys, and the other
gap being just the thickness. When two such gaps are provided, they are termed gauge-gaps ;
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82 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
and while the key is in either of these openings, it is flattened with a flatter until the flatter
strikes the face of the block at the same time that it strikes the key, at which time the work
is of the required dimensions, measuring with callipers not being necessary in such cases.
Many classes of keys can be shaped and reduced to the finished dimensions at only one
heating and hammering ; for such keys only one gauge-gap is requisite for each size of keys.
The material used for such shapers should be cast Bessemer steel, the proper care being
exercised to slightly taper the gaps that the work may be easily separated from the shapers. A
key-shaper is shown by Fig. 213.
Rounpine Brocxs.—Instead of a separate bottom rounding tool being used for each different
diameter of bolts or pins, a block having three or four gaps is often used, all the gaps being of
different sizes, to suit various diameters of bolts and rods.
The making of such a block consists in either casting it of Bessemer steel or forging it of
wrought iron; sometimes adding a steel face for the gap part, in other cases making the block
entirely of iron.
The forging is commenced by producing the square stem by drawing down one end of a bar
or other component piece, and, when the stem is squared, a sufficient quantity of metal is allowed
for the block, and the entire work cut from the bar or lump. The intended face side is next
flattened or welded, if not solid, and the half-round gaps are formed with fullers. For this pur-
pose, the places of the gaps are marked with a chisel, and the work is heated to nearly welding and
put across a convenient opening to permit the square stem to hang between; or, if the steel is
sufficiently reduced, it can be put into the square hole of an anvil. While thus situated, fullers
of proper width are driven in at the marks, and with two or three heatings the gaps are roughly
formed. The shaping of the gaps is next continued by hammering cold pieces of round iron or
steel into the gaps, first at near welding heat, and afterwards at a dull red heat; each of the
pieces used for shaping being of a proper diameter to form the opening desired. After all
the shaping with fullers and pieces of round iron is completed, the burrs spread out at the
angular extremities are filed off, and the smoothing of the gaps is effected with half-round or
round files.
When the blocks are cast instead of being forged, the needful shaping and smoothing is
effected with files only, because the gaps are cast nearly to the finished dimensions. A rounding-
block is represented by Fig. 214.
Bort-HEAD SHAPERS.—When great packing numbers of bolts having cylindrical heads are
wanted, it is advisable to use an implement which will reduce the bolt-head to its proper diameter,
also reduce the bolt-stem to its diameter, and make the bolt-head concentric with the bolt-stem,
the three objects being effected at only one hammering. The lower block of such an apparatus is
shown by Fig. 215. The upper shaper consists of a top tool having a recess, which is of the same
shape as that in the bottom tool. After a bolt is drawn down and roughly shaped, it is put
between the two tools and adjusted to the desired shape and dimensions at one or two heats.
Shapers of this sort will not adjust a bolt-head to any particular length; it is therefore
necessary to make the recesses for the heads longer than the length of the longest bolt-head to be
put within. The easiest method of making such shapers is by casting, the recesses being formed
at that time.
Another plan consists in casting or forging the top and bottom blocks separately and without
any recess. The next step is to carefully flatten the two faces that are to come together ; after
this the two tools are firmly bolted together in their intended relative positions during use.
While thus fixed, the bolt-holes and head-recesses are bored with suitable apparatus.
Tones Suarers.—The principal parts of a pair of tongs are the joint portions; and all the
joints of tongs for small work are made about the same shape, consequently it is convenient to
make recesses for forming such pieces without trouble. Any additional portions for the grips
may be afterwards welded to the joint pieces, if the work in progress is large enough; but for
small tongs, the joint portion may be shaped at a proper distance from one extremity of a bar,
FORGING. 83
and a thick lump be allowed to remain at the end, beyond the joint part. This thick portion
may then be shaped or cut to any desired form, to become the grip, instead of welding an addi-
tional piece to the joint part, as for larger tongs.
The only top tools that are required for use with tongs shapers are ordinary hammers,
flatters, and set-hammers.
The shaping recesses in the block may be formed of a sufficient depth to contain the whole
of the piece being shaped, or may be shallow, so that a portion of the metal may project above
the face of the block when thick joint pieces are being made.
Through the irregular forms of the recesses in tongs shapers, it is necessary to carefully form
and polish the wood patterns to the proper shape, that no further shaping may be necessary, after
the blocks are cast. A tongs shaper is indicated by Fig. 216. ;
Tasius.—A great number of small tools and shaping implements are used on some sort of block
or surface-table. Every smithy should contain one or more of these tables; and the greater the
dimensions of the usual work of the shop, the greater should be the table or tables. The
length of large blocks or tables of this class should be about five or six times the width,
that the men may make use of nearly the whole surface, instead of working at the edges only.
For the convenience of fixing various pieces of work to the table, it should be cast with a
large recess for the under side; and also contain a number of slots in various parts of the upper
side or surface, and also around the other sides next the workmen. These slots are useful to
contain the ends of studs, pins, hooks, poppets, bolt-heads, and other instruments employed for
fixing and shaping various classes of forgings. In addition to slots, the table may have several
straight lines marked along the surface, and a few other shorter lines marked across at right angles
to the long ones. While the table is in use, it is in any convenient part of the shop, and sup-
ported with a few wood blocks to raise it to any particular height that may be desired. When the
table is required at some other unusual place, a few wood or iron rollers are put beneath, and it
is rolled to its intended destination.
If an instrument of this character is accessible, the straightening, flattening, and adjusting
of rods and shafts of all sorts will be greatly facilitated. The lines, being of great length, will
admit several men to work at one time in several places along the table; the lines being also at
right angles to each other, will allow work of all sizes, and in all stages of forging, to be put
to the lines for adjustment; and when a curve of any particular radius, or diagram of other
variety is desired, it may be delineated on the surface with chalk or compass point, and becomes
for a time the workman's gauge or standard. Any of the places of intersections of the lines
with each other may be selected for centres from which to excribe the necessary arcs or other
curves that may be needed, for the adjustment of links, sectors, connecting-rods, eccentric-rods,
slide-rods, rings, cranked levers, straight levers, and other varieties of work that are in pro-
ess.
= One or two of the lines near the edges of the table should be divided into métres,
decimétres, centimétres, and millimétres; such an arrangement would tend to abolish the old
mode of measuring by inches and parts.
A thick heavy table of this class may also be adapted to a steam-hammer, instead of using
it as a portable table in various places. The steam-hammer thus supplied may then be specially
reserved for straightening, flattening, adjusting, and cutting to length a variety of rods, axles,
and other forgings.
The material of which such tables should be made, is Bessemer metal, or a hard cast iron
which is not too hard to admit the planing process; such metal will be durable, and if the
intended top or face of the table is downwards at the time of casting, a good surface will be the
result. The preparation of the table for use commences with reducing the upper side to a plane by
means of a planing machine; after planing, the same machine is the means of marking the long lines
on the table, and also the short lines, if the machine is suitable ; if not, a steel scriber and
straight-edge are employed to mark the short oe when the planing-machine is not capable of
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84 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
being adapted to the purpose. The method of correctly marking the cross lines consists in
bisecting the long lines, or portions of them, in all those places intended for the inter-
sections of the short lines with the long ones. By this means, the marking tool may be
afterwards used to enlarge the marks, and the desired right angular positions of the lines are
obtained. This class of tables, having a few lines marked on the surfaces, is represented
in Fig. 217.
Diss Buocxs.—The slots and square holes in a portable table may often be conveniently
used for holding the square stems of rounding tools, bending tools, and other shaping imple-
ments represented in Plates 20 and 21; instead of placing the stems into the square holes of
ordinary anvils. In Plate 21, two bending tools for bending ends of bars, as shown by Figs.
218 and 219. The number of slits or narrow gaps in each tool may be three or four, if the
tools are large enough ; and the angles of the gaps with the faces of the tools differ according
to the desired angle of the work when angled. For the convenience of shaping curved work,
the entrances of the gaps may be curved, as in Fig. 219.
When such a tool is in use, it is fixed by its stem in some convenient hole, and the bar to be
angled is heated to a proper softness and upset, if necessary, to obtain a thick portion at the
intended corner; after this, the iron or steel is again heated and angled by placing the end of
the bar into the gap, to such a distance that the middle of the heated portion shall be in contact
with the bearing or projecting edge at the mouth of the gap. When the work is thus fixed, it
is ready for angling, which is effected by one or two men pulling down the end of the bar until
it is brought to the desired position. After being thus roughly bent, the work is properly shaped
by hammering and flattening that part of the iron which is on the angling block.
The angling block shown by Fig. 219 is useful for shaping work which is to be very strong
at the corner, having a curve inside and an angle outside. To make such a corner, the iron is
heated to welding and driven into the gap with flatters or set hammers.
Gap-blocks for angling and corner-making are made by first preparing a solid block havmg
a square stem, but no gap. The material used may be either Bessemer metal or inferior
homogeneous iron ; and the cutting of the gap is performed while cold. For this purpose, the
place of the required gap or gaps is marked upon the face and two sides of the block, by means
of a scriber and straight-edge; after which the opening is made with drilling about half
way through from two opposite sides of the block, and not with drilling from the face of the
block. After being drilled with drills of proper sizes, the gap is completed with chiselling and
filing.
aie gaps, two or three inches wide, and six or eight inches in length or depth, are formed
at the time of casting; the wood patterns being shaped to draw easily from the sand in a
direction which is parallel to the length of the gap, and not in a direction which is at right
angles to the block face; consequently the block is cast with one side at the bottom of the
mould, instead of the block-face being in that situation.
Gap blocks or other implements of similar character, having wide gaps, are made to suit
thin Pay putting packing plates of various thicknesses into the gaps by the side of the work
to be angled.
Screw-Ciamps (Fig. 220).—Screw-clamps are used to fix two or more bars or plates
together, or to a block or table ; the object being to tightly fasten the pieces in any required
relative position during a short time while marking with a scriber or other instrument. Clamps
are used also for lifting heavy plates, and for attaching various pieces of work to each other.
Screw-clamps are made of all sizes from half a pound weight to fifty pounds; and the form is
nearly the same for all dimensions, being similar to that shown in Fig. 220.
When clamps are used for fixing a long straight-edge upon a piece of work, two or three
clamps are necessary, and are placed in two or three places along the sides of the straight-edge
and the work while in their required positions ; pieces of soft iron are then put upon the straight-
edge to receive the points of the clamp-screws, and all the screws are tightened with a tommy, by
which the straight-edge is securely fixed. During the final fixing, the work is adjusted to its
FORGING. 85
exact intended relative position by giving a few knocks to either the straight-edge or the work
to which the straight-edge is fastened, using a tin hammer for this purpose, or, for some work, a
copper drift.
For lifting purposes one clamp is often dangerously used, the clamp being suspended with
the chain-hook, and the bar or plate which is being lifted being wholly dependent on the bite of
the screw-point to prevent the work falling and doing mischief; consequently, for safety, the
clamp-screw point should be screwed into the metal sufficient to make an indentation about a
sixteenth deep.
A good clamp is that which presents a large bearing surface to the work after being fixed,
thus preventing the clamp and work from altering their relative positions. With this object a
clamp should be made so that its two arms are nearer to each other at the extremities than at a
few inches towards the bottom of the gap, or mouth, as it is termed. Such a clamp, when in
ordinary use with the work between, should be screwed tight until both arms are parallel to each
other ; any further screwing after this will further separate the arms and tead to make the work
less secure. During a long usage, the arms of clamps become too wide apart by the frequent
screwing; a clamp in this condition should be rectified by heating the thick curved part, and
closing the arms to a proper distance.
The metal for clamps should be Bessemer iron or steel; the screw-points also must be of
steel, that they may be forced into the work or packing which is being fixed, when such a bite is
necessary. These packing-pieces should be hollow at those sides that are to be next the work to
be fixed; and the bearing of the clamp also, shown in the Figure by B, should be hollowed by
filing a shallow narrow groove along the middle.
The forging of a clamp, when small, consists in making it of one straight piece, which is
reduced to a suitable thinness at each end, and the boss for the screw also made at one end, both
operations being completed previous to bending the clamp at the middle. Large clamps are
conveniently made of two pieces when bending tools are not accessible ; in this case, the joint is
made at the thick curved part.
Cur Toots.—A cup tool consists of a top tool which is held on the work by means of a
handle in a hole punched into the tool for the purpose, or held by an iron wire or wood handle
twisted around the outside. The outline of the lower extremity of a cup tool is circular, and in
the midst is a plano-convex recess whose plane coincides with the flat bottom of the tool, also
named the tool-face. The straight part of the tool is often much smaller in diameter than the
cup-portion, for the purpose of making the tool as light as possible; one of this character is
shown in Fig. 221.
The tools may be of several sizes, some having recesses of half an inch diameter, and others
having recesses three inches diameter ; the tools are thus adapted for chamfering nuts, shaping
plano-convex bolt-heads, convexing extremities of pins and bolt stems, and also for general
riveting purposes. If the object is to chamfer nuts, the cup tool is applied to the nut and struck
with a sledge hammer, after the work is reduced to proper dimensions and shaped to the desired
form, whether square or hexagonal. For bolt-heading, the cup tool is applied after the bolt is
put into the header and roughly upset with hammering. Ifa cup tool is required for convexing
extremities of long bolts or pins, the tool is held to the work and struck with a sledge hammer
while the bolt is in the horizontal position on an anvil. A short bolt is stood upright upon the
anvil, or upon an upsetting block, and the cup tool applied in a vertical position. For riveting
purposes, cup tools are very small, having recesses only three-quarters of an inch, and for some
work only three-eighths in diameter. Such tools are parallel, having their straight parts about
as large in diameter as their cup-portions. .
Cup tools are often forged of two pieces, one piece of iron for the stem, and the other piece
being of steel for the cup part; the two being welded together. A preferable mode consists in
forging the tool entirely of Bessemer steel, and the implement used for shaping the recess is a
punch shown by Fig. 222. This punch is partly shaped with hammering, .and afterwards filed
and smoothed with emery cloth until the convex part 1s of the desired shape ; it is next hardened
86 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
and fixed to a handle, and becomes fit for use. The mode of applying the punch consists in
driving it into the solid metal at the place of the intended recess, the intended cup part being
heated to about the softness of cold lead. The blows first given are with a sledge hammer,
which is used till the recess is about the depth desired; and after one or two heatings, the
finishing of the hollow is effected with a few blows of a light hammer, the work being a little
cooler than red heat. In addition to this smoothing of the hollow with the punch, the cup may
be further hollowed by lathe-turning; but in most cases such a troublesome process should be
avoided, and the entire smoothing done with a properly shaped punch.
A cup tool may be also made in the form of a steam-hammer shaping block, in which case
the recess may be formed by either casting or by punching with punches of proper sizes.
Tuse-Mzasurns.—Such measures are made of pieces of plate iron that are bent to a tubular
form, to fit loosely on the bolt, pin, or rod to be measured. They are made also of thin iron pipe
which is sawn into pieces of the required lengths. If necessary, two or three tube-measures
may be used at one time on one bolt or pin, the measures being placed end to end, and extending
along the bolt to the length desired.
Measures of this sort are used to indicate the commencements of keyways in the ends of bolts
that require punching instead of drilling. After a measure of proper length is selected or made,
it is put upon a bolt or pin while at a proper heat for punching; the portion of the bolt projecting
beyond the measure is next put into the gap of a bottom tool, and the punch is held on the bolt-
end and tight against the measure; while the punch is thus situated, it is driven half way
through the work from both sides, the tube is next taken off, and the keyway finished with
further punching and drifting.
These measures are useful also for indicating the intended junctions of bolt-screws with the
adjoining portions of the bolts, when it is necessary to reduce the end for the screw to a
diameter which is shorter than the diameter of the adjoining part. A tube-measure may be also
used for a pin, bolt, or rod when screwing is not intended. For such purposes the tube is put
upon the work, and the rounding tool, set hammer, fuller, or other tool to be used is put close to
the measure, and the drawing down commenced while the set hammer is tight against the
measure, so described for key-way punching.
Another use for such measures consists in applying one to a great number of bolts that
require to be forged to one length; in these cases the cutting-off chisel is put close to the end of
a measure while it is on a bolt, and a correct length is thus ensured. A measure for this purpose
on a bolt is represented by Fig. 223.
A usual mode of measuring lengths in bolts or other work without a tube, consists in marking
the length with chalk upon a straight-edge of convenient length, to be held to the work by the
hammerman ; and while he holds one end of the straight-edge tight against the shoulder of the
bolt-head, the smith puts the reducing tool or chisel to the bolt and also opposite the chalk mark
on the measure ; while the smith thus holds the tool, the hammerman takes away the measure
and drives in the tool with his hammer.
The mode of making tube-measures, and also other work of similar shape, consists in bending
the pieces of plate while at a suitable heat. If several are to be made at one performance, all
the pieces may be first cut and prepared previous to bending, and all may be cut small enough
to form spaces between the extremities after being bent to a tubular form. Such a space is shown
in the tube on the bolt shown by the Figure (223), and the advantage of such an opening
consists in its allowing the plate to be bent in an easy manner. The length of the tube is the
distance along the bolt to which the tube will extend when finished, and the piece of plate is cut
a trifle longer to admit a little filing or adjusting to a proper length. After a sufficient number
of pieces are prepared, they are curved while heated by driving a piece of round iron or steel on to
the plates while lying across some convenient gap. For such bending, the gaps of half-round
bottom tools are suitable, and after the round iron shaper is driven in to a proper distance, the
curving of the tube is completed with a couple of top and bottom tools of a suitable size, while
the round iron is in the hole and held by the workman as an ordinary nut mandril. After the
FORGING. 87
tubes are made, the two bearing extremities of each one are adjusted to a precise length, and
made parallel to each other; this is effected by placing the tube with one end upwards on an
anvil and flattening with a flatter, and afterwards with filing, if necessary.
AxcuED Funiers.—Fullers whose shaping parts are arched or concave, resembling Fig. 224,
may be used in pairs or singly ; when used in pairs, they become both fullers and gauges, because
the work which is being reduced between the two fullers cannot be reduced after the two tools are
brought together by hammering, without applying other tools having smaller gaps.
Such fullers are made by first preparing the shaping parts with thin ends that are about the
same thickness as when finished, but having straight bottoms instead of curved ones. The forming
of the arches is commenced by cutting out the superfluous pieces with a punch, or with a gouge-
chisel, indicated by Fig. 226; after being thus hollowed, the shaping is completed by driving each
fuller while heated into a grooved shaper, the groove being the shape of the required fuller-end.
For this purpose a groove is made around a piece of round steel by means of a lathe, until the
groove is of proper depth and width. If necessary, several grooves may be made into one shaper,
ae each groove formed for one particular work. A grooved shaper of this class is shown by
ig. 225.
After the intended fullers are cut with punching or gouging, the grooved shaper may be held
with tongs between a pair of the fullers at a suitable heat, and the two tools shaped by sledge-
hammering the top tool; or, the fullers may be shaped separately, by putting them into the
groove, and hammering the square stems which are upwards. During such hammering, the
grooved shaper is held in some convenient gap or gaps to keep it in position. The finishing of
the arches consists in filing off the burrs that were produced by the shaping processes, and after-
wards filing the extremities to the required dimensions.
Hanpie Saapers.—Shapers for machine handles are in pairs when intended for handles of
circular transverse section, so that when both top and bottom shapers are put together in their
proper positions, a hole is formed which is the shape of the handle required. Handles of rect-
angular section require but the bottom tool, which is used as other bottom tools—the handle being
pressed into the shaping implement by means of an ordinary hammering, or by means of a flatter.
Fig. 227 represents the bottom tool of a couple of shapers for circular handles ; the top tool
may be attached to the bottom one by means of guides to guide the top tool to its required. rela-
tive position; or the top-tool may consist of a light shaper, not too heavy to be held by means of
a wood handle, similar to that for other top tools.
The convenient mode of making handle shapers is by casting, at which time the gaps must be
formed so that little or no smoothing after casting shall be necessary. The small amount of
finishing which is required is performed with small chisels, gouges, punches, and scrapers; the
cutting parts of the scrapers being semicircular, rectangular, and triangular.
Bosstne Toors—Bossing tools are adapted to shape bosses of levers or rods that are either
round or flat. A bottom bossing tool for round rods is shown by Fig. 228; a tool of this class is
useful for shaping several varieties of joint bosses. Fig. 229 denotes a bottom shaper for eccentric-
rod bosses that are forged without gaps; also for shaping a large class of lever bosses, including
weigh-shaft-levers, lifting-levers, reversing-levers, crank-levers, and others of similar shape. A
flat rod or lever having one or more bosses extending from only one side of the lever, instead of
from two opposite sides, may be shaped by being hammered into the bottom tool, a top bossing
tool not being required. Such a bottom tool will shape also lever bosses that extend from two
opposite sides of the lever, if both bosses are to be of one diameter, and are to extend to an equal
distance on both sides. But to shape a boss which is larger in diameter at one end than at the
other, or is not of the same length at one side of the lever as at the other, two tools are required,
top and bottom; and when a number of bosses are wanted at one time, the tools should be guided
or jointed together.
The diameter of the metal selected for making a lever boss may be sufficient to allow the
boss to be formed without any previous upsetting. Such a piece will need therefore a reducing,
to produce the arm or lever which is to extend from the boss. This reducing is effected at the
88 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
beginning of the forging ; after which the boss part is roughly formed with fullers and chisels, and
the work finished with the bossing tools.
Such shaping implements will also form bosses that are made by piling; being piled up on
one side or on two sides of a lever; this lever portion being of the forged dimensions previous to
attaching the bosses, that the bossing tools may not be required to shape anything more than
the bosses.
To make a boss at one end of the lever, the iron may be cut partly through in several places
and doubled and welded together until a lump of sufficient thickness is obtained. When enough
metal is accumulated by this method, the boss lump is heated to welding and shaped by the tools
at one or two heatings.
When these methods of piling and doubling are adopted for making bosses in large numbers,
it may be necessary to cut the component pieces to a proper length, previous to commencing the
formation of the bosses. For this purpose, the smith can ascertain the sectional area of the boss
required, and also its length; and having also discovered the sectional area of the bar or rod
which he is to make into the boss, he may know the length of bar necessary to be piled or doubled
for one boss, by applying the appropriate rule (page 8). This rule is equally applicable whether the
original piece is larger than the intended work, or whether iron of smaller diameter is to be used,
and upset or doubled to the needful dimensions. After thus discovering the exact amount
required for one boss, the proper amount may be added for welding and burning during the
several heatings.
Cranginc Toots.—Gap-liners of steel or iron, or any other forgings of similar shape, are
easily cranked by means of a couple of appropriate tools. Both the shaping tools may be used
together as top and bottom tools, or the bottom tool may be the only one employed ; in this case
the bar to be cranked is driven into the shaping gap with ordinary fullers. A cranking implement
of this class is shown by Fig. 230; such a tool may be used for small work that is to be cranked
with hand fullers; or for large work, the tool may be fitted to a steam-hammer, and a steam-
hammer fuller employed, instead of a hand fuller.
In this class of shaping implements, a broad gap is made across the shaper, for the conve-
nience of using pieces of round iron for the purpose of cranking, when fullers of proper shape are
not accessible. This gap for containing such pieces of round iron is shown in the Figure by I.
The piece of bar which is to be cranked with such an implement requires the intended cranked
part to be equally heated, and that part of the work intended for the centre of the crank should
be placed exactly opposite the centre of the gap in the cranking tool, that the straight ends of the
work may be of proper length after being cranked; but when the bar to be cranked is several
inches longer than necessary, the precise situation of the bar on the cranking tool is not important,
the straight ends being cut to length after cranking.
These implements may be made having cranking gaps or grooves of various shapes, to suit
many classes of work; and to avoid casting a number of blocks, several cranking gaps may be
made in one tool.
T-Heap Snarers.—After a short slit is cut at one end of a small bar or rod, for the purpose
of forming a T-piece, the workman puts one of the two branches thus produced into a hole in a
block, or into some convenient slot, and while the branch is thus fixed, he pulls down the other
end of the work until the branch in the hole is at about right angles to the bar; after one branch
is thus bent, the work is again heated and the other branch is put into the hole, and bent by the
same sort of pulling by the workman. T-pieces of small bars or rods are easily commenced by such
means, and the further shaping required is effected with welding heats and upsetting while the
T-piece is still attached to the bar, if the work is very small; but if two or three inches thick, it
is better to cut the T-piece from the bar after being slit and the branches roughly separated. The
T-piece thus partly made is next attached to a porter of some kind and heated to welding, and
put into a T-head or T-piece shaper, shown by Fig. 231. This implement has a hole in the middle
for containing the rod part of the T-piece, and the upper edges at the entrance of the hole are
curved, to shape the required curved junction of the head with its rod part. This short rod por-
FORGING. 89
tion of the T-piece may be of any convenient length for handling while forming the work, and
also of sufficient length for welding to the other component piece which is to be the intermediate
portion of the connecting-rod, eccentric-rod, or whatever rod is being made.
The T-end shaping tool may be fixed across any convenient opening when in use, the opening
being deep enough to allow the rod part of the T-end to project below, while the T-head is being
hammered into the shaping gap with sledge hammers.
When a T-end shaper is fitted across a gap in a steam-hammer anvil, the lump which is
intended for the T-end requires no slit to be made with cutting, but merely a sufficient reducing
to allow the rod part to pass easily through the hole in the shaping tool, and a tapering of the
head. After the rod part is thus prepared, and the intended head spread out with hammering,
it is heated to nearly welding and put into the shaper. The thin part, which was previously spread
out with hammering, will then stand up considerably above the shaper, and this part is imme-
diately battered into the shaper, by which the head and also the curved junction is formed, almost
at one heating and hammering. To complete the T-piece, it is only necessary to cut off all the
superfluous metal, which will be in only two places; these are at the two ends of the head that
was lying in the shaping gap. Short T-ends may thus be conveniently made with such an imple-
ment, and afterwards welded to rods of any length, by which the handling of long pieces is
avoided.
T-pieces may be made also without shaping-moulds, by drawing down. This mode is indi-
cated by Fig. 200. By this method, a lump is employed which is thick enough to spread out to
the length of the head required, or the piece may be thick enough to form the head without
spreading out; consequently, the rod part of the T-piece is produced by drawing down the thick
mass of metal, which is large enough for the T-head. Although this mode involves a large quan-
tity of reducing to make the rod portion, the plan is applicable to the forging of T-ends of various
dimensions, when only one T-piece is to be of one size; therefore gap-gauges or callipers must be
carefully used, as indicated in the Figure, to adjust each T-end to the length, width, and thickness.
Joint Wetpers.—The scarf joints of bolts, rods, and bars of two or three inches thickness
can be easily welded together with steam-hammering; the only manual labour involved in the
process being that of placing the two scarfs into a proper situation beneath the steam hammer, and
into a bottom tool resembling either Fig. 232 or Fig. 233. One of these tools is fixed to the anvil
either by means of a key at the side of the bottom tool, or by means of a square stem which con-
stitutes part of the tool; bottom tools having square stems being employed, if the anvil contains
a suitable hole to receive them.
A bottom tool for welding round iron is shown by Fig. 232, and another for welding bars is
denoted by Fig. 233. In the one for round iron, the gap is wider and deeper at the middle than
at either end, this form being that which is suitable for producing rods that are to be thicker at
the joint; and also highly advantageous for welding, reducing, and smoothing a joint at only one
hammering. The corresponding top tool has a gap of similar shape, and should be so guided
to the bottom tool that when both are together the widest part of one gap shall be opposite the
widest part of the other gap. For this purpose, the guide-rods may be two or four in number ;
the tool shown by the Figure having four. Around each guide-rod is a coiled spring to raise the
top tool. ;
While preparing the scarfs for welding by this method, it is advisable to so shape the ends as
to obtain an oblong section, making the greatest length of the oblong to be in a vertical position
while the scarfs are under the hammer ready to be welded. After the scarfs are shaped and heated
to welding, the two pieces are conveyed to the hammer, and put into the shaping or welding
tools from opposite sides, each piece being held or guided by one or two men at opposite sides of
the welding tools ; consequently, the two scarfs are pushed towards each -other in opposite
directions, until one is on the other in the required position, at which time the man who works
the hammer drives down the top tool and the welding is commenced, the springs between the two
tools pushing up the top tool at each blow, to permit the work to be rotated or partly rotated
when necessary.
N
90 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
To weld a bar joint in a tool shown by Fig. 233, the two pieces are put together in a similar
manner, but no top tool is required except an ordinary flat-faced hammer, the desired shape of
the joint part being obtained by making the gap in the tool of a suitable width and depth.
Sprincy SHapers.—Fig. 234 indicates a couple of tools in their relative positions during use,
having guide studs with springs around and between the two faces of the tools. The recesses or
gaps in such shapers may be, in some cases, specially made for merely finishing a great number of
bolts, rods, or bars to one diameter or thickness; and each pair of shapers may contain several
gaps of different sizes. In other cases, the blocks are strong and thick enough to press a rude
lump at welding heat into the form of a smoothly finished headed bolt, handle, boss, or lever.
The guides of such shapers may be studs,- whose lower ends are screwed tight into the bot-
tom block ; or, instead of studs, bolts having heads at the under side of the shaper may be employed
if it contains sufficient metal.
In order that the gaps or recesses in any pair of shapers may properly correspond and be
opposite each other, it is necessary, during the making of the wood patterns, to carefully mark the
face sides of the blocks to indicate the places of the intended gaps, and also recesses, when required.
To obtain a correct delineation of the outlines of each recess, the two face sides of the blocks that
are to be close to each other should be made rectangular, and of exactly the same length and
width. When the edges of the two faces are thus squared and the surfaces smoothly planed, the
place of one recess is determined, and the centre of it also ascertained in one of the block-faces.
The distance of this centre or point from any one edge of the block-face is next ascertained by
means of compasses, callipers, or scribing-gauge; and while the gauge is adjusted to the distance of
the centre from the selected edge of the face, the gauge is held close to the corresponding edge of the
other block-face which is not yet marked; while thus held, the marking-point of the gauge is
drawn along the surface, and a short scratch made. The next step is to select one of the two
edges or boundaries that are at right angles to the edge first used for marking; and the gauge
point is then adjusted to the distance of the centre from the edge, and the gauge again drawn
along the corresponding edge of the block that needs marking, and another short scratch is made
across the first one, and the two will be at right angles to each other. The point of intersection of
these two short lines is the centre of the desired gap or recess which is being marked, and from this
centre the outline can be exscribed to indicate the form of the intended recess; consequently, if
the outline is to be curved, compasses are used, and if rectangular, a square and straight-edge are
needed.
A pair of outlines delineated by such means will coincide with each other when both faces
are put together; and any other pairs of outlines may be marked, by similar means, upon any
other part of the block-faces ; after which, the carving, to form the recesses or gaps, is effected
with proper tools, a chisel being first driven in at each line to prevent the wood being split in
wrong directions.
After the patterns are made and the shapers cast, each recess will require a little trimming
with files, and, in some cases, with chisels and scrapers, to make each pair of recesses fit a pattern
rod, lever, or boss, which is being used for placing into the recess several times, until the pattern
or gauge will slip easily to the bottom.
The coiled springs for raising the top tool are made of round steel wire or of small bar steel,
and the coiling is effected by making a loop at one end of the wire, fixing the loop to an upright
post, and coiling the steel around the post.
The post for the purpose, and also for making other coiled springs for larger work, may consist
of a piece of round iron of any suitable diameter, which is fixed with a small pedestal of some kind
into the ground. In the post, and at about four feet from the ground, is fixed a pin or hook for
holding the loop or hook which is at the end of the wire to be coiled. After the wire is looped
and ten or twelve inches of the steel heated, the loop is attached to the pin in the post, and the
other end in the man’s hand, or, in a tongs, is stretched out as tightly as possible, and at the same
time coiled around the post by the man walking around until the heated portion of the steel is
coiled; after which, the adjoining part is heated and the coiling continued until a sufficient length
FORGING. 91
is coiled. When the coiling is completed, the spring is made red hot throughout its total length,
and pulled out until a sufficient travel of the spring is obtained. The work is next cut to length,
fitted, and hardened in oil, or, in some cases, in watery and afterwards tempered to a proper soft-
ness, When hardened in oil, no tempering is necessary for some sorts of steel ; but whether or
not oil or water should be selected for the hardening, must be decided by considering the quality
of the particular piece of steel to be hardened.
Small springs can be made also while cold, and the coiling effected in a lathe. For this
purpose, a proper spindle with apparatus is put into the lathe, and after attaching one end of the
steel, the lathe is put to work and coiling performed.
Another class of springy shapers is represented by Fig. 235, for use on steam-hammer
anvils. The spring of these shapers is bolted at one end to the top shaper, and the other end of
the spring is loosely fitted in a recess in the bottom tool. Two or four guide studs may be used,
the number depending on the dimensions and shape of the blocks. A pair of shapers having
such a spring are more troublesome to use than the shapers shown by Fig. 234, although the
ae spring being bolted to the top tool allows the same spring to be attached to different tools,
necessary.
ForK-END SHAPERS.—NSolid fork-ends, small and large, are easily shaped by means of a
mould, like Fig. 236. An implement of this shape may be used as a bottom tool without a
corresponding top tool ; or a pair of tools may be made having recesses of the same shape in each
tool; and both tools may be adapted to a steam hammer and anvil, the top shaper being keyed
in the dovetail gap of the hammer, and the bottom shaper being keyed in the dovetail gap in the
anvil. When the bottom tool only is employed, the lump to be shaped is driven into the recess
with ordinary fullers and rounding tools; and when one half is thus shaped, the work is put up-
side down, and the rounding tools again employed to drive the fork-end into the shaper. Fullers
and rounding tools are thus employed as substitutes for a top shaper ; but when the shaper is in
two pieces, the fork-end may be entirely formed at one or two heatings, while between the
shapers, no other tools being required.
If a great number of fork-ends are to be formed in such implements, it is necessary to
ascertain the exact quantity of metal required for each fork-end, to avoid the necessity of taking
the work from the shapers during forging and cutting off the superfluous pieces with chisels.
The proper quantity of metal for each one, and also for burning and welding, is known by
entirely finishing one or two, previous to preparing or drawing down the metal for the total
number of fork-ends required.
The making of fork-ends, and all other forgings that are pressed into moulds, is greatly
facilitated by forcing into the shapers only that quantity of metal which is sufficient, by which
the danger of injuring the moulds is also avoided.
STRIKERS.—Striker is a name given to a hammerman ; also to substitutes and superseders of
hammermen, such as air-hammers and steam-hammers, whether vertical or horizontal. A class
of patent strikers invented by Mr. Davies, of Crumlin, is represented by Fig. 237. These strikers
are of different arrangements to suit individual requirements, but the principle involved in them
all is the same, and consists in the strikers being capable of delivering blows at any angle
between vertical and horizontal, and also in being easily swung around their main pivots, in
the same manner as cranes are swung, so that one striker may be made to work on three or four
anvils.
Such strikers are made to work by either steam power or water power ; and may be actuated
with one foot of the smith, who treads upon a pedal near the anvil at which he is working.
This pedal is attached to a rod that is connected with the valves, by which the motive power is
controlled and the hammer made to strike.
Strikers of this class are well adapted to the making of all sorts of small forgings that are
shaped in moulds and springy shapers denoted by Fig. 234; and when the striker is made to
strike in or near the horizontal position, it is useful for angling ends of bars, rods, and plates, and
for upsetting forgings that cannot be upset in the A position.
N
92 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
Bar Gaucrs.—Bar gauges are used while adjusting several classes of smiths’ work to a
stated length or width; for this purpose, two dots are put into two places of a rod or bar, and
the work is afterwards lengthened or shortened until the distance between the centres of the two
dots is the length required. This desired length is the distance between the two centres of the
two pointed extremities of the gauge represented by Fig. 238. Such a gauge is quickly made, in
cases of emergency, by bending any piece of wire or small rod which is near; but the suitable
material is a broad thin bar, that the gauge may be easily carried about, and not liable to bend
in the mid portion, which renders it an uncertain measure.
A bar gauge which is made by bending the iron or steel edgeways is good enough for many
purposes ; and if the ends are thinned to a taper form, the gauge is much lightened without
impairing its efficiency. A gauge of this shape is tapered, and the ends bent, also the small
points made and smoothly filed, previous to adjusting the gauge points to that distance from each
other which is required. This adjustment is effected by means of a hammer, and one of the
divided lines on the surface of a table similar to that described in the section on Tables. After
applying the two gauge points to the stated length on the measure, the gauge points are separated
from each other, if too near; and put nearer to each other, if too far apart. When discovered to
be too far apart, the curved junctions of the arms with the remainder of the gauge are heated,
and the arms are driven towards each other with a few blows; but if only a small amount of
alteration is needed, it is given while cold, by placing the gauge on some hollow place, with the
inner edge of the gauge upwards, and giving a few light,blows with a hammer. When the
gauge points are found to be too near each other, they are separated by hammering the outside
edge of the gauge, instead of the inner edge; but if much lengthening is required, the gauge is
heated in the mid part and stretched with hammering.
Gar GaucEs.—Gap gauges are used for measuring diameters or thicknesses; and are made
of thin plate iron or steel. One gauge may contain several gaps, if all the gaps are to greatly
differ from each other in width, that no mistake may occur through measuring with the
wrong gap; but when the gaps are very nearly alike, only two or three should be made in one
auge.
a “Fig. 239 indicates a gauge whose handle is smaller than the remainder, to admit an easy
handling ; and whatever may be the widths of the gaps required, the handles of all such gauges
should be made large enough to be comfortably used ; therefore, in many gauges the handles are
larger than the end which contains the gaps; and in other gauges the gap-ends are of the same
widths as the handle-ends. When a number of gaps are necessary, some of them should be at
each end of the gauge, as denoted by Fig. 240, instead of all the gaps being at one end.
If gauges of this class are to be used for heavy work which is being reduced or flattened to
a precise dimension with a steam hammer, it is necessary to make the gauges of sufficient length
to prevent the workman who holds them being scorched with the heat from the work; and each
gauge may have a hole, that it may be hung in a place secure from injury ; also around each gap
should be written the name of the particular work for which the gap was made.
During a long usage, the gaps in such gauges become worn too wide; the remedy for this is
to heat the gap-sides and hammer them to make the openings of less width; after which, the gaps
are enlarged to the exact width required, with a little filing. :
Rapius Gauces.—A light radius gauge, denoted by Fig. 242, is used for measuring distances
between any two places on a measure, and also for adjusting a forging to the desired length or
width ; a radius gauge is therefore a substitute for the bar gauge shown by Fig. 238; a radius
gauge is also a superseder of a simple bar gauge, because the points or scribers are capable of
adjustment at any distance between each other within the limits of the instrument. Another
important use for such a gauge is that of exscribing arcs or circumferences of various radii; the
required length of radius being obtained by shifting the scriber-holders to the proper places on
the bar, and fixing the scriber-holders with the fixing screws, F, and F.
To produce a good gauge of this class, the radius bar itself should be of steel, and carefully
smoothed throughout its length ; and the scriber-holders also, denoted by H, and H, should be of
FORGING. 93
steel or of close-grained iron. The slots in the holders are carefully fitted to the bar, after the
bar is smoothed to the proper width and thickness. Whether the holders fit tightly or loosely
on the bar is of little consequence ; but it is necessary that the whole of the slot surfaces be
smoothed and polished, that the holders may be easily moved along the bar without being liable
to stick. The scribers are of hardened steel wire, and fixed to the holders by making a screw
upon one end of each scriber and screwing it into a screwed hole in the bottom of each scriber-
holder. Another mode of attaching the scriber consists in making a taper hole into the bottom
of the holder, instead of making a screwed hole ; and into the taper hole the scriber end is
smoothly fitted, so that it will admit of being gently driven in, to properly fix it, and also easily
pulled out when it requires hardening and grinding.
Catiirers.—Callipers for large forgings possess handles, and are denoted by Figs. 243,
244, and 245. The tool shown by Fig. 243 has a hole at one end to allow the tool to be hung
in a safe place, after being adjusted, and when not required for immediate use. The handle may
consist of iron, and be distinct from the callipers, that are of steel; or the handle may be an
extension or continuation of one of the calliper legs, in which case the entire tool is of steel.
Fig. 244 indicates a couple of outside callipers attached to one connecting-rod. This rod is
long enough to allow the workman to measure the work without being scorched; and one of the
callipers should be smaller than the other, because when both callipers are adjusted to two
different dimensions, the smaller callipers should be for the smaller dimension ; consequently, the
workman will not be so liable to put the small callipers to the work when he ought to put the
large one; such a mistake causes him to reduce the work more than necessary, and obliges him
to afterwards upset it to the proper size.
By thus adjusting two pairs of callipers, or, properly speaking, two callipers, two dimensions
of a forging are easily reserved by keeping the callipers adjusted until the forging is reduced to
the two dimensions. Such callipers are useful for measuring the large and small ends of cones,
the large and small parts of bolts and rods, also the lengths and widths of T-ends. A connecting-
rod callipers in use for T-ends is represented by Fig. 200.
Fig. 245 denotes two callipers of another class, named inside callipers, which are for
measuring two holes of different diameters, or for measuring one hole of two different diameters.
Inside callipers measure also the large end and the small end of a conical hole; also all such
openings as slots, gaps, grooves, and keyways.
The joint-pins of all such callipers should be tightly riveted until the legs cannot be shifted
without a considerable strain being applied; this tightness being necessary to prevent the legs
shifting when not desired. During the adjustment of such callipers, it is proper to separate or
close the legs until the points are about an eighth of an inch further from each other than
required to be when adjusted. After this, the feet or points are closed to the proper distance
with a few blows of a hammer. To do this conveniently, the callipers are put upon some
convenient piece of soft iron or other metal, with the edges of the legs upwards, and one edge
resting on the iron; while in this position, the point or toe of the upper foot is gently hammered
with a smooth-faced hammer, or a copper hammer, until the feet or points are at a proper distance
from each other. After one callipers are thus adjusted, the other callipers at the opposite end
of the rod are adjusted by similar means. This mode of adjusting, by hammering the callipers,
instead of using the callipers as a hammer, prevents the adjusted callipers being shifted while the
other callipers are being adjusted.
CutseLs.—In a rod chisel for cutting hot metal, the angle of the long taper portion should
be ten or twelve degrees, and the angle of the short bevelled part for cutting about forty or fifty
degrees. Chisels for cold iron require the angle of the long taper part to be about thirty
degrees, and the short bevel for cutting about eighty degrees.
All rod chisels are best when made entirely of a tough hard steel, without any iron being
added to make the head. Such a chisel will sustain a severe hammering without much injury to
the head and cutting part, if only about half an inch is hardened, and the head made as soft as
possible. After the cutting end is become too thick with hammering during ordinary use, or is
94 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
become otherways damaged, the lower part of the taper portion is thinned to a proper shape, and
only a short length of the chisel hardened as at the first making. Every time a chisel is ee
by such thinning, it is advisable to cut off about a quarter of an inch of the thin ragged end,
because this portion becomes burnt during heating, and also contains several cracks that are not
visible to an unassisted eye.
An ordinary method of preventing a rod chisel being driven through its handle during the
hammering consists in making a few ragged notches into that part of the chisel which is to be
encircled by the handle; the sharp projections thus made stick into the wood handle at the
time it is twisted around the tool, and it is thus firmly gripped until the wood is broken with
repeated hammering. Another mode of fastening the tool consists in making around the chisel
a groove having a half-round bottom, the width of the groove being about equal to the diameter
of the chisel-rod, or wire handle, which is to be twisted around. Such grooves are made with a
couple of top and bottom fullers, that may be narrow to suit a wire handle, or broad to fit a
wood handle.
In chisels for steam hammers, the angles of the taper parts are about the same as those of
small chisels; but the cutting parts are thicker, and of greater length. A very useful class
of chisels is that named trimmers; these are represented by Fig. 246. A trimmer is used for
cutting all sorts of thin bars, rods, and plates; also for cutting off all superfluous metal that may
be attached to any forging which is being shaped to the finished dimensions. To permit the free
use of a trimming chisel, its cutting edge is convex, because this form enables the smith to slide
the chisel easily along a cut which may be of great length, although not very deep.
is cutting, without causing any inconvenience or requiring any el-chuck, as when the key-way is
to be made with a planing-machine. But a slotter is not capable of grooving any portion of a
long shaft or axle in the direction of the shaft’s length, because it would be necessary to stand it
with its length vertical, in which position it would occupy more room than can be obtained on a
slotting-table. It may therefore be said that axles and other pieces of great length are preferably
ae with shaping, planing, or drilling; and short objects are preferably grooved with slotting-
machines.
To cause a groove to be made in its intended place and position by means of slotting, it is
necessary to adjust the wheel or lever on the table with regard to stated rules, as for adjusting
objects on other machines. And for the convenience of effecting a rapid adjustment of an article
previous to grooving, it must have been previously bored, turned, planed, or smoothly surfaced
SHAPING, SLOTTING, AND LINING. 269
in some way to obtain uniform surfaces ; which surfaces constitute tangible and definitely formed
curves and planes that can be quickly put into any position without trouble, and can be easily
observed in any position, whether right or wrong; whereas a roughly formed surface requires
considerable observation to discover which is the place where the mean curve or plane should be,
or would be if produced; and which is that required for adjusting the rough surface. The
surfaces of all articles to be slotted are those which must necessarily be placed in some stated
position, or at some desired angle with the slotting-table; therefore the surface of the table is
considered as the base or primary plane to which all objects are referred during adjustment.
Concerning primary bases or planes, refer also to pages 208, 209, 210, and 214; also to the
chapter on lathe-turning,
The proper placing of a lever on a slotting-table, to have a key-way cut, consists in laying
it with its length at right-angles to the machine front, and with one of its smooth boss-faces
parallel to the table. This face may be either in immediate contact with the table, or in contact
with a packing-ring resting on the table, the upper and lower planes of the ring being parallel to
each other and parallel to the table. A packing-ring of this sort is required to keep the lower
boss-face of the lever parallel with the table, and at the same time to provide a space of sufficient
height between the boss and the table to allow the slotting-tool to escape from the metal without
touching the table’s surface, the space into which the tool enters being the hole of the ring.
Rings of this class should be of iron or steel, to avoid liability to bruises, and should be of various
diameters to suit bosses of various sizes. A good substitute for such a ring consists of a couple
of long parallel blocks, each of the same height, one of which is placed beneath the lever-boss at
each side so that the tool shall be between. When two blocks of sufficient length cannot be
obtained, four short ones may be used, which are placed at equal distances apart, and at any
required radial distance from the centre of the hole, to suit the diameter of the object being
fixed. Placing the article upon such parallel packing here referred to, immediately causes the
length of the hole in the boss to be put parallel with the direction of the cutting tool’s motion,
and therefore at right-angles to the table-face, which will cause the length of the key-way when
formed to be parallel with the length of the cylindrical hole in the boss, as required. The object
is consequently put into one of the positions necessary, and without trouble. It is next adjusted
to make the lever’s length exactly parallel with the traverse of one of the slide-rest screws, which
screw is the one that advances the table and object from the front of the machine towards the
back, or from the back towards the front. If the lever were not thus adjusted, the depth of the
key-way would not be parallel with the diameter of the hole; or, which amounts to the same
thing, the width of the key-way would not be at right-angles to the length of the lever.
It is now requisite to place the object into its proper situation under the tool, because the
tool cannot be shifted to place it exactly over the intended key-way. ‘The table and object are
therefore gradually aor to the desired spot by rotating the two traverse screws of the slide-
rest.
It may be seen that the lever has to be fixed with regard to three positions while on the
table: with its boss-faces parallel to the table ; with its length parallel with the direction of the
traverse that advances the lever during cutting; and with the length of the key-way which is to
be made, exactly under the slotting-tool. To render the movement of a heavy lever easy, while
placing it at right-angles, poppets are used, the screw-points of which are in contact with the
lever, while the poppets are tightly fixed to that part of the table convenient for the purpose.
Poppets for slotting-tables are similar to those for planing-tables, (see page 239).
To facilitate the adjustment of the lever’s length to parallelism with the traverse which effects
the slotting, the right-angular lines on the table-face should be used, which are marked in the
Figure 834, and are analogous to similar lines on shaping-tables and planing-tables, described
in page 225.
: To mark these gauge-lines upon a slotting-table, the traverse of the slide-rest should be
employed, if the distance between the table and the main standard of the machine will permit,
270 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
because the traverse will easily mark deep lines that can be plainly seen when required. The
tool used for marking, is one of the slotting-tools of the machine, and is a straight tool having a
thin end and a sharp vee-point. The tool is tightly fixed in the tool-clamps and gradually.
adjusted to the table’s surface by rotating the lifting or lowering screw of the main-slide, which
screw is shown by LS in Fig. 834. It is also now necessary to fix the table with respect to its
rotary movement, which is done with a couple of screw-bolts and nuts, and when fixed, an
el-square is placed with its blade to the table’s edge and its pedestal upon the slide beneath, for
the purpose of scribing a line upon the table’s edge at the edge of the blade, and scribing another
line upon the slide beneath at the edge of the pedestal. Such marks will be useful when it is
required to again place the table into the same relative position. When the table is thus
prevented from rotating, it is slowly advanced to the tool-point, the point being adjusted to enter
the metal a proper distance for making a deep mark. The advancement of the table is next
effected by rotating the traverse screw with a handle or with a longer lever, which belongs to
the machine, if a large one. If there is room to advance the table and make a line entirely
across it, the traverse is continued accordingly ; and when the tool is released from the table’s
edge, the table is shifted into a situation for receiving another mark parallel with the first one.
This shifting of the table is effected by working the other traverse screw, which is the one not used
to mark the line, but which moves the table in a direction at right-angles to its motion while
marking. When the table is thus moved three or four inches, according to the distance desired
between the lines, it is again advanced to the tool-point, and another line marked by rotating the
traverse screw before used ; but this time, it is rotated in the opposite direction, which avoids
the necessity of working back the table and commencing the second line at the same side as the
first one.
By means of several shiftings of this sort and advancements of the table in contact with the
tool-point, the required number of parallel lines are marked; consequently, the next step is to
mark another lot of lines which shall be also parallel with each other, but at right-angles to the
lot first marked. The second marking is conducted by the same means as that for the first, with
the difference of advancing the table while in contact with the tool-point, by means of the
traverse screw at right angles to the one used for marking the first lot.
When it happens that there is not room enough to move the table and make the lines
entirely across, they may be partly marked with a straight tool, and afterwards completed with
a cranked tool; or they may be completed with a straight-edge and scriber.
Stortine or Wuereis.—If the bosses of wheels are to have key-ways formed with a
slotting-machine, they are treated in a manner similar to that for levers, being first lined to
show the exact shape and place of the intended grooves, and then fixed on the table with the faces
parallel to it. But there is a difference in the packing-up of some wheels by reason of the faces
of their bosses not being flat, and also because some wheels require to have key-ways without
their bosses having been turned. Ifa wheel, pulley, drum, or such article is entirely lathe-turned,
so that the faces of the rim are made parallel to the faces of the boss, the object can be quickly
put into a proper position by placing it upon a parallel ring, or upon a few parallel blocks,
similar to the mode of placing a lever. If the boss of the wheel is large enough in diameter, and
is flat, the packing can be put into immediate contact with the boss-face ; but for a boss having
curved faces the packing is put beneath the rim. This arrangement has the same effect of
placing the length of the hole at right-angles to the table as if the packing were in contact with
the boss, because the edges of the rim were turned in the lathe and made right-angular with the
length of the hole.
Placing a wheel with the parallel packing under the rim, instead of under the boss, leaves
the boss without anything between it and the table. In this condition the action of the slotting
tool would cause a shaking of the boss and arms of the wheel, which would prevent the tool
cutting properly, and require very small portions of metal to be removed each time. If the
wheel were of cast iron it would also break, unless extra strong, and would separate in some
SHAPING, SLOTTING, AND LINING. 271
part of the arms. It is therefore necessary to support the boss, which is done after the wheel is
finally adjusted and fixed with the plates and bolts; when the boss is packed up by entering a
few short hard wood blocks between the arms, and pushing them under the boss to a short
distance from the edge. These blocks are rather taper, in order that they may be gradually
wedged between the table and the boss, to ensure 4 proper bearing; and packing-pieces of
various thicknesses may be put to raise the wedges to any exact height when required. When
the object is thus secured it is ready for grooving with tools of suitable width, and an easy and
steady cutting is the result, through the tool being made to cut where there is great resistance
by reason of the packing beneath.
SHapinc Outsipes or Bosses.—The outer curved surfaces of lever-bosses are shaped with
shaping-machines, planing-machines, and slotting-machines. Of these machines, shapers are suited
for all small levers in general, if they are not more than nine or ten inches in length. Shapers are
also very effective for shaping lever-bosses which are situated in the mid-portions of levers, named
fulcrum-bosses. Levers of this sort are also conveniently shaped along their entire lengths, when
necessary, by the same shaper used to shape the bosses. Planing-machines are also available for
this same shaping of mid-portions of levers, and through these machines being usually larger than
shapers, the reducing of a large lever on a planing-machine is easier done than with a shaping-
machine, the cutting tool of a planer being more capable of effecting thick cuts.
In order to shape the outside of a boss which is situated at one end of a lever, by means of
a shaper, the rotating conical pivots at the front of the machine are employed for holding the
boss, the two conical ends being in the hole of the boss while it is screwed tight between. To
cause the boss to rotate in a path which is concentric with the cylindrical hole, the boss is
properly bored, and its faces turned to make them right-angular to the hole’s length. _ It is also
usual to take off a portion of the metal at the outer edge of each boss-face; at which part the
boss is reduced to the finished diameter intended for the entire boss when finished. If the boss-
ends are of considerable length, causing the faces to extend a quarter of an inch or more, from
the broad sides of the lever, it is also usual to lathe-turn the entire lengths of these boss-ends.
By turning these two parts to the same diameter, and making this to be the finished diameter,
the superfluous quantity of metal to be cut off with the shaper is plainly shown, and the boss is
made ready for immediate fixing to the machine-pivots for being reduced to the proper
dimensions, no lining being necessary. When the boss is without such projecting ends, it is
requisite to scribe two circles, one on each boss-face, both circles being of the same diameter, that
they may show the amount of metal to be removed, as if the boss were partly lathe-turned.
For this scribing, the primary centre line along the lever’s broad side must be used, in order to
cause the boss, when shaped, to be in a straight line with the intermediate portion. It may be
here mentioned that whatever straight gauge-lines may exist along the lever’s length, which are
now to be used during shaping, are the lines that were placed previous to lathe-turning or
boring, and were employed to adjust the lever for the purpose; and the same primary lines
should now be used, to make the outside of the boss parallel with the hole.
The boss being properly prepared, it is fixed between the pivots so that its length is nearly
horizontal, in order that the upper half of the boss may be shaped at one fixing; after which,
the boss is put upside down and the other half shaped. In some cases, the entire boss can be
shaped at one fixing, when it happens that the lever is not too long to permit the necessary
extent of rotary movement.
Adjusting the tool for cutting after the lever is fastened is effected with the vertical traverse
screw of the slide-rest, an ordinary vee-point facer being used. The tool-point is so placed that
it is exactly over the centre of the pivots and therefore over the centre of the hole in the boss,
which situation is known by a gauge-line on the machine. The machine is next arranged to
work with the to-and-fro motion of the tool, and the rotary motion of the pivots, all other move-
ments being stopped except the small advancement downwards of the tool-point, for causing it
to enter the metal a proper distance, and thereby taking off the required quantity. When the
272 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
tool-point is put to the proper height the shaping proceeds until the half-rotation or three-quarters
rotation of the object is effected, and therefore the entire boss reduced, one slice being cut off.
The tool-point is then again advanced downwards a short distance and another slice is removed
by another rotation as before. The reduction of the boss is thus continued by as many rotations
of it as will suffice to attain to the finished diameter, which is shown by the circular gauge-lines
on the faces or by the turned boss-ends which were before referred to.
It is now supposed that the boss is finished with the exception of the curved junctions of the
boss with the other portion of the lever, and that it is required to shape this middle or straight
portion. If this is to be done it may be next fixed so that its length is nearly parallel with the
direction of the machine’s horizontal traverse, the upper gauge-line to which the mid-part is to
be reduced being adjusted exactly parallel with the traverse. The object is now in position for
cutting off the superfluous metal at the upper narrow side of the lever and along its length.
The curved junctions also can be shaped, both the junction of the boss already finished, and that
of the boss to be shaped, if this shaping is necessary. The lever is next put upside-down, and
the other narrow side of the mid-part is shaped and the junctions also. This leaves one of the
bosses yet to be shaped, which is effected by removing the lever from the conical pivots and
placing it end for end, placing the boss not shaped on the pivots in the same condition as the
first one. The shaping now proceeds in the same manner as before by the rotation of the boss
and the gradual advancement downwards of the tool.
To avoid unnecessary shifting when a comparative large lever is to be thus shaped, both its
bosses and all its four curved junctions should be finished previous to beginning the reducing of
the straight mid-part. This will avoid arranging the machine a second time for the rotary move-
ment to shape the second boss.
A lever which is shaped by these methods is fastened in position during the reducing of the
straight portion by one boss being fixed on the pivots, as when being rotated, and with the other
boss bolted to a parallel ring or packing in contact with one boss-face. This mode of fastening
suits small or short levers; but a long one should be entirely disconnected from the pivots when
the straight part is to be shaped, at which time it can be properly held against an el-chuck;
in this position the action of the cutting tool will not bend the lever, and thereby cause an
unsteady cut.
When the outside of a boss is to shaped with a planing-machine, it is done by fixing the
boss against an el-chuck, and gradually adjusting the tool-point by rotating the vertical
traverse screw during the to-and-fro movement of the object in contact and being cut. This
gradual raising and lowering of the tool while it travels across the boss is done by the hand of
the operator, who watches the gauge-lines on the boss-face, and adjusts the tool accordingly:
To avoid a tedious operation of this sort a special apparatus for a rotary motion must be
supplied to the machine, but such a movement is not necessary now that shapers and slotters are
accessible ; and when, through sudden breakage, or other emergency, a planing-machine must
be used for reducing a large boss, the hand adjustment of the tool can be effected without much
difficulty.
For the shaping of a lever having three bosses, a planing-machine is frequently more
convenient than a shaper, especially if a large amount is to be cut off, requiring very thick cuts.
When a great quantity is to be removed, the horizontal traverse will effect the reducing, a tool
having a broad vee-point being used and much of the hand-working of the screw avoided.
The planing of the object to the finished size desired, is conducted with regard to gauge-
lines in the same manner as if the lever were shaped on a shaping-machine; the lever being in
all cases adjusted so that the gauge-lines to which the metal is to be cut off, are placed parallel
with the surface of the planing-table.
SHaPinc Bosses on Storrinc-Macuines.—The most rapid and effectual mode of shaping
outsides of lever-bosses in large numbers is slotting; the object to be shaped being fixed on a
slotting-table and rotated by means of the worm-wheel and pinion of the machine.
SHAPING, SLOTTING, AND LINING. 273
Any boss, small or large, to be thus shaped, requires fixing with the centre of the hole in
the boss in a straight line with the axis of the machine-table’s rotation; or rather, with the
centre length of the hole and the table’s axis both in the same straight line. This situation is
occupied by the small lever on the table of Fig. 862, and is necessary because the outside of the
boss when shaped, is to be concentric with the hole, which condition is termed, true with the
hole, and results from the cutting tool acting in contact with the boss while it is gradually rotated
with the table.
Each lever-boss, previous to slotting, is bored to make the hole of the required finished
diameter, and its two faces are smoothly turned to make them parallel with each other and
right-angular to the length of the hole. One of these faces is selected to be placed into contact
with a parallel ring, or with a few parallel packing-blocks, that the length of the hole may be
accurately placed at right-angles to the table, and that a space may be provided beneath the
boss for the escape of the tool from the metal, which space resembles that required while slotting
a key-way. For shaping the outside of a boss, it is necessary for the outer edges of the
parallel ring, or other packing that may be used, to be entirely within the extreme finished
diameter of the boss, that the tool may be prevented from touching any portion of the packing
at the time of cutting; whereas, while slotting a key-way, the outer extent of the ring is not
important, unless it is large enough to obstruct the fixing of the holdfast bolts. The thickness
or height above the table of this packing, is about the same, whether for key-way cutting or for
shaping bosses, and is sufficient to allow ample room for the tool-edge to disengage from the
metal at the conclusion of each cut and not incur any risk of causing the edge to touch the table
and do mischief, the height being usually from half an inch to an inch.
When the boss is thus supported parallel with the table, it is held in position with a couple
of holdfast plates and bolts, which are placed opposite each other and at the two inner edges of
the hole in the boss. If two bolts cannot be placed, through the smallness of the hole, or
through a deficiency of slots in the table, one bolt is employed and is put at the middle;
consequently, a plate having a hole in the middle is employed to grip the boss-face. Supposing
that the article to be shaped is an ordinary lever with two bosses, the other end of the lever,
which is not near the centre of the table, now requires supporting, especially if it is a large one,
to prevent its length and consequent leverage exerting an injurious strain upon the screw bolts
or bolt holding the boss. To avoid this, the end of the lever is allowed to rest on one or more
packing blocks of the proper height, which height is just sufficient to sustain the weight of the
lever-arm without affecting the parallelism with the table of the face belonging to the boss to be
shaped. When it happens that the lever is not too long for both its bosses to rest on the table,
the packing consists of parallel blocks, and they are placed between the surface of the table and
the under surface of the outer boss; but if the lever is long enough to cause the outer boss to
extend beyond the table’s edge, the packing consists of blocks which are rather taper, and they
are put beneath some portion of the arm or intermediate portion.
A large boss of ten, twelve, or fourteen inches in diameter, can be easily fastened to the
table with bolts situated in the hole, and such bolts will not hinder the final adjustment of the
boss to the exact situation required. A few poppets also can be placed along the lever-arm, and
holdfast plates fixed across the top of the arm. All these fastenings may be attached before the
object is precisely adjusted ready for work; they are therefore not tightened until adjustment is
completed. But a small lever that may have a boss only about two or three inches in diameter,
when to be shaped by slotting, must be fixed, either without any bolt in the hole of the boss
at the middle of the table, or with a bolt which is put into the hole after the boss is finally
adjusted. When bolts are put into such a small hole they sometimes prevent the observer seeing
the bottom of the hole, and therefore adjustment is hindered. It is, consequently, necessary to
first hold such a boss with a couple of plates and bolts at the outer edges of the boss, instead of
at the inner edges; and while these are attached, the bottom of the hole can be adjusted as
required, because the hole is empty. After adjustment, the necessary bolt or bolts can be put
into the hole, and those that were put to the a edges are removed, not being now needed,
N
274 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
and which must be removed to allow the boss to be shaped. Small lever-bosses are rapidly and
accurately adjusted by means of arbor-chucks, which are described in the next section.
Adjusting the boss to place it exactly in line with the table’s rotation, or in line with the
axis, is done with the poppets which gradually shift the object to the proper place. In order to
ascertain the amount of shifting that may be needed to effect the adjustment, it is necessary to
use the circular gauge-lines which are marked a short distance apart on the table-face. About
twenty or thirty of these exist on the table, all being concentric with each other and with the
table’s axis of rotation. Therefore, any one of these circular lines which is conveniently
situated for the diameter of the hole may be selected, and considered as a gauge-ring in which
the truly formed hole of the boss shall be centrally located when adjusted. If the hole is large
enough to admit an el-square, one of the gauge-lines which is of less diameter than that of the
hole, may be selected, and the square put into the hole with its pedestal on the line on the table,
and, consequently, with the blade extending upwards to the top of the hole. The bottom
corner of the pedestal is put exactly upon some point in the circular line, at the time the
situation of the boss is to be ascertained, and the distance between the edge of the blade and the
side of the hole is then measured with an inside calliper. The square is next shifted to the
opposite side of the hole, and stood upon the same gauge-line on which it stood before, but being
now at the opposite side of the centre. The distance between the blade’s edge and the side of
the hole is now measured as before, and if found to be the same as when the square stood at the
opposite side, the boss is in its proper place ; if not, it is shifted, and again tried with the square
in the hole as before. Two or three couples of opposite points in the gauge-circle should be
selected on which to stand the square, in order to avoid being misled by using only two points,
although two are sufficient, if the observation and measurements are accurately conducted. It
may be mentioned that this mode of adjustment is most effectual with bosses having large holes,
which permit an easy observation therein. The method is applicable to the fixing of bosses
having either parallel holes or taper ones; but for a taper hole, the operator must exercise due
care to measure the distance between the blade and the upper extreme edge of the hole, each
time he applies the callipers, and not to place the callipers to any portion of the hole below the
edge.
The boss can be adjusted also by means of a scriber-block. For this purpose a wood or
iron ender is fitted to the boss-hole at that end which is uppermost while the boss is on the table.
The ender is used to mark the centre of the hole’s mouth, which is found with a compasses,
From this centre, circular lines are scribed upon the boss-face; of which lines one denotes the
diameter to which the boss is to be finished. Either this line or one of the others on the face,
which may be more convenient, is selected for a gauge-line by which the boss is to be adjusted.
The desired result is obtained by placing the line or lines exactly concentric with the axis, as
intended. To do this the scriber-block is now stood upon the table with the bottom edge exactly
coinciding with some point in one of its circular lines; and while it thus stands, the scriber-point.
is adjusted to a point in one of the gauge-circles on the boss-face. The scriber-point used for
this purpose, is the one at the bent end of the scriber, which will allow the observer to see clearly
whether or not the line on the boss-face is exactly beneath the point; and, consequently,
will enable him to discover the precise amount of shifting of the boss which is required to
adjust it. After the scriber-block has been stood at one side of the boss on one of the table’s
lines, the block is removed to the opposite side of the boss, and stood upon the same circular
line, but now upon a point which is opposite to the point on which it stood before. By now
observing the scriber-point and the gauge-line on the boss beneath, the relative positions of the.
two are seen, and the boss is gradually shifted until its gauge-lines show it to be in the proper
lace.
A boss may be adjusted concentric with the table, also by observing the edge or mouth of
the hole. For this adjustment the edge of the hole must be sharp, instead of curved, which is
an ordinary shape of a large number. If sharp, the scriber-point of the scriber-block can be put
to the edge and observed, instead of placing the point to a circular gauge-line scribed on the
SHAPING, SLOTTING, AND LINING. 275
boss-face, the operation being similar to the adjustment by placing the scriber-point to the line
on the face, as given in the preceding paragraph.
Apsustinc Bosses wits ARBoR-cHUCKS.—When a large number of bosses having holes of
the same diameter are to be shaped, they can be quickly and accurately placed to their proper
situations on the slotting-table by using an arbor-chuck. This implement consists of a cylindrical
piece of iron or steel which is provided with a broad base or flange. The flange is exactly at
right-angles to the cylindrical part or stem, and is large enough to contain holes for fixing-bolts,
with which the chuck is bolted to the slotting-table. The diameter of the stem or pivot-portion,
just suits the holes of the bosses to be shaped, and allows any boss to be easily put on, and at
the same time to be tight enough to prevent the boss moving sideways while situated on the
stem. If the stem is cylindrical along its entire length, it can only fit bosses with holes of one
diameter ; therefore, to make one arbor suit holes of different diameters it should be turned to
two or three diameters along its length, so that one portion will fit holes of one size, and the
other portions will fit holes of other sizes. The smallest diameter of the stem is at its end or
point, at its largest diameter at the bottom; consequently, it may be termed, stepped. The
entire chuck is truly lathe-turned, to cause any portion of its stem to be concentric with any
other portion, and also to make the length of the stem exactly right-angular to the flange; if in
this condition, the length of the stem is immediately placed right-angular to the slotting-table as
required, by placing the face of the flange into contact with the table-face. The outer surface
of the flange termed its edge or rim must be turned to make it concentric with the arbor or
pivot, because by the rim of the flange the chuck is sometimes adjusted. By turning, the two
broad sides of the flange are also made parallel with each other; and of these two sides, the
outer one is that which is bolted in contact with the table when in use, the inner broad side
being often required to be in contact with one face of a boss or other object to be shaped.
When the chuck is to be used, it is bolted to the table so that its stem may extend upwards,
in which position it is ready for the boss to be put thereon. The outer edge or rim of the
flange may now be used, for adjustment, which consists in placing it exactly concentric with the
table’s rotation, the stem being, of course, adjusted by the same act, because it is concentric with
the rim. To gradually shift the chuck, during adjustment, a tin hammer is used, and a few
blows are given previous to tightening the fixing bolts, the proper place for the chuck being
known by its being centrally located in one of the gauge circles on the table. By reason of the
implement being thus fixed to the table, both the table and chuck must rotate together, and also
the boss thereon.
The chuck can be adjusted also by means of a shallow recess in the table, into which the
edge of the flange is put, which immediately places the chuck concentric with the table, because
the recess was formed by lathe turning and is concentric with the axis of rotation.
Many slotting-tables are provided with holes at their middles, such holes being required to
provide spaces for the slotting tools and for containing stems of various objects. Ifthe mouth
of a hole of this class is sharp, and true with the table, the flange of the arbor-chuck may be
furnished with a short projection, the diameter of which is exactly the same as that of the hole
in the table; and by this projecting part being put into the hole the chuck is adjusted without
further treatment. This means should be adopted for all work that requires the chuck to be
frequently and quickly adjusted to the proper place.
The chuck is held on the table with a couple of screws which fit holes in the flange, the
holes having broad mouths for containing the entire heads of the screws when tightened. This
arrangement allows the upper surface of the flange to remain quite free from any projection
after the chuck is fastened ; so that a boss-face or other surface can be put into close contact
with the flange, or into contact with a parallel ring on the flange, whenever it may be requisite.
An arbor-chuck which has a stem of two or three different diameters must cause all bosses
placed thereon to remain several inches above the flange, and therefore also above the slotting-
table, except those that happen to fit the lowest portion of the stem, which is its junction with
the flange. If the hole of a boss fits this portion, the boss-face can lie in close contact with the
2n2
276 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
flange while fixed, and no additional support beneath is required. Rut when a boss is held up
at a distance from the flange, by reason of the hole fitting some comparative small portion of the
stem’s upper end, the boss is deprived of support beneath, and it is therefore necessary to pack
up the boss. For this packing up either parallel blocks or parallel rings are used, a proper
number being put between the boss-face and the flange to occupy the space.
When a great number of small lever-bosses having holes of the same diameter require
shaping, an arbor-chuck with a stem long enough for three or four bosses should be provided,
the stem being parallel along its entire length. On such a stem several bosses may be situated
one above another, with their faces in contact with each other, in which positions all may be
shaped at one traverse of the cutting tool. Lever-bosses thus arranged are quickly shaped, and
also made uniform with each other without much lining or measurement.
A boss which is to be shaped while on an arbor can have but few fastening plates near the
boss; consequently, the holdfast plates are put along the arm, together with a couple at the
curved junctions near the boss which is on the arbor. This mode of fastening is suited to large
objects ; small levers can be held by means of a centre bolt in the extremity or point of the
arbor. This bolt fits a screwed hole at the centre of the extremity, the length of the hole and
the length of the arbor being in the same straight line. The head of this bolt bears upon a
circular plate or washer, and the washer bears upon the boss-face; so that by tightening the
bolt the boss is fixed. To prevent the rim of the washer touching the tool while cutting, its
diameter is rather less than the finished diameter of the boss. Several washers may be used, if
necessary, one above another, and are required when the upper end of the arbor extends beyond
the upper face of the boss.
While a lever remains on the slotting-table fixed to an arbor, or to any other packing or
rings for holding it to be slotted, the length of the lever is across the operator while he faces the
machine-front, the lever extending either to the right hand or to the left. During the rotation
of the piece while shaping is progressing, its length usually travels towards the machine-front,
and, consequently, towards the operator, and not towards the main standard of the machine.
If it travelled towards the standard, it would be necessary that the boss being shaped should be
situated between the cutting tool and the standard; and such an arrangement would suit only
those machines the cutting tools of which are not released from the metal during their upward
motions. In a machine whose tool is released, the releasing movement causes the tool to retreat
backwards from the machine-front towards the main standard ; therefore, on such a machine, the
boss to be shaped must be situated between the cutting tool and the machine-front. If thus
situated, ample room exists for the tool to retreat from the metal, which could not exist if the
boss were at the back of the tool and obstructed its backward retreating motion.
When a boss is properly fixed on the machine with regard to the proper relative positions,
it is ready for placing into the desired situation near the cutting tool. The movement for this
purpose is easily effected by rotating the traverse screws, by which means the boss is gradually
moved until the centre of the tool edge is found to be in line with the centre diameter or minor
axis of the hole in the boss. This relative situation is analogous to that of a lever-boss which is
adjusted ready for shaping with a to-and-fro shaper, and is mentioned in page 271.
The cutting tools used to remove the metal from a boss during slotting are those shown b
Figs. 787, 788, 793, and 794, and are described in pages 257 and 258. While one of these is in
the tool-clamps, the table, and, consequently, the boss attached, is advanced to the tool by
one of the transverse screws. This screw is the one which advances the table towards the
machine’s main standard, and by this screw the thickness of metal to be cut off during any one
rotation of the boss is determined, the other traverse screw at right-angles not being used after
the boss is once adjusted, but remaining fixed. The lever is therefore advanced to remove a
slice from the boss of the intended thickness, the thickness of slice depending on the power of the
machine or the quantity to be cut off. One slice is removed at each rotation of the boss, until it
is reduced to the intended diameter ; and when polishing is necessary it is done with sharp tools
and soapy water, as described for other work.
SHAPING, SLOTTING, AND LINING. 277
Sarina Arms or Levers anp Connectinc-Bars.—The intermediate parts or arms of levers,
and also of connecting-bars, are easily shaped with to-and-fro shapers, and with planing-
machines, if they are not too long for the machines selected, each one being held with bolts
through the holes in the bosses during the shaping of the broad sides, and held against
an el-chuck with holding-plates, or held in a machine-vice while shaping the narrow sides termed
edges. Arms of levers and bars which are to be shaped by these means are treated in page 233.
It aoa only necessary to here mention the shaping of lever-arms by shapers and slotting-
machines.
When a shaping-machine is provided with a vice, and a small lever, or a number of them,
require the narrow sides of their arms to be shaped, each one, after a proper lining to show the
dimensions, can be tightly held in the vice with the broad sides in contact, a couple of wood or
lead clamps being on the vice-jaws to prevent damage. If thus held, the narrow side of the arm
is upwards and parallel with the motion of the shaping-tool; and it is next necessary to adjust
the entire length of the arm to parallelism with the bed of the machine, and when this is done
the lever or bar is in its proper position. If the object is too long for one vice, two must be used,
in which case the article appears as in Fig. 866, having a long packing-bar in contact, to prevent
bending. When the broad sides of the arm also require shaping, the arm can be held by gripping
its two narrow sides instead of its broad sides; and if the arm is taper a piece of taper packing
can be put between the small end of the lever-arm and the vice-jaw, to cause the vice to grip
equally and hold the arm firmly, although it is taper. A lever or bar held in this manner is
adjusted with a tin hammer, a scriber-block being on the table or tables to show when the
gauge-lines on the sides of the article are parallel with the table-faces, and therefore parallel
with the bed of the machine. When the piece is being fixed for shaping the broad side, the
gauge-line on the narrow side need not be more than a sixteenth of an inch above the top edges
of the vice-jaws, because the nearer the surface to be cut is put to the vice the steadier will be
the operation of cutting. Taper arms of levers, rods, and bars, can also be tightly held without
taper packing, by means of the author's vice arranged for the purpose.
To shape the broad sides of a lever with a shaping-machine without vices, the lever may be
held with a screw-bolt through each boss, the entire lever being on one table, if short; but with
one boss on each table, if the length of the piece requires such an arrangement.
Whether it is the arm of a lever, or that of a connecting-bar which is to be shaped by these
means, the adjustment of each object is performed with regard to gauge-lines which are scribed
on the broad sides and edges. These lines denote the boundaries of the hidden planes that are
to be produced by the shaping ; and they are therefore adjusted to make them parallel with the
direction of the cutting tools’ motions, in accordance with the elements of planing and lining in
pages 205, 206, 212, 213, and 214. The lines are also the same as those used for shaping arms
by slotting.
Saitied or Arms By Stottinc.—The shaping of arms with slotting-machines is especially
suited to large levers and bars. If a lever requires shaping along its arm and also around both
its bosses, the bosses should be first reduced to the required dimensions by means of an arbor-
chuck, or while fixed on other packing as before described, using the rotary motion of the worm
wheel. The lever is next fixed for the purpose of shaping its narrow sides, with one or both
bosses in contact with parallel packing on the table, and so that its length is nearly parallel with
the machine-front, and consequently, nearly parallel with the traverse of the rest which is
parallel with the machine-front. If it were intended to make the arm parallel, as for a connect-
ing-bar, the arm’s centre length would be adjusted exactly parallel with the traverse; but to
obtain the taper form required for a lever, it is so placed that the side or surface to be produced,
is parallel with the traverse referred to. To ascertain whether the object is properly placed, one
of the straight gauge-lines on the table should be used as a species of standard to which the
gauge-line that shows the quantity of metal to be cut off, is put parallel. For this purpose, a
scriber-block having a straight bottom edge, is stood upon some part of the table’s gauge-line,
and the scriber-point is adjusted to one end of the line on the lever; after which, the block is
278 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR,
removed to the opposite end of the lever and stood upon another part of the same gauge-line
on the table. The scriber-point is now observed to discover how near the line on the lever is to
parallelism with the line on the table, and therefore, how much shifting of the lever or bar is
necessary to adjust it. When the piece has been moved a short distance, the scriber-point is again
referred to as before, and another shifting is effected, which processes are continued until the
object is properly placed.
As soon as the lever’s gauge-line is adjusted to parallelism with the gauge-line on the table,
and the piece properly fastened with plates and bolts, the lever is advanced to the cutting tool
and the shaping of the arm’s narrow side commenced. At this time the tool is at one end of
the arm, which is the curved junction with the boss. The shaping progresses by the up-and-
down motion of the tool, and the movement of the lever in the direction of its length, or rather
in the direction of the gauge-line showing the place of the plane to be produced. By reason of
this line being parallel with the gauge-lines on the table, the surface formed by the process of
shaping must be also parallel with the gauge-line on the lever, because this line was put parallel
with the table’s lines, and these were marked with the same traversing motion of the rest which
is now used for advancing the object during shaping. Concerning the marking of these lines
upon slotting-tables, refer also to pages 269 and 270.
When the lever or bar is to be advanced to the tool to commence the shaping, or to take
off another slice after the piece has been once advanced across the tool, the movement of the
slide-rest screw causes the lever to move sideways. ‘This is the direction in which it moves each
time it is adjusted for having a slice removed, the movement being effected with the screw which
is at right-angles to the machine-front, and at right-angles to the length of the lever. Imme-
diately after this screw has put the piece to the place required, the screw is fixed to prevent
“unintentional shifting of it during the cutting; the cutting being executed by the rotation of
the other screw which is parallel with the length of the lever-arm. The traverse performed with
this screw is the only motion required besides the up-and-down action of the tool, to execute the
entire shaping. If it happens that a large amount of metal is to be cut off, several travels of
the lever in the direction of its length may be requisite, the amount removed each time, depend-
ing on the power of the machine. The quantity cut off during any one advancement, is named
a slice; and the entire amount removed to reach the gauge-line, is termed the krap. A strip or
cut, is the quantity cut off during only one downward travel of the tool. These various amounts
of metal are analogous to those cut off with planing-machines; and the terms which represent
them are given in the chapter on planing and lining, at pages 215 and 216.
SHAPING OF JuNCTIONS.—The curved junctions of a boss are shaped while the lever or bar
is fixed with its boss-faces parallel with the slotting-table, as when the narrow sides of its arm
are being shaped. Considerable care is required during shaping, to make the junction to a proper
curve, to make it to a proper depth, and to nicely smooth it, that no ridges may he noticed after
it is machined.
For the purpose of avoiding unnecessary trouble while a boss is between the conical pivots
of a shaper, or on an arbor-chuck of a slotting-machine, the shaping of the boss by means of its
rotary motion, should terminate at the commencement of each curved junction of the boss, all
the superfluous metal at the junction being left untouched. Both bosses of the lever should be
thus treated previous to commencing the shaping of the intermediate part or arm. The shaping
of the straight arm, if effected with a shaper, is performed while it is fixed with its narrow side
upwards, both the bosses and junctions being now finished. When a slotting-machine is em-
ployed for the narrow sides of the arm, the shaping of the straight portion, and also the shaping
of the curved junctions, is done while the boss-faces are parallel with the table, and the narrow
sides are parallel with the slide-rest traverse which is parallel with the machine-front. When-
ever a lever or bar is required to present a special smooth and neat appearance, the bosses and
junctions should be entirely finished previous to finishing the straight part of the arm. Sup-
posing that the entire outer surface of a lever is to be machined, the bosses should be entirely
reduced and finished, and the junctions also finished, previous to finally smoothing the arm’s
SHAPING, SLOTTING, AND LINING. 279
narrow sides ; and all levers and bars that may require a great amount of metal to be removed,
should have the straight parts of their arms roughly reduced before finally smoothing the
junctions.
Curved junctions should be shaped while the levers or bars are in the same positions on
the table in which they were during the shaping of the arms’ narrow sides; consequently, the
fixing of the lever for shaping the straight part is the fixing for shaping the junctions, no
change being necessary. The straight mid-part of the arm is that which should be first roughly
reduced, the reduction being continued till it is very near the specified dimensions. The two
junctions which are now in front of the cutting tool should next be reduced, the entire quantity
of metal being removed, and the curved surfaces carefully and finally continued from the
finished surfaces of the bosses. These two curved parts being completed, leaves the straight
part of the arm yet rough; and to finish the entire narrow side of the lever it is now carefully
advanced to a sharp smoothing tool for taking off a thin piece along the arm. For this last
slice a tool having a broad cutting edge must be used, and its edge made to only just lightly
touch the finished extremity of the curved junction; when thus adjusted, the traverse of the
lever is put into action, and the smoothing completed. For a finishing slice of this sort it is not
necessary to cut off a portion along the entire length; about half the length of the arm is quite
sufficient ; and to prevent the tool entering the metal too far at the middle of the lever, it
should be shifted a small quantity to cause the tool to leave the metal at the proper place. The
middle of the surface being shaped may be, for any bar or lever, rather convex, instead of rather
concave; so that after two junctions at one side of a lever have been finished, the tool which
finishes the straight part may be made to take off two minute slices, one from each junction, and
both towards the middle of the lever, which process will produce the convex form referred to.
After one narrow side has been finally smoothed, the lever or bar is put upside-down, and
again fastened with its length in the same position as before. In this condition the other
narrow side and its two junctions can be reduced and smoothed by the same means that were
employed for reducing the side now finished.
The class of tools which will quickly remove the thick mass of metal at the junctions are
the vee-point tools shown by Figs. 787, 788, 793, and 794; some of which tools have ends
slightly bent, to make them resemble corner tools of planing-machines. These pointed tools are
only necessary for large bosses, when it is requisite to cut off a great quantity of metal; and the
tools are caused to form a few ridges at the place of the intended curved surface, by gradually
advancing the lever to the tool by rotating the traverse screws. The junction being thus
roughly formed with pointed tools, is made ready for being finished with a springy tool, the
cutting edge of which is curved and convex, to suit the curved shape of the junction. Springy
tools for this purpose are represented by Fig. 792; with the difference of a tool having a curved
edge being keyed in the slot, instead of the one shown in the Figure, whose edge is nearly
straight, this form of tool being required for smoothing the outside of a boss.
‘A small lever or bar may have its junctions entirely shaped with tools having broad cutting
edges; a springy tool being used for polishing, in the same manner as for larger work. An
such curved surface, small or large, should be reduced and finished with tools which have as
broad edges as the machine will permit; by using broad tools, the cutting edges of which are
nearly as long as the extent of the junction, all the shaping of it is executed with very little rotation
of the traverse screws, by reason of a comparative great length of the cutting edge being at one
time in contact with the metal.
When it is requisite to form a junction to some exact curve of a desired length and shape,
sheet-templates are used, the shapes of which are similar to the shapes required for the curves in
the objects in progress. Concerning templates, refer to pages 244 and 245.
Saapinc THE Broap Smwes or Arms.—Broad sides of arms belonging to levers and
connecting-bars are shaped either by planing or slotting. It is, however, always requisite to
shape the curved junctions with the boss-ends, by using some class of rotary movement, because
these junctions cannot be formed with any rectilineal motion. After a bar has had its bosses
280 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
bored, turned, its short boss-ends also turned, and short portions of the arm immediately
adjoining also turned, the broad sides can be easily shaped by a planing-machine, whether small
or large. A lever with these junctions shaped, and situated on a planing-table, is shown by
Fig. 747; in which position it can be easily planed to cut off the lump on the middle; because,
by reason of the ends of the bosses having been finished by turning, and their junctions with the
broad side also turned, the planing-tool is allowed ample room to cut near the bosses without
touching them
It is sometimes necessary to reduce the broad side or sides of a lever while it remains on a
slotting-table ; the lever having had its bosses, curved junctions with the narrow sides, and the
straight parts of the narrow sides just now shaped on the same machine. And it is, in many
cases, convenient to shape broad sides by slotting, to avoid removal of heavy pieces to other
machines, also to avoid waiting for a planing-machine to be disengaged, and as a necessity, when
a planing-machine is not available.
If the lever which is to have its broad sides shaped by slotting has had the junctions with the
broad sides shaped by boring and turning on a previous occasion, it can remain on the table and
be shaped; if not, it must be removed, and the junctions properly formed. The arm at these
places is always reduced by the rotary shaping until it is of the exact finished thickness required;
consequently, it is by these smoothly formed junctions that the arm is to be adjusted, rather than
to the scribed lines.
The first placing of the lever for the shaping of its broad sides consists in putting one broad
side at right-angles to the slotting-table, because this is the direction of the slotting-tool’s
motion. If the bosses have been properly formed, their outer surfaces are now parallel with the
lengths of the holes; consequently, if these outer surfaces are put into close contact with the
table, or with parallel packing thereon, the lever is, by the same act, put into one of the
positions required, without further adjustment. If the two bosses of the object were of the same
diameter, the centre length of it would now be parallel with the table; but through one boss
being smaller, the centre length is lower at one end than at the other, which is of no consequence
for this shaping, because only the straight part of the side is to be reduced. Although it is not
requisite to place the centre length parallel with the table, it is quite necessary that the gauge-
line on the upper narrow side, showing the boundary of the plane, should be put exactly
parallel with the traverse screw which is parallel with the machine-front; or rather, parallel
with the direction of the traverse-slide’s motion, in order that the movement of the lever during
shaping shall produce the broad side in its desired condition of parallelism with the gauge-line.
If this line exactly coincides with the already finished junctions, either the line or the junctions
may be referred to while adjusting; the finished surfaces being always considered rather than
the scriber-marks. To adjust the lever to this position a scriber-block is stood upon one of the
straight lines on the table, and the point is placed for observation to both ends of the line on the
lever, or to its junctions, in a manner similar to that described for other adjustments.
As soon as the broad side is put into the required position, and the lever is tightly held
with plates and bolts, the reduction of the metal proceeds in a very easy manner, a point-tool
like Figs. 787 or 794 being in the tool-clamps while the lever is advanced in the direction of its
length by the rotation of the traverse-screw. This operation is quite as simple as if it were done
with a planing-machine, and consists in producing the hidden plane by means of the vertical
motion of the slotting-tool, instead of by the horizontal movement of a planing-table.
When one broad side is produced, the object is put upside-down, and the opposite broad
side is thus placed in front of the slotting-tool. The lever is now fixed with the same regard to
the finished junctions or gauge-line that was bestowed during the adjustment for the previous
shaping; after which the removal of the metal proceeds as before.
It may now beseen by reference to the foregoing sections on the shaping of arms and bosses
in general, that if the entire outer surface of a small lever or bar needs reducing, the entire
shaping can be done on a to-and-fro shaping-machine if the object has been properly bored and
the ends of its bosses turned; and it is also seen that a large lever or bar that has been in a
SHAPING, SLOTTING, AND LINING. 281
similar manner properly turned can be entirely completed on a slotting-machine, which machine
will reduce and correctly finish the entire cylindrical surfaces of the bosses, their curved junctions
with the narrow sides, and the four straight sides of the arm whenever it may happen that such
an extensive reduction is requisite. And it may be here mentioned that thousands of levers and
bars are at the present time thus entirely machined while cold, although it must be admitted
that if greater care were exercised during the forging of such objects, the only machining which
they would require while cold, would be boring the holes, turning the boss-ends, and slightly
paring the junctions. Even less paring than this would suffice for those that were forged in
pressing-moulds, concerning which, and also concerning other considerations during accurate
forging, refer also to pages 1, 3, 4, 30, 32, 33, 77, 78, 87, 88, and 97.
SHapinec Levers Havinc Taree Bosses,—Levers having three bosses each can be easily
shaped on shaping-machines if small, and on slotting-machines if large; the several operations
for lining, adjusting on the tables or on arbor-chucks, and removal of the metal, being similar
to those detailed for shaping levers having only two bosses each.
Every three-boss lever which is to be reduced along the entire lengths of the arms’ broad
sides, requires the junctions at the boss-ends to be reduced to the finished thickness by the
turning or boring, which reduction is similar to that for a two-boss lever, with the necessity of
exercising more care to properly reduce the metal from around all the six boss-ends. These
junctions are usually shaped with the same machine that finished the holes. When thus carefully
treated it is ready for a shaper, or for a slotter, according to the size of the article. The order in
which the several surfaces are produced is the same as that observed for other levers if they are
slotted ; the bosses and junctions being first shaped, and next the narrow sides of the arms; after
which the producing of the broad sides is effected. This comparative easy operation of planing
with a slotter, as it may be termed, is the last performed, and of course requires extra care
during adjustment, because four broad sides are to be produced on each lever instead of only two.
Because the junctions of the boss-ends with the arm’s broad side have been thinned on the
boring-machine until they are smoothly finished tc the specified dimensions, and because each
pair of junctions are made equidistant from the primary centre line or periphery around the
arm’s narrow side (see pages 220 and 221), it is needful to fix the lever on the slotting-table with
regard to these finished parts at the time the broad sides are to be produced, in order that the
places where the junctions terminate and the straight sides begin may not be ridgy after
shaping, and require considerable filing. Instead of entirely depending on the accurate shapes
of the bosses for placing the broad sides into the exact right-angular position with the table, it is
sometimes preferable to place the lever in front of an el-chuck and put parallel packing-pieces
between the chuck’s face and each finished junction. This arrangement will cause the lever to
be correctly placed, if the bottom edge of the el-chuck is put exactly to one of the straight gauge-
lines on the table. When it happens that the surfaces of the junctions are too small for being
thus packed against the chuck, the faces of the bosses should be put to the chuck, packing-pieces
of proper thickness being put to whichever boss may need them, in order that the requisite
parallelism of the arm with the traverse may be attained.
During the adjustment of a lever or bar on a slotting-table for producing its broad side,
or during the adjustment of the article for shaping its narrow side, a tool-scriber may be used.
Such a tool consists of a stock similar to that of an ordinary cutting tool for the machine, in the
lower end of which is a small hole of sufficient depth to hold a scriber ; the scriber, or pointer,
as it may be termed, being a piece of pointed steel wire like a scriber for hand use, but shorter.
This pointer is held tight in the stock with a wedge or with a little screw, and when fixed it con-
stitutes an index to indicate the relative situation of an object on the slotting-table beneath.
The pointer may be used for adjusting either connecting-bars, two-boss levers, or those
having three bosses. As soon as the article is put somewhat near its intended place on the table
and some holding plates attached, also some poppets placed, the tool-scriber is to be fixed in the
tool-clamps, and the lever or bar is gradually shifted until one end of the gauge-line by which
the lever is to be adjusted is put directly under the scriber-point, and very near to it. The lever
20
282 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR,
is now advanced along in the direction of its length by rotating the traverse screw, and when
the lever is moved along under the point about as far as the length of the gauge-line, the
observer looks to see whether the point is now exactly over the line as it was while at the other
end. If not, the amount of shifting necessary to make the gauge-line parallel with the traverse
of the slide is plainly shown, and therefore effected.
Adjustment by means of a tool-scriber has the same effect of placing the gauge-line into the
desired position, as if it were adjusted while the article is against an el-chuck whose bottom-edge
is on a gauge-line on the table, or as if it were adjusted to a scriber-block point whose bottom
edge is on a similar gauge-line; because the path in which the lever is now made to move
during adjustment is parallel to the path in which it will move during the cutting off of the
metal.
SHAPING OF CrossHEADS.—Shaping the broad sides of crossheads by planing is sufficiently
treated at pages 237 and 238, and it is now requisite to here mention their shaping on slotting-
machines.
The treatment of a crosshead previous to slotting resembles that which is adopted previous to
planing, the lining, turning of the pivot-ends, turning of the boss-faces, and turning of the arms,
narrow sides, being usually completed when the shaping of the broad sides is to be commenced.
It is not quite necessary to finish the hole in the centre boss, although it may be roughly bored,
nor to turn the boss-faces, until the broad sides are finished. But if the hole is entirely finished
before commencing the broad sides, the boss-faces must be also turned while the crosshead yet
remains on the same lathe or boring-machine that executed the boring of the hole. This must
be done to make the faces exactly right angular to the length of the hole, because when the hole
is finished and the arms require reducing, it must be done so that the length of the hole will be
parallel with the broad sides when produced, the result being obtained by placing the truly
formed boss-face into contact with the table-face, which puts the length of the hole right-angular,
as intended; whereas, if the broad sides are first reduced to the ultimate or specified
dimensions, the crosshead must be adjusted on the lathe with the broad sides parallel to the axis
of the lathe-spindle’s motion, that the hole may be made parallel with the broad sides, as
intended.
Reducing the broad sides of a crosshead with slotting-tools is very similar to that of a
connecting-bar or lever, with the addition of an extra amount of shaping in order to form the
curved junctions of the middle boss, and also the curved junctions with the pivot-portions or
ends. If the faces of the boss have been turned to the right-angular position with the hole referred
to, one of the faces is selected and put into contact with a parallel ring on the table, the ring
being thick enough to provide a space for the clearance of the tool, similar to that before
mentioned for other slotting. By placing the boss-face upon the ring, the length of the hole is
put exactly right-angular to the table, and therefore parallel with the direction of the cutting
tool’s motion, as required ; the same act also places the two arms of the crosshead equidistant
from the table-face, if they were equidistant from the lathe-chuck while the boss-face was being
turned; but because it may happen that they were not so, it is sometimes needful to apply a
scriber-block to the centre recesses in the extremities of the pivot-ends while the crosshead
remains on the packing-ring. This operation is also necessary in case some irregular or hollow
part of the table, in contact with the ring, causes the crosshead’s arms to be put out of
the parallel condition desired; consequently, if one centre recess is found by the scriber-block
to be nearer to the table than the recess at the opposite end, a piece of thin packing is put
beneath one edge of the boss-face. Such packing-up is, however, but rarely required, because
no great precision is requisite when the intention is merely to shape the broad sides.
After a crosshead is fixed right-angular to the table, it is adjusted to make its middle boss
concentric with the table’s rotary movement, because this movement is required to about half
rotate the crosshead and thus shape one side of the boss. The adjustment for this situation is
effected by reference to one of the circular gauge-lines, unless an arbor-chuck is used the stem
of which fits the hole in the boss, in which case the crosshead boss is put into the exact position
SHAPING, SLOTTING, AND LINING. 283
required by merely placing it upon the stem, in the same manner as that described for lever-
bosses (page 275).
While a crosshead is on the stem of an arbor-chuck, it can be swung around and either
broad side presented to the tool, the shaping of the straight parts of the arms and that of the
curved corners being executed with the same sorts of tools as those employed for levers and
bars. Each time a flat portion of a broad side is to be reduced, the crosshead requires adjusting
by one of the gauge-lines on its lathe-turned narrow side, or edge, as it is usually named. This
line is put parallel with the traverse, and the crosshead is then fixed until the shaping of the
surface is completed, which shaping is performed by the advancement of the crosshead by means
of the traverse screw. The cutting tools employed are the same as those for levers and
connecting-bars (Figs. 787, 793, 794, and 792).
SHaPine or Gars.—The gaps here treated are those belonging to levers, joint-rods, eccentric-
rods, connecting-rods, and other rods and bars in general. Some of these are forged with the
gaps roughly formed, but great numbers are forged without any gap and are made with solid
lumps at the ends, which are to have gaps formed therein while cold by means of machine pro-
cesses of various classes.
The entire number of the processes for shaping gaps while cold may be distinguished into
two sorts, which are drilling and slotting. Those rods, levers, and bars which are forged without
gaps are principally shaped with drilling, through the comparative large amount of metal to be
cut out. Articles in which the gaps are partly formed at the time of forging have them
completed principally with slotting, little or no drilling being done, because but little metal is to
be removed, and also because gaps cannot be drilled without additional pieces being fixed
therein.
The lining of a solid fork-lump in which a gap is to be formed is denoted by Figs. 805 and
811. The same lining suits a great variety of rods, bars, and levers, small and large, whether
they are to be shaped by hand-shaping or by machine-shaping. When the end is properly
lined the article is taken to a drilling-machine to have a hole made at the bottom of the intended
gap, and also, in some cases, two or three additional holes made along the gap. Ifa number of
holes are drilled, the superfluous metal which remains between the holes is easily removed
afterwards either with a shaping-machine or a slotting-machine. Slotting-tools may be used also
to cut out the entire gap-piece, if only one hole has been drilled, if the article in progress is
small. For large rods and bars a circular saw should be used, with which two slits are cut from
the extremities of the rods to the drilled holes, only one hole being made into each gap-piece
when sawing is to be done. This is a quick and easy process for the forming of gaps in large
numbers, nearly all of the superfluous gap-piece being removed in one lump, instead of in the
condition of shavings.
Solid gap-ends are drilled while bolted against an el-chuck, in the situation shown by the
small lever in Fig. 863. In this Figure an el-chuck is seen bolted to the circular table of the
drilling-machine, and to that face of the chuck which is at right-angles to the table, the article to
be drilled is bolted. Either one or both the bosses may be in contact with the chuck’s face,
according to the comparative length of the lever for the table and chuck. By the boss-faces being
thus parallel with the chuck, the operation of drilling will form a hole whose length is parallel
with the boss-faces, as required, because the downward vertical movement of the drill while
cutting, and the face of the chuck, are parallel with each other. Therefore if the boss-faces of the
object are truly turned, and the joint-pin holes also truly bored, previous to drilling the gap, the
boss-face must be put parallel with the chuck-face, in order to make the drilled hole for the gap
parallel with the boss-faces, and, consequently, right-angular to the length of the joint-pin holes,
which is necessary.
Levers, rods, and bars, of all sizes are drilled while bolted to el-chucks; but the modes of
fixing differ a little from each other through the different shapes and sizes of the articles to be
drilled. The solid gap-portions are often drilled previous to boring and turning the bosses, so
that it is not always needful to put the boss-faces into parellelism with the el-chuck’s face; in
202
284 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
many cases it is preferable to put the broad side of the flat mid-part or arm parallel with the
chuck ; and if the broad side is not close to the chuck-face the space is occupied by a parallel
packing-piece or pieces. If the rod or bar is thus fixed, the arm is adjusted to parallelism with
the chuck, and the boss is prevented from touching any part of the chuck by reason of the
packing ; the boss-face is therefore not parallel with the chuck-face, unless they happen to be
parallel with the arm’s broad side, which side is specially intended to be parallel.
Any lever or bar that has plenty of superfluous metal in the boss, and little or none in the
broad sides of the arm, requires placing to the chuck with the arm in contact or against parallel
pieces in order to cause the hole or holes to be drilled parallel with the broad side, and not
necessarily parallel with the boss-faces. These faces having plenty of metal can be reduced after
the drilling of the gap is finished, and can then be made parallel, both to the drilled gap and the
mid-part or arm’s broad side. But if the boss has the least amount of metal to be cut off, the
object is fixed with regard to the boss instead of the arm.
A lever which has both its bosses truly faced, when to be drilled, is fixed with one or both
of its bosses in contact with the chuck. When both bosses are of the same length the two faces
are put close to the chuck; but when one boss is shorter than the other, a parallel ring, or
parallel blocks are put between the face of the chuck and the face of the boss which is the
shorter. During the fixing of such a lever it is therefore necessary to first tightly bolt the
longest boss to the chuck in order to see exactly what thickness of packing is required to occupy
the space between the face of the short boss and the chuck’s face. By tightly screwing the
fixing bolts which are holding the longer boss, the shorter one is forced into parellelism with the
chuck, and also forced to the proper distance from it. Consequently the exact thickness of
packing necessary is now shown by the space referred to.
The direction in which a gap extends into a rod or bar, must be parallel with the length of
the rod or bar ; for which, an adjustment is required previous to drilling, if the gap to be made is
of comparative great length, and several holes are to be drilled in line with each other. This
adjustment consists in placing the bottom edge of the chuck’s face parallel with the traversing
movement of the slide belonging to the machine-table. If the chuck is thus placed with the
object properly bolted thereon, the object can be easily moved in the exact direction required
during the drilling, in order to cause the holes to be made in line with the length of the piece
as required. After the rod and chuck are at first correctly fastened and adjusted, and one hole
bored, it is only necessary to advance the table and chuck a short distance by rotating the
traverse screw in order to place the gap-end exactly into the required situation for another hole
to be made. This hole being formed, the table is again advanced as before to make another
hole, this gradual shifting being continued till all are made.
A drilling-machine which is not provided with slide-rest movements, which is the condition
of the one shown by Fig. 863, requires the el-chuck to be shifted after each hole is made, instead
of shifting the table and chuck at one time with a sliding apparatus. Every time a new hole is
to be drilled with such a machine, the gap-end must be re-adjusted to place it-into the required
position ; and to facilitate the adjustments after each shifting, the table should be provided with
parallel straight lines. One of these lines is selected to which the bottom-edge of the chuck’s face
may be put parallel; and if it is thus situated, the line constitutes a sort of standard to which the
bottom-edge will be again adjusted after being shifted. After one hole is drilled in the gap-end,
the bolts which hold the chuck to the table are loosened, and the chuck is slid along the table in
a direction which is parallel with the gauge-line ; and when moved a proper distance for the next
hole, it is again fastened by tightening the bolts, and the hole is next made. A drilling-table
which is devoid of lines, or which may have lines too far from each other, may be specially
marked for the occasion with a scriber. This marking is done after the el-chuck is first properly
fixed for drilling one hole, at which time a line is scribed upon the table parallel to, and very
near to, the bottom-edge of the chuck’s face.
SHAPING OF Gaps By SHAPING AND Stotrinc.—If a lever or rod is forged with the gap
roughly formed in its fork-end, the gap-sides and bottom are afterwards entirely shaped with a
SHAPING, SLOTTING, AND LINING. 285
shaping-machine, or with a slotting-machine; unless the depth or extent of the gap in the
direction of the rod’s length is much less than it should be. If too shallow, enough metal may
exist at the bottom of the gap to constitute a proper bearing on which the point of a drill will
rotate. When such an amount of metal does exist it should be removed by drilling, because
it is the quickest process. After a superfluous piece of this sort has been cut out, the gap is
formed to about the same shape it would have had at the conclusion of its forging, if the smith
had enlarged it with punching and chiselling while on the anvil.
As soon as the gaps in rods or other articles are roughly made, either by forging, by drilling,
or by forging and drilling combined, the various articles are ready for an accurate shaping to
finish the gap-surfaces. The operations for these purposes include shaping with to-and-fro
shapers, with planing-machines, with slotting-machines, and with drilling-rods connected to
.drilling-machines. In this place, it is, however, only requisite to mention the shaping and slotting
processes.
A small short lever or connecting-bar which is now ready for having its gap finally shaped,
can be fixed to an el-chuck which is bolted to the face of a shaping-table, the broad side of the
object being put parallel with the direction of the shaping tool’s motion. This being the position,
it is of course requisite to put the chuck’s face parallel with the tool’s motion, because the broad
side is parallel with the same face. Sometimes an el-chuck can be dispensed with; this is the
case when the machine is provided with a chambered table, which is a table having, in addition
to the usual upper table-face, another face or faces at right-angles to the upper one, the plane of
the upper one being horizontal, and the planes of the others, therefore, vertical. These latter
ones are also right-angular to the machine-front, which may be perceived by referring to
Fig. 833, in which chambered tables are represented.
To one of these side-surfaces at right-angles to the machine-front, or bracket-surfaces as they
are sometimes named, the broad side of a lever or bar can be bolted, and the desired position of it
is obtained as easily as if it were against a separate el-chuck on the table. A bar thus attached
can extend downwards to the floor, consequently, the greater the height of the table above the
floor, the greater is the room allowed for the lengths of whatever objects may be fixed. If it
happens that a number of rods or bars require their gaps to be shaped with a machine whose
table is not high enough, the remedy is to cut a hole into the floor at the proper place for the
work, or to dig a hole into the ground if the machine is on the ground-floor.
In order that the bottom of the gap when shaped may be at right-angles to the length of
the rod, the centre length of the rod must be adjusted to a right-angular position with the
cutting tool’s motion, which position is vertical, if the machine is fixed as it should be. This
adjustment is effected after the rod is fastened with its broad side in contact with the chuck, or
with the side-surface of the table, as directed, although the holding bolts are not tightened. In
this condition the rod can be easily moved with a few blows of a tin hammer, until the rod’s
centre length is put into the right-angular position required. During the adjustment, one of the
straight gauge-lines on the table’s side-surface should be used, to which line the primary centre
line along the rod is made parallel. Gauge-lines of this species are shown marked according to
the author's method on the side-surfaces of the tables seen in Fig. 833.
When the length of the bar is correctly placed, and the broad side of it also correctly
placed, the adjustment for positions is complete; and it is only necessary to raise or lower the
bar to the desired height, by rotating the screws with which the table is furnished. The vertical
traverse of the slide-rest is next adjusted, to put it exactly right-angular, if it has been recently
inclined for some purpose; and the tool is fixed in the clamps. This being done, the to-and-fro
motion of the tool is put into action, and also the downward vertical traverse of the rest. These
two motions suffice to advance the tool correctly down in a direction of parallelism with the
broad side and centre length of the bar, because its length was adjusted to a vertical position, and
its broad side to right-angles with the machine-front, previous to commencing the shaping.
The cutting tools required to remove the metal are grooving tools and corner tools. These
are of various sizes at their cutting parts, to suit large gaps and small ones. The corner tools,
286 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
having bent ends, are used to shape the two sides of the gap; a right-hand corner tool and a
left-hand one being both required for one gap. The bottom of the gap is shaped with a
groover having a curved cutting edge, because the bottom is curved, for both strength and
pleasing appearance. To smooth the surfaces, soapy water is applied during the finishing cuts;
and to make the gap to specified dimensions, or to make it fit the portion with which it is
destined to act, accurate measurements must be conducted, either with callipers or sheet gauges,
for the uses of which refer to page 227.
SLOTTING oF Gaps.—In order to finally shape the gap-surfaces of a bar on a slotting-machine,
to cause the depth of the gap to be parallel with the bar’s length, and the broad sides of the gap
to be parallel with the broad sides of the bar, as intended, it is necessary so to place it upon the
slotting-table that it shall occupy a position exactly at right-angles to the position it would
occupy if it were to be shaped on a shaper. On a slotter the centre length of the bar is
horizontal, because the motion of the slotting-tool is vertical, and the narrow side of the bar is
also horizontal and upwards; consequently, the vertical motion of the tool while cutting will form
the gap parallel with the bar’s broad side, and right-angular to the centre length.
The apparatus required for fixing the rod or bar to a slotting-table is the same as that used
for drilling-tables and shaping-tables, consisting of an el-chuck, screw-bolts, and plates. The
chuck should be adjusted to a straight line on the table, to cause the chuck’s face to be parallel
with the sliding motion of the slide-rest, for the purpose of using this same sliding movement to
advance the lever in the direction of its length, the lever being attached to the chuck. As soon
as the chuck is adjusted and fixed, the bar, or other article having the gap which is to be
shaped, is bolted to the chuck’s face with the length of the article parallel with the face of the
slotting-table, the broad side of the bar being parallel with the chuck. Between the under side
of the bar and the table-face, a space is allowed, in which the slotting-tool may disengage from
the metal at the end of each cut. For a comparative small or short bar this space is not required,
because the gap-portion of such a piece can be put a short distance beyond the table’s edge ;
and, consequently, will cause the slotting tool to be also beyond the table’s edge, instead of being
over it. To adjust the centre length of the bar to parallelism with the table a scriber-block is
stood upon the table, and the scriber-point is adjusted to one end of the centre line on the bar’s
broad side; the block is next removed to the opposite end of the line, at which place the
scriber-point will show whether this end of the line is at the same height as the other end; if
not, a few blows of a tin hammer are given to the highest end, and the scriber-point again
referred to.
Placing the bar or rod parallel with the slotting-table completes the adjustment for
positions. By the el-chuck having been at first bolted in the proper situation parallel with the
traverse which will advance the bar in the direction of its length, and by the bar being next
adjusted against the chuck-face, only one other shifting is now required to put the object into a
proper place for commencing the cutting. This shifting is partly effected with the traverse of
the slide to which the bar’s length is parallel, and is that which is at right-angles to the
machine-front. By rotating the screw of this traverse the lever or bar is of course advanced
endways to the tool, and away from it, when requisite. The other traverse screw, which is
parallel to the machine-front, is also rotated; consequently, the bar is easily and rapidly moved
i two directions to place the gap exactly under the slotting-tool, but without altering the
relative positions of the bar, chuck, and slotting-table, which are bolted to each other.
The slotting-tools used for shaping a gap, are those having slotted stocks, which are represented
by Figs. 786, 787, 788, and 792. The cutters that are keyed in the slots, are, for small gaps,
similar to the one keyed in Fig. 786, which projects beyond the side of the stock a sufficient
distance to prevent it touching the gap side during the cutting. A small gap may be also shaped
with a cutter like the one in Fig. 795, which is provided with two cutting edges. This tool can
be used so that one or both the edges may, with proper management, be made to cut at one
time, thereby shaping both sides of the gap at one time. Large gaps, of six, eight, or ten inches
inwidth or depth, require longer cutters, similar to those seen in Figs. 787, 788, and 792. The.
SHAPING, SLOTTING, AND LINING. 287
cutting ends of these for large gaps, are bent to form corner tools, both left and right, a nee
hand one and a left-hand one being both required for one gap. The solid tools shown by Figs.
793 and 794 also are used for shaping large gaps, and when employed for this purpose, are
furnished with ends which are bent to suit either side of the gap; consequently, they are then
ee tools and left-hand ones, but each one is in one piece with the stock, instead of being
istinct.
Saapinc TrrTa or WHEeELs By Pianinc.—A planing-machine may be often used for teeth-
shaping ; although other processes, which are to be given, are preferable for shaping considerable
quantities.
The operations here given are suited to wheels which are to be made of circular plates or
discs, which are lined on their broad sides to show the exact shapes and dimensions of their
respective teeth ; such lining being necessary because no special dividing apparatus is to be used.
The operations therefore suit those who do not possess the dividing apparatus referred to.
The simplest mode of planing wheel-teeth consists in fixing the wheel to an el-chuck on the
machine-table, and cutting out the metal with grooving tools of proper shapes and sizes while
the wheel is moved to and fro with the table. In Fig. 864 a small wheel is seen fixed for this
purpose, one broad side being in contact with or parallel with, the chuck’s face. A wheel thus
situated usually requires parallel packing between the chuck and the wheel's side, because the
ends of the boss project beyond the side, and must be prevented from touching the chuck. The
packing is, therefore, thick enough to keep the boss-face a short distance from the chuck when
the wheel is bolted in its place. If a number of wheels of similar sizes are to be planed, the
packing should consist of a ring, because it is easily kept in its place and constitutes a broad
bearing-surface for contact with the wheel. The substitute for a ring is a couple of parallel
blocks, one at each side of the boss.
Any wheel which is attached to an el-chuck in this simple manner will have its teeth formed
parallel with the axis of the wheel’s rotation, as required; but it requires a tedious shifting and
re-adjustment, which must be performed the same number of times as the number of teeth
formed on the wheel. And because no means are provided in such an arrangement for rapidly
effecting the several adjustments, the method is especially applicable in cases of emergency, or
when only a few wheels of unusual shapes and sizes are to be planed.
For planing wheels in considerable quantities, an arbor-chuck is necessary. A chuck of
this class for wheel-planing is much like the author’s arbor-chuck which was mentioned for boss-
shaping, with a difference of relative position between the two chucks while in use. On a
planing-machine the arbor’s axis of rotation is horizontal, instead of vertical, as while on a
slotting-machine. The base or flange of the arbor-chuck is bolted in contact with the face of an
el-chuck, which face is right-angular to the table and in the same position as the el-chuck shown
in Fig. 864, although this is without an arbor-chuck. The stem or pivot of the chuck is
therefore at right-angles to the el-chuck in whatever relative position it may be to the planing-
table. Consequently, if the el-chuck is at first accurately fixed, the act of fixing the arbor-chuck
puts it into the desired position without further treatment.
The broad sides of the wheel-teeth to be now made require to be right-angular to the
broad sides of the wheel, and consequently, parallel with the axis of rotation; and to cause the
planing tools to produce the teeth in this position, the bottom edge of the el-chuck’s face must
be adjusted to right-angles with the planing-table’s motion. This condition is known by the
edge of the chuck being parallel to one of the short gauge-lines on the planing-table ; and as soon
as thus adjusted, the arbor-chuck can be attached, and a wheel placed upon the arbor. Any
wheel thus situated, is caused to immediately assume the proper position, by reason of the pivot
properly fitting the hole in the wheel. Every wheel which is to be thus shaped by planing,
should have had its hole in the boss accurately bored, and its faces truly turned to make them
right-angular to the length of the hole. The broad sides also require turning, to make them
parallel with the boss-faces ; and when it is not convenient to turn the entire broad side, a portion
at the rim must be turned, because it is imperative that a truly formed broad surface at right-
288 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
angles to the axis of the hole shall exist, and be put into exact parallelism with the el-chuck’s
face, either in contact with the flange of the arbor-chuck or in contact with parallel packing,
according to circumstances. It is highly necessary that the broad side of the wheel shall be
accurately turned, in case of a slight looseness existing between the arbor and the sides of the
boss-hole ; this would allow the rim of the wheel to deviate considerably from its proper position
when it was tightened with the fixing bolts, if the broad side in contact were not correct; but a
small quantity of room in the hole sideways is not detrimental if the wheel’s side is accurate,
because the tightening of the holding bolts maintains the required parallelism with the el-chuck.
With a wheel whose broad side bears exactly as it should, after being fastened, the only
deviation of the rim from its proper position, which will occur through a little room around the
pivot, will be in the direction of the wheel’s diameter, and not in the direction of its thickness.
Such deviation merely causes the bottoms of the teeth-gaps to be either deeper than, or not so
deep as, they should be; but does not prevent all the broad sides or contact-sides, of the teeth,
being planed exactly right-angular to the broad sides of the wheel, which is to be done.
In addition to the method of planing teeth by using arbor-chucks, another of the author's
plans for teeth-planing may be mentioned, and consists in attaching the wheels to the el-chuck
without using either parallel packing-pieces or arbor-chucks. By this mode the boss of the
wheel to be planed is put into a hole in the chuck instead of being put into an arbor, or by other
means kept at a distance in front of the chuck’s face. The hole in the chuck is circular, and
may be large enough to admit bosses of several sizes; or it may be specially bored to suit bosses
of only one size, when it happens that a quantity of wheels having bosses of one size are to be!
planed. The sort of el-chuck used for this purpose, should be one of considerable length, to!
allow several holes to be bored side by side, and of different diameters to suit the bosses to be put
therein. By means of this chuck, the broad side of the wheel is put into close contact with the,
chuck’s face, however long the boss may be, without requiring any packing, because the boss-:
end extends along the hole in the chuck to any desired distance, nothing being in the way to
prevent it. Ifa hole is specially provided for a number of wheels which are alike, the boss-ends
of every wheel should be lathe-turned to the same diameter, which diameter is that of the hole,
a minute amount of looseness being allowed for an easy rotation and placing of the boss into and
out of the hole. A hole to be thus used must be bored exactly right-angular to the chuck-face,
that the wheel’s broad side may not be made to bear unequally upon the chuck when the wheel-
boss is in the hole. When a wheel is thus arranged, and loosely bolted to the chuck, its
adjustment is easy when compared with that of a wheel which is fixed on packing-pieces,
although more tedious than that of a wheel on an arbor-chuck.
As soon as an arbor-chuck is properly fixed, and a wheel slid thereon, all the adjustments
for positions required previous to planing are completed excepting one. This adjustment con+
sists in rotating the wheel on the pivot a short distance, in order to place the centre line of one
of the intended teeth-gaps exactly right-angular to the table. In this position the wheel is to
remain during planing; it is therefore next firmly fastened to the chuck, and is then ready for
the cutting out. __
A small wheel of a few inches in diameter can have its teeth entirely formed with the
grooving tools of the planing-machine, without any preliminary drilling; but a wheel of six or
eight inches in diameter, or any larger size, should be drilled previous to planing, a hole being
made at the bottom of each intended gap. In some cases, two holes can be drilled for each gap,
one hole being made at the extremities of the intended teeth. If such holes are carefully drilled
to the scribed line on the wheel’s broad sides, the bottoms of all the gaps will, by drilling, be
correctly shaped; such a half-round form being suitable for many classes of wheels; conse-
quently, no subsequent shaping of the bottoms by planing is necessary. Such drilling also suits
wheel-teeth of any form, because, whatever special shape may be intended, can be produced
afterwards by planing, when drilling has been adopted for partly obtaining the required form.
Whenever it is convenient, drilling the gaps should be resorted to, because it is the quickest of all
processes for removing metal in such places.
SHAPING, SLOTTING, AND LINING. 289
To commence the planing of a wheel which is not drilled, the vertical traverse of the slide-
rest is adjusted to right-angles with the table, and a grooving tool having either a curved cutting
edge or a straight one, is first used. The cutting edge must not be any longer than the desired
distance between any two teeth at the bottom of the gap; although the edge may be, and
usually is, rather shorter. This tool is advanced down to the bottom of every gap of the wheel
previous to using any other tool. It is therefore necessary to loosen the fastening bolts, rotate
the wheel a short distance, and again fix it, as many times as the number of gaps, the entire
rotation of it being effected while the grooving tool remains as it was when first fixed in the
clamps ; unless it required taking out through being broken, or to be sharpened. By the time
one rotation is completed, all the teeth-gaps are formed in the proper places, if the wheel were
accurately adjusted by the centre line of each gap; but all the gaps are parallel, and are there-
fore of a shape which is different to that indicated by the lines on the broad sides. The shaping
is consequently continued with other tools, and additional rotations of the wheel. When the
work is well managed, and the tools good, two more rotations will suffice to complete the teeth ;
a corner tool, and sometimes also a tool with concave edge for the curved broad sides, being
used for each rotation. These final shaping operations for changing the original parallel shapes
of the gaps when first made, must be done while the slide-rest, and consequently, the tool also,
is inclined at a proper angle to the planing-table, in order that the advancements of the tool
downwards may widen the mouth of each gap and produce the taper form intended.
There are two modes by which the tapering of the gaps may be executed. One of these
requires the slide-rest to be inclined and fixed twice at one fixing of the wheel; and the other
mode requires it to be inclined only once. If the rest is adjusted twice, the two sides of each
gap are finished at one fixing of the wheel; but if the slide-rest is adjusted or inclined only
once, only one side of the gap can be finished at one fixing. This mode being adopted, renders
it necessary to gradually shift the wheel tooth by tooth, until a complete rotation is effected,
during which every tooth is shaped on one side only, and while the slide-rest remains the whole
time in one position. When one side of each tooth is thus treated, the wheel is entirely
removed from the arbor-chuck and reversed, now placing to the flange that broad side of the
wheel which was previously outwards. When reversed it is again fixed, and gradually rotated,
to shape all those sides of the teeth that were not shaped during the previous rotation. At the
shaping of the second lot of sides the slide-rest remains in the same inclined position it had
before, because the wheel is adjusted each time by the centre line of each gap being put right-
angular to the table, as directed. Generally speaking, it may be said, that all small wheels
should be shaped by reversing the wheel side for side, and with only one fixing of the slide-rest;
and that all large wheels which are troublesome to move about through deficient lifting
apparatus, and other causes, should be shaped without reversing the broad sides, and with the
rest adjusted in two positions inclined to the table, and also inclined towards each other.
Planing the teeth of a wheel which has been previously drilled at the bottom of each
intended gap can be entirely executed with the slide-rest inclined in the two positions referred. to,
without requiring the downward traverse of the slide-rest in a vertical direction at any time
during such shaping. While a wheel which is drilled is on the arbor-chuck and properly fixed
with the centre line of a gap right-angular to the table, the oblique traverse of the rest will
advance a tool down to the drilled hole with great facility, because it is not necessary to advance
the tool-point to the bottom of the gap, this part being already shaped by the drilling. When
one side of the gap has been formed with the oblique traverse of the rest in one position, the
rest is next shifted and fixed for shaping the opposite side of the gap, being now inclined at the
same angle as while shaping the first side, but now at the opposite side of the tooth-gap’s centre
line. It may by this be seen that the entire superfluous gap-portion can be removed by the two
oblique traverses referred to, without any vertical traverse, as before stated. This mode of
cutting out will be found a very easy means of forming the teeth-gaps of large wheels having
wide gaps, because a wide gap will allow almost the entire gap-portion to be removed in one
lump. This can be done by using a narrow grooving tool and advancing it down with the two
2P
290 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR,
oblique traverses; which of course will form the superfluous piece into a wedge-shaped lump,
because the directions of the two traverses are inclined towards each other, the lump being
completely detached as soon as the two narrow grooves made with the tool have extended to the
drilled hole.
When the gap-piece has been removed, the roughly shaped sides are next carefully finished
to the desired form ; for which process tools: having broad cutting edges are employed ; these,
and also springy tools, should be used for this finishing, whenever the particular wheel in
process possesses comparative great strength to sustain the strain imposed by the broad edges
referred to. A careful finishing is always necessary, to avoid a subsequent filing.
It may be here stated that teeth-shaping by planing-machines much resembles that executed
by shaping-machines, the el-chucks and arbor-chucks being used in about the same way for either
class of machines ; the only difference consisting in using shaping-machines for comparative small
wheels, and using planing-machines for large ones.
SHapine or AncuLAR Hoitxes.—Angular holes are those of which the across sections and
entrances possess angular boundaries. The boundary of a hole’s entrance may be either
rectangular, hexangular, octangular, or of some other angular form, the precise form of the
boundary depending on the number and shapes of the hole’s sides. Ifa straight hole in one end
of a connecting-rod is hexagonal or hexangular along the entire length of the hole, it is said to
be a six-sided hole, and possesses six sides or planes. Previous to a correct filing or other
paring process these six planes are hidden by the rough exterior metal; and the methods for
producing and exhibiting these planes are among the processes here given.
The portions of engines and machines which require angular holes are the ends of
slide-rods, coupling-rods, connecting-bars, connecting-rods, and side-rods. The mid parts of a
few classes of slide-rods also require angular holes, and the holes in these pieces are usually of a
rectangular section, some being square and others oblong. A middle portion of this class is
shown by Fig. 890. All angular holes in boss-portions are required for nearly the same
purposes, being employed to contain bearer-brasses or friction-blocks, and prevent their rotation
by reason of the angular surfaces of the brasses and blocks being made to fit the angular
boundaries of the holes.
The paring processes which are adopted for producing angular holes include drilling,
shaping, planing, and slotting. If drilling is employed, it serves as a species of preliminary
process for commencing a hole, or originating a hole where none exists; consequently, drilling
is the means of roughly making holes into solid ends of rods and bars, which were forged in
this condition instead of having their square or six-sided holes partly shaped by punching and
drifting while on the anvil, according to the processes for drifting mentioned in page 80. The
shaping, planing, and slotting of angular holes always serve as processes for finishing them after
they have been roughly made, either by casting, forging, drilling, or by forging and drilling
combined.
The lining which is performed previous to the formation of angular holes, is required to
indicate the boundaries of their entrances, and is about the same, and is executed by about the
same means, whether the pieces lined have holes or are without them. An end of a rod or bar
is prepared for lining by means of planing, or by lathe-turning, according to convenience; and
both sides or surfaces of the part in which the hole is to terminate are planed, and also made
parallel to each other. Substitutes for these planing processes may be mentioned, which consist
of grinding the two sides with a grindstone, and of filmg them while the article is held in a vice.
When an end of a connecting-rod or coupling-rod has been flattened by one of these preparatory
processes, the piece is in a condition to be easily lined, and also to be accurately fixed after lining,
in order to be drilled or slotted. .
Angular holes in the boss-ends of: rods and bars are slotted after the other portions of the
pieces have been smoothly reduced to the finished dimensions and shapes intended, by means of
iathe-turning and planing; and the flat surfaces of the boss-portions, which are lined to show the
desired shapes of the holes, are produced exactly in their proper places and positions with regard
SHAPING, SLOTTING, AND LINING. 291
to the other portions of the objects. These flat surfaces of any rod or bar must be accurately
formed parallel with the rod or bar's centre length; because, to these, considered as bases or
primary planes, the planes which will constitute the boundaries of the hole must be made
right-angular. In an end-boss of a connecting-rod the centre line extending along the length of
the hole through the boss must be right-angular to the centre length of the entire rod, because it
is intended to be connected with its pivot-pin or joint-pin at one end, and with the crank-pin at
the other end; of which two portions the axes of rotation are right-angular to the rod’s length,
and parallel with each other. This being the ordinary arrangement also for a great number of
bars, levers, joint-rods, and other portions, it is necessary to plane and line the boss-faces of all
such articles with regard to one general method, whether the holes are to be square, hexangular,
octangular, circular, or oval; and whether they are to be parallel along the lengths of the holes,
or rather taper. The taper form is preferable for the greater number, which will be shown as
we proceed. “3
In order that the hole in any end-boss of a rod may be centrally located, it is only necessary
to shape the hole with regard to the gauge-lines on the flat surfaces referred to, which are the
boss-faces, and are the top surfaces in the Figs. 890, 891, and 892. The lines on these faces are
marked from the primary centre lines which extend, or would extend if continued, along the
entire lengths of the respective rods. Two such centre lines are used for every boss, one line
being on each face, consequently, across each of the two entrances, or intended entrances,
belonging to the hole. A primary line of this character is seen in Fig. 893, extending along an
ender to the end of the boss. The ender is required to show the centre dot, whenever a boss is
to be lined in which the hole is already forged; but a boss without a hole is lined from the
centre dot, which is situated on the superfluous metal to be drilled out. From the dot circles
are scribed to indicate the size of hole intended, after which the exact angular form for the hole
is marked with a straight-edge and scriber. This marking will denote the shape, and also show
the quantity of superfluous metal to be cut out, whether equally or unequally around the hole.
It is not quite necessary to mark both ends of the hole, although it is sometimes done; the
marking on one boss-face is quite sufficient for all the drilling and slotting that may be required,
the lines on both faces being used only during a final filing of the hole to the exact form. It
may be perceived that by reason of the two boss-faces being parallel with the machine-table, the
one adjustment of the boss by the gauge-lines on the upper face must at the same time adjust the
lower face, and therefore cause the hole to be drilled and slotted in the exact right-angular
position desired.
Adjusting the rod or bar for drilling consists in placing the planed boss-end upon a parallel
ring or parallel block situate on a drilling-table, as seen in Figs. 886, 887, or 897, such packing
being necessary to keep the boss high enough above the table to prevent contact with the drill-
point. While the boss thus remains it is adjusted to place it exactly beneath the drill for one of
the holes to be drilled; or if only one hole is to be drilled, the dot showing the centre is placed
accordingly. Adjusting an article for drilling should always be performed by rotating the drill
and observing the dot which shows the centre of the hole to be drilled. If the point of a drill
which is fastened in the machine-spindle, and the axis of the spindle’s rotation were exactly in
the same straight line, the centre of the hole to be made could be put directly under the drill-
point while it is at rest, and the adjustment would by the same act be completed; but because
the drill and the spindle’s axis do not coincide with each other, it is necessary to put the machine
into action when the drill is tightly fastened, and then gradually shift the object beneath until
near enough to easily observe the relative situations of the drill and dot. During this observation
the drill-point will be seen to move in the path of a small circle’s circumference, which may be
only an eighth or a quarter of an inch in diameter, the size depending on the care with which
the drill was made and straightened. The diameter is seldom less than an eighth of an inch;
but, whether larger or smaller, the centre of the circle traversed by the point is the exact place
in which the centre of the hole to be made must be put. The article is known to be properly
situated when the drill-point travels in the ae 23 a circumference whose centre is exactly over
P
292 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
the centre-dot of the hole to be drilled; consequently, the article must be gradually shifted to
the place either with a tin hammer, with the screws of the poppets that hold the article, or with
the traverse-screws, if the table is provided with them, To enable the operator to see plainly
when the work is adjusted, the drill-point is allowed to be as near as possible to the piece without
touching it.
Circular gauge-lines marked on a drilling-table are also useful for adjusting. These lines
resemble gauge-lines on a slott-table, being concentric with each other, and with the centre of
the table, as indicated by Fig. 899. They are only serviceable for adjustment when the centre
of the drilling table is exactly beneath the axis of the drill’s motion; consequently, a table which
slides to and fro on vee-slides, or dove-tail slides, must be moved until the gauge-lines are
concentric with the drill asrequired. This position is known by marks or dots, and when properly,
placed, any one of the gauge-circles may be selected and considered a standard ring in the centre.
of which the hole to be drilled shall be located when adjusted. Some drilling-machines are
provided with tables which are fixed, therefore the gauge-circles of these are at all times
available for adjustment. Such a table may also have a circular hole truly bored at the middle,
in which packing-rings having holes of different diameters may be placed. Upon a ring of this
class, a boss-end to be drilled can be fixed, if small; but if too large for a ring the boss-face can
be put into contact with straight parallel blocks, which are put at any desired distance from the
centre, to suit the diameter of the piece to be drilled. In some cases the parallel packing
beneath the piece can be entirely dispensed with, the hole in the middle of the table being deep
enough and wide enough. to provide ample room for the drill-point to disengage from the metal
at the conclusion of drilling.
Although an end of a rod or bar can be adjusted with a tolerable approach to precision by
means of these circular lines, it is always proper to adjust the object by observing the rotation
of the drill-point, in case any irregularity or wear of surfaces prevents the gauge-circles being
concentric with the drill-spindle as required. As soon as the piece is correctly placed beneath
the drill by some means, it is also in a suitable position for causing the hole to be drilled in the
desired right-angular position with the length of the rod and with the two planed boss-faces,
because these are put square to the drill either by means of the parallel ring, parallel blocks,
or the surface of the drilling-table. The correct placing of the piece being now effected, it is
next finally tightly fastened, and the drill-point is put into the centre-dot for commencing the
drilling. Ifit happens that the drill has been carefully straightened, the point will properly
enter the dot without any guiding; but it usually requires guiding into the dot by being pushed
sideways with a lever at the moment the point is caused to touch the metal. The distance which
the points is thus moved sideways, is exactly half the diameter of the small circle in which the
point rotates while free from the metal, as when it was referred to for adjusting the piece of
work ; therefore, if the circular path is a quarter of an inch in diameter, the drill-point is
moved an eighth of inch, by which movement it is put exactly into line with the hole to be made,
and also with the drill-spindle’s axis. In this condition the drill is maintained by its continual
contact with the metal during drilling, because the rod or bar is tightly bolted to the table, and
because the drill is flexible enough to allow the necessary straightening while it rotates. During
the drilling, the drill-points continues in very nearly the same relative position into which it was
first pushed, unless it gets out at the beginning of the drilling ; to remedy which a gouge-chisel
is used to again put the point to its proper place. The use of a chisel for this purpose is
mentioned in page 144.
The drilling of a boss-portion is executed with care to allow sufficient metal for a subsequent
slotting of the hole to the finished dimensions; therefore, the drill is not allowed to obliterate
any of the gauge-lines on the face, but is caused to cut as near as possible to them, that but little
‘slotting may be afterwards necessary. If a hole several inches in width is to be made, a compa-
ratively small drill should be used, with which a number of small holes may be made near the
gauge-lines in order to remove most of the superfluous piece in one lump.
Holes that are partly formed by forging, are entirely machined by slotting, whether little
SHAPING, SLOTTING, AND LINING, 293
or much metal is to be removed, because such holes do not furnish any metal for bearings on
which a drill-point could rotate. To properly place a boss-end upon a slotting-table, the same
means are adopted as for drilling, one boss-face being put upon a parallel ring or packing-pieces
to maintain the boss at a suitable height for the clearance of the tool. The downward vertical
motion of a slotting-tool is analogous to the vertical motion of a drill; therefore the parallel
blocks will cause the hole to be slotted in the desired right-angular position.
A rod or bar which is to have its boss slotted for an angular hole, may be so situated on
the table that the rod’s length is parallel with the slide-rest traverse which is parallel with the
machine-front ; by this traverse, the rod will in due course be moved in the direction of its length ;
and such movement will shape a plane of the hole which is parallel with the rod’s length. It
will be perceived that the boss should be situated at the middle of the table, because a gradual
rotation of the table is necessary. It is presumed that a boss is to have an octangular hole,
requiring eight planes to be produced as boundaries of the hole when finished. Such a hole can
be shaped by a gradual rotation of the boss, the movement being much like the rotation of a
lever-boss which is having its cylindrical outside shaped. But instead of rotating it during the
entire process of cutting, it is only shifted each time one of the eight planes is to be commenced,
the table and piece at this time being moved an eighth part of a rotation. This gradual move-
ment will cause the hole to have the shape of a regular octagon, and will cause each plane to be
of the same width as any other belonging to the hole. If the boss were rotated a sixth part of a
rotation each time, the entrances of the hole when complete would have a hexagonal form; or,
if moved a third part, the entrances would be triangular. It may therefore be seen that if the boss
of a rod is in the middle of the table-face and concentric with the axis of rotation, a regularly
formed hole having either three, six, eight, or any desired number of planes, may be accurately
formed, and all the planes of the holes will be of the same width. ;
But angular holes which are of regular hexagonal or octagonal forms, are seldom required
for boss-portions of rods and bars; nearly all are oblong, the greatest length of the hole being in
the length of the rod or bar to which the hole belongs. Consequently, a regular gradual rotation
of the table and boss at only one adjustment of the slide-rest, will not produce the shape desired ;
and, in addition to fixing the boss in the middle of the table-face, it needs an additional
adjustment by the traverse-screws, every time the table is moved the sixth, eighth, or other
‘portion of its rotation. For these adjustments the tool-scriber can be used, the point of which
‘will indicate the exact situation of the object beneath by observing its gauge-line; and after the
boss has been shifted by partly rotating it, in order to commence a plane, the traverse screws of
‘the rest are caused to slowly adjust the boss until the gauge-line is seen to be in the proper
place. In this condition the table is now fixed, to prevent further rotation till the plane is
produced, and another one to be commenced, Every adjustment of the article for commencing
‘a plane, causes the hidden plane to be placed parallel with the machine-front, and therefore
parallel with the traverse which moves parallel to the front, as directed; and to allow room for
‘the backward retreating motion of the tool from the metal during the upward travel, the plane
surface being formed is always between the tool and the machine-front, and not between the tool
and the main-standard. Consequently, shifting the boss by rotating the table an eighth of a
‘rotation, puts each one of the planes successively into the same condition of parallelism with the
“machine-front, and also into very nearly the same place beneath the tool, the small additional
adjustment that was said to be needful, being performed with the traverse.
The slotting-tools suitable for planing the boundaries of an angular hole, are corner tools,
vee-point tools, groovers, and mortisers. The tool first used is either a mortiser similar to
Fig. 791, or a groover with a curved cutting edge resembling Fig. 782. It is specially necessary
to first employ a groover where a comparative large quantity of metal is to be cut out. The
-groover is made to enter the metal at each corner of the hole, which is the junction of each two
contiguous planes. At every corner the tool is caused to form a groove which shall extend into
‘the metal as far as the gauge-lines that exist at that corner; so that if three-eighths of metal is
‘to be removed from that corner, the groove will be three-eighths deep. If the edge of the tool is
294 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
curved the corner will be curved, and this shape is preferable to a sharp angular form, to avoid
weakening the boss or whatever article may be in progress. Eight grooves are therefore made
for an octangular hole, each one requiring the table to be partly rotated and adjusted. By this
grooving, if carefully done, all the eight junctions of the planes belonging to an octangular hole,
may be finished, because the metal can be removed as far as the gauge-lines which show the
specified dimensions. This treatment also forms eight superfluous projections, one on each of
the eight hidden planes to be produced. To remove these portions, an ordinary vee-point tool,
similar to Fig. 787 or 794, can be used. Such a tool will operate effectually after grooving,
because it is not required to cut at any junction, the vee-point being suited for traversing flat
surfaces; whereas, if it were used to commence these surfaces previous to grooving the corners,
the sides belonging to the thick part of the tool-point would greatly hinder the cutting, through
coming into contact with the metal at the corners. A vee-tool may, however, be used for
commencing, when ouly a very small quantity of metal is to be cut out; in which case, the vee-
tool is caused to first remove the metal from the plane, without removing any from the corners ;
these are left untouched, and after the plane is finished, the small amount of metal at the
junctions is removed with a corner tool, or with a narrow groover (Fig. 782). .
TapErine or AncuLar Horzs.—The operations just given are suitable for the correct for-
mation of any angular hole of a rod’s boss-end, or other boss-part, if both, entrances to the
hole are to be of the same dimensions; or, in other words, if the hole is to be parallel. But it
is proper to make all holes in such portions rather taper, for the convenience of an easy fitting of
the bearer-brasses, and also that the brasses may be easily entered into and removed from their
respective holes.
A small angular hole of only about an inch in diameter can be tapered with filing, after it
has been first regularly formed parallel with slotting. But to taper a large hole of several inches
in width and length, a proper adjustment for the purpose must be performed while the object is
on the slotting-table. By this means, all, or nearly all, subsequent filing is avoided. To correctly
place a boss to be tapered, it must be raised at one edge, so that the truly formed boss-faces are
prevented from occupying a position of parallelism with the table-face. To support the boss in a
proper inclined position with the table, and therefore also in a proper inclined position to the
vertical motion of the slotting-tool, suitable packing is placed between the lower boss-face and
the table. This packing consists of either a taper ring, or taper packing blocks. Such pieces
must be permanently fixed during all the operation of tapering the entire hole; and will incline
one edge of the upper face of the boss towards the tool during the shaping of any one of the
planes belonging to the hole. The thickest part of the ring or other packing, is situate between
the machine-front and the front side of the boss; therefore the upper end of the hole is inclined
towards the tool and must be enlarged by the process of cutting. Each time the tapering is to
be commenced the boss requires to be partly rotated on the packing, in order to place every plane
into one and the same relative position with the table; therefore, by the time the boss has been
entirely rotated, and all the planes produced, the upper end of the hole is enlarged to a greater
diameter than that of the lower end, and the intended tapering is executed.
When only two opposite sides of an angular hole belonging to a boss require tapering, it
can be conveniently done by means of the author’s slottil or slotted holdfast represented by Fig.
558. This instrument can be bolted to the slotting-table at some convenient part, and the vee-
grips can be made to grip some portion of the rod and hold the boss at any desired angle with
the table, after being properly adjusted.
The final shaping of angular holes is conducted with regard to sheet gauges, which are pro-
vided with taper stems, if the holes in progress are to be tapered. Inside-callipers also are used ;
and when a hole is being slotted to fit a hard steel block, or other object that cannot be easily
reduced to fit the hole, the callipers must be adjusted with a gentle hammering so that the points
of the feet shall only very lightly touch the surfaces in contact, as described in page 208.
Storrep GuipE-Sranparps.—The guides here treated are those used for containing bearer-
brasses and guide-blocks, which are connected to ends of crossheads belonging to piston-rods and
SHAPING, SLOTTING, AND LINING, 295
pump-rods. A guide of some class is required for every engine whose to-and-fro motion is to be
changed into a rotary one. When slotted guides are used, they are fixed so that the guide-slots
are parallel with the direction of the piston-rod’s motion ; and in order that each guide may be
properly attached to its engine, it is provided with a broad base or foot which is solid with the
other part, and is planed right-angular to the length of the guide-slot. A planed foot of this
kind causes the slot to put into the desired parallelism with the piston-rod, through the plane
surface of the foot being bolted in close contact with the cylinder of the engine, with its table,
or with its base-plate, all of which portions should be furnished with surfaces which are planed
right-angular to the length of the piston-rod.
Small guide-standards are often cast without any slot; and therefore require a number of
holes to be drilled along the places for the intended slots; after which the portions remaining
between the holes are removed by planing, shaping, or slotting, and the slots are thereby formed.
The lining to show the proper place and position of the slot, is the same for a solid guide as for
one in which the slot is roughly formed by casting, with a little difference in the methods of
marking small guides and large ones.
The lining of a guide may be executed either on a lining-table, or on the table of the
planing-machine with which the planing is to be performed; and commences by marking a
centre line or periphery entirely around its narrow side. To do this the object may be placed
upon a lining-table with the broad sides parallel with the face, and having parallel blocks in
contact with the lower broad side of the guide; which will cause it to be supported a few inches
above the table. A guide in this position is shown in Fig 901. For a small guide, two parallel
blocks are sometimes sufficient, one at each end; but three or four blocks are preferable, if
the shape of the broad side will admit them. Lach block is put into contact with a portion of
the casting which is not to be reduced, or which may require only a small skim to be taken off
to attain the specified thickness. If the blocks are in contact with such surfaces, these surfaces
must necessarily be kept paralled with the table-face; and any lines that may be marked upon
the guide by means of a scriber-block on the table, must also be parallel to these surfaces. As
soon as the object is properly placed upon the blocks, the point of a scriber-block is adjusted to
somewhat near the middle of the narrow side, and a short line or two are marked. The precise
place of such marks is of little consequence, and merely require to be within a sixteenth or an
eighth of an inch from the centre. But after the marks are made, it is important to avoid shifting
the scriber-point until the guide has been put upside-down, and one or two other marks have
been scribed parallel with the first ones. At the time the object is put upside-down, it is placed
with the parallel blocks in contact with those surfaces which are correspondent to the surfaces
that rested on the blocks at the first marking. Therefore, the point which is midway between a
couple of marks of this kind, is the centre of that part of the guide which touched the blocks ;
but is not necessarily the centre of the slotted part unless the two portions happen to be cast true
with each other. by placing the parallel blocks to the proper portions, the centres of these
portions are found, and when found, the scriber-point is raised or lowered thereto, and the block
moved entirely around the standard to plainly and deeply scratch a line upon the entire narrow
side, including the foot or base, the oil-cup portions, and all other projections that may be in the
path of the scriber as it is moved around. This scribing produces the centre periphery required,
‘and it is now dotted to plainly indicate its place, and to provide dots into which a point of a
‘compasses or divider can be put for measurement when requisite.
As soon as the periphery is scribed, it becomes a sort of primary line from which the intended
thickness of the standard can be accurately marked in two directions. The ledges of the slotted
part may, or may not be, equidistant from the centre line; but the exact distance to each ledge
canbe shown by measuring from the line, whether it is in the middle or elsewhere. By mea-
suring with a compasses from the centre to show the intended extreme thickness of the slotted
portion, the place for another gauge-line is shown, and this also is scribed by adjusting the
scriber-point to the proper height and moving the block around as before. When one line is
scribed the scriber is again adjusted to show another line at the other side of the centre, which
296 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
two outer lines show the finished thickness of the guide, and also constitute gauge-lines to which
the superfluous metal is to be cut off. é
When the three lines on the narrow side or edge are marked, the object is. ready for the
scribing to indicate the place and shape of the slot. ‘The primary lines marked for this purpose
are straight lines along the broad sides of the guide showing the centre of the slot’s intended
width, To execute this scribing the object may be placed upon the lining-table with the broad
sides at right angles to the table, as seen in Fig. 902, and therefore in a position which is right-
angular to that in which it remained while scribing the narrow side. While the broad sides are
square to the table the guide requires supporting by placing a few heavy blocks of sufficient
weight at each side of the foot; or by lightly bolting the foot to the face of an el-chuck which is
on the table. It is now necessary to determine which is to be the centre length of the slot, and a
couple of dots are put at this place, one at each end of the slot. The centre length being thus
shown, it is next needful to put the dots equidistant from the table-face, which is done b
packing up the guide with blocks of suitable thickness. The broad sides must be also adjusted
exactly square to the table, and an el-square’s blade of suitable length is applied to the sides to
indicate their position, and is also applied to the gauge-lines on the extremity of the foot which
were scribed during the previous marking while the guide’s broad sides were parallel with the
table. When the sides are seen to be in a proper position, and the dots showing the centre
length of the slot are seen to be parallel with the table, the guide is ready for being scribed upon
both its broad sides. This marking commences by first adjusting the point of a scriber-block
standing on the table to the same height as the centre-dots, and next scribing a centre-line to
intersect the dots and thereby indicate the entire centre length of the slot. The line is also
continued beyond both ends of the slot portion, and is therefore seen on the broad side; it is also
dotted so that its place may be known for a considerable time and be used for reference. The
scriber-block is now shifted to the opposite side of the guide, and another centre line is scribed
which is exactly analogous to the previous one, the scriber-point being now at precisely the same
height from the table as before. These two lines indicate the centre length of the slot on two
sides of the guide; and from these the desired width to which the slot is to be finished, is
scribed by means of two other straight lines on each broad side, one line being above the centre
and the other line below the centre. These are accurately marked parallel with the centre line
‘by merely adjusting the scriber-point to the suitable heights and scribing as before.
The lining to indicate the thickness of the standard, and to show the place and width of the
slot is now completed ; and if the article is cast without any slot it next requires circles to be
scribed along the intended slot to prepare it for drilling; but if the slot is already cast it is ready
for planing.
If a standard is thus lined on its broad sides and narrow sides previous to any planing of it
being executed, it is necessary that those surfaces which are put into contact with the parallel
blocks should be uniform and parallel with the remainder of the broad sides, so that such sur-
faces may constitute tangible and definitely formed planes that are capable of being easily referred
to; if not the lines scribed on the broad sides cannot with certainty be made right-angular to the
lines on the narrow sides. It is therefore advisable that all roughly cast guides be first put upon a
planing-machine instead of upon a lining-table, that some portion of the planing may be done
before lining, and that the uniform surfaces referred to may be produced. By this mode, either the
foot or the broad sides may be planed previous to lining for the slot; and the entire lining of the
standard is executed while it is on the planing-table. In accordance with this method the centre
of the narrow side must be determined and a periphery scribed around in about the same manner
as if the object were on a lining-table; it is also requisite to mark a line above and below the
centre one to show the thickness, to which lines the metal is to be planed off. Without these the
standard cannot be properly adjusted parallel with the table, nor the quantity of superfluous
metal indicated. The adjustment for commencing the planing therefore consists in packing up
the standard with wedges and blocks beneath the broad sides until the scribed lines on the narrow
sides are placed parallel with the table as required. During this planing the length of the slot-
SHAPING, SLOTTING, AND LINING. 297
portion should be situated right-angular to the length of the table; and the holdfast plates
should at first be situated across the extremity of the guide-portion adjoining the slot, and
also across the foot, thus exposing the entire slot-part free to be planed. This mid portion being
planed, the plates are removed from the foot, and are fastened across the planed slot-portion
without shifting the standard on its packing-blocks. After being fastened the second time the
foot is planed, and will be parallel with the planed slot-portion. It is, however, proper to so
place the plates that both the foot and the slot-part can be planed at one fastening, if the shape
of the casting permits, because shifting and again fastening the plates is liable to prevent the
surfaces being planed parallel with each other.
After the standard has had one broad side planed it can be put upside-down and the oppo-
site side planed; and if it were properly lined wedges are now dispensed with, and only parallel
blocks are put between the table and the object, the blocks being now put into contact with the
planed surfaces. Previous to fixing for this second planing, the centre length of the slot should
be determined; and the condition of the foot or base ascertained. If it is found that the extre-
mities of the foot are tolerably square to the intended centre length of the slot, the article can be
adjusted for this planing either with regard to the foot or to the slot-part, the particular portion
selected for adjusting being in any case that which possesses the least quantity of metal to be cut
off, according to the elements of planing and lining in page 220. If the standard is properly
made, it has a comparative great thickness of metal to be removed from the foot because this is
usually a much shorter portion than the guide-portion containing the slot. The centre length of
the slot is therefore considered to coincide with the centre length of the entire guide-part, and
after this length is shown by placing a straight-edge and marking with a scriber, the line is used
as a gauge-line for adjustment ; whether or not it is right-angular to the extremity of the foot.
To effect this adjustment the line is placed exactly across the table or right-angular to the
direction of the table’s motion.. For this purpose a scriber-block having a straight bottom-edge is
put to both ends of one of the short gauge-lines on the table, and the scriber-point is put to both
ends of the line on the guide, that the relative positions of the two lines may be observed and the
guide shifted accordingly.
It may now be perceived that the length of the slot-portion or guide-portion should be across
the table during the planing of the broad sides, as directed, because at the two fixings of the
standard, the two sides of the foot, and also its outer extremity, can be accurately planed, in
addition to planing the broad sides parallel with each other and to the specified thickness. The
extremity of the foot is also planed right-angular to the length of the slot as required, because
this part is planed with the vertical traverse of the rest while the standard remains adjusted with
regard to the slot’s centre line. With proper care at each fixing, and at the cutting off of the
metal to the gauge-lines on the narrow sides, the standard is finished, except the slot-surfaces,
and these can be completed with only one more fixing; therefore three fixings suffice to execute
the entire planing.
At the third planing of the standard its length is right-angular to its position during the
two previous planings, in order to now plane the slot. To shape this part, the centre line of the
slot is put exactly parallel with one of the long gauge-lines on the table, and therefore parallel
with the table’s motion. A scriber-block may be used for this adjustment, as for previous ones,
with the difference of placing the block upon a long line instead of a short one. This centre
line is the same which was used at the previous planing, the guide not having been put upside-
down, but merely shifted to alter its position on the table. If the guide is adjusted by means of
this line for planing the slot, the correct position will be obtained if the same line were exactly
right-angular to the table’s motion while the foot was being planed; but because it may not
have been in this condition through some fault in the fixing, it is preferable to adjust the object
by means of an el-chuck. For this purpose the chuck is fixed with its length across the table,
the bottom edge of the chuck’s face being exactly adjusted to one of the short gauge-lines. To
the face of the chuck the foot or bottom of the standard is bolted in close contact, which must
necessarily so place the slot-portion that the a shall be planed exactly right-angular to the
Q
298 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
foot, whether or not the foot were right-angular to the centre line while being planed. The
parallelism of the length of the slot with a long line on the table is, therefore, not considered
when an el-chuck is used, the right-angular position being obtained by merely bolting the planed
extremity of the foot to the chuck’s face. At this fixing the standard must rest on parallel
blocks, as at the previous fixing, the blocks being in contact with portions of the planed broad
sides, and situated in proper places to avoid contact with the cutting tools extending through the
slot while planing.
The guide is now in position for planing both sides or faces of its slot. When such an
article is made with the slot formed by casting, it should be so cast that a clearance space is’
formed at each end of the slot. This space is a semicircular gap, the width of which is about a
quarter or half an inch greater than the width of the slot; consequently the broad surfaces or
faces of the slot project into the two clearance gaps, and will form corners or steps, instead of
coinciding with the curved junctions of the gaps. These spaces are not noticed in Fig. 902, but
can be seen in the comparative large sketch denoted by Fig. 903. Such openings are useful for
a convenient planing, because they constitute clearance spaces in which the tool may disengage
from the metal, and are also advantageous for preventing the formation of ridges during the
future wear of the slot-faces. By making the guide-block of sufficient length to cause its ends to
protrude while in action into the half-round spaces, the formation of a ridge is prevented. If it
happens that the guide is without such spaces, they require to be made previous to planing,
either by a drilling-rod in a drilling-machine, or by chipping and filing. It is also frequently
necessary to prepare the clearance spaces, although they are now roughly formed by casting, in
which cases a small amount of chiselling and filing.is sufficient for the purpose. Those guides
which are made without any slot whatever are furnished with clearance gaps by drilling a hole
of proper diameter at each end of the place for the slot, the diameter of the hole being necessarily
greater than the finished width of the slot.
If the clearance spaces are suitably shaped by some means, theslot-part is ready for planing
with grooving-tools, or with right-hand corner-tools and left-hand ones. Springy tools, also, and
slotted tools are occasionally used. Supposing that a small gun-metal guide is to be planed
which has had a hole drilled at each end of the intended slot, but no portion of the slot formed,
the slot-making should commence by using a groover, which is gradually advanced down with
the vertical traverse until a narrow slot is formed through the guide, the slot extending from one
clearance-hole to the other. This opening is next widened either with another groover having
an edge of suitable length, or is widened with corner tools, until the required width of slot is
attained. A small guide-slot of this class can be shaped also with a slotted-stock tool (Fig. 716).
The cutter of this implement is shown by Fig. 717. Previous to this being used for planing a
guide-slot, grooving-tools of proper width are caused to form the slot to nearly its intended
width, leaving a small quantity of metal to be removed at each gauge-line indicating the slot’s
mouth. These two small portions can now be cut out with the slotted tool and cutter at one
operation. To do this, the tool must be carefully adjusted to place its edge exactly midway
between the two gauge-lines showing the width, after which it can be advanced down with the
vertical traverse and caused to cut the two faces of the slot at one time. Such a cutting out will
suffice to roughly form a slot, but will not smoothly adjust a slot to a precise width which ma
be specified. Consequently, a cutter whose width is rather less than the finished width of the
slot must be used, which is first allowed to cut two sides at once, but is afterwards made to cut
only one side at a time, to finally attain to the exact width intended.
The planing of a large slot of four, six, or seven inches in width, is generally executed
entirely with corner tools, whether the metal is gun-metal, iron, or steel, because large slots of
guides are always formed by casting, and therefore easily admit the ends of corner tools from
the beginning to the end of the slotting. Corner tools for gun-metal are shown by Figs. 431,.
432, and 708. The cutting parts of such tools for planing faces of slots are but slightly bent,
the amount being only sufficient to cause the cutting part to clear the side of the stalk, and thus
allow as much room as possible between the tool and the face of the slot while the tool
SHAPING, SLOTTING, AND LINING. 299
is therein. Tools of this sort, whether small or large, are available for slots of any width, if
wide enough to allow a free movement of the tools employed. ‘When it happens that a large
slot is to be planed, and there is not a corner-tool small enough to enter the slot, the slot can
be planed with a stalk and cutter similar to Fig. 715, the cutter used being similar to Fig. 714,
if the guide is gun-metal ; but if iron or steel, the cutter’s end is similar to an end of a corner-
tool. In the slot of the stock a cutter of any desired shape, left-handed or right-handed, may
be keyed, the length of the cutter depending on the amount of room in the slot. The planing
of a slot with such a tool somewhat resembles that mentioned in the preceding paragraph for a
small slot which has been previously commenced with a grooving-tool.
During all these planing-processes for slot-shaping, the vertical traverse of the slide-rest
must be exactly square to the table, and therefore truly vertical, if the machine is properly
fixed. This right-angular position is requisite because the broad sides of the standard are
parallel with the table, and the direction in which a slot extends through from one broad side to
the other, must be square to the broad sides. The rest is therefore adjusted to the proper
position by means of a dot or other mark existing for the purpose; but the tool-box, or whatever
tool-holder the slide-rest may possess, may be inclined at any angle, if necessary, when a corner
tool is in use, that the thick part of the tool’s end may be prevented from touching the side of
the slot while advancing downwards. Inclining the tool-holder without altering the traverse-
slide, has about the same effect as merely shifting the tool, the travel of the slide not being
thereby affected; unless the tool-holder happens to be solid with the slide, in which case, only
the tool can be inclined.
Near the conclusion of planing a guidg-slot, it requires a careful measurement with sheet
gauges, or with callipers, the points of which are delicately adjusted that they may only very
lightly touch the surfaces in contact, as described in page 208. By such gentle measurement,
the operator can ascertain whether the upper mouth or entrance to the slot is of the same
width as. the lower entrance next the table-face; also whether it is parallel along its length, or
wider at one end than at the other. Defects of this character often exist in guide-slots, especially if
the metal planed is steel, ora hard iron, either of which may wear the tool-point during the
removal of a slice, sufficient to cause one end of the slot to be half a sixteenth wider than the
other. It sometimes happens that a slot of several feet in length cannot by any means be made
parallel and smooth with a slide-rest tool; and the work is therefore afterwards completed with
a considerable filing.
It should be here mentioned that considerable care is required during the fixing of a
standard, to avoid distortion, such as described in page 234, The author's method of preventing
this injurious bending of a guide, consists in placing each holdfast plate directly over a packing-
block, always avoiding, when possible, the fixing of a plate to any portion of the object which
is not supported with a block beneath. It is also requisite to use plates having paws of only
about three-quarters of an inch or an inch in width; the height or thickness of the paw being
sufficient to secure proper strength to compensate for the comparative small width. With this
method the tightening of the screw-bolt of a plate causes the paw to bear upon the metal which
is exactly over the packing-block, but prevents the paw bearing upon any other part; therefore
the fixing of the plate cannot injuriously bend any part of the metal, however tightly the bolt
may be fastened, because, although the block is a sort of fulcrum, no leverage exists for causing
the distortion, through the plate’s paw being situate exactly at the fulcrum, and not at any
distance from it, which distance would be necessary to provide the leverage referred to.
_ It may be also stated that by observing the same rules as these given for fastening guides,
during the fixing of all other objects in general, small or large, the distortion referred to will be
reduced to the minimum.
SHAPING OF GUIDE-SLOTS WITH SHAPING-MACHINES AND Storturs.—In addition to the
modes of forming slots by planing, given in the preceding section, it is requisite to mention a few
other methods of slot-making, which are resorted to in cases of emergency.
_ A small guide that requires a slot of only a few inches in length, can be slotted on a shaping-
f 2Q2
300 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
machine. The article can be lined by the same methods as those given for a guide situate on a
lining-table, or for one on a planing-table, the only difference consisting in adopting the shaping-
table or tables as standard planes to which the work is adjusted, instead of adjusting it to a
planing-table.
A guide-standard on a shaping-machine can be entirely shaped with three fixings, which are
analogous to the three fixings of a larger guide on a planing-machine ; the two broad sides and
the foot being shaped with the first and second fixings, and the entire slot being formed at the
third. The placing of the broad sides upon parallel blocks, the attachment of the plates, and the
tools used for removing the metal, are also the same as if the guide were to be planed.
The formation of a guide-slot on a slotting-machine, is executed after the standard has been
previously planed with a planing-machine, to reduce the broad sides to proper dimensions and
make them parallel with each other. Although a slotting-machine is not suitable for planing
these sides, the outer extremity of the foot can be easily planed with a slotting-tool; for which
purpose, it is necessary to adjust the centre length of the slot to parallelism with that traverse
of the slide-rest which is square to the machine-front. Such adjustment causes the outer surface
of the standard’s foot to be parallel with the front; and therefore allows the standard to be
advanced in this same direction during the removal of the metal. To allow the releasing
motion of the tool during its upward travel, the surface to be planed is situated between the tool
and the front; so that, if the operator now stands at this place, the length of the slot-portion
extends from the foot or bottom towards him.
After the foot or bottom is surfaced, the formation of the slot may be effected while the
standard yet remains in the same position on the table. But the slide-rest traverse which is to
be now used, is the one at right-angles to the machine-front. During the slotting, the guide is
moved from the front of the machine towards the main-standard ; for which reason the tool will
commence to cut at that end of the slot which is nearest to the main or F-standard. The other
traverse of the rest, parallel with the front of the machine, by which the foot was surfaced, is
now only used to adjust the object exactly to the tool for removing a slice of a certain thickness ;
therefore, after this adjustment, whenever a slice is to be commenced, the traverse screw is fixed
to prevent an unintended movement and consequent mischief.
A guide-slot which is to be shaped on a slotting-table, is provided with a clearance space at each
end, the same as if it were to be planed; therefore ample room exists for the slotting-tool to
retreat back from the metal while the end of the slot nearest the tool is being shaped. The tools
employed are the slotted ones, which admit cutters of any length and shape to suit the width of
the slot to be formed. (See Figs. 786, 787, and 788.) Thesolid tools having bent ends, denoted
by Figs. 793 and 794, are also available. A quick mode of shaping a slot consists in causing a
tool to cut both faces of the slot at once. This plan is suited to any guide which requires its
slot to be rapidly although roughly formed. If the article is strong, and properly supported
with packing-blocks, to sustain the comparative severe strain while the tool is cutting, a
considerable amount of time may be economised. It must be remembered that the action of
any slotting-tool has a much greater tendency to break the guide, than the action of a shaping-
tool or planing-tool, by reason of the slotting-tool’s motion being square to the guide’s broad
sides. Consequently, when a slot is to be formed by a tool cutting both sides at once, only a
thin strip of metal should be cut off at each travel of the tool. While a guide is being slotted,
it should be supported on packing-blocks of great length, their length being, if convenient, as
long as the slot; and they require to be close to the intended mouth of the slot when finished,
allowing only a sixteenth of an inch between each block and the slot’s edge. Blocks thus placed
afford great resistance to the tool in addition to preventing the breakage of the standard.
SEMI-CYLINDRICAL Surraces.—The half-round surfaces or gaps here mentioned are such as
those belonging to bearer-brasses, concave junctions of crossheads, levers, and bars; also the gaps
of U-end connecting-rods, termed gap-end rods, or rods with semi-solid heads. A great number
of these curved surfaces are formed by turning, and are consequently treated in the chapter
devoted to that subject. But it is sometimes needful to produce half-round gaps by means of
SHAPING, SLOTTING, AND LINING. ° 301
shapers and slotters which possess worm-pinions for generating curved motions; and the paring-
processes connected with such motions are here given.
The shaping of curved concave junctions belonging to levers, bars, and crossheads, is
frequently executed by means of broad-edge tools, as described in pages 278, 279, and 282,
without using the rotary motion of the table by means of the worm-wheel. Such shaping is
suitable when only one or two objects are in progress; but whenever a number require to be
shaped, the circular motion should be employed. This process involves several additional
shiftings and adjustments of each object; but this very circumstance facilitates each adjustment,
when several levers or other articles are moved about, because the operators become thereby
accustomed to the work.
Perhaps the simplest of the concave surfaces now mentioned, are those belonging to halt-
round gaps of bearer-brasses ; consequently the shaping of these are first treated. The hidden
curve which is to be produced on a bearer-brass is indicated by two curved lines, one on each
end of the brass, denoting the boundaries of the intended surface. A brass lined in this manner
is shown by Fig. 803, in which one of the two semicircular lines is seen on the front side of the
Figure. If the two gauge-lines are of the proper curve, and in their proper places, they
correctly show the boundaries of the required surface, according to page 243; and they also
serve as lines by which the brass can be adjusted on a machine-table for shaping.
A brass may have its gap formed either on a shaping-machine, or on a slotting-machine, if
the machine selected is furnished with the apparatus for generating the necessary curved
movement. When a shaper is employed, the brass is held on the table so that the intended gap
in the brass is parallel with the table, and, consequently, parallel with the direction of the
cutting-tool’s motion. The article is adjusted to this position by applying a scriber-block point
to both the curved lines, while the block is on the table; and also by fixing a tool-scriber in the
tool-holder and observing the scriber-point and the straight gauge-line which is marked on the
upper surface or face of the brass. This line is put parallel with the motion of the head, and
therefore parallel with the tool’s motion, by gradually shifting the brass sideways until the tool-
scriber’s point moving slowly to and fro, is seen to be exactly parallel with the line. Packing-
plates and wedges are also required beneath the brass, to raise either end to a suitable height
and cause the bottom of the gap to be produced parallel with the gauge-lines. Poppets also are
needed for shifting it sideways.
A bearer-brass may be fixed also by bolting it to an el-chuck on the shaping-table. For
this purpose a half-round gap is provided at the upper edge of the chuck, and the brass is put in
front of it, so that the gap to be formed in the brass is about midway between the sides of the
gap in the chuck. A chuck of this description is shown by Fig. 885. A brass which is to be
held against an el-chuck, must have at least one plane surface for contact with the chuck, which
surface should also be square to the length of the gap to be formed; this will cause the brass to
be immediately put parallel with the tool’s motion by the act of bolting to the chuck, the face of
which is placed square to the tool’s motion by means of one of the parallel gauge-lines on the
table. But if the surface of the brass touching the chuck is not square to the length of the
intended gap, the chuck’s face must be adjusted square to the gap without regard to any line on
the table, in order that the straight gauge-lines on the top of the brass may be properly situated.
As soon as the brass is fixed, the cutting-tool is fixed to the rest in a vertical position; and
the brass and tool are next adjusted to each other by placing the centre of the tool-point
exactly over the centre of the gap to be made in the brass. To ascertain whether the proper
position is obtained, the tool-point is moved in a curved path by rotating the worm-pinion with
the handle. For such movement, the point is put very near to the semicircular line to which
the metal is to be pared off, or is put very near to another line which is concentric with it; and
if, during the rotary movement, the point is seen to be concentric with the half-round gauge-line,
the adjustment is effected. The tool can, therefore, be now made to cut by means of the to-and-
fro motion combined with the curved motion imparted from the worm-pinion. A convenient
tool to remove the metal is an ordinary grooving-tool. A taper tool having a vee-point may
302 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
also be used, if it has a thin end, which is necessary to prevent the thick part of the tool coming
into contact during the time the tool is cutting at the gap-sides. While the tool is at the bottom
ample room exists, at which place the operation of cutting is somewhat like planing.
While the tool moves to and fro, its curved motion can be generated by the operator
rotating the worm-pinion with the handle on its spindle, which process is suitable for a small
gap. But this hand-traverse is avoided by causing the machine itself to rotate the spindle.
This is performed by a small rod and lever connected to the machine-carriage and the worm-
spindle.
It is not every to-and-fro shaper that will thus shape a half-round gap, because the tool
cannot be advanced through the entire semicircle at one travel. Consequently, when such a gap
must be formed with a machine whose sector-motion is too short, the gap is shaped by fixing the
brass twice instead of only once, half of the gap being shaped at each fixing. The entire gap
may also be shaped at only one fixing, if cranked tools are employed; in which case the tools
are shifted instead of the brass.
The shaping of a half-round gap can be easily managed on a slotting-machine having a
worm-wheel motion. On a slotting-table a brass or other object can be completely rotated if
necessary, by reason of the table having a complete circular worm-wheel, instead of only a sector.
To adjust a half-round brass on a slotting-table, it is placed upon a parallel ring or blocks near the
middle of the table, with the length of the desired gap vertical, because the motion of a slotting-
tool is vertical. The brass is situated between the machine-front and the tool; and the adjust-
ment must be conducted without reference to the half-round gauge-line which is near the table,
this line being quite hidden from the operator, The bottom surface on which this line is scribed,
must be square to the length of the gap, and also square to the flat sides of the brass termed
faces, which are those that adjoin the mouth of the gap, and are nearest to the slotting-tool. If
these faces are right-angular to the bottom surface, they must necessarily be vertical, while the
brass remains on the parallel packing ; and because these vertical faces are parallel with the gap
to be made, the brass is known to be in position by the blade of an el-square, which is put to
the faces while the square’s pedestal rests in contact with the table.
When the brass is placed square to the table, it is ready for adjustment by the half-round
line on the top surface. This is to be put concentric with the table’s axis of motion, because this
motion is that which will rotate the brass during the cutting. A tool-scriber may therefore be
fixed in the tool-clamps, and gently lowered until the point is very near the gauge-line; the
table, and therefore the brass, is now rotated, and the point observed, which will show exactly
how much shifting of the brass is necessary to place the line concentric with the table. The
small movement for this adjustment is effected with the poppets which are near the brass and
fastened to the table, and also with the traverse screws; and after the brass is correctly
situated and fastened with plates across the top, it is ready for the shaping by rotating the
worm-wheel.
The tools employed for slotting a half-round gap are the slotted ones shown by Figs. 786
and 788; and the solid ones shown by Figs. 793 and 794. While a tool is being fixed in the
tool-clamps, the cutting edge is adjusted to the exact height intended, in order to prevent it
extending too far below the lower edge of the brass during the downward travel, and thus
prevent it coming into contact with the table.
Whenever it happens that several pairs of large brasses require to be shaped with a slotter,
two should be fixed at one time on the table, and slotted at one operation. By this plan, each
two brasses which constitute a pair or couple, are fixed together, so that both brasses can be
shaped at one rotation of the table.
It may be also stated that because the cutting-tools of slotting-machines cannot be easily
adjusted every time to the same relative position with the gauge-lines on the object beneath, it
is necessary to shift the table and object thereon a short distance, when it is seen that the metal
is not being equally cut off concentric with the gauge-line or lines.
Shaping the concave junctions of a crosshead, lever, or bar, by means of a circular motion,
SHAPING, SLOTTING, AND LINING. 303
is, in most cases, easier performed with a to-and-fro shaper than with a slotter, unless the lever
or bar is several feet in length. An object situate on a shaping-table always presents the surface
which is to be reduced in a horizontal position, which allows the operator an easy and full view of
all operations while he stands in an ordinary vertical position. This is of considerable importance ;
but such a view of an object on a slotting-table cannot always be obtained, especially while it is
placed for shaping a concave junction, the surface of which is hidden from the operator, unless
he is situate between the tool and the F-standard.
For the production of each surface belonging to a concave junction of a bar, crosshead, or
other article, the article requires a distinct adjusting process, that the gauge-line showing the
desired curve may be adjusted concentric with the table's curved motion. Therefore, a
three-boss lever would require eight adjustments, in addition to the several fixings for shaping
the cylindrical parts of the bosses and the eight flat surfaces of the two straight arms. And a
crosshead having one boss in the middle would also require eight adjustments for similar
purposes. The tedium connected with such a number of operations should, therefore, be placed
against any advantage that may be considered to result from adopting such a course. Perhaps
the principal consideration is the great ease and order with which the metal can be removed and
the concave surface produced after the object is once properly adjusted..
As soon as the gauge-line is properly placed and the object fastened to the table, the
shaping or paring of the junction proceeds by the action of the rotating apparatus, and by using
any ordinary vee-point tool, whether the object is on a shaping-table or on a slotting-table. No.
broad-point tool is required from the commencement to the end, nor any springy tool. The
entire paring can be executed by removing slices with the point-tools, because the travel of the
object in acurved path while being reduced is quite as easy as the travel of an object in a
straight path while being reduced, the only tedium belonging to the process being the adjustment
for each curved surface which has to be formed. By using a sharp vee-tool, the point of which
is slightly convex, and applying soapy water during the removal of the last slice, the surface is
entirely finished, and no filing is afterwards needed, except a small quantity at the places where
the concave junction merges into the convex boss, and merges into the straight part of the arm.
But a junction that is machined with broad-point tools and springy tools, for the purpose of
avoiding the adjustment for the rotary movement, requires the entire curved surface to be
afterwards filed, and in some cases also chipped, unless the lever or crosshead in process is very
small; if so, its junctions can be smoothly finished with a springy tool having a broad convex
edge. It may, therefore, be easily perceived that large junctions in general should be finished
with vee-point tools and the circular traverse of the table; and that small junctions in general
should be finished with the straight to-and-fro movement of a shaper or slotter and the use of
springy tools.
The shaping of a half-round gap belonging to a U-end connecting-rod is easily executed
by boring or by turning ; but when it is imperative to produce such a gap by the curved motion
‘of a shaper or slotter, the rod is fixed with its length either vertical or horizontal, according to
the machine selected. The processes for adjusting are very similar to those described for joint-
gaps having plane sides, in pages 283, 284, 285, and 286.
Maxine or Key-stots.—A key-slot is a key-way that consists of an oblong hole which is
formed entirely through the thickness of a rod, bar, or other article. Consequently, a key-slot
requires to be made by processes which are different to those adopted for making key-grooves,
which extend to only a short distance in the direction of the rod’s thickness.
The lining for a key-slot of a piston-rod end, or an end of a crank-pin, is the scriber-marks
which are made upon the end while it is in its place in the boss of the lever or crosshead ; in
which boss the key-slot has been previously made, and constitutes a sort of template for scribing
the piece within. It is therefore requisite for the slot in the boss to be in line with the diameter
.of the circular hole, in order that the key-way to be made in the end of the rod or pin may be
exactly in the centre; or rather, in line with the diameter. It will be seen that the lining of the
bosses must be given in conjunction with the lining of the rods, pins, spindles, or other portions.
304 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
The key-slot of any boss is not shaped till the boss has been accurately bored and turned
in a lathe, and is also, in most cases, the last machine-process to which it is subjected. The
lining of such an article can be easily executed, because all its surfaces are smooth and uniform.
If the boss of a small lever or other article is to be lined, it can be readily handled in any
position on a lining-table ; and a boss of a large article can be lined on any machine-table, with
but very little moving about, because of the several plane surfaces and parallel surfaces which
it possesses.
A small lever can be taken to a lining-table and have its boss lined while the lever’s length
is vertical, extending upwards from the table and at right-angles to it. A lever in this position
is shown in Fig. 904. It should be held in position with packing-blocks, or by gently bolting it
to an el-chuck on the table. The centre length of the lever is adjusted exactly square to the
table by means of an el-square, the blade of which is put to the centre or primary line seen in
the Figure, the object being gradually shifted until seen to be in the proper position, The
bottom cylindrical surface of the boss may, or may not, be in immediate contact with the table,
because it is parallel with the centre length of the hole, whether the hole is taper or parallel,
And supposing that the boss should not be exactly parallel with the hole, through a defect in
peta the length of the lever will be correctly adjusted by being in contact with the el-
chuck, j
While the article is held upright on the table, the place for the key-way can be marked
upon both sides of the boss, by means of a scriber block, the point of which is adjusted to the
desired height at the time the block rests on the table. This height is the same as that of the
centre of the boss, and is easily shown on an ender that fits the mouth of the hole. The scriber-
point is therefore put to this centre, and a centre-line is marked across the boss-face ; the line is
also continued along the cylindrical surfaces of the boss at opposite sides of the hole. These
marks are exactly right-angular to the lever’s length, as usually required, and accurately indicate
the centre of the intended key-slot, because the lever is right-angular to the table on which the
block moves while marking. From this centre line in two directions, upwards and downwards,
the specified thickness of the key-slot can now be marked, by using a compasses or divider; and
to these marks the scriber-point is next adjusted to scribe two more lines upon the boss, parallel
to the centre one and equidistant from it. These outer lines now show the thickness as intended,
and the width is next marked to cause the key-way to be mid-way from either face of the boss;
after which it is ready for the cutting out.
Lining a boss of a large lever for a key-way, is performed while it remains in any place, no
moving about being necessary. It is, however, advisable to put the article into a proper position ;
and this consists in shifting it until the boss-faces are about horizontal. In this condition a
straight-edge, scriber, and compasses, can be easily used, to mark the required lines upon the
lever, the principal one first marked being a straight centre line across the upper face of that
boss which is to have the key-way. This line is exactly analogous to one which is made with a
scriber-block on a lining-table, and therefore indicates the centre of the key-way required. For
this purpose an ender is caused to show the centre of the hole’s mouth, which is, of course, a
point in some part of the centre line along the lever’s side. The centre of the mouth and boss-
face being shown, it is next needful to scribe the line referred to square to the lever’s length,
and also in the desired place to pass through the centre dot on the ender at the hole’s mouth.
To do this, short arcs are scribed to intersect each other on the boss-face, a compasses or radius-
gauge being used. The centres from which the arcs are scribed may be any points in the centre
line along the lever; but the convenient points to be selected are those two which constitute
intersections of the straight centre line with a circular one on the boss-face. This circular line
is shown in Fig. 905, near the edge of the boss, and is of no special diameter; but merely
concentric with the boss-face; therefore, from the points of intersection four arcs are marked,
and a straight-edge is next put to the two intersections of the arcs, to scribe the line required.
In the Figure (905) this lining is shown, the centres from which the arcs are marked, being
denoted by the letters C. Fig. 910 is a larger sketch, in which similar lines and letters are seen.
SHAPING, SLOTTING, AND LINING. 305
It is now necessary to mark two straight lines upon the boss, one at each side of it, so that
they shall be right-angular to the boss-face, and shall also join the line already scribed across the
centre of the face. To do this a bisector, having pins of proper length, may be used; and if
such is employed, its pedestal is put upon the face near the edge while its blade extends down-
wards, as shown in Fig. 906; the implement is now gently moved until one edge of the blade,
or the straight line on the pedestal which is continued from the edge of the blade, is seen to
exactly coincide with one extremity of the centre line previously marked upon the face, which
extremity is shown by E in Fig. 905. While the bisector is in position, it appears as in Fig. 906,
and a line is now scribed upon the side of the boss at the edge of the blade, which is one of the
two lines required, and will show the centre of one entrance for the intended key-way. The
bisector is now removed to the opposite edge of the boss-face, and its blade adjusted as before
to the same line, but now at its opposite extremity, which also is shown by E in the Figure.
Another line is now scribed, which is the second one, and indicates the centre of the other mouth
or entrance for the key-way. In Fig. 907, one of these lines is seen, extending from E to E.
The boss is now marked with a set of lines which resemble those marked with a scriber-
block on a lining-table; and lines are also scribed equidistant from the centre ones, to show the
thickness of the key-slot required, which lines are seen in Fig. 908. In addition to these, lines
can be marked to show the place of the key-slot in the hole of the boss; for which purpose the
bisector is put with its blade in the hole, and the pedestal near the hole’s edge, as represented in
Fig. 909; which will allow lines to be scribed in the hole opposite each other, and thus indicate
the place of the key-slot in the hole, in addition to indicating it outside, this marking being
especially advisable when a large boss is in progress. One of the author's bisectors is described
in page 113. When it may be desirable to mark the key-way in the hole of a lever-boss on a
lining-table as in Fig. 904, it is only necessary to use a scriber-block having a scriber of
sufficient length to extend to the proper place in the hole; so that after the scriber is adjusted
and the outer surface of the boss marked, the scriber can be put into the hole, and the necessary
lines marked. These must necessarily be at the same height as the others, because the height of
the scriber is the same for all.
There is also a mode of scribing the outer surface of the boss, and also the hole, without
using a bisector. This plan involves a little extra moving and lining of the lever, because it is
necessary to mark centre lines across both the faces of the boss, instead of only one. Therefore,
the same lines shown on one boss-face are also scribed upon the opposite face; and two enders are
used, one at each mouth of the hole, to denote the two centres required. When the two centre
lines are shown, four extremities are shown, two for each line, and of these four two are shown
in Fig. 907, by E and E, one at each face. The straight line between these two, which is that
required to show the centre of one mouth for the key-way, is easily marked by merely placing a
straight-edge and scribing, The centre of the other mouth or entrance is also shown by a
similar scribing.
The lining of a crosshead to show its intended key-way, is similar to that for a lever, and
can be executed without removal to a lining-table. The primary lines with which the lining
commences, are the straight lines along the middles of the narrow sides of the arms; these are
intersected by two circles, one on each boss-face, each circle being concentric with the face,
because of being scribed from the centre-dot existing on the ender at the hole’s mouth. Such
lines are therefore analogous to those on a lever-boss. At the two points shown by the letter C
in Fig. 912, which points are plainly shown in the larger sketch, Fig. 911, where the circle
intersects the straight line on the face, a compass-point is put, and with the other point short arcs
are marked which intersect on the boss-face near its edge. The distance between these two
points where the arcs intersect, is a straight line which is right angular to the length of the
crosshead, and also passes through the centre-dot at the end of the hole. A straight-edge is
therefore put to the two points and the line scribed across the face. One end of the boss being
thus treated, the opposite end or face is next treated in a similar manner, to show another centre
line right-angular to the crosshead’s length. These two lines are two boundaries of a plane that
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306 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
distinguishes the boss into halves; and it is now needful to scribe the other two boundaries of
this plane, which are two straight lines along the length of the boss, one on each side of it, and
so situate that the extremities shall exactly coincide with the extremities of the straight lines
across the boss-faces. One of these two lines is denoted by E and E in Fig. 918, and is easily
marked by merely placing a straight-edge, as for marking a lever-boss.
As soon as the centre lines along the outside of the boss are scribed, they can be used as
centres from which the thickness of the key-way is marked; and its width also marked. By
this lining the two entrances for the key-way are correctly delineated opposite each other; or in
other words, are correctly shown at each extremity of a diameter of the boss-hole. The lines for
one mouth of the key-slot, are indicated in Fig. 914.
In some cases it is requisite to form key-ways at some other angle than a right-angle to the
length of the lever or crosshead, for which no special lining is required to mark a line across one
boss-face ; it being only necessary to place a straight-edge upon the face at the desired angle, and
mark the line. A centre line of this character is seen on the boss-face in Fig. 924. To mark
another line upon the other face, which line shall be at the same angle to the crosshead as the
first one, it is only necessary to provide a circular line on each face, both of one diameter, and
measure from the intersection of the line referred to with the circle, to the intersection of the
centre length of the crosshead. This distance is ascertained with a compasses, and marked upon
the opposite face of the boss, as required, by applying the compasses with one point at the
intersection of the crosshead’s centre line, and the other point reaching to the circular line at a
point which shows the place for the desired straight line, which is therefore marked by placing a
straight-edge to the point and to the centre of the hole’s entrance. When the two analogous
straight lines across the two faces are thus shown, a straight-edge is put to the side of the boss
and to the two lines, and a line is scribed to show the centre of the desired key-slot, which line
‘is exactly analogous to the one seen extending from the top to the bottom of the boss in Fig. 913,
although it is at a different angle to the length of the crosshead.
After a lever or crosshead is lined by some of the means just given, to show the key-way, it
is adjusted either on an ordinary driller or on a slot driller for cutting out the metal, and this
adjustment is conducted with regard to the same gauge-lines across the centre of the boss-face
which were used to mark the key-way; therefore if the object is bolted to an el-chuck on a
drilling-table, the end of the lever or crosshead is raised or lowered until the line across the face
is seen to be vertical, which is square to the table, and parallel. with the downward vertical
motion that executes the drilling. By referring to Fig. 925, a lever may be seen which is in
position for drilling, supposing that the key-slot is to be square to the lever’s length, which is the
usual arrangement. Consequently, the centre length of the lever marked along the broad side is
parallel with the drilling-table, and the line across the face showing the centre of the key-way’s
mouth is at right-angles, as denoted by the el-square blade seen in contact. Fig. 926 represents
a crosshead, the key-way of which is to be in this same right-angular position; for which reason
the adjustment is effected by the same means. The crosshead seen in Fig. 924 is required to
have its key-way inclined to the centre length, and is therefore bolted against an el-chuck of
suitable height and supported on packing-blocks; the line for the key-way being placed vertical,
as for the others, but the crosshead is inclined at the proper angle.
When one side of the boss has been drilled, it is put upside-down, if a large one, and again
fixed to drill the other side. After drilling, the key-way can be completed with a slotting-tool
while on a slotting-table, because, by slotting, the desired uniform shape for the key-way can be
accurately produced along its entire length.
Key-stots 1n Enps or Rops anp Crank-Pins.—When a lever-boss or crosshead-boss has
had its key-way formed, and an end of a rod or pin has been turned to fit the circular hole, the
end can be marked while in the hole, which will ensure the required coincidence of the two key-
ways; therefore the usual mode is to adhere to this plan, whenever circumstances permit.
The end of a piston-rod, pump-rod, slide-rod, or similar object, is usually turned to fit its
SHAPING, SLOTTING, AND LINING. 207
hole while the boss is cold; but crank-pins, pivot-studs, and gudgeons, are usually made to fit
the holes while their respective bosses are red-hot, or nearly so; consequently, the end of a pin
which is taper, such as that of a crank-pin, will not enter its hole while cold so far as it will enter
while hot, at which time the taper end will be in the exact place intended for it when in future
use. Therefore, to properly show the key-slot of a taper end belonging to this class, it must be
scribed both while in its hole and also afterwards, when it is out. Presuming that the taper end
has been well fitted to the hole, and that it has been hammered into the hole just enough to
tighten it, the marking of the key-slot is performed while the pin now remains in, by scribing
with a scriber which is put successively into the two extremes of the boss key-way. This will
accurately show the place for the key-way’s thickness on the pin, but not its width, because the
taper end is not now in its ultimate situation. The pin, or whatever other piece may be in
progress, is therefore taken out, and the intended width marked; for which purpose it is
necessary to scribe the key-slot as much beyond the present lines as the taper end was short of
its ultimate situation while it was in the hole. It is also requisite to allow the draught at the
proper extremity to make the key bear properly ; if not, it may tend to push the object out of
the hole, instead of tending to keep it in.
By Fig. 915 a crosshead-boss and rod’s end is shown, which end is properly fitted to allow
it to enter the full distance intended while cold, no heating of the boss being intended in this
case; consequently, it is only requisite to allow the proper amount of draught after the end has
been scribed when in the hole, and is taken out to complete the scribing to show the exact place.
The crank-pin denoted in Fig. 916 is also seen in the proper place for scribing, although its
taper end is not now in its ultimate place in the boss, through the intention of expanding it with
heat, at which time the small end of the cone, shown by a dotted line, will be made to coincide
with the boss-face. The marking of the key-slot is therefore now partly done, and the pin
removed to complete it,.when the width of the key-way is shown further along the cone,
as represented in Fig. 917.
In many cases the ends of crank-pins and rods can be finally marked to show their key-ways
while on the drilling-machines which are to execute the drilling. As soon as the rod or pin has
been partly scribed while in its hole, it can be taken to the drilling-machine, and placed upon
vee-blocks on the table, as indicated by Figs. 918, 920, and 921. Ifthe object is heavy, a rotator
should now be attached, similar to the one shown in Fig. 921, which is in two halves, and may
be bolted to the rod at any convenient place. The rotator is much like a gripper for lathe work,
and one of these can be used, if necessary. By means of the straight stem or handle which
extends from the rotator, the rod or crank-pin can be gradually rotated on the blocks until it is
in the exact position desired; therefore if the rod’s end has been scribed on two sides when in
the hole, a scriber-block’s point can now be adjusted to the middles of the intended entrances
for the key-way, the rod being gradually rotated until both entrances are seen to be parallel with
the table. While the object thus remains, the scriber-block is now shifted to the extremity of
the rod or pin, and a line scribed across it, which is now of course parallel with the table, and
represents the centre of the key-way.or key-slot. This line constitutes a gauge-line, to be used
while adjusting for drilling, at which time it is only necessary to rotate the rod or pin on the
vee-notch blocks until the line is at right-angles to the table, as denoted in Fig. 920. An
el-square is employed to effect this adjustment, as seen in Fig. 919; and as soon as this is done,
and the length of the object put parallel with the table, the holdfast-plates are fastened across the
object, and it becomes ready for being put exactly beneath the drill-point for drilling.
The cutting out of the metal from the key-slot can be entirely performed with a slot-driller,
or by means of drilling a number of holes and a slotting afterwards. At the time this slotting
is to be executed, the crank-pin or rod is fixed with its length parallel with the slotting-table, as
while drilling; and the centre line across the extremity is also vertical, as in drilling.
A slotting-tool suitable for forming a key-slot is shown by Fig. 782, and the one denoted by
Fig. 791 is also suitable, if sufficient room exists for the end of the tool to enter at one end of
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308 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
the key-way. An accurate method of making a deep key-slot in a short time consists in first
drilling a hole at each extremity of the intended slot, by advancing the drill half way from both
sides, and next fixing the object on aslotting-table to remove the remaining metal with a slotting-
tool. By this mode no risk is incurred of the drill-point getting out of the proper place while
drilling, which risk is involved whenever drilling is effected without a drilling-rod to guide the
cutter, whether a slot-driller or one of any other class is used.
It is now needful to close this chapter on shaping, but itshould be mentioned that a number
of other shaping processes are included in the chapter on turning, because a great number of
objects exist which require turning in addition to other paring processes. It is therefore
convenient to introduce a number of shaping and slotting processes in the next chapter.
TURNING, SCREW-CUTTING, AND LINING. 309
CHAPTER VI.
TURNING, SCREW-CUTTING, AND LINING.
LATHE-TURNING is an art by which circular surfaces are formed by means of lathes; and
lathes are machines for rotating objects in order that their surfaces may be made circular.
Although lathes are principally used for making such surfaces, they are employed also for
planing, screw-cutting, and a few other operations that will be mentioned.
In connexion with these processes for turning, modes of lining must be given in many cases,
although a large number of objects can be commenced and completed by means of turning,
without any lining being executed, as will be observed in the ensuing details.
Engineers’ lathes are sufficiently described in a general manner at pages 133, 134, and 135;
and it is now convenient to indicate the several uses of lathes for shaping various portions of
machines in general. This will necessitate the introduction of additional apparatus and imple-
ments which are required for special work ; such as grooving, screw-cutting, and other operations
that are but very little known.
We now proceed to consider the paring of objects with regard to their lathe-turning, and
also to other operations requisite in addition to turning, to produce the desired form for each
object.
TURNING OF PINS, KEYS, SCREW-STUDS, SMALL BOLTS, ETC.
. Turninc oF Pins.—Pins are those small straight pieces of machines which hold or connect
portions of machines together. Pins are distinct from bolts through having no heads, and are
of any size to suit the work for which they are made; they are either cylindrical or conical.
The greater number are conical or taper; and these are now specially referred to. All taper
pins are of steel, unless they are several inches thick, some of these larger ones being of iron.
The turning of taper pins is usually effected by means of temporary square holders or
handles. Each pin is provided with one of these at the thickest end, in order that it may be
held and rotated in the lathe while turning, and that it may be held while being fitted or tried
into the pin hole. A pin having a handle is shown by Fig. 927. Fig. 928 represents a pin in
use, being tightly fixed through a boss and spindle. .
Small pins of only about half an inch thick, and smaller sizes, have their handles consisting
of extra lengths of the wire or rods of which the pins are made, the handle of each being as large
in diameter as that of the pin. Large pins require their handles to be smaller in diameter than
the pins, both to avoid the trouble of turning any portion of the handles, and to economise
steel.
A taper pin which is used for permanently holding a boss on a rod or axle, must be tightly
310 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
and properly fitted to the pin-hole, and be finally driven into its place with hammering, that
it may not become loose and fall out in consequence of the shaking of the boss and spindle while
in motion. To ensure a good fit, the hole must be nicely broached, and smoothed ; and during
the fitting the pin is gently hammered into its hole a few times with a tin hammer, that the pin
may be thus marked to show which part was in contact, and consequently, which part needs
reducing to obtain a proper bearing. It is also necessary to make the pin-hole only very slightly
taper, the angle of its sides being only about two degrees.
Those pins which are very taper, are sometimes used for quickly connecting and discon-
necting a rod, bar, plate, or joint. Most of those belonging to this class are furnished with
ornamental knobs or handles; therefore each pin is forged with its handle in the desired form,
and no temporary handle is required.
Screw-Srups.—A screw-stud is a cylindrical piece of metal screwed at one or both ends,
and intended to be fixed in a flange, rim, or other portion. A stud having a screw at only one
end is provided with a small pin-hole at that end which has no screw, the hole being required to
contain a taper pin similar to those treated in the previous section. A stud with a screw
at each end, is provided with a screw-nut at one end, the opposite end being that which is to be
fixed in the flange or other portion. All the studs here treated are such as those employed for
connecting cylinder-lids to their cylinders, and for connecting a great number of flanges of
several classes. It may be here generally stated that studs are a class of substitutes for bolts,
and are never used except in places that will not admit headed bolts. Studs should never be
made of steel unless they are to be screwed with a lathe.
Studs that are intended to tightly connect two flanges together, are of two sorts, each of a
distinct shape. One of these is that of a piece which is screwed along its entire length, and the
other is that of a piece having a thread at each end, and a cylindrical or plain part in between.
Those that consist entirely of screws, are denoted by Fig. 930, and those having plain mid-parts
are denoted by Fig. 929. Either of these sorts may be used for any one purpose; but those
which have plain portions are superior to the others, although those that are entirely screwed
are quicker made. The forming of the two varieties must be separately described.
Screw-studs which are to be without any plain part, are made in lots of four, six, or eight,
of one diameter, and at one time. A piece of wire or rod is prepared of sufficient length to make
six, eight, or whatever number may be convenient, and it is screwed along its entire length,
excepting an inch or two at one end, which is square, and smaller than the remainder, the square
end constituting’ a holder or head by which the piece is held during screwing. A long stud-
piece of this class is shown by Fig. 931, being screwed alon its whole length and ready to be
cut into studs of proper length. Studs thus made are screwed with dies, and if not exceeding
five-eighths or three-quarters of an inch in diameter, the stud-piece can be gripped with the square
head in a bench-vice and screwed with a pair of dies in an ordinary die-frame. Comparative
large stud-pieces of this class that may be an inch or more in diameter, are screwed with machine-
dies. As soon as a long piece has been screwed to the exact diameter desired along its length, it
can be cut into pieces of a proper length for use, by means of sawing.
The mode of thus making a number of studs together in one piece, is a rapid method of
formation only suited to small studs. Dies will not form the threads of such pieces properly if
they are more than an inch in diameter; and some dies will not properly screw a piece if it is
more than three-quarters in diameter, or of greater length than five or six inches. The
characters and modes of making dies are described in the chapter on tool-making.
In order to accurately screw a stud-piece, care must be exercised to make the screw as
nearly parallel as possible along its. whole length; and if the diameter is that desired, any part of
the piece can be used for a stud. But it will be discovered that most of the pieces thus made
are smaller in diameter at their mid-parts than at the ends; so that when the studs are produced
by sawing off, those that are too small must be rejected. The gauge-nut or measuring-nut, used
during the screwing, should have its screw a little larger in diameter than the diameter of the
intended studs, and the piece is to be screwed to tightly fit this nut; consequently, a small
TURNING, SCREW-CUTTING, AND LINING. 311
portion of metal will remain for reducing the thread to the finished diameter. This small
quantity can now be pared off with a good die-nut which has been properly formed for its use ;
with this the studs can be finally adjusted to the diameter with but little trouble.
Another mode of screwing several pieces to one precise diameter, consists in fixing packing
pieces of proper thickness between the two dies in their frame; in order that while a piece is being
screwed, the operator may know it to be reduced to the proper diameter by the time the dies are
advanced tight against the packing-pieces, after which they cannot be brought nearer to each
other, and, therefore, cannot make the screw any smaller. Stud-pieces are also accurately
formed by means of lathe-screwing, by which the required parallelism is easily obtained, and the
thread properly shaped. |
It is now needful to mention the making of studs having plain mid-portions. These should
be made singly, each one being cut to'the finished length at the time of forging, with only
an additional sixteenth of an inch at each end, when it may be specially necessary to finish them
in the lathe to the precise shape. After forging, each lot require to be turned and screwed ; and
the particular lathe selected for any one lot, is suited to their diameters, because small ones not
more than three-quarters of an inch in diameter can be screwed by hand-screwing; whereas
larger ones require to be screwed with wheels. By means of lathe-turning and screwing, studs
of three inches in diameter or any larger size, can be perfectly and accurately made, which
cannot be done with dies.
When several hundred studs are required at one time, their turning is executed in one
lathe, and their screwing in another. By this mode, one lathe can be kept turning them to their
exact diameters by means of gap-gauges, while another lathe is appropriated entirely to their
screwing. This will avoid shifting a variety of apparatus for the purpose of putting a lathe
into order for screwing; and will also allow studs to be centred and turned with a lathe which
is entirely without screwing apparatus.
If studs are to be screwed by hand, it is proper to commence the screwing of every one
with the wheels, whether it is to be finished with a hand screw-tool, or with a slide-rest tool.
The quickest mode of smoothly finishing the thread is by hand-screwing, whether the studs are
small or large. But the amount of wheel-screwing which small studs require is very little
compared with that required for large ones. If the stud is only three-eighths or half an inch
in diameter, the wheel-screwing should consist in merely making a thread-groove by only one
advance of the tool along the stud; after which, the hand-screwing is a preferable and rapid
process for removing the remaining metal. Small studs should therefore be principally screwed
by hand, and large ones by wheels. Those that may be an inch or more in diameter, should
be screwed with wheels until near their ultimate diameter, after which it is proper to smooth
them with a hand screw-tool, that they may accurately fit their respective gauge-nuts, and also
be smoothly finished. All hand-screwing of this character constitute processes which are
distinct from wheel-screwing; therefore, if the same lathe is required to both commence and
finish the screwing, all the studs require to be first screwed with the wheels, previous to finishing
any one of them by hand.
Studs are also forged singly with handles. A stud thus made is furnished with a small
square handle which is produced at one end by thinning the metal; consequently, the square
part of a stud is similar to that of a long stud-piece to be cut into proper lengths. Studs having
handles are denoted by Figs. 932, 933, and 934. Such can be very conveniently held while
being turned and screwed in a lathe, and also while in a bench-vice, or in a screwing-machine.
Smatt Bouts.—Bolts in general are of two classes, consisting of those that have no screw-
parts, and those that have them. By small bolts are here signified such as are not more than
an inch, or an inch and a quarter in diameter.
When a large number of small plain parallel bolts which are to be without screws require
turning, all are first partly lathe-turned to their respective diameters by means of gap-gauges.
The gaps in these are of proper sizes to roughly indicate the fimished diameters, and to cause a
small amount of metal to remain for finishing. After a lot of bolts are thus reduced, all should
312 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
be finished to the exact sizes by using other gap-gauges, and removing the small amount of
metal with springy tools. :
A large number of small bolts are required to be accurately turned to some specified
diameter. The turning of such commences by a first reduction to callipers or gap-gauges,
previous to a final smoothing to ring-gauges. When a ring-gauge is used for this purpose, the
holes which the bolts are to fit must necessarily be of the same diameter as the gauge-hole in
the ring. Instead of a ring, a temporary block can be used. A block for this purpose consists
of a piece of metal in which a hole is bored that shall constitute a gauge-hole to which the bolts
can be fitted. A piece having such a hole is denoted by Fig. 939. The hole is exactly the
same in diameter as that of the holes in which the bolts are to be placed; therefore the block
can be kept close by the turner at the lathe, and all the bolts of that size be fitted to the gauge-
hole. By carefully fitting a number of bolts to one hole of this character, all of them are
accurately reduced to the desired diameters previous to taking them from the lathe in order to
put them into their places. During the use of a soft block for such fitting, the hole must be
kept quite clean and oiled, to prevent damage to any bolt that may be tried in, and to prevent
damage to the hole. Every bolt must also be smooth at the time of trial; if not, the gentle
hammering which is needed to drive it into the hole, will probably cut off the rough tool-marks,
and make it too small. The gauge-block shown by Fig. 940, is one having a number of holes
of various sizes. Some of these are taper, and some have conical mouths, for the fitting of
bolts with conical heads; others are furnished with recesses for bolts with cylindrical heads.
Small bolts that are to be screwed, named screw-bolts, are turned to their required diameters
with regard to the screwing process, in addition to turning their intended plain parts to fit
gauge-blocks. A well-formed screw-bolt is provided with a plain part adjoining the head, which
is smoothly turned to fit its place, as in the case of a bolt which has no screw. When the bolt
has been thus treated, the exact required length for the plain part is ascertained and marked,
by which the place for the screw is shown. This part is therefore reduced to the diameter
suitable for producing the desired screw. The exact diameter of this end depends on the means
to be used for screwing. If to be entirely screwed without dies, the diameter is exactly the same
as that of the screw when finished. But if to be screwed with dies, it may be, in nearly every
case, smaller than the finished diameter, to allow the dies to squeeze up the thread to the proper
height. Gauges are employed while turning these ends; but each gauge will only suit one pair
of dies at one time; and as the dies become more and more blunted by use, the bolt-ends to be
screwed require to be turned smaller and smaller. Concerning this subject refer also to
age 18.
ab Small bolts are sometimes made with square handles, similar to those mentioned for taper
pins and screw-studs forged singly. Such handles are provided for both plain bolts and screwed
ones; and it sometimes happens that the lathe to be used will not turn them without handles
of proper length, by reason of the lathe being too large for the comparative small bolts. A bolt
with a handle is seen among those shown by Figs. 935, 936, 937, and 938.
ScrEW-NuTS.—Screw-nuts are principally made of forged iron or steel, and cast gun-metal.
After a nut has been either cast or forged, it requires three principal shaping processes; these
are, screwing the hole, turning the two faces, and shaping the six sides or planes. Nuts are
distinguished into sizes with regard to the thicknesses of the bolts or screws for which the nuts
are made; therefore a nut to fit a screw one inch thick is termed an inch-nut, although it may
be two inches or more in diameter.
After forging, nuts next require screwing. This is effected either by means of a long taper
tap, shown by Fig 312 or 317, while the nuts are held in a vice, and the tap rotated with a
spanner; or is effected by means of a tapping-machine. It is to be here noticed that whether
hand-tapping or machine-tapping is adopted, a properly shaped long tap should be used, in
preference to two or three short ones, such as are denoted by Figs. 309, 310, and 311; or
Figs. 314, 315, and 316. Nuts that have been properly forged are furnished with holes of
proper diameters for the respective taps; and the holes are also tolerably square to the broad
TURNING, SCREW-CUTTING, AND LINING. 313
surfaces of the nuts, termed faces. Consequently, when they have been tapped by allowing
them to travel freely along without improper hindrance, the screws are also square to the faces,
as intended.
Gun-metal nuts are usually cast without holes, unless they are of comparative large sizes,
such as inch and a half or two inches in diameter. Some classes of gun-metal nuts are furnished
with flanges, and resemble those denoted by Figs. 942 and 943. A nut withouta hole is shown
by Fig 943; and on the top of this a couple of lines are shown for indicating the centre, in
order to mark it for drilling. Two cross-lines of this sort are sufficient to show the centre,
supposing that the nut is regularly formed ; in which case, two straight lines from four corners
will intersect at the centre, as represented in the comparative large Fig. 944. At the centre
a deep dot is put with a coning-punch, and from it a circle is scribed of the same diameter as
the intended hole; this is dotted as seen in the Figure, and becomes a gauge-circle to which the
drill-point is made central for drilling. The opposite or flange side of the nut is easily marked
with a similar circle, by means of an outside calliper, as before described. "When each nut is
thus lined it is ready for drilling.
The centre of a very irregular face belonging to a nut cannot be found by marking cross-
lines. The lining for such a nut is effected with callipers. Fig. 945 denotes an irregular
nut-face, at the middle of which six arcs intersect each other, and in their midst is the centre
required. To mark the arcs, a calliper is opened until the distance between its points is a trifle
greater than half-way across between two opposite flat sides; one point is then put to about the
centre of one of the six edges, while the other point is extended across the nut-face and a short
arc scribed. The calliper is next shifted to the opposite side, and another arc scribed to intersect
the first one. The point midway between these arcs is the centre of that portion of the surface
over which the calliper was extended while marking; and by next shifting the calliper to the
other four sides or edges, four more arcs can be marked; so that the mean centre of all the arcs,
and therefore of the entire surface, is clearly shown. This being found, a dotted circle is
marked, similar to any other required for drilling, and the lining is completed. In the Figure
the six centres from which the arcs are marked are denoted by the letters C. Those nuts that
are irregular along the entire lengths of their six sides are properly lined by placing them
into vee-blocks on a lining-table.
After lining, the nuts can be drilled so that the holes are square to the faces, by employing
a suitable chuck for holding each nut. Such a chuck may consist merely of a parallel block in
which holes are bored of different sizes. When this is to be used it is put beneath the drill with
one of the holes concentric with the drill, and it is then fixed with holdfast plates, or with little
screws belonging to the chuck. A nut which is properly lined is now put upon the chuck and
held with a spanner, or with ledges situate on the chuck, to prevent the nut rotating while being
drilled.
When several thousand nuts are to be drilled, a chuck should be used which has a couple
of vee-grips. These are caused to slide either towards each other or apart, by being attached to
a screw which is both left-handed and right-handed. The action of this screw is like that of one
belonging to a Jathe-chuck, and causes the vee-grips to hold nuts of several different diameters.
Each nut is also fixed concentric with the drill by the act of tightening it between the grips,
supposing that the chuck is well made and fixed at the proper place on the drilling-table.
Consequently, with such a chuck no adjustment of the nut after fixing is necessary.
Whenever it is specially desirable to drill a number of long nuts so that their holes shall be
as nearly as possible square to the nut-faces, it is necessary to centre both faces of each nut, and
drill half-way through from each face, instead of entirely through from one face.
Nout-Facine.—After nuts have been screwed by some means they are ready for facing.
This operation consists in making the faces or broad sides of the nut plane and parallel with
each other; and also square to the nut-screw, which is the same as being square to the length of
the bolt. The facing of nuts is always executed by turning; and it is needful for at least the
inner face of every nut to be turned that it may be caused to properly bear upon the surface
2s
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314 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
of the object to be held. The opposite or outer face need not be turned except for appearance,
unless the nut is too thick, or it is required to have a specified form.
The instruments required for nut-facing are screw-arbor chucks, and screw-arbors. A
screw-arbor chuck is also termed, a nut-chuck, because it is employed for facing nuts while
it is screwed tight on the lathe-spindle as other lathe-chucks. A screw-arbor is also termed
a nut-arbor, being an arbor specially used for turning nuts. A nut-chuck consists of a
short screw which projects from a chuck that rotates with the lathe-spindle, through being
attached to any convenient disc-chuck which is on the spindle-end. The screw of the
nut-chuck is so made as to be exactly true with the lathe-spindle axis; it is also rather taper and
-very short, being only long enough to tightly hold a nut when screwed thereon without
allowing the screw’s end to extend to the mouth of the hole in the nut. By referring to
Fig. 948, a nut-chuck may be seen attached to a small disc-chuck in position on the spindle-
end; and in the comparative large Fig. 949, a nut is shown which is tightly screwed on a nut-
chuck and ready for facing, It will be seen that this Figure shows the outer face of the nut
wholly free trom the chuck-screw within, and therefore capable of being easily turned without
causing the turning-tool to touch any part of the chuck-screw. Lach size of nuts requires a
distinct chuck, because each nut must tightly fit the screw and remain without shifting while
being turned ; and the chucks are named the same as the sizes of the nuts to be placed thereon.
A nut-arbor consists of a spindle having a taper screw near one end. The screw part is
analogous to the screw of a nut-chuck, being made slightly taper, and to fit some special size of
nuts, and rotate them while screwed tight thereon. But a nut-arbor is used by rotating it and
the nut thereon while on the lathe-pivots; consequently, the arbor is of a convenient length, such
as eleven or twelve inches, and should be furnished with large centre-recesses at its ends, to bear
properly on the pivots.
The nut-arbor shown by Fig. 950, consists of a spindle having a shoulder or bearing for the
nut, in addition to the screw. An arbor of this class has a parallel screw because it is not
required to tightly fit the nut. Such an implement allows a nut to be quickly screwed along the
screw to the shoulder, causing one of the nut’s faces to come into contact and fix it ready for
turning. Although nuts can be rapidly fixed and unfixed from such an arbor, it will be found
that if the nut-face which touches the shoulder is not square with the nut-screw, the facing will
not be effected square with the screw, as required.
One of the author’s nut-arbors is shown by Fig. 951. This consists of a steel spindle having
an end which is screwed and slightly taper, and also a comparative small cylindrical portion
extending from the screw-part. The screw being taper, causes a nut to be held tight thereon
without the need of coming into contact with any shoulder, consequently, none is provided.
The diameter of the stem or small end is considerably less than that of the holes in the nuts to fit,
because ample space should exist around the stem between its surface and the nut-thread, in
order to allow the point of the cutting tool room to disengage from the metal that adjoins the
hole. The opposite or handle-end of the spindle is that by which it is rotated in a lathe, this end
being gripped with a distinct carrier unless the spindle is provided with a carrier as part of the
instrument. This is the case with the one shown by the Figure (951) the end having a hole
formed for holding a sort of lever consisting of a straight piece of iron or steel. A carrier of this
class may be slightly bent after being put into the hole, to prevent it shifting while in use.
Only one face of a nut can be completely faced at one time on an arbor, whether it is
on a nut-arbor or on a nut-chuck. It is therefore necessary to smoothly finish one face and take
off the nut to place it again upon the arbor for turning the other face. At the reversal of the
nut to have the second face turned, and after it is again screwed tight upon the arbor, the
already turned face should rotate exactly true and right-angular to the spindle’s axis of motion.
But this is not always the case; and it is sometimes necessary to again take off nuts after they
have been screwed tight upon the arbor, and clear out dirt or shavings that may hinder the nut-
screws from properly fitting the screw of the arbor. Such hindrances will in some cases cause
the nuts to rotate so much out of their proper directions as to render them after turning rather
inferior to their condition before turning.
TURNING, SCREW-CUTTING, AND LINING. 315
In some cases nuts are shamfered. Shamfering consists in bevelling the corners belonging
to a face of a nut, some having both faces shamfered. The principal reason for shamfering, is to
ornament one of the faces; consequently, the face to be outwards is the one to be shamfered.
That which is termed the shamfer of a nut, is, therefore, the bevelled portion referred to, which
usually includes a small portion of the face adjoining. In Fig. 946 the shamfer of a nut is
shown, and it is usually formed by turning with a tool of proper angle, which is applied after
the face is finished. The angle of a shamfer with the face of a nut, should be 45°, and the
greater the shamfer of any nut, the smaller is the face that has the shamfer; consequently, it
may be seen that the inner or gripping face of a nut should not be shamfered, because it
diminishes the available bearing surface. One of the author’s shamfer-guages is shown in
contact with a nut in Fig. 947. The handle is of convenient size for holding; and the lower
arm of the gauge is comparatively short, that it may not be much in the way when applying it
to a nut which is on an arbor.
The stop-nut shown by Fig. 953, is of a class much used; and the stem or cylindrical part
of such a nut is the portion last turned. After the opposite face is finished the distance to the
commencement of the stem can be shown, and the stem’s length also shown; the stem is there-
ies reduced to the proper size, and the superfluous length of metal is cut off the face adjoining
the stem.
Shaping the six outer sides or planes of nuts, is the last paring-process to which they are
subjected. This is effected either by planing or shaping, while a number of nuts are held
together on an arbor, according to the instructions in page 230; or is effected by means of
rotating cutters that rotate in the manner of a chuck belonging to a lathe.
Turnine or Sprnpies, Rops, &e.
Spryptes.—A spindle usually possesses at least two bearings or necks, which are intended
to constitute friction parts on which the spindle will rotate. The necks of any such spindle
require to be in line with each other; or, their axes require to be in line with each other, in order
to secure a proper bearing upon the pillow-block brasses, or upon whatever other friction surfaces
may be provided. A simply formed spindle is shown by Fig. 954, which is without bearing
collars or flanges, and therefore will allow a wheel, lever, or other object to fit at any place along
the spindle’s length. Fig. 955 represents a spindle with flanged bearings; this is a light and
elegant form suitable for a spindle that does not require any wheel or other article to be slid
along and fit at the mid-part.
An easy and accurate method of turning a spindle that may not be more than about an
inch thick consists in performing the entire turning while the spindle remains in one position in
the lathe. For this purpose a piece of metal is provided which is a few inches longer than the
intended spindle; and after it is centred it is put on to the lathe-pivots and gripped by fixing a
carrier to the superfluous few inches near the lathe-chuck. The piece can now be rotated and
the entire spindle accurately produced in its required length and several diameters without
shifting the carrier by which it is rotated. Therefore any portion of the spindle which is truly
turned circular will be made concentric with any other portion which is truly turned;
so that all the necks it may have will be exactly true with each other, and true with the
other parts of the spindle that are made to fit the lever-bosses, wheels, or other articles to be
connected. A spindle produced in this manner is not cut from the extra piece at one end, until
the whole of the turning and fitting is quite finished; so that it is necessary to carefully measure
it, and ascertain what are the exact dimensions intended; also to thoroughly fit every part,
previous to cutting off the end, in order to avoid the liability of having to centre it for some
further turning that was not foreseen. When the end is to be removed, a deep groove is made
around at the proper place, to allow of an easy breakage. A groove of this sort is seen in the
spindle shown by Fig. 956.
It may be also stated that if a spindle 2 specially required to have a centre recess at each
s 2
s
316 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
end, it may be first cut to the length and centred at each end; consequently such a piece will
require reversing end for end in the lathe, and the carrier or gripper must be fixed to both
ends. .
Rops.—The rods here mentioned are those which are cylindrical along nearly their whole
lengths; and the remarks principally refer to the mid-portions of joint-rods, some classes of
simply formed connecting-rods, and gland-rods. ;
JOINT-RoDs.—A joint-rod having a boss at each end, resembling Fig. 957, is centred with
regard to the portion which has the least metal to be removed, according to rules given in a
previous chapter. It may happen that the straight mid-part remains to be turned after the
bosses and their joint-holes are finished. But in general it is more convenient to turn the mid-
part at the first commencement of the paring, and to next line the bosses to show their lengths,
while the truly turned mid-part is in vee-blocks on a table. By this mode it is convenient to use
the centres of the recesses for adjusting the scriber-point, in order to mark the centres of the
boss-faces, and, consequently, the centres of the holes also. ;
If the turning of arod’s mid-part is the first operation, the bosses are rough, and perhaps with-
out any hole; therefore a carrier of any sort can be fixed to either boss without risk of damaging
it. But when the bosses are shaped, and the holes also, the carrier which is to rotate the rod
must be carefully attached. Such a boss can be gripped with a carrier similar to the one in
Fig. 956; and it is attached by means of two flat smooth packing blocks, one on each boss-face
and both in the hole of the carrier. Grippers are also used consisting of holdfast plates and
bolts. The simplest one of this class consists merely of a plate and bolt such as are seen attached
to the rod in Fig. 958, the plate being inclined towards the lathe-chuck, to conveniently engage
with the driver. Fig. 959 represents a boss gripped with two plates and two bolts; in this case
it is not necessary to put either bolt through the hole in the boss, both bolts being put through
the holes which are suitably located in the plates.
SLIDE-RoDS.—The slide-valve rods here noticed are small and simply formed rods, which
are principally parallel, these instructions being chiefly directed to the production of the
cylindrical parts. The remarks apply also to piston-rods of simple form. Further details will
be given as we proceed to the consideration of the paring operations for large rods.
The cylindrical parts of rods are easily produced by the aid of the long traverse motion with
which every engineer’s lathe is supplied. But it is necessary to ascertain whether the lathe to
be used is in a proper condition for parallelism previous to commencing a parallel portion,
especially if the diameter of the rod to be turned is but very little greater than the finished
diameter. In such a piece the slide-rest tool is liable to enter the metal too far, and make it too
small in some part, if the lathe is not properly adjusted to parallelism before beginning the
turning.. This adjustment need not be effected for a rod that has plenty of metal to spare, until
the tool has been once along the rod, after which both ends of the turned portion are measured,
and the poppet-head is shifted accordingly.
When it occurs that a number of cylindrical parts require turning at one lathe, all of them
should be first turned with vee-tools until near the specified diameters, allowing only about a
sixtieth of an inch to be cut off each one to complete it. After the entire number have been
thus treated, the use of vee-tools should be discontinued, the author’s method of finishing
consisting in finally turning the several pieces with springy tools, although they may be only
about an inch, or less, in diameter.
GENERAL TREATMENT OF JOINT-RODS, CONNECTING-RODS, ETC
It is now needful to consider the treatment of several sorts of rods and bars in connexion
with their respective joint-pins, brasses, and other portions belonging to them.
JOINT-PARTS OF SLIDE-RODS AND CONNECTING-RODS.—The joint-ends of small rods and bars
in general should be made of steel, and be hardened, to obtain great durability. Large rods
also should have steel joints, supposing that the maker has arrangements for making them. It
TURNING, SCREW-CUTTING, AND LINING. 317
is therefore, in most cases, convenient to make an entire rod or bar of steel, to avoid the
attachment of steel ends to an iron mid-portion.
Excellent joint-parts are produced by a final process of hardening, after an accurate shaping
and fitting of a steel joint has been effected. But because of such portions being liable to break
during the cooling, it is usual to harden only comparative small pieces, and to allow large objects
to remain soft.
The gap in the joint-end of a slide-rod is usually so made that the gap is larger than the
end-boss of the rod which is to fit. The joint-nut or other joint-part, which is secured to the
slide-valve, is furnished with a gap of sufficient size to allow an eighth or a quarter of an inch of
room between the slide-rod boss and the side of the joint-gap, when both are connected. In
Fig. 962 a gap having an amount of room for this purpose is shown. Such a space provides for
the future wear of the slide-valve face, and also of the cylinder face; so that at a future time the
friction surfaces can be reduced and flattened without interfering with the relative position of the
slide-rod in its packing-box and gland.
Nuts or SLips-vaLves.—The nuts here referred to are those by which the valves are
attached to their respective slide-rods. A nut of this class is termed a tee-nut, through resembling
a letter T; it is made of gun-metal, and furnished with a thick flange similar to a bolt-head. The
nut is represented by Fig. 963, and in Fig. 964 a slide-rod is shown having a tee-nut attached to
its end. In the slide-valve to be connected is a tee-shaped recess for containing the nut, and the
mode of connecting the rod to the nut consists in forming a screwed hole in it, and forming
a screw upon one end of the rod to fit.
The tee-shaped recess in a slide-valve is deeper than the nut intended to be therein, and at
the first fitting of them together, the nut is situated at the bottom of the recess. Therefore the
valve-nut is allowed a free movement from the bottom of the recess to its mouth, and,
consequently, when all are connected together, a free movement of the valve towards the cylinder
is allowed without straining the rod or packing apparatus. Also, at a future time, the faces of
the valve and cylinder can be reduced for repair, without requiring alteration of the rod’s relative
position. By thus providing a space for the nut and valve to shift their relative positions, the
necessity for providing a space in the rod’s joint-gap is usually obviated; but this space also is
sometimes provided.
The mode of properly fitting a tee-nut to its rod and valve consists in first drilling and
screwing the nut and screwing the rod’s end to fit, previous to finally fitting the nut to the recess
in the valve. Ifthe rod is only about an inch in diameter, its nut can be drilled and tapped at
the first beginning of its treatment; but a large nut requires to be first flattened on one or two
sides, because it may then be quickly fixed upon a lathe-chuck, this being required for effecting
the screwing.
After the nut, whether small or large, has been fitted to the rod’s screwed end, it can be
properly lined in order to accurately shape it, so that its sides shall be parallel with the rod’s
length, and its bottom or flange-part shall be square to the rod’s length. ‘To make the shoulders
or bearing surfaces square, the nut may be put upon a nut-arbor and partly turned, the parts not
turned being afterwards made true with chipping and filing. The nut can also, in some cases,
be turned while on its slide-rod, instead of on an arbor. The right-angular surfaces required for
the nut can also be indicated by lining, and entirely produced without lathe-turning. For this
purpose, the slide-rod having its nut screwed on, is put upon vee-blocks on a lining-table, and
the nut is lined with a scriber-block. As soon as the rod’s length is adjusted to parallelism with
the table, the scriber-point is adjusted to a proper height to mark lines upon the nut to indicate
those surfaces to be parallel with the rod’s length. In order to scribe the lines to show the right-
angular surfaces or shoulders of the nut, it is only necessary to place an el-square upon the
table with the blade in contact with the nut, and scribe lines along the blade’s edge with a
scriber. This latter marking is done while the rod yet remains in the same position on the vee-
blocks as at first arranged. The scribing of these lines, which denote the nut’s shoulders, is of
318 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR,
course not required if the nut is turned, as stated, on an arbor. A slide-rod in position on vee-
blocks is shown by Fig. 965. cay e
When a tee-nut has been lined and regularly reduced to the lines, by means of filing, if
small, or a planing-machine if large, it becomes a sort of gauge by which the recess in the valve
can be chipped and filed if necessary. The principal bearing surfaces are the shoulders; and
these must be carefully made to bear equally upon the surfaces of the recess; if not, the action
of the rod to and fro in ordinary work, will in time break the rod or do other mischief. Steel
slide-rods are often broken at their thread-junctions by reason of improper fitting.
SockEt-connexions oF Rops.—A great number of rods with circular ends are joined to
their respective portions by means of sockets or socket-ends. A socket-end is a tubular boss or
projection situated at one end, or both ends, of an article, and usually in one piece with it. A
socket is always furnished with a hole of some shape, and, although a few socket-holes are square,
the greater number are circular, and are either straight simple holes slightly tapered, or holes
that are screwed.
Ends of slide-rods, piston-rods, pump-rods, and others, are frequently fitted with socket-ends,
and are represented by Figs. 966, 967, 968, and 969. These denote the ordinary classes of sockets,
some being fastened together by screws, and others by keys. Those fastened with keys are the
easiest to connect and disconnect; but it may be said generally that the screwed ends are
preferable for obtaining a maximum strength with a minimum amouni of metal, supposing that
the thread-grooves of the respective parts are not deeper than is needful. The author’s plan is to
furnish all such screwed ends with threads having comparative short steps.
The ends of rods and bars to be entered and fixed in sockets require to have special bearing
surfaces, if to be fastened with keys, that the keys may effectually tighten the respective pieces
together without exerting any improper strain. Supposing that an end of a piston-rod is to be
thus connected, its principal bearing surface is at the bottom of the hole. In Fig. 968 a cross-
head boss is shown, in the hole of which is a rod’s end, This end is of a regular curved form,
and accurately fits the hole’s bottom; consequently, the hole must have been previously carefully
bored to its proper shape, a suitable bearing of this character being required because the rod
cannot be furnished with a flange for contact around the hole’s mouth.
The necessity for making a piston-rod’s end, or a slide-rod’s end, bear in close contact with
the bottom of the hole, arises from the small amount of bearing-surface presented by the shoulder
of the rod at the mouth of the hole. Such a comparative small surface soon gets out of shape
by the action of the rod; and an irregular recess is also formed into the metal of the boss at the
hole’s mouth. This necessitates a frequent driving in of the key, to tighten the rod, although such
fastening is not effectual for any considerable time. An end of a rod that does not touch the
bottom, is also liable to be weakened by the act of keying the parts together. It may, therefore,
be seen that a proper bearing must be provided either at the bottom of the hole or at its
entrance.
An end of a connecting-rod, or of an eccentric-rod, can have a flange, similar to that seen
in Fig. 969; and the rod’s end can be screwed and the flange made to bear tight upon the boss
by the act of screwing the end into the hole. The fastening may be also effected by means of a
key, the end of the rod being fitted into merely a plain hole. An eccentric-rod attached in this
manner is shown by Fig. 970, the flange or collar being tightly forced against the face of the
boss while driving the key into its key-way.
In some cases an end is both keyed and screwed; but keying is quite unnecessary if the
screw-cutting is properly done.
CrossHzaD Nuts ror Suipz-rops.—An ordinary class of slide-rods are those having long
screws at their outer ends. These ends are connected to their respective crossheads by means of
nuts, the slide-rod screws being in the crosshead bosses, and nuts on the boss-faces. An
arrangement of this class is show by Fig. 971. The diameter of the hole in the boss is sufficient
to allow the screw to slide easily to and fro, so that it can be put at any desired distance
through the boss, and be tightly fastened in that particular place by screwing the nuts forcibly
TURNING, SCREW-CUTTING, AND LINING. 319
against the boss-faces. A connexion of this character is very convenient for adjusting the
slide-valve to any desired place on the cylinder-faces; and the adjustment can be performed
without trouble either at the first attachment of the valve, or at any future time when repairs
are in progress.
In order that the ordinary to-and-fro motion of a slide-rod may not loosen its nuts, and
thereby allow the valve’s relative situation to be unintentionally altered, the rod’s end should be
screwed with a thread of comparative short step, and made to tightly fit the nuts. In some cases,
four nuts are used for each rod, instead of only two, two nuts being situate at each end of the
crosshead-boss.
TREATMENT OF STRAPS, STRAP-BRASSES, ETC.
Straps.—Straps are used for connecting the pivot-ends of crossheads with their respective
side-rods; also for connecting crank-pins with connecting-rods belonging to pumps, steam-
engines, and several other classes of machines.
The simplest class of straps, and the easiest to make, are those having arms of equal
thickness. A pair of straps of this shape are shown in Fig. 972. Straps are of all sizes, being
used for machines of all sizes; and the metal of which they are made is forged iron or steel; the
preferable mode of forging consisting in bending a straight bar, as stated on page 33.
Straps of ordinary shapes are denoted by Figs. 973 and 974. These have arms which are
thicker at the ends than at the bent portions, to provide strength for the key-way portions
without causing the other parts to be too heavy. The strap shown by Fig. 973 is one with
comparative thin arms, being suitable for a pin or pivot whose bearing is of great length, the
‘strap-brasses being also of great length, thus causing the strap to be of considerable thickness.
To ensure a proper fitting for a couple of strap-brasses, it is necessary to first accurately
shape the strap. The gap or opening of any strap may be either parallel or slightly taper. A
taper form is preferable ; and the smallest part of the gap should be the bottom. But when it
happens that the bottom is the largest, the brasses will require to be forcibly driven along the
length of the tight or small part, every time they are put into or removed from the strap, unless
they are so much reduced as to fit the strap very loosely when in their places. The small
amount of taper is also suitable for an easy fitting of the strap to the square end or boss of the
connecting-rod, or other rod, to which the strap belongs. The strap should also be rather taper
in its thickness; but in this respect it should be smallest or thinnest at the entrance of the gap
or extremities of the arms.
Large straps are sometimes made of blocks of steel or iron in which gaps are formed by
drilling and slotting. This mode avoids a tedious bending of thick heavy pieces of metal; and
the forging consists in well closing the particles of the lumps and trimming them with chiselling,
to produce the curved form for the ends which will be the outer portions of the straps when
made. A strap-lump of this class is shown by Fig. 979.
The first treatment of straps after forging consists in shaping their gaps; the outer surfaces
not being shaped until the gaps are finished, or at least finished excepting filmg. The gaps are
formed by drilling or lathe-boring, and by planing or slotting. Those straps that possess
solid lumps which are to be cut out, require a sort of preliminary planing of their two broad
sides to make them parallel with each other and fit for lining. Two flat surfaces are thus formed
on which the intended shape and dimensions for the strap can be scribed. The lumps are next
drilled or bored, to accurately form the desired half-round bottoms of the gaps. This process
makes a round hole at the bottom of the intended gap, and causes the strap lump to resemble
Fig. 980. A row of holes are next drilled along each arm of the strap, as denoted in the Figure,
extending to the already finished circular hole. The piece is now ready to have the superfluous
middle removed by a grooving-tool of a planing-machine or a slotting-machine, according to
circumstances. When the strap happens to be small enough, chiselling is adopted for separating
the middle piece instead of employing a machine.
The gap of a strap can be almost finished with planing, if proper care is exercised at the
320 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
fixings, and the measurements are properly conducted. The strap should have both sides of its
gap finished while it remains in one position on the table; this will cause the gap to be parallel,
and the cutting tools can be easily adjusted to the already finished half-round surface at the
bottom of the gap. After a gap has been planed parallel, the small amount of enlargement at
the mouth to taper it as directed, can be easily performed with filing.
After the gap is completed the entire outer surface should be smoothly reduced to the
desired form, and made parallel with the finished gap-surface. Each strap is to be next fitted to
its rod or bar by reducing the rod’s end to the exact width required. Yor an easy fitting of a
large rod it is convenient to support it on vee-blocks on a planing-machine; and after scribing
the width of the strap’s gap upon the rod’s end, the metal is planed off with regard to the lines,
and by using inside callipers and outside ones near the conclusion of the planing. The strap is
next tried upon the square end while the rod yet remains fastened as when being planed;
consequently, the strap can be placed on and taken off several times without removing the
rod from the machine. By this mode, a large rod’s end can be accurately reduced until the
strap will slide a short distance upon the end, and a very little subsequent filing will suffice to
complete the fitting.
As soon as the strap is fitted to its rod, the keyway can be made, and the keys partly fitted
thereto. During this operation the strap is kept in its proper place on the rod by means of a
packing piece which is fixed between the surface at the bottom of the gap and the flat extremity
of the square boss. The length of this piece is about the same as that of the brasses; conse-
quently, while in position it is fixed by the act of tightening the key. A strap keyed to its rod
by means of a packing-piece is shown by Fig. 974; in which condition it is held while the edges
are planed.
"The next step is to plane both the broad sides of the rod’s end and the narrow sides or
edges of the strap’s arms; this being done while the strap is keyed to its rod and the rod supported
on vee-blocks, in a situation similar to that occupied while it was being planed to fit the strap.
This planing makes the rectangular boss of the rod parallel, and, consequently, the narrow sides
of the strap’s arms are also made parallel with each other. It is therefore needful to afterwards
taper the strap slightly with filing, when it is apart from its rod or bar. This tapering is that
before referred to for making the strap thinner at its extremity, which will allow an easy fitting
of the flanges belonging to the brasses.
It is next needful to ascertain the exact intended length of the connecting-rod or bar in
progress ; the particular distance here referred to being the length between the centre of the hole
in the brasses at one end and the centre of the hole in the brasses at the other end, supposing
that the rod is being fitted with a strap at each end. If a fork-end connecting-rod is in hand,
the distance referred to is the length between the centre of the brasses at the strap-end and the
centre of gudgeon-hole at the fork-end. For a rod having a strap at each end, the length is
indicated as shown in Fig. 975. A radius-gauge is adjusted to the length, and its points can be
used for reference, and for scribing the length at two opposite sides, by means of an ender
or packing-piece of some kind which is fixed for the purpose. It is also needful to show
the length on the narrow sides of each arm. Therefore, after the centres have been scribed, an
el-square is used, and its blade is put to the centre while the pedestal is put to the planed outer
surface of the strap. When the square is placed, a line is scribed along the blade’s edge upon
the arms of the strap. This line is seen on the narrow surfaces of the straps denoted by Figs,
976 and 977; both sides of the strap are thus marked, and the lines become gauge-lines to be
afterwards used when fitting the brasses. These lines may be termed length-marks.
Firrine or STRAP-BRASSES.—Strap-brasses should be fitted to their straps with regard to
the length-marks shown on the straps’ edges. The bottom brass is first made to bear properly
upon the bottom of the gap; after which, the intended face of the brass can be shown by
reference to the length-marks. Whatever superfluous metal is seen beyond these marks, is the
amount to be planed off or by other means cut off the brass. The other brass is next fitted
down until its face touches the face of the first one. The amount of metal to be cut off the
TURNING, SCREW-CUTTING, AND LINING. 321
faces of both brasses, depends on their thickness, arid: the room to be allowed between the brasses
and the rod’s extremity.
If the two brasses are fitted to the right places, the two faces or surfaces which touch each
other will exactly coincide with the length-marks on the strap, which indicate the centre of the
entrance of the hole when bored. Consequently, each brass when bored will possess a semi-
cylindrical gap, instead of one brass having a gap deeper than the other. If the required centre
of the hole is not first shown on the strap previous to fitting the brasses, it may happen that the
gap in one brass when bored will be an eighth or a quarter of an inch deeper than the other.
This irregularity causes a large amount of filing and improper reduction of that brass having
the deepest gap, in order to fit it to its spindle or crank-pin, although the hole may have been
bored to the proper diameter. . :
Linine or Strap-Brasszs.—After a couple of brasses are properly fitted into their strap,
they should appear as in Fig. 982, the faces being quite close together, and both brasses tightly
fixed in their places by means of packing-pieces in contact with the key. They can now be pro-
perly prepared for lathe-boring by a suitable lining. The lining commences by fixing a wood
ender at one mouth of the rough hole; and a centre-dot is put into the ender at a point exactly
coinciding with the length-marks on the strap, when it is known that these marks are carefully
put at the proper places; if not, it is now needful to accurately mark the centre of the required
hole by an additional measurement, or by using the radius-gauge as before.
It is now requisite to ascertain the centre of the gap in the strap, and indicate it on the
brasses. This is necessary in order to cause them to be so bored that an equal thickness of
metal shall exist at either side when bored. The simplest mode of showing the gap’s centre is
performed with a straight-edge and scriber. A thin flexible straight-edge is used, and while in
position it appears as in the Figure (982), being denoted by S. One edge of the tool is first put
into close contact with the strap’s inner plane surface, and it is there held by the operator or an
assistant while the opposite end of it is bent sufficient to make it touch both brasses. A line is now
marked upon the brasses by moving a scriber along the straight-edge, which line will indicate
one of the gap’s sides. In the Figure, on the left of the brasses, a dotted line is seen, which has
been marked by placing the straight-edge as directed; and the tool is now shown situate at the
opposite side, in position for scribing another line. When the two lines are scribed both sides
of the gap are indicated ; and the centre of the gap can now be easily shown by placing a
compass-point to each line.
When a thin flexible straight-edge is not available, and the strap is not too heavy, the sides
of the gap can be easily shown on the brasses by means of a parallel block or blocks on a lining-
table. By this mode, the strap is held with its inner surface on the top of a block having a
ledge extending into the gap of the strap. While resting on the block, the point of a scriber-
block on the table is adjusted to the exact height of the strap’s inner surfaces, and the two required
lines showing the gap-sides, are scribed upon the brasses. These lines resemble those scribed by
means of a straight-edge as before described. If a parallel block having a ledge is not acces-
sible, two blocks may be selected, a thick one and a thin one, the thin one being put upon the
top of the thick one, and the strap put above both.
As soon as the centre of the hole required in the brasses is shown, with regard to both the
centre of the gap, and the length of the rod, a circle can be scribed showing the diameter to which
the brasses are to be bored. Another circle also is usually marked, of larger diameter, and this is
that which is used for adjusting the strap to be bored.
Borine or Srrap-Brasses.—Strap-brasses are bored while they remain tightly keyed in
their respective straps as when they were being lined. They may be bored either on an ordinary
disc-chuck in a lathe, or on a table of a drilling-machine or boring-machine.
In order to cause the hole of a couple of brasses to be bored square to the length of their
bar or connecting-rod as required, the smooth narrow sides or edges of the strap’s arms are con-
sidered as standard planes which are to be put parallel with the face of the lathe-chuck, because
these surfaces are parallel with the broad sides of the connecting-rod’s end, and the lathe-
2T
322 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
chuck’s face is square to the motion of the lathe-spindle which performs the boring. These sur-
faces cannot be put into direct contact with the chuck, because the flanges of the brasses pro-
ject beyond, and because a space must exist between the chuck and the brasses, in which the
boring-tool may disengage from the metal. To provide this space, parallel strips of proper
thickness are placed between the chuck and the strap; or, instead of two separate strips, a single
bent packing-piece similar to a letter U, may be used ; but two separate strips are more useful
for a great variety of straps of all sizes, because, when the two are to be used, they can be fixed
on the chuck at the exact required distance from each other to suit the particular size of the
strap in hand. Each parallel strip should be furnished with slots and small screws, with which
it can be fastened at any part of the chuck.
As soon as a strap is put into contact with the parallel packing on the chuck, by the aid of
an assistant, or with pulley-blocks above, it is partly fastened to the chuck with plates and poppets,
and becomes ready for adjustment by the gauge-circle on the brasses. This is effected by
gripping a tool-scriber or pointer in the tool-holder, and adjusting until the point is near the
gauge-circle. The lathe-chuck and strap are next slowly rotated while the operator observes the
point and the gauge-line; and the. strap is gradually shifted with the poppet-screws until the
circular line is seen to rotate exactly concentric with the path of the lathe-spindle, which condi-
tion . known by the pointer exactly coinciding with the path of the circle as it is moved slowly
around.
After the strap is adjusted, it is finally fastened with additional holdfast plates, if its size
requires them; and weights also are bolted to the chuck on the portion opposite the strap, in
order to balance it properly during rotation. The boring next commences with a drill, if the
hole is of comparative small diameter, and a great amount of metal is to be taken out; or with
a borer similar to Fig. 431 if the hole is five or six inches in diameter. A borer similar to
Fig. 435 is only employed for small holes which will not admit a thick strong tool like Fig. 431.
The drill, or whatever tool is used, is held tight in the rest, and advanced through the hole with
the usual long traverse belonging to the lathe, the traverses being repeated a proper number of
times to obtain the desired diameter for the hole. It is next necessary to smoothly turn the
flanges of the brasses, that they may be reduced to the proper thickness, and be parallel with the
strap, and also square to the bored hole.
Some strap-brasses require the mouths of the holes to be curved instead of presenting sharp
corners. The curved surface is necessary to fit a pin, spindle, or gudgeon that is curved at a
corner, for the purpose of obtaining great strength with a comparative small amount of extra
metal. The edges of the brasses are curved after the hole is bored to the finished diameter,
and also after the flanges are turned to the proper thickness. For this curving a pointed corner
tool should be first used, and the curve finally smoothed with a springy tool having a concave
edge of proper curve.
Those strap-brasses that require but one mouth of each pair to be curved are, for boring,
lined on that same side which is to be curved; this causes the lined side to be outwards while
the strap is fixed on the chuck ; so that the curving can be done at the first fixing, which avoids
the necessity of again accurately adjusting the strap to the truly bored hole, after one side is
turned and the strap is reversed. But when both mouths of the hole are to be curved, the strap
must be adjusted to the hole after being reversed, in order to cause the surface of the curved
corner to be concentric with the hole.
O1L-CHANNELS OF STRAP-BRASSES.—The making of oil-channels or gutters belonging to
brasses is usually the last process to which they are subjected. In the middle or other convenient
part of each brass is a round hole, which is connected with the lubricator; and when this has
been drilled the channels can be formed to properly conduct the oil from the lubricator and
distribute it over the surface of the pin which is to be in contact. To cause the oil to spread
over a comparative great portion of the pin’s bearing, instead of allowing it to be confined to a
small part, the brass is furnished with a channel or groove similar to a cross. A groove of this
shape is shown in Fig. 983, the middle of the cross being. the drilled hole extending from the
lubricator. Channels of this character have curved bottoms, and are cut with chisels which
TURNING, SCREW-CUTTING, AND LINING. 323
have curved convex cutting edges, a few inches of the chisel’s end being also bent to a curved
form, to make it suit the concave surface of the brass. The deepest parts of a channel are those
that adjoin the round hole; and from the hole as a centre, each arm of the channel decreases in
depth until it has none at all, each branch or arm terminating a short distance from an edge of
the brass. Such oil-ways will effectually oil the entire friction surfaces, but will not greatly tend.
to waste the oil, by reason of the grooves not extending to the edges.
It is necessary for every oil-way to be smoothly formed, although it need not be straight,
except for appearance. After a channel has been smoothly chipped it requires filing with round
files having bent portions similar to those of the chisels. Such files can be used also for the
final polishing ; or, instead of a file, a piece of round wire can be employed, the polishing being
done by using the tool as in filing, but with emery cloth wrapped around it.
When a uniform appearance is intended for an oil-way, the brass can be properly lined
previous to chipping by means of a card. The card.has a straight edge, and it is placed into the
gap of the brass and pressed into contact until the card is bent enough to cause every part of its
straight edge to touch the metal; it is at the same time inclined sufficient to indicate the oblique
direction of- the intended groove; and while properly held in position, a scriber is moved along
the card to mark a line extending from the round hole. The card is next shifted and put into
position for marking another line; and such marking is continued until the required number of
lines are scribed.
The practice of filing the faces belonging to a couple of brasses, to provide a space between,
should be avoided. Such openings should not be allowed, because they require packing-strips,
without which the keying of the strap brings both brasses into forcible contact with the pin or
gudgeon, and tends to heat and tear the friction surfaces while at work.
Boss-BRASSES. —Boss-brasses are those that fit the holes in the bosses of levers, side-rods,
joint-rods, and a few classes of connecting-rods. Such bosses are represented by Figs. 890, 891,
and a few others adjacent. The boss having an octangular hole, shown by Fig. 893, requires a
couple of brasses each like Fig. 803.
Boss-brasses have no flanges, and are cast separately, in the manner of strap-brasses, each
having a half-round gap formed at the time of casting, unless the hole is to be only about three-
quarters, or an inch, in diameter; in which case no gap is formed at casting, but the entire hole
is formed by boring. In order to cause the gaps in a couple of boss-brasses to be of equal depth,
it is advisable to place length-marks upon both faces of the boss, similar to the marks described
for straps.
be should be fitted to their respective holes in about the same manner as brasses
for straps, one of a pair being first made to properly bear on one end of the hole, and ‘the
superfluous metal next removed which extends beyond the length-marks on the boss-faces. The
fellow-brass can now be fitted to the opposite part of the hole, while the first one remains out ;
after which both brasses should be fitted together, both being driven together several times into
the boss by hammering them with a tin hammer or wood blocks, which will mark the places of
contact, and thus indicate the prominent portions to be removed.
A pair of boss-brasses cannot be properly fitted to their hole unless it is taper, as directed
in page 294. It should also have straight sides, or sides which are rather concave, but not to
any extent convex; a convex form prevents the brasses bearing at the small end of the hole,
however tight they may fit at the large end. After each pair of brasses are made to tightly fit
their boss, the superfluous metal which extends beyond both faces of the boss is taken off, and
the two ends of the brasses are thus made plane, and made to exactly coincide or be level with
the boss-faces; therefore when a pair of brasses are fitted, their length is the same as the distance
through the hole in the boss.
When a pair of brasses are fitted tight in their boss, and a wood-ender fitted in, they are
ready for lining, to cause the hole to be properly bored; and the two surfaces or faces of the
brasses which touch each other will indicate the place for the centre of the required hole with
regard to the length of the rod or bar, spe ae the length-marks are properly situated on
T
324 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
the boss, and have been attended to during fitting. It is next necessary to indicate the centre
with regard to the sides of the hole in the boss, that the lining may cause the hole to be bored so
that the metal shall be of equal thickness at either side. To show this centre-point between the
hole’s sides, a straight-edge is used in a mode somewhat resembling that for showing the centre of
a strap-gap. But on a boss the straight-edge is laid flat, no bending being necessary. One edge
is put to exactly coincide with one side of the brasses, which is the same as one side of the boss-
hole, if the brasses fit properly and no spaces are seen. A line is now scribed along the opposite
edge of the straight-edge, which will be near the centre; when this is scribed, the straight-edge
is put to the opposite side and another line marked; a middle line between these two is the
centre line required, and the point in this line which is intersected by the line connecting the
length-marks on the face, is the required centre for boring the hole. A circle is therefore
scribed from this point to show the desired diameter of the hole, and another larger circle is
marked to be used while adjusting the boss to be bored, in a mode similar to that described for
strap-brasses.
The middle of the boss-hole can be shown also with compasses, if the brasses fit accurately
to the edges of the hole, in which case the points of the compasses are extended until the distance
between is a trifle greater than half way across the width of the hole; one point is then put into
the place where the brass touches the boss, while the other point is put to about the centre and an
arc scribed. The compasses is next shifted to the opposite side, to scribe another arc, the mid-
point between the two being the centre required.
Borine oF Boss-Brasses.—A couple of brasses which are tightly fixed in their boss can be
bored either while they yet remain in the boss, or after they have been removed and again
fastened together by some means. If they are to be bored while in their boss, the key-way and
key are partly fitted that there may not be any risk of the brasses shifting while being bored.
The boring of such is executed with a boring-machine or driller, and the holes are easily bored
square to the lengths of the rods, as required, by adjusting the lengths of the rods to parallelism.
with the drilling-table. If brasses are bored in this manner, considerable care, good boring-rods,
and good cutters are requisite to produce smoothly-formed parallel holes of the exact diameters
required, and to properly curve the edges of the holes’ entrances. When a number of brasses are
to be bored to the same diameter, the boring can be completed with a good rosebit.
Tf a number of boss-brasses of several sizes are to be bored, a lathe should be used. A lathe
will easily produce any exact diameters required for any number of holes, by using the ordinary
slide-rest boring-tools, although the brasses cannot be so firmly held while on a lathe as while
tight in their rod on a drilling-machine.
After a pair of brasses have been exactly fitted into their boss, and the circular lines for
boring also correctly placed while in the boss, the brasses must be driven out and fastened
together again, if a lathe is to be used for boring, and must be so fixed together that they shall
be while out of their boss as near as possible in the same relative position to each other as when
in the boss. To facilitate this refixing accurately together, a couple of cross-lines are scribed
upon the ends of the brasses, which surfaces are plane and level with the boss-face, as before
directed. This scribing is done while the brasses are tight in their places; the lines should be
thin and well defined, that they may be easily referred to afterwards when being fixed together.
The brasses are next driven out and fastened together with clamp-plates and screw-bolts, either
two or four plates being used, according to the size of the brasses. When bolted together, they
are gradually shifted into the proper positions by hammering them with wood blocks. To effect
this, two things must be referred to; these are, the cross-lines which were marked while the
brasses were in their rod or bar, and the plane smooth surfaces termed the ends of the brasses,
They are therefore adjusted while on a surface-table, one smooth end being in contact with the
surface, and the other end, on which the gauge-lines are scribed, being upwards. In this position
they require hammering downwards to keep the bottom ends in close contact with the table, and
they require hammering sideways to adjust the brasses until the cross-lines are seen to coincide
as when they were first marked.
TURNING, SCREW-CUTTING, AND LINING. 325
As soon as the cross-lines are put right, the circular lines also are by the same act put into
order, and the brasses are ready for being fixed on a lathe-chuck to be bored. This is effected
with a thin boring-tool, if the hole is small, and with a strong corner-tool if the hole is large.
Care is necessary during boring to avoid shifting the brasses, because they cannot be bolted
together very tightly without squeezing them out of shape, and because the faces of the brasses
in contact are but small; consequently but little adhesion can be expected. These faces must be
thoroughly clean, and not be in any case convex, but may be slightly concave, to prevent
slipping; they may also be dusted with flour emery previous to fixing them together.
While the brasses are attached to the lathe in position for boring, they are held on a couple
of parallel strips, or on a parallel ring, to provide a space for the tool’s end, and also to cause the
hole to be bored square to the ends of the brasses, and, consequently, square to the two faces of
the boss belonging to the rod. The ends of the brasses are the only surfaces that can be referred
to for obtaining the desired right-angular position with the lathe-chuck ; therefore great care
must have been previously exercised, during the fitting, to make the faces of the rod-boss parallel
with the length of the rod, and to make the ends of the brasses parallel with the boss-faces.
Oil channels in the brasses just treated are similar in shape, and made by the same means
as are adopted for the channels of strap-brasses; the round holes constituting the naves of the
crosses, being either in the middles or sides, according to whether the connecting-bars or rods
are to work with their lengths horizontal or vertical.
THE VARIETIES OF GLANDS, PACKING-BOXES, AND OTHER PACKING APPARATUS.
Packine-cLanps.—A packing-gland is a sort of flanged tube, which so fits a slide-valve rod
or a piston rod that it can be easily slid along the rod. Glands are made of either gun-metal or
cast-iron, and are employed to squeeze the packing tight around their respective rods, and to
maintain it in this condition during the to-and-fro motion of the rods while at work ; by which
means a steam-tight joint or a water-tight joint is secured. The packing is a pliable material,
consisting of hemp or india-rubber; and it is this which grips the rod, but not the gland, which
is always loose. The simplest mode of using packing consists in placing it between the extremity
or bottom of a gland and the bottom of the packing-box, nothing being put between the packing
and the bottom of the box.
In Plate 80 several classes of packing-glands and other packing apparatus are represented.
The simplest class of glands are those denoted by Fig. 984; these are used for small engines,
pumps, and other machines having rods not more than about an inch in diameter. The flange
portion of the gland is hexagonal, and fits a spanner, by means of which it is screwed into its
place in contact with the packing. The portion which is screwed is named the stem, and in
Fig. 985 the extremity of the stem is shown, which is the surface to be in close contact with the
packing. The gland denoted by Fig. 986 is employed for both small rods and large ones. This
is furnished with an oblong flange having a hole at each end. These holes admit two studs,
which are the means of squeezing the packing around the rod, instead of screwing the gland in
with a spanner on the flange. The stem and dish-shaped extremity of the gland is shown by
Fig. 987, which is analogous to that seen in Fig. 985, and acts in the same manner. A circular
flange is sometimes adopted, instead of an oblong one, as indicated in Fig. 988; such being
furnished with three or four holes for the packing-studs.
All flanges of glands should be curved at their corners or junctions with their stems, to
obtain strength without making the flanges too thick. A curved corner of this shape is shown
in Fig. 989.
The glands denoted by Figs. 985, 987, and 988, are situated in their packing-boxes in the
positions denoted in Figs. 990, 991, and 998. The packing-box is a tubular portion that extends
from the cylinder-lid, or other lid, and is cast solid with it. In the bottom of the box is a hole
to admit the piston-rod, and above is a larger space, the diameter of which is about the same as
that of the stem belonging to the gland. In this space is situate the packing wrapped around the
326 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
rod, the dish-end of the stem being in contact. If a screwed gland like Fig. 985 is to be used,
the hole in the packing-box is screwed to fit; but nearly all glands for rods an inch in
diameter, or larger, are provided with plain cylindrical stems; and are consequently forced into
their packing-boxes by means of screw studs. A gland with two studs is shown by Fig. 991,
the studs being screwed tight in the flange of the packing-box, and of suitable length to allow
them to extend a short distance beyond the flange at the time the stem enters the mouth of
the box. }
Fig. 998 represents a mode of forcing the gland into the box by means of loop-bolts instead
of studs. In this arrangement a flange solid with the box similar to that of the gland is not ad-
missible, room being required for the bolts. The loops of the bolts are connected by being
placed upon short studs extending from the box; or they may be connected by short screw-bolts
having plain parts adjoining the heads to fit the loop-holes, and having short screwed ends to
screw into the packing-box. To obtain a proper amount of metal around these bolt-screws a
couple of small bosses may be cast solid with the box similar to that shown in Fig. 999.
In Fig. 998, the situation of a rod in the gland and packing-box is also shown, being indi-
cated by dotted lines. A packing-bush or garnisher, is also shown by dotted lines. This is of
gun-metal, and situate at the bottom of the box and around the rod, the flange of the bush
being in contact with the bottom and its stem extending through the hole. By this means the
india-rubber or other packing is prevented from touching the bottom, and is caused to rest on the
flange of the garnisher, a surface of gun-metal being thus provided for the friction surface of the
rod, because the stem of the bush fits the hole in the bottom, which hole is larger in diameter
than that of the rod. The diameter of the flange of a packing-bush is the same as the diameter
of the stem belonging to the gland, both being made to loosely fit the hole in the box.
Figs. 996 and 997 are comparative large sketches of a gland-stem and its accompanying
bush, the bush being shown by Fig. 997. In each Figure the dished or cup-shaped extremity is
shown, by which it may be seen that the thin rims of metal around the dishes are of suitable
shape to be wedged between the packing and the sides of the packing-box; consequently, when
the gland is forced upon the packing, it is not only squeezed together, but also, to some extent,
wedged away from the side of the box, and into close contact with the rod, by which the desired
steam-tight joint, or water-tight joint is obtained.
For some varieties of very small rods, glands are made without any cup-shaped ends, the
extremities which bear upon the packing, being flat and square to the stems. These flat surfaces
require a comparative great amount of forcing with the gland-nuts, or with the six-sided flanges,
and therefore involve a large amount of squeezing together of the packing to obtain the necessary
grip around the rod; consequently, glands having flat bottoms are never used for rods which are
more than about half an inch in diameter.
Norcuep Guanps.—A notched or grooved gland is one having a number of notches formed
in its outer flange or belt, which is circular. This class are represented by Figs. 992 and 993.
These are caused to operate upon the packing by means of the notches into which the end of a
hook-spanner is placed when adjustment of the gland is to be effected. Notched glands resemble
hexagonal ones in sometimes having stems which are screwed outside to fit the screwed holes of
the packing-boxes. The one shown by Fig 992 has a stem of this sort; but the one denoted by
Fig. 993 is screwed inside its stem, and the screw therefore fits the outside of the packing-box.
A gland of this shape is shown connected with its cylinder-lid in Fig. 995.
The hook-spanners, with which notched glands are adjusted, are represented by Fig. 1002;
and in Fig. 1003 a spanner of this shape is shown in position for advancing a gland upon
its box. ;
Notched glands are used in conjunction with packing-bushes which operate like those of
other glands. If the gland has the outside of its stem screwed, it requires but one bush, which
is situated at the bottom of the box and is of the same shape as the one seen in Fig. 998. Buta
gland like the one in Fig. 995, requires an additional bush. This is necessary because the screwed
hole of the gland is furnished with a flat bottom, which surface communicates the pressure to the
TURNING, SCREW-CUTTING, AND LINING. 327
packing in the box, and because this flat surface is always outside of the box. Therefore, to
apply the pressure to the packing, a bush is put into the hole of the box, the outer end of the
bush bearing against the bottom of the hole in the gland, while the inner end of the bush is in
the box and squeezing the packing This inner end is therefore dished to properly grip the
india-rubber, and acts in about the same manner as the dished end of any other gland.
__ Guayp-Reservorrs.—A gland-reservoir is also termed a gland oil-cup. Almost every gland,
small and large, is furnished with an oil-vessel of.some kind, the simplest of which consists of
merely a concave space or dish formed in the flange. Such spaces are shown in the flanges of the
glands denoted by Figs. 984, 986, 988, 990, 991, and 998. If the gland is large, the dish is
formed to nearly its finished dimensions at the time of casting; but the dishes of small ones are
entirely formed by lathe-turning. An oil-cup of this shape is only suitable for a gland which
is to be vertical while in use, in which the dish will be horizontal, and therefore will hold the oil
or tallow put therein.
Those glands which are to be horizontal, have no dishes in their flanges; but the flanges are
furnished with oil-cups and oil-holes that convey oil either from the cups which are cast solid
‘with the flanges, or from small supply pipes connected to lubricators at some convenient dis-
tances from the glands. This mode of lubrication is also adopted for inverted vertical engines,
whose rods are below and the cylinders and slide-valves are above.
The oil-cups belonging to the glands shown by Figs. 992, 993, and 994, are suitable for
nearly all classes of engines and pumps, whether vertical, horizontal, or oscillating, except
inverted vertical engines with piston-rods beneath, as mentioned in the preceding paragraph.
These cups constitute convex projections extending beyond the flanges of the glands and cast
solid with them. In the interior of each projection, a roomy recess or chamber is formed, the
diameter of which is two or three times the diameter of the piston-rod or slide-rod. In this
‘chamber the oil or tallow is put, and is not very liable to be spilled about, although the gland
may belong to an oscillating cylinder, and the oil is retained in the cup by reason of the com-
parative small hole at the extremity of the cup-portion.
A small gland that may be for a rod only about an inch in diameter, is so cast that the convex
‘projection is a solid lump without any chamber therein; the space is therefore entirely formed by
means of lathe-boring. But the oil-chambers of large glands are formed at the time of casting.
By. this means, all subsequent shaping by boring is avoided, because no polishing of such a recess
is necessary. Therefore the small quantity of shaping which is executed after casting, consists
in merely clearing out the sand, and breaking off any partly detached pieces that may be formed
in the recess at the time of casting.
WoRM-WHEEL GLANDS.—A worm-wheel gland is one that has an oblong flange similar to
that in Fig. 991, and it has also a pair of screw-studs, similar in shape to the studs of other
‘glands; the stem also of the gland is straight, and it is forced upon the packing in the packing-
‘box in the usual manner. But the means adopted for applying the power to the screw-studs,
differs from the ordinary hexagonal nuts and spanner, instead of which a couple of worm-wheels
and a spindle are employed. ;
Worm-wheel glands are indicated by Fig. 1004. By referring to this sketch it will be seen
‘that the screw-studs are fixed to the flange of the packing-box, in about the same manner as the
studs of other glands; and that the upper ends of the studs pass through holes in the flange of
the gland, the same as if hexagon nuts were to be placed thereon. But in the places usually
occupied by such nuts, are placed a pair of worm-wheels having screwed holes in the bosses.
‘These wheels may be termed a species of broad screw-nuts having worm-teeth on their rims
instead of six planes. Both the wheels are rotated at one time by means of a worm-pinion or
worm, engaged with the teeth of each wheel, both of these pinions being rotated at once because
‘both are fastened on one spindle. The spindle is denoted by 8, and has a square part at each
end which fits the hole of a socket tee-spanner, such being used to effect the rotation.
By thus screwing down both the wheels at once, both ends of the gland-flange are forced
down an equal distance with one rotation by the spanner; consequently the studs are not liable
328 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
to be bent and broken, nor the flange bent or broken, which is liable to occur when only one end
of a gland is operated upon at one time. The action of these glands is therefore the same as that
of glands having six-sided flanges, or having notched flanges, similar to Figs. 984, 992, 993, and
995. But worm-wheel glands are more complicated by reason of the greater number of parts.
It is therefore advisable to avoid using them whenever notched glands can be employed.
Those glands which have oil-cups connected to the flanges, and intended for vertical inverted
engines, are represented by Fig. 1005. Such oil-cups are either cast solid with the flanges, or
are cast separately and attached with small screws. The cup may have a lid and be connected
with one side of the flange, as seen in the Figure, or it may be attached at one end, according to
convenience. il-cups of this sort are supplied with oil by means of pipes of proper length, and
having funnels at the ends, to allow oil to be given at any time, although the gland may be quite
‘naccessible to the engineer. ;
Fig. 1006 represents one of the author's arrangements for inverted engines, which is available
whenever the space around the packing-box will admit the free use of a spanner. By this mode
two headed bolts are employed instead of two studs, the heads being beneath in contact with the
gland-flange, and the nuts above situate on the flange of the packing-box. Through the nuts
being thus located, their rotation with a spanner is much easier than if they were beneath in the
places occupied by the bolt-heads.
GENERAL TREATMENT OF GLANDS AND PACKING-APPARATUS.
HexaconaL Guanps.—Nearly all small glands which have six-sided flanges, are made of
cast gun-metal. When a considerable number have been cast, and are ready for the lathe-process,
all the comparative large ones, if they happen to be cast without any hole, should be first drilled
with a drilling-machine to somewhat near their intended diameters; this being a much quicker
mode of roughly boring out a large amount of metal, than drilling it out with a lathe.
When the holes of glands have been partly formed, either at the time of casting, or with a
drilling afterwards, each one requires to be bored on a lathe-chuck, which boring is necessary to
properly smooth the hole to suit the diameter of the slide-rod or piston-rod, and to cause the
hole to be nearly concentric with the outer rough surface. All the glands are thus bored
previous to smoothly shaping their outsides to the exact dimensions intended, in order that
unnecessary alteration of the lathe-apparatus may be avoided.
The mode in which a small gland is held in order to be bored, is depicted by Fig. 1007, and
consists in gripping it in a cup-chuck having three or four screws. During the fixing of a piece
in this manner, the entire outer surface is caused to rotate truly, supposing that the whole of the
surface is to be equally reduced to obtain the finished dimensions. But when it is known that
some stated part has but a comparative small quantity to be cut off, this part is caused to rotate
truly without regard to the other portions; which treatment is analogous to that described for
the adjustment of articles to be planed or shaped.
After the gland is tightly fixed, the boring can be entirely executed with a drill. This is a
very good tool for boring a small gun-metal object, although it may be without any hole; in
which case a drill of proper size can be selected to both originate the hole and afterwards enlarge
it to the exact diameter. The drill is held in the slide-rest in the same manner as a boring-tool ;
and it will be found that, however small the required hole may be, a drill having a properly
shaped end can be easily provided and used; whereas an ordinary slide-rest tool requires a
comparative tedious shaping, and when made, it is only suitable to enlarge a hole which has been
previously commenced.
The oil-dish of a gland is first roughly shaped to very near the ultimate depth and width,
by means of a corner-tool ; and the same tool is also used to turn the front surface or top of the
flange while the gland yet remains in the cup-chuck. But it is not always requisite to turn this
surface until the gland’s entire outside is to be turned; although it is imperative to complete
TURNING, SCREW-CUTTING, AND LINING. 329
the oil-dish at the first fixing when the hole is bored, because it is conveniently placed to admit
a tool-point to the bottom of the dish adjoining the hole. A dish or recess of this class is
smoothly finished with a hand-tool which has a convex cutting-edge of suitable curve.
A gland which is large enough to require a dish in the end of the stem, to facilitate the
‘squeezing of the packing around the rod, requires the top-surface of the flange to be truly turned
at the fixing for boring the hole, because this surface is to be put into direct contact with the
lathe-chuck or parallel blocks thereon, in order to be fixed with the stem outwards, that the
required dish may be easily formed. A gland held in this position is depicted by Fig. 1008.
Turning the outsides of small glands is performed by means of arbors; and also, in some
cases, by means of the slide-rods and piston-rods to which the glands belong. If a set of glands,
bushes, and their rods are to be turned in one lathe, all the glands and bushes are first bored and
dished at one operation. The lathe is next put into order for turning the rod or rods. These
can now be wholly turned to near the finished diameters, and a short portion at one end of a
rod can be smoothly reduced to tightly and accurately fit all the holes in the glands and bushes.
When this end is reduced to the proper size, it is driven into the glands with a tin hammer, and
all are successively turned while on the end of the rod, which constitutes a spindle that causes
each gland or bush to rotate truly concentric with its smoothly finished hole. To allow a
rod’s end to be thus used for several holes, it is requisite for them to have been previously
bored carefully to one diameter; and it is also requisite for the rods to be finished after the glands
and bushes are finished.
In many cases, slide-rods and piston-rods are completely turned to their finished diameters
previous to commencing their glands; consequently, such rods cannot be used as spindles for
turning the glands. It is therefore necessary to provide a distinct arbor for this purpose, because
after the rods are finished the glands are so bored as to slide loosely along their rods, and
therefore cannot be held tight thereon for turning.
Fig. 1009 denotes a gland on an arbor or temporary spindle, on which it is tightly hammered,
and can now be put on to the lathe-pivots and have its stem turned and screwed ; also both sides
of its flange turned, if required.
TurRNING OF CrrcuLaR Guanps.—Those glands with circular flanges or oblong ones, are
usually much larger than those having hexagonal flanges, and therefore need a somewhat different
treatment.
A large gland, or a large packing-bush, should be bored and entirely turned without using
any arbor or spindle for turning the outside, the entire outer surface being turned while the
article is fastened to the lathe-chuck. By this means, the lifting and moving of a heavy slide-
rod, piston-rod, or arbor, is avoided, and therefore the fitting, fixing, and unfixing of an arbor
to the glands and bushes, is also avoided.
Large glands frequently consist of cast iron, and are furnished with friction bushes of gun-
metal. Such a gland is bored so that the hole is larger in diameter than the diameter of its rod,
that a bush of proper thickness may be put into the hole and remain between the cast-iron and
the piston-rod or other rod. The bush or tube is turned to cause its outside to tightly fit the
hole in the gland, and may be bored to fit the rod either before it is put into the gland, or
afterwards.
A gland which is provided with a bush, and is truly made, can be easily repaired when the
hole has become worn too large, at which time the old bush can be taken out, and a new one
put in, without in any way altering the hole in the gland. It is therefore proper to accurately
form the outside of the gland concentric with the hole, at the first making.
The form to which the hole of a gland should be bored for a bush, is depicted in Fig. 1010,
in which the shape of the hole is indicated by dotted lines. It will be observed that the mouth
of the hole in the outer end of the stem is furnished with a recess which is of greater diameter
than the remainder of the hole. Such a form will allow one end of the bush to be rather larger
in diameter than the other end, and when the bush is in the hole, the larger part will be a scrt
of head which fits the mouth of the gland-hole and prevents further shifting of the bush. During
2U
350 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
the use of the gland, its stem will be forced upon the packing, and therefore the pressure will
merely tend to tighten the bush in its place.
he shape of a gland-bush is depicted by Fig. 1011. It may be here stated that a bush of
this form may be used in two ways. It may be turned so that its head or flange is but little
larger in diameter than the remainder, and be suitable for the hole shown in Fig. 1010; or the
bush may be turned so that the diameter of its large end is equal to the diameter of the gland-
stem. If thus shaped, the hole in the gland is parallel, and the entire flange or head of the bush
will therefore remain outside the gland and in contact with the bottom.
In order to turn a bush to fit the gland, it is put upon an arbor without boring the hole, the
arbor being made to tightly fit the rough hole, and when together appearing as in Fig. 1012.
But when it happens that the hole is not cast concentric with the outside, and there is not much
superfluous metal to remove, it can be first bored in a cup-chuck, while the outer surface rotates
truly, and next turned while on an arbor, to complete the shaping.
A bush having its hole not true with the outside can also be turned by means of a middle:
bolt or centre-bolt. This is a screw-bolt and nut attached to the lathe-spindle with a key at one
end, and having a nut and washers at the other end to bear upon the bush and hold it to the
chuck while being turned. In Fig. 1015 a centre-bolt is seen in use; but in this Figure the
bolt is employed to force a bush into its hole. Ifa bush is thus held tight to a parallel ring on the
chuck, the outside can be easily adjusted true, after which a few poppets can be placed, if the
bush is large, to grip the large end while the stem is being reduced. The middle-bolt requires
ample space around it, to allow the object to be easily shifted to the exact place desired;
consequently it may be necessary to first enlarge the hole to a convenient size with a drilling-
machine previous to fixing it to a lathe.
In order to prepare a large gland for its bush, it may be firmly held to a disc-chuck, as
represented in Fig. 1013. It will be seen that the flange is in contact with a pair of parallel
blocks, and that the object is held to the chuck with a couple of plates and bolts. These are the
first fastenings, and hold the gland a short time till other plates are fixed, and poppets are put to
the edge of the flange. At this fixing it is necessary to turn the outer surface of the stem, in
addition to boring the hole for the bush. This will cause the hole to be concentric with the
outside, and will also provide a true surface by which the article can be again truly adjusted on
the chuck a second time.
The second fixing of the gland is necessary after its bush has been fitted and driven in,
when it is again put to the chuck for boring the hole in the bush, unless the bush was before
accurately bored and has been turned while on an arbor, in which case the gland is fixed to the
chuck to have the dish shaped. In order that the gland may be quickly adjusted the second
time, it is necessary to bore and turn the entire stem, at the first fixing, to its finished diameter
and length ; the dish which is to grip the packing should also be roughly shaped, and the surface
or shoulder of the flange adjoining the stem is also to be turned; this is done by means of a
centre-bolt and small poppets whose screw-points bite the edge of the flange, as seen in Fig.
1014. This arrangement allows the flange to be entirely free from plates, and therefore can be
entirely turned.
When the gland-stem has been finished, and the hole properly shaped for the bush, the
gland may be removed from the chuck and the bush put into its place. The gland is next fixed
to the chuck the second time in the same position as before, and the dish in the end of the stem
is now smoothly finished to the desired shape, the superfluous end of the bush being cut off until
it exactly coincides with the cast iron, supposing that the bush is without any flange projecting
outside the bottom of the stem; but if it is furnished with such a flange, the entire dish is
contained therein, and it must therefore be thick enough to admit a dish of proper depth.
Tn many cases this second fixing of glands can be avoided. To do this, it is necessary to
have the bush turned previous to finishing the boring of the gland; and while the gland yet
remains fixed on the chuck the bush must be forced into its place. To effect this easily, it is
carefully turned to the proper size by accurate measurements, and is put into the hole by using
TURNING, SCREW-CUTTING, AND LINING. 331
a middle-bolt. A bolt in use for this purpose is indicated in Fig. 1015, and is of sufficient length
to reach from the lathe-spindle to the outer end of the bush when it is entered about half way
into the hole, which is the condition of the bush in the Figure. On the outer end of it is
situated a plate having a hole in the middle, through which the end of the bolt. extends to receive
anut. The nut bears upon the plate, or perhaps upon one or two washers, and the plate bears
upon the bush ; therefore, by screwing the nut with a spanner the bush can be slowly squeezed
into the gland with but very little hammering, if it is not too large. Hammering should be
avoided as far as possible, because it shifts the object on the chuck; and the small quantity of
hammering that may be required should be applied to the plate which is in contact with the
bush, and given every time the nut is advanced a short distance by the spanner.
The last fixing of the gland to the chuck is performed after the stem is finished, and the
bush also finished ; and this fixing is necessary for turning the outer or top surface of the flange,
and the oil-cup or dish, also whatever ornamental ridge may exist on the flange. This turning
is done while the object is held with its stem tight against the chuck, as seen in Fig. 1016, if
comparative large and long poppets are accessible, and the object is not large or consists of soft
metal. But in some cases it is preferable to put the gland with its stem into a parallel ring, as
seen in Fig. 1017, the ring being of sufficient length to cause the flange of the gland to bear upon
one flat face of the ring without allowing the bottom of the gland-stem to touch the chuck. Instead
of a ring, parallel blocks of proper height should be used for large glands; and this mode of
fixing firmly holds the object, because the broad surface of the flange is in direct contact with
the parallel blocks. The middle-bolt shown in the Figure keeps the gland and blocks tight to
the chuck, while three or four poppets are fixed to bite the stem, as in Fig. 1016. The object is
therefore in position to have the rim entirely turned, and also a part of the front surface adjoining
the dish ; after this is finished, holdfast plates are fixed upon the flange, and the centre-bolt with
its attachments are removed, which allows the dish and ornamental ridge to be turned true with
the rim, because the gland has not been shifted, although the centre-bolt has been taken out.
A very convenient mode of turning the flanges of small glands, and other articles of similar
shapes, consists in first boring and turning their stems, and next driving them into a wood chuck
with the flanges outwards, the hole in the chuck being truly turned to tightly fit the stems, after
it is finally adjusted and bolted to the disc-chuck. A wood-chuck fastened to a disc-chuck in
this manner is denoted by Fig. 1018, and a gland is shown in the hole ready for turning, no
poppets or plates and bolts being required.
Pack1nG-BusHES.—The most usual class of packing-bushes are those like the one seen in the
packing-box of Fig. 998, or like the larger Figure 997. Small bushes of this form are easily
bored in a cup-chuck in the same manner as small glands, and are afterwards completed by
turning the outsides while on an arbor. But large packing-bushes are finished on the chuck,
and are treated in about the same manner as glands that do not require to be bushed. The
bottoms or extremities of the stems belonging to packing-bushes are flat, no dish being required,
through not being intended for contact with the packing. Two fixings in the lathe are sufficient
to completely turn a bush of this sort, the dish-part and rim being turned at the first fixing, and
the stem and one side of the flange at the second. oe
The bushes represented by Fig. 1019 are those employed for the glands shown in Figs. 995
and 1003. Thestem of the bush is furnished with a dish, because this end is to bear upon the
packing. The flange is a thin portion which prevents the bush being forced below the mouth of
the packing-box, and is also a means of removing the bush when it may stick in the hole.
Packing-bushes of this class are seldom used for rods which are more than an inch and a
half or two inches in diameter. Consequently, they are easily turned, either while on their
respective rods, previons to the rods being finally reduced, or while on arbors which are fitted to
them for the purpose.
Sparing or Notcaep Guanps.—Glands having grooved flanges are usually lathe-turned in
conjunction with the turning of the cylinder-lids, or valve-box lids, to which the glands belong.
A gland intended to have a screw on eu of its stem is first bored in a cup-chuck, as
u2
332 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR. ;
denoted by Fig. 1020, the stem being gripped with the screws. This allows the hole to be
finished, and the oil-reservoir to be also finished at the one fixing. While the gland is thus held
the front surface or shoulder of the flange or belt should be also truly turned, to provide a
surface at right-angles to the length of the hole, which surface will be required for the next
fixing of the gland. It can therefore be next removed, and is ready to be placed upon a parallel
ring, as indicated in Fig. 1021, in order that the end of the stem may be dished for the packing,
the surface of the flange before turned being now in contact with the ring.
When the packing-dish is finished the article is now ready for being completed on an arbor,
to have its stem screwed, and the entire outer surface finished, which completes the shaping,
with the exception of forming the notches. A number of small glands can be rapidly shaped in
this manner, if all are first bored, and their dishes formed, previous to screwing the outsides
while on an arbor; but it should be mentioned, that if the holes for the piston-rods or slide-rods
are comparatively short, the glands cannot be caused to hold tight on their respective arbors,
through the small amount of surface in contact. Consequently, it is preferable, when convenient,
to first grip the gland by its flange with the stem outwards, as shown in Fig. 1022. In this
position it can have its hole bored, the packing-dish formed, the stem screwed, and the shoulder
adjoining the stem turned, by the one fixing. This prepares the gland for being screwed into
its packing-box, as soon as this is ready. If the cylinder-lid, or other lid, has not yet been
screwed, it is therefore now fixed to the chuck, and the hole screwed to fit the gland-stem. The.
gland is next screwed into its place with a ring between the mouth of the box and the flange of
the gland, as indicated in Fig. 1023. While thus fixed, the oil-reservoir can be made, and the
turning of the flange and dome-portion completed. By this plan of screwing such a gland, no
arbor is required, and therefore no risk of shifting is incurred while turning.
The notches on a gland-flange are easily made, either while the gland is on an arbor on the
pivots, or while it is screwed tight in its packing-box, at the time the lid or other object is
fixed on the chuck as it was during turning. The number of notches in a flange are usually
nine, eleven, or thirteen, according to its diameter. To remove the metal a slotted grooving
tool, similar to Fig. 457, is used, and it is held in the slide-rest in the same manner as a tool for
boring the hole. But the grooving-tool is placed in front of the flange-portion, as denoted in
Fig. 1024, a small cutter being keyed in the slot. If the notches are to be only about a quarter
of an inch in width, one cutter is sufficient, its width being equal to that of the groove required.
Wide grooves are formed first with a comparative small cutter, and finished with a larger one,
The operation of the tool consists in advancing it gradually into the flange and moving it to and
fro with the slide-rest in the manner described for fluting hobs, in the chapter on tool-making,
with the difference of the article being grooved while on a packing-box fastened to the chuck,
instead of being on the lathe-pivots.
Notched glands intended to have screws in the holes of their stems are always finished while
on their respective packing-boxes, because the holes for the rods are always too short to allow
such glands to be tight on an arbor. Each one is therefore first held in a cup-chuck, that the
screw may be formed in the hole. At this fixing the bottom of the screwed hole is also nicely
flattened, because it is to bear upon the flange of the packing-bush (Fig. 1019). A short
chamber or recess should be also smoothly shaped at the inner end of the screw. This chamber
is shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 1025, its diameter being a little greater than the greatest
diameter of the screw. Such a space allows the points of the screw-tool a free disengagement
from the metal at the conclusion of each advancement of the tool; it also prevents the tool
breaking, and causes the screwing to be effected in much less time than is required if done
without a chamber. This space also allows the gland to be easily screwed upon the packing-box
the full distance required without trouble.
When the gland has been screwed, and the chamber at the bottom smoothly finished, it is
ready to be screwed upon the packing-box, as soon as the object having the box is attached to a
chuck and the screw formed on the outside. While thus held in its place, the whole of the
TURNING, SCREW-CUTTING, AND LINING. 333
gland’s outer surface can be turned, its oil-chamber formed, and its notches made, as before
described for a gland with the outside of its stem screwed, instead of its inside.
Borine-roors.—It is proper to here describe the sorts of tools required for shaping the
objects just mentioned, or for shaping any other objects of similar shapes. The student will
perceive that the same tools are available for operating upon any other articles, in addition to
the glands and bushes just treated, if the forms of the articles resemble those specially referred
to, or resemble portions of them.
The drill which is required for executing the entire boring of a small hole is shown by
Fig. 1026. This has a square stalk which is held in the tool-holder in the same manner as any
other slide-rest tool. The cutting part of the drill is always less in diameter, than the finished
diameter of the desired hole; consequently, after the drill has made a hole which is of the same
diameter as its cutting part, the operator shifts the drill a short distance towards himself, by
working the slide-rest screw. He next again advances the drill through the hole, and thus
increases its diameter. The drill travels in the same manner, and acts in the same way as a
borer, being advanced with the lathe-carriage which is caused to traved by the usual long
traverse of the lathe.
The tool shown by Fig. 1027 is a hand-tool, and is employed for smoothing the curved
surfaces of the dishes, and is applied after a pointed slide-rest tool has roughly removed the
metal to nearly the finished dimensions.
When a hand-tool is used in conjunction with a slide-rest, it is supported on a stalk or.
branch, similar to Fig. 1028, 1029, or 1030. One of these is fixed in the tool-holder by gripping
the straight part and the branch is advanced to that portion of the object which is to be treated
with the hand-tool. The hand-turning is then executed by holding the tool on the branch in
about the same way it would be held on the tee-piece of a hand-rest. It may, therefore, be seen
that the use of a branch in a slide-rest, avoids the necessity of placing a hand-rest and tee-piece
into the requisite situations; and also that a small amount of hand turning can be easily
performed without fixing any apparatus except the branch. These stalks or branches are also
termed dummies,
Fig. 1032 represents a boring-tool for shaping a hole having a flat bottom, such as that of a
gland with the inside of its stem screwed. The point of the tool is the most prominent portion
when fixed in the tool holder; therefore the shape of the end allows it to both bore the hole
and flatten the bottom. After the bottom of such a piece is finished, the tool shown by Fig.
1033 may be required. This is a grooving tool having a bent end for grooving the bottom of a
gland hole previous to being screwed. A space of this sort was mentioned as being necessary to
facilitate the screwing, and can be formed with the tool shown, because its cutting part is the
most prominent part, and will therefore cut at the extreme inner end or corner of the hole,
without coming into contact with the bottom surface, which is already smoothly finished.
A screw-tool which is suitable for screwing the outside of a gland-stem, is denoted by
Fig. 1034. This has only one point, and is fixed in the position of a boring tool in the slide-
rest, when required for use; but with the cutting end outside and in front of the object, instead
of in the hole, the stalk of the tool being gripped in the front side of the tool-holder in the place
occupied by the dummy in Fig. 1031.
To allow the end of a screw-tool to easily disengage from the metal at that end of the screw
adjoining the flange of a gland, or a similar shoulder of some other object, a groove having a
curved bottom is formed close to the shoulder, into which the screw-tool enters, previous to
being removed out from the object being screwed. Such grooves are represented in Fig. 1036,
and are made with a tool resembling Fig. 1035 previous to beginning the screwing.
A screw-tool for screwing the inside of a gland-stem or other hole, is denoted by Fig. 1037.
This also has but one tooth, and the end is bent the opposite way to that of an end belonging
to an outside screw-tool. These tools are very efficient for commencing and finishing the screws
of gun-metal objects, and especially the screws of glands, because they are furnished with fine or
334 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR
shallow threads. In conjunction with such screw-tools, steel hobs are sometimes employed.
When a hob is to be used, the screwing with the wheels is continued until the screw is very near
the size, when the finishing hob is screwed in with a spanner while the object yet remains in the
chuck. Any desired number of glands or other objects can be thus screwed so that all their
screws shall be alike, and no measurement will be required at the conclusion of screwing. A
gauge-hob of this class is denoted by Fig. 1038, and should be used also for finishing the inside
screws of packing boxes.
A rapid mode of screwing small holes of gun-metal objects consists in commencing the
screws with hand-tools, a quick speed being adopted instead of a slow one, a slow speed being
necessary when the usual screwing-wheels are used. As soon as the screw is ready for the hob,
it is screwed in, and the hole is about as correctly finished as if it were screwed with wheels.
If a number of small stems require screwing on their outsides, they all can be commenced
with hand-screwing, and accurately completed to one diameter by means of die-nuts, the uses of
of these being analogous to the uses of hobs for finishing holes.
TREATMENT OF WoRM-wHEEL GLANDs.—In consequence of the considerable wear of the
screws and nuts belonging to all gland-studs in general, it is advisable to make them all of steel.
But the worm-wheels of glands are made of gun-metal, or of cast iron, and because they require
to have screwed holes in their bosses, for rotation on the studs, loose screwed bushes may be
provided. These can be made of steel, and keyed in the wheels, so that they can be easily
removed when worn, and new bushes put in. But bushes are only necessary if the threads are
very fine or shallow; the threads should be very coarse, compared with those usually adopted
for stated diameters ; and coarse threads for such articles will prevent the necessity for future
repairs.
TURNING OF LEVERS, WHEELS, ETC.
TREATMENT OF Levers.—In general, the bosses of a lever are both bored and their outsides
turned, while the lever remains on a lathe-chuck. This avoids the necessity of fitting and
handling an arbor with the lever thereon, and is also an easier mode of turning the outsides of
all large bosses, because the slide-rest can be advanced to the centre, and thus be close to the
portion being turned. In this arrangement, the cutting tool will occupy nearly the same place
that would be occupied by the arbor, if an arbor were to be used for the turning.
The first treatment of a large lever after forging, should consist in planing one of its broad
sides. This side is that which is flat, or nearly so, being the side in which the two boss-faces
are nearly or quite level with the arm. This is termed the connecting-rod side, or piston-rod
side, and is the bottom surface of the lever shown by Fig. 1042. While this is being planed,
the lever is held with poppets of proper height, which are caused to bite the bosses and also the
narrow sides of the arm. If a great quantity of metal is to be cut off the boss-faces and the
broad sides, and but little from the other surfaces, which is the case if the lever is properly
forged, the object is adjusted on the machine until the lengths of the bosses and narrow sides of
the arm are square to the table, without regard to whether the boss-faces are parallel with the
table. To put the article into the proper position, wedges and thin packing-pieces are driven in
between the bottom side and the planing-table, an el-square resting on the table and applied
during adjustment.
The planing of the lever consists in making the entire broad side plane ; no boss-ends being
considered because the boss-ends for this side will be very short, if any at all are to be formed.
Large levers are never forged with such short projections, but having one broad side of each
lever flat. Consequently, if the short ends are to be produced, they are entirely formed by
lathe-turning. This broad side is therefore the one which is considered as a primary plane, with
regard to which the adjustments and lining operations are conducted.
Nearly all levers are forged without any hole. It is therefore requisite to first roughly
remove the comparative large amount of superfluous metal in the bosses, previous to finally
TURNING, SCREW-CUTTING, AND LINING. 335
boring each boss-hole accurately to the diameter required. The boring of a large lever com-
mences with a powerful vertical boring-machine or driller, and concludes with an accurate boring
on a lathe-chuck, because a lathe is not so well adapted as a driller to quickly remove a large
amount of metal from the hole, and a drilling-machine is not so efficient as a lathe for a final
correct shaping. But there are means whereby a vertical driller can be used to both commence
and finish a large hole correctly; these processes require special boring and cutting apparatus,
which will be described.
A lever must be bored so that the centre-lengths of both holes in the bosses are parallel with
each other, and also at the precise distance apart which is necessary. This distance 1s the length
of the crank’s throw, and it is marked previous to boring either boss. The marking is done by
means of a primary centre-line which is scribed across those two rough boss-faces that are opposite
to those which are planed.
The methods by which such centre lines should be scribed, are shown by Figs. 1040
and 1041. When it happens that the arm of the lever is nearest to the specified width, four
centre dots are put into the arm at about a sixteenth or an eighth of an inch from the edges in
the places indicated in Fig. 1040. These dots are shown by the letter C, and constitute centres
from which four arcs are scribed, which are seen on the boss-faces. The exact situations of these
arcs are of no importance, but it will be seen that their points of intersection indicate the place
for the required primary line. A straight-edge is therefore put to these points and the line
scribed. It is not necessary to mark the line along the entire length of the arm unless it happens
to be nearly level with the boss-faces; in which case the straight-edge is slightly bent to the arm
while marking. It is also necessary to bend it while scribing the bosses if one is longer than
the other. ;
When the bosses of the lever have but little metal to be turned off to attain the specified
diameters, the centre line should be found by the lining given in Fig. 1041. In this case the
centre-dots from which the four arcs are scribed are put near the edges of the bosses, as indicated
by the letters C, from which points the arcs are caused to intersect and show the straight centre
line as seen in the Figure. It may be here mentioned that the centre lines which are marked
by these means, are also centrally located with regard to the opposite broad sides of their re-
spective levers, because these were planed while the bosses and narrow sides of the arms were
situated square to the planing-table, as directed. Consequently, as soon as a straight centre
line is marked, the length between the centres of the two required holes can be shown, and
dots are put at these places from which to scribe circles showing the diameters and situations for
the holes.
Tt is to be here noted that the length of the lever’s throw is the length of a straight line
which is parallel to the planed level broad side of the lever; but if the bosses are of different
lengths at the time of scribing the length of the throw, the straight line represented by the
distance between the points of the compasses, or points of radius-gauge, with which the scribing
is performed, will not be parallel to the plane side of the lever, and some error may thus occur
in the marking. To obviate this, the scribing may be done with a wire gauge or bar-gauge
having a pointed arm at each end bent square to the length of the gauge. One of these
arms is longer than the other, and is just as much longer as one of the lever's bosses is longer
than the other. With this gauge the length can therefore be properly marked after a centre-dot
is put into one boss, the point of the longest arm of the gauge being put over the shortest. boss.
While applying a gauge with arms of unequal length to a measure for adjusting it to a
specified distance, the length of the gauge must be kept parallel with the length of the rule or
measure; therefore a broad rule of sufficient width is necessary because the point belonging to
the short arm of the gauge will be further from one edge of the rule than the point of the long
arm. The use of bar-gauges for lining levers can be avoided by scribing the lengths of throws
upon the flat plane sides, in which cases it is necessary to plane both sides of each lever to allow
it to be properly adjusted for boring. But it may be said that planing is only requisite for levers
which are very irregular when forged; if the boss-faces are smooth and square to the lengths of
336 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
the bosses and sides of the arms, the lengths of the throws should be marked upon the flat sides
without any preliminary planing whatever.
Where convenient lifting apparatus is accessible, any lever, small or large, can be easily and
quickly lined on a lining-table; the length of throw being marked upon both sides of the lever
with a tall scriber-block while the lever is held up lengthways on the table.
Borine or Levers.—To adjust a lever on a drilling-table for boring, it is necessary to put
the planed side parallel with the table by means of parallel blocks, which are put beneath and in
contact with the plane surface to keep it high enough above the table for the boring-tools to
freely disengage from the metal. Both the shaft-hole and the crank pin-hole are formed on this
machine, and a proper amount of metal is allowed to remain for the lathe-boring. Two fixings
for each lever are therefore necessary on the drilling-machine, although it need not be very
accurately adjusted because its boring will be completed with a lathe.
The modes of attaching levers to lathe-chucks, are represented by Figs. 1044, 1045, and
1046. The first fixing of a lever is denoted by Fig. 1044, in which a lever is seen in position
for boring the shaft-boss, being situate on two parallel blocks shown by B and B. On the front
or narrow side is seen a dotted line, which is scribed exactly parallel with the planed boss-faces.
This can be easily marked with a scriber-block on a table if the lever can be easily moved
thereto ; but a large one may be scribed while it remains fixed on the planing-table at the time
of planing the boss-faces. The line can be marked also while the lever is on the lathe-chuck,
the scriber-block being put against the chuck’s face instead of upon a lining-table. The line is
marked upon both sides, and is a species of gauge-line from which the lengths of the bosses can
be shown, and is also useful to refer to during the adjustment of the lever to parallelism with
the chuck. Supposing the distance between the two faces of a boss is required to be eleven
inches, and the gauge-line to be situate five inches from the planed boss-face, and that this face
is finished, it will be necessary to reduce the outer face of the boss until it is six inches from the
line, which distance is shown by adjusting a compasses to six inches, and scribing a short arc
upon the boss near the face being reduced.
The holdfast plates and bolts shown in the Figures are the principal ones required to hold
the levers, and are attached at the first fixing to the chuck. In addition to these, three or four
other plates and poppets are placed along the arm, as soon as the object is put nearly into its
proper place on the chuck. The piece near the lower edge, is a balance-weight of lead or iron,
denoted by W. This is bolted to the chuck opposite the lever, in order to balance it during
rotation. These weights are of various sizes and thicknesses, so that several may be used
together if needful, that the quantity of metal applied may be neither too little nor too great.
To ascertain whether the lever is properly balanced, it is put with its length exactly horizontal,
by rotating the chuck a short distance without the leather band; the power-gear and step-pulley,
are also disconnected from the lathe-spindle; and if the lever will now remain horizontal while
thus free to move in either direction, the weight of the balance-pieces is that which is required.
While finally adjusting a lever-boss on the chuck, a pointer or tool-scriber is used, which is
bolted tight in the slide-rest. The lever is next slowly rotated and gradually shifted with the
poppet-screws until the circular gauge line on the boss-face is seen to exactly coincide with the
point during any portion of the lever'’s rotation. The object is now to be finally fastened by
screwing tight the plates; and is in position for smoothly boring the hole parallel, and to the
diameter required, which is done with the slide-rest tools. When the hole is finished the hold-
fast plate is removed from the boss-face, if such a plate were used, that the face may now be
reduced until the boss is of proper length. The circular boss-end is also turned to the proper
diameter; and a short portion of the lever-arm adjoining, is also turned, which forms a ridge,
if it is intended to reduce the arm; if not the projecting boss-end is carefully curved to cause
‘the junction to merge into the straight part of the arm without leaving any ridge.
The turning connected with the first fixing is now completed, and the object is next put
into position for boring the smaller hole. This crank-pin hole is to be either parallel or taper,
according to whether the lever is for a middle-shaft or for a paddle-shaft ; or whether the lever
TURNING, SCREW-CUTTING, AND LINING. 337
is to tightly hold a crank-pin’s stud-end, or to contain a crank-pin's outer end. If the hole is to
be taper the largest end is usually that which adjoins the flat or level side of the lever; conse-
quently, this side must be outwards while on the chuck, as indicated in Fig. 1045. By this Figure
it will be seen that one face of the shaft-boss is in direct contact with the chuck, this face
having been made parallel with the opposite broad side when the hole was bored. It is there-
fore necessary to place packing-pieces or wedges between the smaller boss and the chuck, as
shown ; a holding plate also is shown in contact with the boss face, which need not be removed
when other plates and poppets are fastened to the arms, unless the face is to be turned. Through
only a comparative small surface of the object being in contact with the chuck at this fixing, it
is proper to put a scriber-block upon the chuck with the point to both ends of the gauge-line,
in order to ascertain if it is exactly parallel, and to alter it if necessary. Such alteration is
easily effected with a wedge driven between the packing-pieces at the small boss, or driven
between the packing-pieces in contact with the arm.
The boring required to shape a parallel hole intended for a parallel end of a crank-pin, is
the same as the boring for a shaft-hole, being effected with the usual long traverse of the lathe.
But a taper hole must be bored without this traverse ; and the traverse-gear must be so disconnected
as to prevent all possibility of being accidentally put into action by the operator while boring
with other means. The means whereby the tool is advanced in the desired direction, is the top
slide and screw of the rest; and it is inclined until situate at the proper angle with the centre
length of the hole; the exact adjustment being performed after the tool has been a few times
through the hole, and partly bored it.
The attachments of poppets for adjusting levers to the exact required places on the chucks,
are represented in Figs. 1046 and 1047. In Fig. 1046 a vee-block is shown in contact with the
small boss of a lever, so that the vee-gap may firmly grip the boss, and also provide a flat surface
for contact with the poppet-screw point, which will move the lever downwards during its adjust-
ment. A couple of poppets must also be put at the other or lower end of the lever, to move it
upwards; and another poppet at each side of the arm, to shift it sideways. The two packing-
blocks, denoted by B and B, are parallel ones, and are in contact with the arm’s broad side, and
are of sufficient thickness to prevent both bosses touching the chuck.
It will be noticed that the lever in Fig. 1046 is one of a class having the two broad sides parallel
with each other ; such a lever being used for a shaft that requires but one lever to be situate at one
extremity, or one lever at each extremity. A lever of this shape is very convenient for fixing ; and
if the arm is carefully shaped during the forging, the paring should commence without any preli-
minary planing of the arm; in which case the smoothly forged broad side is put into contact with the
parallel blocks, and is considered a primary plane. When. planing is adopted as a first paring,
the lever should be adjusted on a table until the bosses and arm’s narrow sides are square to the
table; in which condition the two broad sides are to be reduced until the arm is of the exact
specified thickness. During this planing, the length of the lever is across the length of the table,
and at the second fixing no adjusting of the narrow sides square to the table is required, it being
only necessary to put parallel blocks in contact with the side first planed. The lever is now
ready to be fixed on parallel blocks on a lathe-chuck, for boring both bosses, and for turning
both the boss-ends to the exact length required, which length can be accurately measured from
the broad sides of the arm, because these were carefully planed to the finished dimensions.
The lever seen in Fig. 1047 is being held tight against the parallel blocks by means of a
wood block. This piece is forced tight to the face of the boss with a flat end of a dummy, or of
another slide-rest tool, which is advanced against the piece of wood by working the top screw of
the rest. By this method a comparative small lever or other article, can be held a short time
until additional poppets and plates are attached.
Boring or WueEets.—The wheels here treated are those that possess arms with which the
bosses or naves are joined to their respective rims, whether they are spur-teeth wheels, bevel-
wheels, or other teeth-wheels; or whether they are fly-wheels, hand-wheels, and others with
plain rims which may require to be rough = when cast, or to be smoothly turned in lathes.
x
338 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
Disc-wheels also are here noticed; these resemble circular discs having bosses in the middles and
teeth on the rims. Such are also termed plate-wheels, through resembling plates of metal, and
being destitute of arms or spokes.
A small wheel only a few inches in diameter, is held to the lathe-chuck with two or three
plates and bolts. These are fixed so that the bolts, and the greater portions of the plates, are
outside of the wheel’s rim, the paws of the plates being on the rim. No other fastenings are
required for a small wheel ; and this mode of fixing is suitable whether the article has spokes,
or is without, supposing that it is to be only bored, while fixed in this condition.
While adjusting a wheel to be bored on a lathe-chuck, two relative positions are to be con-
sidered ; and with due regard to these, almost any wheel, small or large, may be properly fixed.
The first of these positions is obtained when the wheel rim is placed parallel with the face of the
chuck, which is usually effected by fastening the rim in direct contact with a few parallel blocks
situate on the chuck. The second position is obtained as soon as the rim is placed concentric
with the rim of the chuck, and therefore concentric with the lathe-spindle’s motion. This
position is secured after the rim is put into contact with the parallel blocks, and results from the
wheel being gradually shifted to the exact place, either with hammering it, or moving it with
poppet-screws,
In all wheels whose rims are not to be turned, the rims are the portions to be regarded
during fixing, because they are cast to the specified dimensions, and therefore have no super-
fluous metal to be turned off. The bosses of such wheels are sometimes turned to make them
true with the rims, and one end or face of each boss is also turned, to produce a surface at right-
angles to the axis of the truly bored hole.
In consequence of the necessity for exactly adjusting the wheel’s rim, it is requisite to first
hold the wheel to the chuck without placing any holdfast plate upon the rim, because such would
hinder the operator’s observation during adjustment. A centre-bolt is therefore put through
the boss-hole, and this, with a plate or washers in contact with the boss-face, will hold the wheel a
short time until correctly placed. If the wheel-boss is without a hole, a couple of middle-plates
or slot-plates may be put across the spokes; these plates have bolt-holes at about midway
between the ends, so that when a plate is in position, its two ends are caused to bear upon two
spokes, by means of a screw-bolt in the middle and extending through the space between the
spokes to the chuck. While the wheel is held with a couple of these plates, its rim is quite free
from all articles except the parallel blocks next the chuck, and these must be of sufficient. thick-
ness to keep the inner face of the wheel-boss far enough from the chuck to allow room for the
tool-point, when advanced through the hole. The wheel rim can, therefore be now put true
with the lathe spindle by gently hammering with a wood hammer or a tin hammer, while a
pointer or other slide-rest tool is situated near the rim for adjusting.
As soon as adjustment is complete, the rim is seen to rotate truly while the lathe-spindle
is rather quickly rotated ; and the wheel can now be finally fastened with the holdfast plates on
the rim, which will not affect the adjustment, because the rim is in close contact with the blocks
behind. Boring can, therefore, be next commenced, and the hole will be produced concentric
with the rim, as required, although the outer surface of the boss may not be concentric with the
hole, unless the wheel happened to have been truly formed at the time of casting.
_ In some cases, small wheels having arms are fixed for boring with regard to their arms.
This is necessary when the rims are to be turned, in addition to turning or partly turning the
bosses. A wheel to be thus treated is fixed to the chuck with parallel blocks in contact with the
wheel arms, instead of in contact with the rim. This arrangement will cause the length of the
hole when bored, to be square to the lengths of the arms, rather than square to the rim, unless
the wheel happens to be truly cast, so that the rim is parallel with the arms. Wheel-arms are
always cast to the specified shape and dimensions; therefore, nothing is to be removed from
them, except by the ordinary trimming with filing. Consequently, it is requisite to bore the
hole in such a wheel with regard to its arms, to avoid the risk of cutting deeply into one side of
f
TURNING, SCREW-CUTTING, AND LINING. 339
some one arm, at the time the rim is turned; whereas, if the arms are put parallel with the
chuck, the subsequent turning of the rim will either equally reduce all the junctions of the arms,
or not reduce them at all, according to the distance in the metal, to which the tool-point enters
at the junctions.
Borine or Wueets in Woop Caucks.—A great variety of small wheels, not more than
six, eight, or ten inches in diameter, can be easily and accurately bored in wood chucks. A
wheel which is bored in such a chuck will have its hole exactly concentric with the rim, but not
with the boss, unless the wood chuck is specially shifted for this purpose, after the wheel is put
into the chuck.
The piece of wood to be made into a chuck is fixed to a cast-iron disc-chuck of the lathe in
the same manner as shown in Fig. 1018 for holding a gland; and when firmly fastened, the
hole in the middle is truly and smoothly turned to fit tight around the rim of the wheel to be
bored. During the process it is necessary to consider whether the axis of the hole is to be right-
angular to the arms, or to the rim, in case the arms may not be parallel with the rim, as before
mentioned. When it is decided which is to be square to the hole, either. the arms or the rim is
considered to be a sort of primary base or plane which must be put parallel with the chuck.
Therefore a bearing surface is accurately formed by turning in the hole of the wood chuck. If
it is desired to place the wheel-rim parallel with the chuck, the wood at the middle is cleared
out to allow ample room for the boss to extend inwards, and a smooth true surface is turned
adjoining the extreme boundary of the hole which fits the rim. But if the armsare to be placed
parallel, the wood must be cleared out to allow both boss and rim to extend inwards, without
bearing upon any surface, thus forming two circular recesses, one for the wheel-boss and the
other for the rim. If the chuck is now accurately bored to fit the extreme outer circumference
of the wheel-rim, the wheel can be driven in, and when in its place, the arms will bear upon the
truly turned surface of the wood, and the rim will be firmly gripped by the wood around its
outer surface, usually termed the edge.
Wood chucks are particularly useful for boring wheels which are cast without any hole in
their bosses, and which are too small to need a preliminary boring with a driller. Disc-wheels are
easily held, and should be bored in wood chucks, especially if cast without any hole in the bosses,
and consequently in a condition to prevent the insertion of a centre-bolt until drilled.
Boring AND TURNING OF A WHEEL AT ONE Fixinc.—Large wheels are frequently both bored
and partly turned with one chucking, or, as it is termed, one setting-up, for each wheel. Some
sorts of wheels, such as a grooved wheel for a foot-lathe, can be entirely completed with only one
fixing, because only the hole and one side of the wheel are operated upon, the other side
remaining as it was when cast. ;
A cog-wheel of two, three, or more feet in diameter, having spokes, is turned and bored as
stated, with only one chucking, and is fastened to the chuck with plates across the spokes, and
poppets in the spoke-spaces, so that the screw-points shall bite the inner side of the rim. For the
fixing of a wheel of this class parallel blocks are put at the proper places on the chuck to suit
the size of the wheel, and are usually put into contact with the rim, unless it is specially desirable
to turn and bore the wheel square to the arms rather than to the rim.
The holdfast plates employed to hold the wheel should be slot-plates, which allow the screw-
bolts to be easily put at any required place along the slot to suit the holes or slots in the disc-
chuck. The paws of the plates are to be put near the inner part of the wheel’s rim, upon the
junctions of the arms, and this arrangement will allow the front side of the rim to be turned, and
also the outer surfaces of all the teeth, the wheel's rim being at the same time firmly held and
its tendency to tremble greatly mitigated. .
After the wheel is adjusted for placing its rim concentric with the chuck, it is in position for
turning. But, previous to commencing, the boss must be supported to keep it steady and afford
great resistance to the cutting-tool, and to avoid the risk of breaking the spokes. For this
purpose smooth hard wood packing-blocks ee in behind the junctions of the arms with
x
340 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
the boss, and also in contact with the boss itself, if large enough. Both parallel blocks and
those that are slightly taper, are used, and are driven in only tight enough to remain in position
without distorting the wheel.
The turning and boring can now be safely done, and the cogs will be true with the hole
when turned, supposing that the wheel does not shift during the process, or bend in some part,
which it is likely to do, especially if it is several feet in diameter. To avoid trouble that may
result from such occurrences, it is proper to first roughly bore the hole, and turn the boss to near
its finished size, and next turn the rim and teeth. These parts can be now entirely finished,
after which the boss is to be smoothly finished, and its hole finally enlarged to the exact diameter
by removing very thin slices with a sharp tool.
A circular line can also be marked, if necessary, upon the rim at the intended bottoms of
all the teeth-gaps, the line being required as a gauge-line during shaping.
The outer circumference of the wheel and one side of the rim are now completed, also the |
hole and one end of the boss, all these surfaces being true with each other; consequently the
wheel can be next reversed, the side which is not turned being now put outwards, and the turned
surfaces of the teeth put against the parallel blocks, in which condition it is again adjusted to
execute what little further turning may be requisite.
TuRNING OF WHEELS on ARBors.—It has been shown that large wheels are turned and
bored while attached to disc-chucks, therefore for such wheels no arbor is required.
Whenever the wheels in progress are those having spoke-spaces large enough to admit bolts,
the turning of the rims should be done while on the chuck, whether the wheels are small or
large, because a chuck affords a firm support for the objects and prevents shaking; whereas a
wheel on an arbor is devoid of all support, except at the boss, where it is least required.
To properly turn a wheel by means of an arbor, the arbor must be carefully turned to fit
along the entire length of the truly shaped hole in the wheel-boss, and should be as short as
possible, with only length enough to allow room for the lathe-carriage. The shorter the arbor
the greater will be the resistance to the cutting-tool, and the less will be the vibration. It is also
necessary to rotate the wheel with two drivers in the chuck, one opposite the other. In order to
yet further avoid vibration, the wheel is made to fit at one end of the arbor, so that while on the
lathe-pivots the wheel is only a few inches from the disc-chuck. The two drivers are caused to
bear against two of the wheel-arms, and between each arm and driver some pieces of leather, felt,
or india-rubber are fixed, instead of allowing the two metals to be in direct contact.
In the event of a cog-wheel being turned, it is specially requisite to steady it during the
turning, to prevent the teeth being suddenly jerked against the tool-edge, and either breaking
the tool, roughing the surfaces being turned, or doing other mischief. To obtain the requisite
regular onward movement, the drivers are fastened to the wheel-arms, and all backward motion
thus prevented. This fastening is effected with poppets, if the arms present enough flat surface for
the screw-points ; or with clamp-plates and bolts, if the arms are curved. Drivers are fastened
also by- tying them to the spokes with cord, and afterwards driving in one or two wedges to
tighten the cord.
TREATMENT OF BOLTS AND NUTS,
The operations here detailed are those by which comparative large nuts and bolts that may
be three, four, or six inches in diameter, are bored, turned, and screwed. Small bolts and nuts
are screwed with dies and screw-taps; but it will be seen that these processes are those that
involve the use of lathes and their accessory apparatus.
Frxivc or Nuts.—In some cases large nuts are forged without holes, to avoid the operation
of punching them on the anvil. It is therefore necessary to treat all such with a preliminary
boring on a drilling-machine, so that only a proper amount of metal may remain for the lathe
rocess.
: Nearly all the nuts now made are hexagonal, consequently the modes of fixing here given
TURNING, SCREW-CUTTINU, AND LINING. 341
are adapted to such ordinary nuts. Those intended to be afterwards turned on proper nut-
arbors need not have any portion turned while undergoing the first treatment on the chuck, only
the boring and screw-cutting being then executed; the fixing for this purpose can therefore be
done without poppets, by placing holding-plates to bear upon the nuts’ faces. But there are
several sorts of large nuts which require to be entirely turned to the specified dimensions while
attached to the chuck ; consequently, in order to properly set up a nut the operator must know,
previous to commencing, whether the articles can be afterwards turned on an arbor, on its bolt,
rod, or other piece to which it belongs, or whether it must be completely turned on the chuck.
There are two principal methods by which nuts are fixed for screwing, one of which
consists in holding them in cup-chucks, and the other in holding them between poppets fastened
in a dise-chuck. Those that are not too large should be held in a cup-chuck, which allows one
face of a nut to be outwards while firmly fixed, and therefore allows the face to be turned in
addition to the hole being screwed. This mode is convenient for a comparative small nut only a
few inches in diameter or length, because, while in the chuck, the operator can easily see whether
the six planes rotate truly, or whether the hole rotates truly, the nut being adjusted with regard
to either the one or the other, according to whether most metal is to be removed from the inside
or outside.
A large nut which requires its entire turning to be done while on the chuck must be held
with poppets. At least four of these are needed, and if they are too small for the comparative
large nut, six or eight are employed; but a small number of long and strong poppets are in all
cases preferable to a large number of small ones, because small or slender ones bend during the
tightening of the screws, and greatly tend to shift the nut or other object being fixed, out of the
proper position.
During the adjusting of a nut to its exact position on the chuck, a few slightly taper steel
wedges are employed, in conjunction with packing-blocks of suitable thickness. These are driven
in between the chuck and that face of the nut next to it, but not till after the poppet-screws are
partly tightened and the nut partly fixed. By this wedging process the nut can be placed so that
its six-sided part is square to the chuck, which condition is known by applying an el-square; or
if it is requisite to place the front or outer face of the nut parallel with the chuck, the wedging
is continued until the outer face is seen to rotate truly by applying a dummy, which is fastened
in the slide-rest. It will be found that this mode of wedging or packing is necessary for
any large nut which is forged or cast with irregular surfaces, because neither one of the nut’s
faces can be put into contact with a parallel ring on the chuck, unless the face selected happens
to be square to the six planes. One of the planes of a nut is denoted by P, in Fig. 1048.
When six poppets are used to hold one nut, each of the screw-points can be caused to bite
one of the six planes; and if the poppets are of proper length from the chuck, the screws will
bite near the front or outer face, and the nut will be firmly held without any other fastening.
While in this condition the outer face can therefore be entirely turned, because no plate is situate
thereon. If the chuck is large enough, the poppets should be situate far enough apart to grip
‘the six corners of the nut, instead of the six sides. It will be found that a large nut can be
thus more securely held, and that the six sides can be more easily put square to the chuck, than
if the screw-points were caused to bite the flat sides. This security is obtained by usin
packing-blocks having vee-notches. A pair of such blocks are shown by Fig. 1050, and are
made of steel or iron. Each one has a flat side or surface to receive the poppet-screw point, and
has at the opposite side a vee-notch or gap. A pair of these implements will consequently grip
two opposite corners of a hexagonal nut, or other article of similar form. Supposing that six
poppets are to be used, six of the blocks are put into position, one at each corner of the nut, and
in contact with the contiguous poppet-screw. In Fig. 1049 two poppets and two vee-blocks are
seen in use, gripping a nut, which is the appearance presented at the beginning of a fixing
process, previous to attaching other poppets. When all the poppets and vee-blocks are applied,
the tightening of the screw-points upon the blocks will cause the nut to be gradually shifted in
any desired direction across the chuck, to accurately adjust it; but it will not be moved either
342 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
towards the chuck or away from it, because the surfaces of the vee-gaps in the blocks are parallel
with the opposite flat sides.
[t may here be noticed that the stability of the nut greatly depends on the amount of
gripping surface in the vee-gaps, because if no vee-blocks are employed, only the small points of
the screws can grip the nut, and because of such a small surface being in contact, the nut is
caused to move in various directions during tightening, and frequently very much away from the
position desired.
For the fixing of a large number of nuts which may not be of great size, or not more than
eight or ten pounds’ weight each, four poppets are sufficient, instead of six. In this case the
fixing can be effected with only two vee-blocks, one opposite the other, and in contact with two
opposite corners of the nut, as indicated in Fig. 1049. The other two poppets are caused to bite
two of the flat sides, consequently the poppets are at right-angles to each other. But four
vee-blocks should be used, if available, and so placed that two of them are in contact with two
planes of the nut, the flat sides of the blocks being next the screw-points, and the vee-gaps next
the nut.
Borne anp Turnine or Nuts.—As soon as a nut is fixed the outer face should be reduced,
a proper amount of metal being left for turning the opposite face. This reduction of the face at
the beginning of turning is more or less requisite in proportion to the amount which is to be
removed, because if this superfluous part is not at first cut off, it must be both bored and
screwed. By shortening the length of the hole previous to boring, it can be bored and screwed
with but a comparative short length of the slide-rest tools projecting from the tool-holder, and
therefore can be more easily cut, through the tool affording proper resistance to the metal.
For boring an ordinary iron or steel nut an ordinary slide-rest borer may be used, having a
vee-point cutting part similar to that shown by Fig. 1054; but not a U-point, or round-nose, as
it is termed, the small amount of curved part which is requisite being shown in the Figure. In
order to allow such a tool a free passage through the nut, the hole must have been previously
made large enough, either by having been punched, cast, or drilled, supposing that the hole is
small when compared with the thickness of the borer.
It is not requisite to use a solid tool, except for small holes; for holes of three, five, or
seven inches in diameter a slotted tool is preferable. An end of such a tool is denoted by
Fig. 1051, in which small cutters can be securely held, and from which they can be easily
detached to be repaired, or to make room for others, The cutter shown keyed in this Figure is
suitable for boring iron or steel, and has a vee-point slightly curved at the extremity, resembling
the point in Fig. 1054.
Gauces ror Borine Nuts.—In order to accurately bore a nut so that the hole shall have
the exact diameter required, the operator should make or be provided with a sheet gauge similar
to Fig. 1055, especially if a number of nuts are to be bored to one diameter. The gauge isa
piece of steel, if it is intended to remain a permanent tool for a large number; but an iron one is
available for most purposes. One gauge of this class can be made to suit two sizes, if the two
sizes differ greatly from each other, in which case the operator is not liable to use the larger
dimension of the gauge instead of the smaller.
The two opposite narrow surfaces termed edges, of a sheet gauge for boring should not be
exactly parallel to each other, nor quite flat, as appears by the Figure, but each end or point
should be slightly tapered, the taper part extending to about a quarter or a sixth of the gauge’s
length. The intermediate part between the two taper ends, is to be parallel, and of the exact
diameter required for the hole to be bored. It is also proper to curve the edges, which is done
with a smooth file, the curve produced being about the same as that of the hole required. By
bestowing the necessary attention to the gauge while being made, it will accurately measure a
hole, will retain its original size a greater length of time, and will readily enter a hole by reason
of its taper form. By the gauge entering only a short distance into a hole, the operator is also
able to know how much more is to be removed.
The diameter to which the hole is to be bored before commencing the screw-cutting, is the
TURNING, SCREW-CUTTING, AND LINING. 343
shortest diameter of the intended screwed hole, usually termed the diameter at the bottom of
the thread. This distance is therefore the diameter of the gauge to be used ; and while a gauge
1s being adjusted to a proper size, it can be either fitted to a screwed hole or nut which is known
to be correct, or it can be adjusted to some stated diameter to suit the purpose. When one of
the usual Whitworth threads is to be used, the proper diameter for the gauge may be known by
referring to Table 6, pages 178 and 179. Suppose now that a nut intended for a bolt three
inches in diameter is to be made, and that a screw-tap three inches in diameter can be used for
forming the thread, the diameter of the hole should be two and five-eighths inches, as appears by
the last line of the Table. Therefore, three-eighths of an inch of the hole’s diameter is the
amount occupied by the thread, and this is the difference between the shortest diameter and
longest diameter of the screwed hole to be made. ‘This difference is the same, whether the nut
is a three inch one, or a ten inch one, if the thread referred to is formed therein, and is exactly
analogous to the difference in a three-inch hob referred to in Table 5, column the sixth, because
the thread of a three-inch hob is the same in shape and size as that of a three-inch tap.
But the sort of screw-thread referred to in these Tables is too large for a bolt or rod only
three inches in diameter, being too broad and too deep, the pitch being, as indicated in column
eighth of Table 5, 34 per inch. This size of thread is large enough for a bolt seven inches in
diameter, as indicated in Table 7. Consequently, if a nut is now to be screwed for a seven-
inch bolt, the diameter of the hole when bored ready for screwing must be 6% inches, allowing
that the usual Whitworth-shape thread is to be adopted, such as that used for three-inch nuts.
It may therefore be inferred from the foregoing remarks that each sheet gauge requires to be
named in order to indicate two things, which are, the extreme or largest diameter of the screws
for which the gauge is made, and the step and shape of the screws.
Screw-cuttine or Nuts.—The shapes of the screw-tools employed for nuts, are not
dependent on the nuts’ sizes, but on the sizes and shapes of the threads to be produced. The
tools which will cut an ordinary vee-thread into a three-inch nut, will also cut a thread of the
same thickness, step, and shape into a seven-inch nut. For commencing any large nut-thread,
single-tooth screw-tools should be used, because they cut much easier and remove the metal
quicker than tools having two teeth. The tool or dent first used, should be one whose cutting-
edges subtend an angle of sixty or sixty-five degrees. This is advanced into the metal until the
summit of the thread thereby formed is but a minute amount wider than it will be when finished,
in which condition it is ready for another dent, the angle of which is fifty-five. The point of
this cutter is properly curved to correctly form the bottom of the thread groove; and, with this
tool the bottom can be entirely finished, and the entire thread also very nearly finished, if care is
exercised to take off thin cuts at the conclusion. After this the final adjusting and polishing of
the thread to the exact size required, is performed with a cutter or dent having two teeth.
The tool employed for finishing must be very carefully adjusted to cause its teeth to cut
equally at both sides of the thread, and the smaller the quantity which is to be taken out with
this tool, the greater is the necessity for an accurate adjustment. This operation is done after
the stock of the tool is tightly fastened in the tool-holder, when the top screw of the rest is gently
rotated a short distance in conjunction with a similar gentle rotation of the chuck and nut, the
operator observing at the same time when the teeth of the dent bear properly against each side
of the thread.
The dents which are required for cutting the usual vee-threads are denoted by Figs.
1078, 1071, and 1070. The single-point tool shown by Fig. 1071, is made of small bar steel
without any forging, the vee-point being ground until it subtends the desired angle. One of
these is seen keyed in its stock in Fig. 1072; and if the same stock is to be used for holding a
wider tool having two teeth similar to Fig. 1070, the slot in the stock must be wide enough to
admit the widest cutter and also a key; consequently, in this case, it is requisite to use two
keys for one stock, one narrow key for the cutter with two teeth, and another wider key to
fasten the small cutter having one tooth.
In order to avoid the necessity of using two keys, a cutter shaped like Fig. 1073 is used.
344 THE MECHANICIAN AND CONSTRUCTOR.
The widest part of this one is of the same width as the widest part of Fig. 1070, so that both may
be held in the same slot with the same key. But it is preferable to employ two or three stocks
while screwing nuts, so that all unfixing and fixing of cutters may be avoided, except for
repairs.
: The method of forming a thread with two or three tools having the same angle for their
cutting edges is much practised ; but the author’s method just indicated is a quicker process.
Any vee-tool’s point which is caused to advance a distance into the metal becomes soon jammed,
and the capability for cutting soon ceases; and this results sooner in proportion to the smallness
of the tool-point’s angle. It becomes jammed also because there is no room between the extreme
point of the tool and the metal in contact, so that the shavings or slices cut off cannot easily get
away when detached. To relieve a tool-point from this jammed condition while using it for
screw-cutting, it should be used so that only one cutting edge can cut at one time, which will
provide a relief-space between that edge which is not cutting and the contiguous side of the
thread. Both sides of the vee-point are to be used for cutting, but alternately, and in con-
junction with the gradual advancement of the tool into the metal. To effect this result, the
operator must carefully shift the tool-point to and fro by rotating the top screw of the slide-
rest.
But although the alternate cutting of the tool’s two edges greatly facilitates the production
of the thread, it is not the less necessary to employ a tool with a point of sixty or sixty-five
degrees, because such a comparative broad point is stronger and less liable to break than a
comparative sharp point of fifty-five degrees. For the making of very large vee-threads, such as
those having only two or three steps per inch, the point of the cutter or dent first used should
have an angle of seventy, rather than sixty-five degrees.
GaucEes ror Nut-scrEwinc.—For the purpose of properly measuring nut-screws during
the screw-cutting, two or three sorts of gauges are employed. These consist of sheet gauges, wire
gauges, the author's valin, and the screwed gauges, such as hobs, taps, and plugs.
The simplest mode of measuring a nut-screw consists in using the flat sheet gauge, to
which the hole was bored. If this method of measuring is adopted, the hole to be screwed is
bored so that the gauge fits tight therein, a minute quantity of metal being left for the screw-
tool to remove while finally adjusting the smallest diameter of the screw to the finished size. In
order to make a number of nut-screws to one exact size, by means of a sheet gauge, a two-teeth
screw-tool must be used which has been properly cut with a hob, to make the two teeth to the
exact required shape and length; consequently, if the screw-cutting is continued with such a tool
until the sheet gauge will exactly fit the smallest diameter of the screw, the largest diameter of
it must be that which is required, if the right tool is used, because its teeth are of a known and
prescribed length, and therefore extend into the metal a known distance. A sheet gauge in use
for measuring a nut is shown in Fig. 1056.
A wire gauge for screw-cutting is a piece of wire pointed at each end, and should be of
steel, to avoid the risk of wearing the points, and thereby making the gauge too short while in
use. The length from one extreme to the cther is not analogous to the extreme diameter of a
sheet gauge, because a wire gauge is intended to measure the largest diameter of the screw, and
not the smallest. The length of the wire is a trifle greater than the greatest diameter of the
intended screw, and this trifle is more or less according to the relation between the diameter of
the hole and the step of the thread to be cut. The points of the gauge are smoothly filed and
thinned to exactly fit the bottom of the nut’s thread-groove; consequently the points should not
be circular, but oblong, in order that about an eighth of an inch of surface may exist for contact
with the bottom of the groove during measurement. A piece of wire thus shaped can be gently
screwed into the nut as soon as the groove is deep enough, the mode of entering the gauge being
similar to the entering-in of a bolt-end. “
machines, 212
machines with two slide-rests, 216
Pulley, 108
Punch, to, 5
Punches for cutting, 119
for smoothing, 120
Punching holes for nut-forging, 22
——. and drifting gauge-rings, 149
and drifting large nuts with steam-
hammers, 22
Punches, 81
Punching of holes in bosses of rods in-
stead of drilling, 32
Planing :—
ends of a cylindrical block, 206
work of various heights and
widths, 213
and lining of bosses, 218
of nuts, 230
of a nut fixed to an el-chuck, 231
the broad sides of links, 224
of flanges parallel with each other,
224
of nuts arranged on a spindle, 230
with cup-chucks, 232
ot two cylinders at one time, 238
of an object to fit by means of
sheet-gauges, 227
of screw-keys, 220
of aright-angled block singly, 223
of crank-shafts, 240
of key-ways, 266
a slot of standard, 297, 298
a wheel after drilling the teeth-
gaps, 289
of tee-end excentric bars, 223
of strap-brasses, 232
large six-sided heads, 265
large guide-slot, 298
of tubular elbow, 223
a strap keyed to rod’s end, 320
a two-piston-rod crosshead, 355
Quality of coal for forging, 18
of steel for drifts, 80
Quick mode of making right-angular
blocks, 222
Radiols, 371
Radius-gauges, 92, 160
Ratchet-braces, 122
Relation of a plane surface to another
plane in the article, 205
Removing hard skin with grindstones,
212
Rectifying irregular shapes of nuts, 22
Recess, 108
Recesses of proper shapes to prevent
forgings adhering to moulds, 80
Recessed blocks for upsetting, 100
Relation between the length of gauge
and diameter of screw, 345
Recessed planing-tables, 241
Rectifying ring while forging, 24
Rectols, 348
Right-angular cuts for shafts, 66
Right-hand corner-tools for gun-metal,
226
Right-angled blocks, 210
Right-hand stock-tools, 227
Rings, 23—28
Ring and plug gauges, 114
Ring slide-rods, 36
Rod, 5
Rods, forging of, 30
Rosebits, 261
Rotators, 99
Round keys, 6, 7
Rod chisels, 7
Rounding-blocks, 82
Roughing entire surfaces previous to
smoothing, 155
Roughers, 130
Rough planing and lining of crank-
levers, 222
Rules of three, 8, 24, 374
Rule for ascertaining lengths of bars
for rings, 24
Rules by author for screw-cutting, 374,
3879
Safe-side files, 118
Sawing out gap-pieces, 249
Semi-hoops, 46
cylindrical surfaces, 300
Selecting a mass of metal for interme-
diate shaft, 55
screwing-wheels, 374
proper quantity of metal for con-
necting-rod, 51 ;
Separating two disc-ends forged solid
together, 71
Scarfing, 5
Scarf-joints of rods and bars welded
with steam-hammer, 89
Screwed keys, 16
Scribers, 109, 138
Scriber-blocks, 111, 140
Screw-spanners, 120
Screwed plates, 122, 194
Scrapers, 118, 184
Screw-drivers, 128
Screwed plugs as gauges, 346
Screw-arbors and screw-arbor chucks,
314
studs, 310
bolts, 216
— nuts, 312
clamps, 84
— drills, 126
INDEX.
Screw-tools, 127, 130
threads, 122
cutting of nuts, 343
—— cutting of bolts, 351
Screwing deep holes, 346
Screwed holes in surface-blocks, 159
Screwing numbers of hobs, 165
the holes of screwed-plates, 195
Screw-cutting gear, 370
Screw-shafts, turning of, 386
Scribe, 109
Scribing outer surfaces of bosses with-
out a bisector, 805
dies while in their frame, 198
Scriber-holders of radius-gauges, 93
Shapes of bolt-ends, 350
Shapers for great numbers of bolts
having cylindrical heads, 82
Shaping of fender-plates, 67
Shapes of teeth for drifts, 185
Shaping of bosses made by piling, 88
implements for forging, 77
—— moulds, 78
moulds much used for cranks, 97
—— slotting, and lining, 243
machines, 254
—— by hand, 246—253
moulds used with strikers, 91
Shrinking collars on their columns, 67
lever-bosses, 863, 364
Sheet-iron templates, 244
Shoulder, 109
Sharpening of chisels, 182
of dies, 202
Short bolts, centring of, 347
Significations of technical phrases, 4,
5, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108,
109
Side-rods, 48
Six planes of a surface-block, 158
Slide-valve-rods, forging of, 35
Simplest mode of fluting hobs, 171
Slide-rest tools, 130
Sliding sectors, 59
Slide-rest tools and gauges, 225
Slit, 109
Shamfering of nuts, 315
Shaping :—
of taps’ heads, 174
of oil dishes, 328
broad sides of arms, 279
outsides of bosses, 271
arms of levers and connecting-
bars, 277
of angular holes, 290
outside of boss with planing, 272
of arms by slotting, 277
—— of guide-slots with shapers and
slotters, 299 :
—— of junctions, 278
the teeth of wheels by planing, 287
—— of levers with three bosses, 281
of crossheads, 282
—— the curved junctions of levers, 301
——- the six planes of nuts, 315
395
Shaping :
the gaps of U-end connecting
rods, 303
of hexagonal bolt-heads, 264
of semi-cylindrical surfaces, 300
of bosses on slotting-machines, 272
—— the gaps of levers and joint-rods,
283
of straps, 319
of notched glands, 331
of links, 357
—— a link-slot with a lathe, 359
half-round gaps with slotting, 302
by hand, 246—253
Slot, 109
Slots in boring-rods, 262
Slot-drills, 129
Slotted stock-tools, 226
Slotting-tools, 256
machines, 255
Slotter and driller for hand-use, 260
Slotting-tools for planing the boundaries
of angular holes, 293
Slotted guide-standards, 294
stock-tools, for slotting, 257
Slotting-tools for shaping gaps, 286
Slot-plates, 217
Slotting of key-ways, 268
of wheels, 270
of gaps, 286
Slotted bottom-tools, 80
Small crank-shafts, 42
Smallest planes of a block to be last
produced, 211
Small wrenches of single pieces, 190
Smoothing with soapy water, 231
legs of callipers, 161
Small guide-standards without slots, 295
Smoothing oil-ways, 323
a bearing-neck, 363
cranks in moulds, 76
Space should exist between lathe-pivot
and bottom of recess, 165
Spanners and broaches, 120
Spanner-making, 187
Spanners with square holes, 190
Split keys, 14
Spindle key-ways, 251
ends produced by chiselling, 249,
250
—— chucks, 217
Springy shapers, 90
—— tools, 131
tools for planing, 226
callipers, 162
Standard measures, 152
Starting and stopping gear, 183
Stock, to make up a, 4
Stockers, 226
Stop-measures, 129
Stalks of slide-rest tools, 225
Stretchers, 67
Studs screwed by hand, 311
Stud-making with two lathes, 311
Studs without plain portions, 310
396
Strikers, 91
Straight-edges, 112, 141
Straight wire-gauges for nut-screws,
344
Straightening of bolts, 21
of long broaches after hardening,
193
of long shafts, 55
the fluted parts of broaches, 194
Squares, 113
Square keys, 15
punches, 187
Squaring heads of taps and hobs, 175
heads without poppets, 175
Substitute for a sheet-iron male-gauge,
228
Successive cutting of a screw-tool’s
edges, 344
Suitable lengths for parallel parts of
tap-serews, 170
Swing-braces, 122
Suitable diameters for bearing-necks
and brasses, 367
Superfluous slices for surface-plates, 154
Suspension of water-cans, 241
Surface-blocks, 158
Suitable angle for tap-recesses, 164
Summary of rules to be observed during
forging, 77
Supporters for forging, 99
Supporting a wheel-boss during slot-
ting, 271
tap-stems in vee-blocks for squar-
ing the heads, 175
Suspending forgings while cutting off, 95
Supplying sand to scarf-joint, 49
Surface-plates, 115, 154
Steel filler for key-head bolts, 20
nut-mandrils, 22
weigh-shafts, 34
taper drifts for key-bolts, 20
ends for crank-shafts, 43
nuts, 28
crank-shafts, 77
Stretching of screws, 200
Stems and handles of socket-spanners,
189
Straps, forging of, 33
Stop-ring nuts, 23
Strain on ridges of thrust-shaft, 54
Studs, forging of, 29
Strap-keys, 16
Stud-plate of link, 58
Stroke, 109
Socket-connexions of rods, 318
Socket-spanners, 120
Socket, 109
Softening of bolts. 21
of main-shaft bolts, 18
Solidity necessary for bolt-screws, 18
Solid cranks, 70
Tables for smithies, 83
for dimensions, 26, 27, 153, 177,
178, 179, 180
INDEX.
Tables of screwing-wheels, 372, 373, 374
of lengths for rings, 26, 27
Table for short-step screws, 180
Tables for lining and centring, 124
Tange for trying surfaces, 156, 158
Take a heat, to, 5
Tap-fluting, 173
Tapering holes by filing, 294
Taps, 116, 167
Tap-planing, 174
Taps and hobs, 162
Tap-turning, 167
screwing, 169
fluting with to-and-fro motion of
lathe-carriage, 174
Tapering of angular holes, 294
of hob-screws, 167
dies with rosebits, 202
Taper holes necessary for boss-portions,
823
Tapering necessary for all broaches, 192
Tap-screws quickly finished with hand-
tools, 170
Tin hammers, 129
Templates, 59, 243
Tempering, 109
Technical phrases, 4, 5, 103, 104, 105
Tempering of taps, 176
of screw-dies, 202
Templates for adjusting forgings, 59
Tee-head shapers, 88
—— squares, 113, 143
handle spanners, 120
square centre-finders, 144
heads of connecting-rods, 234
Tempering drifts with handles, 186
Teeth of large drifts, 185
shaping by planing, 287
—— of wheels for screwing, 371
Tee-end excentric-bars, 223 '
—— pieces for piston-rods, 47
Teeth-shaping by planing resembles that
by shaping, 290
Testing chisel-steel, 182
Trimming-chisels, 94
Three things to be considered for good
smiths’ work, 4
—— cornered scrapers, 119
Threads of piston-nuts and crank-pin
nuts, 369
Thrust-shafts, 54
Thread-junctions, 122
Thickening lengths of iron in horizontal
positions, 10
To adapt a hole of tap-spanner with
garnisher, 121
Tools in general, 102
for lathes, 125
and shaping implements used on
tables, 83
— — for boring glands, 333
Tongs shapers, 82
Top-tools, 78
Tough twisted rods for handles, 79
Tools for gripping die-nuts, 202
Tools for slotting half-round gaps, 302
Top and bottom rounding-tools, 7
Tools for fluting a few taps, 174
for inside threads, 131
Tommies, 128
Tongue-joint, 5, 31
Tool-making, 138
Tools for curved junctions, 279
Turning :—
gauge-plugs, 149
gauge-rings, 150
—— of taps, 167
of bolts, 349
of spindles, 315
of rods, 816
of pins and screw-studs, 309
of slide-rods, 816
of stop-ring nuts, 315
glands on arbors, 329
taper pins, 309
—— of small bolts, 311
of screw-bolts, 312
of studs, 311
of socket-spanners, 190
glands in wood-chucks, 331
joint-rods, 316
cones by adjusting the poppet-
pivot, 168
of piston-rod cones, 368
with centre-bolts, 330
of levers, 334
of circular glands, 329
— wheels on arbors, 340
piston-rods and crank-pins, 367
paddle-axles, 365
straight middle-shafts, 361
for a two-piston-rod crosshead, 357
—— crossheads, 356
plummer-block bolts, 350
single-crank axles, 381
—— two-crank axles, 383
propeller-axles, 386
screw-cutting, and lining, 309
Tube for tempering taps, 176
Tubular drifts, 368
Tubular measures, 86
Treatment of glands
apparatus, 328
Trying of surface-blocks, 160
a rod into a piston, 368
Treatment of bolts and nuts, 340
Trimming of die-threads, 201
Trying squares, 144
bisector, 146
Treatment of crossheads, 353
of levers with three bosses, 233
Trying squares without standard right-
angles, 146
tee-squares with pair of blocks,
and packing-
145
Treatment of straps, 319
Trimming apices from stop-ring nuts, 23
Treatment of worm-wheel glands, 334
Tweer, 5
Twisting axles in furnace-fires, 75
Twist-finders, 141
Two-crank axles, forging, 74
—— arm crank-shafts of single bars, 69
crank axles of single bars, 74
piston-rod crossheads, 57, 354
-—— disk crank-axles of seven pieces,
72
or three linings for one object, 219
U-plates, 217
U packing pieces for straps, 322
Use of monto, 361 ‘
Universal drills, 129
Uses of handles for planing, 224
of spindle-chucks, 235
Unnecessary filing after distortion, 234
Uses of rectols, 348
a sean wearing of lathe-screws,
136
Use of twist-finders, 142
Usual mode of measuring lengths of
forgings, 86
INDEX.
Use of dentins, 347
Upsetting work with smooth extre-
mities, 100
blocks, 99
Uses of centre finders for key-ways, 253
of thin threads, 179
Upset, to, 5
Uses of broach-drills, 262
Varieties of spanners, 120
—— of broaches, 121
of glands, 325
Vee-grip chuck for drilling nuts, 318
Valin, for nut-screws, 345
Vee-blocks, 111, 140, 348
Vices, 186, 137
and vice-chucks, 231
Vibratory strain, 109
Vee-clamp chuck for drilling-machine,
260
Vertical drillers, 258
THE END.
LONDON:
397
Vee-groovers, 127
Water-cans, 241
Wall drilling-arms, 136
Welding, 31, 49, 89
Wedges of hammers, 181
Welding a scarf-joint, 49
a porter, 58
—— tongue-joints, 31
levers to axles, 44
Wire gauges, 344
Wood radius gauges, 160
blocks, 224
Worm-wheel glands, 327
Wood-chucks, 132
grinders, 152
Wheels for tap-screws, 176
for screw-cutting in general, 370,
380
Wheel-teeth shaped by planing, 287
Wheels held with centre-bolts, 338
Wrenches, 121, 190
PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.
Plate 1>
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EREN. Spon 48,Charing, Crogs_-London.
ENGINE FORGINGS
INSIDE SCREW CONNECTING ROD, SLIOE ROD. SLIDE ROD.
©
37
SLOTTED LINK.
SLIDE ROD.
ECCENTRIC ROD ECCENTRIC ROD.
Cc
A
cq a Oe 4
36 o 37
ECCENTRIC ROD.
[ame
ECCENTRIC ROD.
STUD RIVET.
PLUNGER JOINT.
ECCENTRIC ROD.
CRANK SHAFT.
45
E4& EN. Spon 48, Charing Cross London
Plate 3
ENGINE FORGINGS
CONNECTING ROD.
SLIDE ROD
CYLINDER CROSS HEAD
CRANK PIN.
CYLINDER SIDE ROD.
: Es EN. Spon 48, Charing Cross.London.
Plate 4
CALLIPERS.
CAP CAUCES.
Cr % :
Z ‘—_— a
ROUND PIN WITH HOLDER
LEVER BOSSES.
60
E.&FN Spon 48,Charing Cress,London.
Plae 5
ANGULAR CAP TONGS.
ANVIL CHISEL WITH MEASURE.
ANGULAR ROUNDING TOOLS.
CURVED ROUNDING TOOLS.
Es FN. Spon 48, Charing Cross.Londow.
Plaw 6.
ROD CHISEL. SET HAMMER
SMALL FULLERS.
67
: 66
66
\] TO UPSET SMALL RODS
etme neni ta tN
aye
Ex EN. Spon 46.Channg CrossLondon. :
Plate 7
BROAD FULLER.
KEYED WASHER.
73
’ . KEYED NUT
GAP STOP.
SPLIT KEY.
077 ;
BAR MARKED FOR KEYS.
75
SPLIT PIN.
78
FLATTER. SET HAMMER FLATTER
“a 76
!
79
80
BAR FOR CIBS.
TRIMMING CHISEL. Ww : |
&2
EFFECT OF DRAWINC DOWN WITH
CONCAVE EXTREMITY
53
E& EN. Spon 48.Chazine Cross. London.
Plate 8.
BOLT-HEADER. BOLT-HEADER.
\D
HEXAGON SHAPER.
COLLAR
HEXACON SHAPER.
OKC
a4
CURVED-GAP TONGS. SQUARE-JAW TONGS.
|
| VT. EZ
; J
<¢
I8
TWISTING LEVER. CURVING LEVER.
ENGINE FORGINGS
PISTON ROD. CONNECTING ROD.
TrPuST. JKANK SHAFT.
THRUST S-AFT.
=S=SSSSaaaa
INTERMEDIATE SHAFT.
PROPELLER = SHAFT.
E.2.F.N. Spon 48, Charing Cross.London.
Plate 10
ENGINE FORGINGS
PISTON ROD.
713
SOLID CRANKS.
e
KEYED CRANKS.
Plate IL
ENGINE FORGINGS
GUOGEON. 7 CGUDGEON.
725
BEAM. i
GUDGEON RIVET.
BEAM RIVET.
128
727
BEAM.
129
COLUMN.
730
a Plate 12
SCARF-JOINT
VALVE-PIECE
BAR For T-~ PIECE
SCARF- JOINT TONGUE - JOINT ;
eo
182 183
CRANK PIECE
CRANK - PIECE :
136
T-PIECE ann RING-PIECE
BAR FoR SEMI-HOOPS
BAR ror FORK on HOOP-PIECE
741
CYLINDRICAL - FILLER
Plate 13.
CROSSHEAD SMALL FORK-END ROD
IN ONE PIECE.
CONNECTING ROD
CIRCULAR BRASSES.
:
ie sis
| cn
CONNECTING ROD
WITH
SOLID FORK-END.
Plate 14.
STUD-—PLATE. STUD-PLATE.
ag PoQ
SECTOR PIECE.
155
CRANK LEVER.
CRANK LEVER.
160
CROSSHEAD.
ExFN Spon 48. Charing Cross, London.
BOSS.
CRANK-—LEVER.
BOSS
BOSS BARS.
164
BOSS.
Plate 15
EEN. Spon 48,Charing Cross,London.
Plate 16.
PADDLE SHAFT.
WE
PADDLE SHAFT,
PADDLE SHAFT.
PADDLE SHAFT.
SWINGING THe PENDULUM
|
~
I Es ae, A SEES
SESS EES oO
ER EN. Spon,48,Charing Cross. London
Plate 17.
PADDLE SHAFT.
MIDDLE SHAFT.
FORKED PIECES. BAR or FORKED PIECES.
FORKED AXLE. FORKED LEVER.
787 182
INTERMEDIATE AXLE IN ONE PIECE INTERMEDIATE AXLE IN THREE, PIECES.
En EN. Spon 48 Chanrig Cross. London
192 :
CRANK PIECE,
CRANK PIECE.
19S
Rk TW Ss.
ExkN. Spon.48,Charing Cross.London.
Plate 19.
200
BLOC K.
E.&@ F.N.Spon.48,Charing Cross.London.
Plate 20
ROUNDING TOOL.
FULLER. CARRIER.
7 GAP BOLSTER. COLLAR SHAPER.
207
209
ORIFT.
SLOTTED BOTTOM TOOL. PUNCH. KEY SHAPERS.
" eTR
‘
ROUNDING BLOCK. SHAPER. TONGS SHAPER.
ieee as
Rig: aS or
: E «FN. Spon 48.Charing Cross.London.
ROO|f WELODIfe R.
VAY
me
28.
FORK—END SHAPER.
SRR
SER eE
site gt
/
: Ih
Flate 22
ONE STRIKER TQ FOUR ANVILS.,
I. & FN. Spon 48,Charing Cross.London.
CAP CAUCE.
fe Z,
i we
Plate 25
SCRIBER. SCRIBER. SCRIBER.
266 x RET
‘
.
1
DOTTING PUNCH. CONER. CONER. i
269 270 277
DRiLt_— BOW.
ORILL. DRILL.
CONE ORILLER.
COUGE CHISEL.
Ga)
A715
VEE BLOCKS.
VEE BLOCKS.
DIVIDERS.
STRAIGHT EOCE.
284
283
STRAIGHT EDCE.
EEN. Spon 48, Charing Cross.Landon.
Plate 26
STRAIGHT EDCE.
|
SQUARE. EL SQUARE. TEE SQUARE. SQUARE.
] *
HAA
287 288 , 289
cn a gay
SURFACE BLOCK.
| SURFACE BLOCKS.
mi
299
RADIUS CAUGE.
Es EN. Spon 48, Charing Cross.London
Plate 27,
CALLIPERS.
SPRINGY
CALLIPERS.:
wn
o
uw
a
4
4
x=
Oo
CALLIPERS.
307
CALLIPERS
CALLIFERS
= S==tir TUWUAAN Nitta
S.
CALLIPERS.
TAP.
=Salliniiini,:
SS AAAAAANAAANANNAASANY
Mil"
TAP
ea
HOB
B
S
5
E.& EN. Spor 48.Chazing Cross. London.
Plate 28.
HAMMER, ‘ HAMMER.
SCHISEL.
cr
327. .
FILE. FILE.
lle
SSAA
S24
a eee ; FILE & HOLDER. CRANKED FILE.
B26
327
BENT FULE..
SCRAPER. SCRAPER.
Le YF x .
329 337
SCRAPER.
‘ i 2
DRIFT DRIFT
B85 386
PUNCH. PUNCH. PUNCH.
238 339 340
E.& FN. Spon 48 Channg Cross London.
Plate 29
: SPANNER.
347 :
SPANNER.
|
|
SPANNER.
348
BROACH.
O57
BROACH.
oD —a
BSF
BROACH.,
BRACC.
RATCHET
34% S
SPANNER.
SPANNER.
i, wae
S SPANNER.
BROACH.
Me
BSL
BROACH.
(a
Sh
BF
SPANNER.
SPANNER
SPANNER.
TAP SPANNER.
a,
545
ENDS
\
_|
CONVEX WASHERS.
ga
= LOTS SSS)
WLLL E_MisBpéugys
QQ TTF
TAP GAUGE.
HOB GAUGE.
pe sete ae 8) 0
stEM CREW QoINr
548 549
STEM
EE ————= |
Wl a
ea
"
)
MMU
YZ
f 544
ADJUSTING SCREW.
f
POPPET PIVOT.
TA P,
POINT
552
553
E&F N Spon.48, Charing, Cross, London.
Plate 42
TWO EDGED KNIFE FILE. ROUND PPLE. KEYED CUTTER.
556
655
SLOTTED HOLDFAST.
CHUCK. CH UG kK.
HOB FLUTING
E&F N Spon 48, Charing Cross, London,
Plate 43
NUMBERED TAP SCREW HOB FLUTES
LTH TTT
WIT TTT/
ETT
A ATATIAA
566 367
SLEDGE HAMMER
TAP FLUTES HANDLE HOLE
WEDGE
\)
568 oie Zs
569 570
577 573
a
SIDE OF CHISEL DRIFT TEETH
HANDLE DRIFT HANDLE DRIFT
574 575 576 577
SPANNER LUMP
GAP SPANNER SPANNER
579
SOCKET STEM SOCKET ano FILLER
S82
PARALLEL DRIFT
TAPER DRIFT
“¥-
BAR FOR SPANNER
584.
585
E&FN Spon 48, Charing Gress cndor
Plate 44,
SPANNER BOSS SPANNER SPANNER BOSS
587 588 58S
TONGUE JOINTED SPANNER
590
BOSS WITH FOUR ARMS BOSS WITH FOUR ARMS
BOSS PIECE
CIRCULAR BOSS LATHE BROACH
(OUELLETTE THER
SESSA S SSAA ERODES OHSS
WW)
SIC
HOB FLUTING CUTTER SPINDLES
E&=N Spon.48, Channg Cross London.
Plate45
SCREWED PLATE
SS
NCO coc oo7 Yr
600
D1
SMALL HOB
DIES.
(2)
605
DIE BLANKS
609
E
Lp
or ci)
603
BAR. oe:
601 602
SMALL HOB
DIES.
606
DIE BLANKS
)
670
STRAIGHTENING
DIE
B&B 604.
MASTER TAP
DIES.
607
ODD DIES
CUTTER
BEARER
677
BLOCKS.
FRAME
MASTER TAP
DIES.
608
SMALL FACED
DIES.
612
E& FN Spon, 48, Channg Cross, London.
Plate 46
s
CYLINDER. PARALLELOPIPED.
PARALLELOPIPED.
676 : 677
'
LINING.
on
iis
RIGHT ANCLED
END. BEVELLED END.
627
L :
CAUCE LINES. ee
BOUNDARY OF PLANE
Yor ae) es ee ee f
Js
622
Ue
NI
623
LINING,
BEVELLED END.
BAR
Tyron
2 a
= SSS
624
% 626
[ LINING, ,
oy LINING. .
ne
for
627 : ; 628
VICE CLAMPS. VICE CLAMPS. VICE CLAMPS.
LF
637 «
E&FN Spon, 48, Charing Gross.London.
Plate 47
BROADHEAD HOOK TEE HEAD Rae
CROOVED BOLT. BOLT. BOLT. 4
END. y
632
633 Ee
MIDDLE PLATE. END PLATE. MIODLE PLATE. EDGE PLATE.
26 Se SS J oF
638 639 640 641
BOLTS AND. PLATES.
YEU PLATE SLOT PLATE. a -
“642
644
CAP PLATE RIGHT ANGLED CHUCKS.
| i nue
iH 1
WIZ LM A EZ
ny ! TH]! t
| ut -
| (a IL
646 647 648 649
RIGHT ANGLED CHUCK.
SPINDLE CHUCK.
ie,
“4
L
= =— i
2
657
652
E&F N Spon,48, Charmg Cross,London .
TRAVERSE
CARRIAGE
E&F.N Spon, 48, Charme, Cross, Londen
Plate 49
.THE LINING OF KEYS, BOSSES, ETC.
655
658
ie. — J
——
: 657
656
IK es J)
SN
659 (ft
660 667
Kc)
Res Qa
nee nee 665
hh
669 670.
=p DK. 7
E&FN Spon 48, Charing Cross London
Plate 50
LINING OF CROSSHEADS, LINKS, ETC.
672 673
674 eee
676
(fa
679 680
681 682
EX FN Spon, 48, Charing Cross, London,
Plate 51
MODES OF FIXING FOR PLANING.
a —_— ——————)
=—_—_> =e =
_sSlitily ttiitigiig Be
ee ==
686
693
E&FN Spon,48 Charing Cross, Londen
Plate 52
SPINDLE IN A VEE-GROOVE.
SIDE OF A SLAB.
695
USE OF HOLDERS.
-ADJUSTING A PLATE.
ADJUSTING KEYS TO SCRIBER-POINTS.
LINES ON A TABLE’S” FACE.
700
TABLES FACE.
aE Fe — aS
- —- 2 ; ne —, = ee
Ke . ; i
TOT
E& F N.Spon,48, Charing Cross, London.
Plate 53
PLANING>~ MACHINES.
FOR
TOOLS
SS TON
FOR
ns
713
723
724A
727
720
728
TA7
726
E & F.N.Spon, 48, Charing Cross,London™
Plate 54.
“ (TTI IIT
fee (Ee ant
TTT
SAAS A
734 oo.
E&F N.Spon, 48, Charing Gross, London
Plate 55
Port Ertl Ez
ma7u items
745
A
FSS —P
Zao
(Cee
ry
748
E& F.N Spon,4-8, Charing Goss, London.
Plate 56
E.& F.N Spon 48, Charing Cross, London
Plate 57
758
E&FN Spon. 48, Charing Gross London
Plate 58
“UOPUo'T ‘ss0.4) Busey) ‘gp ods NAVD
‘uopuoy'ssory Suurey) "gp ‘Uods N I#F
Plate 59
=!
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Lit
Ee! cs i
4
s__ 9) Py : rt he
eae aa Ltd # Fo #4 HH HIM 2
UU TAS : aa i CY @S/ aa ee ae a
eS
_&
Plate 60
E&FN Spon 48 Charing Cross, London
Plate 6)
779 780 781
ah <
|
|
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|
|
782 788 fi 784 785 786 | 788 | bo
, : [E
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: Vv L 3 793 795
789 790 797 792
E& FN Spon,48,Charing Goss London-
bane
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if
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Piate 63
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E& FN Spon, 48,Charng Gross, London.
Plate 66
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E & F.N Spon, 48, Charing Gross, London
Plate 67
E&FN.Spon,48 Charing Goss,London
Plate 68.
A : Fj
nk f
!
£8 839 5
840 844 842 V 843
. E& FN. Spon,48,Charing GossLondon.
E& FN Spon, 49, Charing (css, benden
E & F N-Spor.48 Charing Goxs, London.
E & F.N. Spon, 48, Charing Goss, London.
Plate 73
LEVER ON AN ARBOR.
STEPPED ARBOR CHUCK. ABEOE MBMIGK
ARBOR CHUCK.
us
877 872 873
BAR INA VICE.
BAR ON TWO TABLES.
LEVER WITH FINISHED JUNCTIONS.
= c=) Ss
CK =F A
880
BAR TO BE SLOTTED. =
EL-CHUGK FOR BOSSES.
Sled 4 Me
Hou! 7 ZB
ton
nel ISSF77T TSS 2
S82 883
EL-CHUCK FOR GAP-ENDS.
EL-CHUCK FOR BOSSES. ,
IOlo'olo lol
boeghytatne
L & FN .Spon,48, Channg Goss London. %
Plate 74.
BOSS ON PARALLEL BLOCKS. BOSS ON A PARALLEL RING.
WHEEL ON AN ARBOR-CHUCK.
ARBOR CHUCK ON AN EL-CHUCK.
TN Cae foes
WETTER HRS HT
ee, Se 7 | Wu
G89.
888
MIDDLE BOSS. END-BOSS. END-BOSS.
690 ; 24 GIL
BROAD SIDE OF BOSS. NARROW SIDE OF BOSS. BROAD SIDE OF BOSS.
== _—— a
892 B94 SIS
FOR DRILLING.
.BOSS FASTENED [|
‘ 896 897
E & F.N. Spon; 4:8, Charing Goss, London. .
Plate 75.
CONCENTRIC LINES ON A TABLE. .
GUIDES BROAD SIDE.
899 \
‘ LINING A BROAD SIDE OF GUIDE.
LINING A NARROW SIDE OF GUIDE,
*
901 902
LINING A BOSS FOR A KEY-SLOT.
II (1
SS) uff
908 tif
. = i
CLEARANCE SPACES OF A GUIDE-SLOT.
904
BROAD, SIDE OF A LEVER. NARROW SIDE OF LEVER.
E
GOS 906 I07 &
J
LINES FOR KEY-SLOT.
{ H
IO8 2909
910 917. ~~
NARROW SIDE OF CROSSHEAD. BROAD SIDE OF CROSSHEAD.
E
; [Ty “J
a: 4
; E =z
O72 O13
“E& FN. Spon, 48, Charing Gross, London.
Plate 76.
LINES FOR KEY-SLOT..
914
LINES FOR KEY-SLOT.
Gea)
O17
4 BOSS & RODS END. BOSS & CRANK-PIN.
PIN ON VEE-BLOCKS.
918
I23
aa
I20
ROD: WITH ROTATOR.
92]
O25
ILE
E&F N Spon, 48, Uharing Goss. London,
Plate 77.
927
929
935
936 937
—— |
939 940 . i 942
c
944
950
957
938
948
943
E & F.N.Spon,48 Charing Gross, London.
. . Plate 78
I54
955 956
960
ee [| arc
961 .
962.
$s L
—
965
————
967
968
966
E & F.N. Spon, 48, Charing Goss, London. »
Plate 79
I70
977
973
a74
976
980
O75
977
987
982
51
979
I83
E & FN Spon,48, Charing, Gross, London
Plate 80
{/
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A
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tt
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9.
992
S4
996
{EO S (|
985
1000
1001
1002
7008
E & F N. Spon, 48, Charing Cross, London.
Plate 81
1006
1009
4012
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li
SS
m= 1
A
0/4 (WY 7075
a
43
E&F.N Spon, 48 Chamng Gross, London Pe
Plate 82
1019
LOU
1025
1034
1023
1038S
E & FN Spon, 48, Charing Grose, London
1024-
1030
1036
Plate 83
1037
1038 1039
C
2 J es
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C
Co
Cc
1040 1041
1042 1043
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1044 1045 1046
E& FN Sper 48 Charing Gos London
1047.
FIG.
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a
aa
,
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Plate 93
7130
1I134-
C=
17136
f
E&FN Spon, 48, Charng Gross, London.
* Plate 94
1140
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1143 1144.
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E& FN Spon.43,Charmé Gross, London
Plate 95
1146.
FIG.
CCC
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Plate 96
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