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RETURN TO
ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY

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ornell University Library

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AN ANGLER’S PARADISE

AND

HOW TO OBTAIN IT

J. J. ARMISTEAD
 

I AVAVIOS “ALNVHS

 

 

 

 

 

 
AN ANGLER'S PARADISE

ee

© AND i

HOW TO OBTAIN IT

BY
J. J. ARMISTEAD

_, Author of “A SHort History or PiscicucTuRE.”
Lecturer on ‘‘ FisHCcuLTURE,” ‘‘ IMPROVEMENT OF FISHERIES,” ETc.
-Proprietor of the Solway Fish Hatchery, School of

. Fishculture, Etc.

PUBLISHED BY
THE ANGLER LIMITED, AT. THE OFFICES, SCARBOROUGH
AND 143, STRAND, W.C.

1895
PRINTED BY
E. T. W. Dexnis, Tue Bar Lisrary Press, Sc\1RBOROUGH
TO

SIR HERBERT EUSTACE MAXWELL, BART., M.P.,

THE FOLLOWING PAGES

ARE RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED

BY

THE AUTHOR.
PREFACE,

 

I HAVE frequently been pressed to write a book on fish

culture, and at the earnest request of many who
take a great interest in the subject I undertook the task,
and this volume is the result. I trust much information
may be found in its pages that will prove useful to many
of those who read it. I know what a help such a book
would have been to me when I first began to study the

subject.

I have divided it into two parts. In the first four
chapters I have made mention of some well-known
angling resorts, of the Solway Fishery, and of the pro-
gress of fish culture; and for the second part of the work
I have written some thoroughly practical chapters, which
are intended to serve as a guide to those who are the
fortunate possessors of suitable water, and which will
enable them to develop the resources which have so long

lain dormant.
viii PREFACE.

If the style in which I have written be somewhat
varied, it must be borne in mind that the conditions
under which the writing has been done have also been
varied, and this must be my apology for any deficiency
which may be found in its pages. Most of the chapters
have been written off without the opportunity of reference
to other books. Several of them have been penned whilst
crossing the Atlantic, some in railway station waiting-
rooms, often during a midnight wait, or in the early
hours of the morning. A part was written at sea in the
‘cabin of a trawler, and the rest has been put together
amidst the scenes of a very busy life. For my know-
ledge of the subject Iam indebted largely to my own per-
severance, and determination to understand thoroughly
that which I had taken up as my life’s work, as well as
to many fellow-labourers in the same field, who have

given me the benefit of their knowledge.

It is interesting to look back upon the work of thirty
years that have passed away, and to note how one has
been led, and how the work has developed, at times
under considerable difficulties, until it has reached its
present magnitude. The present seems a fitting oppor-
tunity for tendering my warmest thanks to some of those
who have aided me in my investigations of so fascinating
a subject. To the late Frank Buckland I am indebted
for my first introduction to the study, and to the late
PREFACE. 1X

Dr. Francis Day for his kindly help on various occasions
when it was my privilege to meet him. But for the
kindly advice and encouragement of the former the Sol-

way Fishery would never have been commenced.

To my friend George H. Brocklehurst, B.Sc., I
am indebted for a considerable amount of assistance in
microscopic research and the study of embryology, etc.
In studying the mysteries of our ponds and ditches, and
working out the life histories of many of the creatures
contained therein, I have been largely assisted by my
friend Leonard West, Esq., of Darlington, who has kindly
supplied the drawings in illustration of the chapter on
pond life, as well as a considerable portion of the letter-
press. To Mr. Thomas Bolton, of Birmingham, I am
also indebted for information respecting the microscopic
inhabitants of our waters, and also for drawings illus-

trative of the embryonic life of a salmonoid.

For views of the Solway Fishery I am indebted to
Mr. Willie Anderson, of Partick, Glasgow, and to J.
Rutherford, Esq., of Jardington, Dumfries; and I am
glad to take this opportunity of acknowledging the kind-
ness and hospitality of many who will read these pages,
who have, from time to time, permitted free access to
their waters for the purposes of scientific research, etc.

Without the help of some of these this book would in all
x PREFACE.

probability never have seen the daylight, and many
pleasant memories are recalled of excursions by river,

brook, and mere, by the writing of its pages.

J. J. ARMISTEAD.

Solway Fishery, Dumfries,
December, 1894.
CON TEN Fs,

 

PART I.~AN ANGLER’S PARADISE.

CHAPTER I.—i1nTRODUCTORY.
Referring to what has been done at home and abroad—In New
Zealand—In Tasmania—Taking Salmon by machinery in
America, etc. :

CHAPTER II.
Having reference to the Solway Fishery—Loch Kinder and its
trout—Loch Leven trout—An angler’s paradise—Poachers—
Nature’s motive power

CHAPTER III.—CHIEFLY HISTORICAL.

Frank Buckland—His prophecies—Their fulflment—Troutdale
Fishery—Introduction of black bass and American trout—Sol-
way Fishery commenced—Its progress—Nocturnal adventures
—Discovery in Germany by Golstein—Jacobi—Gehin and Remy
—M. Coste—Hiiningen—Gremaz—German progress ...

CHAPTER IV.
Referring to Lake Vyrnwy—Loch Leven—The English Lake
District sis ia a aii sis wine

PART 1i].—HOW TO OBTAIN IT.

CHAPTER J.—FISH PONDS—CONSTRUCTION.

How not to make them—How to make them—Water supply—
Sluices and overflow—'' Safety valve '’"—Leaf screens—Ponds to
be off the stream—Flood water kept out—Spawning beds—Barren
water—Cultivation—Artificial spates—Storage of water—Outlet

PAGE.

14

a3

36
xii CONTENTS.

screen—Effect @f wind—Material for screens— Various kinds and
importance of screens—Fontinalis rising to the fly—Bottom
outlets— How to work them

CHAPTER II.—FIsH PONDS—CULTIVATION.

Plants—Balance of life—Flora and Fauna—Old ponds require
cleaning—Pond life—Its bearing on fish life—-Cultivation—Con-
ditions of soil—Planting—New ponds—Virgin waters—Whitley
reservoir—Importance of mollusca and crustaceans—Aquatic
plants—Dalbeattie reservoir—Ioch Fern—Plants to avoid—
Weeding—.4 xacharis—Marginal plants

CHAPTER III.—FIsH PONDS—CULTIVA1ION CONTINUED,
Marginal plants—lInsect life—Plants for deep water—Plants to
avoid—Advantages of water lilies—Bottom-covering plants—
A fish-eating plant— Ponds at Washington—Mollusca—Crustacea
—Eels—How to catch them

CHAPTER IV.—FISH PONDS—HOW TO STOCK THEM.

Preparation—Stocking—Carrying live trout—Dipping the trout—
Transit—Large fish—Two-year-olds— Yearlings—Fry—Nursery
ponds— Water plants—Turning out fry—Fry in rivers—Excellent
travellers—Glass carriers—Advantages of—Equalizing tem-
perature—Fish killed by thoughtlessmess—Wooden carriers—
Metal—Travelling trout in August—Care required—Fully eyed
ova—Trout at the Antipodes—American wo1k—Successes

CHAPTER V.—THE HATCHERY.

Selection of the water—Its importance—Construction—Out-door
hatchery—In-door hatchery—Frostproof building—Lighting—
Filtration of water—Concrete floor—Drainage—The apparatus—
How to construct—Carbonizing—Trap boxes—Catchpool—No
admittance—Beware of visitors—Early days of the Solway
Fishery—Care required in a hatchery

CHAPTER VI.—cCOLLECTING THE EGGS.

The old method as employed at Troutdale Hatchery—Ova hunting
in Cumberland— Work on a natural stream—The water ouzel—
Blank days—Honister Crag—Ulleswater—Advantages of the
present system—Spawning trout—Laying down the eggs
Embryology—Dry method of impregnation—Catching the
Spawners — Sorting— Cleanliness— Effects of temperature —
Washing the eggs—Hermaphrodite fish

CHAPTER VII.—INCUBATING THE EGGS.

Everything in perfect working order—Everything well seasoned—
Preparing the grilles—Laying down ova—Picking—Beware of
fungus—Sediment—Effects of concussion—Washing eggs—The
eye spots—Embryo as seen through the microscope—The eggs
commence hatching ‘

PAGE.

SI

76

or

103

124

140

156
CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VIII.—HATCHING THE EGGS.

Glass grilles—Their cost—Their advantages—Cleaning the hatch-
ing boxes—The egg-shells—Artificial ova beds—Settling pond—
Filtering bed—Wire grilles— Destruction of ova left to Nature—
Advantage of artificial beds—Californian baskets—Repairing
grilles—Overcrowding—Way of economising space—Compact
storage box a

CHAPTER IX.—PACKING AND UNPACKING THE EGGS.

Ova to the antipodes—The tropics—Various methods—MJodus
operandi at the Solway Fishery—Selecting and preparing the
moss—Its cultivation—Woven fabric—Best time, to pack—Ova
hatch rapidly on unpacking—Long eos Unparking—
Washing off the moss—Fully eyed eggs

CHAPTER X.—CARE OF ‘‘ ALEVINS.”

Word derived from the French—Appearance on first hatching—
Very helpless at first—Begin to pack—Hides to be avoided—
Provide lids for the boxes—Structure of ‘‘alevins"—Cleanliness—
Guard against rats or mice—Water insects—How to detect
their presence—Cripples—Deformities— Dropsy or blue swelling
—Constitutional weakness — Fungus—Paralysis— White spot
—Suffocation—Still waters

CHAPTER XI.—PonpD LIFE.
Water full of life—Care required in dealing with it—The rotifera—
Rules for cultivation—Nature's provision for young fish—
Daphnia pulex — Cyclops quadricornis— Cypris tristriata —
-trachnida— Notonecta—Corixa—Gammarus—Dytiscus— Caddis
worms— Zphemera—Shellfish—Parasites— Saprolegnia

CHAPTER XII.—REARING THE FRY.

Commencing to feed—Training—The right kind of food—Time for
turning out—Z£xtomostraca—Grated liver—Mode of feeding—
Feeding machines—Shrimp paste—Chopping machine—Transfer
to rearing ponds—The old plan—The new plan—Floating boxes
—Ponds to be kept quiet—Cutting the grass— Pond bottoms to
be kept clean—Earth in ponds—Scum on the water—Fungus—
Salt—Thinning out the fish

CHAPTER XIII.—THE YEARLING STAGE,

Salmonide adapted to cultivation—Rising to the fly—Fish culture
requires experience—The food of yearlings—Must be properly
dispensed—Development and selection of stock fish—-Defor-
mities—Pedigree stock—Sorting—Transit of yearlings—Netting
—Preparation necessary—Caution to purchasers — Yearling
nets—Vearlings hold their own against large trout—Two-
year-olds...

xiii

PAGE.

184

I9l

228

246
xiv CONTENTS.

PAGE.
CHAPTER XIV.—MANAGEMENT OF MATURE TROUT.

Maturity considered—How mature trout are dealt with—The net
—lIts use—Emptying the pond—Business pond differs widely
from a lake or river—Trout eating trout—Sorting the fish—
Food—The maggot factory—Tadpole rearing—Frogs and toads
considered—Trout get very tame—Approach of spawning time—
Can trout hear—Do fishes sleep—The senses of taste and smell
—Varieties of colour and markings—How many species—Selec-
tion and crossing of races—Trout anadromous in New Zealand

—Reversion to type—Square tail and forked tail a oe 261

CHAPTER XV.—SALMON CULTURE.

Great loss in nature—Large number of eggs deposited—Bad
management of our rivers—Some evils may be remedied—
Poachers considered—Impounding salmon—Where to get the
best eggs—Nature’s discrepancies provided for—More about
poachers—Fate of the eggs—Falling off in catch of salmon—

Rate of natural increase considered—Feeding of salmon—
Migration—Experiments—Smolts and grilse—The United States
—Salmon of Alaska—Alaskan and British salmon compared—
Saprolegnia wie a nbs ss ie aim 279
ILLUS RATIONS,

 

THE SHANTY, SOLWAY FISHERY
PART OF SOLWAY FisH FARM
Plan of pond and bye-wash as 1)
Outlet screen (Fig. 2)
Plan of fry ponds (Fig. 3)
Outlet plug (Fig. 4)
Fish carrier (Fig. 5)
AN ANGLER’S PARADISE
VIEW IN MAIN HATCHERY, SOLWAY FISHERY
Filter box (Fig. 6) ‘
Outlet spout, the right way (fie: 7)

Do. the wrong way (Fig. 8)
Charring implement (Fig. 9)

Do. (Fig. 10)
Do. (Fig. 12)

Hatching tanks (Fig. 12)
AT SPAWNING TIME, SOLWAY Pisneny
Egg-washing box (Fig. 13) . : ;
Egg-picker used at Solway Fishery (Fig. 14)
Trout ovum, magnified (Fig. 15)
Dipping tube, plain (Fig 16)

Do. with bulb (Fig. 17)

Do. bent (Fig. 18)

Do. with drum (Fig. 19)
Compact hatching box (Fig. 20)
‘«Alevin” trout magnified (Fig. 21)
Rotifer (Fig. 22)

Daphnia pulex (Fig. 23)

Cyclops quadricornts (Fig. 24)
Cypris tristriata (Fig. 25)

Water mites (Fig. 26)

Gammarus pulex (Fig. 27)
Dytiscus marginalis and Jarva (Fig. 28)
Hydrophilus piceus and larva (Fig. 29)

PAGE.
Frontispiece
50
55
68
109
IIr
116
120:
124
1287
131
131
132
132
732
139
146
155
189
167
169
169
169:
169
183
194
203
205
206
207
208
210:
eet
ara
AN ANGLERS PARADISE.

CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY.

Referring to what has been done at home and abroad—In New Zealand—
In Tasmania—Taking Salmon by machinery in America, ete.
ES! Trout culture as a means of stocking waters is_a success
in Britain. Its benefits are already being largely felt in many
quarters, and it only requires to be more widely known and its
advantages understood, and it will be extensively taken up. by
those who have the necessary facilities for availing themselves of
its benefits. Its success is proved beyond doubt, by the results
which have accrued of late years to the stocking or restocking of
waters, when judiciously done. I say judiciously done, for much
depends on this.

I am aware that many sweeping assertions have been made
to the contrary, but results have proved them to be incorrect.
It is true that in bringing the matter to the successful issue that
it has reached there have been many failures, and it is owing
in a measure to some of these failures, that the results are not
infinitely larger to-day than is in reality the case. They are of
two descriptions :—

1. In many instances in which fish culture has been at
tempted, it has been by persons who have carried it to a certain
point, where it has ended in failure or produced no appreciable
result, and so it has been abandoned and frequently a bad name
has been given to it. ‘Noresult has accrued,” they say, “after
4 An Anglers Paradise.

considerable outlay in stocking waters.” It is here that the mis-
take has been made, through mismanagement, for the waters
referred to have probably not been stocked at all as stocking is
understood to-day. Possibly a quantity of unhealthy or badly
grown fry have been turned out to die, or it may be have been
killed by the operation, or turned out in places which were totally
unsuited for them, and, as might be expected, no improvement has
followed. Such failures as these have undeservedly brought dis-
credit on the work, and they have unfortunately had the effect of
retarding its progress.

2. The time was but a few years ago when even fish culturists
of experience, who were looked up to by others as such, were
frequently not rewarded by successful results to their many
experiments.

Upon these latter failures, however, is now built up a mass
of knowledge which has enabled us to bridge over the many
difficulties of trout culture, and to overcome what at one time
appeared to be insuperable barriers to the further progress of this
interesting study. The tendency of late years has been for a
great reduction in the prices of our products, but all this time fish
as an article of food has been getting dearer. The cause is
obvious, and the remedy is obvious, and the sooner it is applied
the better. Do with fish what is done with cattle and with
poultry, and the benefit accruing will be very great. Every
country house with a water supply should have its fish ponds, for
the purpose of supplying the kitchen as well as for angling. This
work is now being taken up, and where it is properly carried out
the results are highly encouraging. Existing ponds have been
utilized most advantageously, and in other cases new ponds have
been made on approved principles, and the success of the latter,
where properly managed, has been very great indeed.

By way of illustration I may mention a pond which I con-
structed, which measured about ninety feet by thirty and averaged
about five feet in depth. Out of this pond was taken over seven
hundred pounds weight of trout. These fish had occupied the pond
for three years, and for a year previous to their introduction a very
small one had contained them. Now multiply the area of the
pond by fifteen and the result is four thousand five hundred
An Angler's Paradise. 5

square yards, or less than an acre. An acre of such water, then,
would produce at the same rate over ten thousand five hundred
pounds of trout in three or four years. Taking the value of this
at a shilling per pound the result is £525. Experience teaches
us that the cost of producing and maintaining these fish could be
brought under 4325, which leaves a margin of £200, or at the
rate of “50 per annum per acre—a very handsome profit indeed.
Of course there is risk, and results would vary, but against this
may be placed the fact that I have taken a decidedly low estimate.
I have indeed simply ciated what has been done and not what
may be done.

It is now more than a quarter of a century since I began my
fish-cultural operations, and during that time I have had, in
common with all fish culturists, many failures. I think I may
fairly say, however, that from every one of these I have learned
something, and often that something has been well worth the
cost that it has been to me, even though it involved the loss of a
considerable number of fish. Losses are always grievous at the
time they occur, but the knowledge which we now possess may
be said to have been largely gained, or to have grown, out of
these misfortunes.

It is not to be expected that everyone who attempts to
manage a fish farm will carry his work to a successful issue ;
indeed it is only in the hands of a skilful operator that such a
work can result in eventual success. Everyone that knows any-
thing of cattle or agriculture, is well aware that it requires a good
technical and practical education to make a farmer. So it is with
the breeding of fish, but it is as certain in its results when in
proper hands as the breeding of cattle, poultry, or anything else,
and quite as easily managed as it becomes understood. It, how-
ever, requires, as I have said, a considerable amount of education,
and it cannot for one moment be expected that it can be carried
on at once in a successful manner by everyone who inclines to
take itup. Education must be had in one way or another. Either
beginners must pay for instruction at some well-conducted fish-
cultural establishment, or they must flounder in the mire for some
time, it may be a considerable time, and patiently bear many
losses, discomfitures, and failures, before they can hope to bring
6 An Anglers Paradise.

to a successful issue that which has taken many years of patient
study and toil to establish, in the case of those now successfully
carrying on fish farms in this and other countries. I say this
most emphatically lest anyone should be deceived.

But there is a most important and valuable branch of fish
culture which ought to be carried on by most if not all of those
who possess the facilities for it, and this is the growing of the fish
themselves after they have been reared on a fish farm. This is a
work in which anyone possessed of ordinary intelligence can
advantageously engage, after having studied the subject a little ;
and my chief object will be to show how a large percentage of the
waters running waste in this country may be utilized, and great
benefit derived from their successful cultivation. The work is
now being done, and can be done again in hundreds of other
places. Fish culture is nothing new after all, but there is no need
to repeat at length its ancient and modern history here. I referred
to that subject in a pamphlet I published nearly twenty-five years
ago, and it has been well traced out by many other writers. It
will suffice, therefore, to say that fish culture was known to, and
carried on extensively by, the Ancients; and even in later times
our abbeys and monasteries possessed extensive fish ponds, traces
of which remain in fairly good preservation to the present day.
A few which I have inspected may perhaps some day be again put
to their proper use; they might then pay a dividend. Fish cul-
ture is successfully carried on in China, and has been, I believe,
from time immemorial.

It was commenced in New Zealand over twenty years ago,
but on a very,small scale indeed at first, eight hundred trout ova
being successfully hatched in the year 1868, which were obtained
from the natural spawning beds in Tasmania. Now we find that
the first introduction of trout into Tasmania was effected in 1864,
a small number of eggs being sent out from this country by
Frank Buckland, Mr. Youl, and Mr. Francis Francis, the number
being about two thousand seven hundred altogether. As a result
of the importation of trout ova into Tasmania and their cultivation
there, we find in four years that country sending ova, taken from
fish on the natural spawning beds, to New Zealand. We find
also that those eggs were successfully hatched there, and from
An Angler's Paradise. 7

this small stock a beginning was made, and there seems to be
little doubt that from these eggs trout originated in New Zealand.
So successful was the work carried on there, that the New Zealand
Government very wisely took it in hand, and the result was a con-
siderable importation of ova into the colony, the Solway Fishery
having had the honour of furnishing some of these. It is largely
owing to the work of the Acclimatization Societies, however, that
the fish-cultural work so wisely fostered by the Government has
prospered.

In order to.shew the difficulties under which it was carried
on in the early days of its history, I quote the following from the
Lyttelton Times, N.Z., regarding a consignment of ova received in
1873, and shipped by Mr. Frank Buckland :—

“The first of the consignment for Otago proved to be
entirely bad when opened, and the second was very little better.
But very few fish indeed were hatched out in Otago, and after
being liberated in the rivers nothing more was heard of them
whilst Mr. Johnson failed to bring any of the five or six thousand
presented to this province to life. The ova on this occasion was
obtained to the order of the General Government, from the Stor-
montfield hatching establishment on the Tay, Scotland. Having
been placed in boxes containing a few hundred each, they were
conveyed to London; each parcel was supported the whole
distance by hand in order to prevent jar. An icehouse for the
reception of the ova had been constructed in the forehold of the
vessel, and about twenty tons of ice were used in packing around
the boxes. ‘The voyage occupied a hundred days. The curators
of the Canterbury and Invercargill Society lost no time in going
on board, where they succeeded in making arrangements for
getting the ova out on the following day. The Invercargill ova
were placed in a large case and covered with ice and straw, whilst
cases about four feet by three feet, and three feet deep, had been
made for the Canterbury portion of the shipment, each case being
lined with zinc, over which was a coating of flannel to prevent the
ice melting.

“The ova boxes were fixed in tight with horse-hair and ice,
added to which the cases containing the boxes were covered on
the outside with matting, so as to resist the power of the sun.
8 An Anglers Paradise.

Mr. Johnson also took care to do his packing as near the icehouse
as possible. The Southland ova was despatched by a steamer
specially chartered, while the ‘cases containing the Canterbury
boxes of ova were placed on board the s.s. A/hambra, suspended
by indiarubber slings in order to prevent jar of any kind. The
Alhambra sailed from Port Chalmers at four p.m. on Monday,
May sth, and arrived at Lyttelton about the same hour on Tues-
day, May 6th. Mr. Johnson had the ova conveyed to the
Lyttelton station, where a special train was in waiting, and the
boxes were suspended by indiarubber slings. The train was only
driven through to Christchurch at a slow walking pace, and the
boxes were left at the station during the night.

“When the ova boxes were opened there was found to bea
great difference in the condition of the contents, the whole of the
ova in some being entirely bad, while in others there was a large
percentage with a healthy appearance. The first layer of moss
having been removed from these boxes, the ova was emptied into
a stream of running water, which had been previously iced, and
subsequently all ova shewing the slightest signs of life were taken
out of the stream, and placed in the hatching boxes in the fish
house. It may be said there were from one thousand to two
thousand placed in the boxes, and that there are several hundreds
of these which have a very promising appearance.”

With regard to the same shipment, the following is an extract
from a letter published in Lazd and Water of August 2nd,
1873, and received from Mr. Henry Howard, dated Wallacetown
Trout Ponds, N.Z., 14th May of that year :—

‘Qn arrival at the ponds and opening the boxes, I found the
temperature in the moss was 43°, and as our springs are always at
or about 50°, I reduced the water to the former temperature by
putting ice in the upper cross box. Water also reduced to 43°
was put in large pans, and the boxes sunk in them so as to leave
all the ova submerged. The ova were carefully separated with
spoons and placed in the hatching boxes ; it would have been im-
possible to turn out the ova as you suggested, as nearly all stick
more or less to the moss, and I must have put in masses as large
as one’s hand, of dead and living ova mixed. The boxes varied
greatly. In one I counted over three hundred good, and I only

‘
An Angler's Paradise. 9

took sixteen good from one lot of three boxes. It was quite easy
to predict which were good the moment the lid was removed. The
good ones had a green healthy look under the moss, and no fog
under the lid; the bad ones had a fog, not unlike what I remember
gossamer webs to be in the autumn mornings with a heavy dew ;
the moss also was browner and sunk in the boxes, whereas the
good boxes were light but full.

‘“‘T believe the kind of moss has much to do with it. The
brown moss had a good deal of old grass and sticks amongst it,
as if taken from woods; but the good was more like what grows
on the boles of trees and about sluice gates. I could see no sign
of eyes in most of the ova, but in some the fish were plainly to be
observed. I feared therefore at first, for a few days, that many
were unfertile, but this morning I see the eyes in many more, and
the deaths are far less. No doubt the warmer temperature is
beginning to tell. You will be anxious to know how many are
likely to survive. I can only give a rude guess, but from the look
I should think there are not more than from fifteen to twenty
thousand left, but many of these will of course come to nothing ;
if we hatch from six to ten thousand I shall consider we have
done well.”

It is plain from these extracts that in 1873 the work in New
Zealand was being carried on under considerable difficulties. Let
us now look at the state of things out there ten years later (1883),
and we find that trout are thoroughly acclimatized, and are being
cultivated in many places. Amongst other cases is one mentioned
in the Otago Daily Times about this time, which gives the follow-
ing account of Mr. W. S. Pillans, of Otago, who had successfully
raised some six thousand trout of his own :—

“This gentleman’s property, known as Manuka Island Sta-
tion, is situated a few miles from Balclutha, near the bank of the
river. It boasts no natural advantages for pisciculture, and what
has been done has been done by hard and persevering work. The
number quoted (six thousand) does not, however, by any means,
sum up the extent of Mr. Pillans’ operations so far. He has, it is
said, given a quantity of fry to the Acclimatization Society, and
exclusive of these, he has now at his nursery fifty-seven thousand
ova in course of hatching, six thousand yearlings, and nearly two
10 An Angler's Paradise.

hundred and fifty two-year-old fish, all apparently thriving exceed-
ingly well in the limited space at their disposal.” The report goes
on to describe the “stripping” of the trout, and manipulation of
the ova and fish at Mr. Pillans’ hatchery, of which it gives a very
interesting account.

In looking through the “Report of the Otago Acclimatization
Society for 1891” I see a most gratifying feature, and that is a
balance-sheet of the Society showing a profit over and above
working expenses, resulting from the sale of licenses, sales of trout,
etc. The Society began the year with a balance in hand on fish-
culture account of £248, and at the close of the year, after paying
all expenses in connection with the work, the account shews a
balance of £396, or about £148 profit on the year’s working.
When we take into consideration all that had to be done, and that
the working expenses were excessive, this result speaks volumes.

Now let us take the state of things in New Zealand to-day,
and what do we find? Why, that the rivers of that country are
many of them full of magnificent trout, that have grown beyond
all expectation. Trout cultivation in New Zealand is a grand
success. The attention bestowed on the fish by the Wellington
Acclimatization Society and the Otago Acclimatization Society
is most praiseworthy, and has produced the most gratifying results,
and much larger fish than the average in Britain are very plentiful.
In the records received from time to time I see such cases as
thirteen fish, a hundred and two pounds; about eight pounds
each on the average. Fish from five to ten pounds are common,
and trout varying from thirty to forty pounds are reported as
having been occasionally taken. Take, as an example, one out of
many reports which have appeared in our papers, the following
from Rod and Gun, March 11th, 1893 :—

“The Rakaia is a river of forty or fifty miles, stocked with
the finest trout, seldom under two pounds, and not uncommonly
containing weights of twelve pounds, fifteen pounds, and even
twenty pounds, and it is confined ordinarily to three or four large
streams, breaking up constantly into numerous smaller ones. It
is stated that the Rakaia is the home of some of the finest trout in
the world, and that fish get larger and more plentiful the nearer it
approaches the sea. They are often caught in the salt water at
An Angler's Paradise. IL

the mouth of the river itself. It is one of the snow-fed rivers ;
and with respect to it, and all streams that so take their rise, the
sensible warning is given that the angler should always make
inquiry as to the state of the water before proceeding upon an
expedition. It was in Rakaia that the splendid takes of trout
reported last year were made. Eight fish, weighing eighty-eight
pounds, is something indeed worth entering in the diary ; but that
was beaten in February the year before last, by one angler taking
thirteen fish weighing a hundred and forty-seven pounds, the
largest being sixteen and a half pounds, the smallest eight pounds.
Even this, however, was surpassed by a party of three gentlemen
fishing along the shingle bank, on the south side of the river, near
the sea. They took forty-four fish weighing three hundred and
forty-seven and a half pounds.” Such reports as these have been
numerous and are most encouraging.

From Tasmania also come most gratifying accounts, as well
as from other countries, and a friend writing from Tasmania
remarks :—“ The English trout that have been acclimatized here
have done remarkably well and attain a great size.” So then in
Tasmania also, trout culture, though carried on under the great
difficulty of importing ova from Britain at a time when the matter
was but very imperfectly understood, has proved a decided
success.

The results obtained in America would fill a series of books,
and want of space must be my plea for not going into details
respecting them. I may say that I have seen quite enough, when
over there on fishery business, to be convinced that a great work
is going on, both in the United States and in Canada, that is
productive of much good. Salmon have for some time been
caught on some of the great rivers by machinery, large wheels
being fixed at suitable places in the streams, which literally scoop
or shovel the fish out by thousands. So enormous is the de-
struction of salmon on some of these rivers that there would soon
be none left but for cultivation. The fish crowd up the rivers in
the migratory seasons in enormous numbers ; quantities, in fact,
that we have no idea of in this country. The wheels are placed
on scows or barges, or worked from the side of the river, just as
may be most convenient for taking the fish. These latter in
12 An Angler's Paradise.

ascending rivers follow the main currents, and an expert is able at
once to fit up a wheel that will do execution among them. The
apparatus has, roughly speaking, some resemblance to a large
water-wheel fitted. with big skeleton scoops covered with netting.
The fish in their ascent of the rivers swim into these, which
revolve in the opposite direction, and they are carried up to the
top of the wheel, when they drop through a shoot, which sends
them into a receptacle alongside or behind the machine as the
case may be.

An attendant knocks them on the head, strings a lot of them
together by means of a rope, which is then fastened to a ring in a
barrel and the lot flung into the stream. So the work goes on,
and these strings of fish are carried down stream for some dis-
tance, when they are picked up by a small steamer on the look-out
for them and taken to the canneries. These wheels are notably in
use on the Columbia, Clackamas, and other rivers.

Concerning the cultivation of the salmon on some of these
rivers, the eminent American fish culturist, Livingstone Stone, says,
in one of his letters:—‘ . . . In regard to the success that
has attended the culture of the Sa/monzde, the Government station
for hatching salmon on the McCloud river, California, may
be mentioned as an unquestionable instance of labour in that
direction well rewarded. It is universally acknowledged that the
hatching of salmon at this station, which I had the honour of
naming Baird after our distinguished Commissioner, has immensely
increased the number of salmon in the Sacramento River, of
which the McCloud is a tributary. . . . The good effect
of the hatching of salmon at the Government station on the
Clackamas river in Oregon, is doubtless very similar. Although
the limited output of young salmon at this station is wholly
inadequate to the demands of so great a river as the Columbia,
of which the Clackamas is a tributary, nevertheless the salmon
production, such as it is at this station, is believed to be of im-
mense benefit to the river, and it is thought to be almost certain,
that, without the help of the Clackamas hatchery, the enormous
drain on the salmon supply of the river made by its numerous
canneries would have caused an alarming diminution of the
salmon of this wonderful salmon river. I think it is safe to say
An Angler's Paradise. 13

further, that unless the hatching and distribution of young
salmon is continued at these stations, either the canneries on
these rivers or the salmon in them will become a thing of the
past. “Very truly yours,

“LIVINGSTONE STONE.”

The result of acclimatizing and cultivating various members
of the Salmonide, as well as other fish, on some parts of the
Continent, notably in Germany, has been decidedly successful.
Trout are now grown there in large numbers, both for the market
and also for stocking waters, and their angling localities are
already being advertised in British newspapers. But in our little
islands strides are also being made in fish-cultural departures, as
I shall endeavour to shew in my next chapter.
CHAPTER II.

Having reference to the Solway Fishery—Loch Kinder and its trout—Loch Leven
trout—An angler's paradise—Poachers—Nature's motive power.
aN angler’s paradise!” Three words that are at once sug-
gestive to the lover of the rod of a wonderfully pleasing
sensation. And such were the words that escaped the lips of one
of the pleasantest and most agreeable anglers who ever visited the
Solway Fishery. It came about in this way. I had been down
the coast yachting for a few days, studying some of the denizens.
of the deep sea with a view to their cultivation, and on my return
found a card had been left by a visitor who had called to see my
fish ponds, and who was described to me as taking great interest.
in the work, and who, after seeing part of what was to be seen
had exclaimed, ‘‘ What an angler’s paradise !”

It struck me as being a most refined and appropriate ex-
pression, in few words, of the feelings of one who afterwards proved
himself to be one of the best anglers I had ever come across. He
always caught fish, and what was more, he got them when nobody
else could catch them, and in the most skilful and sportsmanlike
manner. On loch or stream it was the same. One day I lent
him my boat on a loch where other people seemed to have only
indifferent success, and he soon captured over forty pounds of
pike and perch, some of the latter being about three pounds in
weight.

It is rather amusing to note the exclamations of visitors on
being shown round my fish ponds, expressive possibly of pretty
much the same kind of feeling, but certainly varying a good deal
in phraseology. My friend to whom I have just referred gave
vent to his feelings once and for all in three very expressive words.
Another interested party kept on continually uttering the words.
An Angler's Paradise. 15.

“ By Jove,” and at nearly every pond we came to this expression
was repeated. Considering that there are upwards of seventy
ponds and he examined most of them, he must have made use of
this expression over forty times during his round. But he ex-
hibited, although not so demonstratively, the same keen inward.
sense of enjoyment, and the repeated utterance of these two words
proved no doubt a relief to him. Another visitor kept continually
exclaiming “ Dear me,” and the number of times these two words
were repeated must have been something considerable, whilst yet
another gave vent to his feelings by saying ‘‘ What a caution!”

Most visitors have expressed great delight at the sights shown,
and have evidently highly enjoyed their visits, whilst yet a few
would gaze complacently on the scene as if it were all a matter of
course, and as if they had seen the same thing a hundred times
before. Need I say these were not anglers? No feelings were
aroused within them, and no interested enthusiasm was observable
as they gazed upon the masses of fish, which to them no doubt
were no more suggestive than a pile of herrings on a costermonger’s.
barrow.

“Breathes there a man with soul so dead,
Who never to himself hath said,”
nor to anyone else either, anything which would be indicative of
the fact that he was undergoing that deep sense of pleasure which
every angler experiences at even a far less impressive sight.

I hope that no reader will for a moment think I am unduly
poking fun at him—far be it from me to do that ; but whilst giving
an indescribable amount of pleasure to so many who come here, it is.
only fair that we who dwell in this most delightful wilderness
should get some amusement in return. I am sure all will agree
to this.

But to return to my first friend ; I found he was to be n the
neighbourhood for a couple of months, having taken a house
along with the fishing on a good trout loch and the stream con-
nected with it, so took the earliest opportunity of driving over to
make a call. He had just come off Loch Kinder with about
fifteen pounds of trout, which were brought in for our inspection.
Beautiful creatures they were and in excellent condition, averaging
about or near a pound each. After a very pleasant fishy chat,
16 An Angler's Paradise.

and an inspection of his rods and tackle, which were something
numerous and formed an enticingly interesting collection, and
promising, all being well, to meet again another day, we bade adieu.

But more about Loch Kinder and its trout. The loch has
long been famous for them, and tradition tells us they were
originally brought from Loch Leven by the monks of the abbey
close by. Be this as it may, the fish are excellent, and some of
them which I have seen bear a resemblance to some forms of
Salmo Levenensis. But this latter fish is found to occur in great
variety, and according to the testimony of Dr. Francis Day and
others, it soon assumes in some waters an ordinary farzo type,
‘shewing more or less of red on the adipose fin and having red
spots. I have made a careful study of this trait in the character
of the Loch Leven trout, and I find that even if fish are bred
from a pair of typical Loch Levens, or, as we call them on a fish
farm, “thoroughbreds,” that some, it may be only a few, show
these variations, which are looked upon as typical of the ordinary
fario form of trout. It is only by careful study that these peculi-
arities can be followed up, but those who are accustomed to
handle, year after year, large numbers of these fish of all ages and
sizes have an opportunity of noting changes and differences which
few others possess.

Much has been done but much yet remains to be done in
tracing the development of new types, the result it may be of
artificial cultivation, and in tracing out the reversion in the case,
of some individuals, to an origin from which they may possibly
have sprung. It is not my province to go into these matters here,
but I cannot pass by a subject of such deeply fascinating interest
without a brief allusion to it.

Wherever these Loch Kinder trout originally came from, they
are good fish. There seem to be three varieties in the loch, due
no doubt to the different portions the fish inhabit, a feature
noticeable in many other lochs. The weakest point about this
piece of water is its great want of accessible spawning ground.
At present it is entirely inadequate to the requirements of the
loch, and beset with natural difficulties, which if removed would
make it one of the finest lochs in the south of Scotland, and it
‘could be quite easily done.
An Angler's Paradise. 17

Most of the trout are under the necessity of passing down
stream for spawning purposes, and this they do until they reach
the junction of the stream with another known as the Glen burn,
when they alter their course and head up the latter in large num-
bers, pushing right up to its very source, as well as up some of its
tributaries. This description of Loch Kinder is applicable, in a
more or less modified degree, to a great many of our lakes, the
fishing of which might be very materially improved by a little
judicious interference on the part of man. I have met many an
angler who has very’ pleasant reminiscences of days spent on the
loch, but all agree in saying, that it ought to yield them a far
better basket of fish. And so it would under slightly altered
conditions.

If it be possible to keep up such a constant supply of trout
as is now being done in Loch Leven, notwithstanding the pike,
how much more easily it might be done in other lochs where no
pike exist. Loch Awe, too, is another instance, and I might
mention more. Even in lakes containing pike it has been proved
that, by using proper means, a splendid stock of trout may be
maintained, and it is idle to talk longer of the uselessness of
dealing with such waters. That day is now gone by.

There was a time when here the land was full of magpies,
jays, and hawks ; more of these birds than grouse and partridges.
How now? I have hardly seen a magpie or a jay the last ten years
in this part. Hawks there are a few, because they’re migratory.
And also as to mammals; why, the polecat and the badger are
about extinct, the wild cat’s gone, the stoat and weasel too are
very scarce, but grouse and rabbits are abundant where formerly
they were rarely seen. Pike can be killed or caught alive, and
pike are valuable in their proper places, and they should not spoil
but help to make “an angler’s paradise.” So let us put them
right. These little matters will get shaken down after a while.

I have seen many lakes in which a stock of trout might
easily be maintained notwithstanding the pike—waters that now
are comparatively barren—the existing pike being chiefly small,
having little to feed on but each other, and perhaps a few perch.
A few years ago it was supposed that the presence of pike in any
water was an insuperable difficulty in the way of stocking wtih

Cc
18 An Angler's Paradise.

trout. This is not so, as we have seen, and I fully believe that
before long it will be plainly demonstrated that pike can be suffi-
ciently banished, when desired, from a great many of our waters
in which they now exist. When the mode of dealing with them
is as well studied and practised as that of dealing with land
pests, we shall soon find out ways and means for getting rid
of them.

There is an old saying, that he who makes two blades of
grass to grow where only one grew before, is a benefactor to his
fellow-men. Many people have dealt with blades of grass, and as
we are well aware, some of them have met with a considerable
amount of success. Now there are a few of us who have devoted
our energies to something else, and I hope to show that it is not
only quite possible, but often comparatively easy in a great many
cases, to make fish grow where but few fish grew before. The
fish culturist has been a long time in “coming to the scratch,” but
take care he does not beat the botanist after all. That this.
growing of fish is not only possible, but has in many places already
been done successfully, is now an established fact.

Ponds have recently been constructed in many places by
those who have become alive to the advantages of fish culture
as it is carried on at the present day. I have seen as a result the
delighted angler filling his basket, not with little fingerlings, such.
as we have been accustomed to catch in so many of our mountain
streams, but bringing to bank, after tough resistance, fish after
fish, requiring the use of the landing-net, and weighing pounds.
instead of ounces.

To leave the busy din and bustle of the city, and after a
comfortable journey, as it is now accomplished by rail, to find
one’s-self located in the

“Land of the mountain and the flood,”

to see the mists creeping up the mountain sides, and to stand, rod.
in hand, in some lonely glen, gazing at the beauty of the scene,
as bursts of glowing sunshine are thrown from Nature’s lantern
upon sheets of mist and mellow-tinted mountain sides, to view
the jutting crag o’er which the raven croaks her echoed call of
warning, and to see the gaunt pine trees stand forth amid the
An Anglers Paradise. 19

whirling mass ; to see them growing clearer, more defined, as Sol,
more powerful, drives his weaker foe into oblivion; ah! that foe
is “‘cornered” here, and in his power, and before him must melt
away ; not so in the great city, where the mist is made by human
beings into something else, and even Sol in all his grandeur often
cannot lift the curtain when it falls upon St. Paul’s and West-
mister. But here, to stand and see it lifting, leaving behind a
view on which ’tis good to gaze, the moor, the rocks, the trees,
the mountains hanging over all, and down below a peaceful valley
with its river winding far till lost in the expanse of distance.

But at our feet a brook, its mossy sides and rocky buttresses
reflected in the still clear pools, the gossamer upon its banks still
hung with dew-drops, and the plants upon its margin with their
heads still hanging down as if in slumber. Sol has not touched
them with his finger tips as yet. To gaze on such a scene inspires
the town-born traveller with ecstasy, and a feeling as of awe and
wonder rises within him, mixed with keen delight, as the water
of the brook beneath him circles round a given point where Salmo
touched its surface. A little one, ’tis true, but twas a Salmo
really. See! there another rises.

The traveller smiles a pleasant smile, brings forth his tackle,
and essays to tempt the little fish into his creel—at the third cast
he is successful, and steps lightly on to the next pool to try again
—another fingerling is thrown upon the bank, and yet another,
lured from its watery home. And this the traveller is content to
call his fishing, and to view all things round as exquisitely beauti-
ful; more beautiful because he holds a fishing-rod—it helps him
to enjoy the scene most thoroughly and to make the best of
everything.

Then how much more, when climbing yonder bank he comes
upon a pool larger than all the rest, and deeper too, a pool which
human hands have made, and stocked; and here he tries his
“gentle art”—soon has a rise—is into one, “A monster” quoth
our tyro. Off goes the fish, out runs the line till thirty yards are
gone, then slackens, and he reels him in awhile. But off he goes
again, now plunges and then leaps from out the water, shewing
for a moment his bright silvery scales—a full three-pounder
surely—ah ! yes, he turns the scale at that when he is brought to
20 An Anglers Paradise.

bank at last, and safely landed. Another cast or two and then
another fish is hooked, more playful even than the last ; he plays,
he fights, leaps, rushes, and lies panting in the net, then in the
creel.

But why the change from fingerlings to what you may call
fish ?

It is because that wonderful provision long ago designed by
Nature for mankind, giving him dominion over all her creatures,
whether beast, or fish, or fowl, has been made use of, by which
the water of a simple moorland rill can now with human aid
produce enormously.

It must be quite apparent, even to the most casual observer
of the laws of Nature, that there exists a wonderful balance of
animal and vegetable life, which has been kept up for ages, by the
destruction of one species by another. Man has the power given
to him of altering that balance, and of adjusting Nature’s laws to
meet his own requirements. Interference with Nature’s balance,
however, is a matter which should receive serious consideration
before action is commenced. Experience teaches us undoubtedly,
that where man thoughtlessly interferes with it the result means
loss to himself, and as an example of this we may take the rabbit
pest at the Antipodes.

Where thoughtfully done, however, the result is often one of
great benefit. Of this there are a good many examples, both in
the animal and vegetable kingdoms. The axiom we know applies
very largely to the cultivation of the land, and it also applies
in an even greater ratio to the cultivation of the water. Man
has now the means of dealing with it in such a manner, that
it is quiet practicable to utilize the small rills of our mountain
or lowland valleys, and make them produce an abundance of
large fish, where the merest dwarfs existed before.* It has

*In the case of many strcams there is, unfortunately, a very bad reason for the fish
never or only rarely exceeding a certain size ; and that is that nearly every one above, say,
a quarter of a pound in weight is taken out by the poacher. He fishes chiefly with a net
which will not take the smaller fish, but which is most destructive amongst large ones.
Often have I come across him, or his shadow, out at night, but as long as the law winks
at such proceedings, by imposing penalties, when caught, at which he chuckles, so long
will he continue to depopulate our streams. The-net used in this part is usually the
shackle or bag-net. I have sometimes used one for obtaining spawners from a stream,
An Angler's Paradise. 21

been done most successfully, and may be done in thousands
of other places in this country, and often at a comparatively
trifling cost.

A great deal has been said and written about the water area
of the globe, but when we take into consideration the water
facility which we possess in Britain, and realize that it is a great
motive power which may be turned to excellent account, the
wonder will be that it has been so long allowed to run idly down
our hill sides, and along our valleys, where it might have been
made, by means of a little ingenuity and engineering skill, to do
good work in far more ways than one. I have briefly described
a portion of a natural mountain or moorland stream, and nearly
everyone who makes any pretence at trout fishing, is acquainted
with such a stream in some shape or other. It may be a dashing
mountain torrent, careering along over its rocky and boulder
bestrewn bed through wastes of heather; or perhaps at a lower
elevation, it may be passing more sluggishly between earthy banks
cut through a fertile tract of country ; but it is still the same in one
respect—it is a trout stream. Everyone who has been accustomed
to frequent the banks of such a stream needs not to be reminded
how, in a great many instances, trout of any size are rare. The
stream may be replenished by the introduction of other and better
breeds, and although this undoubtedly does good, it is necessary
that other things be equal, or the result often discourages rather
than otherwise, a matter on which I shall have more to say in my

and can testify to the destruction that may be wrought with such a deadly engine when
in improper hands. In private or enclosed waters the matter is now fortunately very different,
and several good stiff penalties have beenimposed. The case then becomes one of stealing,
as the following from one of our newspapers will shew :—'' Fish Stealing.—A case has just
been decided which settles the question as to the nature of the offence of taking fish from
private ponds, A chimney-sweep from Brec1in was charged before Sheriff Robertson at
Forfar on Monday with having stolen a fish from a private pond on the Aldbar Estate.
Evidence was given shewing that the accused had been detected coming from the pond
with a fishing-rod, and a trout of over two pounds was found in his possession. It was
stated that the proprietor had stocked it with trout for his own private use and for sport.
The Sheriff said that the case involved a curious point inlaw. Under some circumstances,
a person found fishing for trout could not be charged with theft; but amid the cir-
cumstances connected with the particular case, anyone who caught fish in the pond
without the proprietor's sanction committed theft in the same way as if he stole the trout
trom a bowl. As the accused was ignorant of the law a modified penalty of ten shillings,
with the option of seven days’ imprisonment, would be imposed.” Parties whose private
fish ponds are robbed by fish stealers should press for a heavy: penalty so that the evil may
be nipped in the bud ‘
22 An Angler's Paradise.

next chapter. But by dealing with the motive power which
Nature has provided, and making a series of artificial pools which
may be kept under absolute control, the stream containing only
fingerlings may be made to produce big fish that are worth the
catching, worth a journey, and without which we cannot make
“An Angler’s Paradise.”

 
CHAP TEI. TLL.

CHIEFLY HISTORICAL.

Frank Buckland—His prophecies—Their fulfilment—Troutdale Fishery—
Introduction of black bass and American trout—Solway Fishery commenced—Its
progress—Nocturnal adventures—Discovery in Germany by Golstein—/Jacobi—
Gehin and Remy—M. Coste—Huningen —Gremaz—German progress.

[_TTERATURE tells us of the fish culture of the olden times,

the esteem in which fish were held by the ancient Greeks and
Romans, the ponds of the monks in Great Britain, and how the
Chinese ingeniously collect the spawn of fishes on bundles of
sticks and mats placed in the water, and how it is sold in their
markets. On some parts of the Continent, too, fish are taken
alive to market, and those which are not sold are taken back and
returned to their pond living and well.

As a pioneer of fish culture in this country there is no more
honoured name than that of the late lamented Frank Buckland.
How well I remember, some thirty years ago, listening to his talk
about trout and salmon, and their ova, and reading his book on
“Fish Hatching,” published in 1863. More than a quarter of a
century has rolled away since those days, and it is exceedingly
interesting to look back and see how largely the work has
developed since that time, often progressing under considerable
difficulties, until it has reached its present magnitude.

Frank Buckland said of fish culture that it promised “to be
eventually the origin or increase of revenue to private individuals,
a source of national wealth, and certainly a great boon to the
public in general.” i

The first portion of the prophecy has been fulfilled; the
second is only waiting to be so, as soon as our Government will
24 An Anglers Paradise.

step in and take the matter in hand with regard to some of our
marine and anadromous fishes, or else by suitable laws make the
way easy for private individuals to do so. The third part of the
prophecy is now being fulfilled, and the time shall soon be when
it shall be said that fish culture is ‘“‘a great boon to the public in
general.”

It was this meeting with Buckland, coupled with a great love
for Nature, and a strong desire to make its study of some
practical use to myself and to my fellow-men, that first set me to
work hatching fish ova. The first experiments were tried in a
small apparatus rigged up over the water tank in my father’s
conservatory, and which resulted in trout being grown to a
quarter of a pound in a cellar close by, and the subsequent
erection of a small hatchery in his grounds, where trout ova was
successfully dealt with, and the fish reared for several years.
Finding this place and its water supply too small, a site was
finally selected, in the year 1868, among the Cumberland
mountains, for the first real hatchery ever erected in this country
on commercial principles. The work at this, the Troutdale
Hatchery was, owing to the nature of the surroundings, only
carried on upon what would be considered now a very limited
scale, and for twelve years under considerable difficulties, my time
being closely occupied more than a hundred miles away, and it
was only an occasional visit that I could give to the fishery and its
work. In 1880, I was liberated in an unexpected manner, to
carry on and devote my whole energy to the work, and I have
now the satisfaction of looking upon a most successful issue to
my labours.

In the working of the establishment in Borrowdale, among
the Cumberland mountains, I was assisted by the late John
Parnaby, of Rothwell Haigh, in Yorkshire, who had just returned
from Canada, where he had for some years been engaged in fish-
cultural work under the Canadian Government. His experience
was considerable, and coupled with my own knowledge of the
subject, and a love of the work, we soon had a good stock of fish.
Parnaby made several voyages to America, for the purpose of
increasing his practical knowledge of fish culture, and of bringing
to this country some of the more valuable food fishes of that
An Angler's Paradise. , 25,

continent. The first living black bass (Grystes nigricans) ever
seen in Britain, were brought over by him in 1873, when I met
him on board the ship in Liverpool, and helped to convey
the little fellows to the Troutdale ponds. For this work we
were rewarded by receiving the silver medal of the Société
d’ Acclimatation de Paris.

A number of these fish, weighing about a pound each, were
safely brought by Parnaby the year before (1872), as far as the
Irish Coast, where they were simply battered to death in a terrific
gale which was encountered off the Fastnet rock. They were
landed in Liverpool the next day perfectly fresh, and two of
them we ate, and gave the rest away, one being sent to Frank
Buckland for his valuable collection. The two which Parnaby
and I disposed of proved excellent.

In the year 1869 we introduced the American trout (Salmo
Jontinalis) into this country, and soon had a fine stock of these
fish, which did exceedingly well in the ponds at Troutdale. Since
those days they have been distributed through the country, and
in some waters have done remarkably well, whereas in others they
seem to have disappeared. ‘The migratory instinct in these fish
is very strong, and at certain times of the year they will leave a
lake or pond and push up stream, or down, as the case may be.
They go to the sea, and have been caught in the salt water, in
some of our bays and estuaries. This sea-going habit alone
proves them to be good fish, but it renders special precautions.
necessary in order to prevent them from making their exit.
Where such steps are taken, by the simple fixing of a screen at
the outlet of a pond or lake, the fish are easily retained, and in.
many instances have given great satisfaction to their owners.

In other cases, where they have had free access to a river,
they have simply run away. That the S. foxtinmalis is a real game:
fish is beyond question, but that it is not adapted for all our
waters seems to be also a settled fact. In some waters it is
accused of not rising to the fly, but I have not yet met with such
a case personally. I have on the other hand made its ac-
quaintance in many places, where it rises in a manner that has.
astonished many old and skilled fishermen. Where these fish can
be kept in a lake, and allowed access to a set of artificial
26 An Anglers Paradise.

spawning beds, which will be described in my chapter on the
construction of fish ponds, they will do well. For a pond near a
house they do admirably, and are excellent eating when well fed
in suitable waters. No river in this country has ever yet been
stocked with them. The turning in of a few thousand fry is not
stocking a river. Until 250,000 eyed ova have been planted for
three consecutive seasons, we have no right to pronounce the
stocking of British rivers a failure. Two years ago, I offered to
bear half the cost of the experiment on certain conditions, in the
hope that some large proprietor would come forward and join in
it, but the offer was not accepted. Until something of this kind
has been done, it is premature to condemn the fish as useless for
our rivers.

The work at the Troutdale Fishery was continued until John
Parnaby’s death, when I took the whole burden of it on to my
own shoulders, and finding the available space and the water
supply wholly inadequate, I began searching for another site. No
one could imagine the difficulty experienced in finding a really
suitable place for the erection of a hatchery, without having gone
through it. However, the right spot was found at last, and upon
it now stands the well-known Solway Fishery.

Having secured the necessary land, the first step taken was
to dig out five ponds and erect a hatchery. The latter was built
of granite, eighty feet long by twenty feet wide inside, and has
since been much enlarged. Hatching boxes were fitted up in this
room, and one corner was partitioned off for an office pro tem.
At this time I was living fifteen miles away, and found that as the
work grew my presence was needed on the spot, and therefore I
took up my quarters at the hatchery. It was situated in a wild
remote corner among the moors, with only one little cottage
house in sight, and there being no sort of accommodation
whatever, I did as I should have done had I been in America—I
camped.

Yes! a whole winter was spent in that hatchery, and a very
enjoyable winter it was. Before the next I had built a shanty, in
which to live when my presence was required on the spot, and
this has since been added to until it has assumed considerable
proportions. Whilst engaged in the development of the fishery,
An Anglers Paradise. 27

there were, as might have been expected, sundry little bits of
adventure, which rather ‘‘added a spice to the cake” than other-
wise. Perhaps the most remarkable was an occurrence that took
place on the night of December 11th, 1883, when a terrific gale,
of greater force than I ever experienced, burst upon us.

Soon after midnight the storm began to reach its height, and
at one o’clock in the morning the thick plate-glass of a large
window was blown in, the frame being left intact—a few pieces
of broken glass still remaining in it, whilst the rest was scattered

. over the room, a considerable quantity being found in the
fire-place. Hastily calling an assistant, who was soon on the spot,
we set to work to block up the broken window, in order to
prevent the wind from getting into the house and doing further
damage.

I remembered a wooden platform that had recently come
back from the International Fisheries Exhibition at South
Kensington, and we ran to the place where it was lying along
with some large cases of hatching apparatus, models, etc., still
unpacked, but were met by one of the cases which came careering
through the air, passing us within a few feet. The other cases
had already gone, and the platform would soon have followed had
we not secured it. As it was we had not much difficulty in
getting it carried to the window, for we had almost a fair wind,
and by steering a little we kept a good course, the only thing
needful being to let go just at the right point. To have taken it
back would have been impossible for six men. It was speedily
fastened up and blocked the aperture safely.

The wind at this time (about 1-30 a.m.) was terrific. I have
been in gales both on sea and land, but never witnessed anything
approaching this. Every now and again there was a complete
lull, and we could hear the wind sweeping down the pine woods
in the distance, with a roar as of a mighty flood, and as it struck
the house the noise was as if some huge battering ram had been
brought to bear upon it. Large timber trees were uprooted
wholesale, or snapped asunder, and daylight revealed the awful
destruction that had been going on in the woods around, many
thousands of large timber trees being blown down. Many of the
woods were lying quite flat, the trees torn up by the roots, as if
28 An Anglers Paradise.

some giant hand had been doing a little weeding, and after
pulling them up had left them to wither and to die.

Fortunately the night was clear and bright moonlight, not a
cloud being visible, and we soon found the relics of the exhibition ;
the wind had carried them until they stuck in some trees and
dropped into a brook, which, being full carried them off, but
fortunately they stranded or stuck fast.in bushes before travelling
very far. We could do little towards getting them out then, so
allowed them to remain till morning, when they were duly
recovered. I felt rather uneasy about the spouting that conveyed
the water to the hatchery, and we went round to the back of
the building to inspect it.

The spouts had been firmly nailed to stout oak tressles fixed
in the ground. The tressles were immovable, but the spouts had
parted company, and were simply “to seek,” to use a common
Yorkshire expression. It seemed to come in very appropriately
here, for we literally had ‘to seek,” and finally found the spouts,
sticking in some trees near, well to leeward of course. We soon
had them out and commenced to carry them back, but a gust of
wind took them out of our hands and overhead back again from
where we had brought them. After procuring a hammer and
some stout nails, we again commenced carrying the spouts one at
a time, and by dodging the wind, got one of them on to its
tressles and got in four nails. While we were carrying the next
length of spouting, however, we saw the first, which we thought we
had firmly fixed, flung off its seat by the wind, and the second
was no sooner fixed than it was served in the same manner.

Just at this moment came a terrific gust which lifted me off
my feet, and but for my taking a regular dive into the wind as if
it had been so much water, I should have been carried into the
stream close by, or possibly into the trees. At the same time the
crashing of timber in the wood above us was terrific, as upwards
of two hundred splendid larches fell flat as the walls of Jericho,
knocking each other down like ninepins. The air was filled with
flying branches, sticks, and other missiles, and suddenly a cloud
rose from the earth a short way off, and obscured the sky for
some distance, finally losing itself in a plantation of young
Scotch firs.
An Anglers Paradise. 29

The effect was remarkable, and as another gust came down
upon us, a second cloud proceeded on the same course as the
first. Examination proved that a haystack had migrated, and the
appearance of the fir plantation the next morning was as if all the
sparrows in the three kingdoms had built their nests in it, while
of the haystack only some two anda half feet of the bottom
part remained. Finding we were absolutely powerless to cope
with such a storm, and feeling sure it could not last long, we went
in-doors, and by this time being fairly hungry, we soon had a
good meal prepared, after partaking of which we drew to the fire
and smoked the pipe of peace, while the storm continued to
howl on, the noise being at times almost deafening.

The conversation naturally turned on storms, and several
memorable ones were discussed, but none of them would bear
comparison with the one that raged that night. I thoroughly
enjoyed it, but at the same time hope I shall never see such
another. By six a.m., the wind had moderated sufficiently for us
to get the spouting fixed, and the water was again turned on to
the hatchery. It had been cut off for five hours, and I was rather
afraid some of the ova would have suffered, but everything went
well, and I never could trace any ill effect to this memorable night.
In the morning several of the natives kindly came some distance
to render assistance, expecting to find the “shanty” a heap of
ruins, and I had a good laugh as one of them seriously told me
about this some time afterwards.

The water is now, and has for some time been, conveyed
in underground pipes, and the arrangements are most complete ;
no wind or frost having any influence on the regular flow into
the hatcheries. For many years all the spawning was done out of
doors, but now in bad weather a good deal is done in a
spawning house. This is conducive not only to the comfort of
the workers but to the welfare of the ova, as a better impregnation
can be got by keeping wind and rain and sleet out of the
spawning dish, and everything as dry as possible. In addition to
this the days are very short in Scotland at spawning time, and
with a spawning house the work can go on all night when
necessary, without the slightest difficulty.

The discovery in modern times in Europe, of the art of
30 An Anglers Paradise.

hatching fish ova by artificial means originated in Germany, and
is ascribed to: a German naturalist, Count von Golstein, who is
said to have made the discovery in the year 1758. Having
obtained some ova and taken what he considered to be the
necessary steps for its preservation, he was rewarded, when the
proper time had elapsed, by seeing young fish produced., Later
still, about the year 1763 one Jacobi, another German naturalist,
performed the same experiment, with this difference that he took
his eggs from a dead fish instead of a living one; and what is
more remarkable, his experiment also proved successful.

Bertram, in his ‘Harvest of the Sea,” says :—‘‘ Jacobi, who

practised the art for thirty years, was not satisfied with the mere
discovery, but at once turned what he had discovered to practical
account, and in the time of Jacobi great attention was devoted to
pisciculture by various gentlemen of scientific eminence.
The results arrived at by Jacobi were of vast importance, and
obtained not only the recognition of his Government, but also the
more solid reward of a pension.” The well known Spallanzani
also experimented in Italy on the ova of fish, as well as upon the
spawn of toads ; and since then many other experiments have
been tried by scientists and others in various countries, but no
one ever seemed to think of turning the knowledge gained to any
practical account, but merely looked upon the whole affair as an
interesting scientific experiment.

Although discovered in Germany by Count von Golstein and
by Jacobi, the art of pisciculture became known to two humble
peasants named Gehin and Remy in France about the year 1840.
These two men lived in an obscure village called La Bresse in
the department of the Vosges, where it was observed that the
supply of fish was falling of. They found out how the eggs of
trout were fecundated, and following up the knowledge they had
gained, in 1841 they succeeded in hatching their first eggs in a
very rude sort of apparatus placed in the bed of a stream.
During the next three seasons they continued their work, and in
1844 were presented with a bronze medal and a sum of money
by the Société d’ Emulation des Vosges, as some encouragement
to their praiseworthy efforts.

These’ two poor men knew nothing of Count von Golstein,
An Anglers Paradise. 31

or of Jacobi, having probably never heard of either of them, nor
even read a book on Natural History in their lives. Nothing was
heard of the discovery beyond the department of the Vosges,
before the year 1849, when Dr. Haxo, of Epinal, secretary to the
Société d’ Emulation, and member of the Conseil Académique of
the Department of the Vosges, sent a communication to the
Academy of Sciences at Paris, describing the method of cultivating
fish, as practised by Gehin and Remy. The effect of this paper
was great, and it sorely puzzled many who heard it, that it should
have fallen to the lot of two poor fishermen to put into practice
and shew the value of a discovery which had been known to many
learned men for a long series of years.

The subject was at once warmly taken up by the Academy,
who, seeing the great importance of the discovery, lost no time in
calling the attention of Government to it. The Government
decided to carry on the process on many of the rivers of France,
and Gehin and Remy were sent for and employed at good
salaries ; and a Commission, consisting of a number of scientific
men, was also appointed to superintend their operations. The
plan adopted by these two men for the artificial cultivation of
trout, was to procure a number of round boxes made of zinc, in
shape somewhat like a cheese, and about eight inches in
diameter. These were riddled with small holes, and in each of
the boxes was placed a layer of fine gravel, and upon this the
eggs were laid. The boxes were then placed in the bed of a
stream and covered with loose pebbles, and the water was allowed
to percolate through them by means of the small holes. The
young fish on being hatched were kept in these receptacles from
eight to fifteen days, and then set at liberty.

Although it was long considered that the gravelly bed of a
natural stream was a requisite in fish hatching, which could not be
substituted, an eminent French naturalist, M. Coste, Professor of
the College de France, at Paris, discovered that it might to a
certain extent be done without, and he proved his assertion by
producing salmon in a tub. Having procured a large tub, he had
a number of small conduits or canals constructed in it, and
placed in such a position that the water flowed from one to the
other, and at last, when its services were no longer required,
32 An Anglers Paradise.

escaped from the vessel altogether. In each of these vessels he
placed a layer of gravel, and laid upon it a quantity of salmon
eggs. His supply of water came from a cistern, and flowed
through an ordinary tap, the only precaution being to keep the
stream constantly going, and this it may as well be stated is an
absolute necessity, if trout or salmon ova are to be successfully
hatched.

In the year 1854 Professor Coste founded the important fish-
cultural establishment so well known as Hiiningen, and by its
means large quantities of fish ova were distributed. Being
situated in Alsace it fell into the hands of the German Government
in 1871, and under the directorship of Mr. Hermann Haack has
since then, as before, done very good work. The hatchery and
ponds are said to cover upwards of eighty acres, which gives some
idea of the extent of the work. A large space in the chief building
is devoted to the hatching of the ova of the Sa/monida, but ova of
many other kinds are also dealt with. From half-a-million to a
million salmon ova are hatched each season for stocking the
waters of the Rhine, which is near, and the Government pays for
this work.

The young salmon are reared in concrete tanks which are
also used for other fish, and answer the purpose admirably. The
Governments of Germany, Switzerland and the Netherlands, have
shewn their interest in the important work of fish culture, which
has been going on for some years, and it is largely due to this fact
that it has made such rapid strides in these countries. Public
waters are being restocked and private enterprise is encouraged.
In Saxony fish culture has been helped by courses of lectures
which have been delivered by Professor Nitsche of the Academy
of Forestry. The lectures, illustrated by diagrams, specimens and
apparatus, have dealt with the subject in a very exhaustive
manner.

The knowledge which had been gained was by degrees
increased and fish culture has prospered in France, until to-day
there exists at Gremaz in the Department of the Ain, one of the
most perfect systems of fish culture of the present day. Fish are
reared on the natural food produced in the water, and herein lies
one of the great secrets of success in the rearing of trout fry.
An Angler's Paradise, 33

In Germany, too, fish culture is being carried on with
considerable success, and trout are now extensively grown for the
market. The late Herr Max von dem Borne did much for fish
culture in Germany. On his estate of Berneuchen in the
Province of Brandenburg, he commenced a fish-cultural estab-
lishment in 1876, a short description of which may be interesting.
The water supply is drawn froma stream known as the Mietzel
by means of an aqueduct, and it is thus exposed to considerable
variations of temperature. During winter it goes down to freezing
point, whereas in summer it goes up to 70° F., and occasionally a
temperature as high as 77° F. is reached.

It is carefully filtered before being allowed to do duty in the
hatching tanks, which are made of concrete, and are used for
hatching the ova of Sa/monide. These tanks are provided with
covers. Eggs of the Covegonide are also dealt with in a special’
apparatus designed by the proprietor. Six different American
Salmonide have been introduced, as well as the black bass
(Grystes nigricans), the American catfish (Amiurus nebulosus),
and others. There are now many other establishments prospering ,
in the country. That of Herr Siegfried Jaffé at Sandfort is a
thriving place with thirty ponds or more, and an extensive
hatchery where many kinds of trout are successfully cultivated.
Mr. Jaffé tells me that a very large number of trout are sent to
market in a year for eating purposes, and they are only grown up
to a comparatively small size, as they are then more valuable as
articles of food, being younger and more tender, and possessing a
finer flavour. With regard to the eating quality of trout, for which
purpose a large number are killed annually at the Solway Fishery,
I can quite bear this out, the best flavoured trout being those
running from half a pound to a pound.

Strange it is that man, who has tunnelled through mountains,
who has bored into the depths of the earth in search of mineral
treasures, who has drained many a treacherous swamp, and caused
waste and barren lands to yield plenteous crops of corn, or turned
them into rich pastures ; who has invented steam engines, and by
their means been enabled to traverse oceans and continents in an
incredibly short space of time ; who has even made the tremendous
agent electricity itself subservient to his will, and made so many

D
34 An Angler's Paradise.

wonderful mechanical contrivances, should have almost entirely
neglected, until within the last few years, to endeavour to increase
the rapidly diminishing and deteriorating supplies of fish in some
of our waters.

True it is, that as the mournful looking morass or the
heathery moor have in so many cases been transformed into fields
of waving corn, and often made to produce an abundant crop
where hardly a blade would grow before, so our most unfruitful
streams can be filled with salmon or trout; our lakes, ponds,
reservoirs and other waters may be made to teem with life, and
to produce as rich and abundant a harvest as some of the best
cultivated fields in our favoured land. And why not cultivate fish
just as much as ducks or poultry, or any other produce of the
farm-yard.

Now that we know that a river or a pond may be doubled
in value by a reasonable outlay ; or to put the matter in another
way, now that we know that the yield of fish may thus be doubled
or more than doubled in any locality, surely the matter is worth
our serious attention. Whether entered into with a view to
supplying the market, or with the intention of affording an
increase of sport to anglers, the time has come when the growing
of fish no longer remains as a curious and interesting scientific
experiment, but is wx fact accompli. Much has already been learned,,
as the results are proving, and there is great encouragement in
looking back for twenty years and noting the progress that has.
been made. There is a wide field open before us. The only
question is—Who will go in and occupy it? There is endless.
scope for development of our water, and now that we know how
to develop there is good reason for making a commencement.
Every valley should have its set of fish ponds for angling purposes,.
and be able to provide some good fishing: for those who want it.

The fish ponds that are at present to be found on various.
parts of the Continent, are not only highly interesting, but are also.
very suggestive. As far back as the middle ages, the monks are
said to have had a valuable system of fish culture. In this
country, too, we know that it was the case, for not only is it an oft-
repeated historical fact, but the remains of the fish ponds are
there to tell their own tale. What was the special object of the
An Angler's Paradise. 35
monks in possessing such ponds, and in cultivating fish, when
there were plenty in the rivers and other waters not far off, as
there were in those days? It was that they might have a certain
supply instead of an uncertain one, and that they might have
them just where they wanted them and as they wanted them, and
they had them. And so may we have our fish ponds well
stocked with magnificent trout as we want them, where we want
them, and when we want them.

     
  

  
   
   
    

Ailton,
6 AT

oie ae RA
LED ee
T
ei CHAPTER IV.

Referring to Lake Vyrnwy—Loch Leven—The English Lake District.

[N the merry month of May, 1891, I visited the well-known

Lake Vyrnwy, in North Wales. It was at that time a piece
of virgin water, so to speak, and I had a good opportunity of seeing
it under somewhat varied circumstances as regards weather, etc.,
so important a factor in any work one has to do where trout are
concerned.

The lake was made by order of the people of Liverpool,
primarily for the purpose of obtaining an increased supply of
water for drinking and other purposes. I fear I rather shocked a
respected inhabitant of that wealthy city, who was evidently not
an angler, and who expounded to me some of the advantages
possessed by their already celebrated new waterworks, and then
turning to me, asked for my opinion. “Why!” I said, “you’ve
made the finest fish pond in the world!”

And so it is, or may be, and if the reader will have a little
patience, I will endeavour to describe this charming piece of
water, and some of its surroundings.

It is to be found in the parish of Llanwddyn, in Montgomery-
shire, and is some twelve miles distant from the nearest railway
station, Llanfyllin. The exact distance as laid out on the
ordnance map is something less, but anyone who has driven
over the road will, I think, agree that the local reckoning is not
out of place, taking into consideration the elevations reached in
traversing the wild hills that lie between the railway terminus of
Llanfyllin and the magnificent sheet of water now known as
Vyrmwy Lake. On the occasion of my visit, I travelled from
Scotland through the night, and reached my railway destination,
via Crewe and Llanymynech, about 9-20 a.m. I may say that I
travelled in a special fish car conveying over twenty thousand
An Angler's Paradise. 37

trout for the lake, being part of a much larger number put into it
by the energetic lessee, G. Ward, Esq., of Bala, whose genial
face was visible on the platform as the train glided alongside
with its precious freight.

I had breakfasted ev route, and therefore, after seeing the
fish carefully transferred to the waggons that were waiting for
them, Mr. Ward and I drove off, to do the twelve miles that
intervened between us and our destination. The air was fresh
and balmy and still smelt of the morning, as it was wafted, by the
delightfully cooling breezes, round hilly corners covered with
enchanting foliage, and over flower-decked meads hemmed in by
densely wooded slopes. Between the little chats on fish and
kindred matters, with which we enlivened the journey, I had time
to look around and to enjoy the beauty and freshness of the
scene. The plaintive cooing of the dove (Columba palumbus)
was heard as we passed through belts of woodland, and at one
bend of the road the harsh scream of the jay (Garrulus glan-
darius) resounded through groves of oak and hazel, while the
little tits (Parus major and ceruleus) cried “ze zrrr,” as they
hung suspended from the twigs on which they searched the buds
for insects. All Nature seemed alive and in her gayest garb. Even
the butterflies upon the flowers looked fresh and beautiful, except
Vanessa, fluttering round a stone heap; where she flickered her
bedraggled wings, that told of hybernation and the clammy chills
of winter, past and gone. Beneath us lay a trout stream, in
places almost hidden from the gaze of man by vegetation of the
richest kind that grows in those parts.

Our conversation was of trout, varied with little bits of
history, natural and otherwise, but like a famous member of the
feline race, of which I’ve heard in song, it would “come back”
again to trout, their culture and their means of capture. Thus
we found ourselves at length upon the mountains, where the
curlew called at distant intervals. We crossed the dashing moorland
stream, on which the dipper makes his home. The height we
have come over is upwards of 1,000 feet above the level of the
sea, and the descent into the valley, which we now must cross, is
sharp, and by a zig-zag path cut out ofa hillside. "Tis well our
leader is sure footed, for as it is, the traveller who is unaccustomed
38 An Anglers Paradise.

to such roads, is wont to hold on fast to something; but there
is no need for this. To him I say, sit still, and view the grandeur of
the scene, enjoy thyself, breathe freely, and reflect upon the treat in
store for thee, on Vyrnwy’s placid bosom, ’ere the sun goes down.

Another range of hills is covered, and we are down into the
next valley, from which, however, we emerge at length. . Before
we quit this pleasant vale, in which we ourselves are hidden, and
where the neighbouring mountains are also kept out of view by
the closeness of the wooded hills that bound it, we get a sight of

- the embankment, but passing on we turn sharply to the right, and
winding up a steep ascent, presently find ourselves on level
ground again.

Before us bursts suddenly a view, the grandeur of which we
may travel far to surpass. It comes upon us as if by some magic
process, like the lifting of an enormous curtain. In reality we
emerge from a sort of semi-natural shrubbery, and stand upon a
gravelled plateau. Beneath us lies the lake that we have come to
see ; to the north the dark and sombre looking Berwyn mountains ;
above, blue sky and fleecy clouds, which cast their flitting shadows
on the lake and hills around. Save where these shadows flew
along, the whole was bathed in sunshine. It also shone upon a
dark grey pile of structure, made by human hands upon the lake
itself, looking like some grim watch tower standing there to tell its
tale of bye-gone days; but no, it is the Vyrnwy Tower, standing
like a castle on the Rhine, otherwise the straining tower.

It stands in fifty feet of water, and is reached by a causeway
on four arches, and in height is upwards of a hundred feet above
the water. It is used for straining the latter, a most important
part of the preparation of the liquid for the natural wants of man,
whose requirements demand that it should be as pure and free
from sediment, as if for hatching trout ova. The process that is
adopted is indeed good for both purposes, and is comparatively
simple: the water being passed through screens, covered with fine
copper wire gauze, of over 14,000 meshes to the square inch.
These screens are removed and cleaned, as they become clogged
with the matter held in suspension in the water, and in this, very
much resemble, in their mode of working, the screens used in the
filtering apparatus of some fish hatcheries.
An Anglers Paradise. 39

After gazing for a few moments at the grand display of scenic
nature, we hurried in to luncheon, to which we both did ample
justice. The lake may be approached from Bala if required, the
drive being fifteen miles to the hotel, which is replete with every
comfort, and I cannot speak too highly of the reception which we
had. Truly, it is an “ Angler’s Paradise.” The spread of shining
trout upon the table in the hall was a sight worth going far to see.
Each basket was weighed whilst the guests were at dinner, and
after a sumptuous repast, we strolled to witness the display. The
‘examination of the fish, the discussions which arose, the friendly
chat that followed, such as is only known to anglers, all combined
to make a pleasant evening, after which each guest retired to rest,
and pleasant dreams of giant trout drawn from the hidden depths
of Vyrnwy.

The lake was made by building an enormous dam or bank,
which is in reality one gigantic block of concrete. The mode of
its construction is interesting. The stone used was obtained from
a quarry near, and is hard and dark in colour. It belongs to the
Caradoc group of the lower Silurian system. Some of the blocks
used weighed as much as ten tons, and above a third of the stones
of which this huge dam is formed weighed over four tons apiece.
Each stone was worked to a flat surface on the underside, and
was then lowered into a bed of concrete, and the inter spaces
filled with concrete, which was well rammed, in order the better
to consolidate the mass.

The dimensions of the lake and dam are as follows :—

Height from bottom of foundation to the parapet

of roadway aint ss aie sis iby 161 feet.
Length along the top a Bi sie 1,165 feet.
Height from river bed to sill of exertions Ae 84 feet.
Greatest thickness at base ... 2 av eg 120 feet.

Batter or slope—

Inside the dam is oe a ... 1 horizontal in 7} vertical.
Outside i9 dé wane 53 »9 1% vertical.
Superficial area of the take . ate ee w. 1,121 acres.
Average width ai is sats te oes 4a mile.
Circumference ts ia shy 11? miles.

There is a road over thé Aah which is supported by a
viaduct, consisting of thirty-one arches, each of twenty-four feet
40 An Anglers Paradise.

span. Under these arches flows the surplus water when the dam
is full, and at such times it makes a miniature Niagara, and adds
a charm to the valley. The bottom of the outer face of the dam
is built in a curve, so that the water strikes it at an angle, and
does no harm.

One of the most important features of the dam, from an
angler’s point of view, is the means adopted by which daily
compensation water is provided for the benefit of the river below.
This water is discharged by a pipe eighteen inches in diameter,
and there is another pipe thirty inches in diameter for discharging
monthly compensation water. This is the water which the Liver-
pool Corporation has to turn into the river Verniew, for the
satisfaction of riparian owners and the Severn Navigation Board,
as compensation for impounding the head waters of the river.
More than this: the Corporation also has to deliver to the
satisfaction of the Severn Fishery Board, twelve hundred million
gallons of water annually, whenever it may be desired, in the form
of freshets, each freshet to consist of forty million gallons.

This is a condition that is imposed by Act of Parliament, and
must be a great boon to the inhabitants of the valley. Before
this reservoir was constructed, floods used to sweep down the vale,
carrying away crops, mill weirs, etc., and doing sometimes
immense damage to the land and property owners and their
tenants, whereas now a very large proportion of this flood-water
is retained, and allowed to flow off gradually. The great
advantage of this is apparent, as well as compensation water
during dry weather. There is one very important point which has
been overlooked in making the arrangements for the supply of
this compensation water. It is drawn from far too low a level.
Had a competent fish culturist been consulted, such an arrange-
ment would never for a moment have been considered. The
water drawn from such a point is known to be so far unsuitable,
that such an oversight would have been guarded against, and
proper measures taken for drawing it from the right point.

Many of our streams could be dealt with in this way with
very great advantage. A reservoir, or a series of them, in many
situations, would be a good investment if stocked with trout, whilst
the compensation water, in times of drought, would be an untold
An Angler's Paradise. 4r

advantage to the stream below ; to say nothing of the advantage to
the miller, or the ratepayers of a town upon its banks. The
angler would certainly have cause for rejoicing, and the increased
riparian value would be considerable. The question, too, of food
supply for the trout, would then be much more easily dealt with,
a matter of the most vital importance in dealing with our moor-
land and other streams.

The Vyrnwy lake itseif is four and three quarter miles in
length, and is fed by several streams, which are available for, and
provide good natural spawning ground for the trout, a matter of
no small importance. The spawning ground, too, is near the lake,
and the fish are prevented from running too far up these streams,
so that during the spawning season they can be closely watched,
which is another great advantage. On one of these tributaries, or
feeders, a set of rearing ponds has been made, and fish are
hatched and grown in them, for keeping up the supply in the lake.
The natural food of the fish is also cared for, as well as the
aquatic vegetation, so absolutely an essential in a lake like this.
The depth of water on the embankment is eighty-four feet, and
for a considerable distance up the lake there is very little variation,
the bottom of the valley having been nearly level.

There seems to be little doubt that this valley was in former
times occupied by an ancient lake, and that the débris brought
down from the surrounding mountains, in course of time, filled it
up. The deposits of successive floods helped to form a fertile
crust of alluvial soil, and at the time the dam was made, a good
part of the valley was under cultivation. In the course of filling,
the vegetation is submerged, and a large portion of this goes on
existing for some time; nay, in places, even goes on growing, whilst
at the same time an enormous amount of decay naturally sets in.
By means of this decay, favourable conditions are produced for
the multiplication, to an enormous extent, of a large number of
creatures on which trout feed and thrive.

This accounts for virgin waters giving excellent results, as
regards their fishing; whilst in a few years there is a great falling off,
both in the quality of the fish and in their size, unless steps are
taken in the meantime to prevent it. Even though this be done;
it may not altogether counteract the reaction which takes place
42 An Anglers Paradise.

when the submerged vegetation disappears, and before its place is
supplied by the aquatic forms so necessary in a lake where a good
stock of trout is to be maintained. All this was carefully con-
sidered at Vyrnwy, but notwithstanding the care which has been
taken to retain the necessary favourable conditions, the year 1892
saw a decided falling off in the fishing. It is only fair, however,
to the lake, to say that during 1893 the fishing improved again,
and the catch was greater than ever it had been before. It is,
therefore, quite likely that Vyrnwy may “beat the record” in this
respect, for I have hardly known an instance of a newly made
lake that did not shew a falling off after the first results, which are
usually good.

The summer of 1893 was unusually dry, and the result was
that the water level lowered, until in places a considerable amount
of foreshore was left bare. Upon parts of this a good crop of
vegetation sprung up, and on the rise of the water this was
submerged, and it is a noteworthy fact, that some of the best
fishing ground is in the neighbourhood of this submerged
vegetable growth. A very important lesson is to be learned from
this, for it teaches us clearly, that even the lowering of the water
in a reservoir, by which the banks are left dry, may be turned to
good account, by the sowing of a suitable crop of vegetation.

It certainly may be made highly beneficial, by building a few
retaining banks, behind which water would remain, and which
might be made exceedingly valuable as food producing grounds,
and which would, to a large extent, tend to compensate for the
laying bare of the foreshore.

The well known fishery of Loch Leven is another example
of what might be done by cultivating a piece of water. Prior to
1830, this loch is said to have been upwards of 4,300 acres in
extent; but during that year, a drainage scheme which was carried
out reduced it to 3,543 acres, lowering the level of the water
permanently some four and a half feet, and leaving a barren
margin. A few years later, the fishing of the loch was found to
have been seriously injured by these operations, and it was
calculated that it had been reduced quite one third in value. A
more natural result could not have been, and a large number of
our lakes have suffered in the same way, the tendency having
An Anglers Paradise. 43

been in the past to drain away the waters and lower the levels of
lakes in many localities.

In a great many instances where similar arrangements have
been carried out, considerable damage to the fisheries has resulted.
The doubtful quality of the land reclained, in many cases, has not
at all compensated for the cost of the work, plus the amount of
depreciation which has accrued to the fishing. ‘The levels of
some of these lakes are now being raised again, and some of the land
adjoining them submerged, and where this work is properly carried
out it results in considerable benefit to the fishing of such pieces
of water. The Loch Leven of the present day is too well known
to need much description ; suffice it to say, that owing to the
praiseworthy efforts of those who have it in charge, a large and
valuable stock of fish is maintained by means of artificial culti-
vation. The pike, which used to be plentiful in the loch, are also well
attended to, no pains being spared to reduce the numbers of
these voracious fish.

As far as regards our fresh waters, at least, there is no doubt
that when properly cultivated they are valuable, and there is great
room for making improvements in this direction. There are,
indeed, so many instances in which the benefits of aquaculture
are plainly seen, that the fact needs but little demonstration.
Where a little has been already done much more can be done;
the great desideratum is the knowledge as to how to do it, and
this highly important part of the subject I shall endeavour to deal
with pretty fully in the second part of this book.

There is another “ Angler’s Paradise” which is, I trust, on
the verge of great improvement, and that is the English Lake
District. Knowing it as I do, and having spent a goodly portion
of my life there, I have perhaps a right to speak with some
authority on a subject in which I have taken the deepest interest.
The natural advantages and resources which this district possesses
are difficult to estimate. The only question that can be asked is:
how are they to be developed to the best advantage? This is the
great question which has to be faced in attempting to deal with
these resources. Where so many fisheries occur in such close
juxtaposition with each other, as they often do in this district, it
requires a clear course and a good deal of forethought, based
44 An Anglers Paradise.

upon a knowledge of locality, and above all, of practical fish
culture of the most advanced type, to enable any individual, or
committee of individuals, to deal with them in a satisfactory
manner.

Take the case of Windermere for instance, and we, have
fronting us at once: the salmon fishery, the char fishery, the trout
fishery, and the coarse fish, including eels. In these matters
alone we find ample work for a local committee. That great
improvements can be made there is no doubt, and I, for one, long
to see the work well in hand, for a more hopeful case can hardly
be. There is the raw material to work upon in almost unlimited
quantity, and what a boon it would be, not only to the inhabitants
of the district, but to the crowds of visitors who go there to spend
their holidays, if the waters of this lovely country were really well
stocked with fish.

Most of the rivers and becks of the district are very rapid
streams, with essentially stony bottoms, and the water beautifully
clear and transparent, whilst some are browned by the peat,
amongst which they have their origin. Some, I regret to say, are
poisoned by the foul matter sent down from mines or manu-
factories. The unpolluted streams are, in very many cases,
exceedingly adaptable, and the development of such as these is a
work of no mean kind. Many a beck, that now produces nothing
but the finest water and a few small trout, may be made a driving
power for scores of miniature lakes which would be controllable.
This is exactly what some of the natural waters are not, although
they too are capable of much improvement.

The char fishery is well worth developing, although the fish
are not, perhaps, the most desirable from an angler’s point of view.
Their flavour, however, is so excellent, and they are such
delicacies, that they might probably be made to pay for a part, at
least, of the cost of developing the fisheries as a whole. It has
been asserted that they will only live in deep lakes. True it is,
that in such only they are usually found to occur, but in
experimenting with these fish, I have reared them from the egg,
up to a weight of three pounds, in a small concrete tank not
exceeding three feet in depth.

Char are exceedingly sensible to changes of temperature, and
An Anglers Paradise. 45

probably, on this account, are found to inhabit deep water at
certain times of the year. It is a well known fact, that one variety
of char found in Windermere spawns in the river that feeds the
lake. The fish migrate up this stream as the spawning time
approaches. A short distance above the lake it forks, and the
char invariably go up one fork only, and avoid the other. It is
quite likely that temperature has something to do with this. Be
it as it may, the char is a good fish, and its life history is well
worth studying, with a view to its further development.

An idea seems to prevail amongt ichthyologists and others
that these fish cannot live in the sea. I once kept one in sea
water for twenty-one days, and it seemed all the better for it.
The fish had got a little fungus (Sapvo/egnia) on the dorsal fin,
and was put into a tank of sea water, to be taken out in a short
time again. The man in charge of the work was suddenly called
away, and the fish was overlooked for several hours, when I found
it apparently quite happy in a corner of the tank. Seeing this, I
allowed it to remain, but kept an eye on it, in case it became
distressed ; but nothing of the kind took place, and at the end of
the twenty-first day it was taken out and returned to its pond,
alive and well.

It is a question whether the introduction of a Coregonus
(white fish) into some of the larger lakes might be advantageous.
Where they are suited by their surroundings, some species are
very prolific, and once introduced would soon multiply. These
fish are known to occur in such numbers, in some lakes, as to
form a very profitable source of income to those engaged in
fishing for them. I am not yet prepared to say how far their
introduction into such lakes as Windermere would be desirable ;
but the matter is well worth investigation. I have eaten them
both in Europe and America, and have found them excellent.
The cultivation of lake bottoms is a matter to which no attention
has been paid, but it will be apparent to anyone that it must have
a considerable bearing on the future welfare, or condition, of our
lake fisheries. There is a field for investigation here, in which
there is room for a large number of workers—a piece of almost
untrodden ground in fact.

In some of the waters of the district we find, on examination,
46 An Anglers Paradise.

a great variety, and a copious supply, of the creatures on which
trout and other fish feed, such as Extomostraca, Copepoda, etc. ;
whereas, in other places, there is a great scarcity of this minute
yet exceedingly valuable fish food. The conditions that favour
the growth of these creatures, and their presence or absence from
any given piece of water, are mattters of vital importance, and
should be carefully studied. The insect life has also a very
important bearing upon the future of. the fisheries, and in some
localities there is at times a great scarcity, although at other times
there may be a great abundance of this food. We find there are
two things which tend to stunt the growth of trout, and they are,
uncertain supplies or scarcity of food, and low temperature.

The difficulty of low temperature can, however, be overcome,
if on the other hand a good food supply is always available. I
have grown fish to several pounds in weight in water of a low
temperature by feeding them, and herein lies the main secret of
success. Cold water and little food, which is the state of things
existing in some mountain lakes or tarns, will dwarf the fish ; but,
given a sufficiency of suitable food, the latter will improve. Where
races have thus been permanently dwarfed for a long series of
years, the introduction of new blood is undoubtedly advantageous,
but the alteration of Nature’s balance should be attended to first.

Apply the power, and so increase the food supply, the
improvement of the fish will follow in the natural order of things.
That many comparatively barren pieces of water might be so
improved is certain, and this applies to any district where suitable
trout water is to be found. Trout are increasing in numbers
in Windermere, and in quality and size are excellent. This is
what may be expected, for the pike have been successfully
reduced in quantity, and a moderate amount of trout culture has
been carried on. These two operations must tell their tale,
other things of course being equal. There is scope in Windermere
lake alone, and a natural food supply, that is capable of being
made to produce very large results indeed. There are in
Windermere, as in many of ‘the other lakes, enormous quantities
of eels, and these should be attended to as well as the pike, for
they are most destructive to trout. A single eel, one pound in
weight, will clean out hundreds of yearlings, or thousands of fry,
An Anglers Paradise. 47

in a comparatively short space of time, should it happen to
succeed in gaining admission to a trout culturist’s nursery ponds.
The eel is one of our greatest enemies, but his depredations in
natural waters are very much overlooked. When he gets on to
a fish farm, however, he soon lessens the number of fish, if not
destroyed.

A correspondent wrote to me this year, that he had lost a
large percentage of his yearlings, owing to some eels getting into
his ponds. I read in a book recently received from New Zealand,
that “ninety rainbow trout were put into a large rearing box,
with wire netting lids. These fish were growing splendidly, when
some visitors to the ponds lifting one of the lids, and leaving it off,
a large eel got into the box, and when discovered next mcrning
its stomach was packed with nearly all this valuable fry, leaving
only twelve alive.” Such lessons as these should not be lost
sight of.

During the last few years, the facility for visiting the
magnificent scenery of the Lake District has been so much
increased, that many parts of it are now very accessible to the
tourist, and there is a great opening for the development of its
waters, which did not before exist. No part of the world perhaps
possesses so many charms for the contemplative mind. It would
be difficult to find one which can provide so wide a field for the
imaginations of the poet or for the legendary fancier, or such a
charming variety of tint and landscape for the artist, as the lovely
glens and varied hill-sides of this beautiful country. The lover of
nature invariably finds much to delight him in this romantic
region, and why, now that we have the power in our hands of
dealing with the water, should it not be improved, so that it may
be in the future more than ever it has been in the past, in the
highest sense of the word—‘‘ An Angler’s Paradise.”
 
(Paré 11,

HOW TO OBTAIN IT.
 

AT AYATOS AO Luvd

 

 
HOW TO OBTAIN. IT,

 

CHAPTER I.

FISH PONDS-—CONSTRUCTION.

How not to make them—How to make them— Water supply—Sluices and over-
flow—"' Safety valve"—Leaf screens—Ponds to be off the stream—Flood water kept
out—Spawning beds—Barren water—Cultivation—Artificial Spates—Storage of
water—Outlet screen—Effect of wind—NMaterial for screens—Various hinds and
tmportance of screens—Fontinalis rising to the fly —Bottom outlets—How to work
then.
am “ Angler’s Paradise” may now be placed within the reach of

everyone who can handle a fishing rod. ‘How to obtain
it” is the question before us. This I shall endeavour to answer,
so far at least as to enable all who have the facilities, to commence
operations forthwith. To enter into all details would be hardly ©
within the bounds of possibility in so small a space. I must ask
the reader, therefore, to pardon me if I appear not to refer with
sufficient fulness to all matters connected with the subject. I
will do my best to make matters plain and easy for all. Already
many public waters exist where fishing may be had by anyone on
fairly reasonable terms. There are other places also in course of
formation, where the working-man can spend his Saturday
afternoon or Bank holiday. It is now quite easy in many
localities, by co-operation, for a working-man’s club to provide
excellent angling for the members at a very moderate cost.

In connection with the country house, mansion, or shooting
lodge, a series of fish ponds will soon become in many cases a
necessity. They need not in any way interfere with the five or
ten mile walks up-stream, or the delightful hours spent in the
solitary glen or on the mountain loch. Rather will they become
accessory or supplementary to such excursions, for they may be
52 How to obtain it.

either in close proximity to the house and close together, or they
may be scattered at intervals among the wildest of scenery ;
indeed they may be placed, so to speak, anyhow and anywhere,
provided always, of course, that there is a suitable water supply.

To begin with, let us take an average country house. There
is a small stream flowing somewhere not far off, and in it are to
be found always a few small trout—a proof at once of its value,
and the very best guarantee that can be as to its capabilities for
supplying fish ponds. Don’t on any account commence making
ponds by damming up this stream at intervals, as has so often
been done in the past. Such dams do not answer the purpose
desired at all satisfactorily, and are often quite unworkable.
Floods come down, and the result is that they get very much
silted up, or filled with débvis of some kind. The amount that is
brought down by some of our mountain streams, when at times
they become torrents, must be seen to be understood. Well do
I remember remarking this to one of my early helpers as he was
receiving instructions for making a dam, when with a knowing
look he replied, “’Deed, sir; but there’s a muckle heap 0’
‘deberis’ comes doon here, when the water’s oot!” This “heap
0 deberis” (débris) must be reckoned upon, for sooner or later it
is sure to come in most streams. In addition to the débris, which
may consist of stones, sand, earth, or whatever the ground may
be made of over which the stream flows, a good deal of other
matter often comes down. I have seen ponds made by damming
up streams that have given a great deal of trouble, simply owing
to the quantity of floating matter that comes down during spates.
Often the outlet has been made in the north-east corner of the
pond and on theembankment. The natural consequence is, that
with every south-west gale, all the force of the water and floating
material is thrown on to the outlet screen, whereas by a little
forethought and arrangement this might often be easily avoided.
The chances are that the screen is choked and the result is an
overflow, by which probably some of the fish will be lost.

To make a fish pond, then, or a set of ponds, select any
suitable place off the stream. It may be close alongside or it may
be half-a-mile away. One of the best sets of working ponds I have
ever made is about this distance from the point at which the water
Flow to obtain it. 53

is drawn by means of a sluice from the main stream. They are
on the side of a hill, and the fall from one to the other is thus
excellent. The aqueduct passes through cuttings and along em-
bankments, and where watercourses of a dangerous nature cross
its track they are carried over it by means of wooden shoots. The
sluice box in this particular instance is two feet by one foot, and
under no circumstances can more water be drawn from the stream
than can pass through this box. A much smaller one than this,
however, or a pipe, may often be used with great success. I have
seen a series of ponds working very well that were supplied through
a three-inch pipe.

At the lower end of a long open aqueduct it is sometimes
desirable to have.another sluice and an overflow for waste water,
as during heavy rains a good deal of surface water necessarily
comes down. And here allow me to give a word of caution.
Avoid lessening the regular supply from the stream at a time like
this, or the water passing into the pond will contain too much of
this surface water. Ponds supplied in such a manner, if properly
made, are entirely under control and thoroughly workable. Too
much water cannot get into them. On the contrary, during flood-
time the quantity is found to lessen, as it is desirable to have a
leaf screen in front of the sluice, and the flow of water is reduced
by the mass of leaves or other floating matter brought down at such
atime. I have found this arrangement work most satisfactorily—
it is in fact the safety valve, and without such an arrangement in
some form or other a pond or series of ponds is seldom safe.

There are several ways of constructing a leaf screen. The
simplest of all for the present purpose is to drive suitable wooden
stakes into the bottom of the aqueduct, where the soil will allow
of it. I make them of larch, and cut them three-sided rather than
square, and about one to one and a half inches in diameter.
Drive them all carefully so that the apex of the triangle formed by
the three sides of each stake is up-stream, and then place a rail
across their upper ends behind them, and nail each one to it.
Should any of the ends stand higher than the rail, owing to not
having been all driven the same distance into the ground, take a saw
and cut them off. The rail may be nailed to posts driven into
the bank at either end, or otherwise made secure according to
54 How to obtain tt.

circumstances. This screen has a very important part to play, and
if properly fixed, will do it well. Should the bottom be unsuitable
for driving these stakes, they must be fastened to a frame, and
while the water is temporarily stopped, this frame may be fixed in
concrete, which holds it firmly and prevents the water under-
mining it, which it is very likely to do if not made secure.

Below this leaf screen is the sluice, which is a very simple
contrivance, and below it again is a screen for preventing the
escape of fish. This screen may be made of wood or iron. A
wooden frame covered with perforated zinc answers very well and
is easily renewed, but masonry and perforated iron plates are more
lasting. Ordinary perforated zinc has to be renewed once a year.
In some positions it is desirable to have what we call a “horizon-
tal leaf screen.” The term “horizontal” is perhaps not absolutely
correct, as the screen is really placed at a slight angle, but is
usually called a “horizontal screen” in contra-distinction from the
‘perpendicular screen” which I have already described.

A horizontal leaf screen consists of a box without a lid, sunk
in the bed of a stream, and covered with perforated metal or a
grating where the lid would otherwise lie. The box should be
sunk so that its perforated top is even with the bottom of the
stream, and has an easy gradient which will prevent its becoming
easily choked. The water supply is taken from the box, under-
neath the perforated cover or grating, by means of a pipe. Instead
of a box, the whole may be made of concrete if preferred. This
screen will be more fully described later on, and if made use of
here will prove to be an impassable barrier to the fish, and will do
away with any necessity for a sluice or a second screen. Some-
times it is found to be easier, instead of making ponds off the
stream, to divert the course of the stream itself, as for instance in
a narrow valley. It amounts to pretty much the same in the end,
being simply a case of keeping the main stream off the ponds,
instead of the poads off the stream. The object, of course, is to
get rid of all flood water and to have the supply for the ponds
thoroughly under control. A reference to the accompanying
diagram (Fig. 1) will, I think, make the arrangement sufficiently
clear. Let AA be an embankment and KK a pond or dam above
it. BB is the old bed of the stream, the course of which is now
How to obtain it. 55

diverted into the channel DD. The water flows from the direction
shewn by the arrow at F, and what is not required for the pond
passes off by the channel DD, which rejoins the stream below the
dam. At the point d a horizontal leaf screen may be placed in
the stream, which passes over it, and the amount of water required
for the pond KK is drawn off from the box underneath this
screen. Should a perpendicular leaf screen only be used, then let
it be placed across the stream at the point C. A sluice may be
fixed just below it for greater safety, but my experience of the
working of these screens is that no sluice is as a rule required, as
the surplus amount of water gets away by the channel DD, and

 

Fig. 1.

>
x

the screen at C becomes partially stopped by floating matter and
prevents any excess of water entering the pond. One great
advantage of the horizontal screen is that no fish can escape from
the pond in that direction. Where a perpendicular screen only
is made use of, it is needful to have another screen below it to
keep in the fish.

It is not at all necessary that the leaf screen be close to the
dam. It may be some distance from it, so as to allow the fish
access to some spawning ground, and this spawning ground may
often be largely increased by making a serpentine spawning race.
This, in a great many places which I have examined, the ground
will admit of.
56 Flow to obtain tt.

Care should be taken to note the highest flood level of the
water, and to have the stream banked at the points F and d and
along DD, so that no flood can possibly cause an overflow into
the pond. This is a matter of the utmost importance, and one
which I find is often overlooked, or for which sufficient provision
is not made. The highest point reached by the greatest flood
ever known should be ascertained, and the bank raised above that
level. I have been surprised to find how careless or thoughtless
‘many people are in guarding against floods, or in having ponds or
artificial hatching beds in such a position that they are in great
danger of being washed away. They may work well for one year,
or two or three, when, owing to a combination of circumstances,
an unusually heavy flood occurs and disaster is the result. I
cannot remember a single instance that has come under my notice
in which the danger might not easily have been avoided from the
first. So there is no excuse for newly-constructed fish ponds
being flooded.

In guarding the ponds against floods, it will be seen ata
glance that another great point is gained, and that is, that the
spawning ground is also protected. There is no longer any fear
of the eggs being washed away, nor yet buried hopelessly, as they
often are in our natural streams when the floods come down.
By placing the leaf screen high enough up-stream, that is, some
distance from the head of the pond, very good provision may be
made for the fish depositing their ova in artificial spawning beds,
where the eggs can be protected from at least some of their enemies.
When the early fish have spawned, a grating or screen may be
placed at the mouth of the stream to prevent any later fish
coming into the beds, and rooting up the earlier and more
valuable eggs which ‘have already been deposited. This is a
matter which has been grievously neglected in our streams and
rivers, and which ought to have immediate attention bestowed
upon it. I have seen whole beds of valuable ova turned up and
the eggs devoured, and a lot left in their places which are not
only of far less value, but are calculated, as time goes on,
seriously to depreciate the stock in the stream. In the case of a
salmon river it is a serious matter.

Where there is room at the head of a pond or a lake for the
Flow to obtain it. ve

construction of these protected spawning beds on a_ fairly
extensive scale, they may be divided into sections, and the fish
allowed access to the various sections as they spawn in succession.
The first fish that come up, for instance, will push forward until
further progress is barred by the leaf screen. Finding they
cannot get any higher up-stream, and at the same time finding
suitable spawning ground, they will deposit their ova, and return
to the pond from whence they came.

Now, by placing a screen or grating below this spawning
ground to prevent more fish coming up on to these nests, the
later fish are obliged to deposit their eggs lower down, and when
the beds are all made use of the fish should not be allowed to
enter the stream at all. The latest fish will then spawn in the
pond where the stream enters it. It may sometimes happen that
a pair of the earliest fish, instead of pushing up-stream, will
spawn in a lower reach of the raceway which is wanted for the
later fish. Such an occurrence cannot always be avoided, but
such a nest can be protected by wire netting from the depreda-
tions of the later fish. Or, if observed in time, the fish may be
driven off, or netted out and carried higher up-stream. Any one
who is determined to carry out the work thoroughly can easily do
it; but in such a case it will require a little attention. It
possesses one very satisfactory feature, however, and that is that it
will amply repay the amount of care and attention bestowed
upon it.

And now a few words as to the preparation of the spawning
ground. By altering the natural course of the stream and making
it wind back and forward, a considerable amount of ground may
often be made available, and it is well worth while to take some
pains with this part of the work. The great point is to make as
much available spawning ground as possible. Being beyond all
danger of flooding there is no fear of the work being washed up or
half destroyed by a spate.

The stream which is to be made into a spawning race should
have an easy gradient, so that the water just ripples along nicely
over it, and the bottom should be of gravel. This gravel bed
should be from six inches to a foot deep, and should consist of
stones, about one third of which may be about the size of walnuts,
58 How to obtain tt.

one third the size of hazel nuts, and one third the size of peas.
The two first may be mixed together and laid at the bottom, the
smaller stones forming an upper layer. Over this may be
scattered, so as to form just a covering, a very thin layer of
material, which may be described as fine gravel or very coarse
sand. Care must be taken, however, to keep out of the raceway
anything of the nature of fine sand.

In width this raceway should be about three feet, and should
the natural gradient be too steep, a fall, or perhaps more than
one, should be made, so as to bring the part available for
spawning to a proper level. ‘The best place for this fall is at the
leaf screen, if it can be so arranged, or at the point where the
water enters the pond. By making it at either of these places the
spawning race is not so much interfered with, but, of course,
much must depend upon the nature of the ground. This being
done the gravel should be put in. Then a series of very low
weirs should be made. ‘They need not stand more than six
inches above the water level, but the depth of the water itself
in the reaches formed by these obstructions should run from six
inches to a foot. Whilst the raceway is being prepared the water
should be shut off so that the work may be properly carried out.
‘The reaches of water may be ten feet or ten yards in length,
according to circumstances. The divisions between each are
best made of stones or blocks of concrete. J have seen very
effective ones made by simply placing logs across the stream, and
where plenty are at hand and stones are scarce they do very well.
Having formed these miniature dams and made all right, the next
thing is to turn on the water and wait results. The effect of the
current will be to wash out holes below the weirs, and probably
to form a bank just beyond each of these holes. One great
advantage of having the water under control is now apparent, and
that is that the bottom of the raceway can be raked over, and the
gravel spread to suit circumstances. These banks may be raked
down, and the gravelly bottom otherwise improved, if found
desirable, by hollowing it out a little in the middle. When the
fish come up they will soon make short work of it, however,
rooting it up everywhere in making their nests.

At the spawning time especially, as well as at other times, it
How to obtain it. 59

is‘ desirable to run a good stream through a pond. I have seen
many worked most successfully where only a very small water
supply was available. These are cases of necessity, however, and
although in many of them good results may be obtained, yet it is
only by judicious working that they are brought about. By
limiting the quantity of fish, paying special attention to the
existing conditions, and regulating the work, much may often be
successfully done.

There are cases in which fish ponds have been made on cold
barren streams, that have received their filling from torrents of
snow water or cold winter rains, and even before the workmen
have been off the scene a quantity of yearlings or two-year-olds
have been hurriedly introduced to “‘save a season.” Sometimes
these fish, if not too numerous, have done very well for a while,
but it has been more by accident than otherwise. J have known
cases in which they have done badly, and it is not at all surprising
that it should be so. It matters not where the fish come from or
how good they may be, the result will be the same. Anyone who
understands the keeping of an aquarium will readily see wherein
the mistake lies. Before turning fish into a pond we should know
that there is food upon which they can not only live, but thrive ;
but in many cases which have come under my notice little
attention has been paid to this important matter. The water has
been stocked regardless of surrounding circumstances, and con-
sequently expectations have not always been realised. Although
grave errors have been committed in the past, I would not for a
moment blame anyone. Even fish culturists have been years
finding out all these things, and there is yet very much to learn.
But we are now fairly on the right path, and mysteries are being
rapidly unravelled.

We are now possessed of sufficient information to enable us
to handle the water in a practical manner, as the agriculturist does
his land. As there are many varieties of soils, and as these
require different courses of treatment, so there are different classes
of water, each requiring its own peculiar management to make it
capable of producing a crop. As a rule, however, the cultivation
of ponds and lakes is a much easier matter than the cultivation of
a tract of land. Where the water supply is small it is very
60 How to obtain tt.

desirable, after filling the pond, to cultivate it properly, and to
bring it into a suitable condition for receiving the stock of fish
that is to inhabit it. Asa farmer must provide a supply of food
for his sheep before turning them into a field, so we must provide
for our fish. -

Trout are carnivorous, and if we examine the contents of
their stomachs we shall find that the creatures on which they have
been largely feeding are mainly dependent upon a crop of
vegetable food. If they are to exist in sufficient numbers to form
an adequate supply of food for the fish that prey upon them this
must be provided. Therefore, it follows that by judiciously
cultivating suitable plants a sufficient food supply can be main-
tained, other things of course being equal. Should this fodd
supply not be in existence naturally in the water it must be
introduced, and regarding its introduction, and the introduction
of aquatic vegetation, I shall have more to say later.

Where the water supply is of a limited nature, it will do
better work and go further in a deep. pond than in a shallow one.
It is obvious that in a pond of considerable area, but only running
three feet or so in depth, the water will be more affected by the
rays of the sun, and in summer will rise to a higher temperature
than in a pond of smaller area but which is eight or ten feet deep,
or perhaps more. The pond of smaller area, but greater depth,
will support a larger quantity of trout during such a period than
the shallow one.

It also often happens that in addition to the visible water
supply running into a pond there are springs in the pond itself, or
there is a considerable quantity of water percolating through the
soil, and this alone is a very valuable help to its trout producing
capacities. In the deeper pond there is a greater probability of
such an additional supply. I have known ponds which have thus
been fed by copious springs, but which have possessed no visible
water supply, that is to say, that there was no stream running into
them, and yet they have proved capable of maintaining a nice
head of trout. Sometimes we find a pond from which there. is a
considerable overflow, but no stream apparently feeding it. In
such a case there must be springs, and such a pond may do for
trout. Occasionally in ponds of this nature, however, the water
How to obtain it. 61

is too cold or barren, and will not grow trout at all, whereas, the
same water supplying a second pond will do very well for the
purpose. The fact is, that it simply requires a little cultivation to
render it fit for use. After being exposed to the air and the rays
of the sun in the spring pond, which contains also some vegetable
life, it becomes changed in its nature, and in passing out of this
pond and along a raceway, even though the latter be only a few
yards in length, it becomes still further changed. This applies
more or less to a great many springs. The water often becomes
so rapidly changed that trout will thrive even in a spring pond.

I have had cases in which they have done well in ponds that
had neither visible inlet nor overflow. Being fed by springs the
water would rise to a certain level, when, owing to the nature of
the soil, the absorption was so great that it could rise no higher.
There was, in fact, a stream flowing through the pond, and a pond
of this nature may be an excellent place for trout.

Water readily takes up oxygen, and the more rapidly this
combination is brought about the sooner does it become suitable
for maintaining them. Whilst receiving a supply of oxygen it
also precipitates substances held in solution, and thus it will be
seen that the water flowing out of a pond may essentially differ
from the water flowing into it, if it be from springs. Plants give
off oxygen, and, as a rule, in other ways tend to render it more
suitable for fish. It is a well-known fact that even impure water
as in the case of a stream, becomes purified as it pursues its
course. Exposure to the air and the absorbing power of the
earth and other causes are at work to bring about this change.
Where the water supply is obtained frém springs, therefore, it is
desirable to pass it through a preparatory pond if practicable, and
it is important that this pond should contain vegetation of a
proper kind, as the plants not only give off oxygen but produce
favourable conditions for a crop of natural fish food. So much,
then, for ponds with a limited water supply.

Where a good supply is at hand I would say secure it by all
means. A stream that will fill a twelve-inch pipe will keep a
good series of trout ponds going. If double the supply can be
obtained at times so much the better. Although it is not only
desirable, but necessary, in the case of a successful trout pond, to
62 How to obtain it.

regulate the water, yet the supply should not always be just the
same. It is not so in nature. There are freshets or spates which
are often very beneficial to the fish. Now, we have the advantage
in a well ordered fish pond of producing these artificially, when-
ever desirable, and what is more, we can have the spate without a
flood and without fear of an overflow. Anyone who has seen an
artificial spate sent through a pond during dry hot weather in
July, would never doubt again the beneficial influence it had on
the trout. We know that in streams they often suffer very much
during droughts, and occasionally even die in numbers. What
a great advantage it would be in such a case to send down
an artificial spate occasionally, giving the fish not only additional
water, but taking care that that water was charged with trout food.
It could easily be done and would be an invaluable help, and I
venture to say it will be done before long.

I shall never forget a case in which I was once called
suddenly in the month of July, to look at some trout in a pond
that had heen almost deprived of its water supply during a long
drought. When I arrived I found but a mere trickle going into
the pond, where the sun’s rays had heated it toa dangerous
degree. Not adrop was running out, and the water had fallen
considerably below the overflow level, owing to the loss by
evaporation and soakage. The trout were gasping on the surface,
and a crowd of them also in the same condition were about the
inlet. The case looked hopeless, but 7/7 desperandum. The
pond was supplied from a mountain stream, and this stream, like
hundreds of its class, was almost dry. But it consisted, as most
mountain streams, do of pool after pool, and some of them were
of fair size. Obtaining a couple of men armed with crowbars,
spades, and pickaxes, I had them at work in a few minutes letting
off these natural water supplies. There was no difficulty about it
as the stream bed consisted mainly of boulders and gravel, and
by shovelling away a little of the latter or lifting a boulder or two
a considerable amount of water was liberated, and in a few
minutes a small artificial spate was going merrily through the
pond. The fish revived at once, and thus a valuable stock was
saved from certain destruction. Had this not been done, at least
three-fourths of them, if not all, would have been dead in a few
Flow to obtain tt. 63

hours. As soon as the water in the pond had become thoroughly
changed I allowed the stream to slacken considerably, and during
the night it only ran as I had at first found it. The fish had
recovered, and water was valuable, as we did not know for how
many days the drought might continue. Next day, however, the
operation of letting off more pools was continued, although with
great care, no more water being sent down than was absolutely
needful to keep the fish in a fairly lively condition. This
operation was continued for five more days, when a friendly
thunderstorm drenched the hills and sent down a copious supply,
which did not fail again that summer. Before the next a supply
had been obtained from another and a larger stream.

In the instance I have just narrated the fish were not only
benefited, but their lives were actually saved, by an artificial
spate, and the great benefit arising therefrom will be plainly
perceptible. So at any time during dry weather, although there
may be no danger whatever existing, an artificial spate sent
through a pond is an exceedingly good thing for the fish. It
may be produced by contrivances of the roughest and simplest.
kind. A few small dams should be made, not across the stream
itself, but in any suitable corners close to it, where a trickle of
water is obtainable to fill them. This means that there will be
practically hardly any stream going through them, and thus they
become excellent places for growing a crop of trout food, which,
of course, goes down with the water into the fish ponds when
the dams are let off. And here it should be observed that these
dams should never be run dry. By only running half the water
off, or at most three-fourths, a sufficient stock of living food is
retained in them to keep up the required supply.

Having made secure the point at which the water enters the
pond, the next thing is to provide for its escape when the pond is
full. There are many methods by which this may be effected.
One that I have found to be in very general use, is to allow it to
take the shortest possible cut over the embankment, in a channel
the bed and sides of which are more or jess paved. They may, of
course, be built of solid masonry. So far good; but there are
many things to consider, which I find in most cases have not
been thought of at all. Should the pond be in an exposed situa-.
64 How to obtain it.

tion, it is often desirable to make the outlet as near the south-west
corner as practicable. Our prevailing wind being south-west, and
most of our heavy gales coming from that quarter, it will be
apparent that the effect of the wind will be to keep the south-
west corner clear of floating matter. When the outlet is in the
opposite corner, all the floating matter is driven right on to the
screen, and causes much extra trouble. In some cases the situation
of the outlet in a rather bad position as regards the wind is almost
unavoidable, but in a great many instances it is quite a simple
matter to arrange it on either the southern or western side of a
pond. Of course some ponds are sheltered on the south-west,
and exposed to east winds, and work best with the outlet on the
east side. It is therefore necessary to take the bearings and study
the peculiar circumstances surrounding each case, and then decide
on the best place in which to construct an outlet. The result may
perhaps be that the best position for it, as regards wind, may
prove to be on the same side or very near the place at which the
water enters. This, again, is not good, and it may be desirable to
convey it, by means of a raceway, round to the opposite side, and
turn it in there, so as to make sure that it runs completely through
the pond. This may often be easily done, and is an advantage,
inasmuch as it provides an extra length of spawning ground for
the fish. Or it may be done by placing the leaf screen half-way
along the raceway DD (see Fig. 1) instead of at the point C or D.
So much, then, for the position of the outlet.

Here let me say that the east wind is sometimes as bad for
fish as it is for man and beast. It has been found that under
some circumstances fish are adversely affected by it. This is one
of the many points that require investigating, and every scrap of
information that can be gathered together will tend to teach us
something more about that of which we know comparatively little
at present. We do know that in laying out fish ponds for profit,
which are necessarily small and heavily stocked with fish, the east
wind is a factor which has not to be overlooked.

Having considered the position of the outlet, we have now
to decide which is the best way to make one—one that can be relied
upon ‘to work in all weathers, with the least possible attention or
care on the part of an attendant. That care must be given to an
How to obtain tt. 65

outlet screen goes without saying. It should be the duty of some
one to attend to it as often as may be required. The amount of
attention needful varies very much indeed in different cases. I
have screens working which are not touched oftener than once in
three or four weeks, and I have others that require attention every
day and sometimes twice daily. There are exceptional times that
come perhaps once a year, when a screen requires special attention
for a few days, as, for instance, during a slight rise in the water in
autumn when the leaves are falling. As I have already pointed
out, a good deal depends upon the position of a screen, and much
also upon the way in which it is guarded. I have seen one that
was almost hopelessly unworkable work quite easily after steps
had been taken for preventing the floating matter from coming on
to it, and this can often be done in a very simple manner. A few
bundles of sticks or of thorns placed in the water so as to form a
semicircle just above the screen have done excellent service many
atime. A wooden hack placed two or three feet in front of it
will answer the same purpose. I have seen wire netting used, but
it has the objection of being bad to clean. From a wooden hack,
or an iron one either, rubbish can easily be raked, but not so
easily from wire netting. Should it be the most convenient device
at hand, it should be stretched upon movable frames that can be
lifted bodily and well shaken, or the netting beaten with sticks or
switches to clear it of the mass of material that is at times sure to
collect upon it. Bundles of thorns, hedge clippings in fact,
do very well, and if plenty of them are used they are most
efficacious.

The working of a screen may also be materially helped by
planting a bed of reeds (Arundo phragmitis) or of bullrushes
(Typha latifolia) in front of it. These will do excellent service
in keeping it clear, by preventing the bulk of the floating matter
from reaching it at all, and by working a few bundles of sticks at
the back of a reed bed a screen may be made to give very little
trouble indeed. ‘‘ Where there is a will there is a way,” but the
disgraceful manner in which many of the outlet screens I have
seen have been worked would lead one to suppose that it was a
very difficult way. On newly-made fish ponds, however, it should
not be so.

F
66 flow to obtain tt.

The next question is—What is the best kind of screen? There
are several important points to notice.

(1) A screen should fit well into its place.

(2) It should be strong.

(3) It should be well let into the bank at each side, and
especially underneath, so that the water cannot by
any means flow round it or underneath it.

(4) It should be large enough.

(5) It should be so constructed that it will not allow any
fish to escape.

Only on very rare occasions have I come across screens that
possessed all these qualifications. In travelling about the country
inspecting ponds and lakes, I have not found one piece of water
in fifty to be possessed of such a screen. Many have been
introduced at my suggestion, and have worked most successfully.
The proper working of a screen depends largely upon the man in
charge of it. Occasionally, one meets with an individual whose
mind is made up before he sees it or begins to attend to it, and
in such hands it has usually a poor chance. I have seen one that
would not work at all under the care of one man do its work
admirably when in charge of his successor.

There are several different forms of screen which we will
consider by and by. Before doing this, however, let us turn our
thoughts to the material of which they are to be made. I have at
present close upon a hundred screens working about my ponds,
and I have always used perforated zinc, and have found it to work
well. It is fitted on to wooden frames, and these being all of the
same size, one can be withdrawn, and another of coarser or finer
perforation be readily put in its place. This on a fish farm is very
necessary, as large fish may be taken from a pond and replaced by
small ones needing a finer screen. Perforated zinc works well, is
not expensive, and is easily manipulated by any one who can use
a hammer and nails. Should a hole get punched in it by accident,
it is easily repaired by lacing another piece over the hole with the
help of a little brass or copper wire. Ordinary zinc requires
renewing about once a year, and this is its only drawback, but to
set against it is the advantage it possesses in being so easily put
on. It can be obtained of considerable thickness, however, and
flow to obtain it. 67

then lasts much longer. Perforated iron plates do very. well, and
are of course more permanent. They require no frames, and are
quite easily fixed. An ordinary iron grating is also excellent, but
it must be borne in mind that a fish can readily pass between two
bars of metal which could not possibly pass through a round hole
of the same diameter. The bars may be a quarter of an inch or
they may be half an inch apart, but the greater the width between
them the more readily will fish pass through and escape. It
may be argued that fish do not go down stream out of ponds.
I know many ponds where there is no outlet screen, and where it
has been supposed there is no need for one. This is a mistake,
however, and I have met with instances in which fish have been
lost in considerable numbers owing to it. At times, and under
certain circumstances, they will and do go down stream if not
prevented. There are some instances, however, in which a large
number of fish may run up stream into a pond, and of course all
things have to be taken into account, and each particular case
treated according to circumstances. One thing I am quite sure
of, and that is, that every fish pond that has been specially made
and stocked with fish, and that has a regulated supply of water,
ought to have an outlet screen.

Having decided upon the material that is to be used, the
next thing is to consider the more important points that are to be
observed in the fixing of a screen. We must first be sure that it
is capable of passing all the water during rainy weather. This is
in itself a very simple consideration, and in the case of a well
made pond that is not subject to flooding, is easily calculated.
By having a screen that will pass double the quantity ‘of water that
can by any possibility flow from the pond, it should be fairly safe.
Of course, the amount of floating matter that is liable to be
driven on to it must be well considered and allowed for, and it is
better to have the screen twice as large as is necessary than to
have it just a little too small. One double the capacity required
is, under ordinary circumstances, usually large enough.

There are so many old ponds in use that are liable to have
floods tearing through them, that I will just give a hint or two
concerning them. The chief point in their case is to have the
screen large enough. Make it as big as you like, but do not on
68 Flow to obtain tt.

any account have it too small. It will do no harm by being
made too big, and will give less trouble. Where the size can be
given in width and depth the matter is simple, but sometimes this
is not convenient. There may be an opening through which the
water passes that cannot be easily altered, and which at the same
time is too narrow for a screen to work. In such a case the
screen must project into the pond, and may be on the rectangular
system—that is, consisting of two sides and a front—or it may be
made semi-circular, and in this case may be much wider than the
outlet. In cases where there is much floating matter and heavy
flooding, it may be commenced several yards from the outlet,
beginning on the pond bank, and running out in semi-circular
form until it reaches the bank again, a few yards on the other side
of the outlet. It will be apparent, that the greater the dimensions
of the screen the less will be the liability to become choked, and,
consequently, the more easily will it be kept in working order.

It is very desirable that a screen should be well fixed, that
is, that it should be so let into the banks of the pond that there
is no chance of the water flowing round it, or under it, instead of
through it. This end can be attained by means of masonry or
concrete, in which the screen may work, and which must be well
puddled behind. A very simple and effective way of fixing a
screen, when made of wood and perforated or woven metal, and
one which I have frequently followed, is explained by the
annexed diagram :—

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. z.
How to obtain tt. 69

A B is a bar of wood, underneath which is the wire or perforated
screen, as shewn. On the outer ends of this bar, where it
extends to C and D, are nailed several boards. Another cross
bar lies at the back of the boards just below the screen, e to f,
and another at the bottom of all, g to 4. The whole of the wood-
work below the dotted line 4, 4, m, 2, 0 is to be buried in the
bottom and banks of the raceway, and, in constructing it, the
screen should be made of a suitable size to fit the raceway,
unless it be intended to use a projecting one. In such a case
no screen is fitted into the opening below A B, but the projecting
one may be fixed to the woodwork, and instead of working in the
raceway it works in the pond. There is a great advantage in
using wood, inasmuch as joints, alterations, and repairs are easily
made. It is true that it is more liable to decay than stone, but it
lasts a long time, and is not so often damaged by frost, and it has
the advantage of being less expensive and more easily adapted
than masonry. It should always be charred, both for the sake of
preservation, and to prevent the growth of fungus (Saprolegnia. )
A screen constructed in this way will be found a very simple
affair, and the filling of the trench which has been dug to receive
it, if properly done, will render it perfectly tight and secure. If
the work be done in concrete or masonry the principle is still the
same, and will ensure safety unless it has been very clumsily
managed indeed. The screen can be made to slide in a groove or
be a fixture, as may be most desired.

There is not much fear of the water getting round or under-
neath such a screen, and it will be found to be worth the labour
expended upon it. Fully three-fourths of those I have come
across which have been made in some other way have been
found to be useless. Once I was called to inspect a small lake
that had been stocked by an enterprising hotel proprietor. The
fishing had not improved as it should have done. We made a
careful survey of the water and its surroundings, and on
approaching the outlet one of the causes of failure was very
apparent. The outlet screen consisted of a big wooden frame
with perpendicular iron bars, but it was choked up so that no
water could pass through it, and instead of doing so it was escaping
through a hole which it had washed out round the end of the
70 Flow to obtain it.-

frame, forming an aperture through which I could almost have
crept. When I pointed this out to Mr. Blank and told him that
most of his fish had bolted, he threw up his hands in astonishment
that such a thing could be. What else could have been expected
from a neglected screen, a rat hole, and the action of the water in
flowing through it, but the result I have described ?

Similar occurrences I have found to be very common—water
escaping from a pond otherwise than through the outlet screens.
Sometimes in a paved raceway it takes the form of bubbling up
here and there among the stones, or of coming out at a hole in
the side of the raceway some distance from the pond. These
things ought not to be, and wherever they do exist they should be
remedied in the near future. What would be thought of a farmer
who put his sheep into a field, but did not shut the gate? So long
as it served the purpose of the sheep to stay in the field they
would do so, but no longer. It is the same with fish. There is
a widespread belief that when they are put into a pond they will
stay there, but my experience is that in a great many cases they
do not do so. A considerable number of them may remain, per-
haps enough to keep the pond always stocked, but if the best fish
be disappearing every time there is an inducement to them to go,
how much better it would be to prevent all possibility of such an
occurrence by having a screen at the outlet. With such a pro-
vision and a good spawning ground, a well-stocked pond or lake
ought to give very good results.

Many ponds have been made during the past few years, more
or less in accordance with the instructions which I have given, and
where the work has been properly carried out the result has been
most gratifying. I will refer only to three of these ponds which
were made by R. A. Yerburgh, Esq., M.P., at Barwhillanty, in the
County of Kirkcudbright. The first pond was finished in the
year 1888, and was stocked with trout fry on May 14th of that
year, according to my instructions. The fish grew splendidly, and
two months later were seen rising to the fly in all directions. So
decided was the success of the undertaking that a second pond was
at once commenced, and a good staff of workmen being employed
it was speedily completed, and was stocked the following year,
January, 1889, with large fish. A sufficient supply of natural food
Flow to obtain itt. 41

had been carefully prepared, and the water was in thorough
condition when the fish were turned in, the result being some
excellent fishing during the following summer. A third pond was
then constructed and was stocked with yearlings, which also did
well. The fish introduced were yellow trout, Loch Leven trout,
and American trout, and all gave excellent results.

The vexed question as to S. fontinalis rising to the fly was
settled here beyond a doubt in July, 1890, by G. Ward, Esq., of
‘Lake Vyrnwy. Writing to the Aisking Gazette of July 26th, 1890,
Mr. Ward says :—

“Dear Sir,—I cannot allow a most interesting visit I have just
paid to Mr. Armistead’s fish hatchery and breeding waters to pass over
without giving you some particulars of same. A rod was given me,
asa special favour, to cure me of my doubts as to /fontinalis rising to
the fly, and at the first cast that question was decided. I caught six in
a few moments, and the way these trout rose was certainly ‘a caution,’
as ina special pond, kept for the large fish, two rose at one cast and
took both my flies, I having a stiff rod that was too ‘hard’ on the fish.
Mr. A. now suggested that I should go to a water he had stocked three
years ago, which was a few miles from his place, and, nothing loth, we
started to see fresh wonders. On arriving we made requisite arrange-
ments . . . . and with very coarse and clumsy tackle I commenced
to cast ; but it made no difference to these fish, especially the fontinalis,
who rose to me in a most dashing manner, although the water was not
rippled. J had more than a dozen landed in about half-an hour, all of
which required playing, twice having two fish on at once, and I may say
I never saw anything like itinmylifee . . . Mr. Armistead could
have taken me to a number of other places where similar results have
been obtained, but I had seen enough. I must conclude by thanking
you very much for having, by your kind introduction, given me the
opportunity of seeing so much to interest the sportsman and fish
culturist:

Yours very truly,

“Lake Vyrnwy.” G. Warp.”

The last interesting experiment was allowed by the kind per-
mission of the factor, and I need hardly say that the fish.were
carefully returned to the water.

Every fish pond should have a bottom outlet, by means of
which it can be run dry at any time that may be desired. It
should always be borne in mind, however, that when the water is
let out of a pond the natural food contained in the water passes off
72 How to obtain itt.

with it, and that, on refilling, some time must elapse before this
stock of food can be reproduced. Especially is this the case
when the pond is supplied by means of springs, or the compara-
tively barren water of mountain or moorland streams. For this
reason, a pond should never be let off unless for some very special
purpose, as, for instance, when it may become needful to clean it
out, or to change the stock of fish, or possibly to destroy pike or
some other predacious fishes, which may have been introduced
accidentally or otherwise.

There are many ways of constructing a bottom outlet, the
great need being to have one that will allow the water to escape
without at the same time letting go the fish. This outlet should
be made at, or rather below, the level of the deepest part of the
pond. In the case of a large reservoir, where there is much
pressure, the pipes by which the water escapes should be of iron,
and should be very strong; but for a small pond, or one where
the water is not very deep, good sound earthenware pipes will
often answer the purpose. I would here point out the necessity
that exists, in the construction of embankments and bottom
outlets connected with ponds of any size, for the employment of
a thoroughly competent engineer. So much often depends upon
the strength of a bank, that too much caution cannot be observed
in attempting to impound any considerable amount of water.

I was once sent for to inspect a pond of some fifteen acres
after it had been completed, with a view to advising as to the best
course to pursue for getting up a good head of fish. I had never
seen it before, and when I arrived I found it nearly full, and
during my examination naturally asked a few questions as to the
embankment, puddle trench, etc. This not being really part of
my work, I did not say too much about it, but strongly advised
caution, and the water was not allowed to rise to its highest level
for some time, and then only very slowly. The bank was closely
watched, and, as the filling went on, the water was discovered
percolating through, and the owner at once ordered the bottom
outlet to be opened. The outlet pipes were of earthenware and
of considerable size, and as the foaming mass of water came
pouring through them, it was observed that the pipes were
breaking up and going away down stream. Fortunately the
How to obtain it. 13

embankment stood, but it was a narrow escape, and I have
thought it well to mention it here as a preventive of similar
occurrences in the future.

The question, as to which is the best kind of bottom outlet
for a large reservoir, will soon be settled by the engineer, who
should consult a fish culturist before deciding on so important
a matter. I will simply describe one which I designed some
thirty or more years ago, and which has in all cases worked
perfectly, and is now in use in most of my own ponds. Where
they are small it should be made of wood well charred. It is a
very simple contrivance both in construction and manipulation,
and consists of a wooden box about two or two and a half feet
square, and half a foot or so deeper than the deepest part of the
pond. Suppose this depth to be seven feet to the bottom of the
outlet pipe, then the box should be made, say, thirty inches by
thirty inches by seven and a half. feet. It should be let into the
embankment if practicable, but if, owing to the formation of the
bank, it be a few feet out into the pond it does not really matter,
except that it will require stays to keep it firm, and a gangway
plank to connect it with the shore.

Now for the box itself. It will be seen at once that it is not
the shape of an ordinary box, but may be described as long and
narrow. There is also a little peculiarity about its make. Let us
imagine it for a moment standing on one end, which we will call
the bottom, and which should be very securely fixed on. It
stands seven and a half feet high, and has four sides, one of which
we will call the “back.” This is to be placed nearest to the bank,
and a round hole should be cut in this ‘‘ back ” as near to the bottom
as practicable. This round hole should be just large enough to
allow the end of the outlet pipe to enter and project a little way
into the interior of the box. So much for the “back.” The side
opposite to it we will call the “front,” and the others simply the
two “sides.” There is nothing special to observe about the two
“sides” except that, like the “back,” they are to be firmly put
together. A good square corner piece or batten in each of the
four corners is a great help to the whole construction, and, in any
case, one must be fixed in each of the corners towards the front,
to which we will now turn our attention. It faces the pond, and
74 Flow to obtain tt.

as yet is quite open, except a couple of wooden straps which have
been fixed across it in order to keep the whole affair together and
prevent collapse of the two “sides.” The peculiarity about this
“front” is, that the boards are not to be nailed on, but are to be
quite loose. ‘They are kept in position by each of their ends
sliding into a gtoove which is formed to receive them, and being
slipped into this groove one after another till all are in, it will be
apparent that they close up the front side. A peg at each end of
the uppermost board to keep it in its place, and a movable lid
being made to cover up the top of the box, it is finished. The
front boards will float at first when released, but a piece of lead
nailed on each will settle this difficulty.

Before the box is thus closed up, however, a plug should be
fitted into the outlet pipe, and let this plug have fixed into it
an iron ring or eye, which must be placed so as to stand out
horizontally, and be ready at any time to receive the end of a
lever, by means of which the plug is drawn. This lever may consist
of a piece of larch or ash, and is in reality a boat hook. It must
have a piece of wood nailed on to its side at a suitable distance
from the bottom end, to act as a fulcrum when being used. It
should be fitted and tested before the water is let on, so that there
can be no doubt about its action when required to draw the plug
in an emergency. The whole contrivance is so extremely simple
and answers all purposes so well, that I have never desired any-
thing better. The box can be built of brick, stone, or concrete,
and, working on the same principle, can be used for a pond of any
size. In the case of a large reservoir the use of massive stonework
is desirable, and iron or other plates in “front.” Instead of
working with a lever, the outlet pipe may be carried by means of
a bend through the bottom of the box instead of the “back,” and
the ring in the plug will then be perpendicular, enabling the latter
to be drawn by means of a boat hook.

Now, let us suppose the plug to be in, the pond full of water
and fish, and that it is found needful to empty it. We go to the
outlet armed with a lever, a long-handled garden rake, and a frame
about three and a half feet square, on which is loosely stretched a
piece of strong fine-meshed netting. Take off the lid of the out-
let box, draw the pegs that keep the “front” boards secure, and
How to obtain it. 7

Wn

lift out the two top boards. Having done this put the lever or
boat hook down to the bottom of the box, and feel for the ring,
which is quite easily found. Then insert the hook, and, taking
care that the fulcrum rests against the back of the box, pull the
lever landwards. The plug is instantly drawn and may be lifted
out. There is now a rush of water over the top of the “front”
boards, or as we call them on a fish farm ‘“ water boards.” ‘These
boards do very well tongued and grooved, and I find six inches a
very convenient width. By lifting two of them, therefore, the
water is allowed to lower a foot, and the framed net is hung on in
front of the opening, to prevent the escape of any fish. The
pressure of the water will keep it in its place. When the water
has lowered nearly a foot lift two more ‘‘ water boards” and lower
the net, and repeat this until the pond is nearly empty, when the
fish may be netted out and dealt with as may be desired. The
garden rake will be found an excellent implement for lifting the
lower water boards.

 
CHAPTER II.

FISH PONDS——CULTIVATION.

Plants—Balance of life—Flora and fauna—Old ponds require cleaning—Pond
life—Its bearing on fish life—Cultivation—Conditions of soil—Planting—New
ponds—Virgin waters— Whitley reservoir—Importance of mollusca and crustaceans
—Aquatic plants—Dalbeathe reservoir—Lock Fern—Plants to avoid— Weeding—
Anacharis—Marginal plants.

M ANY people seem to think that all that fish require is plenty

of water, but they must have a good supply of suitable food,
or they will starve or become stunted in growth, like any other
members of the animal kingdom. Food, be it remembered, is a
necessity, and without a reasonable quantity of it, it is impossible
to maintain a good head of trout. Fortunately we have the means
within our reach of producing it in large quantities. The creatures
on which trout chiefly feed are, directly or indirectly, dependent
for their existence on vegetation, therefore it becomes absolutely
necessary to have a proper selection of water plants present.
There is undoubtedly a great future for some at least of our
fisheries, but that future need not be looked for so long as such
matters of importance are ignored. A farmer might just as well
expect his land to provide handsomely without being cultivated or
fertilized. Some natural waters on being stocked for the first time
give results beyond expectation for awhile, but then follows a
great falling off in their yield—tike the virgin soil of the Western
prairies, these waters soon become used up, so to speak.

It has been observed that where artificial ponds have been
made by embanking, and the sod has not been removed, or only
to a limited extent, that many of the grasses and other plants have
not been immediately killed, but have survived for a period, and
even for awhile become more luxurious in growth. While this
How to obtain it. 17

has been taking place on the one hand decay has also been setting
in on the other, and this decay has produced favourable conditions
for vegetable growths peculiar to such situations. Trout fry
turned into such ponds have developed into good fish, sometimes
in an incredibly short space of time. The cause of this rapid
development is to be found in the abundance of food produced
by the surrounding conditions, but the submerged plants have at
length decayed and disappeared, and with them, to a large extent,
the parasitic forms for which they have provided a suitable zzdus.
As a result the trout have ceased to grow—nay, have even fallen
off in condition ; but aquatic vegetation having been introduced,
in a few years the quality of the fish has improved. This needs
little explanation, for the cause is obvious. Therefore, when
ponds are constructed, a sufficient quantity of suitable vegetable
life should be introduced. Some plants are peculiarly favourable
for the development of fish food, some are positively hurtful,
some are highly poisonous, and some actually devour fish. It will
be apparent, therefore, that some knowledge of the subject is
necessary before going to work, or the desired end may not be
brought about.

A great deal more depends upon keeping up the exact
balance of suitable vegetable and animal life than the uninitiated
imagine ; and I have seen considerable sums of money sunk to
little purpose, in some cases thousands of pounds sterling, simply
because the matter has not been understood, and consequently
no attention has been paid to the most necessary details. It has,
indeed, never occurred to many minds, that the utmost importance
attaches to the presence or absence of various forms of vegetable
and animal life in the water.

Before any serious expenditure is incurred on any lake or
pond, the water and its inhabitants should be accurately studied.
The results of dredging and the use of the tow net in various
waters, goes to show that in some there is an abundance of ‘trout
food, whereas in others there is a great scarcity. Some contain
many injurious pests to fish, whilst others are free from them.
The study of fora and fauza is of the most vital importance ; and
the presence or absence of many microscopic as well as more
conspicuous animals, too apt to be overlooked, will often render a
78 Flow to obtain it.

piece of water fruitful or barren, as the case may be. The more
intimately we become acquainted with these important matters the
more likely are we to manage them properly.

Many old ponds are so completely overgrown as to be
choked with vegetation, and the only course that can be taken
with most of these is to let off the water, clean them out
thoroughly, allow them to remain dry for a period, and then deal
with them as I shall direct presently. The advantage of having a
properly constructed bottom outlet, as described in my last
chapter, will now be apparent, and at a time like this it will be
found very useful. At the same time it must be remembered
that when the water is run off a large quantity of valuable fish
food goes with it. This stock of food has to be replaced before
the water can again support the usual number of trout which the
pond has been accustomed to hold. When it is one of the lower
ones of aseries this does not so much matter, as water can be let
down from the pond above, which is charged with animal life,
and from this source a stock is soon produced.

In connection with the aqua-culture of the period, perhaps
there is no subject of greater importance than the study of the
various forms of life that are to be found in greater or lesser
quantities in our waters. To work out the life histories of the
creatures, and ascertain the peculiar conditions under which each
one exists or ceases to exist, and also those conditions which are
most favourable for reproduction, in the largest quantities, of
each species, is a work of no ordinary kind. Passing over the
more prominent and visible creatures, we come to a wonderful
series of microscopic beings, which in some localities are found in
enormous numbers, whilst in others they either do not occur at all,
or if they do, it is simply a case of bare existence. I have
examined some waters in which the so-called lower forms of life,
both animal and vegetable, are conspicuous by their absence, and
the fish in these waters are very naturally stunted in growth, and
are never known to attain any size, save where an individual
develops cannibal propensities, and soon outgrows his fellows. It
will be seen, therefore, that the conditions under which fishes are
wont to thrive are those to be first ascertained before stocking is
resorted to. It ought to be needless to point out that it is not
ffow to obtain it. 79

enough merely to make a pond, and put fish therein and expect
them to grow. It would be just as reasonable to fence in a piece
of moor, turn down a lot of lambs, and without any further
trouble, expect to receive in return a good crop of mutton.
Practically, however, this is the way in which fish culture has
often been attempted, and the result has been taken as a fair
average of its value. Properly cultivated water will yield excellent
results, but unless the right conditions exist, it is as impracticable
to obtain them as is the case with badly cultivated land.

Take the case already referred to of a pond that has been
neglected for many years, and that has in consequence become
filled with weeds and mud. The first thing to be done is to clean
it out, and having done this, to set about preparing the bottom for
future use. The treatment necessarily varies according to cir-
cumstances. It should remain empty for at least a year, and
during that time care should be taken that all noxious weeds are
destroyed. The bottom should be cultivated. As soon as the
soil of which it is composed is dry enough, plough it by all means,
if it be at all practicable to do so. In a great many cases this
can be done to a considerable extent. There may be places
which remain soft and watery, and others where the bottom is too
uneven or stony, but these tracts can be avoided, and: may be
cultivated in some other way afterwards. Wherever there is a
spot that remains wet and soft, it should be drained by means of
an open gutter, which can easily be filled up again if desired
before the refilling of the pond takes place. Parts that cannot be
reached by the plough should be turned over somehow, and the
whole of the pond bottom should be harrowed as soon as the
dryness of the soil will admit of it. Places should be marked
that are by nature the best adapted for making beds, for the
planting of the necessary future crop of vegetation. These beds
should be prepared by carting on to them a few loads of suitable
soil. This soil should not be taken from a tract of wet or boggy
land, but from a dry corner somewhere. It should, if practicable,
be of a different nature from that which forms the pond bottom,
and the two may with advantage be amalgamated by digging.
Where this soil is of poor quality it should be improved by some
well-rotted stable manure, which may be dug or ploughed into it.
80 How to obtain it.

Such beds are excellent for water lilies and other strong growing
plants. The whole of the pond bottom should have a final har-
rowing, and be sown with grass seeds. In many cases the grass will
produce a paying crop, and should be cut when ready. In some,
it may be cut two or three times with advantage, and when no
longer available for this purpose, a flock of sheep may be turned
on to it for a short time, to crop it close. In this way a fairly
good sward will be produced.

When the pond is ready for refilling, which is best done in
the spring, the bottom outlet should be closed, and, as the water
rises, suitable aquatic vegetation should be planted at its margin.
The object of this is to ensure the plants being submerged without
loss of time. Aquatics rapidly shrivel, and become more or less
injured if allowed to dry, or if exposed to wind or sunshine whilst
out of the water. This may not necessarily destroy them, but
care should be taken to avoid such occurrences. As the water
continues to rise more planting should be done, and in this way
a pond may be successfully stocked with a sufficient quantity of
aquatic vegetation of the right kind.

The same soil does not suit all plants. Some will grow
readily in a sandy or gravelly bottom, whereas others will not
succeed at all under such conditions. There are many ponds
which have sufficient good soil left in them, even after being
cleaned out, to do without much further preparation in the way of
carting in additional earth. In many cases, however, it is not so,
and this is one of the causes of failure I have met with. I have
seen ponds with nothing but a mass of stones, many feet or even
yards in depth, covering nearly the whole of the bottom, and in
such ponds it is impossible to grow a sufficient crop of vegetation
without first making proper beds for the reception of the plants.
When the pond is nearly full the marginal plants should be put in,
that is such as grow in very shallow water, or perhaps above water-
mark occasionally.

Where new ponds have to be made their construction can be
carefully studied, and the land that is to be presently covered
with water used to the best advantage. Sometimes it is needful
to make them by digging, sometimes by means of an embankment,
or by a combination of the two. This must depend a great deal
How to obtain it. 81

upon the nature of the ground, but in any case it is desirable to
remove as little of the original sod as may be practicable.
Should no digging out be required for the purpose of deepening
or enlarging the pond, let the material for the embankment be
obtained, as far as possible, anywhere but from the pond bottom.
A moderate quantity of material may be taken from the deep end
of it near the embankment, as a matter of convenience, if desired,
but that is all. The object of this is to preserve the original soil
and sod, so that on the filling of the pond it may remain
undisturbed and form the bottom, and where this is done, and
the water properly stocked at the right time by means of ova, fry,
or yearlings, I dare prognosticate a most encouraging result.

There are many striking instances of the success attending
the stocking of such waters, but the following will suffice. In
May, 1884, 5,000 Loch Leven trout fry were put into Whitley
Reservoir, near Wigan. The reservoir contained no fish and had
been filled some time, and the water was consequently in
excellent condition. On October 8th, 1886, the following
appeared in the Wigan Examiner :—

“TROUT IN THE WHITLEY RESERVOIR.”

“To the Editor of the Wigan Examiner.—Sir,—It may be
interesting to some of your readers to know the particulars of an
experiment to introduce Scotch trout into this water, and more
especially so as several references to the matter have appeared in the
papers. Inthe month of April,* 1884 . . . . I purchased 5,000
Loch Leven trout from the Solway Fishery, Dumfries, N.B.

The trout reached Wigan in good condition, and . . . . were
put into the reservoir immediately . « Out of the 5,000 fish I
have at different times taken, as specimens, six fish only. The first of
these I caught early in the spring of this year, and it weighed thirteen
ounces, while the last caught weighed two pounds six ouncest—truly a
wonderful growth in so short a time. The six fish, when taken, had
been feeding apparently entirely upon a species of shell fish which
abounds inthe pond . . . Yours truly,

‘* CHARLES APPLETON.”

Along with the newspaper cutting I have quoted I received
the following :—

* The fish were sentin May. + Large numbers were afterwards taken, 2 |b. to 3 lb.
G
82 Flow to obtain tt.

‘“‘Wigan, 14th October, 1886.

“J. J. Armistead, Esq.—Dear Sir,—I enclose you a copy ofa letter
which I have written about the trout I have bought from you, cut from
the Wigan paper, which I think will be interesting to you. What
strikes me as strange is the extraordinary rate at which the trout
appear to have grown. And, from what I have been told, one has been
taken out during the last few days weighing four pounds. Do you
think it is possible such a large fish can have grown in the time from
the fish which you supplied ?

“T have exceedingly streng evidence that the pond contained no
fish whatever before I stocked it, and yet it seems almost incredible
that the fish now being caught can be part of those which I bought
from you. I shall be much obliged if you will tell me whether, in your
experience, such a rapid growth has occurred.—Yours faithfully,

‘““CHARLES APPLETON.

“*P.S.—There are millions of the shell fish mentioned in my letter
in the pond, and all the trout seem to be gorged with them and nothing
else. Cc. A.”

This case does not by any means stand alone, although
the growth is somewhat exceptional. It was equalled if not
exceeded in the Dalbeattie reservoir at Buittle, in the county of
Kirkcudbright. Trout fry introduced into this water in May
were taken 1#]b. in weight a year the following September,
that is in sixteen months, and later on 2lb. The reservoir
is small, and had the fish had more range they would probably
have outweighed the Whitley fish in the same time. It had been
newly made, and had, after filling, remained unstocked with fish
for some time. On examination I found it to be full of fresh-
water shrimps (Gammarus pulex), on which the fish had been
feeding. Had these reservoirs been properly stocked by means
of- eyed ova I believe the above weights would have been
exceeded.

It is not at all difficult to obtain such results, and it can
be done by so cultivating the water as to bring it into that
peculiarly favourable condition for receiving the fish that mostly
occurs where the surface of the ground has been left in its
original state.

This highly encouraging condition of things will not last»
however, unless due care be taken to cultivate those aquatic
plants which are necessary to take the place of the submerged
Flow to obtain tt. 83

terrestrial vegetation when it has ceased to exist. This is a
matter which is often seriously neglected, and which many people
who have the care of fish ponds quite fail to understand.

The stocking in the Dalbeattie reservoir gave most encour-
aging results, and continued to do so because the proper
conditions existed and continued to exist. In the case of a
neighbouring piece of water known as Loch Fern, however, the
fishing fell off considerably after the first few years. Now this
lake was made by building a dam and flooding some fifteen acres
of land, and the submerged vegetation continuing to exist for
some time, a considerable amount of growth as well as decay of
vegetable matter took place. The conditions were highly
favourable for the generation of an enormous mass of fish food,
but as the various plants died out these conditions ceased to
exist. I gave instructions at the outset for the loch to be planted
with suitable aquatic vegetation to take the place of the other
plants, and had the instructions been carried out the result would
have been very much better than was actually the case.

There existed on the estate close at hand a large crop of
suitable plants, and I advised that a considerable quantity should
be carted over and planted in the newly made loch. Instead of a
horse and cart, however, a small hand basket was used, and the
quantity transferred was quite inadequate to produce the necessary
results. The fishing at first gave great promise, but instead of
improving declined a good deal. The condition of some of the
fish pointed to a lack of food, and as no improvement took place,
but, if anything, rather the reverse, the water was run off, and a
more barren wilderness could hardly be imagined than was
presented to view. The plants introduced had made good
progress, but occupied far too small an area of the bottom, and at
my suggestion more were put in. The lake was refilled, and the
plants have now been growing for some years. After the refilling
the water was at first naturally very barren, but the condition
steadily improved and the amount of natural food materially
increased. I shall refer to this lake again in my chapter on
stocking.

The advantages possessed by a newly-made pond where the
sod has remained undisturbed are great, and if a good amount of
84 Flow to obtain it.

aquatic vegetation were planted as the water was rising, such a
pond should never show a backward tendency as regards the fish
with which it is stocked. The water plants should be in sufficient
quantity to take the place of the decaying land plants. In many
cases it is not necessary to fill the pond to its highest level at first,
and, where it can be conveniently arranged, the height of the
water should be raised at the end of the second year. Early
spring is the best time for doing this. Should the pond have
been filled in September or October it is still better, even at the
end of two years, to wait until March before raising the level of
the water. The object in view in doing this is to submerge the
grass above the original margin. It has been found that such a
course is often followed by very gratifying results, and the reason
is not far to seek. The opportunity should be taken for
introducing a further quantity of aquatic vegetation, and some of
the marginal plants may require lifting and moving further back.
They will not have spread very much in two years, and, therefore,
the work is soon done.

Since the necessity for vegetation in ponds has been made
generally known, many owners of water, in their eagerness to have
everything right, have introduced plants which, when allowed free
scope, have increased to such an extent as to choke the water. In
many cases this is very much due to a want of care in attending
to them after planting. Many plants, if used at all, must be
thinned out every year, from the second year, and sometimes
from the first after introduction. This depends largely, of course,
on the quantity planted in the first instance. But in any case
such plants as Potamogeton, Myriophyllum, Anacharis, and others
of a similar and free growing nature are better avoided altogether,
unless it be intended that they shall be properly and carefully
attended to. In their proper places these plants are valuable and
are quite easily kept in order. But once neglect them, and let
them get the upper hand, and a great amount of labour will have
to be expended in order to bring them again within limits—and
the labourers must understand their work or it will, after all,
probably be a failure.

We know how comparatively easy it is to keep a garden in
order by attending to it at the right time, and how utterly
How to obtain tt. 85

hopeless the case becomes if weeds are allowed to go ahead and
smother everything else. We also know how some of the worst
weeds give little or no trouble if pulled out just at the right time.
So with the bottom of a pond. The usual course taken in the
case of a fish pond in the past has been to ignore the vegetation
altogether, until it has become an absolute pest. Then some
course has been taken which, owing to improper management, has
tended to increase instead of to reduce the evil. I have seen
weeds allowed to grow, flower, and ripen their seeds. Orders are
given for them to be cut, and this being done, they are left
floating till gradually they reach the shore on one side or the
other, and are raked out. The seeds are thus scattered in all
directions, and in a few years the pond contains such a mass of
vegetable growth that the case gets hopeless. Now it will be
apparent to my readers that such neglect can only be productive
of unsatisfactory results.

My experience has-been that in small ponds (say up to three
or four acres) which are quite under control, some of the most
free growing plants are highly beneficial. They require attention
from time to time, and where this is given they are valuable helps
to the welfare of a pond. Where this attention cannot be given,
care should be taken only to plant such as do not require any
cutting or thinning whatever. There are such plants, and they
may be introduced with safety into any fish pond, as the utmost
they can do is to cover the bottom with vegetation, thus
producing a state of things that is much to be desired.

The plants chiefly to be avoided are those which put out
fronds or branches, which rapidly reach the surface. In a large
number of instances some one or other of these plants will sooner
or later appear, and when this happens they should be removed.
Fish ponds should in fact be weeded. In cases which have come
under my notice a patch of vegetation has been pointed out
which has grown of its own accord. More often than otherwise
this has been a growth of pond weed (Potamogeton). The edge
of this weed bed has always been productive of a good fish or
two, Iam told. JI say “Yes; but keep it in check and do not
allow it to ripen any seeds.” Sometimes my advice has been
acted upon and very good results have followed. In other cases
86 How to obtain it.

the plant has been allowed to grow and also to seed and in a few
years the case has been hopeless. Nothing short of a good clean
out would do. Some of the plants of this class are very amenable
to cutting, especially if the roots be disturbed at the same time.
Care should be taken always to drag out the portions that have
been cut. They naturally float and will be driven on to the lee
shore of the pond by the wind.

There are several methods by which weeds may be cut in
the ponds ; if properly kept in check, which ought to be the case,
there is no difficulty. A simple pruning hook on a long handle
used from a boat will do good work in most cases. Sometimes
the dragging of a weighted rope or chain over the bottom ofa
pond is quite sufficient, and I have successfully adopted this plan
myself. It is not desirable in cases where it may do harm by
dragging out plants that should not be interfered with. Where
any of the free growing plants make their appearance naturally, as
they sometimes will, it is, however, often very efficacious, and
may be the means of preventing the eventual choking up of the
pond. It is a good plan in some cases to drag the plants out by
the roots, and for this purpose a specially constructed rake may
be used. It may be made two feet wide and the teeth four inches
long asarule. Any blacksmith will make one, and the heavier it
is the better; indeed, it is advisable to fasten a heavy iron bar on
to it, to keep it well down as it is dragged behind a boat. It may
have a bag-net attached if desired, to pick up the detached weeds,
and a more powerful apparatus may be worked from the shore, by
means of a stout rope and blocks made fast to a tree or to a stake
in the ground.

The advantage of the rake or drag is, that it can be used in
places as may be desirable, whilst other parts of the pond may be
left free. When properly handled it makes great havoc of the
plants with which it comes in contact.

Water plants play a very important part in the economy of
fish ponds. It is quite possible to maintain a large number of
fish in a pond in which no plants are visible, but the difference
between fish grown alongside of suitable aquatic vegetation, and
those grown in water which is destitute of it is marked. Where
no plants at first sight appear to exist, there is often a considerable
Flow to obtain itt. 87

growth of minute vegetable forms, varying in degree according to
the nature of the water and the general surroundings, but the
presence of some of the larger plants is greatly conducive to the
health of the fish. Livingstone Stone says:—‘ Water plants
consume carbon and return oxygen. Trout consume oxygen and
return carbon. By putting plants and fish together, therefore, we
avail ourselves of one of Nature’s great universal agencies, in
balancing vital forces against each other, and maintaining the
equilibrium on which the continuance of organic life depends.”
Speaking broadly, this is so, and it must be remembered that
some plants produce more oxygen than others, and some afford
food and shelter to a much larger quantity of animal organisms,
and every trout culturist nowadays knows the value of crustacea,
mollusca, and of a great many of the lower forms of animal life,
such as copepods, entomostraca, etc.

The fly-fisher in comparatively barren lakes, knows how
often in the neighbourhood of patches of aquatic vegetation, the
best fishing is to be obtained. The cause of this should be
noted. Shelter, food, and a greater abundance of oxygen are
temptations which cannot be resisted by the fish, and conse-
quently they are sure to be found in proximity to the vegetation
which produces them. As on land so in water, some plants are
more favourable to the production of food than others, and these
are the plants to seek out and cultivate, due care being taken to
study their life history, and to avoid as far as possible those which
might, by spreading unduly, become a pest in the pond. There
is one plant (Anacharis alsinastrum) to which I have already just
alluded, which has been found such a pest in some places where
it cannot be kept under. It should never, on any account, be
introduced into waters where due control over it cannot be
maintained. In places where it can be kept down easily it is,
however, a most useful plant. I have seen some lakes very much
spoiled by it, becoming quite choked, and an excessive amount of
decay taking place continually, and rendering the water very
unwholesome. In these places it sometimes unaccountably dies
out. I have seen a pond quite cleared of it in this way for
awhile ; but, a few small pieces retaining vitality will commence
growing again, and spreading with rapidity, will soon choke the
88 Flow to obtain it.

place up again. Swans have been tried on some waters, and
where they can reach it they make havoc amongst it. There are
places in which it has appeared suddenly without any apparent
reason. In such cases it has probably been carried by birds.

The Axacharis was originally introduced into this country
from America, and is usually looked upon as the most free
growing plant we have in our waters. There are some native
plants that are as bad, if not worse, and one of these is the water
milfoil (Ayriophyllum), which scatters its seeds profusely, and
springs up, sometimes all over the bottom of a pond, and in a
very short time spoils the fishing—indeed, I have seen it so
densely matted together that it was with difficulty that a boat
could be pulled through it. In such a case the simplest plan of
dealing with it is to cut it down and drag it out, and where it
becomes an excessive annoyance the best thing that can be done
is to run the pond dry, and when the bottom is sufficiently free
from water, to cultivate it roughly, and take a crop of grass off it
for a season or two. The advantage of this course is very great,
as the grass is not absolutely killed at once by the water when
the pond is refilled, but continues to grow for some ume. The
conditions existing are very favourable for the production of a
great mass of animal life, consisting of minute organisms, which
are multiplied enormously for awhile, and the fish thrive on them.

In one way or another this experiment has now been often
involuntarily repeated, and the result proved beyond a doubt, by
the improvement of the fish themselves. Water plants are a great
help in the growing of young fish, and in a pond well stocked
with proper vegetation, trout fry will thrive where fish from the
same batch of ova, kept in a bare pond and fed artificially, will
sicken and die in large numbers. This fact alone may be taken
as a fair test of the value of proper aquatic vegetation. As to the
best plants to make use of, opinions may differ as yet, but one
important point to be observed is the avoidance of those the
introduction of which is likely to prove an annoyance rather than
otherwise. About the margins of a stream, and at the point
where it enters a pond or lake, experience has taught us the
cultivation of the common water-cress (JVasturtium officinale) is
highly beneficial. There are many terrestrial plants also, which
Flow to obtain it. 89

will grow to a considerable extent in water, such as white clover,
buttercup, etc. I found this out, as many other things have been
found out, quite by accident some years ago. The grass border
to a pond containing some trout fry had not been cut so carefully
as usual, and IJ noticed that where plants growing on the margin of
the water had put out their runners and were endeavouring to
grow in that element, there the little fish congregated and pro-
duced very much better specimens than were to be found in the
body of the pond. I have since several times cultivated these
land plants as marginal semi-aquatics, and with favourable results.
On another occasion, some trout fry which had accidentally
escaped from a rearing box were afterwards found in a water plant
bed, and in a month they had quite doubled the size of their
fellows, who were being reared by artificial means. The water-
cress was one of the plants which grew in this particular place,
and under the shelter of which the little fish had taken refuge-
Watercress requires to be planted where there is a comparatively
warm spring, in order to have a good crop early in the year, but
in many sheltered situations it will make good headway in April
by the heat of the sun alone. It can also be forced very rapidly
under glass, and it is worth while doing this about fry ponds and
their raceways.

Another excellent marginal plant is the marsh marigold
(Caltha palustris). Vike the watercress, it may be planted at the
head of a pond, along the sides of the stream, and also all round
the sides of the pond itself, at any convenient places. It is a
useful plant for fry ponds, or any rearing ponds, and I have grown
it about my own for many years with advantage. Rabbits do not.
eat it, which cannot be said of the watercress, for I have found
the latter quite exterminated by these rodents where the marsh
marigolds were left untouched. They are very easily cultivated,
and should be planted in spring, and they never become a pest,
which is very much in their favour. I have succeeded in getting
a variety that produces fine double flowers, and either these or the
single ones are exceedingly effective when cultivated in clumps.
They have the advantage of being very hardy, and once
established are easily propagated, either by means of seeds or
offshoots. I have seen trout fry harbouring under the shelter of
go How to obtain tt.

a tuft of this plant, in a manner which was exceedingly suggestive
of its being a useful accessory to a fish pond.

The water plantain (Avsma plantago) is another marginal
aquatic, which is very hardy, and invariably succeeds where
properly introduced. It also grows freely in shallow water, say
up to a foot deep, and, when planted at a depth of two or three
feet, produces handsome floating leaves and excellent shelter for
fish. Its natural position is at the margin of a pool or in shallow
water, but it is well worthy of cultivation a little further into the
pond. Should it grow too strongly it is very amenable to cutting,
and is improved thereby as an aquatic; though for ornamental
purposes, and as an insect producer, it is better to allow the
plants full scope. It does not spread too much and can be
readily thinned out in summer should such an operation at any
time be considered necessary. ‘The flower stems of this plant are
rather handsome, and, if cut in September, will last all the winter
through, and make handsome adornments for an entrance hall, or
the corner of a room, or in smaller tufts, on the mantel-piece or
sideboard.

 
CHAPTER III.

FISH PONDS—-CULTIVATION CONTINUED.

Marginal plants—Insect life—Plants for deep water—Plants to avoid—
Advantages of water lilies—Bottom-covering plants—A fish-eating plant—Ponds
at Washington—Mollusca—Crustacee—Eels—How to catch them.

ANY of the marginal plants are very interesting, and all are

more or less ornamental. The great spearwort (Ranunculus
Jingua) with its handsome yellow flowers is one of these.

The lesser spearwort (Ranunculus flammula) is another plant
which grows freely at the edges of lakes, and although its natural
habitat is oftener in bogs and ditches yet it is a very useful little
plant, which I have frequently grown extensively in raceways and
fry nurseries. When submerged in water a foot deep it sends up
long stems supporting floating leaves and becomes an interesting
looking aquatic. I have often recommended it for the aquarium,
where it has given great satisfaction. It is very hardy and will
grow in almost any place where there is moisture. There are
several closely allied species.

Another plant that is easily grown is the brooklime ( Veronica
beccabunga). This also is a very useful plant, and being hardy
succeeds anywhere. It is said to be very good for cattle, and it
is certainly in its right place at the edge of a fish pond.

One of the most beautiful of our marginal plants is the bog-
bean (Menyanthes trifoliata), which grows either in the water or
out of it. It delights in the border of a lake where there is a bed
of soil or turf from which it can spring, and from this it will grow
out as a floating plant, sometimes for many feet. It is very
amenable to cultivation, and the exquisite flowers are often much
improved thereby. Before opening they are of a bright rose tint,
g2 How to.obtain tt.

changing to a most delicate pinky white when expanded. The
stem or root of this plant possesses medicinal properties, and
makes an excellent tonic.

The iris family is a very interesting group of plants and one
which produces numerous varieties, some of which have ex-
ceedingly handsome flowers. Our native species, the yellow iris
(Iris pseud-acorus), is one of these and does well when planted
in masses on the banks of a lake. It will grow in water up to a
foot or two feet in depth, and is a desirable plant to have about
fish ponds. It succeeds also very well growing from the side of a
perpendicular bank bounded by deep water, and in such a
situation produces an excellent shelter for fish, which like to
frequent its mass of semi-floating roots. I have known perch to
deposit their spawn upon them. We are indebted to many
foreign countries for contributions to this family, and when grown
as ornamental plants some of these are very handsome, and make
most interesting groups with a rich variety of colouring that it
would be difficult to excel. They ought to be much more
extensively cultivated than they are, and anywhere near the house
are well worthy of the attention of the gardener.

The bullrush (Zypha datifolia), as it is commonly called, is an
exceedingly handsome plant, which, like the iris, will grow in
water up to two feet or more in depth, and is to be recommended
on account of the shelter which it affords, and also as a food
producer. Where ornament is an object a few good clumps of
this plant are most effective. The lesser bullrush (Zypha
angustifolia) is a smaller plant, and is much more uncommon than
Typha latifolia. Where allowed full scope it is perhaps the most
desirable of the two and is much more graceful in appearance, its
slender stems and smaller heads possessing a peculiar beauty
which is not so apparent in the other. Both are equally useful in
their proper places, and are easily kept within bounds.

The flowering rush (Butomus umbellatus), now unfortunately
becoming rare in this country, is well worthy of the attention of
the aquaculturist, and its handsome flowers soon make it a
favourite when it becomes known. It is very easily grown and
thrives best where well rooted in a good bed of soil.

There are many other plants which do well in similar
How to obtain itt. 93

situations to the foregoing, but those I have mentioned have been
tried, and their introduction has proved beneficial. The subject
of pond culture has been so little studied, that the uses of many
plants are not yet thoroughly understood, and care is needed in
the introduction of mew and untried species. Whilst treating of
marginal species, I would point out the advantage arising from the
planting of suitable insect producing plants, shrubs, and even
trees. Where tree planting is done in the vicinity of a lake or
pond, it is very desirable to put in a few suitable specimens near
the water. The oak produces a great amount of insect life, and
a few alders are in their element by the pond side, and do good.
Osiers or willows are also excellent, and, if the right kinds be
planted, they may be cut annually, and in this case prove
remunerative.

It is well worth while to bestow a little care on the vegetation
surrounding lakes and ponds, for a large amount of insect life
may be produced by encouraging the growth of suitable plants.
In the case of willows, shrubs, and tall growing plants, it will be
found a great advantage to keep them back a little way from the
water, so as to leave plenty of room for a path along the edge of
the lake. The leaves will not then fall into the water so much,
but thousands of insects will, and these will be very good for the fish.

The introduction of the plants that inhabit comparatively
deep water requires much more consideration than is necessary
with marginal specimens. The latter can easily be got at, and
there is no difficulty in keeping them in order. They are more
constantly seen, growing as they do partly above the surface of
the water. We know what weeds are in a garden, and how freely
they grow. They often grow just as freely at the bottom of the
water, and require attention just the same. There is one
difference, however, and that is, that when a pond bottom has
been properly prepared before filling, the weeds are often many
years in making their appearance. When they do commence
growing they usually appear in one, or at most, two or three
places only, and are at first very easily dealt with. The plants
most suitable for introduction, therefore, are those which do not
spread too rapidly, and which in spreading do not choke the
water to the injury of the fish.
94 flow to obtain tt.

It is quite easy to find such examples, and one which I have
used most successfully is the stonewort (Chara jéexilis). There
are several closely allied species, and I merely take C. flexilis as
an example. It soon covers the bottom, where it grows, and as
it does not usually attain a height of more than two feet or so, it
cannot be in the way of the fly-fisher. Even when trolling it is
not in the way, although it may occasionally be brought up on
the hooks. should they sink too deep, but even then there is
advantage rather than otherwise, as the plant does good service in
keeping the hooks off the actual bottom. It also provides good
shelter for those creatures on which the trout live, and I have
often seen it much frequented by Zzmmnea, etc. It grows well in
either standing water or in a stream. Sometimes it suddenly
disappears from a pond, but in such a case some will be found in
the stream below, which will soon raise another stock, if removed
and planted near the head of the water.

We often find lake bottoms covered in places by some
member or other of this family (Characez), and there are other
plants which are also often found, naturally, in similar situations,
such as ALpriophyllum (milfoil) Potamogeton (pond weed), etc.
These, and other free growing plants, I have already alluded to.
They should, as a rule, be avoided, although in large lakes where
they have plenty of room, they often do very good service. I
have seen ponds entirely choked by Potamogeton crispum and
Potamogeton natans, and yet both are useful, especially the
former, in their proper places. The difficulty is to keep them
within reasonable bounds. For coarse fish ponds I have found
Potamogeton crispum very useful, but it requires a good deal of
attention.

Of the taller growing plants, the white water lily (Mymphea
alba) is one of the best. If properly planted it grows readily, and
the floating leaves provide an excellent shade for the fish, under
which they delight to swim, and where they find also a quantity
of natural food. The beauty of the flowers alone is very much in
their favour, while they spread very slowly, and should the
floating leaves at any time be in the way, it is a very easy matter
to cut them. They will thrive wherever there is a fair depth of
good soil, but do not grow well on a stony or sandy bottom—
Flow to obtain itt. 95

indeed this applies to most plants. The native species (V. alba)
does best in Britain, but some of the introduced kinds will do
very well in some waters, and amongst these are the sweet-scented
water lily (JV. odorata) and the Cape water lily (Afonogeton
distachyon), which is a little gem.

There is a British plant which is very little known, being
only found in a few localities, and which is both very pretty and
useful in ponds. This is the fringed water lily (Villarsia
nymphaoides), the leaves being small and varied in colour, from
green to reddish brown, and the flowers yellow, and about the
size of the common yellow cistus. It is very easily cultivated,
and spreads more rapidly than the white lily (ZV. adda).

The yellow water lily (Wuphar /utea) is a freer growing plant
than JV. alba, and the leaves are larger and the flowers not so
showy as those of its congener. It is, however, a very useful
plant, and is easily cultivated where there is a good bed of soil
into which it can strike its roots.

Water lilies are easily planted in artificial ponds or lakes
whilst the water is rising, but it sometimes becomes needful to
introduce them into places which cannot be run dry. It is a very
good plan in such cases to plant them in very light wicker
baskets, and sink to the bottom of the lake. The basket will rot,
but the lily will grow, and soon takes hold of the bottom. The
simple tying of a stone to the roots is, however, sufficient to sink
them, and they may then be gently pressed into the soil at the
bottom by means of a pole, care being taken that the crown of the
plant is uppermost.

There are some plants which nature seems to have specially
provided for the covering of pond or lake bottoms, and first
among these is the lakewort (Lzttorella lacustris). This little
plant will never become an annoyance anywhere. It only
averages about three inches in height, and is very rarely found to
exceed six inches—indeed, it only attains to this height when
growing in peculiarly favourable places. I have found it
occasionally reaching the latter dimensions, but only in some
corner where the temperature and soil have both been specially
favourable, and such instances are unusual. It is one of the most
useful little plants that I know of in a lake or a pond, and soon

«
96 Flow to obtain tt.

covers the bottom with a rich grass-like carpet, and at once forms
a refuge for a large quantity of animalcule, shell fish, etc., the
latter attaching their spawn to its leaves very freely. It grows
readily in almost any reasonable depth of water, say from a foot
to ten feet or more, and is one of the most harmless plants we
possess. It can never interfere with fishing in: any way, it never
needs thinning, and no matter how much it may spread, it can
never become a pest. Being a valuable food producer, it is an
exceedingly desirable addition to our fish ponds, and should be
largely planted. One of the best methods of doing this is to
lower the water a little, and dibble in the plants in small groups,
varying from three or four to twenty plants, according to the
quantity to be planted and the size of the pond. The plants
spread laterally, so that it is only a question of time for them to
cover the whole bottom of the pond. In waters which cannot be
lowered, the plants may be tied to small stones, and dropped into
the water in suitable places. Where this plan is adopted, several
may be tied to one stone, care been taken that they are not
bound too tightly. They may also be planted in rough shallow
boxes and sunk in the lake, or in flat baskets, which may be
treated in the same way. I have known a case in which a large
number were sorted into bunches of eight or ten, and these
consecutively tied on a string, somewhat like the papers on the
tail of a kite. A stone was tied to each end of the string, and it
was then sunk in the water, care being taken to stretch it well, so
that the plants could not rise, but must stay on the bottom, into
which they soon sent their roots.

The next plant which is to be recommended is the charming
little water lobelia (Lobelia Dortmanna), and the only objection
that can be raised to it is, that it sends up a single flower stem
above the surface of the water. This drawback, however, is not
worth a moment’s consideration, as they can be readily cut and
will not again reappear the same year. With the exception of the
flower stem it only reaches a height of some two inches, and does
not spread unduly. It is indeed a very desirable little plant to
introduce, and is propagated by seed. The root consists of
numerous white fibres, and the leaves, which are fairly numerous,
are arranged in a somewhat star-like form at the bottom of the
How to obtain it. 97

water. Shell fish deposit their spawn freely upon its leaves. Of
all plants, the lakewort and the water lobelia are, I think, two of
the most suitable for introduction into trout ponds. The latter
was named in honour of the Flemish physican, Matthias de Lobel,
who was botanist to James I.

The great water moss (/ontinalis antipyretica) is a valuable
plant, and delights in rocky streams and raceways. It also does
well in ponds where there is a good current, and grows chiefly
on stones, though it may often be found in streams growing on
wood or tree roots, and I have found it growing freely on gravel
beds in lakes. It is very useful in providing a good shelter for
trout, and also as in insect producer, and in raceways is
invaluable. One great advantage is that it does not grow with
sufficient luxuriance to choke places up as some plants do, and it
is easily thinned out if desirable. It can be introduced by
planting stones on which specimens are growing, or by placing
tufts of it in the gravel. Planting in raceways and streams is
easily done by simply fastening a stone on to the root of the plant
and pressing it into the bottom.

In addition to the great water moss, the starwort ( Cad/itriche )
and water crowfoot (Ranunculus aguatilis) are useful in streams.
The latter sometimes becomes a pest when it gets into ponds. It
is needful, therefore, to use care in introducing it into pond or
lake tributaries, and the same applies to some other plants. The
milfoil (Ayriophyllum ), for instance, is an excellent plant in many
streams, but in ponds it isa perfect pest. When it occurs in a
stream which feeds a pond, the seeds or small portions of the
plant itself will inevitably float down into the pond and grow.
Some of the Ranunculacee are exceedingly acrid and have been
used for producing blisters, but the wounds made proved very
troublesome and difficult to heal. Ranunculus flammula already
referred to is one of these, though in trout ponds it does not
seem to be injurious but rather the reverse. The water celery or
celery-leaved crowfoot (2. sceleratus) I have carefully avoided, as
well as some others of the genus, on account of their acrid
tendencies.

The bladderwort (Utricularia vulgaris) has been found to
eat fish, or at least to destroy them. This discovery was made by

H
98 How to obtain tt.

Mr. G. E. Simms, of Oxford, who had the plant growing in an
aquarium in which the fry of perch and roach were also kept.
Seeing some little fish apparently lying dead amongst the
bladderwort, Mr. Simms endeavoured to remove them, and found
that they were firmly held by the plant. The latter may be
briefly described as a floating species growing in ditches, ponds,
and other still waters. The stem lies in a somewhat prostrate
position, from which numerous thread-like leaves grow out in
whorls. Amongst these leaves are found a number of tiny
vesicles, which were formerly supposed to be air-bladders by
means of which the plant floated to the surface. These now
come out in their true character as traps for living creatures,
including fish, upon which the plant probably feeds. The
vesicles are somewhat pear-shaped, and possess an opening at
the smaller end which is closed by a valve. This valve opens on
pressure from without, and closes upon any unfortunate creature
that may enter. Young fish have been found caught by the head,
tail, and umbilical sac. Crustaceans, larve, entomostraca, etc.,.
are entrapped by these vesicles or so called bladders, from which
the plant derives its name. In summer it sends up a flower stem
some five or six inches high. The blossoms are yellow streaked
with purple.

Mr. Simms tells me that experiments have shewn that it is
very seldom, indeed, that young roach become entangled in the
bifid processes with which the quadrangular mouth of the vesicle
is furnished; young perch, however, succumb freely to its
influence, which is a purely mechanical one. Under a high
power microscope, the vesicles appear perfectly smooth and
polished, and they seem to be armed with a series of reversed
serrations, pointing towards the opening. These serrations catch
the delicate skin of the fry, whose every struggle only sends them
further on towards the opening, and so on until the posterior wall
of the vesicle is reached, when the fish is prevented from making
its exit by the closing of the trap. Sooner or later the fish dies,
decomposition sets in, the tail drops off, that is, as much of it as.
is exposed outside the vesicle, whilst the protoplasm engendered
by the decomposition of the portion within, is utilised for the
support of the plant. Having no root, it is dependent to a
How to obtain it. 99

considerable extent on the amount of nutrition that it can obtain
through the medium of its vesicles, which form a series of little
stomachs, both in shape and function, along the branches in the
axels of the leaves. The walls of the bladders are almost opaque,
save at the extreme of the posterior end, which is semi-transparent,
and forms a spot of greenish light. This undoubtedly arouses
the curiosity of the little perch, which in their anxiety to institute
further investigations leads them to become entangled on the bifid
processes, where all further chance of their ever troubling an
angler is abruptly ended. Care must be exercised in collecting
the plant for experimental purposes, as a short exposure to the air
seems to cause the traps of the vesicles to lose their elasticity,
and renders it valueless for killing purposes.

The thanks of fish culturists are due to Mr. Simms for
making known the result of his interesting work, though as far as.
trout culture is concerned there is probably little fear from the
presence of bladderwort, beyond the fact that it consumes a
certain quantity of trout food. In ponds used for coarse fish
culture, however, the case may be very different, and from these:
it should be carefully excluded. In the United States, as soon
as the character of the plant was made known, the late Professor
Baird issued a circular to American carp culturists warning them
to remove it from their waters. In ponds such as those of the
United States Fish Commission at Washington, which I had the
pleasure of visiting in 1893, such a plant is calculated to do
harm, for out of the multitudes of small fry which crowd some of
them, a considerable number would probably fall victims to its
killing propensities.

In the ponds at Washington water-plants are largely
cultivated, and are a most needful part of the system. The ponds.
are carefully surrounded by fine wire netting to keep out the rats,
tortoises, water snakes, etc., and are well watched and tended.
They have proved a most successful part of the work of the
United States Fish Commission. In some of them the plants on
which the fish deposit their ova are grown in trays, and when the
operations are over these trays are lifted out and placed in other’
ponds, where the little fish find plenty of food, and are not.
devoured by their parents.
100 How to obtain it.

When once a piece of water contains a proper assortment
and amount of plant life, there will be a good chance of
maintaining a sufficient stock of those creatures which form the
natural food of trout. Crustacea, mollusca, entomostraca, and
other forms, should be plentifully present in the water. The two
former are very easily introduced, and should be found in every
trout pond. They are very prolific, and when once put in soon
multiply and stock the water. The result of having a good
supply of these creatures has already been referred to in the case
of the Whitley and Dalbeattie reservoirs, which are by no means
exceptional instances of the rapid development of trout. The
famous gillaroo trout, named by some naturalists Salmo stoma-
chicus, on account of the toughness or thickness of the middle coat
of its stomach, has been found to feed very largely on shell fish.
The late Dr. Francis Day says :—‘“‘Its stomachs are occasionally
served up as gizzards. Thompson obtained from the stomach of
one example about eight inches long, above a thousand shells of
Limnea peregra, Valvata piscinalis, and a few specimens of
Spherium corneum.” The well-known pink colour of the flesh is
undoubtedly attributable to the food on which the trout live, and
it has been found that the way to produce both a pink colour and
a delicate flavour is to feed largely on mollusca and crustaceans.
I once took in hand by way of an experiment the feeding of a
pond full of American trout (Sa/mo fontinalis) entirely on shrimps
from the sea. These creatures were obtained by bushels and fed
to the fish. The diet was an expensive one, but the effect was
most satisfactory, resulting at the end of six months in beautifully
pink-fleshed and delicately-flavoured fish. Strange to say, the
trout took a violent dislike to these shrimps when unboiled, but
boiled ones they eat eagerly. A diet of shell fish also produces
very good results as regards flavour and colour, and the rate of
growth is far above the average.

Shell fish (A@o//usca) may be introduced into any pond or
suitable stream without the slightest difficulty. They should be
put into the water in various places, where there is some
vegetation on which they can feed. They deposit their spawn
freely on water plants, any pieces of rotten wood, or even on
stones, and when once a brood has been secured they are never
How to obtain tt. IOI

likely again to be eradicated. Some kinds do much better than
others, and among these perhaps one of the best is the Zimnea
peregra.

Crustaceans in the shape of fresh water shrimps (Gammarus
pulex) are also very easily introduced, and should be put into the
stream flowing into the pond, where they will at first be more at
home, and they or their progeny will soon drop down into the
pond and stock it. The fact must not be overlooked that some
crustaceans are parasitic on fish. Some knowledge is, therefore,
requisite before introducing living creatures into a trout pond, or
a serious mistake may possibly be made. I once had a
consignment of fish from abroad, and on arrival they were closely
examined before being turned out, and were found to be infested
by a leech. These creatures caused the fish much annoyance, if
they were not otherwise hurtful. Each fish was carefully
examined and the pests removed, and after being passed twice
through salt baths, and performing quarantine, they were found to
be quite clean, and were then turned out. Seven of these leeches
were put into a glass jar for further examination, and a couple of
sticklebacks were introduced. A leech immediately stuck to one
of them, having hold of the jar at the same time, and in spite of
the utmost endeavours of the fish, the leech held it for fifteen
seconds or more, and then relinquished its hold of the glass and
stuck to the fish with both extremities, to its evident great
annoyance. The others soon followed suit and took hold also.
Next day, however, the tables were turned, four of them having
taken inside berths. The remaining three still adhered firmly to
one fish. These leeches when examined under the microscope
were found to be infested by scores of smaller parasites.

“Great fleas have little fleas
To live upon and bite ‘em;

Little fleas have lesser fleas
And so ad infinitum.”

This occurrence suggests the exercise of great care in
importing foreign fish lest we import foreign parasites and plagues,
as so frequently in the past. All imported fish should be
carefully examined, dipped, and quarantined, before being passed
into British waters.
102 How to obtain it.

In the cultivation of fish ponds eels must not be overlooked.
They will manage to get into some ponds, and often do grievous
damage. I once turned 1,760 yearling trout into a pond in May,
and in August they were taken out again and only 1,220 were
forthcoming. A couple of eels, which weighed 3 lb. had
accounted for over 500 of them. This is but an example of the
enormous amount of damage these fish will do if left to them-
selves. A correspondent wrote me quite recently that he had lost
eighty per cent. of his yearlings, owing to some eels having found
their way into the pond. Ponds should, therefore, be made
secure against these fish, and where this cannot be done, or where
their presence is even only suspected, eel traps should be set.
Those I have successfully used consist of wicker baskets, sunk in
the water in suitable places, and buoyed to assist in finding them
again. Where a number are fixed, half-a-dozen or a dozen may
be strung on a line a few yards apart. These require baiting, and
this may be done by placing in them some pieces of boiled horse-
beef or fresh rabbit’s paunches. If herrings are procurable, half a
herring or a whole one in each trap is a killing bait. It is not really
necessary to sacrifice the herring; the refuse after they are cleaned
for cooking answers equally well, if not better. It is a good plan
to place the bait inside a tin canister punched full of holes, but
the trap, and especially about the entrance, should be smeared
with herring also. In some places worms make an excellent bait,
and the way to use them is as follows :—Get a lot of worms and
some small sods, and place them sandwich fashion in a box for an
hour ar more. The worms will enter the sods, which then make
excellent baits. I have had traps worked in this way, and they
have caught enormous quantities of eels, sometimes getting the
traps packed full. I have also heard of strings of worms being
tied into bunches, but never tried the plan. The warm months
from April to October are those in which the traps work well.
During the cold or winter months they do not act at all in some
localities.
CHAPTER IV.

FISH PONDS—-HOW TO STOCK THEM.

Preparation—Stocking—Carrying live trout—Dipping the trout—Transit—
Large fish—Two-year-olds—VYearlings—Fry—Nursery ponds — Water plants—
Turning out fry — Fry in rivers — Excellent travellers — Glass carriers—
Advantages of—Equalizing temperature—Fish killed by thoughtlessness— Wooden
carriers—.\etal—Travelling trout in August—Care required—Fully eyed ova—
Trout at the Antipodes—A merican work—Successes.

ORE who has any knowledge of farming or gardening,

knows perfectly well that unless the ground is properly
prepared, and the seed sown at the right time and in the right
way, the future crop will probably not be a great success. Just
so it is with fish ponds.

Attention has already been drawn to the needful preparation
of the ponds, and this having been duly attended to, the water is
ready to receive the crop. It may be produced from eggs (ova),
or by transplanting the fish themselves. The latter course is the
one that has hitherto been most generally adopted. There are
cases in which owners of ponds do not wish to wait, but to have a
crop of large fish at once. In such a case, winter is the best time
for the fish to be transferred, and if possible, during a frost. The
fish are then more easily carried from place to place, and will bear
handling better.

Years ago an idea prevailed that in carrying living trout, the
two things needful were to aérate the water vigorously, and to
change it whenever possible. Thus we find many elaborate
contrivances have been invented for this purpose. For all the
trout I ever carried—and I have travelled with them to all parts
of Britain, long journeys, both by sea and land—I never used any
aérating machine, but an ordinary lading-can of about a gallon
capacity. I believe a pair of bellows may at times be useful, but
I have never yet required them. The great secrets of carrying fish
successfully are attention to temperature and an empty stomach.
104 Flow to obtain it.

To those who understand the condition of a fish, and its relation
to the water under such circumstances, the reason is obvious. I
have conveyed hundreds of trout up to 3 1b. weight without loss.
Before such large fish are turned out on arriving at their
destination, they should be dipped in a saline solution. Per-
manganate of potash may be used with success for this purpose,
and chloride of sodium or common salt does very well. In cases
which occur where the sea is not far distant, sea water is very
good, and it answers the purpose admirably.

I have dipped many thousands, and am quite satisfied as to
the great advantage often arising from such a course. The farmer
finds it pay to dip his sheep, and the fish culturist his fish; indeed
the latter may learn a great deal from the former, if he will only
keep his eyes open. When fish, on arrival at the pond side,
require to be dipped, a very good modus operandi is as follows :—
{Of course it is understood that I am now alluding to large fish
only]. A tub should be in readiness at some suitable place on
the bank of the pond or lake, and this tub should be filled with a
solution of salt (1b. of salt to fifteen gallons of water is a good
mixture). The fish should then be placed in the tub by means of
a landing-net or by hand, and allowed to remain there until they
begin to look sickly, or turn over on their sides. They should
then be taken out, and dexterously pitched into the pond, where
they ought to recover themselves at once. Sometimes after
a long journey, the fish are a little sickly to commence with.
When such is the case, they should be placed in some sort of a
cage in a stream for awhile, so as to get refreshed before going
through the salt bath. A good-sized hamper will do very well for
this purpose should nothing better be available, and it should be
placed where a good current will flow through it. The apparatus
which I prefer for the purpose, however, is a good large landing
net, and the one I use and in which thousands of fish have been
treated, is rectangular in shape. The frame, which is of iron,
measures five feet by one foot eight inches, and the net bags
about fifteen inches. A dozen, or a score of fish can lie in this
net comfortably, and the handle is placed on the bank of the
pond, with a stone on it to keep it in position. Where the bank
is too steep to admit of this being done, the handle may be placed
How to obtain it. 105

over the water, or stuck into the bank, and the whole supported,.
so that the rim of the net is a little above the surface. The fish
will soon recover on being placed in such a receptacle, and may
then be safely dipped and ‘turned into the pond.

The only case in which I remember being in any difficulty
with large fish in transit was once during some hot weather early
in October, when I travelled a lot by special request, but in
opposition to my own advice. I lost eight .on this occasion out of
two hundred.

Two-year-olds are good fish for stocking purposes, but they
require a large bulk of water, and the risk attending their transit
is greater than in the case of yearlings, which can now be travelled
with perfect safety, and quite easily to any part of this country, or
on to the continent of Europe. Yearlings are undoubtedly the
best fish for stocking purposes, inasmuch as they may really
be called fish, which can perhaps hardly be said, from a practical
point of view, of fry. It is in the fry stage that the great loss
occurs, which all fish culturists have to guard against by every
means in their power.

A difficulty that has for years baffled the attempts of both
scientific and practical men to bridge over, is no small one, and
although it has now been overcome by experienced fish culturists,
yet it still remains a source of considerable danger. A few hours’
neglect, or a little carelessness or mismanagement, may sacrifice
ninety per cent. of the little fish, and it will thus be seen that, in
the hands of the inexperienced, trout in their infancy stand a
pretty good chance of being killed, often, it may perhaps be, with
too much intended kindness. Yearlings are as safe as fish can be,
and unless very clumsily managed by the recipient, there should
be little or no risk attending their introduction into new water.

It is well known that trout are keenly sensible to temperature,
and that a very rapid change, such as a sudden transference to
water a good many degrees warmer or colder, is very prejudicial,
and will sometimes even kill them outright, and that very
speedily. They are frequently travelled in iced water, so that the
chances are that the water into which they are about to be
introduced is higher in temperature. In certain cases ice is
necessary to ensure their safety during transit. On arrival at their
106 How to obtain it.

destination, it is always safe, although it may not be always
necessary, to fill up the cans containing the fish with water from
the river or lake they are to inhabit. Then pour off about a third
of it, and fill up again, and if the difference be known to be great,
repeat the process a second and even a third time. The fish may
then be safely turned out.

Yearlings are a very good size or age with which to stock
waters, and over ninety-eight per cent. of the consignments from
the Solway Fishery reach their destinations in safety, although
sent quite alone, and to all sorts of places, from Land’s End to
John O’Groats. In autumn and winter they travel perfectly. In
spring, as the days get warmer, there is risk, and during April and
the early part of May, when yearlings are sometimes travelled,
very much depends upon the state of the weather and atmospheric
conditions. The influence of the sun on the water is often
considerable, and after a week of warm days and nights at this
time of year the fish will be feeding freely and growing also.
They have to be tanked and starved, and the temperature of the
water lowered some fifteen degrees by means of ice. This ordeal
is trying to them, and when at last they are sent on their journey,
perhaps amidst thunder and lightning, they must run some risk.
In this favoured country we have cold nights in April and May,
and during such, yearlings will bear transit till late in the season ;
but once let the weather become thundery and the danger is
largely increased, as also is the cost of transit.

There is no real difficulty now-a-days in the mere work of
conveying fish, even in the month of July, if placed in charge of
experts. It is simply a matter of cost, and the expenses at that
time of year would, I need hardly say, be considerable. Two-
year-olds, if the way be tedious or complicated, are not absolutely
safe without an attendant for part of the journey at least. Should
they become sickly ex rou/e, a little attention soon restores them,
whereas if left unattended many of them under such circumstances
would succumb. Yearlings are found in practice to give excellent
results, although I have many cases in which fry have turned out
equally well. I say equally well; perhaps I ought to have said
better, for although the loss by death has been numerically greater,
yet comparing costs with results, they have compared favourably
How to obtain it. 107

with yearlings. Strong, well bred, and healthy fry, are very good
for stocking waters that do not contain any fish.

In cases where other fish are present it is needful to take
care that the fry are not devoured by them, and this may be done
by planting them in the stream feeding the pond, or in some
small tributaries, where they will soon learn to take care of
themselves. Instinctively they soon do this, and I will guarantee
that a lot of fry in good condition will, if properly turned out,
make a considerable addition to the crop of large fish in the
future. It is because fry have been injudiciously turned out, on
the one hand, that they have often not produced the desired
results, while on the other they have not been in condition, and
so have had little chance, if any, of surviving all the dangers to
which they are exposed. I have again and again met with people
who have hatched a quantity of trout ova and kept the fry in
rearing boxes, where they have been fed until they began to die
off. They have then been at once turned out into the lake or
stream for which they were destined. Is it to be supposed for
one moment that they would cease dying after being turned out?
I say, no! most emphatically. Probably it may be the means of
saving some of them, but the mischief has been done, and it is
impossible to undo it. Fry so reared are not in condition for
turning out, and therefore the planting of them results in failure.
They have been fed on various artificial foods, and the working of
their delicate little stomachs sadly disorganized. This course of
unnatural diet has at last upset them to such an extent that they
begin to die off. It is much better to turn them out just before
they begin to feed, that is, before they have quite absorbed the
umbilical sac.

Stocking with yearlings is a simple and easy matter; any
intelligent keeper can do the work successfully. But with fry it
is an entirely different affair. It does not matter how intelligent
the operater may be, unless he has a fair knowledge of what he
is doing, the chances are that some mistake may be made which
will frustrate his good intentions. I have now stocked the same
waters with ‘fry for many years in succession, and have got
excellent results, but they have been introduced at the right time,
as well as in the right place, and in the right manner.
108 flow to obtain tt.

In the case of a lake or river in which it is intended to keep
up the stock of trout by a periodical planting of fry, it is of
importance to have nurseries prepared for them, and these require
to be properly made, or they may be worse than useless. Their
construction is often a very easy matter. A series of long narrow
ponds of the simplest description will do, and a couple of good
men should make enough of these in a few days to stock a lake
of twenty or thirty acres. In the case of large lakes it is desirable
to have a larger series of these nurseries, and sometimes, in that
of more extensive waters, it is an advantage to have them at
several places. Once made they require little work to keep them
up, and can be used year after year with excellent results. Some
lakes are fed by streams flowing a considerable distance through
flat marshes or meadows. In such a case it is desirable to go
further away, until a place is reached where the water has a slight
fall. It matters little about distance, it may be a hundred yards,
or it may be half-a-mile. In the latter case the little fish will
easily find their way down stream. When the site has been
chosen, make a long raceway or aqueduct with alternate stretches
of deep and shallow water. It does not matter about the wide
and narrow stretches being symmetrical at all; they will have to
be made to suit the level of the ground and surrounding
circumstances. It may be necessary to have them longer or
shorter, but where practicable, from forty to sixty feet will be
found a convenient length for the wider and deeper parts, and if
carried out somewhat according to the accompanying plan the
raceways will be a little longer of the two.

Let AA represent the stream supplying the pond E. At the
point B cut a raceway eighteen inches wide and a foot deep. Dig
out some ponds CCC two and a half feet deep by three and a
half feet wide, and connect them by raceways DD, of the same
width and depth as B. Where sufficient fall can be obtained,
each of these ponds or nurseries should have a bottom outlet at
the most convenient point, so that they can be run dry at any
time if desired. A four-inch pipe answers best for this. A
screen should be placed at the point B to prevent larger fish
coming down, and another between D and E, which will allow
fry to pass down into the lake E, but will prevent larger fish
Flow to obtain it. 109

getting up into the ponds. Keep the bottom of each pond
nearly level for two-thirds of the length, and let the tail end slope
upwards to the level of the raceway (one foot deep). This slope
may be covered with gravel. About the centre of each pond
place a four-inch pipe or tile lengthways on the bottom. I use
four-inch sanitary pipes. If these be selected, place the pipe with
the flange up-stream, and over it build an enbankment of sods up

   

le

Fig. 3.

to the water level, leaving a gap in the middle. Take care to
make it tight, so that the water can only pass it by flowing either
through the pipe or over the gap in the sod bank. The sides of
the ponds may be perpendicular, or bevelled, as may be most
convenient. Where the nature of the soil will admit of it, make
them nearly perpendicular ; should it be necessary to build them,
do it to a large extent at least with sods.
IIo How to obtain it.

The sides of the raceways should be planted the whole
length with suitable vegetation. | Watercress (JVasturtium
officinale) is excellent for the purpose, and also the marsh
marigold (Caltha palustris). The pretty little golden saxifrage
(Chrysosplenium oppositifolium) may also be used with advantage,
and the brooklime (Veronica beccabunga). There are many land
plants that do very well in water for a time, and I have found that
the decay of these plants is favourable to the growth of animal
life (see page 88). No floods or freshets should be allowed to
sweep through these nursery ponds. This can easily be guarded
against by a sluice, or what is more simple, allowing the water to
enter them through a four-inch pipe.

They should be made as tempting for the little fish as
possible, by planting aquatic vegetation about them. It may
sometimes be desirable to place a screen across the end of the
lowest pond in the position of the dotted line at K, but should
the fish be found to collect above this screen they must be fed or
they will die, and in feeding them all pains should be taken to
coax them away from the screen and get them up to the head of
the pond. As soon as the bulk of the fish have settled in the
ponds, remove the screen and let them have full scope to go
where they like. These ponds may be made accessory to an
artificial ova bed or a spawning race, or they may be stocked with
fry that have been purchased or hatched elsewhere.

The screen, if used, should be made loose, to slide in a
grooved frame, or it may be simply fixed by embedding the frame
in the sides and bottom of the pond. It will only be required for
a short time after the fry are introduced, and may then be taken
out and stowed away to use another season. It will be seen by
the diagram (Fig. 3) that the ponds and raceways are arranged in
the most compact form, instead of having them ranging over a
long expanse of ground. This is an advantage, as they are readily
inspected, and also can be more easily protected from the
depredations of herons, kingfishers, etc. A few covers made of
rough boards or basket-work may be advantageously used, and a
few pieces of wire netting should at any rate be placed over the
most exposed portions of the raceways. A little care of this kind
will be well repaid. The covers not only serve as protection but
How to obtain it. III

as shades for the fish, and it is desirable to allow the water to
flow over some of the embankments of the ponds, while it passes
underneath others. This is easily managed by having a few
rough plugs well fastened to the end of a stout stick or piece of
rail. A piece three inches by one inch will be found to answer
well, and the wooden plug (Fig. 4) should be made so as to fit
loosely into the flange of the pipe.

B

   

A
= =
b
Fig. 4.

The handle AB acts as a lever in drawing the plug, and
should be three feet long. When required place a similar piece
of wood crosswise below the handle at the point D to act as a
fulcrum, and holding it firmly, or even pushing it forward a little,
while the end of the piece A is drawn back, the plug comes out
of the socket of the pipe, and can then be lifted out. This
answers well also for working the bottom outlets of the ponds.

When the ponds have been prepared and the screens
adjusted, and they are all in order for receiving young fish, the
latter should be gently introduced at the head of the first pond in
the nursery, and left to themselves. They will probably remain
there for a time, but will soon scatter, and many of them will
drop down from pond to raceway, and from raceway to pond,
until they enter the river or lake. But they will have got
thoroughly used to the water, and a number will remain in the
ponds and raceways for a while, taking up positions where there
are eddies and suitable currents. It is a good plan to feed them
artificially for a time in these nurseries, and some people approve
of placing a fine movable screen across the bottom of the pond
into which they are at first turned. This prevents them dropping
down stream too soon, and will often cause them to head up
again, should they find their downward course checked by it.
Under the care of a skilled fish culturist a large per centage of
112 Flow to obtain it.

fish dropping down to the screen may be coaxed up stream again
by judicious and careful feeding, and the screen may then be
removed for half an hour, so as to allow any that still remain there
to pass down into the nursery below. The fish often assemble in
crowds about the embankments and below the pipes, where there
is an under current as well as at the head and tail of each nursery
pond. Many of the fish will not remain long in the nurseries at
all, but never mind if they do not. During the short time they
have been there they will have received sufficient education to be
able to look after themselves. We know how they can take care
of number one in a natural stream, where they have enemies at
every turn.

I have often watched multitudes of trout fry dropping down
our mountain streams in May or June, passing from pool to pool,
from shallow to shallow, now hiding behind a stone or a tuft of
water-moss, now passing on carefully but steadily, and feeling their
way, as it were, all along the course. This they truly do, and ina
much greater degree than may be supposed, for like the swallow
leaving us in autumn and returning to the same locality in spring,
many of these young trout return to the place of their birth.
There is an instinctive knowledge implanted in a fish, which man
in his civilized form does not possess, and the more we learn
about them the more we find there is yet to learn.

Under proper conditions fry are excellent travellers, and, as
a rule, two thousand of them will go into the same amount of
water that would be occupied by about a hundred yearlings.
This, of course, materially affects the cost. Their safety during
transit in suitable carriers is almost an absolute certainty. There
are, of course, contingencies which may arise ex roude which are
sometimes distressing to the little fish, but these are found
practically to be of very rare occurrence. Passing through a
tunnel with the van windows open will fill it with foul air, some of
which is taken up by the water. Two or three late passengers
jumping into the van just as the train starts, and smoking there
during the whole of a long-run, also makes a very trying dispensa.
tion for the fish. These occurrences formerly took place, but
now such large quantities of living fish are travelled over the
railway systems of this country, that their requirements are better
How to obtain it. 113

understood, and on most of the main lines I have usually met
with the greatest courtesy, and had every reasonable assistance
willingly rendered. The railway companies know their work, and
as a rule do it, and their revenue is considerably increased by the
live fish traffic, and will be much more so in the near future.

Fry travel better in glass carriers (carboys) than in any other
apparatus yet discovered. I used them successfully many years
ago, and travelled fish in them safely to and from America. Then
metal carriers were strongly recommended by some fish culturists,
and I tried them, but soon went back to the glass bottles, and my
verdict to-day is that nothing has been found to beat them ;
indeed, I have yet to see the carrier that will equal them for
convenience, cleanliness, evenness of temperature, lightness, and
durability. There is, indeed, nothing I know of that will
favourably compare with them when properly constructed. I have
them made to order, and they are so shaped that when filled to
the proper level the angle of the water with the glass is such as to
cause a continual and gentle splashing of the surface water only,
during transit. The water in splashing is thrown against a canvas
cover, and from this falls back again, and the slight vacuum which
is caused is at once filled with fresh air drawn from outside, and so
the work goes on, forming a self-aérating machine that is unfailing
in its work as long as the train or cart isin motion. The splashing
itself is confined entirely to the surface of the water, but the
motion generated, owing to the shape of the interior, which has
been carefully studied, sets up a rotary motion, and produces a
perpetual current in which the fry enjoy life as in a brook, prob-
ably knowing little difference. I have travelled millions of fry in
these vessels long distances, both by sea and land, and sometimes
under very trying circumstances, yet with perfect success.

Never under any circumstances should they be filled with
water. It absolutely prevents any jar or splashing, and may
prove fatal to the fish. Only once have I known such a thing
to be done, and that was when I was once transferring
yearlings a distance of about five miles, and used carboys for the
work with perfect success, with the exception of one load, and in
this case a booby of a carter, under the impression that he was
giving the fish plenty of water, filled the bottles brimful, with the

I
II4 Flow to obtain it.

very natural result that three-fourths of the fish were dead within
an hour.

The weather in April and May is sometimes very warm by
day, with frost at night, but in the carboys the temperature of the
water is found to vary little. For short journeys small quantities
of fry will travel very well in suitable tin cans, care being taken
that they are not allowed to stand in the heat of the sun. When
fry are turned out the operation cannot be performed too gently—
indeed a great deal of the success of the work depends on this.
The best plan is to use a clean bucket, into which the fry may be
poured. Take care that the temperature of both waters is nearly
alike. Should this not be the case, gradually raise or reduce that
of the water in the carboy. Then pour some into a bucket, sink
the latter gently in the water of the stream or tributary so as to
allow it to fill with the least possible disturbance, turn it gently
over on its side, and slowly withdraw it, practically “swimming
the fry out.” To do the thing perfectly I prefer floating a box, or
several if necessary, and turning the fry into them, getting them
on the feed and happy, and after some time, often twenty-four
hours, withdrawing the screen and allowing them to escape. This
process will be described more fully under the head of fry-rearing.
It is dangerous to pour out fry suddenly into fresh water. The
little creatures are very delicate, and are easily killed by a sudden
shock to their systems.

I once took three thousand fry to a lake in three small cans,
and on arrival there the fish were inspected by the members
present of an Angling Association. They were in perfect
condition, but whilst I was looking at one of the cans and
replying to some questions, a leading member took one of the
others, walked to the end of a boat landing stage, and uttering a
short speech upset it, and its contents were discharged suddenly
into the lake. ‘“‘Why, they’re all dead,” I heard one of the
company exclaim, and when I turned round I found fully two-
thirds of the little fish on their backs, and they died. It was
somewhat annoying, but the act was well meant. The members
looked at me for an explanation, so I said, “ Well, if you ask me
to come here and turn out fish and then take the matter out of
my hands like this, I am not responsible. Those fish have just
How to obtain it. II5

been murdered.” I then took the other two cans, each containing
a similar number of fish under the same conditions, and gently
turned them out without losing one of them. I mention this just
to show how easily fish may be killed by a little want of knowledge
on the part of the operator. There is now little excuse for such
an occurrence, as everyone who takes an interest in the matter
has abundant opportunity for becoming possessed of the necessary
information to make the turning out of fry a perfectly successful
operation.

Yearlings and larger fish require very different treatment. I
have sent many of them in carboys, and they bear transit well ;
but metal carriers are found to be more advantageous, as these
fish are travelled at low temperature and ice is used, and a greater
bulk of water being required, glass contrivances would not be so
practicable. The carriers that are in use are, like the carboys,
constructed on scientific principles, the convenience and comfort
of the fish during a journey having being well studied. There are
many different varieties of carriers, and I will describe a few of
the most useful.

One that I have seen in use in the United States is a very
simple affair, consisting of a tub having a wooden lid with a
six-inch round hole in the centre of it. The lid being sunk a
little below the top of the tub, any water which may splash out at
once runs back again. The whole may be covered by a piece of
perforated wood, zinc, or some netting, or by a funnel-shaped
vessel in which ice may be placed. Another carrier that is also
in use in the United States consists of a tin or galvanized iron
can, bound round with wood, or fitted into a wooden case looking
something like a cheese box.

In Germany a wooden apparatus resembling a flattened oak
barrel is used, which rests on one of its sides, and the fish appear
to travel in it very well. In the upper side is cut a square hole
about six inches wide, and into this is fitted a wooden frame made
with sloping sides, and a bottom covered with perforated zinc.
Trout packed in these carriers are sent alive to market.

Oak casks charred inside make excellent vehicles for
travelling fish, and I have used them most successfully ; but the
metal carriers commonly in use in this country, and made by
116 How to obtain tt.

Messrs. Graham and Morton, of Stirling, are very convenient, and
do not readily get out of order. They also
stand the wear and tear of railway traffic as
well as anything. Similar cans were first
used in America, and I consider them
about as good for travelling yearlings as
properly made carboys are for travelling
fry. I have also travelled two-year-olds in
them very successfully, and on several
occasions larger fish. When used for large
fish, however, the work should only be done
by those who thoroughly understand the
matter, or the result may not be altogether Fre 5.—FisH CARRIER.
satisfactory.

I am often asked which is the best time of the year for
turning out yearlings. In reply to the query there are many
points to consider. I have turned them out every month in the
year, from August to May, and carefully noted results; and the
fish turned out during the latter end of August, or as early in
September as practicable, have won the prize. They have made
better fish the following summer than those turned out in spring.
The only objection to the plan is that we often have warm
weather just then, and, therefore, the cost of the work is much
greater than it is a little later, say in November.

It is only in the care of experts that trout can be travelled in
August, but when once safely introduced to the water, they make
good progress. They are taken from the nursery ponds, where
they have been herded together and have not room to grow as
they might do, and are put into water where they have ample
room, at a time when it is well stocked with natural food. They
have been fed several times daily, and are, therefore, accustomed
to having a good and regular supply of food. The starving they:
get whilst being transferred makes them feel hungry, and the
consequence is that they begin to feed at once. They have come
from crowded waters, where the natural food was all cleared out,
and they were dependent on the artificial. They like the natural
food better, and they eat freely and thrive upon it amazingly,
getting thoroughly acclimatized before winter sets in. As a result

 
Flow to obtain it. 117

they make good fish, and I have instances of their reaching half-
a-pound in weight the following summer.

In 1887 I first noticed the great advantage that accrued from
turning out trout yearlings in August and September, and followed
up the experiment with a repetition of the same success in 1888.
In 1889, on August 26th, I set out with 2,000 yearlings in a
special railway car, fitted with suitable apparatus and a good
supply of ice, and delivered them in safety at a station on the
Highland Railway. The fish left the yearling house at the Solway
Fishery at four p.m., and arrived at their destination at two thirty-
five a.m., a journey of ten and a half hours, and on examination
of the cans not a single dead or ailing fish was to be found—all
were in perfect health. Here, however, a most unexpected delay
took place. The fish were for a loch some four miles from the
station, and the carts and men were waiting there, but the keeper
in charge of them assured me that it was quite impossible to start
until it was daylight, as there was no road a greater part of the
way, and it would be quite impracticable to do it in the dark. I
protested and declined further responsibility, but he remained
firm and would not order out his men and horses, and for three
hours we waited. The morning was dull and drizzly, and daylight
was slow in appearing. We had a comfortable room at the
station, with a good fire and a liberal supply of both solids and
liquids for the inner man, which had been sent down for our
benefit.

I had many a look at the fish, feeling anxious about them,
and at the end of three hours or so a few were showing signs of
weakness. On being told that the fish were dying, and that I
would have nothing more to do with them unless a start were
made at once, the horses were yoked, the carriers stowed on the
carts, and the journey commenced. The road was good enough
for a mile and then lay over the heather, but some carts having
been over a short time before with materials for a shooting hut, I
found we could have managed it quite well had we started earlier.
I had travelled a rougher way on a darker night, and saw no
difficulty whatever. The road was rough and there were streams
to ford that were rougher still, but the water was low at the time
and we got safely through, though the jolting was very great, and
118 How to obtain tt.

the sickly fish at the surface were soon killed. Those that were
in better condition headed down in the cans and were all right.
Notwithstanding all the delay at the railway station we turned the
fish into the loch with an actual loss of only some five per cent.,
which could have been prevented had we started at once.

At the loch-side, however, another delay seemed imminent.
The keeper said the fish were not to be turned out until the
purchaser had seen them, and on inquiry I found it would be at
least two hours before he could arrive, and as events afterwards
proved, it was over three hours instead of two. It was rather
trying to stand there arguing the matter, knowing that every five
minutes was of importance, and seeing the little fish already
gasping in some of the cans. I soon made up my mind, how-
ever. I had gone there to turn out fish and not to stand by and
see them murdered, so I got to work, and turned the fish out to
save their lives, reserving a few, which we put into a small hole
we found near, to serve as a sample of the bulk. The wait at the
station I had no control over, but here, with the loch before me,
and the cans of fish standing at its margin, the case was
different.

I have known several instances in which trout have been
received in the evening and left standing in the cans all night,
with what result it would be needless to explain; and yet it is
really necessary to say for the benefit of many that trout, if left
standing in cans, will soon die. During transit the water in the
carriers is in constant motion, and the fish are thus kept in a
healthy and lively condition. The trying portion of a journey is
the wait at the junction, and this has to be duly considered
before the fish are started off, and the bulk of water in which they
are travelled regulated accordingly, as well as the condition of the
fish themselves. Trout in their normal condition will not travel ;
they require careful preparation for a journey, and according to
the length of the journey, so is the course of the preparation
regulated. The pollution of the water by the fish themselves is
one of the points to be carefully guarded against, otherwise it is
most fatal. Some water in which trout live very well has been
found absolutely unfit for them to travel in. The old plan of
changing the water ex route has been proved to be a very bad
How to obtain it. 119g

one, unless it be done under very exceptional circumstances and
by those who understand it.

Towards the end of August and in September, 1890, I care-
fully turned out a number of yearlings, some of which were put
into Loch Fern already referred to. I carefully watched the
result of this experiment, which I conducted personally, and over
which I took considerable pains. Early in the summer of 1892,
some of the fish were taken running up toa pound in weight, and
were the finest fish the loch had produced since its refilling.
Other waters were stocked with fish from the same crop about the
same time and later, and excellent results have in several cases
been reported.

Further experiments were made in 1891, and from the results
of these and a number of subsequent experiments I am satisfied
that the earlier in the season yearlings can be introduced into
suitable waters the better. It is much easier to transplant them
in November and later, but at that time the water is colder and
there is not nearly so much food present, and by waiting until
spring a good part of a season is lost, and more than a season as
regards the growth of the fish. Perhaps a better way of putting
it is, that by turning out, say, early in September, a season is
gained as against turning out in spring. Yearlings in September
are from two to four inches in length, whereas in spring the
Scotch yearlings of commerce run from two and a half to five
inches. But the fish of September out-turning are found to have
grown considerably beyond this size in a great many instances,
and I have had them up to nine inches by the beginning of April.
The reasons for this to anyone practically acquainted with the
subject are apparent, and have been already explained.

There is yet another way of stocking waters, and though I
refer to it last, it is by no means of the least importance. It is
by sowing or planting “fully eyed” ova in artificial hatching
beds, and in skilful hands is one of the best and most economical
methods now in use. ‘Fully eyed” eggs are obtainable at such
low rates from fish culturists that they can be sown in large
quantities at a comparatively trifling cost. Care should be taken
in the selection, and J prefer those which have been carefully
incubated on glass grilles. They give better results. I have
120 How to obtain it.

tried many experiments, and can produce much better fish, and
hatch ova with a lower death-rate on glass than I can by any other
method. I have, therefore, kept to the system, and can speak
very highly of it. I believe very good work has been done by
many of the other systems now in use, but where the best results
are desired by all means use glass. I shall have more to say
about this in another chapter.

There are at least three great advantages attaching to the
use of ova, viz. :—

(1) They bear packing and transit well.
(2) They can be sent to any part of the world.
(3) They cost very little.

In searching for details relating to the success attending the
stocking of waters, I find that the use of ova has played a very
important part in the history of the world’s fish-culture. The
Chinese have been fish-culturists from time immemorial, and they
deal extensively in ova, collecting and carrying to market the eggs
of their fishes, and making them regular marketable commodities.
The splendid results which have been achieved in New Zealand,
and also in Australia and Tasmania, are due to the use of ova.
Trout eggs were sent from this country twenty-five years or more
ago, and the result is that to-day their waters are in many cases
stocked with, fish, and it is also a notable fact, that the trout have
grown in many places to a greater size than is attained in this
country. Ten to twenty pounds seems to be not an uncommon
weight for Sa/mo fario in some New Zealand waters, whilst much
greater weights are occasionally recorded.

The history of trout-culture at the Antipodes is very instruc-
tive. About 800 trout ova were successfully hatched in New
Zealand in 1868, and these ova were obtained from the natural
spawning grounds in Tasmania. Now, we find that the first
introduction of trout into Tasmania was effected in the year 1864,
being only four years previous to the introduction to New Zealand.
During that year a small number of eggs were sent out from this
country by Mr. Frank Buckland, Mr. Youl, and Mr. Francis
Francis, the number being about 2,700 altogether. As a result of
the importation of trout ova into Tasmania, and their cultivation,
we find, in four years, that country sending ova, taken from fish
THSIA AVAVT AVaAVd Se

 
 

 

 

 
How to obtain it. 121

on the natural spawning beds, to New Zealand. We find also
that those eggs were successfully hatched there, and from this
small stock a beginning was made, and there seems to be little
doubt that from these eggs trout originated in New Zealand. So
successful was the work carried on there, that the New Zealand
Government very wisely took it in hand, and the result was a
considerable importation of ova into the colony.

Take the state of things in New Zealand to-day and what
do we find? Why, that the rivers of that country are many of
them full of magnificent trout that have grown beyond all expec-
tation. Trout-culture in New Zealand is a grand success. A
friend writing to me from Tasmania, August 7th, 1890, says:
“The English brown trout that have been acclimatized here have
done remarkably well, and attain a great size.”

So, then, in Tasmania also trout-culture, though carried on
under the great difficulty of importing ova from Britain at a time
when its treatment was but very imperfectly understood, has
proved a decided success.

In the United States the rivers of the Pacific Coast which
contained no shad, were successfully stocked with those fish by
transferring ova from the East Coast rivers. At first a million
ova were carried in suitable apparatus, the incubation going on
during transit. This proving a success, several cars were run
conveying five millions each, and by means of these ova the
rivers of the West Coast were stocked. The fish, which are pro-
lific, multiplied very rapidly, and had become so plentiful that
they were sold at three cents a pound.

In 1886 a quantity of ova of the smelt (Osmerus mordax)
were sent to Cold Spring Hatchery, on the north of Long Island.
They were hatched and turned out in Cold Spring Harbour, and
in two years a number of fish from these eggs were taken in
Oyster Bay, which adjoins the harbour on which the hatchery
stands, and into which they were turned, and they have also been
seen in the streams.

Great success has in very many instances attended the plant-
ing of fry in the United States as well as in Canada. Had
“fully eyed” ova been judiciously planted in artificial beds,
probably the results would have been more satisfactory still. In
122 Flow to obtain it.

‘Canada the magnificent river, Restigouche, flowing into the Bay
of Chaleur, was depopulated, until the catch of salmon by anglers
was only twenty fish in a season, and the whole commercial yield
of the river was only 37,000 lb. weight. Hatching was com-
menced, and the yield in ten years was up to 500,000 lb.

The United States Fish Commission succeeded in intro-
ducing salmon (Salmo salar) into the Connecticut river, where
previously it had disappeared for three-quarters of a century. In
1878 several hundred salmon, from 10 lb. to 15 lb. in weight,
were caught running up this river, the result of fry planted there
in 1874.

A considerable volume could easily be filled with accounts
of the successful results attending the stocking of waters, and in
our own country we have many cases in which the most satis-
factory results have accrued. As I write, by the side of a natural
trout stream, I can see the trout disporting themselves in numbers,
nearly every fish in the pool before me being the result of artificial
culture, whilst in an artificial stream close to, on which are many
deep and spacious pools, and where the fish are fed, large
quantities of magnificent fellows up to several pounds in weight
may at any time be seen. Over the hill in the next valley is an
artificial lake, which is well stocked with fine trout, nearly all of
which have been artificially bred, and beyond this other lakes,
reservoirs, and ponds, all well stocked with magnificent fish. If
we go further afield we have Loch Leven, the statistics of which,
extending over many years, are strikingly in favour of fish culture.

In Wales, too, we have the well-known Lake Vyrnwy, the
fish supply in which is now kept up by a well-ordered system of
artificial cultivation. The successful introduction of grayling into
the Nith and many other rivers is another proof, if any more be
needed, to say nothing of many Highland lakes which are now
well stocked with trout, where, in some cases, no trout were
before.

Of the success of trout culture there can be no dispute, and I
maintain that what can be done with trout may be done on a far
greater and more profitable scale with salmon. That is a point
about which I am quite convinced, and I would carry it further
and apply it to many other fishes than those belonging to the
How to obtain it. 123

Salmonide. There is, however, this difference, that trout being
retainable in fresh water ponds can be successfully cultivated by
the individual, whereas salmon must be allowed to go to sea if
they are to produce the highest results, and this renders individual
action somewhat impracticable. By a well-directed system of
co-operation amongst owners of fisheries, it is beyond any doubt
that splendid results may be obtained. Of one point I have no
doubt—that no investment would pay a much better dividend if
properly managed.

It has often been stated by scientists and others that only
about one trout or salmon egg in a thousand deposited in our
streams, produces a mature fish. This probably is not far from
the mark. Anyhow, we are quite sure of one thing, and that is
that the rule applies to over ninety-nine per cent. of the ova
deposited naturally in our streams ; seventy-five per cent. of this
loss probably occurs before the eggs are hatched and during the
hatching period. It will be apparent at a glance, that by taking
charge of the ova and actually hatching over ninety per cent. of it
we are doing good work. It is necessary, however, that it be done
properly, and that is just what has often not been done in the
past, and cases of failure which the practised fish culturist could
foresee, and which were inevitable owing to the means employed,
have tended to bring fish culture into bad repute. Circumstances
are entirely altered now, however, and the facilities which are
provided for sowing good well-eyed healthy ova in our waters, will
ere long produce good results if properly utilised. There are
some individuals who still assert that fish culture is a failure. So
there were those in years gone by who pronounced the steam
engine a failure. Anything that is not absolutely perfect in all its
details is pronounced a failure by a certain class of individuals,
and probably always will be. Fish culture, however, as applied to
the Sa/monide, has been proved by the results to be a great
success, and I venture to say that in the future it will be still more
so. It is now being successfully applied to the growth of other
fish, both marine and fresh-water, and as information is gained by
experience and difficulties are bridged over, its practical use will
be found to be of great service in the management of-our
fisheries.
CHAPTER V.

THE HATCHERY.

Selection of the water—Its importance—Construction—Out-door hatchery—In-
door hatchery—Frostproof building—Lighting—Filtration of water—Concrete
Jloor—Drainage—The apparatus—How to construct—Carbonising—Trap boxes—
Catchpool—No admittance—Beware of visitors—LEarly days of the Solway Fishery
—Care required in a hatchery.

OR the benefit of those who wish to do their own work from
the commencement I will endeavour, in as few words as
possible, to describe the various needs and processes of the
practical fish culturist. The first thing essential is a hatchery of
some kind. It may be large or small according to the amount
of work required to be done, and may be fitted up in different
ways, but although the details may vary, yet the principle of
construction is the same, whether small or large. It must be
near a good supply of pure water. I do not mean chemically
pure, but naturally so—that is, it must not contain any excess of
mineral matter of any kind, and it must be free from mud or
sediment. The water which flows from a good clear spring and is
wholesome to drink is usually good. But the best way of proving
it is by means of the fish themselves. Do trout frequent it, and
do they spawn in it freely? If they do, it is probably all right ;
if they do not, then be careful, and should it seem clear, on
examination, that they avoid it, then be very cautious in using such
water. By all means have it analysed, and find out exactly what
it contains, and what it does not, before commencing work.
Brook water is the best for growing the fish, but spring water is
usually acknowledged to be safer for hatching the ova, and chiefly
for two reasons—regularity of temperature, and freedom from
organic and mineral matter in the form of sediment.
AVAVIOS “AMNHHOLVH NIVIN NI

 
 

 

 

 

 

 
How to obtain tt. 125

Suitable water is such an important factor in the successful
working of a hatchery, that too much caution can hardly be used
in the selection of the site for the building. Some very clear and
good-looking waters are not good, and it really becomes the work
of an expert to decide what is suitable and what is not. I have
seen excellent work done in a hatchery where only river water has
been used, and I have seen spring water that to look at appeared
perfection itself, yet did not do its work at all satisfactorily. Some
spring waters contain too much iron, lime, or other deleterious
ingredient, and hence the great care that is required in the
selection of a suitable supply. :

Therefore, where the incubation and hatching of ova is to be
carried on on an extensive scale, it is better to consult an expert.

Where limited operations only are intended, test the water
by keeping some trout in it, and, if possible, hatch a few ova, and
rear the fry for a season by way of experiment.

Have the water analysed.

Having selected a suitable spring, the next consideration is
the construction of a hatchery. JI have seen several sets of
hatching apparatus worked out in the open air. The objections
are that such hatcheries are exposed to the action of frost, which
in very severe weather is likely to cause damage, and they are
liable to be tampered with by man or beast, which should not be
the case. I once had a spring which threw a copious supply of
excellent water, never below 38° Fahrenheit. Such water would
answer well for an outdoor apparatus, as it could easily be made
to pass through a series of hatching boxes before being reduced to
the freezing point. But most water would be likely to give
trouble at times. Therefore, if it be practicable, place the
hatching apparatus inside a frostproof building. In our climate
an ordinary stone and lime wall is sufficiently frostproof for the
purpose ; an ordinary slated roof is not. Thatch will do, but it
has the objection that it needs constant repair and harbours
vermin. Underground hatcheries, when the situation will permit
their construction, are excellent. But an ordinary stone-built and
slated building will be found in practice to answer all requirements
if felt be laid under the slates. The temperature inside it may be
kept at any desired point by means of hot water pipes, which
126 Flow to obtain it.

answer well, and prevent any mischief during the severest frost.
The heating apparatus should be outside. Never have a stove of
any kind in a hatchery. I was once persuaded by a man who
“knew everything” about fish culture to try one, and never was a
greater nuisance. However well kept smoke would at times
escape, and anything of this sort is to be carefully avoided. For
the same reason I have found it necessary strictly to forbid tobacco
smoking in the hatchery. I did not do this at first, the building
being large and well ventilated, but carefully watched the effect
of it on the alevins and found it very hurtful.

Lighting a hatchery when work has to be done, as done it
must be, during the dark hours of winter, is a matter that requires
the greatest care. Oil lamps of any description are to be most
carefully avoided. I have never from the first allowed anything
to be used except candles (not tallow), with the exception of the
watchman’s bull’s-eye or other lantern when on his rounds during
the small hours. Even this, although most carefully used, and
according to strict rules, was found to give trouble. A very small
drop of oil may do harm should it get into the water, and where
oil is used there is always a danger. Candles only are now
allowed in the hatchery, and are found to work well. They are
carried on simple wooden candlesticks, each made to hold three
candles. These give enough light for the laying down of the ova,
which is almost invariably done after six p.m. Occasionally
candle droppings may get into the water, but as they float and
immediately solidify, they are quite easily picked out again, and I
have never found them do any harm.

Except when there is a great press of work, ‘spawning is not,
as a rule, commenced before ten a.m. Fish spawn better later in
the day when the temperature rises a little, and the eggs taken in
the afternoon are carefully washed and placed in bowls in the
hatchery, ready to be laid on the grilles as soon as the spawning
operations are over for the day, and the fish removed from the
spawning tanks.

The water should be brought into the hatchery from the
spring in glazed earthenware socket and faucet pipes. The joints
should be well cemented, and the pipes laid underground. It will
probably require filtration, although sometimes it is sufficiently
How to obtain it. 127

pure to do without. But this is a very rare exception. At or
near the point where it enters the hatchery then, construct the
filters. For pure spring water half-a-dozen or more flannel screens.
will usually be found ample, and often three or four will do. It is.
better to have too many than too few, for they play a very
important part in the success of the work. For fifteen years I
have worked with no other filter, and now that a much larger
volume of water is required in the hatchery the same method is.
essentially successful, except that the water is first passed through
a couple of settling tanks, which are found very useful adjuncts.

f
fed

 

Fig. 6.

A simple filter shewn in Fig. 6 explains itself. It consists of
a wooden box, six wooden frames with coarse flannel stretched
on them, sliding into grooves at a moderate angle, an inlet and
an outlet, and the whole charred inside. The size depends
entirely upon the amount of work to be done and the state of the
water. As an example, I may say that I have incubated
successfully half a million ova in the water discharged through a
set of four (occasionally increased to five) flannel screens, of about
seventy square inches each. A double set of these (for
convenience in cleaning), each in a separate box, is used, the whole
water sometimes passing through one box, but, as a rule, both
boxes working.

The filter boxes I have at present in use are twenty-four
inches by twenty-four inches, and two of these boxes now working
will pass 200,000 gallons of water per day, or enough to incubate
four millions of ova. Behind each filter are two settling tanks
built of concrete. This applies to the main hatchery only, two:
128 How to obtain tt.

other buildings which are used as accessories having an additional
supply.

By way of caution to beginners I would say that concrete
should in all cases be very well seasoned by use, before allowing
the water passing over it to be used in the hatchery. All work is
done at the Solway Fishery, as far as possible, a season in advance,
or in early summer, and by allowing the water to run for a few
months, everything is rendered perfectly safe. I have seen places
where the work has only been finished the day before the eggs
have been laid down, and where the water supply has actually had
to be cut off afterwards in order to rectify little matters that had
been overlooked. These are the sort of places that bring
discredit upon fish culture. A fish hatchery and everything about
it should be clean and sweet as a dairy, and should be kept so,
and on this largely depends its success or failure. Good
ventilation is essential, just as it is in a house for growing plants.
‘Too much light should be avoided, and especially large windows
facing the south, which would let in the glare of the noon-day sun.
It does not matter much how the place is lighted, if attention be
paid to these points. It may be by sky-lights or by side windows.
I commenced work thirty years ago in a conservatory, which is
now about the last place I would choose for the purpose, but yet
I got on very well.

The floor of the hatchery should be of concrete, or of stone,
or suitable pavement of some kind. Whatever material is used,
take care that it is rat-proof. The level is also a matter for con-
sideration. Some fish culturists advocate dry floors, the waste
water being carried off in pipes, and drained away underneath.
‘This may be all very nice, but in a working hatchery it does not
answer very well. There is no harm in having the floor wet, if
the house be properly ventilated, and as water must often be
spilled or even emptied upon it, it is, for several reasons, better to
have open gutters under the hatching boxes than drains laid
underneath the floor. -There are two great objections to such
drains. One is, that if anything should happen, and they have to
be examined, it necessitates the pulling up of the floor, and should
anything go wrong in the middle of a hatching season it might be
a very awkward matter ; another is that drains are apt to encourage
How to obtain it. 129

rats and foul smells. ‘Chere are also many other inconveniences.
I have tried both systems, and I am greatly in favour of open
gutters on the surface. They are simple, and add but little to the
cost of the hatchery; they are convenient and clean, and are
always open to view.

The floor itself, I need hardly say, should not be level, but
should have a fall one way or the other to suit circumstances, and
to cause all water to run off immediately into the gutters. It
should be frequently washed, not with a floorcloth, but with clean
water anda broom. This should be done by the manager himself,
or by someone working directly under him, as it requires to be
done with care. On no account should any carelessness or undue
roughness be tolerated in a hatchery. The disarrangement of a
pipe or a tap, or a blow on one of the hatching boxes, may do
serious damage, and whoever cleans the floor should be acquainted
with the working of all such contrivances.

The door of a hatchery should be kept shut, or rats, mice, or
birds will get in, and it is sometimes difficult to get them out
again. Rats seem naturally attracted to a hatchery, and if they
can get in they will. The outlet for the water should be carefully
guarded by a grating, and every precaution taken to prevent
any intruders of this kind gaining access to the hatching boxes.

Where lead or iron pipes are used for bringing in the water,
it should be borne well in mind that either may be very injurious.
I have seen excellent work done with them, and I have also seen
great destruction caused by them. The first hatchery I ever built,
which was erected in one of the suburbs of a large town, was
supplied from the waterworks at the rate of sixpence per thousand
gallons. The water was excellent, but occasionally repairs were
done by the company, and on these occasions it would for a short
time run very thick and yellow, and would poison my little fishes.
In the same way when the water has been shut off a hatchery for
a few months during the summer the pipes will corrode, and
afterwards send down a quantity of poisonous matter, which may
do great injury. Care should, therefore, be taken that they are
thoroughly clean before hatching begins. This applies not only
to the supply pipes, but also to the hatchery itself, and all the
apparatus which it contains.

K
130 Flow to obtain it.

So much for the house—now about the furniture. A glance
at the accompanying illustration will give a general idea as to
what is required. First of all, two distributing tanks. These are
two long wooden boxes or troughs which receive the water from
the filters, one being used for distributing the spring water to the
hatching boxes, and the other being used for the brook water.
Place them overhead if practicable, but in cases where the water
cannot be got up to that level, they may be placed three or three
and a half feet above the floor. In the latter case a series of
round holes one inch in diameter, and short tin or lead pipes
four inches. long will be all that is needful for supplying the
hatching boxes. Bore a hole, and fix a pipe so as to deliver the
water into the upper end of each hatching box or set of boxes,
which must be placed just below the bottom level of the distribu-
ting tank. Regulate the supply by a small piece of tin or wood,
sliding in a grove made by nailing two slabs on to the inside of
the tank. The tanks themselves may be nine inches wide by nine
inches in depth.

The advantage of placing the tank overhead where practicable
is that it allows the operators to pass along that end of the hatchery,
which is a consideration when each range of boxes is close on
eighty feet long. The outlets for supplying the hatching boxes
can then be made in the bottom of the distributing tank, and by
using short pieces of lead pipe, each with a flange a quarter of an
inch from the end, for nailing to the inside bottom of the distri-
buting tank, a screw-tap can be attached, which is a great con-
venience in regulating the water, and on the whole better than
the small-scale sluice already alluded to. Fix a short piece of
indiarubber hose pipe on to the tap and the whole is complete.
Take care that all is well seasoned before using the water.

The hatching boxes are very simple contrivances, but require:
to be properly made or they may be found not to answer their
purpose satisfactorily. A very good size to make them is twelve
feet long, by nine inches wide, and six deep. At the inlet end
fix a board across the box at a moderate angle, and reaching
down to within an inch of the bottom. This serves to break the
force of the water and prevents it from washing the eggs off the
grilles. At the other end, in the centre of the bottom, and two
Flow to obtain tt. 131

inches from the box end (see a Fig. 7), bore a hole one and a
quarter inches in diameter, into which fit a plug. The end of the
box is six inches deep like the sides. Take a saw and cut into it
two inches from each side. This leaves five inches between the
saw cuts, which should each be three inches deep. Take out the
piece of wood between them. Make a wooden outlet spout four
to six inches long, and fit to the opening, taking care to give it a
slight fall outwards, which will cause it to throw the water well
into the box below. When the outlet spouts are fixed level, and
the water supply slackens a little from any cause, the bulk of it will
often be licked back underneath the spout, and so will fail to enter
the other box (see Fig. 8). This endangers the eggs in the lower
hatching boxes, and there should be no possibility of such an
occurrence taking place, as the consequences may be very serious.

 

Fig. 7. Fig. 8

I have recently doubled the width of all my hatching boxes,
chiefly for the sake of economising space, as the double boxes
really take up less room and do more work. The thickness of
two sides and the space between them is saved, and more eggs
can be hatched in a box, it being more roomy and having two
currents of water. This is a decided advantage, for owing to one
current acting with the other, eddies and counter currents are
produced which did not before exist. The necessity for extra
rearing boxes is done away with, as the hatching boxes are quite
sufficient for all purposes, if the fry be turned out any time within
fourteen days of commencing to feed. In a large hatchery where
millions of ova are incubated space is an object. In a small
hatchery the arrangement does not so much matter, and must
depend on local circumstances, such as the shape and size of the
building, etc.
132 Flow to obtain tt.

Each hatching box must be provided with a screen, which
consists of a charred wooden frame covered with perforated zinc
(No. 7 zinc is a good size). This screen slides in a groove, made
by cutting a strip out of the sides of the hatching box as shown by
the dotted lines B c in Fig. 7. This groove is made, of course, on
the insides of the box, and should be carefully charred. A piece
of flannel should be placed between the screen and the box, and
great care must be taken that it fits perfectly tight, and that no
newly-hatched fish can get through anywhere. If it be by any
means possible, most assuredly they will. Rests require to be put
in along the insides of the box for the grilles. I have tried many
plans, but find nothing better than small galvanized staples, which
take up little room, do not make corners into which the fish can

 

Fig 4.

 

get, and are not much in the way at any time, when not occupied
by the grilles. They should be varnished. I have used inch
wire nails driven in half of their length, but I like the staples
better.

All wooden hatching apparatus should be carbonized wherever
the water comes in contact with it. Elsewhere it may be painted.
The carbonizing, or charring as it is commonly called, is done by
working hot irons over the surface of the wood. The bigger the
iron the longer it keeps hot, but the greater amount of heating
it requires to make it hot enough. It often happens that at a
hatchery a very large fire is inconvenient, and therefore, it is better
to have comparatively small irons. To begin with, procure from
an ironmonger two of the largest ordinary “flat irons” that are in
general use. They will be found to do the work well and are
How to obtain it. 133

very handy. Should it be found desirable to have something
larger get one made like Fig. 9. A hook can be placed in the
loop with which it is furnished, to lift it from the fire and drag it
along by when being used.

For charring the grooves Fig. 1o will be found very useful,
and for the plug holes I use an iron shewn by Fig. 11. The
object of charring the wood is to prevent the growth of a fungus
(Saprolegnia) that is very deadly amongst ova and fish. It grows
vigorously on wood, but will not grow on carbon. By thoroughly
carbonizing the apparatus, therefore, a great danger is to a
considerable extent averted. The process should be carried out
by a steady-handed careful man, as the wood requires to be very
evenly burnt. The carbon wears off in time, and each season I
give my boxes a coat of black varnish, and sometimes two. Some
fish culturists repeat the carbonizing process each season, but the
varnish is by far the most economical, and answers quite as well
after the former has been once done.

In the charring the heat opens the seams of the boxes, and at
times causes the wood to crack, and it certainly has a tendency to
make the joints leaky. The varnish has just the contrary effect :
it fills up small crevices, and tends to make the boxes watertight,
which is a great advantage. I got mine first from the United
States, where it is largely used, but have since found out a way of
making a varnish which answers admirably. There are many
varnishes in the market which will do, but as the use of some of
them is at times attended with danger, I shall be glad to supply
anyone with that used at the Solway Fishery, which I have found
to be perfectly safe.

At the head of each hatching box a board is fixed in a
slanting position to act as a breakwater. About an inch of space
is left underneath it, and the water is thus directed under the
grilles, which should be about one and a half inches above the
bottom of the box. Slates do very well instead of boards, and it
will be found very desirable to have a pile of them at hand for
this and similar purposes. They are easily worked to any size or
shape, and are very useful about a hatchery. They are clean, and
give off nothing, and need neither charring nor varnishing. A
number of small water boards will be required for placing in the
134 How to obtain itt.

outlet spouts when it is desired to increase the depth of the water,
and pieces of either wood or slate will be found very useful for
the purpose. Both inside the hatchery and outside in the
raceways, they are often very useful indeed. A trap box should
be placed below the spout of the last hatching box in each set. It
does not matter how small it is, but one side should be of
perforated zinc, to within say an inch of the bottom. Through
this box the water should pass before it is allowed to flow into the
gutter that carries it off. The object of these trap boxes is to
catch any fish that may be escaping, and they play a much more
important part in the working of a hatchery than many persons
would suppose.

I have more than once been told by one of my friends that
his fry were decreasing in numbers, and he could not tell what
was taking them. On my suggesting that they might be escaping,
the idea would not be entertained for a moment. Impossible!
When my friend, acting on my suggestion, had placed a trap box
below his outlet spout, he soon found out where the fish were
going. A few hours would reveal the fact that a dozen or more
had escaped from the box above during that short time. Ona
search being made for the crevice through which they had
escaped, it would be very difficult to find it, and when found my
friend would hardly be convinced that the little fish could possibly
have escaped through such a small aperture. Even in a well-
ordered hatchery there is always a liability that some such
occurrence may take place, and it is better therefore to be
prepared for it. With these traps in use such a leakage would be
detected at once.

There is another very important accessory to the hatchery
also, and that is a catch pool. It consists of a pool or pond
outside the hatchery, in any convenient situation. It may be near
or at a little distance, but it is at least better to have it a few
yards away, so as to get the advantage of having a raceway leading
to it. It may be made of any convenient shape, but for practical
purposes a long and narrow pond suits best. Some fish will be
picked out of the hatchery boxes occasionally, apparently nearly
dead. They are at least‘in such a plight that any fish culturist
would condemn them. Do not throw such away, but as long as
flow to obtain it. 135

life lasts give them a chance. This is easily done, by putting
them into the gutter which takes the water away from the hatching
boxes. The writer was surprised, the first season this was tried, to
find how many of them revived and made good fish. It will be
easily understood that amongst a number of little fish in a
hatching or rearing box, a few are liable, like chickens or any
other beings, to become sickly. If left where they are these soon
die, but by being given freedom, and plenty of room and water,
and turned into a pond which is densely planted with suitable
aquatic vegetation, many of them recover, and the wholesome
natural food upon which they live soon makes good fish of them.

All hatching boxes should be provided with covers or lids.
These should be made as light as possible in weight, and half
inch boarding does very well. The eggs are much better for being
in the dark; in fact light is bad for them. Be careful, then to
have lids for all the hatching boxes.

No one should be allowed to enter a hatchery but those
whose business it is to work in it and visitors who desire to see
the hatching and other operations. The latter should always be
conducted through the building by the manager, or some other
responsible person, who will be able to describe the various
processes, and to see that nothing is disarranged. There is a
latent propensity in human nature that from time to time shows
itself in certain individuals, leading them, if they see a tap, just to
turn it, or to try if a sluice be fixed or movable. These little acts,
simple as they may seem, may cause incalculable damage in a
hatchery. The same applies amongst the ponds. I once hada
number of connecting rods projecting above the water, for the
purpose of working some of the pond plugs, and quite a number
of visitors who carried walking-sticks or umbrellas, gave these a
tap in passing, and caused disarrangement of the outlet valves. I
got over this difficulty, as I thought, by shortening the rods, so
that the projecting ends remained some few inches below the
surface of the water. Soon after this had been done, I was showing
some visitors round, and one of them, seeing the end of a rod
underneath the water, gave it a vigorous poke with his umbrella,
asking at the same time what it was for. I showed him what he
had done in disarranging the outlet valve, and he was profuse in
136 How to obtain it.

his apologies. But how much better it would have been to have
let things alone at first.

I once knew a visitor to poke a hole through a perforated
zinc screen, with the result that a quantity of fish escaped from a
stew, in which the owner had placed them at considerable expense.
One day two individuals came to look at my fish, and without
asking leave went amongst the ponds, and before they had been
many minutes they were actually leaping over the fry nurseries, to
save going round a few yards, and running a great risk of doing
irreparable damage. This was rather too much, and they were,
as a somewhat natural consequence, ordered off the ground. This
they did not like, but who was to blame? Every part of a fish
farm should be kept strictly private, and no one allowed to wander
about without a conductor.

Before leaving the subject of the hatchery, I must again refer
to the water supply. It is the driving power of the works, and
must on no account be allowed to fail. Take care, then, that
the supply is ample. There should always be plenty to spare, and
this should be duly considered before entering upon the work.
Another thing which is of the utmost importance, is that there
should be no possibility of the supply being by any means cut off.
All the arrangements are now very perfect at the Solway Fishery,
but it was not always so, and consequently I have had consider-
able opportunity of gaining experience. When I first commenced
work, with no other building than-a hatchery in a very isolated
position, I soon found how absolutely necessary it was to be on
the spot myself. I therefore fitted up a room in one corner of
the building, with a cooking stove and a berth, and, having been
accustomed to camp life, thoroughly enjoyed being lulled to sleep
by the music of the water as it passed from tank to tank, and in
the middle of the night awakened at once if a change took place
in the sound, owing to the alteration of the currents. A whole
winter was spent in this hatchery, the day being occupied in
poring over the hatching boxes, watching carefully the develop-
ment of the embryos and the growth of the little fish, whilst
working amongst them, and the long winter evenings were spent
in writing up my notes, reading, correspondence, &c. I cannot
but look back upon this period of my life as one of pleasure
How to obtain it. 137

and delight, varied as it was by an occasional day’s shooting,
or a hurried run to some part of the country, to inspect a
lake or give instructions for the construction of a fish pond.

One of my friends, who occasionally came over from a smoky
Yorkshire town, was wont to describe the life as a ‘continual
pic-nic.” Anyhow, the days went pleasantly by ; there was plenty
to do, and doing it was simply an enjoyment, and when the sun
shone and all went well, I could occasionally leave the place for
a week’s cruise in my little yacht Wi/dwing, exploring the
mysteries of the deep, and collecting marine specimens, etc. Do
not let the tyro run away with the idea that there were no draw-
backs, however. As life in general is said to have its “ups and
downs,” so had this life, which, though appearing to outside
observers all sunshine, often carried with it a great deal of rough-
ness and hardship. These were times when my friends of the
sunshine were absent.

I have spent, during a severe frost, night after night amongst
the ice, preventing the water supply being cut off. Every few
minutes it would freeze up if not attended to, the floor meanwhile
consisting of one frozen mass, while icicles hung from boxes,
filters, and distributing tanks, reflecting back the light and making
quite a pretty sight. Often when the sun got up and the frost
slackened, and I could turn into my berth to get a little rest, I
would take a last look over some of the hatching boxes to see
that all was right, and at the sight of the crowd of moving little
beings within, exclaim, “Yes! it’s worth it all”; and after my
sleep would rise refreshed, and just as ready for another battle
with the Ice King as ever. One great advantage I had in these
battles—and they really were such—that I always came off
victorious.

All this is altered now. The water, instead of coming into the
hatchery through a long run of wooden spouting, several feet
above ground, is conveyed for a good way in pipes beneath the
surface, and other precautions are taken whereby freezing is
prevented, and prevention is much better than cure.

Possibly some of my fish-cultural friends will laugh at the
idea of allowing the water to freeze at all, but I know that more
than one of them has been troubled in the same way, and have
138 How to obtain tt.

heard of water being found in a morning absolutely stopped by
the frost. Such a thing was never allowed to happen here. I do
not mean to say that a tap has never been accidentally stopped—
far from it; but such an occurrence was extremely rare, and the
cause mostly unusual. Accidents have, however, happened, and
for the benefit of others I will mention some of them.

All the hatching boxes are supplied with water by means of
taps, as well as the yearling boxes in the yearling house. They are
most easily regulated, and are safer as sources of water supply
than any other apparatus I have had brought under my notice,
but they are not infallible. On one occasion I remember a tap
suddenly ceased to work, and nothing would induce the water to
resume its course through it. Now all the taps are so arranged
that in less than half a minute they can be detached by turning
a screw, and in as short a time replaced, so that no time had to
be lost in examining the one in question. In it was found a frog!
How it got there no one could ever tell. Like the one said to
have been found in the middle of a solid rock, the manner in
which it came there was a mystery which none could solve. The
length of time it had been embedded was a much simpler question,
for it must have been discovered the moment it succeeded in
getting into position. A leaf has twice accidentally got into a tap
and stopped it, but only for a moment, and on one occasion,
while the screen was out for a few minutes, a truant trout of four
and a half inches came down the spout, but unfortunately did not
succeed in stopping the tap, for it passed right through it, and was
only discovered, after lapse of many days, by the serious
diminution in the number in a box of Alpine char. The trout (a
wild fish) had the usual disposition to hide himself, and the box
being against the wall of the hatchery, could only be examined
from one side, and owing to this, he had remained unobserved
until the mischief was done. When found he was simply gorged
with char.

These occurrences only show what great care is required in
a hatchery, and point to the necessity for having everything
properly arranged in thorough working order, and being con-
tinually watchful to see that they are kept so. Without this care
success is impossible. Having water entirely under control means
Flow to obtain it. 139

security to the works, and is one of the first and most important
considerations in connection with a hatchery.

For work on a small scale one of the most useful arrange-
ments is shown by Fig. 12. There are many modifications, but
the principle is the same. It may be worked against a wall as
shown, or out in the open, the boxes being supported by a wooden
frame. It may be inside a building or otherwise. One of the
most important points to be observed in its construction is that
the outlets are efficient. Be sure that they are capable of
conveying all the water that will ever be required, and take care
also that the screens are large enough. I have so often seen
screens made by simply nailing a piece of perforated zinc on to
the inlet end of a spout, that I feel it necessary to give this caution.
A very simple way of making a screen is to nail three strips of
wood, each of about six inches long, so as to form three sides of
a square enclosing the outlet, and nail the perforated zinc on to
them. I use these small hatching boxes occasionally for experi-
menting, and in my own I prefer to have the screen the full width
of the box, fitted as described for the larger boxes. The results
are much more satisfactory, as full-sized screens do not so easily
get clogged, and when the egg shells are about this is important.
There are other reasons also, which will be referred to in another
chapter.

 
CHAPTER VI.

COLLECTING THE EGGS.

The old method as employed at Troutdale Hatchery—Ova hunting in Cumber-
land— Work on a natural stream—The water ousel—Blank days—Honister Crag
—Ulleswater—A dvantages of the present system—Spawning trout—Laving down
the eggs—Embryology—Dry method of impregnation—Catching the spawners—
Sorting—Cleanliness—Effects of temperature— Washing the eggs—Hermaphrodite
fish.

[= is now rather more than a century since the re-discovery in

Europe of the art of fecundating and hatching fish ova by
artificial means, but for many years the matter was only under-
stood very imperfectly by a few persons, and was looked upon as
nothing more than an interesting scientific experiment. For a
long time it was supposed that the gravelly bed of a stream was
necessary for the successful hatching of the ova of Salmonide,
and the earliest form of hatching apparatus consisted of nothing
but boxes with perforated sides, through which the water could
flow, and which were sunk in the stream, filled with gravel and
ova, and in due course, in many cases, some of the ova hatched.
Even when I commenced the propagation of trout in this country
thirty years ago, little comparatively was known of the proper
methods of dealing with the ova and the young fish which they
produced. But now all this is changed, and the ova can be taken
and properly impregnated, and more than that, they can be pro-
perly incubated and hatched, and the delicate little beings known
as “‘alevins” can be grown into large fish, as surely as the gardener
can from his seeds produce a rich crop of flowers or vegetables,
as the case may be.

I well remember in my early days the keen enjoyment
experienced in hunting the mountain streams for the various
breeds of fish, destined to become the ultimate producers of a far
Flow to obtain it. 141

superior race. Many a time I have started off at four or five
o’clock on a November morning for a long and tedious walk over
the Cumberland mountains, often rendered even dangerous by the
accumulations of snow and ice met with at that season of the year.
After fishing all day we would come back tired and weary at night,
with perhaps a few thousands of trout eggs in the collecting cans,
and often enough with none. These were laid down carefully on
the grilles in the Troutdale Hatchery, where the work was carried
on for fifteen years. There was an amount of enjoyment in it
which it is impossible to describe—it must be felt to be under-
stood—and an excellent opportunity was afforded of studying the
habits of the various species or varieties of fish with which we
came in contact.

The information gained from practical sources in those days
has proved of very great value, and has been of material assistance
in the building up of a successful fish farm. It is now so exten-
sive that it has been found quite impossible to get a good photo-
graph of the ponds, but the accompanying illustration will give
some idea as to the way in which they are laid out. I often smile
as I remember the time when we hunted the trout in the wild
mountain glens of Borrowdale and the neighbouring valleys in
Cumberland, when, although armed with permission from riparian
owners, we were loudly denounced by a certain class, many of
whom ought to have known better, as poachers, etc. But out of
it all has been acquired a mass of information which has enabled
us to carry the work forward until it has assumed its present
proportions. Instead of collecting ova from the natural streams,
which at best is very arduous and costly work even when properly
carried out, they are now taken in enormous quantities from fish
reared in well-made ponds, which are entirely under control. Up-
wards of a quarter of a million trout ova have been taken in one
morning, and of coarse fish I have taken a million before breakfast.

I have made these preliminary observations, in order that the
uninitiated may at once realize to some extent the altered position
in which fish-culture stands to-day, as compared with its position a
quarter of a century ago. The eggs now obtained from the domes-
ticated fish referred to require to be built up for months before-
hand in the ovaries of the fish, and great attention has to be
142 Flow to obtain it.

bestowed upon their proper development during this period, the
fish, like other valuable farming stock, requiring to be very well
looked after, the sexes kept separate, and the food varied accord-
ing to season and circumstances. It is a matter that requires
much skill and judgment, and no novice can expect to rear breed-
ing fish successfully at first. I say breeding fish, for it is quite a
different and an easy matter to rear fish for the table or for angling
purposes. This can be done, and is now being done extensively,
and I am glad to say, successfully. It seems strange that we have
been so long in realizing that the discovery made by two obscure
French peasants, that the ova of the trout could be fertilized and
cared for, might be turned to good practical account, largely
multiplying the number of fish in our waters.

In the early days of my experience as a trout culturist, when
we were dependent upon natural streams for supplies of ova, a
careful watch had to be kept upon the trout as spawning time
approached. About the end of October, when the autumnal
tinted leaves begin to fall in showers as the wind sighs through
the grove, and the mountain tops have already been capped with
snow, the trout begin to leave the larger rivers and streams, and
push their way into almost every little rivulet on our hills, and in
our valleys, in search of suitable places for making their nests and
depositing their ova, and places unfrequented by them except in
their earlier stages at other times of the year are then often found
to be full of fish. Notwithstanding all our pains the trout often
succeeded in eluding us, as floods would come down and prevent
any work being done in the streams for two or three days, during
which time the fish had spawned and perhaps even left the locality,
for they do not remain long in the small tributaries ; while there
they are in danger, and they know it.

Let us take an imaginary ramble to a wild mountain glen.
The little stream which tumbles over the rocks and boulders
empties into a lake, which is full of an excellent breed of trout.
As we near its mouth three herons rise and flap lazily over the
placid surface of the lake, and a flock of wild ducks noisily departs
from the reed bed in which it had been hiding. A little further
on another heron leaves the brook—they know full well the trout
are on the move. Passing on, we notice the solitary footprint of
Flow to obtain tt. 143

an otter on a little patch of yielding sand amid the stones ; he was
not discreet enough in his work, and has left a tell-tale behind him
that reveals the secret of his presence. We round the corner of a
mighty rock and push up-stream, soon coming to a waterfall.
Surely no fish can pass this obstacle! Yes, they do, though ; for
when the flood comes down and threatens to sweep everything
before it, the fish go up and reach their nesting ground far up the
valley. They may have already reached it, and we may be too late.
Passing along the rocky bed at length we reach a pool, and peering
cautiously we see—yes! there they go—one—two—three fine trout,
right off a gravel bed, down into the deep recess amongst the rocks.
Put in the net ; now close it round and set it properly, then with
a willow sapling gently move the fish. There! two are in the net ;
now lift ; we have them—beauties—each a pound, and females too
Well done! we'll try again. But, no; the other has “holed” and
will not move ; so leaving him we wander on. Soon we sight
another, and at the first alarm under the bank he goes. We set
the net and drive him out, but in he goes again, under a shelving
rock this time. Again we try to poke him out, but it is of no use;
and after several fruitless efforts we go on and try three other pools,
but do not get any fish from them.

But look! what is that? A fish? No; a bird, emerging from
the water, which scatters from its feathers as it flies, and swiftly
disappears round a bend. We cautiously creep on and see him
sitting on a stone, a little beauty, with a throat white as the driven
snow. His tail perked jauntily, he faces us—he turns—he dips
his body. Is he curtseying? No, not exactly; it’s only his way.
But there, he’s in again, taking the plunge right merrily. How
long he stays beneath! Yes, he’s at home beneath the water and
keeps us waiting in suspense. At last he re-appears with something
in his mouth. What is it? shout! he’s off and dropped it, and we
run to pick itup. It is, we find, not a trout egg, but a water
insect—a deadly enemy to the ova of Sa/monid@ ; and that is the
work of Cimclus in October and November. He is one of Nature’s
workers, and he does his duty, saving many lives by taking others;
and if he takes a fish in spring to feed his callow brood, perhaps
he makes amends by keeping down their enemies at other times.

But to our work. We try another pool and get a fish, and
144 How to obtain it.

presently another. Strange both are females, and yet not strange
either, for the males are higher up, and we often find it so. Further
on we go and get another fish—a female too, and ripe, and work-
ing hard for more we take at length a couple, one of them a male.
But the clouds are gathering on the mountain tops, and the pass
is getting choked with mist and threatening snow. A storm is
brewing, so we must be quick. There! we have another male,
and letting this suffice we hasten down to lower grounds. The
storm comes on apace. The raven croaks above, as wheeling in
mid-air he bids defiance to the storm. We hurry on, but before
we reach the valley it has burst upon us. There! we cannot do
better now, so we will stop and spawn our fish under an overhang-
ing rock; then having milted the ova, get our luncheon, after
which we wash it and go home, first carefully returning the fish to
the stream from which they came. Such is a brief description of a
fairly successful day spent ova hunting, the result being some three
or four thousand eggs. There were often many blanks, however.

One November morning we started at four o’clock from Grange
in Borrowdale to walk to Buttermere. It was cold, clear, and
frosty, and “‘ by the pale light of stars” we partially ascended the
hill whose summit forms the famous Castle Crag, and then
bearing to the right we skirted the fell known as Borrowdale
Hause. By the time we had gone a couple of miles a snowstorm
met us, and as we proceeded the drifts in some of the gullies we
had to cross became uncomfortable. By the time we reached the
head of Honister Pass the ground was deeply covered with snow,
and when we arrived at the place where we had leave to fish we
found the water to be so full of snow broth that the fish were not
obtainable. Most of them had probably run down into the lake.
We tried in vain, and at last gave up the attempt as hopeless, and,
with all our paraphernalia of nets and cans, commenced the
homeward journey. Up under the famous Honister Crag, with
its snow wreaths and black jutting rocks, we passed, and at last
reached once more the top of the famous pass. By this time,
fortunately, the snow had ceased falling, and we risked the hill,
and more than once got buried in a drift for thus defying the
elements. However, home was safely reached at last, though
minus any ova.
Fow to obtain it. 145

On another occasion we walked from our quarters at Grange
to the head of Ullswater, crossing Watendlath Fell, and over the
three bridges of Thirlmere—now, alas! no more—up over a spur
of the great Helvellyn, and down the Glenridding Vale into
Patterdale, and, by the kind permission of the proprietor, fished
some water there, stayed the night and tried next morning, but
with very poor success, for the fish were not up from the lake.

After luncheon we started on the return journey, and found
some beautifully curious snow caverns in crossing the mountains,
where a stream had been snowed up, and the water flowing
underneath had hollowed out the frozen mass. It was getting
dark as we crossed the Watendlath Bridge, and the waters of the
celebrated tarn looked black and sombre in the dim twilight, but,
knowing the danger of being benighted on the hills in weather
that did not look the best, we hurried on until we reached the
road in Borrowdale. These days were most enjoyable occasions
in spite of the weather, which was often very wild and stormy.

Now, however, with a well-ordered set of ponds and a goodly
stock of breeding fish the matter is a very different one. <A net
specially constructed is run through one of the ponds, and brings
to the bank at one haul several hundred fine large female fish,
which are at once sorted. The ripe ones are picked out by an
expert at a glance, and placed in tanks close by, while the unripe
ones are thrown back again or put into a spare pond, as may be
deemed most desirable at the time. Having thus separated the
spawners, a large number of males are similarly secured from
another pond, and the choicest fish are selected and also placed in
readiness in tanks. A number of spawning dishes are then
brought out, a table on which to place them, and a few clean
rough towels. The dishes are thoroughly dried, and a number of
female fish are thrown into a net, from which the operator takes
them one by one. He holds each fish successively, vent down-
wards, over the dish, with the left hand grasping just above the
tail, while the right seizes the head. A very gentle pressure
applied with the thumb of the right hand upon the belly of the
fish causes the eggs to flow in an unbroken stream into the dish,
till, by the skilful movement of the thumb, the whole of them are
expelled. A novice invariably makes great bungling at this work ;

L
146 1 Flow to obtain it.

but “practice makes perfect,” and the writer has spawned and
impregnated the ova from a hundred and forty trout in the
comparatively short space of about an hour. This, taking into
account the changing of the dishes and other little delays, is
pretty quick work, yet the whole is done without any hurry or
excitement ; indeed, nothing is more undesirable than to perform
the work too hurriedly, although, at the same time, expedition is
of vital importance.

Having spawned a number of females into one dish, a batch
of males is handed in a net by an attendant, and a couple of good
milters taken, which is quite sufficient. These are somewhat
similarly treated, the milt being expelled upon the eggs, and both
eggs and milt are gently mixed by an undulating motion of the
dish, aided slightly by the hand. Water is then added, and the
mixing process is repeated, and the dish allowed to stand until the
eggs have separated. At first they cling together, adhering not
only to each other but to the dish itself, sometimes for a few
minutes and occasionally for an hour or more, according to the
temperature. On separating they must be well and carefully
washed until all effete milt is cleared away. They are then placed
upon the grilles in the hatching boxes, a number sufficient to fill
each grille being poured out of a measure, which holds just the
right quantity. They are poured from the measure so as to form
several little heaps on each grille, and these heaps are roughly
spread by means of a feather, care being taken that it does not
touch the ova. The grille is then raised slightly, both hands
being used in the operation. Then, by means of a slight shake,
giving the grille a motion soon acquired by practice, the eggs are
made to arrange themselves in rows very prettily, and they can be
accurately and quickly counted.

In the old days there was often a difficulty in getting milters,
and even to the present time, collectors of ova from wild fish have
often to be content with such milters as they can get. It will be
seen what a great advantage it is to have a large number of well-
bred and selected male fish in a pond by themselves, so that a
haul of the net brings to bank several hundreds of them. Out of
this number the best fish can be selected and sent up to the
spawning house, where operations are being carried on. From a
“AMNUHSIA AVAVIOS ‘ANIL ONINAWdS LY

 

 
Flow to obtain tt. 147

number of good fish a couple of milters are selected—sometimes.
one only is used, but as there are eggs from several females in the
dish there is no harm in using more than one male, should it be
deemed desirable to do so. Sometimes the milt may not be quite
ripe, or may be spent, or stale, and in such a case the ova would
probably not be impregnated. By taking a second or even a
third male under such circumstances good eggs may often be
saved. I have seen the time when good milt was difficult to
obtain late in the season, even from the ponds of a well-ordered
fish farm.

These matters must be learned by practice and experience.
It is as needful now-a-days for a would-be fish culturist first to go
as a pupil to some first-class fish farm, as it is for anyone wishing
to be thoroughly well up in agricultural pursuits to go and learn
farming. There is much that cannot by any means be learned
from books, and there is much also that one who is not already
skilled in the work must be taught by an expert, not only
practically but theoretically. A thorough knowledge of the
development of the embryo under varied circumstances and
surroundings is very essential, and can only be acquired by a good
‘deal of thoroughly practical work with the microscope.

When viewed through a high power immediately upon
extrusion from the fish, the milt is found to contain an enormous
number of minute organisms called spermatozoa, which at first
are very lively, and move about rapidly by means of flagella. Very
soon their activity begins to cease, and in less than a couple of
minutes they usually cease to move. In one part of the shell of
the ovum is a minute aperture called the micropyle, and by means.
of this micropyle one of the spermatozoa is enabled to enter the
egg and impregnation is effected. The reason for being.
expeditious in the work will be at once apparent when these facts.
are considered.

During the first few weeks of their existence the eggs are very
delicate, and a very slight shock or vibration will often so disturb.
their organism as to kill them, but, strange to say, this does not
apply to the first twenty-four hours or more after they are taken
from the fish, during which time they will bear any reasonable
amount of shaking, but are very sensitive to temperature. This.
148 Flow to obtain it.

seems a wonderful provision of nature for enabling man to
collect eggs and carry them at once hundreds of miles by rail, &c.,
to the hatchery if needed. I have known them nearly forty-eight
hours on a journey without taking harm, but after the first twenty-
four hours the sooner they are laid down in the hatching apparatus
the better.

A fully developed unimpregnated ovum consists of a mass of
protoplasm, in which, a little to one side, may be seen a small
clear nucleus or cell called the germinal vesicle, and which in its
turn contains a still smaller cell or nucleolus—the germinal spot.
Some hours after being taken from the fish and laid on the grilles,
the germinal vesicle in each egg may be seen on the portion of
the ovum which is uppermost, and, should such an ovum be
fertilized by spermatozoa, great changes soon take place, the first
of which is, that the cell consisting of the germinal vesicle and
germinal spot is split into two cells, each of which in its turn
forms two, and so on in geometrical progression, which simple
cleavage, known as segmentation, continues for some time. At the
end of this process the ovum is a mass of nucleated corpuscles
without cell walls, and has reached the second or moru/a stage, so
called from its likeness toa mulberry. The cells on the surface
of this mulberry mass gradually become elongated or column
shaped, ending in long threads of protoplasm called cilia, by
means of which it can not only move through the fluid but
produce currents in it in its immediate neighbourhood. The
ovum has now reached the third or p/anuda stage. At this point
a groove appears, down the centre of which a white streak, soon
taking the form of a ridge, may be seen, which is the chorda
Gorsalis or noto-chord, which becomes enclosed by the wall of the
rest of the organism on either side growing over it. Ifa section
be made through this embryo, three layers—an outer, a middle,
and an inner—may be easily distinguished by the aid of a
microscope. From the outer layer, the skin, brain, and spinal
column, are developed; from the inner, the lining of the
ailmentary canal with its appendages; whilst the middle layer
forms the rest, which is by far the greatest part of the organism.

When an ovum has not been impregnated it remains
unchanged, excepting that the germinal vesicle is differentiated as
Flow to obtain itt. 149

in the impregnated eggs, but no further development taking place
it simply remains, presenting the appearance of a globular shaped
body, and in about three weeks or a little more, according to
temperature hastening or retarding the development of the fertilized
eggs, these unfertilized ova may be picked out. They are
commonly called ‘‘blind” eggs because they never show the eye
spots, which are, later on, such a prominent feature amongst the
good eggs.

The so-called “dry method” by which trout eggs are now
taken was discovered in Russia by M. Vrasski. Experiments had
also been tried in France to test the vitality of milt, and these had
led to the discovery that the spermatozoa could be kept alive
much longer out of water than in it. If the air be kept from it,
as for instance when taken direct from the glands into a tube and
hermetically sealed, it will sometimes keep good for a considerable
length of time, and I have sent it by post to a friend, who found
it to be quite fit for use at the end of twenty-four hours or more.

By this “dry method” of impregnation a much larger
number of eggs is rendered fertile than formerly, when a
spawning dish half full of water was used. In those days we
used to think seventy-five per cent., and less, a very good result ;
now, we get ninety-five per cent. Sometimes all the eggs are
impregnated, but usually a few escape, and these are afterwards
picked out, and will be alluded to in another chapter. Talking
of percentages reminds me of a very irrelevant question a fish
culturist was once asked by a juror at an exhibition. Instead of
confining his queries to the subject of the exhibits, the juror asked
what was the greatest percentage of alevins he had ever obtained
from the ova laid down in his hatchery? He knowingly answered,
“a hundred and one per cent.,” which for a moment puzzled the
judge, until he remembered that one egg sometimes yielded two
or even three fish. Do not be disappointed if you do not always.
get a good result at first. There are many things to learn in
connection with this important branch of the work. Sometimes.
the ova may not have been properly developed in the ovary ;
sometimes the constitutional weakness of the fish may be to
blame ; sometimes the eggs may have absorbed water; or even,
owing it may be to a defective mcropyle, the spermatozoa fail to.
150 How to obtain tt.

enter. It has been suggested that in the case of using large males
for the ova of small females, that the spermatozoa are too large to
enter the mzcropyles of the ova of small fish. This may or may
not be so, but the greater probability is that the diversity in the
ages affects the fertilizing power, or too often the health of the
embryos, or the future offspring. The age of the milters is, Iam
convinced, an important consideration, and I prefer a com-
paratively young fish to an old one—indeed, I do not keep male
fish more than seven years as a rule; better knock them on the
head and market them.

I must here, however, add a word of caution against using
very young fish as milters. Two-year-old males will yield milt,
and occasionally yearlings do so, but they should not be used.
The late Dr. Francis Day records a series of experiments (‘‘ British
and Irish Salmonidz,” p. 26), which go far to shew that both ova
and milt from young fish are not of good quality. Fish culturists
certainly know this to be the case as regards ova, and they know
also that the males mature earlier than the females. Therefore,
the probabilities are, as regards old breeders, that by using
selected males that are younger than the females excellent results
will follow. A great deal depends upon the selection of the fittest,
and the more we come to understand this, the greater the measure
of success that attends our efforts.

Formerly, the condition or age of a milter was never thought
of. Any fish that came to hand was taken, and probably even
now little attention is paid to the matter on some of our rivers
when fish are scarce. It is important, however, in the case of
salmon and other wild fish to select suitable males, as it is
amongst fish on a farm, and must tell on the future crop of those
in a river. :

The spawning of the first fish is to the novice usually a time
of much interest, and often of some excitement. To tell exactly
when the fish are ripe, is a point about which many who have
consulted me evidently feel a little anxiety. There is not much
wonder at this, and experience must be bought in one way or
another with regard to dealing with fish at spawning time. A
beginner often gets on fairly well up to some point, where a
mistake is made which upsets the work a good deal, and for the
flow to obtain it. I51

benefit of those who are about to commence for the first time,
and with a view to preventing blunders of such a kind, I will
briefly give some simple directions.

There are so many ways of capturing the fish that I will not
enter much into that subject, beyond saying that we use the
most convenient and effective nets that ingenuity can devise, for
taking the fish in the quickest and simplest way without hurting
them. Much must depend upon the nature of the stream from
which they are taken ; in some places a simple bag-net will do, in
others large landing-nets are very effective, and in some a carefully
constructed trap-net in which the fish is caught in a bag the
moment he strikes is a good net to use. The fish are not being
captured by way of sport, but for the most excellent of all reasons,
that we may care for the eggs, amongst which there is such great
destruction when left to nature.

The fish then are to be handled very gently and taken great
care of, and after we have ‘‘stripped” them of their eggs, they
will be very carefully returned to the water from which they came.
It is the greatest mistake to suppose that any harm is done to
them by taking their eggs. I never yet saw a fish killed by being
spawned.

There is danger in leaving them too long in tubs or cans,
however ; they may die or jump out, and they should, therefore,
be detained as short a time as possible, and should be carefully
watched while they are waiting. An excellent safeguard is to
stretch a piece of fine netting over the tub and turn a current of
water through it, which will keep the fish in a lively condition for
an hour or two. I have used perforated cans or cages sunk in
the stream, and fish may be safely left in these for several
hours if necessary. If not crowded they may be left over a night
when circumstances really demand it, but I never keep them so
long if I can avoid it, as they rub the slime off their bodies and
require to be dipped before bcing sct at liberty.

Having provided the necessary nets and a tub or tubs, the
fish caught should be sorted. To do this place the bag of one of
the landing-nets in a tub so that the fish can be placed in it and
kept there. A net such as the one described in my chapter on
stocking, and which is used forreviving the fish before or after a
152 How to obtain tt.

salt bath, is very useful, and may be worked in the stream. Put
the ripe spawners or females in one net, and the males or milters
into another, so that they can be got at at once without any
uncertainty. Some towels and a few spawning dishes should be
at hand. Milk bowls will be found to answer the purpose very
well. When the spawning ground is some distance from home a
few enamelled metal basins are very convenient, being light and
easily carried, and a can will be required for taking home the ova.
Something in the shape of an ordinary milk can with a lid will be
found useful for this purpose. A bedroom water jug is an article
I have often used, and seems to be about as good as anything.
Whatever is used, take care that it is perfectly clean.

For collecting salmon and other ova, when large quantities
are likely to be taken, I use carboys, and find them very con-
venient. They should be filled with water, and the eggs poured
in from a jug or other vessel. The specific gravity of the eggs
being rather greater than that of water they go at once to the
bottom, displacing some water in the process. When about two-
thirds full of ova a little of it should be poured off, and the bottle
sent forward to the hatchery with as little delay as practicable.
On arrival there the eggs may be poured out into bowls, which
should be held immediately under the nozzle of the carboy during
the operation. Should it be desired to extract them without any
jar or concussion it is quite easily done as follows :—Place a bung
or stopper of any kind in the neck of the carboy for a moment,
and invert it over a tank with the neck submerged, withdraw
the stopper and the eggs will quietly gravitate to the bottom of
the tank.

When the fish have been duly sorted and are at hand in their
various receptacles the work is easy enough. Some operators
kneel down, and for beginners this is perhaps the best plan,
though it is never done at the Solway Fishery. Some fish are
almost sure to slip through the fingers of a novice at first, and
they are not likely to be so much injured as they would be by a
fall from the hands of a person standing. Even an old hand will
let a fish slip occasionally, but the occurrence is a rare one, and
the chances are that he so balances it, or dexterously controls its
movements whilst falling as to send it into a tank or tub of water,
How to obtain it. 153

from which it is soon removed unhurt. But the novice is as
likely to send it into the spawning dish as anywhere, and a few
struggles there will send the eggs flying in all directions.

The cleanliness of all apparatus used is of vital importance,
and much of the success of the undertaking depends upon it. A
clean and perfectly dry spawning dish and clean hands are most
desirable. Take care that the fish are clean also ; they will not
be so if the net be placed on the ground. By retaining them in
nets which can be lifted bodily they are in excellent condition for
handling, and the water is shaken off them -before the handling
commences. Notwithstanding all precautions it is impossible to
prevent a drop or two getting into the spawning dish occasionally,
but avoid it as much as possible, as the dryer the eggs are kept,
until the milt has been added to them, the better. A beginner is
anxious to know how long the eggs should remain in the dish with
the milt. This depends chiefly on temperature ; when they cease
to adhere to each other, or to the dish, they may be washed, and
this may be in ten minutes. Do not on any account wash them
too soon. It is better to leave them for a couple of hours than
to disturb them before they are ready. A little experience here
is better than a good deal of theory.

If the day be warm and the temperature of the water 50°
Fahrenheit there will not be a long time to wait, but shouid it be
freezing hard and the water at 33° or 34, then the time will be
much longer. Take care not to drown the eggs with milt. They
will take no harm standing in the dish for twelve hours after being
washed, but they may suffer if the milt be left on them. I have
frequently taken ova in the afternoon of one day, washed it, and
allowed it to stand all night in bowls; and taken it over to the
hatchery next morning to be laid on the grilles. Milters should
always be carefully selected, and no fish that are in any way
deformed should be used for breeding purposes. Many deformities
are more or less hereditary, as has been proved in the case of
other animals, and it is better to avoid them. Although experi-
ments have been tried with the result that ova from deformed fish
have apparently produced well-formed healthy fish, yet the
reverse has also been ascertained to be the case. The result of
“in breeding,” too, is most disastrous, and change of blood and
154 How to obtain it.

judicious crossing of races and varieties is an absolute necessity if
successful fish farming is to be carried on. An accepted theory
amongst viologists is that though the reproductive cells as a rule.
vary considerably in size between one genus and another, it is less
marked in the species, and disappears (especially in the male
element) in the varieties.

An expert can often tell at a glance whether a fish is ripe or
not. There are signs which it is difficult to describe, such as the
appearance of the organs, the looseness of the ova in the fish, and
a general appearance of ripeness, which can only be detected by
long practice. No force should be used in expelling the eggs. If
they do not flow freely on the hand being very gently passed over
the belly of the fish they are not ripe. Of course a slight pressure
is necessary, but far more depends upon proper handling. The
hand or thumb should be kept behind the eggs, and not allowed
to run over or in front of them. In taking the milt a knowledge
of the situation of the glands is useful. They are much lower
down than the ovaries of the female, and instead of using the
hand the milt may be easily obtained by an adroit use of the
thumb and forefinger. The weather has much influence on the
spawning of fish. A mild day, preceded by a warm rain, will
make the fish lively, and they will spawn freely ; but a hard frost,
or snow in the water, will retard the shedding of the ova, and >
consequently, on a fish farm, preparations are often made accord-
‘ingly. We know, as a rule, before commencing, how the fish will
yield their ova.

When the eggs have had the milt on them long enough, they
are easily washed in the spawning dishes by pouring off a part of
the water, adding more that is fresh and clean, and continuing the
Operation some six or seven times, when the eggs should be clean.
Be quite sure that they are so, and should there be any doubt
about it give them another wash. At the Solway Fishery, where
eggs are dealt with in large quantities, the contents of a dozen or
a score of spawning dishes are emptied into a well-charred wooden
tank, through which a current of water flows, and are left there for
half-an-hour or more, when they are found to be perfectly clean.
(Fig. 13).

One of these tanks will wash a hundred thousand eggs at a
How to obtain it. 155

time, and the saving in labour is thus considerable. When small
quantities are to be washed they are done in buckets which are
kept scrupulously clean, and are used for no other purpose.

It is quite easy, as a rule, to distinguish the sexes at spawning
time. The males are in their best livery, and are much flatter
and thinner in the body than the females, which are full and
rounded. With a little practice they can be distinguished at a
glance in most cases. There area few exceptions, some specimens
being a little deceptive in appearance. I have met with female
fish yielding ova that have otherwise had all the outward charac-
teristics of the male ; and I have met with male fish which at sight
I have mistaken for females, but such cases are rare. The same
freak of nature occurs occasionally amongst birds, an undoubted
egg-producing female being found attired in the full plumage of a
male, and vice versa. One of the most remarkable instances on
record is the case of a hermaphrodite trout, which was discovered
by Mr. Thomas Andrews, of Guildford, and presented to the
Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. The fish produced
both ova and milt, and the eggs hatched.

      

=>

= Sa
CHAPTER VII.

INCUBATING THE EGGS.

Everything in perfect working order—Everything well seasoned—Preparing
the grilles—Laying down ova—Picking—Beware of fungus—Sediment—E fects of
concusston— Washing eggs—The eye spots—Embryo as seen through the microscope
— The eggs commence hatching.

FOR the incubation of ova it is very important that everything

should be in perfect working order. No work should be
delayed in the preparation of the hatching house for its important
duties. All painting and varnishing should be done three months
beforehand, so that it may be not only dry but thoroughly
hardened. Having completed all necessary work and alterations
in good time, the water should be turned on a month before
spawning time. All that will then be needful will be to cleanse
the hatching boxes and aqueducts prior to the laying down of ova.
However clean and pure the water may be this operation is
desirable, for some sediment will probably have accumulated, as
the filters have not been working, it being needless to put in the
filter cloths or screens until a day or so before the laying down of
ova. They should be all ready in good time so that nothing is
required but to slip them into their places. The filter tanks
should be cleaned as well as the hatching boxes, and before the
water is turned on again the filter screens should be in their
grooves, the lids should be on the hatching boxes, and all should be
in thorough working order. It is a great comfort to have all in
readiness beforehand, and is a necessity where good work is to be
done. There are many little items that require attention, and it
is only a case of exercising a little forethought, and not leaving
everything until the hatching season.
How to obtain it. 157

Where any fresh concrete work comes in contact with the
water I prefer running the latter over it for three months. Cement
is partially soluble, and in some waters more than in others. The
soluble portions are injurious to trout ova, but after being in use
for some time the whole becomes thoroughly seasoned, and is
then quite harmless. I am alluding now to such works as settling
tanks and aqueducts, for which concrete will often be found very
useful. It is a very good plan, after the water has been running
over new works for a few days, to turn it off and give the whole a
good scour out, and after a few more days repeat the process.
After this turn on the water for good, and do not on any account
scour out again. Nature usually provides a coating for concrete
work in the shape of minute vegetable growths, and these should
not be thoughtlessly removed. The same applies to concrete
ponds, with the exception that sometimes confervoid and other
growths begin to threaten trouble. They may then be gently
raked off or otherwise partially removed, but without any scraping.

The well-known proverb, ‘‘Do nothing rashly,” certainly
applies in fish culture, and it is well to observe it. It often
happens that mistakes are seen when too late, which by a little
forethought might have been avoided.

A day or so before spawning a sufficient number of grilles
should be placed in position for receiving the ova. They are
usually stacked away in some convenient place, and are all ready
for use. Dust them if they require it, and wash them well before
placing them in the hatching boxes. It is well to keep them
submerged in some tank for a few days, and finally to wash them
under a tap. They are then ready for work and may be placed
in position. On putting them into the hatching boxes let one
side go right to the bottom, and shake them gently. This causes
the glass tubes to fill with water. Then, without taking them out,
lay them on their rests. They have a tendency to float at first ;
but this is easily counter-balanced by placing a piece of lead on
each end of the grille. These weights may be fixed or loose, and
I prefer them loose, and use neat little cubes of lead specially cast
for the purpose. Small blocks of stone will do perfectly well, or
even stones out of a brook.

When a box is commenced with it should always be filled
158 How to obtain it.

with grilles. Never half fill one, and lay down ova before putting
in all the grilles. There would be a danger of disturbing the eggs
in the lower half of the box, whilst placing grilles, etc., in the
upper. Many persons would probably say that they could do it
quite easily without doing the slightest harm, and I have no doubt
they could—but there is no object to be gained, and harm may
be done. It is one of those points the observance of which tends
towards success, and I would not give much for the results from a
hatchery where such rules were not strictly observed.

In laying down the eggs always commence at the lowest end
of a set of boxes, and go on filling as the ova comes into the
hatchery, until that set or series of boxes has received its full
complement of ova. In a large hatchery it is sometimes desirable
to have several sets of boxes filling at the same time. This does
not matter. The object is that as the eggs are laid down, so shall
they hatch in rotation, and it would be bad policy to arrange to
have some hatching in one of the upper boxes, whilst others were
being incubated in a box below.

There will probably be a few white eggs, and these should
be picked out. This may be done either before they are laid
down or after, or if the former course be taken both before and
after, for some will probably turn white either whilst being laid
down, or very soon after. They are easily picked over whilst in a
bowl or other vessel, as owing to a slight difference in the specific
gravity, the white eggs rise to the top when slightly agitated,
either by pouring in water or by means of the hand. The reason
why some of them turn white is that they have absorbed water,
which acts on the albumen of the egg, causing a white precipitate
to form, and this goes on more or less during the whole time of
incubation. Where a good impregnation has been secured there
will not be many white eggs. It is the badly impregnated and
unimpregnated ova that turn white as soon as the. water percolates
the shell of the ovum. Some unimpregnated or “blind eggs”
remain unchanged until all the others are hatched. These will
do no harm, and may either be picked off any time at leisure, or
left until all the hatching is completed, when they can be
removed with the grilles.

A variety of implements have been used for the purpose of
Flow to obtain tt. 159

picking ova. The one that I have found best, and have used for
a quarter of a century, is very simple in its construction, and is
easily handled after a little practice. It consists merely of thin
brass or copper wire twisted into a loop of the proper size to
bring out the eggs. It may, if desired, be fixed into a wooden
handle.

It was invented by Mr. Seth Green, the veteran fish culturist
of the United States. There are many other useful appliances,
most of which I have tried, but have not yet met with any

implement that will do better work, or that is so
exceedingly simple in its construction. To use it, place
the loop under the egg to be withdrawn and _ lift
quickly. Some dexterity is needful, and is easily
acquired. As the whole secret of using it lies in the
pressure of the water keeping the egg in its place in the
wire loop, hence the need for rapid action. A beginner
should practise on some lots of newly-fertilized ova or
on some which is well “eyed,” as a slip or two then

will not do any very material damage.
Figccg: The other tools used for this purpose are tweezers,.
pliers, suction tubes, etc., and these are all found very
useful by those who prefer them. A tube fitted with an india-
rubber bulb does very good work, and one of my pupils won the
day at egg-picking with one of these instruments against the wire
loop-picker. It is not, however, the man or the tool that can
pick the most eggs in a given time, but the one that can pick
them without injury to the others. I have seen a clumsy prac-
titioner getting on very well as to quantity, but doing more harm
to the rest of the eggs than any good he was doing by picking out
those that required it. Egg-picking would probably be well done
by those experts known as the “light-fingered gentry,” could they
be persuaded to earn an honest livelihood. In my hatchery it has.
been largely done by girls, and also by men and boys, but to
whatever class of workers it is entrusted, they should fully under-
stand the need for care and skill in not disturbing the good eggs.

It is necessary that all white eggs should be picked out, for
if left too long in the boxes the fungus grows upon them, which
also surrounds the good eggs lying in their immediate neighbour-
160 Flow to obtain it.

hood, and injures or destroys them also. In a well ordered
hatchery this work should be done daily, even though there be
but few eggs to pick. There will be more amongst some lots
than others, but all the boxes should be carefully gone through.
This fungoid growth on the dead eggs is usually known amongst
fish culturist as ‘‘ byssus,” in contra-distinction from “fungus”
{Saprolegnia), which attacks both living fish and living eggs.

The “fungus” (Saprolegnia) will attack both living and dead
fish, but the “byssus” (Leptomitris clavatus : STONE) only grows
on the dead. When it occurs amongst eggs, as it most assuredly
will if the white ones are not picked out, it grows rapidly and
sends out innumerable filaments, which soon surround the good
eggs within its reach and cause partial suffocation. Such an
occurrence should never be allowed to take place, and is easily
prevented by punctually removing the white eggs, as soon as they
become opaque. I have known “byssus” appear within twenty-
four hours, which shews the necessity for prompt action. Should
any of the surrounding eggs be taken within its grasp, they may
not die immediately as a result, but the embryos are weakened
and cannot be expected to make good fish. If white eggs, after
being picked, be placed in a glass of sea water they will become
clear again, and on being transferred to fresh water they again
resume their opaque appearance, and the experiment may be
several times repeated with the same eggs.

Sometimes healthy ova die and become opaque owing to
being attacked by living enemies, which have got into the hatching
boxes. It is, in fact, exceedingly difficult at times to keep these
out. They come in the shape of eggs deposited in the water, or
in other stages, when they are very minute, and they soon grow
bigger and cannot get out again. These will attack the ova and
puncture the shell, which then allows the water to enter, and the
precipitation of the albumen follows as a natural result. With
good filters, cleanliness, and everything working efficiently, the
loss from this cause ought to be very small indeed.

The “ fungus” (Saprolegnia) to which I have referred some-
times attacks the eggs, and woe to them should this happen. It
ought never to be allowed to do so, however, as it will not readily
grow upon them of its own accord. They do not form one of its
Flow to obtain it. 161

natural habitats, and should it make its appearance, depend upon
it something is wrong somewhere. Three conditions are necessary
for the avoidance of Saprolegnia -—(1) Darkness ; (2) thorough
cleanliness throughout ; (3) and all wood to be carbonized.

Light is highly favourable to its growth, and darkness is
unfavourable. Darkness is also good for the eggs, and light is
the reverse ; indeed too much light is calculated to injure the
embryos. Therefore, keep the boxes always covered. As regards
cleanliness it should not be necessary to say much, and yet I
know it is sadly too often the case that for want of it the eggs
suffer. The filters should be thoroughly effective, and every
precaution taken to keep the hatching boxes perfectly clean during
the period of incubation. Every scrap of woodwork below water-
line should be charred, and all the joints and knots or any other
places that look at all suspicious should be varnished also the first
season. For the second season at least two coats should be
applied, and each succeeding season afterwards one or two coats,
as may be deemed desirable. Especially about any nail heads
and the corners and crevices of the grilles should the varnish be
applied.

The inside of the boxes should never be too roughly scoured
out after they have been varnished for the season. It must be
remembered that every scratch or puncture which lays bare the
wood, creates a suitable médus for the germs of the fungus. I
have seen cases in which such little regard has been paid to this
that there has been little cause for wonder at an outbreak of the
deadly pest. Should anything go wrong with the filters and the
eggs get covered with sediment, there is at once a danger of
fungus making its appearance. The two things often go together.

The eminent American fish culturist, Livingstone Stone,
says :—‘‘ There is no word in the fish breeders’ vocabulary that is
so associated with loss and devastation as the word ‘fungus.’
There is nothing with which he has to deal that is so insidious
and deadly. This silent invisible foe is sure to come if any door
is left open for its entrance. It often fastens its irrevocable grasp
on the eggs, without giving any sign of its approach. Once
present in the water it spreads over everything. It cannot be
removed. It never lets go its hold. It is fatal in its effects.”

M
162 flow to obtain itt.

Take care to keep everything very clean, therefore; keep the
boxes covered, and have all the woodwork well varnished, and
there is little to fear from this enemy.

Sediment is also a danger which should be carefully guarded
against. Unless great care be taken it is sure to come, and to
settle more, or less upon the ova. Although I have known cases
in which sediment has apparently had no very prejudicial effect
upon ova, yet other cases have come under my notice in which
very serious harm has accrued. At some periods of their existence
eggs would not be so much affected by it as at others, and the
sediment itself varies very much according to circumstances. In
some waters it would be almost entirely mineral, whilst in others
it would be chiefly of a vegetable or organic nature. Or it might
consist of both mineral and vegetable matter. Some deposits are
directly poisonous, as for instance in cases where copper or lead
are present. Others again are highly injurious, as for instance
iron or lime, although I have seen good work done in water
containing both. But assuming that a sediment could deposit on
the eggs, of such a nature as to be quite innocuous in itself, the
result must tend towards suffocation. This may be only partial,
but, nevertheless, it is sufficient to arrest the development of the
embryo, and as a consequence deformities are produced. It is
well known that the ova of salmonoids require a good supply of
oxygen. ‘They likewise give off carbon, which requires to be
carried away from the eggs as produced, and when covered with
sediment this healthy change of condition is not maintained, and
should it remain long enough many of the eggs will be poisoned.
Although they may not be absolutely killed at the time, the result
will probably be weakly or deformed fish.

When eggs are packed in moss and sent long distances
cripples usually occur in excess amongst the fry produced. This
has been notably the case amongst eggs imported from abroad.
It is not at all surprising that this should be so when the develop-
ment of the embryo is considered. The pressure, slight as it may
be, of the layers of moss upon the eggs, is quite enough to cause
the many curved spines and other deformities, that occur under
such conditions. Concussion has also been found to produce a
similar effect, and often to cause the death of the embryo.
FTow to obtain tt. 163

Dr. Day records (British and Irish Sa/monide, page 41) an
interesting experiment which he tried “in order to ascertain the
effects of direct concussion on ova. A number were dropped
from various heights, or direct into the water, when it was found
that in those in which this was tried within twenty-two days after
being obtained from the fish, none lived over eight or nine days.”
During the first stage of the ovum after impregnation it will bear
a reasonable amount of concussion, but after a period of some
thirty-six hours, varying according to temperature, a very slight
amount will suffice to destroy the vitality of the embryo. It
naturally follows that in cases where the latter is not killed it
receives serious injury which will tell upon its after life.

I remember a tray of eggs getting accidentally shaken on one
occasion when incubation had proceeded for nine days, and
although the accident at the time seemed trifling and the con-
cussion was slight, yet within a few days over twenty-five per cent.
of those eggs were picked off dead. After the eggs are well eyed
concussion does not seem to kill them as in their earlier stages,
but it produces injuries which often seriously effect the after life of
the fish.

The cure for sediment is an efficient filtering apparatus.
Should it, however, from any cause settle upon the eggs, they may
be washed after they have reached a certain stage, but care should
be exercised in the operation. It is not safe to attempt it much
before the eye spots appear or when the eggs are about half
incubated. It may be done earlier by an expert, but the safest
plan is to leave it until the eggs will bear moving. The water
may then be lowered and a watering-can used, or they may be
gently feathered over without lowering the water.

The best plan of all, however, if there be much sediment, is
to remove the eggs and wash them and clean out the hatching
boxes thoroughly. To do this it is desirable to have one hatching
box at liberty, which should be made ready for eggs. Then the
contents of another box may be lifted out a grille at a time with
the eggs upon it. It is needful to have a movable tank or vessel
capable of receiving a grille, and this being filled with water, one
may be placed in it and reversed and then another, and so on.

The tank used for washing the eggs when first taken from the
164 Flow to obtain it.

fish will answer admirably (see Fig. 13, page 155) for this purpose,
and with a good current of water flowing through it, twenty grilles or
more may be reversed in succession and all the eggs washed at once.
Much care is required in carrying out a piece of work of this kind.
It should not be done thoughtlessly. Eyed ova are very easily
suffocated, and this fact should be borne in mind at all times
when it becomes necessary to deal with them in large masses, or
when they happen to be placed temporarily in bowls or other
vessels containing still water, as may be the case when packing
for a journey.

Should any eggs adhere to the grilles, wash them off gently.
The dirt will by this time have mostly separated from the eggs,
which may be washed in the usual way as recommended at
spawning time, great care being exercised in the operation. When
as clean as they can be made, replace them on clean grilles in the
newly-cleaned hatching-box, and repeat the process with another
lot, and so on through the hatchery. With regard to the washing
of younger eggs, I would advise the reader, if disposed to try it,
to experiment on a few first, and note the result. More practical
information will be procured that way than from any books. The
best way, however, is to guard against sediment, and there are few
places where it cannot be kept out of a hatchery, The filter
screens should be cleaned twice daily, or oftener, if required. To
do this, take them out one at a time, and wash them under a tap.
A brush will be found useful for this purpose.

During each day of the period of incubation there will be a
few white eggs to pick out which should be duly attended to.
After a washing process there will probably be a great many, or
what will appear to be a great many in comparison with other
days. There is not necessarily any cause for alarm at this, as
the agitation will cause the water to percolate the shells of a
large proportion of the blind or unimpregnated eggs, which will
thereupon turn opaquely white. There will be less picking to
do afterwards—at least there ought to be—and should this not
prove to be the case, then harm has been done to the eggs during
the washing operation.

The first appearance of the eye spots is always an interesting
sight, and especially to those who have only just commenced
flow to obtain it. 165

practical work. In water which stands at about 40° to 43°
.- Fahrenheit ova will hatch in about ninety to ninety-six days, and
in about forty-two days or a little more the eye spots will begin to
appear. The time varies a little in the different species of
Salmonide, and in the case of hybrids is often shorter than in that
of pure bred fish. The higher the temperature of the water the
sooner will the eggs hatch, and the colder it is the more they will
be retarded. Salmon ova have been hatched in thirty days, and they
have in very cold water been as long as one hundred and sixty days.

In the year 1883, by using ice freely to lower the temperature
of the water, I kept some back for a hundred and thirty-two days,
and by so doing was enabled to have them hatching in my boxes
at the Fisheries Exhibition at South Kensington on May rath.
They were the only British ova of Sa/monide in the exhibition.
They were sent from the Solway Fishery in water in bottles, and
travelled perfectly. In the warm London water they soon
hatched, and a few days later I was much amused when explaining
this to one of the spectators who came to see them. He gravely
said, ‘‘ Haw, can’t you wepeat the pwocess?” Another seriously
asked—“ How long a salmon had to sit on its eggs before they
were hatched?” Surely there is room for some instruction in fish
culture. :

In order to keep the ova ina healthy condition it is necessary
to run a good current of water over them. The quantity needful
varies according to the nature and quality of the water. I have
seen apparently good work done with a small flow ; indeed I have
myself, in early days, hatched salmon under a tap, from which a
mere trickle of water came. It is quite possible to hatch ova
without running water at all, by simply changing it twice daily ;
indeed, I may go even further, and say that they can almost be
hatched without water, for I have kept them for many weeks and
hatched them in damp moss. There are two points to observe in
carrying out such an experiment—vzz., that there is free access
for oxygen to the ova, and a means of exit for the carbonic acid
exhumed ; in other words, good ventilation. But to produce
really good fish a copious supply of good water must be at hand.
In the main hatchery at the Solway Fishery there is a supply of
over two hundred thousand gallons daily, and a similar supply in
166 Flow to obtain it.

an accessory hatchery, and in addition to this there are several
excellent springs on the estate that have not as yet been used
at all.

I was obliged to sacrifice the Troutdale hatchery and ponds
in Cumberland owing to the shortness of the water supply, and
would warn others against falling into the same trap. Fish culture
in those days was on a much smaller scale than it is now, and the
prices of ova and fish much higher. Without an efficient water
supply cultivation on anything like a paying scale is quite hopeless.
There should at all times be enough, and plenty to spare, so that
in any emergency there is an ample supply to fall back upon.
Through a box containing twenty thousand ova, from five to ten
gallons a minute should be used, and this will do for a set of five
or six of such boxes. The quantity of water is increased as the
hatching time approaches, and after hatching, fifteen gallons a
minute are sometimes run through each box.

I have already briefly traced the development of the embryo
up to the formation of the chorda dorsalis or notochord. When
about half incubated the two eye spots will become clearly visible,
and as soon as they are fairly well developed the ova will bear
handling, and an egg at this stage is a most interesting object
when viewed under the microscope. The circulation of the blood
can be distinctly seen as it courses along the chief arteries and
some of the veins, in its passage to and from the heart, the
pulsation of which may also be detected. The future skeleton of
the fish may be traced, as well as the muscular fibre and tissues
of the body, and from this day forward the whole presents an
increasingly interesting object, the developing progress of which
may be watched daily. Possibly during the first examination the
tail of the fish may be seen to be possessed of a free movement.
If not, it soon will be, and the deepening of the colour of the
blood will also be observed about the same time.

The accompanying figure represents the ovum of a trout in a
forward state, as viewed under the microscope. Owing to the
position in which it is placed only one eye (1) is in focus. The
breathing apparatus or gills (2) are very distinctly seen, whilst the
heart (7) may also be detected and the pulsations distinctly noted,
although, being a little out of focus it does not show out as clearly
How to obtain it. 167

in this view of the ovum as in some others. For the same reason
the body of the fish is not discernible, but the veins and arteries
of the umbilical sac are very distinct. 3 is the artery which
conveys the blood to the body, whilst 4 is the vein by which the
same blood returns to the heart. 5 represents the vein which
collects the blood from the capillaries or smaller veins. The
small dots in the veins represent the blood coursing along. The

 

Fig. 15.

numerous rounded bodies (as No. 6) are the oil globules which
supply nourishment.

The development goes on, and the embryo requires more
oxygen. The water supply should be gradually increased, and
daily attention given to the picking of the ova. When picking,
keep the lids off the boxes as short a time as possible, 'and let the
work be done in a modified light. A few may burst and some of
the contents emerge, turning white immediately as the water
comes in contact with the albumen. This is an excellent time
for looking over the grilles and picking out any “blind” eggs
168 How to obtain i.

that may still remain, and also any containing “puny embryos.”
The latter are now easily distinguished from the good eggs, and
may be detected at a glance even in a moderate light by the
difference in colour, being much lighter, and the eye spots being
very much smaller. The whole of the embryo is deficient both
in growth and stamina, and should such eggs succeed in hatching,
the fish will never live to grow up.

Some day, in looking over the eggs, a curious streak will be
seen amongst them, and on touching it with a feather, it will
become violently active, and will probably run away, carrying an
egg, or rather an egg-shell, in front of it, very much as a man
holds an umbrella in a gale of wind. It is the tail of a young fish,
which is the first to emerge, and is already ees with the power
that it is in future destined to exercise should it live :—v7z., that
of a propeller. Soon others will follow, and if the temperature of
the water be raised slightly a general hatching will take place, and
all the eggs of that particular lot may be hatched off at once.
Some unfortunates emerge head first, and unless helped a little,
by means of a feather or a camel’s-hair pencil, they will probably
suffocate and die. There are more of these cases amongst some
lots of eggs than others, notably amongst char, and the manager
has sometimes saved the lives of several hundreds of these, by
giving them a little attention in the way already alluded to. It is
easier to help the little fish to escape from their prisons than to
pick them out dead afterwards, with all the accompanying dédris
of burst yolk sacs, etc. It must be done one way or the other.

When the eggs are hatching or have hatched, a dipping tube
will be found a very useful instrument for removing little bits of
débris that are sure to occur in the hatching boxes. A plain
straight tube with a bulb is very useful for the purpose (see Fig.
17), or indeed even a plain straight one (Fig. 16) about three-
eights of an inch in diameter. Some persons preter a bent tube
(as Fig. 18), and some use a tube that is provided with a cup and
indiarubber drum (as Fig. 19). This one is used by pressing the
drum slightly by means of the finger, before putting into the
water, and, on letting go, the object over which the tube is
placed is drawn into it, or is held at the mouth by atmospheric
pressure. The position of the hand (see 16) in the diagram will
How to obtain it. 169

show how to work any other tube. Simply place the forefinger
on the end of the tube as in the figure. Then place the other
end of the tube over the object to be withdrawn, and remove the
finger for an instant only. Take care to keep it on the end as the
tube is lifted out, and the object will be found inside it, be it an egg,
or an egg-shell, ora dead embryo. Anyone can soon get into the way
of using these tubes very readily. I have seen one used occasionally

 

Fig. 16. Fig. 17. Fig. 18. Fig. 19.

that is fitted with an indiarubber bulb, and it also works very
well. A worker soon gets used to any particular form of instru-
ment, and can naturally use that particular one best. The matter
is, therefore, a good deal one of choice.

During the period of incubation, as indeed afterwards, the
hatchery should be inspected early and late. It should be the
duty of some responsible person to look in last thing, before going
to bed, to see that the water is running all right, and then again
early next morning. A mere glance is sufficient. I once hada
man who carefully looked at each of the tail boxes to see that the
water was running out, and then went to the other end to see if it
were running in. He always did this, and I never checked him,
for he was thoroughly conscientious and trustworthy to a degree
in matters of this kind. When, however, the water is seen to be
flowing correctly at the outlets, there is no need to look further.
This ought to be a sufficient guarantee that all is right. I am
alluding now to the period of incubation only. After hatching it
is a very different matter.
CHAPTER VIII.

HATCHING THE EGGS.

Glass grilles—Their cost—Their advantages—Cleaning the hatching boxes—
The egg-shells—Artificial ova beds—Settling pond—Filtering bed— Wire grilles—
Destruction of ova left to Nature—Advantage of artificial beds—Californian
baskets—Repairing grilles—Overcrowding— Way of economising space —Compact
storage box.

‘[ Ee are more ways than one of dealing with trout eggs.

After a careful study of the various systems in use, and after
weighing well the evidence, I give my verdict, and give it un-
hesitatingly in favour of the glass grille system. I have myself
used grilles for more than twenty-five years, and have not yet
met with anyone who can give one valid reason for their dis-
continuance. Of the arguments brought to bear, that which at
first seemed the most plausible was the one of cost, but it would
not stand scrutiny. .

The chief item consists of the glass tubes or rods; but
seeing that, apart from actual breakages, glass will’ last for ages,
there is little to allow for depreciation. As to breakages, we all
know that glass will break, but with proper care there is but a
small loss from this cause. I have carefully noted that which
takes place in my own hatcheries, and find that out of every ten
thousand glass tubes, about seventy-five per annum get broken,
or considerably less than one per cent. As for the wooden parts,
it is found in practice that they are less perishable than metal,
for with care they last for twenty years, and are good at the end
of that time. Grilles can be purchased ready-made for four
shillings and sixpence each, and a grille holds from 3,500 to
5,000 ova. Taking 4,o00 as an average, and allowing that a
grille only lasts twenty years, then a grille incubates in the course
Flow to abtain it. 171

of its existence 80,000 eggs, at a cost of less than three farthings
per thousand, and the work, other things being equal, is done
satisfactorily.

Glass gives off nothing, is easily kept clean, and does not
require any varnish. Metals, such as are used, are at least
partially soluble in water, and in some waters are very soluble
indeed, and this renders necessary the use of varnish. A care-
fully prepared compound does very well, but some varnishes
contain highly injurious ingredients, and here again is a con-
siderable source of danger. Notwithstanding all drawbacks,
however, I believe very good results have been obtained by using
metallic trays.

I was one day discussing this matter with an American fish-
culturist, who assured me that they had discarded grilles long
ago, and he exhibited to me, and explained, some of the metallic
trays and baskets that were in use in the United States and
Canada, and said to be doing very good work there. In reply
to the query, as to which system would shew the heaviest death-
rate, he at once replied that probably it might be a little greater
on the metal than on the glass. His reply confirmed my con-
victions, and decided me all the more in favour of the glass
system. I have since experimented myself, and have also had the
benefit of the experience of others, and can only come to one
conclusion. It is, that there exists at least one very great
advantage in the grille system over every other, viz.that stronger
and better developed embryos are produced, and they have a far
better chance of growing up and making good fish than any
others.

The counting of the eggs, too, is so easily done on grilles, that
in a large hatchery they are found not only a great convenience,
but a great saving of labour. They also ensure correctness in
estimating the number of ova laid down. ‘The eggs arrange
themselves so readily in rows that in a few minutes a large
number of them may be accurately counted. For instance, a
grille contains a hundred rows of eggs, and there are forty in a
row. When multiplied this gives four thousand as the contents
of the grille. A box contains ten grilles, which means forty
thousand of those particular eggs. In another hatching box are
172 Flow to obtain it.

eggs of a different species of fish, and of a different size. These
can easily be counted in the same manner. The grille may be
found to contain one hundred rows of eggs, and thirty-five eggs in
a row, which gives three thousand five hundred eggs on a grille,
and thirty-five thousand in a box.

When necessary, several kinds of eggs may be incubated in
the same box, without any difficulty. Not only may each grille
contain a different kind or class of egg, but in the case of small or
experimental lots, which must occur in every hatchery, several
groups of eggs may be placed quite separately on each grille, by
simply leaving one row or space empty, to mark the division.
This is found to be of the utmost convenience, as it often happens
that these small batches of eggs occur unexpectedly, or on a very
busy day when there is no time to provide a special corner for
them. In a box set apart for such lots, they are simply laid down
at once on the next grille, or part of a grille, in succession. When
the eye spots appear, they can be moved to any other more
suitable place, or packed and sent away, if required, right off the
grille on which they have been incubated.

One great advantage which attaches to the grille system is,
that all the eggs can at any time be seen at a glance, and the dead
or white eggs picked off very readily, and should any sediment
by any chance whatever have settled on them, during the period
of incubation, it can be quite easily washed off, by lowering the
water and using a watering can. This washing, if not done at
too early a stage, will not hurt them, but will do them good, and
it is just as well at the same time, to lift each grille with the eggs
upon it, and clean out the hatching box, for, with the purest
water something will inevitably settle on the bottom during the
two or three months occupied by incubation. Even the dust
from the atmosphere, which is often considerable although invisible,
settles down, and is continually being drawn in by the water, and
deposited in the boxes and on the eggs. Of course, in a well-
ordered hatchery there should be no sediment whatever, in the
ordinary sense of the word ; and with proper appliances and pre-
cautions it may easily be kept out.

Having the hatching boxes thoroughly cleansed is an im-
portant piece of work, to be done before hatching, and it will be
How to obtain tt. 173

found a very good plan to have at least one spare hatching box.
It can be made ready to receive the grilles from another
box. This box may then be cleansed, and made ready for
those from the next, and so on, right through the hatchery-

Thus the fish, or ‘“alevins” as they are called at this stage,
have perfectly clean boxes in which to commence life, a most
important matter considering the extremely delicate mechanism of
the little creatures. More than this, it will be found, in prac-
tice, that on emerging from the egg they slip through between the
glasses of the grille, and find their leve on the bottom of the box,
whereas the egg-shells remain where they were, with the ex-
ception of a few which are carried over the end of the grille by
the “alevins,” in their efforts to escape from their prisons. They
are, therefore, at once separated, and all being hatched, the grille
can be lifted out with the shells upon it, and the fish will be found
underneath it, packed together, somewhat reminding one of a
swarm of bees. The eggs can all be hatched in a few hours, by
regulating the temperature of the water, and in a large hatchery
this is a matter of importance, and due provision should be made
for it. All that is necessary is to raise the temperature a few
degrees in the boxes in which the eggs are on the point of hatch-
ing. They can then be hatched off, and the shells lifted out with
the otherwise empty grilles. There is no trouble from clogging
of screens, or anything else. The few shells which remain in the
box may be left for the present, and willdono harm. Put on the
lid and leave the whole affair till the next day.

The egg-shells remaining may then be cleared by drawing
the plug behind the screen at the end of the hatching box, and so
inducing an extra current. The water supply may or may not be
stopped, according to the will of the operator, as he may find
best. In either case the result will be the same—the water will
be lowered and so lessened in bulk, the current will be increased,
the “alevins” will remain packed, and the shells will be carried
on to the screen. Care should be taken that the box is not so far
drained that the fish are left uncovered even for a moment. After
re-inserting the plug the water rises, and a bowl should be brought
alongside and placed on a table which, when not in use, is kept
under the hatching boxes.
174 How to obtain it.

A syphon is then inserted, and by means of it the shells are
easily drawn off the screen into the bowl, the overflow spout from
the box being momentarily blocked by a piece of wood to stop
the current. All this is done very quickly, and before the egg-
shells in the bowl have settled they are gently poured off into a
sieve which is attached to the table, and are there left, to be after-
wards thrown away. It will usually be found that afew “alevins”
are in the bowl. These will settle to the bottom, and it is quite
easy to pour off the egg-shells without allowing them to pass over.
They are probably weakly fish, and may be turned into some
stream ; or, if it be intended to keep them, put back into the box,
taking care to put them in at the head, where the water enters.

One of the most simple and effective methods of stocking
waters with trout, is by planting eyed ova in artificial ova beds.
By doing this, when the eggs are almost on the point of hatching,
the heavy losses which occur in nature previous to that period are
avoided. The beds themselves also, being made artificially, can
be placed in the most convenient situations, where they will be en-
tirely beyond the reach of floods. The water should be led into
them through a pipe, or by an open spout. I have found an
ordinary two-inch draining tile quite large enough, and as a few of
these are usually easily obtainable anywhere, they are about as
handy as anything that can be procured. A piece of common
wooden spouting, if at hand, also does very well. It simply
requires to be covered by a board, or a few slates, to keep out the
dust, leaves, etc., and the whole may be protected from frost by a
heap of straw, bracken, or heather. The hatching bed is not
made in the stream itself, but somewhere near it, where it and its
water supply will be absolutely under control. Under such con-
ditions it ought to do very successful work, and the plan of
hatching ova in such beds is of infinitely greater use, in many
cases, than the turning out of fry, and is done at less than one
fourth of the cost.

A bed may be simply dug out, and if this course be adopted,
it is really nothing more than a ditch, which can be carefully
guarded from birds, etc., when the eggs are laid down in it. It
may be from one to two feet in width, and the amount of fall
should be such, that at regular intervals, varying from six to ten
Flow to obtain it. 175

feet, barriers may be placed, over which the water ripples from
one section of the bed to another. An excellent material for these
barriers will be found in ordinary roofing slates. I have used
them with success for many years, and they are easily stuck into
the bottom, lowered, or raised, or manipulated in any way that
may be desired, and a lot of them should always be available
where fish culture is carried on. They are the cleanest and
simplest articles to make use of for such purposes that I have ever
met with. They are cheap, easily cut to any shape, they can be
laced together if needful by drilling holes through them, and,
apart from accidents, are almost imperishable.

The depth of water should be about four inches, and the
bottom should consist of clean gravel, the grains of which are
principally about the size of peas. Amongst this gravel the eggs
are to be sown, and a section ten feet long and one foot wide will
hold easily about fifteen thousand ova. By making the width
eighteen inches, the quantity may be increased to twenty thousand
or more. But with such an exceedingly simple contrivance
there is no need to crowd the ova, and it is far better to err on
the side of having too much space than too little. The water,
after doing duty in the hatching bed, passes on and finally re-
enters the stream from which it came. Should the width of the
bed be increased, it should be borne in mind that a greater water
supply is needful. If two-inch tiles be used for a bed one foot
wide, then a double set of them will be required for a bed one-
and-a-half feet to two feet wide; or a single course of three-inch
tiles will answer the same purpose.

The ova may be laid on the gravel, or mixed with it. This
is a question about which there is a difference of opinion. When
we consider for a few moments the requirements of the ova, and
examine carefully the state of things in a natural trout bed, we
shall very soon be in a position to judge which is best. I have
seen some thousands of trout nests, and I have invariably observed,
that where the eggs are deposited naturally, water is found welling
up through the gravel in which they lie buried—and often buried
deeply. Thus, the necessary conditions for their well-being are
provided by nature. The same conditions must be found in
artificial beds. The eggs must have the benefit of the continual
176 How to obtain it.

change of water that has been provided, and if the current be all
on the surface, it is clear that it would not be advisable to bury
the eggs deep in the gravel. The best plan, in such a situation,
is to place them on the surface, slightly mixed with the gravel,
which prevents them from touching one another. When it is
remembered that every egg gives off carbonic acid, the advantage
of this will be apparent.

Some years ago I invented an artificial hatching bed, which
has now been thoroughly tested and found to work exceedingly
well. It is made of wood, has a lid, and is on the hatching-box
principle. In size, it has been found convenient to make these
beds twelve feet long, nine inches wide inside, and five or six
inches deep. Along the entire length of the box, except for about
two inches where the water enters, is fixed a false bottom of
perforated zinc. The inflowing water is conducted under this
perforated bottom, by means of a water-board placed a couple of
inches from the end where the water supply enters. The perforated
bottom is placed about an inch above the real bottom, and the
water rises up through it. It is coated with asphaltum varnish, and
covered with gravel, and upon this gravel the eggs are deposited.
At the lower end of the box is the outlet for the escape of
the water. This is formed by simply cutting away the upper
portion of the box end, say for a couple of inches down. It will
be clearly seen from this description that the water on. entering
the box at one end is conducted direct to the bottom, but passes
out at the top, so that it must rise up through the perforated
metal and the gravel and eggs upon it.

Gravel is beneficial in several ways. It tends to prevent over-
crowding of the eggs, and it keeps them from coming in contact
with the metal. It also provides a more natural bed for the
“alevins,” and as we are now endeavouring to treat them as nearly
according to nature as possible, it is best that it should be so. I
have always liked to associate young trout with a clean gravelly
bottom as far as practicable, but in a large hatchery, where quan-
tities are dealt with, it is much better not to use it at all. The
fish do better and are kept cleaner when they are the sole occu-
pants of the rearing box. But in an artificial bed the case is very
different. In the rearing box in the hatchery the fish are obliged
Flow to obtain it. 177

to remain, whether they like it or not; but from the artificial bed
they can escape at any moment that they may be seized with a
desire to go. Indeed, perfect freedom is the secret of the whole
thing. The little fellows have no recollection of having been
shovelled about as eggs, and counted, and incubated on glass
grilles. They find themselves in a very natural and tidy-looking
place, and are content with their surroundings until a desire seizes
them to roam, and when this occurs they must find themselves at
perfect liberty to do so.

In addition to the dug-out system and the wooden one, both
of which possess the advantage of being ready at very short notice,
excellent work of a more permanent nature may be done by using
concrete or brickwork. In this case, however, the work should
be done in June or July, and the water turned on a few months
so as to have everything well seasoned before hatching time.
Cement is partially soluble in water, but this only applies to the
time when water is first run over it. The soluble portions are
soon taken up, and the face of the concrete becomes coated with
a vegetable growth; after this it does no harm. The great ad-
vantages of these hatching beds are that they can be made available
for use at once; that when once started no one has to attend to
them ; that they cost very little and do a great deal; they can be
fitted up in a day, or a couple at most, on any stream, and the
results are certain if good eggs be laid down. It should always
be borne in mind that both ova and ‘“alevins” should be kept
well shaded from light. A box with a lid on is good, but the bed
made in an open ditch must also be covered. A few old boards
will come in very useful here. I have found larch slabs battened
together do admirably, look neat and rustic, and last for years.

Only one thing more is needful for the successful working of
an artificial ova bed, and that is an unfailing supply of water. I
do not mean so much in the sense of quantity as in certainty.
There must be no doubt as to whether the supply will continue.
No choking of the screen or entrance of a frog into a tile must
be allowed to cause a stoppage of the works. These things are
easily guarded against, and proper precautions must be taken from
the first to prevent such calamities. A very simple way of dealing
with the water at the intake is to have a sufficiently large screen

N
178 How to obtain it.

over the pipe, which must be fitted into a box. To do this in
the readiest way, take any old box and cut a round hole in one
side of it to fit on to the end of the pipe. The opposite side of
the box should be almost entirely cut away, or it may be knocked
out altogether and replaced by perforated zinc. Should it be
found needful a finer screen can be fixed inside the box, which
itself is to be firmly bedded in the side of the stream from which
the water is taken. In some cases it may be desirable to put on
a coarser screen outside, and this is easily done by nailing four
strips of wood on to the box front, and covering again with
coarsely perforated zinc. Of course, where a properly constructed
box is used, grooves can be sawn in the wood and three or four
screens made to slide into their places, and these can be cleaned
in a twinkling and put back again when necessary.

Although, in many places artificial hatching beds may be,
and are, most successfully worked without filtering the water, yet
there are many streams which bring down such an amount of
earthy matter every time there is a spate, that filtration becomes
absolutely necessary. When such is found to be the case a very
good plan is to dig out a settling pond, or if necessary two or
three of them, on the water supply. Do not on any account
attempt to make one on the stream itself. Draw the water from
the stream and pass it through a hole sunk in the ground, say
at least six feet square, and three feet in depth. If twelve
feet square and four or five feet deep, so much the better. It
does not matter whether the sides, are rectangular. Let them be
so if practicable, but should the land not allow of it, it is not
worth troubling much about. The great thing is to pass the
water through a large hole or pool, in which it will have a chance
of being fairly tranquil. The result will be that the bulk of the
sediment brought: down during a spate, will be left at the bottom
of this pool, and the water for supplying the hatching bed should
be drawn off at or just below the surface. If one pool be found
insufficient, have a couple of them ; they are easily made and at
a very trifling cost. Where stone is available the sides are better
built up of loose stonework, as the action of frost is not so much
felt, as is the case where they are simply dug out and left.

To make the thing more perfect still, should it be found
How to obtain itt. 179

needful, it is well to pass the water through a gravel filtering bed.
This is easily made by digging out another hole, say four feet
square and three feet deep, and half filling it with coarse clean
gravel, free from sand. On the top of this put a layer of fine
gravel, about an inch to two inches deep, and on this a thin layer
of thoroughly clean sand. The water should enter this simple
filtering tank at the top, and be drawn from the bottom of the
mass of gravel by means of a pipe. This pipe should be
perforated, in order the more readily to take in the water, which,
of course, will rise to its own level, and may be drawn off just
below that height. Such a filter requires no attention while
hatching is going on, after once it is set working, unless the water
be very dirty indeed. In such a case, it may be desirable to
have two filters, and while the deposit is being taken from one,
the other goes on working. Should a filter require cleaning, and
be run dry for that purpose, the deposit is found to consist of a
thin layer of mud over-lying the sand. This mud may easily and
quickly be removed, a little more clean sand added, if needful,
and the whole is again in working order. It is, however, hardly
needful to have two filter beds, as the water can be so arranged
that it can be shut off the filter, and yet kept on through the ova
bed, while the filter is being cleaned. The whole cost of making
a couple of settling ponds and a filter such as I have described
need not exceed twenty shillings. Some fish culturists prefer to
reverse the action of the filter, that is, to make the water enter it
at the bottom and flow off at or just below the surface. They
work very well either way for sufficient length of time to hatch
fully eyed ova, but of the two systems I prefer the first. It is
much more easily cleaned should necessity require it, and on the
whole, is safer in its action than the other.

In some American hatcheries wire grilles are used, and seem
to work very well, but, on the whole, the results are not so satis-
factory as those obtained on glass. The iron wire of which they
are usually made has to be well coated with varnish. My ex-
perience of varnish is that from various causes it comes off and
leaves the metal exposed. This necessitates great care in the
handling and use of these grilles, and at one large American hatch-
ery which I visited, I found that as soonas the eggs would bear
180 Flow to obtain it.

removal they were placed on fresh grilles, whilst the others were
being dried and re-varnished, ready for further use. Apart from
‘accidental scratches, which let in the water, it will percolate through
and corrode the metal, and wherever this corrosion takes place the
eggs suffer. One very weak point I have found to be the place
where the wires enter the wooden frame. At this point it is
often difficult to prevent corrosion taking place during the period
of incubation, and wherever it does take place, there it causes
injury to the delicate embryos. It may not kill them at once,
but it weakens them so that they cannot live to grow up.

Livingstone Stone says :—“ Fourteen trout eggs were placed
on a copper-wire screen in November, 1869, at the Cold Spring
Trout Ponds, and in fifty days they had absorbed so much copper
that they were of a dark brown tinge and hard like peas.” Many
of my correspondents have found metallic trays, chiefly zinc, very
hurtful indeed to the ova.

It is better to work with fewer eggs, and to do the work well,
than to go in for large numbers ; and I would hand on this piece
of advice to all who contemplate having anything to do with the
incubation of ova. It is the key to the whole work, and any point
overlooked, however trivial it may appear at the time, may cause
wreck and ruin afterwards. The preparation and incubation of
the ova is a special work, requiring much care and attention, and
can only be successfully done by those who thoroughly understand
it. The hatching of ova, after having been properly prepared and
incubated, is a very simple matter indeed, and can be done by
any man of ordinary intelligence. So simple and easy has it been
made, indeed, that the eggs, as already explained, will hatch them-
selves, if placed in a well-made artificial hatching bed. It is here
that we gain considerably on Nature. Nearly all the loss which
takes place in the egg stage is prevented.

Loss has been variously estimated by different specialists, but
we are not far from the mark in assuming that a very small per-
centage, indeed, of the eggs naturally deposited in our streams live to
produce mature fish, The number probably varies a good deal
according to circumstances, but we know that in many cases not
one egg in a thousand survives. Whole spawning beds are some-
times washed away, and the contents destroyed. The host of
How to obtain tt. 181

creeping things found at the bottom of our streams, almost without
exception, prey extensively upon trout ova. Every fish culturist
has found these creatures at some time or other coming down into
his hatching boxes. The filters will not keep them out. They are
sO minute, in their early stages, that they are practically invisible,
and they get in unobserved, and then grow so fast that soon they
cannot get out again. Ina well managed hatchery, however, the
trouble arising from this cause is trifling. But in a stream,
matters are very different. There are creatures innumerable, all
instinctively attracted to the place where the eggs are deposited,—
caddis worms, creepers, shrimps, beetles, frogs, mice, rats, ducks
and other fowl, eels, trout, grayling, salmon, sea-trout, and nearly
every other fish found in the streams. Nearly everything ranks as
an enemy to trout ova. Therefore it is apparent, that by pro-
tecting the eggs, we are doing a great deal. But we are doing
more, for the artificial beds shelter the “alevins” for awhile, and
after they drop down the little artificial stream they are still
shielded from the bulk of the dangers enumerated, especially
from the depredations of trout and other fishes.

The streamlet used as a hatching bed should be so con-
structed that no outsider of the trout family can by any possibility
get into it. Eggs, before hatching, have no power of protecting
themselves, or of getting out of the way of danger. As soon as
the embryo is out, it at once possesses some power of self-protec-
tion. It has a pair of well-developed eyes, and knows how to use
them, and immediately that wonderful power called instinct causes
it to seek a hiding place. So strong is this desire to hide, that if
the little creatures cannot find any other place they will hide
under each other, and in doing this they gather together in dense
masses, reminding one of a swarm of bees.

Californian baskets, which are simply wire cages in which
eggs are piled one above another, do not suit the eggs of our
British Sa/monide. It is true that by using them a large number
of eggs can be hatched in a small space, but the result is undoubt-
edly a partial suffocation of the embryos, and a general weakening
of the young fish. They may do well in America, but what will
suit the fish of one country often may not agree with the fish of
another. A lower prevailing temperature is, no doubt, to some
182 How to obtain it.

extent, more favourable for the use of such an apparatus, than the
comparatively higher one in this country. But whatever be the
reason, I am satisfied of one thing, and that is, that the grille
system is the one of all others for successful work in Britain. It
gives the eggs plenty of room, and removes all danger of suffoca-
tion where a good current is run over them. The carbonic acid
given off by the egg is at once carried off, and the absorption of
the oxygen from the water is unhindered.

In Germany, perforated glazed pottery is used extensively for
hatching ova upon, and, with the water welling up through the
perforations, it does very good work. It has its objections,
however, those of cost and liability to breakage being not the
least. A broken tube in a grille is easily repaired, or replaced,
but not so with a piece of pottery. To repair a broken tube, all
that is necessary is to insert a piece of charred wood, cut to the
proper size, into one of the broken pieces, so that half of it
remains projecting. Then slip the other portion of the tube over
this projecting piece, and the tube is again ready for use. Grilles
can be made of ordinary window glass cut into strips, and fitted
into a cogged or notched wooden frame. The cost of making the
frames, seeing that every cog has to be separately charred, is
considerable, and it is on this account chiefly that they have fallen
into disuse. A few still remain in operation in my own hatcheries,
and considering only the hatching of the ova they do quite as
well, if not better, than the more modern arrangement of glass
tubes or rods. It has been suggested that the rough edges of the

lass will cause injury to the ova, but this is by no means the case.
I have hatched many millions of ova most successfully on these
grilles, and have found them to work very well indeed. The
advantages of the more modern invention are that they are a
little easier to make, and the glasses are not so apt to fall out, and
those who have to use them prefer them to the old style.

One of the chief things to be avoided in a hatchery is the
overcrowding of the eggs. It should never be permitted under
any circumstances. J have tried a number of experiments with
ova, with a view to economising space when necessary, and many
years ago, before baskets and cages were thought of, I invented a
hatching-box, in which several grilles can be placed one over the
How to obtain it. 183

other. As soon as the eggs will bear moving, the grilles may be
lifted from the hatching-boxes and placed in a compact storage-
box, the working of which is explained by the accompanying
woodcut. This box is divided into compartments, each holding
four grilles, or, if the grilles be placed directly on each other, six
of them may occupy the same space. The compartments, it will
be seen, are so arranged that the water enters each at the bottom,
rises up through the grilles, and keeps the ova in sound healthy
condition. This box I designed in the early days of fish culture,
and have since used it successfully both for ova and fish. It was
honoured by a medal at the Yorkshire Exhibition held at Leeds
in 1875, where the design was applied to a series of aquarium
tanks, for which purpose it answers admirably. I had it in use in
1870, and about the same time it was patented in America.

 

 

 

 
CHAPTER IX.
PACKING AND UNPACKING THE EGGS.

Ova to the Antipodes—The tropics—Various methods—Modus operandi at the
Solway Fishery—Selecting and pretaring the moss—Its cultivation— Woven fabric
—Best time to pack—Ova hatch rapidly on unpacking—Long voyages— Unpacking
— IVashing of the moss—Fully eyed eggs.

[= is now pretty well known that trout and other ova can -be

packed and sent with success, not only to any part of the
British Isles, but to any portion of the world that may be desired.
It has been so sent, and the waters of the Antipodes have been
most successfully stocked, as we have seen, by means of ova sent
out first from this country. Attempts are being made to stock
some of the hill streams of the tropics. Up on the mountains,
where the atmosphere is cool and the cold snow water comes
down the streams, trout should succeed well, and it is by means
of ova that they must be introduced.

The use of ova, too, is destined to play a very important part
in the stocking of our waters at home, and therefore the packing
of the delicate little morsels becomes a matter of very great
importance. I find it is rather a common notion that trout eggs
can be packed up by anyone at a moment’s notice, and with very
little trouble. A greater mistake could not be. The successful
packing of ova is an art that has to be learned by careful training
and experience. I have, in the course of my life, received a great
many consignments of ova from a great many different people,
both at home and abroad. When I say that no two senders have
packed their eggs exactly in the same way, it will be apparent that
there is a great diversity of idea on the subject. I have seen eggs
Flow to obtain it. 185

packed in mosses of many descriptions, in cotton wadding, in
flannel, in water, in gravel, in muslin, and many other substances.

The work is by no means difficult, and when the principle is
once understood and the requirements of ova have been sufficiently
studied, a dexterous hand will soon become expert at their
manipulation in large quantities. When a quarter of a million of
eggs have been packed in a couple of hours a system is required
in order to carry on the work. The eggs are packed in trays
which are made of wood with a bottom of perforated zinc.

One worker places a sheet of felted moss at the bottom of
each tray, and upon it a piece of swansdown or fine netting.
Another takes the eggs off the grilles in the hatchery, and carries
them into the packing room, where they are deposited in bowls,
on a bench near the packers. The eggs are so easily counted on
the grilles that the exact number in the bowls is known. They
are all measured as they are put into the trays, however, and the
measure being ascertained by counting to hold a certain number,
checks the count of the ova on the grilles, and prevents the
possibility of any mistake.

The eggs are transferred from the measure to the fabric in
the packing trays, and by a stroke of the hand gently spread with
the help of a heron’s feather. The tray is then handed to an
expert, who picks out any blind or white egg, or a puny embryo,
should such be discovered to have been overlooked when the eggs
were picked over on the grille in the hatching box. This can
only be done in the daylight, as it is impossible to detect the
difference when eggs are packed during the dark hours. The
layer is then covered with another piece of fabric, over which is
placed a second layer of felted moss, which in its turn receives a
sheet of fabric, and a layer of eggs. Three layers of ova, four or
five sheets of felted moss and six egg cloths form the contents of
each tray, and the trays are piled one on the top of each other
as required, up to the number of eight, and these are placed in an
inside case contained in a box of sawdust. They are usually
lifted out of this case by means of a flannel band, which is passed .
underneath them in packing. In this way a large number of eggs
may be packed in a short time by either men or women. They
should never be touched by the hand.
186 How to obtain tt.

There are other ways of manipulating them, and I suppose
that at every hatchery the plan will vary somewhat, but, after
trying many other methods, I have found the one described to be
the best and simplest. Two thousand eggs are placed on a layer
very often, and in this way forty thousand eggs occupy the same
space as a much smaller number would, thus saving labour and
freight to ourselves, and a lot of trouble and half freight on
empties to the receivers. I have carefully tried many experiments
with ova in order to ascertain the necessary conditions for con-
veying with safety the largest number of eggs in a given space of
reasonable dimensions.

A great deal more depends upon the packing, the temperature,
the supply of oxygen, and the preparation of the moss than most
people suppose. To begin with, then, let us consider the moss
itself. I tried a good many kinds of moss, and there are several
kinds that under proper cultivation may readily be made to answer
all the purposes required. But to gather mosses indiscriminately,
taking any likely-looking stuff that comes to hand first, is not the
way to promote the safety of the eggs. Many mosses grown in
woods are unsuitable, from the fact of their being so much of
foreign admixture among them in the shape of minute bits of
stick, rotten leaves, roots, (some of which may be highly poisonous)
and other matter. Those found in very wet places often grow so
luxuriantly that the lower parts decay, and are on that account not
good for packing ova. I have found some sphagnum beds to be
full of animal life, and others again containing Saproleguia, or fish
fungus. In a large establishment, where everything has to be
systematized, the moss is felted, and as only some kinds can be
readily manufactured into felts, the moss question becomes a very
serious one. So much is used at the Solway Fishery that it has
become needful to grow it, and this is an excellent way over the
difficulty, as it can be gathered clean and fresh, there being only
one year’s growth to deal with. After it is gathered the ground is
replanted, and although no manure is applied, and the same crop
is taken off it each season, yet after several years the soil seems to
be in no way impoverished. The only change that has been
observed is that each succeeding season a finer and richer crop of
moss is produced.
How to obtain it. 187

It should be well adapted for packing embryo trout, for it
has been largely used for packing human infants by the Lapland
women, who wrap their children in it. When well dried it is
found to provide an exceedingly good protection against cold.

The moss is gathered and carefully kept in a cool, damp
place, where it undergoes the felting process, which is very simple.
A number of presses are filled with layers of moss and sheets of
perforated zinc alternately, and after remaining all night, the moss
is taken out beautifully felted next morning, and so a fresh supply
is continually being produced. It is not by any means necessary
to felt the moss ; indeed, so far as it and the eggs are concerned,
it answers the purpose just as well without being felted, but for
packing large quantities of ova it is an absolute necessity to have
everything expeditiously done, considering the price at which
trout eggs are put on the market.

The fabric which is used between the moss and the eggs
should first be well washed, to cleanse it from starch or any other
impurities. I once received a lot of ova which may be said to
have been packed in window curtains and starch.. The sender
had cut up an old curtain, and used the pieces stiff with starch for
packing the ova, with the result that on unpacking here they came
out a conglomerated mass of eggs and starch. The eggs were
covered with the slimy stuff, and had to be well washed. I have
seen more than one case of this kind. Now, although starch is
considered sufficiently wholesome to give in large quantities to
human infants, it is decidedly bad for trout, and its use is to be
avoided. Had the journey been a long one the eggs might have
suffered materially, and in any case there would be a great risk of
their being attacked by that most dreaded pest of the fish culturist,
Saprolegnia (fungus). It would not attack them probably until
they were in the hatching boxes, as it does not grow readily in air,
too much oxygen being fatal to it. Hence the necessity for care-
fully washing the eggs before laying them down. It should
always be done.

Old window curtains, after being well washed, make excellent
packing material for trout ova, but a variety of fabrics may be
used. The great point to be observed is cleanliness.

Eggs may be packed as soon as the eye spots begin to show
188 How to obtain it.

black, and, with the rapid steam communication which we have
nowadays, they may be safely started on very long journeys at
this stage. They are about half incubated, and, when packed in
moss and iced, they will not hatch so soon as they would have
done in the trays in the hatchery. The low temperature at which
they are kept during ocean voyages slightly retards the develop-
ment of the embryos. When packing eggs for export a few are
invariably retained, packed in moss exactly like those exported, and
kept at a low temperature, and these usually remain unhatched
for fourteen days or so after the date of arrival of the consignment
sent abroad. On being unpacked and placed in a hatching box
they generally hatch very soon.

I have received accounts of ova successfully sent to the
Colonies, which have, on unpacking and being placed in the
hatching boxes, hatched in a few hours. On one occasion a lot
which were sent to Natal hatched off in a few minutes, the
temperature of the water being over 60°F. This was a very
natural result after being taken from their well-iced packing case.
The temperature of the water was first lowered by means of ice,
and then allowed to rise gradually. Ova can now be sent very
successfully to any part of the world. It is not to be supposed
that no loss takes place on these consignments. Sometimes they
travel beautifully, and, with the well-studied system of packing
that is now adopted, there is every chance of this, provided they
are properly attended to during the voyage out.

For long voyages the eggs are packed in a very similar
manner to the one adopted for home packing, though a few extra
precautions are necessary. An air space is left at the bottom of
the packing case, and the perforated zinc bottoms of the trays are
all double, a quarter of an inch being allowed between the double
bottoms for ventilation. The zinc used is never new, but always
well seasoned material that has been used for screens between the
fry ponds the year before. This does not: dissolve and produce
any salt of zinc, which is fatal to ova, and should be carefully
guarded against. An empty tray is fitted into the box at the top,
which is filled with ice, and kept full during the voyage, and
should any hitch occur here, especially going through the tropics,
all the consignment will be lost.
flow to obtain it. 189

Then, again, care has to be taken as to the moss that is
used. It must be perfectly fresh and in growing condition. It
has been noticed that when the moss goes bad or ferments the
eggs in that tray are all dead. When it retains its vitality, and in
reality grows a little, the eggs travel well, other things of course
being equal. The ice in the uppermost tray melts slowly, and the
water percolates through the moss in the trays beneath. But for
the ventilation given, the delicate embryos would be in great
danger of drowning. It was found for some time that the eggs in
the bottom tray suffered the most, and were often in bad condition.
On this account an air space was left at the bottom, and this also
serves as a temporary receptacle for the water caused by the
melting of the ice above. This water does not remain here,
however, but escapes through a hole in the box bottom, and the
box itself stands on a couple of wooden slats, one on each side,
which act as feet and allow the access of air, and the same time
the escape of the water.

The eggs may be packed between layers of woven fabric or
of mosquito netting, but this is in itself a source of danger, as
decay sets in, and affects the vitality of the embryos. It may not
prevent the eggs hatching, and in some cases may not do them
harm, but they remain in a more healthy state during long
voyages, when packed between layers of felted moss only. The
unpacking is a little more difficult, but the eggs turn out better,
and after all, with a little practice in unpacking, there is no
difficulty. ‘The two layers of felted moss are kept apart by the
eggs which lie between them, and are therefore easily separated.
After lifting the top layer of moss a piece of linen fabric may be
laid over the eggs. The tray may then be inverted, and the eggs
will mostly remain on the cloth when the tray with its contents is
righted again. Any remaining eggs may be feathered, or other-
wise picked off. Should a layer of felt fall to pieces during
unpacking, as may easily happen, it is readily separated from the
ova when al] are placed in a bowl of water, as the specific gravity
varies considerably. The eggs will go to the bottom of the bowl,
whilst the particles of moss are held for a time in suspension in
the water, and may be poured off with it, and then a little more
water added and poured off again, the process being repeated
190 Flow to obtain tt.

until all the eggs are clean. Ova packed on layers of linen fabric
may on unpacking be similarly treated. Take up the cloth by
the four corners with the eggs upon it. Immerse in a bowl of
water, let one side go, and gently withdraw it, and the eggs will
float off. Should a few adhere to the cloth feather them off.

Even on the grilles the moss may be washed off. I have
seen a lot of eggs successfully laid down with much moss among
them. A strong current of water being turned through the
hatching boxes, the moss at once floats off, and is caught on the
screen near the outlet of the box. The work is quite easily done
with a little practice, but the beginner must not expect everything
to go just night at first without any trouble. I have seen
individuals who made great bungling at the work at first soon
acquire an amount of dexterity, which enabled them to manipulate
large quantities of ova successfully.

Trout ova may be packed and sent anywhere in Britain, or
on to the Continent, immediately after impregnation, provided
the journey does not exceed forty-eight hours, and they are
travelled at a low temperature. The best time of their existence
for such journeys, however, is when the embryos are well
developed, and the eggs are in the stage called “fully eyed.”
They are then near hatching, and in a mild temperature should
hatch in a few days after being received. When very close to the
hatching point they may sometimes be sent with safety by using
ice, and even later in water in bottles quite successfully. The
latter plan is not to be recommended, but may often be safely
adopted in an emergency.

 
CHAPTER X.

CARE OF ‘ ALEVINS.”

Word derived from the French—Appearance on first hatching—Very helpless
at first—Begin to pack—Hides to be avoided—Provide lids for the boxes— Structure
of alevins—Cleanliness—Guard against rats or mice—Water insects—How to
detect their presence — Cripples — Deformities— Dropsy or blue swelling— Con-
stitutional weakness—Fungus—Paralysis— White spot—Suffocation—Still waters.

Eas culturists have apparently by common consent adopted

the French word “alevin” as the name for a newly-hatched
fish, so long as it has the yolk bag or umbilical sac attached to it.
The length of time varies much in different fishes, in some being
only a few days, in others many weeks. The temperature of the
water in which they live has a great deal to do with the absorption
of this sac. It has been found that in comparatively warm water
a trout will absorb it in a little over three weeks, whereas, when it
is very cold, sometimes more than three months is occupied in
the process.

When the eggs are hatched the little fish or alevins slip
through between the glass bars of the grille and go to the bottom
of the box, leaving behind them a mass of empty egg-shells. The
grilles may then be lifted out, washed, dried, and put away for
next season’s use. When the shells are all removed, as described
in my chapter on “Hatching the Eggs,” we may turn our
attention to the delicate-looking little beings which the hatching
box now contains. At first they lie panting on their sides, and if
disturbed they will make a start, apparently in any direction in
which their heads are pointing, and entirely regardless of conse-
quences. After a few vigorous movements through the water
they suddenly stop in their headlong career and quietly settle to
the bottom, where they again lie, panting and apparently out of
192 How to obtain it.

breath. At this time of their existence they are helpless creatures
indeed.

When hatched naturally in a brook or in an artificial ova
bed, the case is very different. They are then amongst the gravel,
which is the protector which nature gives them from their
enemies. The hatching box is perfectly clean, and there is, or
should be, nothing which they can get under. They will very
soon begin to make up for this by getting under each other, and
in their efforts to do so will collect in dense masses which have
been likened to swarms of bees. In fish-cultural language they
begin to “pack,” and there is no more healthy sign than to see
all the alevins in a box well “ packed.”

Many years ago the great idea was to provide some artificial
“hide” or place for shelter for them, and many devices were
thought of, but all proved to be great failures. The effect of
placing a stone or other object in a hatching tank for the fish to
get under is to provide a place where there is no current, and
which instead of being beneficial will only prove a “death trap ”
to a large number of the alevins. By leaving them alone,
however, a very different result is obtained. Some of them begin
to feel an instinctive desire to get into a place where the water is
constantly changing, and having found out by following up the
current the exact point which best suits them they remain there,
and others gather to them, and before long they will all be
densely packed with their heads turned the same way, and their
noses pointed downwards.

The sight of from ten to fifteen thousand fish in such close
proximity to each other might lead one to suppose that many
would be suffocated, but this never proves to be the case. They
are perfectly safe as long as they remain packed, but should they
begin to scatter at too early a stage of their existence, then look
out for mischief. Whilst packed they are just in that particular
part of the current which suits them best, and as long as they
remain there they will take no harm. I am, of course, assuming
that the water supply will in no way be tampered with just at this
time. A slight disarrangement of the current will cause the little
fish to move, or, as one of my men used to put it, to “shift their
quarters.” And this is better avoided. ‘Too much light is also
How to obtain it. 193

very disturbing to them, and the box lids should be kept closed
except at the ends. The front end of a lid should be placed on
the water board or breakwater at the head of the box. This will
prevent any light getting in from that direction. My lids are half
the length of the boxes, that is two lids toa box. By removing
the lower lid, therefore, that half of the box is exposed to the light,
and the alevins soon desert it, and they push their way up to
the darkness, and it will be seen that the darkest portion of the
upper half of a semi-covered box is that part which lies a little
behind the water board. Here the alevins are not only out of
the light, but they are also in the place of all others where the
currents are best adapted to their requirements. By slightly dis-
colouring the water at this point by means of some harmless
ingredient the currents can be quite easily traced.

So much, then, for the packing of the ‘“alevins.” Let us
take another good look at one of them soon after escaping from
the shell in which it has been developed. It is possessed of a
body having a head in which are placed two large eyes. The
mouth is apparent, but requires further development. There is
a large transparent looking sac attached to the fish, which contains
a number of yellow oil globules, and is covered with a network of
veins, and the heart may be seen, showing as a deep red patch of
colour which pulsates regularly. By using the microscope, a
more interesting sight may be witnessed than in examining an
egg, inasmuch as the little creature is now further developed.
The heart is to be found well forward of the umbilical sac, or
between it and what will be the lower jaw; it is double, one side
of it receiving the blood from the veins, and the other sending it
out again to all parts of the body. Two blood vessels will be
seen to run the entire length of the body, and the blood may be
seen coursing along within their walls, in the one going towards the
heart, and in the other in the opposite direction. One of the
main arteries is also to be distinctly traced by the naked eye on
the underside of the sac, and the action of the blood may be
clearly seen here also. I do not know a much more interesting
microscopic sight than that of the circulation of the blood in a
young fish at this stage of its existence.

Of the fins, the pectorals are the most developed at this

oO
194 How to obtain it.

stage, and are kept in constant motion. They are rather
suggestive of a couple of miniature fans, and they have a some-
what similar and a very important part to play, in causing fresh
currents, and so rendering assistance to the gills. As a lady’s fan
is used in a close and heated room for producing currents of air,
so these little fans or “ pectorals” are used for producing currents
of water, and they form no insignificant part of the breathing
apparatus of the little fish. They not only assist respiration in
this way, but also by driving off impurities which may exist, as for
instance those caused by exhalation from the fish themselves.

 

 

Fig. 21.

The accompanying figure represents an alevin trout mag-
nified. (1) The cranial cavity containing the brain ; (2) the gills or
breathing apparatus ; (3) the heart; (4) one of the pectoral fins,
used at this stage for assisting respiration by causing currents, and
acting like a fan to the gills; (5) here the wood-cutter has not
connected the dotted line, as he should have done, with one of
the numerous rounded bodies seen in the umbilical sac or yolk
bag, and which are oil globules : he has also very cleverly made
this dotted line to close the chief vein, making it appear as if cut
off, whereas, in reality, it simply disappears from view at this
point by being out of focus ; (6) represents the vertebral column ;
(7) the anus. The rudiments of the dorsal fin are quite apparent,
and the rays of the caudal fin or tail may also be traced. The
sketch is taken very soon after hatching, and the daily develop-
How to obtain it. 195

ment of the fish from this point is a most interesting study, and well
worth the attention of anyone who is interested in such matters.

The hatching boxes should be kept as clean as possible
during this period, for although the alevins themselves will scour
the floor and keep clean the space immediately around them, yet
they are liable to be very seriously incommoded by dirt in the
water. Anything ofa fibrous nature is apt to be drawn to the
fins, in a way which must be exceedingly uncomfortable to the
fish, even should it not in the end prove fatal.

During the ‘‘alevin” stage of the trout’s existence there
should be very little trouble as a rule in the hatchery. The daily
watchfulness as to the water supply, cleaning of filters, and picking
out any dead alevins that may occur, forms the chief work, so far
as the young fish are concerned. A sharp look-out should be
kept for intruders in the boxes, for it is quite possible that some
creature may find an entrance in some unlooked-for way or other.
Rats I have already mentioned, and mice are in a degree almost as
bad, and they are much more difficult to keep out than rats, as
they can get through such a much smaller hole.

In the early days, when my hatcheries were not vermin-proof,
a very sharp look-out had to be kept, and recourse had to constant
trapping, but, notwithstanding, it was found absolutely needful to
make the buildings thoroughly proof against these enemies.
After this had been done, as I thought, still they came, and it
was a puzzle to find out how they entered. At last it was found
that they came through what seemed an impossible means of
entrance, immediately over one of the doors. This was stopped
with broken glass and cement, and for a few days all was clear.
Then they came through the roof, but this means of ingress was
also stopped, and now the only chance to get in is by the door,
when it is open. I say, when it is open, because it is carefully
kept closed, except at times when anyone is passing in and out.
There is an excellent trap which I now use, and which I will
guarantee will keep any place clear of rats if properly worked.
I will describe it later on.

There is a possibility in some hatcheries of the larve of
water-insects getting into the boxes, and they are destructive.
Their presence is easily discovered, though. Some morning, in
196 FHow to obtain it.

looking over the stock, a number of white specks may be noticed
in one or other of the boxes, consisting of precipitated albumen.
When this is observed, look out for the cause of the mischief.
Some one or other of these water-creatures has obtained admission,
and the sooner he is ejected the better. He is all right enough
in his proper place, but that is not amongst “alevin” trout. He
may turn out to be a caddis worm, and if so, will probably be
found lurking ina corner. He has most likely come in when
much smaller, and then grown bigger. He may well do that
where he is, for he is certainly in a water of plenty. In order to
ascertain how he goes about his work, just place him in a glass
jar containing only water, for twelve or thirteen hours, and then
introduce an alevin trout. He will soon make up to it, and with
one squeeze of his powerful claws, or nippers, will burst the
umbilical sac, and devour the contents. This accounts for little
bits of precipitated albumen occurring in the box.

A few alevins will die, but they should be very few, and these
will drop out of the ‘t pack” and lie about lower down in the box,
where they will linger for awhile and then expire, first changing
to a lighter colour, and becoming rigid. It is not at all unnatural
that this should be so; they are probably weakly fish that never
would have lived to grow up, and which always occur in small
numbers. Then there will be found a collection of fish which
will not die at once, but which still appear very helpless, and
usually gravitate to the lower end of the box near the screen. On
examination it is easy to see that they are cripples, and very
curious-looking individuals they are, most of them suffering from
curved spines. This weakness amongst young fish is well-known,
and assumes a great variety of forms. Some have their backs
bent so as to look sickle shaped, whilst others are twisted up
very much after the manner of a cork-screw. In some cases the
body is bent at almost a right angle, and in others the tail or the
head is deformed. These are soon devoured when their lot is
cast in a stream, but here they lie, if allowed to do so, until the
umbilical sac is absorbed, when they die. There are also some
curious examples of a different nature, and these are seen to be
possessed of two heads and two bodies with a tail common to
both. Others, again, have a head and half a body extra, the
How to obtain tt. 197

latter being attached to their broadsides. Some have one head
but two tails, and occasionally two fish have only one umbilical
sac between them. A rarer occurrence is to find one possessing
three heads, and rarer still three heads and three bodies with only
one tail. None of these live to grow up. They usually die soon
after the absorbtion of the ‘‘sac,” and although many persons
have tried to rear them, no one, as far as I know, has yet
succeeded in doing so, with the exception of an occasional cripple,
whose body has not been very seriously deformed. I have at the
time I write one of these moderately-deformed fish which I
succeeded in rearing, and which has been spawned for four seasons
in succession. The malformation does not appear to be hereditary
in this case, and the specimen is a brook trout (Sa/mo fario). I
had two fish amongst a batch of American trout, a few years ago,
which had abnormally large rounded bodies. They happened to
be a pair, and the eggs were duly taken from the one and
impregnated with milt from the other. The young fish were care-
fully watched, but no sign of the deformity of the parents was
visible amongst them.

A few alevins will probably be noticed at or near the lower
end of the hatching box that have distended umbilical sacs, the
part affected looking almost colourless and transparent. There is,
in fact, a clear watery fluid, which is discharged, or partially so, on
a puncture being made in the outer sac. The umbilical vesicle
really consists of two sacs, one inside the other. The inner sac
grows less as its contents are absorbed, but the outer one has not
the same contractile power. It can be punctured, however,
without apparently causing any pain to the fish, but the inner one
is evidently very delicate and extremely sensitive. The proper
function of the outer sac seems to be the protection of the inner
one, and on the final absorption of the vesicle a part of the outer
sac often drops off.

The disease in question is generally known as the “dropsy”
or “blue swelling,” and was, I believe, first so named in America
by Seth Green. In many cases, the part affected has a slight
bluish or bluish-grey tinge, from which it gets its name. There is
considerable reason for assuming that it is often caused by
using immature breeders, and it also occurs occasionally in
198 Flow to obtain tt.

excessive numbers in cases of hybridization. Otherwise, the
affected fish are not numerous, and as there seems to be nothing
infectious about it, it is not to be much dreaded. I have tried
many experiments with it, and out of a large number of fish whose
sacs were carefully punctured only one recovered. Seth Green
was also successful in performing the same operation, but I
question whether anything is gained by it beyond the knowledge
that it can be done, as such fish will probably never live to grow
up, owing to inherited weakness of constitution.

A few others among the alevins will also die from constitu-
tional weakness, although they may not have developed the “blue
swelling.” They are, however, like any other weakly animals,
ready to develop anything that surrounding circumstances may
favour, and amongst others will often exhibit inflammatory
symptoms. Sometimes they are attacked by fungus (sapvoleguia ).
Every precaution ought to be taken to guard against it, and this
being done, fungus ought to be unknown amongst alevin trout.
The great safeguard to be employed is the same as for the eggs:
have all woodwork that comes in contact with the water well
charred. One of the worst features of fungus amongst young trout
is that it frequently attacks the best fish. Next to uncharred wood,
nothing is so likely to bring it on as dirty hatching or rearing
boxes. These should always be kept perfectly clean. I have
already pointed out the necessity for this during the period of
incubation, and repeat the warning now, as it is of the utmost
importance.

A very sharp look-out should be kept, and should fungus
make its appearance from any cause, an application of sea water
will do good. Where this is not easily obtainable, a dose of
chloride of sodium or common salt will prove beneficial. Or a
piece of rock salt may be placed in the water at the intake. It
will have the effect of making it slightly saline, and this kills the
germs of the fungus and also the plant itself. The amount re-
quired depends so much upon surrounding circumstances that it
is difficult to lay down any fixed rules as to quantities, but for
a hatching box twelve feet long by nine inches wide, five or six
pounds of common salt is not at all too much. It may be in-
troduced by simply placing it in the inflowing current. Of course
How to obtain it. 199

it is desirable for anyone performing an experiment of this kind
for the first time to exercise a little care. Do it gently, and watch
the effect it has on the fish. Where the water is right, and all in
order, it will do no harm, but will be highly beneficial. It also
has a tendency to destroy any animal parasites that may possibly
be attacking the fish, even at this early stage.

Paralysis is a disease to which young fish are liable, and its
. presence may be known by seeing some of them come out of
the “pack,” and lie very still as if dead, at the same time looking
very pale. They may be mistaken for dead ones, but on taking
them up in a dipping tube they will be seen to breathe, and an
occasional spasmodic movement of the tail may be apparent when
disturbed. They may remain in this condition for some time,
perhaps days even, but they will probably die, and if the cause be
not removed great loss may ensue. To prevent this disease
making its appearance, a good current and plenty of oxygen seem
to be the best specifics.

The depth of the water in the hatching boxes at various .
periods of development is a point that has been much discussed.
It is difficult to lay down any special rules for its regulation, as
what does not answer in one case has been found to give very
good results in another. Much depends upon surrounding cir-
cumstances, such as the nature and quality of the water, and its
temperature. <A sufficient knowledge of these matters can only
be gained by experience, but it may be laid down as a general
tule that the deeper the water the greater supply of it that is
required. While a depth of four inches will give satisfactory re-
sults with a flow of thirty thousand gallons a day through a double
supply hatching box, as at the Solway Fishery, at this stage the
depth of water must be decreased where the supply runs short. A
fine jet of air injected into the water has proved to be of service
in some hatcheries abroad, but the better plan is to provide a good
supply of suitable water. Where the upper ends of the hatching
boxes can be raised a little, the advantage of a varying depth is
obtained, but this is not always practicable.

There is another disease which sometimes attacks young
trout, and it appears in the shape of a small white speck within
the umbilical sac. It is usually, if not always fatal, but does not
200 Flow to obtain it.

seem to incommode the fish at first. Sooner or later the alevin
loses its energy, however, drops out of the pack, and, after laying
about for a few days, it dies. JI have not ascertained the exact
cause of this ailment, and, as far as I can make out, it has not
been properly diagnosed by anyone. It sometimes attacks a
number of fish, and sometimes only a few, and is probably caused
by coagulation or precipitation of albumen. Sudden changes and
extremes of temperature seem to produce it in the alevins in some
way, and it appears to attack what are otherwise healthy fish.
Care must be taken to guard against deaths from suffocation.
When in the egg stage, there is, under certain circumstances, a
danger of the suffocation of the embryo, so there is a danger of
suffocation of the alevin. Such an occurrence should never
happen, but as it has frequently happened in the past, so it will
happen again unless guarded against. In the old days the loss
from suffocation was very great, when a variety of apparatus was
used that was most unsuitable for the well-being of young trout.
Practically, I never used anything but plain wooden boxes, but I
have seen apparatus that suffocated the alevins by thousands.
Tanks of wood or metal, lined with slate or glass, were of common
occurrence, and the joints not being tight, the fish would get
into the crevices and behind the slates in large numbers. The
cause of suffocation in such places is that there is no current.
The same applies in any hatching boxes when, for instance, the
water is accidentally stopped, or if the supply be too small, although
it is true the fish will often live a long time under such circum-
stances. It is really simply a question of oxygen. Assoon as the
supply available is done death takes place. A few alevins may be
kept in a basin or a tumbler of water for a long time without
changing the water, due regard being paid to temperature. I
have seen a single alevin placed in a basin live three weeks with-
out a change of water. Several of my friends who have been
wishful to try the experiment have hatched trout ova (when well
eyed) in a small aquarium, and have kept a few alevins there till
the sac was absorbed, and one correspondent was successful in
keeping the fry after feeding for several weeks, the only precaution
taken being to ladle the water a little twice a day. As a parallel
case I may mention having to-day, as I write, heard from an eye-
How to obtain it. 201

witness of a lot of yearling trout thriving in a railway ballast pond
with no stream through it. They were put in in 1893, and in
June, 1894, were seen rising freely. Such cases are exceptional,
however, but they go to show that where the water is in a healthy
state trout may live. Put that water in motion by making a
flowing stream of it, and trout would not only live but thrive in it.
There may be plenty of oxygen in a hatching box to keep alive a
few alevins for some time without a current, but as the number is
increased the water supply must also be increased, and where the
box has its full complement of fish it must have a full supply of
water, or suffocation will soon be the result.

Livingstone Stone advocates “shallow water with a good
ripple.” I have found this do very well, and especially for
American trout (Salmo fontinalis), but I like a moderate depth
and a good current for trout (Salmo fario) and Loch Levens
(Salmo Levenensis). To ensure success with the alevin trout :—

Have a good supply of water.

Take care the boxes are kept clean.

Allow no hiding-places to exist.

Look carefully to the screens, and beware of crevices.

Sometimes the alevins may give trouble by getting on to the
screens, and getting their sacs through, which means destruction.
The loss from this cause was formerly often great, but now it is
comparatively trifling. A few will get on to the screens, but they
are mostly weak fishes, that are better out of the boxes altogether.
The desire to avoid light may be made useful here, and any that
get about the screens may be syphoned out, and only the best
put back again. ‘Take care to put them in at the head of the box.
To drive fish off a screen or from any part of the box where they
are not wanted pour water upon them. They do not like this, and
will vacate the situation at once. To make them stay where they
ought to be, keep the place as dark as practicable.
CHAPTER XI.
POND LIFE.

Water full of life—Care required in dealing with it—The rotifera—Rules
for cultivation—Nature's provision for young fish—Daphnia pulex—Cyclops quad-
vicornis—Cypris tristriata—A rachnida— Notonecta—Corixa—Gammarus—Dytis-
cus—Caddis worms —Ephemera—Shellfish—Parasites—Saprolegnia.

\A\/HEN any important fish-cultural question requires to be

answered, the safest and surest way of getting sound informa-
tion on the subject is to send a thoroughly competent expert
to make a careful examination into all the details of the case.
This is the way to arrive at some really definite conclusion, and
obtain a correct verdict. There are so many who are ready to
denounce as hopeless anything that they themselves cannot
understand or do, that if we listen to their cries nothing would
ever be accomplished. Nearly every section of fish culture has
its opponents, and but for the persevering efforts of a few
individuals nothing would yet have been done towards cultivating
the waters of the British Isles.

The important subject to which I am in this chapter about
briefly to allude, is one that is now engaging the attention of men
of science, who have had their attention drawn to the great
importance of its bearing on the welfare of our fisheries. At
certain times of the year some of our waters are found to contain
an enormous mass of living organisms, and we will now consider
a few of these beings which inhabit our ponds and lakes, or their
margins, with a view to the utilization or otherwise of the supply
of fish food which Nature has already provided.

The subject is an exceedingly wide one, and it is necessary
at the outset to use caution in the course of our investigations,
for we have not got very far before we find that we have enemies
How to obtain it. 203

as well as friends to encounter, and by cultivating haphazard all
the aquatic creatures that we come across, we may be doing harm
instead of good. There are probably few of the minute organisms
which we meet with which are not devoured with avidity by large
trout, but there are many which, if introduced into a fry pond,
would soon reduce the stock of fish contained therein considerably.

This is one cause by which trout sometimes seem to die
unaccountably in the fry stage. I have seen, years ago, thousands
of little fish dropping down dead for no apparent
reason. It has since been ascertained that these had
probably been attacked by parasites.

There are myriads of small creatures, which are
highly useful as food for fry, known as infusoria.
Some of the best known among these are probably
the Rotifera (commonly known as rotifers or wheel-
insects), but they are very minute, and as far as our

Fig. 22, present knowledge has attained cannot be cultivated
Rotifer, enl® on a commercial scale.

The secret of the successful cultivation of most, and probably
all the minute forms of life, lies largely in the protection of them
from their natural enemies. The same lines have to be followed
as in the case of large game. We must provide for them safe
undisturbed breeding grounds, and suitable food. We often find
that Nature works out these deeply interesting matters with
unerring exactitude, making due provision for everything. Nothing
is overlooked. Now, it does not suit Nature’s purpose to have
great crowds of any individual creature in one place, except in a
few exceptional cases, and hence there are many causes which
tend to keep in check the superabundance of life, which would
otherwise be found existing. The same applies to the fish. We
do not find a pool in the natural stream, as a rule, abounding in
fine large trout. We know that this is the exception; but we
also know that it can be brought about by artificial means.

So, then, with the more minute forms of life. If we apply the
same rules that attach to the cultivation of the fish, we obtain the
same result, viz, an enormous multiplication of individuals.
Whilst multiplying the fish on the one hand, we must multiply the
creatures on which the fish feed on the other,.and so the two

 
204 Flow to obtain it.

things work together. Nature has provided them, and we have
only to go in and occupy the position that is open to us. A fact
that has been observed over and over again is, that where Nature
places the fish there are the necessary food supplies, but only up
to a certain point. If we wish to go beyond that point we must
increase the food as well as the fish.

I have recently been paying special attention to the cultivation
of perch (ferca fluviatilis ), and on investigating the natural breed-
ing grounds I found that where the ova were about to hatch there
were myriads of living creatures, all ready for the little fish to live
upon when the time arrived for them to require food. Yet we
hear of individuals condemning perch culture, because when the
eggs are hatched in pure barren water the little fish all die. There
is no wonder that they do. The cultivation of the Corregonide
has been condemned on the same ground. The little fish are
very small and delicate at first, aud as soon as they lose their sacs
they die from the same cause. But is that any reason why we
should abandon the thoughts of their cultivation? All the more
reason for persevering in it until the difficulty is overcome.

Having examined some of the waters of the great American
lakes, in which the Corregonide (white fish) are found in very
large numbers, I found the lower forms of life exceedingly abun-
dant. It is on these lower forms that the white fish feed, and the
very first discovery of this important fact is probably due to Dr.
P. R. Hoy, of Racine. He also found that certain forms were
parasitic on the white fish, and it is a noteworthy fact that he
failed to find any of these in the stomachs of the fish. This
certainly does not apply, however, to all parasitic organisms.

There is one very remarkable occurrence, and that is that
the excreta of fish produces a suitable #zdus for the growth of some
of these minute forms, and, therefore, what is looked upon as a
nuisance to be got rid of may be made a means of promoting fish
life. True it is that everything has its use in nature. We find
that decaying vegetable matter provides some of the conditions
which foster the growth of these lower invertebrate forms, and we
have had some remarkable instances of the effect of this on
newly-made artificial lakes. One thing it is necessary to note,
however, and that is, that in some cases the organisms partake so
Flow to obtain it. 205

much of the nature of their food as to become highly poisonous
to the fish, when their food, or the water in which they live, is of
an unwholesome character. There is here a very wide field for
research, for which we want some workers.

As already stated, the plan to adopt for the cultivation of this
class of food is, first of all, to protect them from their enemies.
As trout are their enemies by nature, therefore they must be
protected from them ; and this brings us to the point of having
separate or accessory ponds in which to cultivate a sufficient’
amount of food. At Gremaz, in France, the food is cultivated,
and the fish are herded from pond to pond, very much as sheep
are penned off on turnips, and are moved from one pen to another
as the crop is devoured. What I conceive to be a better way,
and one that I have adopted for many years, is to grow the food
in separate ponds, to which the fish have no access.

Either plan may be equally good, and probably is so. It
just resolves itself into a case of which is most workable. In our
cold northern climate we must adapt ourselves to circumstances.
With these ends in view, an excellent plan, then, is to provide
special ponds, well stocked with plants, for the production of the
natural food of the trout. In this way a natural supply may be
obtained, and maintained, but if once the trout gain access to the
food pond, the result will probably be the entire depletion of the
stock of fish food.

One of the best animals to cultivate is the water flea
(Daphnia). Though so called, yet it is not in reality a flea, although
in general appearance it bears some re-
semblance to Pulex irritans, its “longshore”
namesake. ‘There are some ten varieties,
varying in size from three sixteenths to one
sixteenth of an inch in diameter. The
commonest species is Daphnia pulex, which
varies in colour and size considerably, accord-
ing to the nature of its surroundings, and also
to the time of year. It is semi-transparent,
and usually of a reddish tinge, and swims
with a jerky movement; its food consists of small znfusorta and
vegetable matter. It thrives best in moderately still water, and

 

Fig. 23.
Daphnia pulex, enlarged.
206 How to obtain tt.

under favourable conditions its rate of increase is considerable,
the females usually producing three broods per month. The
females are often very abundant, but the males are usually some-
what scarce. Unfortunately frost seems to be speedily fatal, the
next year’s insect developing from the epphipial, or winter egg as
it is commonly called, contained in the parent at death. At
Gremaz, in France, this difficulty is said to have been overcome.
Each species or variety of Daphnia possesses five pairs of legs,

- whilst the body is made up of eight segments, and the stomach
can be distinctly seen.

Scarcely second in importance is another minute crustacean,
Cyclops quadricornis. In general outline it somewhat suggests a
small lobster, excepting the claws, which are substituted by four
long horns, from which it gets its name, guadricornis. They are

found naturally inhabiting very
much the same places as the
water fleas, but they are very
different looking creatures, being
of a whitish appearance, and the
females may readily be distin-
guished by two curious append-
eres: ages attached to the sides of their

Cyclops quadricornis, enlarged. bodies towards the tail. These

are the ovaries or egg sacs, and
they are very prominent objects. The males are without them,
but the females are by far the most numerous, and both sexes
progress through the water by means of a quick succession of
jerks. The sexes may be distinguished by the form of the
antenne, which vary in each, as well as by the presence or
absence of the egg sacs. ;

The great importance of these creatures will be understood,
when we consider that it has been estimated that a single female
may be the origin of over four hundred millions of its species in
one year ; nay, according to a calculation by Jurine, a single
Cyclops is capable of producing over four billions in the course of
a single year. The calculation is based on the assumption that
all live, and go on producing, but in reality, such an occurrence
never takes place, as there are so many predacious animals which

 
Flow to obtain it. 207

prey upon these crustaceans, that few of them practically survive.
These figures, however, have their lesson; they teach us of the
enormous possibilities that exist, with regard to the increase of
these minute creatures, where by so called artificial means they
can be protected from their enemies, and allowed to multiply
enormously. The food of Cyclops is produced by decaying
vegetable matter, and minute spores. On occasion it also eats
infusoria, or becomes a cannibal when a favourable opportunity
occurs. It possesses but one eye, and projects itself through the
water by means of its oar-like feet, which are ten in number.

The third and last crustaceans of the sub-class Zmtomostraca
which it is necessary to mention are the Cypride. They are
interesting little creatures, and are abundant in some waters.

Cypris tristriata is the commonest, although there are said
to be fifteen recorded species in this country. They are small
free swimming crustaceans, and are enclosed in a bivalve shell-
like carapace. The mode of progression is
by opening their valves slightly, and putting
out a series of hair-like processes or cilia,
which they move rapidly and constantly, but
on the slightest alarm withdraw them and
sink to the bottom. In a closely allied
genus called Candona we find the swimming __, Fig. 25.

% Cypris tristriata,
apparatus absent, and the species, some five
in number, are not found swimming about, but crawling on the
bottom, or on the plants growing in the water they inhabit. The
food of the Cypr7s consists of both animal and vegetable matter,
and they are excellent scavengers. I have seen ponds which they
inhabit dry up in summer, but the little creatures, nothing daunted,
bury themselves in the mud, and remain there until rain falls, and
the pool fills up again. Should the mud be thoroughly dried by
the sun they perish, but their eggs retain life even under such
trying circumstances, and will hatch and produce a fresh crop in
a few days, when placed in the water.

As we work out the life histories and developments of some
of these interesting little creatures, we are forcibly reminded of
the language of the Psalmist, “O Lord, how manifold are Thy
works! in wisdom hast Thou made them: all the earth is full of

 

enlarged.
208 How to obtain tt.

Thy riches.” That creatures hitherto looked upon as insignifi-
cant, should be made to play so important a part in the economy
of Nature, is at first somewhat startling. Nevertheless the fact
remains, and the more we delve into Nature’s hidden mysteries,
the more closely are we led up to Nature’s God.

The provision that has been made for the artificial feeding of
fishes, when man requires to use it, is truly wonderful, only
waiting development. From the way in which trout devour these
crustaceans, one would suppose that they like them better than
we do oysters, or they would not eat them shells and all, as they
do at every opportunity.

That they (the crustaceans) are an important item to trout
fry there can be no doubt, and they seem to thrive under more
varied conditions than some other species. The finest are found
in water of the highest natural temperature, other things being
equal, and some of the largest specimens were observed in a pool
the water of which registered 60°F. It was tolerably shallow at
the margin but shelving to deep water, and containing abundance
of water plants, and zz/usorza of many varieties.

We now come to a very large family, the Arachnida, or
spiders, some of which live in the water. They are not so valuable
from a fish culturist’s point of view, perhaps, as are some of the
crustaceans, and some of the foreign species
will even kill fish and suck their juices. The
smaller kinds known as water mites (Fig. 26)
are rather numerous. They are usually in
full activity of life in April, and they are just
the right size one would suppose for feeding
trout fry, but as far as we have observed, the
fry seem to reject them utterly. There are
brown, red, grey, black, and spotted ones,
but somehow fry, even when they get to
minnow size, do not seem to care much about
them. They vary in size, some of them
being about as big as dust shot, whilst others

Fig. 26. are the size of No. 1 shot. They swim with
Water Mites, enlarged. 4 beautifully even movement, their legs whilst
swimming somewhat resembling a wheel, or screw propeller.

 
How to obtain it. 209

The red ones (Arachnida histrionica) look particularly bright
and attractive, and trout fry will often turn and follow them, but,
for some unexplained reason, they do not seem to eat them. It
is well known that some spiders are poisonous, and this may have
something to do with the matter. Livingstone Stone says :—‘“ If
a trout not over two-and-a-half inches long strikes at a black
spider in the water, the spider will strike back at him, and if he
takes a good aim will kill the trout instantaneously. The little
fellow will not go twelve inches before he turns over on his back,
and drops down dead.” ‘This is what happens in America.

It is a pleasure to turn from the mites to the water boatmen.
Entomologists speak of the large ones as Wotonecta glauca. They
are about three-quarters of an inch Jong, by about hardly a quarter
wide, and have two long ciliated oars to swim with, from which
they derive their name. The largest yearling trout devour them
greedily. The smaller ones fight for them, but the fry stand a
poor chance—they being the prey of the beetles, who mercilessly
harpoon them. Fortunately, although a common insect, they do
not usually abound in great numbers in trout waters. They
delight in the stagnant, or semi-stagnant, waters of ponds and
ditches, in both the larval and the mature stages. Here, again, is
a wonderful provision of nature for the production of a large food
supply for the trout, when they have grown somewhat. The
insects may be cultivated in special ponds, and swept out with a
suitable net as required.

Another genus, the Covixzde, containing some thirty species,
must have our attention. Of these Corixa vulgaris is perhaps the
commonest. In general form it very much resembles a /Vo‘onecta,
but it swims the other way up ; that is, with the oars underneath,
and it is only about a quarter of an inch long. Some members
of the genus attain a length of half an inch. They are very
pugnacious, and are carnivorous in their habits, eating decaying
animal matter, and attacking any living creature that is not strong
enough to resist them. They swim by means of rapid strokes of
their oars, which gives them a jerky movement. They are air
breathers, coming to the top of the water for an instant every few
minutes. When the fry are two months old, or even before if
vigorous, they hunt corixa like a pack of hounds, and eat them

P
210 How to obtain tt.

piecemeal, as they are quite helpless when once an oar is disabled.
Older fry hunt them alone, and seem to esteem them a great
delicacy. They take short flights over the water in bright weather,
from April to July, during the breeding season, and will leave
their quarters during a drought, and fly to other waters at any
time that they may be compelled to do so.

They are very prolific, laying a number of small round whitish
eggs, which in size and appearance somewhat resemble those of
the mackerel. They may be found in numbers on the undersides
of the floating leaves of aquatic plants, and also on pieces of wood,
and on dead leaves in the water. On the whole, it is an insect
that may rather be looked upon with favour, although it may kill
off a few of the more weakly, or it may be sickly, fry when it gets
a chance. It is useful as a scavenger, and as soon as the fry have
grown a little they will not leave a corixa alive within their
borders.

When the fry have advanced so far that they can thoroughly
master a corixa, they turn their attention to, and are large enough
to take, a fresh water shrimp (Gammarus pulex), which is
a crustacean of the sub-class Edriophalina.
This is one of our very best friends, which should
be introduced by all means into all trout waters,
and cultivated assiduously. It may easily
be distinguished by anyone, and in general
appearance closely resembles the sand hoppers,
so common on the sea-shore. It is a very
prolific breeder, and retains its eggs until they
are hatched. It is an excellent scavenger, and appears to be
harmless, although slander says it likes fish eggs. It does not
appear to do any harm to trout ova, for the experiment has now
been repeatedly tried, by placing gammari in the same tank with
trout eggs. Although their movements have been carefully
watched, they have not been detected doing any harm. They
may hide under them if they get the chance, but, seeing that in
natural waters trout eggs are buried in the gravel, such an
occurrence is not likely to take place. In the hatching boxes, of
course, they can do no harm, even if so disposed, for the simple
reason that they are not allowed to enter. It is their nature to

 

Fig. 27.
Gammarus pulex.
Flow to obtain it. 211

hide, and this they do under stones, or water plants, or anything
that comes handy, and they feed chiefly at night.

The most favourable places for them to thrive and increase
seem to be shady, overgrown, shallow streams, where they are
seldom disturbed, and in such places they multiply very rapidly
indeed. I have met with them, too, in reservoirs and lakes,
where they also seem to thrive ; and in open brooks they usually
find plenty of shelter amongst submerged marginal plants or their
roots, or under stones, etc. Aquatic birds generally know where
to find them, and should not be allowed to enter any places where
gammari are cultivated. In open streams and lakes it does not
matter so much, as they can there take care of themselves. It is
most suggestive of shrimps to see the way in which a water hen,
for instance, goes poking about in their hiding places among the
marginal grasses, or the stones at the head of a shallow. Decaying
animal and vegetable matter constitutes the food of this crustacean,
and it seems to thrive equally well in cold spring water or in that
of a higher temperature, though it usually attains a rather larger
size in water that warms up well in the summer.

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 28. Dytiscus marginalis and larva.

There are a great many aquatic beetles, but they do not
possess a very high food value. They are hard cased and exceed-
ingly voracious, and probably destroy far more food than they
yield, so there is no economy in encouraging their presence. The
two largest are Dytiscus marginalis and Hydrophilus piceus. The
former is carnivorous and very fierce, and will attack and kill fish
up to the size of minnows, both in its larval and perfect form. As
a beetle it is well known, being a conspicuous object, but in its
212 Flow to obtain It.

larval stage it is not so often seen, but will be readily identified
by the accompanying illustration. As will be seen, it is segmented,
and when fully grown may be one and a half inches long, and is
provided with a most cruel pair of jaws, resembling pincers in
general form. It is not a particularly quick swimmer, but hunts
from ambush amongst the sub-aquatic plants, and is one of the
most destructive insects we have in our fish ponds.

The perfect insect or beetle is an inch or more in length, and
appears brown or purplish according to the lights, with a con-
spicuous yellow marginal line. The under side is reddish brown.
The only safe place for individuals of this species is among mature
trout, which quickly and unceremoniously attend its funeral. As
it leaves the water at will, and flies about in the air, and is
nocturnal in its habits, we never know exactly where we have it,
and it may come any night into our fry ponds. When, therefore,
part of the torn body of a little trout is discovered some morning,
it is time to keep a sharp look out for the enemy. These creatures
sometimes account for a good many fish. We hear of cases in
which trout fry in nursery ponds lessen in numbers unaccountably.
The Dytiscus may be, and often is, the culprit.

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 29. Aydrophilus piceus and larva.

Another insect belonging to the order Coleoptera, and to the
ordinary observer something like Dytiscus, is the Hydrophilus. It
is rather longer, and is more pointed “fore and aft,” and is
harmless, being a vegetarian in diet, but it is not prolific, and is,
therefore, of no great apparent importance to the fish culturist, so
far as we know at present.

There is another beetle which must be mentioned in passing,
Flow to obtain tt. 213

as it is one that is well known to all observers, and that is the
little whirlygig beetle (Gyzinus natator), so called because it
swims round and whirls about on the surface of the water. It is
rather curious in structure, an excellent swimmer, and provided
with top and bottom eyes, so to speak, so that it can see either a
bird above or a fish below, if they approach with hostile intentions.
It also emits an oily fluid if attacked, and has a very disagreeable
smell. Its food, so far as we have observed, appears to be flies
and gnats just emerging from their larve on the surface of the
water ; at all events it pounces on these with avidity.

We may now consider a few of the flies that spend their
larval period in water. They form in most cases a very consider-
able portion of the natural supply of fish food. Two of the chief
families of such flies are the caddis flies, or Z7cchoptera, and the
Neuroptera, or nerve-winged flies. There are some two hundred
varieties of caddis flies, or ‘‘ water moths,” as they are sometimes
called, one of the largest and most typical being the Prrvganea

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 30. Caddis Fly, Phryganea grandis.

grandis of the entomologists, or the “ brown owl” of the angler—
so called because of its brown russet colour and soft downy wings.
The caddis flies lay a considerable number of eggs, sometimes in
the water on aquatic plants, and at other times on marginal plants,
whence the young larvee, on hatching, have to find their way into
the water as best they may, many doubtless perishing ev route.
Once in the water the larvee clothe themselves with bits of stick,
stone, rush, leaf, sand, shells, or anything else they come across,
forming a tube which serves the double purpose of a protection
from their enemies, and also an ambush in which they can
approach their prey unobserved. Their food consists chiefly
of animal matter, dead or alive ; they are capital scavengers, and
are excellent trout food, but the larger varieties are great enemies
to the young fish, and they are provided with a pair of most
214 Flow to obtain tt.

formidable claws, with which, if they once get hold, they seldom
relinquish their prey until they are satiated.

By way of experiment, six alevin trout were placed in a small
tank along with two caddis worms, six with two large beetles, and
six with two sticklebacks. The experiment was repeated several
times with the same result ; the caddis worms killed more alevins
in a given time than either of the others. Again, a tank was
stocked with a mixed collection of insects, larvz, small fish, etc.,
and the conclusion arrived at was, that the large caddis worms are
the most destructive of all. The large beetle larvae (Dytiscws) is a
good second. They each settled minnows and sticklebacks, by
gripping them from below. The caddis worms seem to be more
active and more persistent in the chase, and their cases afford
inconspicuous covers, constructed as they are from bits of their
natural surroundings. The moral of this is that it is unwise to
have any but very small specimens in fry ponds.

The May flies, or £phemera, with which anglers are so
familiar, and which seem in some localities to be steadily increasing
in numbers almost annually, spend
three years in the larval form in water.
The perfect insects may be readily
distinguished by their long tails and
vertically folding gauzy wings. The
larvee live in burrows in the muddy
parts of the river bank, under water, \i eB
and it is quite possible that this habit Le
of burrowing may account for their
extermination, by the increasing pol-
lution of some streams. The very : :

‘ ‘ : Fig. 31. Green Drake,
lengthened sojourn of these insects in ‘Ephemera aileariss
the larval stage greatly tends to reduce
their importance to fish culturists. This is no reason, however,
for not planting them in districts where they have not hitherto
occurred, and to which it may be deemed expedient that they
should be introduced.

The stone flies, the alder fly, the yellow Sally, the Spanish
needle, the willow fly, and the gauze wing, are all well-known
friends of the angler. They lay enormous quantities of eggs,

 

 

 

 

 

 
How to obtain it. 215,

which may be found on some of the marginal plants, grasses, etc.
The larval stage of these insects is passed in the water, where they
are free swimming crawling creatures, predatory in their habits,
and do not possess a protective shell of any kind. Most of them
thrive best in running water, and if once introduced, and the
water suits them, they multiply rapidly. The various methods of
introducing flies to unstocked waters are well worthy of con-
sideration. The work, like most others, has its difficulties, but I
apprehend that there is no reason why these apparent difficulties
should not be bridged over. Many of the larvee are very sensitive
to changes of water, and this is one of the difficulties that we have
to contend with. It can be overcome by using care in trans-
planting. The creeper, or larvee of the stone fly, is very tenacious
of life, but even it requires care in its treatment, or it will not
always be found to succeed on being introduced to “ pastures
new.”

The alder fly (Salis dutaria), the black fly which folds its
wings along its back, and spends much time sitting on a fence in
the sun or bobbing about on the water in swarms, is best moved
in its egg stage. It lays a hundred eggs or more, which are
deposited in neat-looking rows on herbage near the water. Careful
observation would soon discover these, and it would be much
safer and easier to collect and transmit them than to catch and
carry the larvee, and there would be a-much better chance of a
good result. The introduction of the perfect insect is a mistake,
and is probably useless, unless ample protection is given to them
and also to their eggs. In the case of some species it may be
done by building an insect house, and having had considerable
experience as an entomologist, and bred and reared thousands of
insects in this way, I can speak with tolerable certainty as to the
result. But there are few persons probably who could, or would,
devote the time required to look after such an undertaking, and
without proper attention it would be a failure.

Previously to the deposition of the eggs, it may be noticed
that both caddis and stone flies carry them in a bunch at their
posterior extremities ; and what angler does not know the grannom
fly, or green tail? a brown-looking fellow, who often carries a
bunch of greenish-looking eggs behind him. They are exceed-
216 Flow to obtain tt.

ingly prolific, and there should be no real difficulty in introducing
them.

One other class of insects claim our attention, namely, the
dragon flies, of which there are some fifty varieties. They belong
to the Wewropfera, and on the whole are a bad lot on a fish farm.
Most of the larvz are very predacious, and the curious mask with
which they are provided has in close connection a pair of powerful
pincers, which they shoot out to catch their prey. They have
also equally powerful jaws, with which to dispose of any insects
or little fish they may catch. This sort of thing may be interesting,
to some observers, to watch in an aquarium, but anything but
profitable in trout fry nurseries.

We now come to a class of creatures that play a most
important part in the economy of fish ponds, and these are the
Mollusca, including the Gasteropoda, or snails, and the Conchifera,
or bivalves. As in other classes in this also, the common varieties
are the most important to fish culturists. The commonest water

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 32. Limneus pereger. Fig. 33. Z. aurtculartus.

snail is Limneus pereger, and if it should not be naturally present
in any water under cultivation, it should be introduced by all
means. Even in waters where it occurs naturally, but not
plentifully, it is a great help to introduce a few to augment the
stock ; it is an ascertained fact that with snails, as with larger
stock, the breed occasionally seems to get “stale,” and almost
dies out, and the introduction of a number from elsewhere is a
distinct advantage.

For very deep still waters the ear snail (Zimnaus auriculartus )
is an excellent one. It grows larger than Z. ferveger, and is
prolific.

The trumpet snail (ZL. stagnalis) is a very handsome and
useful molluse in large waters or ponds, but does not thrive in
flow to obtain tt. 217

rivers unless they are deep and slow flowing. It has a long pointed
spire to the shell, and is one of the largest of the genus, attaining,
under favourable conditions, a length of one-and-three-quarter
inches. There are a number of others of this class that are
both beautiful and interesting to collectors, but for practical
importance the first mentioned (ZL. fereger) is decidedly the most

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 34, Limunwus stagnalis. Fig. 35. Planorbis corneus.

useful. The round flat shell fish (P/avorbis) are useful and in
some waters abundant, but they do not grow so fast nor breed
so plentifully as the Zimnea. There is a useful little limpet, that
when once established multiplies rapidly in shallow cold water,
where the other snails do not thrive so well. This is Avevlus
Jiuviatilts. Fish have often been taken in brooks with these
molluscs in their stomachs.

 

 

<>

Fig. 36. Ancy/us
fluviatilis

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 37. Paludina vivipera.

The Paludina are larger snails, but are ovoviviparous ; that
is, they keep their eggs within their shells until they are hatched.
They are also possessed of a hard horny plate to close the entrance
of the shell, called an operculum, and the shell itself is thick and
strong, and fish will probably not eat them, at least when mature.
218 Flow to obtain tt.

They are often found in canals and similar habitats ; they are
abundant in the Midlands, but several attempts that have been

made to introduce them into more northern waters have proved
abortive.

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 38. Anadonta cygnea.

On the bottoms of ponds and streams we should certainly
cultivate the bivalves, or Conchifera. The largest are the swan
mussel (Anadonta cygnea) and its varieties. They attain a length
of about six inches, and are not of a high food value when mature,
but when young they are eaten with avidity by many fishes. In
their infancy they are parasitic on fish, but their attacks do not

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 39. Unio margaritifer.

appear to be at all hurtful, beyond slightly impeding the progress
of the fish to which they are attached in their movements through
the water.

The Unionidae are similar bivalves, not quite so large as the
Flow to obtain tt. 219

foregoing, but heavier in the shell, and they seem to thrive in
rougher water than the dzadontfa. They often furnish very fine
pearls, especially the Unio margaritifer, which at one time was
our principal source of pearl supply in this country.

The Cyrcladida and the Pisidia are small cockle-like bivalves,
varying in size from three-quarters to one-sixteenth of an inch in
diameter. ‘Trout eat them greedily, and we well remember one
large reservoir where the rapid growth
and fine condition of the trout was
ascribed to the abundance of this food
supply, and the trout that were caught
certainly had a great number in their
stomachs. The food of all snails con-

Fig. 4). Cyclas cornea sists of vegetable growths and decaying
matter. They are excellent scavengers,
and destroy no trout food, sothat the addition to the otherinhabitants
ofa pondisa clear gain. With the exception of the Paludina they
are all oviparous, and multiply very fast under favourable con-
ditions. There is just one slight danger with regard to bivalves,
and that is the fact that they feed with their tongues out ; small
fish occasionally seize hold of these and get their noses drawn into
the grip of the shells. They have occasionally been seen swimming
about with one of the Cyc/adida firmly adhering to them, having
been stoutly gripped by the nose as a reward for curiosity.
Occasionally, even unwary birds and animals fall victims, and on
one occasion so large a bird as a water hen (Gal/inula choloropus)
was found dead from having attacked a swan mussel (4. crgvea).
The beak of the bird was firmly held as in a vice, and the huge
bivalve being too heavy to carry about, the bird was simply
drowned.

It is well known to most people that the water contains
animals which are parasitic on fish. Probably few persons, how-
ever, are aware of the great variety of these creatures. Some are
exceedingly obnoxious, whilst there are others again which seem
to be almost harmless. ‘The sea-going or anadromous fishes are
attacked by parasites in the salt water, which they get rid of on
coming into the rivers, and vce versa, but it is chiefly with the
fresh water parasitic animals that attack trout that we have to

 

 

 

 

 
220 How to obtain tt.

deal in this chapter. There is one,
which attacks the young fish, known
as Zrichodnia pediculus, a minute
creature just visible to the naked
eye. They are excellent free swim-
mers, and sometimes attach them-
selves to fry in large numbers, but
no special harm seems to follow from their presence, so far as we
have observed. When viewed under the microscope they make
beautiful objects and have some resemblance to a sea anemone.
They are easily killed by placing the fish in a saline bath.

Another parasite that occurs on fry is probably one of the
Trematoda, which has the appearance of a small worm, and makes
another very beautiful and interesting object for microscopic
study. It is Gyrodactylus elegans, and is possessed of fourteen
cat-like claws, with which it clings to its host. It is viviparous,
and on several occasions we have witnessed the birth of a young
one, which at once finds a suitable z/dvs on the fish, and
commences to feed.

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 41. Trichodnia pediculus (enlar’d).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 42. Gyrodactylus elegans (enla'd.) Fig. 43. Foot of Gvrodactylus elegans (enla'd).

It has been suggested that there may be some connection
between these parasites and the fungoid growth (Saprolegnia)
which is often found on fish. After a most careful and extended
investigation, we could not, however, find facts to confirm the
slightest suggestion of any connection between the two. With
the aid of a powerful microscope we have watched them feeding
flow to obtain tt.

nN
nN
H

frequently, but whether they actually remove anything from the
fish, or simply anchor themselves, and there feed on very minute
animalcule, we could never be quite sure ; but this much is certain,
they do not leave behind them a ccar of any sort that we could see.

The members of the leech tribe (///rudinea) are all more or
less dangerous to fish. They leave scars which soon form
suitable resting places for the spores of Safrolegnia, and this
often proves fatal. The great flat-footed leech ( Geometra piscicola)

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 44. Geometra piscicola (enlarged).

and its cousin, the horse leech (dulostomum gulo), are both
unwelcome visitors in fish ponds. The horse leech is very
common in many waters, and is well known, and when it attacks
fish, the loss of blood from its tri-radiate bite is very weakening.
It is true that the trout will eat the leeches, but we much
prefer keeping them out of the places where trout are, as they
destroy more than they produce as food. In their youth, their
principal food consists of the larvae of flies and small insects.
‘They seem particularly fond of caddis worms and soon unhouse
and eat them—indeed they seem almost designed by Nature to
be the dé¢e noir of these creatures. All the leeches are free swim-
mers, progressing by an undulatory vertical movement. They also
crawl fast, and are capable of living for some time out of water,
so they are not very easy to get rid of. Fortunately they are not
very prolific ; about twenty eggs per annum seems to be their rate
of increase.
Most anglers will have met at some time or other with a
beautiful greenish crab-like creature adhering to fish, which is
commonly called a ‘“‘tick.” They vary in size from one to three-
Flow to obtain tt.

bo
N
Ny

eighths of an inch in diameter. The common one is A7gudus
foliaceus. We have found them on gudgeon frequently, and also
on trout and pike. They swim freely and adhere to their host by
means of powerful suckers, and leave a bare patch wherever they
have adhered, thus rendering the fish peculiarly liable to an attack
of fungus. <A saline solution is the best remedy for this, and
probably for most fresh water parasites.

 

&
oat
a \) }

 

 

 

Fig. 45. Argulus foliaceus, enlarged.

Some of the worst parasites are the Entozoa or internal
worms, which sometimes are found to be the cause of a considerable
fatality amongst fish. We have taken a tape worm over two feet
long out of a trout, as well as a dozen or so of small round-
pointed worms, probably Anzularia. These may be introduced
with food as cysts, and then develop, but as they are built in
segments, and every joint or section may become another worm
if detached, it is highly desirable that no domestic animal be
drowned in a fish pond, or in a stream leading to one. Dogs are
frequently troubled with worms, and the drowning of a dog might
easily be the source of introduction, eventually causing serious
disaster amongst the fish inhabiting the water.

Every one probably has heard of the parasite commonly
known by the name of “fungus,” or “salmon disease.” It is
known to fish culturists as Saprolegnia ferax, but there are other
species, probably, which will attack fish. There is another
(Leptomitris clavatus) which attacks dead fish and decaying meat,
but the Sapvolegnia will grow on either the living or the dead. It
grows in the water, and it can be grown in air in a hermetically
How to obtain it. 223

sealed vessel, but it will not grow in the open air. When the
water is low in our rivers and fish lie long in the pools, it often
happens that the “fungus” assumes an epidemic form. Therefore
if we can increase the supply of water, by producing an artificial
spate, the fish are helped to reach the sea, and as sea water has
been ascertained to be fatal to it, the benefit is apparent.

Saprolegnia is a cryptogamic plant, belonging to the group
Thallophytes, and it occupies a position in that group between
Stphonee of the Alew and Phycomycetes of the Fungi. At one time
it was a disputed point whether it belonged to the animal or
vegetable kingdom, but there is now, I think, no doubt about
that. The only doubt that remains seems to be its exact position
as a cryptogam. When seen upon a salmon or a trout it has a
woolly appearance, and often occurs in patches the size of a
shilling or a half-crown. Sometimes it covers the whole of the
head of a fish, whilst in others it takes possession of the tail or of
the back, or grows in a small tuft from one or more of the fins.

If we examine this woolly-looking mass through a strong
magnifying glass, we shall find that it consists, first of all, of a
matted-looking mass of filaments, lying comparatively flat upon
the body of the fish. This practically constitutes the root, and is
known as the mycelium. From this root, or mycelium, rise a
multitude of filaments or stems, called Aypf@, each one of which
consists of a hollow tube, and a great many of these tubes have
their terminations enlarged, and assume a somewhat club-shaped
form. This club-shaped vessel is a zoosporangium and is found
on examination, as well as the tubes, to be full of minute seeds or
zoospores. These, when ripe, are rapidly expelled from the zoo-
Sporangium, or seed vessel, and have the means of locomotion,
moving about in the water by means of their two c/a, which may
almost be likened to a pair of oars.

Until the plant is ripe, and begins to give off its seeds, there
is not much danger of infection, and in its earlier stages it is
easily destroyed by permanganate of potash or carbolic acid. To
kill and bury every fish that can be got out of a river with any
fungus upon it is a great mistake, and yet I have known this to be
done. A great many of the fish so destroyed might have been
saved, the fungus upon them not being at the time particularly
224 Flow to obtain it.

dangerous to other fish. I have seen fish eat pieces of fungus
without apparently receiving any harm, and on introducing a con-
siderable growth of the plant into an aquarium, none of the fish
contained therein were attacked, nor did they suffer apparently
the slightest inconvenience from the presence of the pest.

That fish in a sound healthy state seem to be comparatively
safe from its attacks, under ordinary circumstances, seems to be
tolerably certain. What those extraordinary circumstances are, that
tend to render fish at times so liable to be attacked, require a great
deal of investigation. We know a good deal about the fungus
itself—indeed we are by this time well acquainted with its life
history—but we do not know all we might know about the salmon.
There is a “missing link” in the life history of that fish that
leaves us still in ignorance, and when our knowledge is sufficiently
increased, we may be able to apply some remedy for the great
scourge which has ravaged our rivers, as well as those of other
countries.

After trying a great many experiments upon fish of one kind
or another, I am satisfied that there are several distinct conditions
under which the fungus exists upon their bodies. The result of
my experiments leads me to the conclusion that, as a rule, fish
that are strong and vigorous in constitution, and at the same
time sound in body, are comparatively safe from the attacks of
fungus. But there are many modifications of this rule. I will refer
to some of them :—

ist.—Take a strong healthy fish that has got wounded on the body,
or on a fin. So long as the wound remains clean fungus will not
necessarily grow, but sooner or later little bits of flesh or skin
become dead, and decay sets in. Then the fungus grows upon
them. This I have witnessed repeatedly, and also that under such
circumstances fungus will remain for a long time without spreading.

It is quite easy to remove it, and while it exists the fish does not
seem to be any the worse for its presence.

2nd.—Fungus from some exceptional cause or other will attack the
tail or other part of the fish to a considerable extent, say a patch
as large as a half-crown. The rest of the body remains in an
apparently healthy state, and the patch of fungus goes on spreading
over it from the one centre only until the fish is killed, but no other
fungoid growth has been commenced upon it, and the uncovered
portion of the skin apparently remains in perfect health.
How to obtain it. 225

grd.—Fungus attacks a fish in patches, appearing in several places
and spreading rapidly, the colours of the fish being perceptibly less
bright, and the general appearance leading to the conclusion that it
may be out of health.

There are some other typical forms of fungoid development,
as, for instance, when it grows inside the mouth and on the gills ;
but I will at present only deal briefly with the three cases
mentioned above. In the first case the entire body of the fish is
in a healthy state, therefore the fungus, which will grow on a little
bit of semi-detached dead skin or flesh, does not extend any
further, and finally peels off. This often happens under natural
conditions, and without any fish-cultural intervention.

In the second instance we have a healthy body, which from
some cause suffers local derangement, as, for instance, from the
effect of a bite or wound. An attack of fungus follows.

Here the local unhealthiness of the body, accelerated possibly
by the fungoid development, extends, it may be, rapidly, and the
fungus extends with it. I have seen cases of this kind in which
the fungus has gone on spreading until nearly half the body of the
fish has been covered, the flesh on that portion appearing as a mass
of rottenness when exposed to view. I have put the fish under
medical treatment, and have succeeded in stopping the progress of
the fungus, and even in driving it back a little, but such a fish is
usually too far gone, and dies under the treatment. The effect,
however, is often to cause a cracking or breaking of the skin, and
a partial separation of the diseased portion of the flesh. The
process of sloughing in reality begins, but the mischief having
gone too far the fish has not power left to throw off the diseased
portion, but simply makes an attempt to do soand dies. In cases
of a milder form which I have treated the sloughing process has
been successfully completed, and the whole patch of disease, both
fungus and skin, has peeled off, the wound has been carefully
treated with carbolic acid, and the fish has recovered.

In the third case we have an unhealthy fish which is attacked,
and, as the whole body is practically in a fairly good condition for
the fungus, we find it growing in several places simultaneously.
It sometimes takes but little to place a fish under such conditions.
Wild fish, caught and placed in a small tank, for instance, and

Q
226 Flow to obtain it.

pining for their liberty, get into a morbid condition that renders
them peculiarly liable to attacks of fungus.

I think I may safely say that I could cause fish to be attacked
with fungus by simply placing them in a wooden tank, or in a
newly-made one of concrete. I have done so, and have then
removed and cured them. One very interesting and important
feature I have noticed, and that is that a fish that was not itself
attacked by fungus, on being removed transmitted it to others.
I have taken fish that have been affected, as in case No. 3, and
have destroyed every scrap of fungus upon them. In a few days
a fresh crop has been found growing, and the fish has been put
under treatment again, and again a third, and perhaps a fourth
time. If taken during an early stage of growth, four out of five of
such fish are curable.

The average life of a trout is about ten years. When dying
of old age they are largely attacked by fungus, which kills them.
On a fish farm they are not allowed to die of old age, but are
killed and marketed before that time comes. I had rather an
interesting case a few years ago. A Buttermere trout, which I
had kept by way of experiment, died, at the age of over seventeen
years. When in its prime it turned the scale at six pounds and
three-quarters, but at the time of its decease it had become long
and lanky, and weighed under five pounds. It was attacked by
fungus, which was removed by means of a saline bath and the use
of carbolic about a dozen times in as many weeks. The fish then
succumbed. Its allotted time had come. This happens to most
fish that are not caught, and the use of fungus seems to be to
destroy not only the lives of these old fish, but to live on their
bodies also, and it fulfils its mission. They are its legitimate prey,
and are designed by Nature to be so.

In all cases of fungus on fish that have come under my
notice, I think I may safely say that there has been a predisposing
cause. Either old age, a morbid condition, wounds, removal of
the mucous coating, or something else, has been underlying the
attack. To preserve our fish from this deadly enemy as far as
possible, our aim must be to keep them in health. If we allow
them to deteriorate, and to assume a low state of vitality, we give
the fungus a better chance. A great deal more depends upon the
Flow to obtain tt.

bo
bo
Ni

condition of our fishes than has been supposed, and one object of
this work has been to show how we can deal, at least with some
of them, and, by supplying the necessary conditions, how we can
largely improve both the quality and the quantity, and make the
waters yield their increase according to the designs of Nature, who
has placed within the easy reach of man all the essentials for the
making of “An Angler’s Paradise.”

 
CHAPTER XII.

REARING THE FRY.

Commencing to feed—Training—The right kind of food—Time for turning
out—£ntomostraca—Grated liver—Mode of feeding—Feeding machines—Shrimp
paste—Chopping machine— Transfer to rearing ponds— The old plan—The new plan
—Floating boxes—Ponds tobe kept quiet—Cutting the grass—Pond bottoms tobe kept
clean—Earth in ponds—Scum on the water—Fungus—Salt—Thinning out the fish.

Ve have now reached a very important point in the course

of fish-cultural work—the time at which the little fish begin
to take food. When they have nearly absorbed the sac, and for
that reason have “unpacked” and scattered themselves over the
boxes, they may be allowed a little light. A very good way of
supplying this want is by making one set of lids do for two boxes,
that is to say only half covering them. At the Solway Fishery the
boxes are arranged in couples, side by side, and the lid is placed
so as to half cover each of them. The lower half of the box,
which was left uncovered during the “‘alevin” stage, is now half
covered, like the rest.

A short while before the complete absorption of the umbilical
sac a few of the fish will be seen to rise from the bottom of the
hatching or rearing boxes, and for the first time take up their
position, as if they had an object in view. They have their heads
to the stream, and appear more like fish. If some particles of
chopped egg, or indeed of almost any kind, be allowed to float
down with the current, they will turn aside to seize them as they
pass. Soon the number of fish acting thus will be largely in-
creased, and from this time forward they require regular feeding
and attention. There has been a good deal of controversy as to
the best time at which to commence feeding young trout, some
persons holding that there is no need for it until the umbilical sac
How to obtain it. 229

is quite absorbed. Others, again, advocate their being fed a short
time before the final absorption of the sac.

I think it may be taken for granted in the case of young
trout, that when nature teaches them to look for food it is
right that they should have some given to them. Like all other
creatures, they have to learn to eat, and they do not make much
“fist” at it at first. Indeed it would be somewhat surprising if
they did. It will soon be evident to an observer that they will
seize any particles floating past, no matter what they may consist
of, and most of these, instead of being swallowed, are ejected
again, and this by one fish after another as they drift along the
current. The little fish have not learnt to know what is food and
what is not, and at first they will snap at anything and everything
that they see in the water, provided it is moving.

It is rather a critical period of the trout’s life, for though
there should be very few if any deaths amongst them at this stage,
yet there may be heavy loss later on if they be mismanaged when
just commencing to feed. Now is the time to train them to eat
the food upon which it is intended to rear them. I have seen
them a few weeks later in life refuse some of the choicest food
that could be provided for them, simply because they had been
trained to eat something else, and had got accustomed to it. They
can be trained at this period to eat almost anything. The
question very naturally arises, What is best for them ?

I believe I am right in saying that the best food for
young trout has not been discovered yet ; that is to say, the means
of procuring it in sufficient quantity to provide for the wants of a
large quantity of them. If we open the stomachs of a number of
wild trout fry we find them filled with various Lxtomostraca and
other minute creatures which inhabit our waters. Ina state of
nature they can usually obtain a supply of these. In a stream,
for instance, where we find a young trout here and there a yard
or so apart there is a chance of sufficient food turning up to keep
the little fish going. They are continually on the look-out for it,
and each individual fish takes up its station in some suitable
place where there is a current or an eddy, where it is comparatively
safe from its enemies, and yet where an abundance of food is
brought to it by the current. In a hatchery tank, where there are
230 How to obtain tt.

some four or five fish to every square inch of surface, the matter
is widely different. If these are to be fed on natural food, it is
clear that it must be produced for them, and that in large
quantities.

In order to produce crops of natural food, accessory ponds
are required, and much may be done also by growing a large
quantity of Zx¢tomostraca, etc., in a pond, before turning in young
fry, so that on the absorption of the sac they may find the best
means of subsistence close at hand. This is a subject on which
a chapter may be written, and I hope some time to go more fully
into it. There is a great diversity of opinion as to the best time
for turning out trout fry. It was the custom a few years ago to
retain them until they had got well on the feed, whereas now it is
becoming a common practice to turn them out just before they
begin to take food, that is just before the final absorption of the
umbilical sac. Taking a general view of the subject, I am in
favour of the latter plan, except in those fish-cultural establish-
ments where everything is perfectly arranged, and the work
thoroughly understood by skilled workers, and where the fish are
to be reared artificially to yearling or larger size. Where fish are
simply grown for the purpose of keeping up the supply in a lake,
pond, or river, and are to be turned out as fry, I believe
thoroughly in turning them out before feeding into prepared race-
ways and ponds where that can be done ; otherwise into tributaries
of the lake or river. Such a course saves a good deal of trouble,
and I have seen excellent results obtained by following it. The
little fish do best in a small tributary or raceway where there are
plenty of water plants. A watercress bed is an excellent place.

Should it be decided to retain the fish in the boxes, they
must be cared for at once when they begin to look for food.
The best thing to do is to place a tank well filled with Exéomostraca
in such a position that the water may be run into the rearing
boxes. Should there not be sufficient of this natural food avail-
able, a supply of the artificial substitute must be provided. The
simplest article to use, and one which is easily obtainable, is raw
liver, which must be grated or chopped very fine, and the coarser
particles taken out by screening through some very fine woven
fabric or fine perforated zinc. I have found the latter answer
flow to obtain it. 231

very well. Another very good plan is to separate the particles by
decanting. To do this, a glass jar such as one sees in the window
of a confectioner’s shop is useful. It possesses the great advantage
of transparency, so that an operator may see what he is doing,
otherwise it is very easy to pour out a quantity of the settlings
which should be carefully avoided.

Having selected a jar that will hold about a gallon, put a
pound of grated liver into it and fill with water, then stir until
well mixed. Allow a moment or two for the coarser particles to
settle, and pour off the liquid as far as can be done without letting
the larger pieces go over. Then add more water to that which is
left in the jar, and stir again. A second lot may now be poured
off, and the remainder may be thrown to the yearling fish, or, if
desired, chopped up again until another lot can be taken out of it
for the fry. The liquid that has been decanted may now, with the
help of a funnel, be put into pint bottles, and from these fed to
the young fish. The process is quite easy, all that is necessary at
first being to pour a quantity of the liquid into each rearing box
at the head where the water comes in, and watch the result. In
the first place the liquid is thoroughly disintegrated by the in-
flowing current, and the minute particles of food are hurried along
by the current, and the fry will soon be observed to be taking
them.

If the fish be well up towards the head of the box it may not
be necessary to feed elsewhere, but should they be very much
scattered through its length some of the liquid should be poured
in lower down. By all means take care that all the fish have a
chance of getting some of this food, if they have any desire for
it. It is a great point to get the fish well up to the head of a box
whenever possible, but sometimes it is not easy. If they will not
come to the food, the food must go to them, or the result will be
serious. A great deal of care is required in the early feeding, as
much depends upon it. A novice will find a good deal of practice
and skill is required, and also that there is a good field for observa-
tion, and that much may be learnt that way. An expert will go
through a large hatchery, bottle in hand, and feed the fish in a
large number of boxes in a comparatively short time, taking a
number of boxes in hand at once, and going over them several
232 Flow to obtain it.

times. Several machines have been invented for feeding fry, some
of which are ingenious. The principle is a rotary wheel, which is
charged with food, and is so arranged as to be constantly letting
out a small quantity in the course of its revolutions. These
machines have not, however, come into general use. Fish do
not feed so regularly as the machines would have them do.
Sometimes they eat more and sometimes less, according to
surrounding circumstances, such as temperature, light, atmospheric
conditions, etc., and a fish culturist is aware of these changes, and
can act accordingly. I have known a machine go on discharging
food into a rearing box when the fish were off the feed, until the
water became sickly, and it does not take long to bring about
such a result.

There is a great advantage, too, in having the boxes and fish
under constant supervision, which is the case if hand-fed. A
caretaker can see any little change or notice any irregularity that
may occur anywhere, and it can have his attention at once. It
often happens that such attention is necessary, and will prevent
great injury being done, or perhaps great loss of life. The fish
should be carefully watched and their every movement noticed
from day to day, comparing one day with another, and in this way
much will soon be learned that cannot be acquired from any
books. The food should be varied a good deal, and I use a large
quantity of eggs for feeding the young fry. They may be used
either raw or boiled, and, if raw, the yolk and white may be mixed
together and water added, and the liquid decanted as described
in the case of liver. Curd made of rennet and milk is also ex-
cellent in limited quantity, but both this and egg should be
cautiously used. Too much of either may prove hurtful.

The best artificial food that I have ever met with, however,
is shrimp paste, and this I have used, as well as mussel paste, for
feeding and rearing fry, and have found it most successful. To
make it the shrimps have to be boiled and shelled, and the same
applies to the mussels when they are used. A No. 22 “Excelsior”
chopper, which may be obtained through any ironmonger, will be
found excellent for preparing this or other food for fish of any
description, small or large. IJ have had an extra fine plate made
for preparing this paste, which may be procured with the machine
Flow to obtain it. 233

from Mr. W. Barnes, ironmonger, Ashbourne, Derbyshire. The
food is expensive, but the results are good, and fish reared upon
it will do credit to the producer, and are worth more than fish
reared upon anything else I have met with. I am often asked
how many times a day fry should be fed. I have tried the plan
of feeding them every hour, and also of feeding them four times
a day, and I incline to the latter. If fed too often they are apt to
get into a lazy way. When fed four times a day they get a good
appetite between meals, which makes them eager for their food,
and they come for it better than they do if fed oftener.

When the fry are well on the feed and have got thoroughly
used to the system, they should be transferred to the rearing
ponds. At first they will exhibit symptoms of alarm when the
attendant comes alongside the boxes, and will all dart away from
him, but soon they get over this and begin to associate his
appearance with something to eat, and it is noticeable that they
look for this something and expect it to come, and when it does
come they “go for” it at once, and it is quite a pretty sight to see
them feeding. Now is the time for the transfer. The ponds
should be in readiness some time previously, with screens fixed
and sluices working, and everything in order for the reception of
the little fish. The first thing is to get them out of the hatching
boxes. There are several ways. One is to lift the box so that
the outlet end rests on a tub which is filled with water, taking
care that the plug is over the tub. Remove it and the fry will be
drawn off, the extra water escaping through an aperture covered
with perforated zinc in the side of the tub. The upper end of
the box should be raised slightly, and as the water goes down a
current should be kept up over the bottom to prevent any fish
being left dry. This may be done by means of a bucket of water
or from a hose pipe. The latter is the most convenient where
practicable.

Another method is to remove the screen and let the water and
fry all escape through the outlet spout, finally turning the box on
its side to get rid of the last of them. The tub is then slung on
to a carriage and wheeled away to the ponds. The plan which I
adopt, however, and which I find the best, is to syphon out the
water and the fry, and with a little practice it can be done quite
234 Flow to obtain it.

easily and without doing any harm. Work the syphon at one end
of the box and let it discharge into a large pail or tub, which
should be raised nearly to the level of the hatching box, so that
the outlet end of the syphon can be kept always under water.
There is then no sudden jar or shock, but the fish is simply
drawn over by a strong current, which gradually disperses in the
lower vessel. JI have moved many millions of fry in this manner
without hurting a fish.

From the hatchery they may be carried by hand in large
pails, or in a tub slung on a specially made carriage. The dis-
tance at which the nursery ponds are located has, of course, much
to do in deciding upon the mode of conveyance. On arriving
there the fish should be very carefully turned out. A great deal
depends on the care with which this is done. An easy method is
to sink the pails, with the little fish in them, in the water of their
future home, then to turn them gently over and withdraw them
bottom first, floating or swimming the little fish out in the opera-
tion. However carefully it may be done the little creatures will
get a great fright, and a large percentage of them will be a good
while in getting over it. Finding themselves, after all the agitation
caused by their transfer, in a strange place and in deep water,
many of them will go to the bottom and remain there for twenty-
four hours or more. I have seen some of them as long as three
days in this position at times. This is very bad for them, and
many of them never get over it. Others, again, will scatter all
over the pond, which is also undesirable, and should be prevented
as far as possible.

The old plan just described answered very well, however,
on the whole, when the arrangements were well carried out and
much care and patience bestowed on the little fish after being
placed in the nurseries. It often proved a tedious matter, though,
to get them on the feed again, and also to get them up to the head
of the pond, which is the best place for them. Asa rule they will
in any case divide into two bodies or shoals, one occupying the
head of the pond where the water comes in, and the other the end
where it runs out. The skill of the attendant is here brought into
play, his object being to coax the fish at the lower end of the
pond, by every means in his power, to come forward and take the
“ANHHSIA AVAVIOS SSUNOd AMNASMOAN NOS

 
How to obtain it. 235

higher place. They should gradually do this, the best fish coming
out of the shoal each day and pushing up to the head of the pond.
When this is happening it is an encouraging sign, and as the shoal
is decreased in size the one at the upper end of the pond should
correspondingly increase. At last there will only be a few weakly
fish left near the outlet screen, and when it is seen that the fish
have well sorted themselves, it is a good plan to take these fish out
and put them into a pond by themselves, or into a small stream.
They will have a better chance, and some of them will make good
fish, but they will not do well if left in the nursery pond, unless
they get a good deal of extra attention.

Whilst the fish are being coaxed up from the lower end of
the pond great care and much watchfulness are required, lest
those occupying the head waters should begin dropping down to
the lower end. Sometimes this will happen in spite of all the
attention that can be given them ; indeed, if there be many fry to
look after, the entire time of one man will be required for awhile,
and it will take all the skill and energy he can bring into play to
bring the little fish safely through the difficulties that beset them
at this period of their existence. From morning till night his
attention must be given to the ponds. Another man prepares the
food and brings it to him in jars, and the contents of these jars
are placed in the feeding boxes ready for use. These feeding
boxes consist merely of perforated zinc boxes or cages, fitted with
handles about a yard long. The box containing the food is
dipped into the water, which immediately enters it by means of
the perforations. On being lifted the water runs out again,
carrying with it such portions of the food as will pass through the
perforated zinc. When done, the coarser particles may be put
through the chopper again, or they may be fed to the yearling fish,
as may be most convenient.

The most successful plan for turning out young fry, and one
which I have adopted for some years, is by means of floating
boxes, and its success has been far beyond that of the old system.
Seeing how frightened the little fish were on being transferred to
the ponds, and how difficult it was to coax them up again and get
them into good order, I tried the plan of floating a hatching box
in the pond, and turning them into that instead of into the pond
236 Flow to obtain it.

itself. The box may be arranged to stand on legs, or may be
supported by two ropes passed underneath it and fastened to pegs
stuck in the: ground on each side of the pond. It should be
placed at such a level that a sufficient current may be directed
through it. Where there is a fall averaging some twelve inches
between each pond, as at the Solway Fishery, the matter is ex-
ceedingly simple. Where the fall is necessarily very slight, owing
to surrounding levels, etc., it is best to have an independent supply
of water, conveyed in a temporary spout or by means of a hose-
pipe.

The boxes being placed in position, and the water turned on
to them, the fry may be put intothem. After their transition from
the hatchery they are naturally frightened, but, instead of being
scattered in a pond that is strange to them, they find themselves
again in a hatching box, and none the worse for their journey.
The fact of their being altogether is also reassuring to them. They
cannot run away, and the little excitement they have had has,
apart from their fright, given them an appetite. In half an hour
some of them have begun to make themselves at home, and a
little food may be given to them. It should only be introduced
at the head of the box, and the few fish that are ready for it will
encourage others, who see them feed and are themselves hungry.
They will gradually come up from the bottom of the hatching
box, and in a short time all will be feeding and apparently quite
at home again. It must be a delightful discovery to find that
after being syphoned out of their original home, jolted in a tub or
a can, and then poured out of it, that they are not killed or hurt,
and that after all they are only in another box which looks very
much like the former one, a place where supplies of food are
again given to them. Some of them feel hungry, and take it,
and find it the same agreeable mixture that they have been
accustomed to. Others that are looking on begin to think they
would like some too, and the rest follow their example, and soon
all are enjoying an ample meal. With regard to the past their
fears vanish, and they begin to think they have had a dream.
They should be treated while in this box exactly as they have
been dealt with in the hatchery.

The next day they will be happy again, and feeding
How to obtain it. 237

vigorously ; and, this being the case, the screen at the outlet end
of the box may be carefully drawn, so as to allow them to escape
at will. This should be done very gently, and quite unknown to
the fish. The best time to do it is just at the commencement of
a feed, when their attention is attracted by the food which is being
given to them, and the feeding should go on just as usual. When
it is over the fish will fall back a little, and some of them, without
knowing it, pass out of the box. There is not the least fear now,
and instead of gravitating to the bottom of the pond, and lying
there in a half-terrified state, there is a delighted feeling of
curiosity and pleasure at being free and in such a spacious apart-
ment. The current of the inflowing stream is felt, and the little
trout, for such he now truly is, works his way up to the head of the
pond, on the way snapping up a specimen of Cyclops guadricornis,
which he finds delicious, and he soon takes up his position
looking for more. This goes on until fish by fish the box is
vacated, and when all have left it may be carefully removed.
This should be done without disturbing the fish, and it may be
desirable to slacken the ropes a little and float it down the pond
before removing it.

It often happens that a few fish take up their position in the
box and will not come out of it. Should such be the case, they
may be ejected gently by turning it over on its side before
removing it. They are fish that will very soon take care of them-
selves when in the pond, and no anxiety need be felt on their
account. After the fry are out of the boxes the feeding should
go on carefully, and special watchfulness should be exercised at
first until they are all thoroughly on the feed, and in skilful hands
this is not long.

Having got the fish into good feeding order, the great object
to be desired is to keep them in position, and not to allow them
to scatter over the ponds. Great care is necessary just at this
crisis and for some time afterwards, that the fish are not disturbed.

A very little thing will sometimes suffice to throw them off
the feed at this time. A heron flying over, or some visitors
appearing suddenly amongst the ponds, a thunderstorm or a
sudden spate, will often effectually prevent fry from feeding for
awhile.
238 How to obtain it.

Everything should be done, therefore, that is practicable to
ensure the ponds being kept quiet. Covers should be provided,
under which the little fish can take shelter from enemies, real or
imaginary, and from the rays of the sun when desired. The ends
of the ponds where the fry most collect should be covered with
netting at night to make them doubly secure, or a sharp look-out
should be kept for herons, kingfishers, etc. It is better for awhile
that the fish should see no one but their attendant. They soon
get accustomed to him, but will sometimes scatter at the sight of
a stranger, and require a good deal of coaxing to come together
again. With a good flow of water and pleasant surroundings for
the fish, in the shape of marginal plants, they should thrive well.
The plants will tend to provide a supply of natural food, and are
most useful adjuncts to the rearing ponds. The little fish will
take up positions under their leaves and about their roots, and it
will be found that those which do this will make the best fish.

Some years ago I had the grass kept carefully cut between
the ponds. A well kept sward looks very nice, but if allowed to
grow, the grasses and plants produce a considerable amount of
insect life, which is worth far more to the fish than a well kept
lawn. I would not say one word against keeping the banks of the
ponds cut close, but just give the result of my own experience,
and must leave others to judge for themselves and to do as may
seem best. The long grass and other herbage is a temptation to
water rats, but these can be kept down. Sometimes the fish jump
out on to the bank, and falling amongst long grass, cannot get
back into the ponds again and die. Whilst the grass is uncut,
however, a constant growth of insect life is kept up, which is
valuable, and the grass when cut, as cut it must be when fully
grown, is useful either in its green state or for hay. It is a good
plan to cut the grass on one side of the pond only, and to allow it
to grow up a little again before cutting that on the opposite bank.

I am often asked—How much food ought to be given to a
pond full of young trout? In answer, I would say that it is
impossible to lay down any definite rule ; some lots of fish will be
found to feed more freely than others, some ponds will contain
more natural food, and so many little things come in between
the feeding of the fish and their attendant that much must be
Flow to obtain tt. 239

learned by experience ; the knowledge certainly cannot be gained
from books. When the fish come up for their food with a good
appetite, as they will if left long enough between meals, it is a
good sign, and they may be freely fed. The distribution of the
food should be managed carefully, and not too much given at one
dip of the feeding box. Much care is required that no food is
allowed to go to the bottom uneaten. Should it be allowed by
any accident to get there, it must be carefully removed, which
may be done by means of a fine gauze net. Sometimes, when the
feeding of fry is managed by beginners, the bottom of a pond is
allowed to get covered with uneaten food. I have seen such
cases, and what has happened may happen again. Should such
an occurrence as this take place it would be very difficult to
remove all the food, and if nothing be done it will assuredly
pollute the water, and probably produce disease, which may soon
play sad havoc amongst the fish.

The best thing to do in such a case is to scatter a little
finely-sifted earth over the pond. It will settle on and about the
offensive matter, and if this be followed up by a good covering of
clean gravel, the bottom will once more be rendered clean and
pure. Earth is an excellent thing to use occasionally in the
ponds. It is good for the fish, and is such a powerful deodoriser
that it tends to absorb, and so keep down any impurities that
may exist. It is often desirable to use it in the rearing boxes
before the fish are turned out of the hatchery. Some good
clean earth should be selected. A few sods from a good old
pasture are the best, and, to use them, they should be put into a
tub full of water and well stirred and shaken, so that the earth is
washed out of them. Then the liquid may be poured off into the
pond, or the inside boxes, as the case may be. Pour it off care-
fully, and if screened through fine perforated zinc so much the
better, as this prevents lumps and fibrous or rooty matter going
into the pond. It is only the muddy water which is required, and
there need be no fear in using it freely.

I have often watched the effect of doses of earth given in this
way, and have found them to be highly beneficial. In a natural
stream a considerable quantity of earth comes down with the
water every time there is a freshet, and in the rearing boxes and
240 Flow to obtain it.

in nursery ponds this is not so, therefore the want must be
supplied artificially. . Every one who knows anything about trout
knows how they delight in a rise of the water, and how much
more easily they are caught at such atime. An examination of
the contents of a few of their stomachs will show, in addition to
the ordinary food, consisting of worms, flies, etc., a proportion of
gravel and earthy matter. It is sometimes very desirable to make
artificial spates in fish ponds, which is easily done by damming
back the water and letting it off through the ponds. Care
should be taken that the flow through the ponds is not materially
lessened in performing this operation.

Earth has a beneficial effect in many ways, and in some cases
has been found to be a cure for fungus. Fry are very liable to be
attacked by fungus, and too much care cannot be exercised in
endeavouring to keep clear of it. Avoid any uncharred wood-
work about the ponds. Be careful that no roots of trees that
may have found their way into the raceway are cut in the spring.
I once saw a raceway that had been cleaned and had its sides
trimmed in early spring, and in doing this the roots of several
trees had been cut away. Ina short time the end of every stump
was covered with fungus. It is also largely produced on the
pond bottoms when they become foul. Therefore, keep them
clean, for if they be allowed to remain dirty mischief is sure to
accrue to the fish. One of the most fertile sources of danger is to
be found in the accumulation of greasy or fatty matter on the
surface of the water, the result of artificial feeding. It should be
got away as often as it accumulates. Every time the fish are
artificially fed, more or less of this grease must be set free, and,
if not attended to, it will float on the surface of the water. The
little fish, when swimming near the surface, will come in contact
with it, and it will adhere to their fins and bodies, and will
become a suitable zzdus for the germs of the fungus. It can
easily be kept from accumulating by breaking up the scum which
it forms, and floating it on to the outlet screen, or by skimming it
off the surface of the water.

Should fungus from any cause attack the fish salt is a remedy,
and it may be applied either by putting it through the ponds, or
by netting out the affected fish and giving them a salt bath. In
How to obtain it. 241

the latter case the fish should not be returned to their pond, but
be placed in another small one by themselves, so that the dose
can be repeated where the first is not efficacious. It should be
borne in mind, in putting salt through the ponds, that it is
destructive to some forms of life, and there is a danger of its dis-
arranging the equilibrium of life in the water, which has an
important bearing on the welfare of the little fish. The salt bath
after removal from the ponds is the best remedy. The solution
may vary in strength. The weaker it is the longer the fish can
remain in it, and the stronger it is the sooner they require removal.
I prefer a moderately strong dose of salt, though by no means in
excess, but different practitioners have such varied opinions as to
the strength of the liquid required, that I would advise the
beginner to try a few experiments with a small number of fish at
first, and then decide as to the best course. A very strong dose
destroys the fungus, but time is required, and if the fish turn
sickly at once and have to be taken out, the liquid may not have
had time to saturate the fungoid coating, and so the desired
object will not be attained. A milder dose is often more efficacious,
the fish remaining longer in it. The signal for taking them
out is their coming to the surface or going over on their sides,
when they should be at once removed to a current of good water,
which will soon revive most if not all of them. Of course a few
will die, as may be reasonably expected in the case of such delicate
little creatures, but in skilful hands the death-rate should be com-
paratively small, and sometimes it is almost wz/, Sea water is
better than salt and water where it can be readily obtained.

As the season advances, and the little fish grow, the quantity
of food will require increasing, and when the death-rate is low
they will soon require thinning out. For this purpose it is
necessary to have some extra ponds, and they may be a good
deal larger than the nurseries. A pond about sixty feet long and
sixteen or twenty feet wide, with water four feet deep, will do very
well, and if in autumn the level can be raised to six feet so much
the better. If the fish are not thinned out they are very liable
to contract disease and die. Some of them that have grown
faster than the rest will also become cannibals and devour their
fellows. The pollution of the water by being breathed over by so

R
242 How to obtain it.

many fish is considerable, and is a thing that is often not taken
into account by practical men. It is a matter that is of vital im-
portance, however, as the fish, although they may live, will be
liable to be killed by circumstances which would not otherwise
affect them. The slackening of the water supply—accidental or
otherwise—a rush of surface water after heavy rain, or even a
freshet, may kill a lot of them, and often the best fish are those
that suffer under such circumstances. Do not overcrowd the fish
therefore.

A pond sixty feet long, four feet wide, and about three feet
deep, will hold ten or fifteen thousand fry at first, and give them
plenty of room to grow, but by the end of July the number should
be reduced to five thousand, which may be left till October,
when they should again be thinned out, or better still, put into
larger ponds. When pressed for pond room I have put as many
as thirty thousand fry into a nursery pond of the size just mentioned,
but they soon required thinning out, and whilst they were in the
pond had a good current of water running over them. It is most
important that the water supply should be at all times ample.
There should be more than is actually required, so that at any
time an extra quantity can be turned on. The amount of water
run through each set of nursery ponds should depend a good deal
on surrounding circumstances, but from fifty to a hundred gallons
per minute is a fair quantity, and this will keep seven ponds
going, other things being equal. If more ponds be required, then
an entirely additional supply of water will be needed. At the
Solway Fishery there are several sets of nursery ponds, and the
water from each set is conducted into a raceway, and after flowing
with a good ripple for a quarter of a mile is again used for supply-
ing ponds containing larger fish.

A given supply of water will only support a limited number
of fish, and after being passed through a series of ponds it requires
purification. There is no better plan than allowing it to ripple
over the stones, and to pass through a pond or even a raceway
containing vegetation.

In this way oxygen is absorbed from the air, and is also
received from the plants, which, on the other hand, take up the
deleterious matter with which the water has become more or less
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Flow to obtain it. 243

charged, and it becomes available once more for fish-cultural pur-
poses. Much may also be done for the improvement of the
water, by encouraging the growth of suitable plants in and about
the margins of the ponds, aud in the raceways between them.
Having all in thorough working order, there is little to fear as the
season goes on. The most critical time with a young fish is
about a month after feeding commences. At this stage a consider-
able loss often takes place, and it may arise from several causes.
The food given has often much to do withit. It will be apparent
to anyone that such delicate little creatures as young trout, when
fed on artificial food, may very easily get their stomachs disordered.
This undoubtedly often happens, and a great mortality is the result.

Some thirty years ago I found this out by losing a lot of
young trout fed almost entirely on boiled yolk of egg. They
were as nice a looking lot of fish as I ever saw, were feeding well,
and grew up to a certain point, when they sickened and began to
die off wholesale. In a week I had lost four-fifths of them. I
attributed the loss entirely to the food, and although now I use a
large quantity of eggs each season for feeding very young fry, yet
by judiciously varying the food the mischief is avoided. During
the first few weeks they require very careful handling indeed, and
their future depends upon the way in which they are managed at
this time.

Some food is too rich for them in quality, and this is the case
with yolk of egg. I fed another lot of fish entirely on chopped
worms, and they did very well, the food being much more natural,
and the amount of earth and grit which it contained being highly
beneficial to them. Over-feeding with too rich food is, therefore,
to be avoided, and the more natural food that can be given the
better. Sometimes, when a few weeks on the feed, some of
the fish may be seen to be’ getting very thin and “lanky ”
looking, with heads large in proportion to their bodies. This is a
sign that something is wrong. It may arise from starvation, but
that starvation may be brought about in the first place by in-
judicious feeding. These fish will probably die, although. if not
too far gone they may be cured by placing them in a raceway
where there is a good ripple and plenty of natural fond. This
will cure them when nothing else will.
244 How to obtain it.

Sometimes, instead of appearing emaciated, the fish which
look quite healthy and well will suddenly commence drifting on
to the screen in large numbers. This is probably because their
food has disagreed with them, and feeling sickly they are carried
down by the stream, and will die if not removed. The best way
of dealing with such fish is to place them, like their “lanky”
brethren, in a suitable raceway, where many of them will recover.
A raceway useful for this purpose should terminate, if possible, in
a pond, in which the fish can remain, and which should contain a
good supply of natural food. They will remain long enough in
the raceway to receive much benefit, and on reaching the pond
will be stronger, and the change of diet will soon put them right
again.

Many are the diseases to which trout are liable. A very
sudden change of temperature will cause them to suffer from in-
flammation of the gills, which is sometimes fatal; often they get
over an attack of this disorder with the result, some people think,
of deficient gill covers. This may be a consequence, but I rather
think that fungus is much more to blame for it. The fungus is
apt to grow on the edge of the gill covers, and although it may be
afterwards cured, yet it interferes with the development of the
opercula, which become permanently shortened in consequence.
Young trout sometimes suffer from parasites, and when such is
found to be the case a salt bath is beneficial, and will usually put
matters right, though sometimes several applications are necessary
before the desired end is obtained. I have occasionally seen
several cases of blindness amongst a lot of trout. It attacks the
best and finest fish in the pond, and they become very light in
colour. The strangest part of the malady is that they do not, at
least for a while, fall off in condition. They are easily picked out
at a glance from amongst the other fish, and are not worth keep-
ing. When old fish become blind it has the effect of making them
dark in colour and inferior in condition. Probably this is because
they do not so readily adapt themselves to circumstances as younger
fish do. I have séen the latter feeding freely, and evidently guided
to their food by the senses of touch and smell, and they get very
expert at finding food without taking much exercise. This accounts
for their keeping so long in good condition.
How to obtain it. 245

In order to avoid the chance of disease amongst young uout
as much as possible, care should be taken to have good healthy
eggs from well-selected fish, and not only this, but eggs which have
been properly incubated in a well-appointed hatchery. Too much
stress cannot be laid upon these points, for with weakly eggs taken
from weakly ill-fed fish the grower has but a poor chance. There
is a great art in feeding breeding trout, which is only acquired by
long experience. To give them neither too much nor too little,
and to give them just the right kinds of food, at just the right
seasons, is a subject on which a book might be written. No book,
however, will ever teach the uninitiated how to do the thing. It
must be learned, as must many other things, by practice and a
thorough training at some good fish-cultural establishment. When
the trout have safely passed the crisis which occurs when artificially
fed, that is a few weeks after commencing to feed, and which we
call getting over the “‘ distemper,” the work becomes one of con-
stant attention on the part of the attendant. The feeding of so
many mouths, together with the cleaning of the screens and the
regulation of the water supplies, takes up all his time; and it is
most important that nothing should happen to the water supply in
any way. Should it accidentally be stopped, even for a short time,
great loss may ensue. Too much care cannot be taken so to
regulate the intake that it cannot err. The choking of a screen
may cause a pond to run over, which should also be carefully
guarded against, and ought never to happen amongst a good set
of ponds. Should all the necessary details be duly attended to,
there is every prospect of a good turn out of yearlings, notwith-
standing the delicate nature of the creatures we are dealing with.
As they get older the danger of losing them rapidly decreases, and
by August they should be comparatively safe, having by that time
survived the dangers which fry are heirs to, and become yearlings.
It is true they are not a year old, but a great change has come
over them that entitles them to the name, which will be more
fully explained in my next chapter.
CHAPTER XIII.

THE YEARLING STAGE.

Salmonide adapted to cultivation—Rising to the fly—Fish culture requires
experience—The food of yearlings—l\ust be properly dispensed—Development and
selection of stock fish—Deformities—Pedigree stock—Sorting—Transit of yearlings
—WNetting—Preparation mnecessary—Caution to purchasers—Yearling nets—
Yearlings hold their own against large trout—Two year olds.

[2 is now a fact beyond dispute that the various members of

the Sa/monide are peculiarly adapted to cultivation. This
applies both to the anadromous or sea-going fish, and to those
which spend their lives in the fresh water. The latter section of
the family can be dealt with by individuals, and this has been
largely and successfully done. Much better results even can be
obtained from the migratory section, including the salmon
(S. salar), when the work is properly set about, but at present the
amount of lethargy which is shewn with regard to this important
matter is surprising. Trout have been materially improved, not
only in numbers, which have yielded a heavy increase, but also in
quality, which is better. Indeed, we have yet to find out what
cannot be done with trout. By means of judicious treatment
inferior races have been made into splendid fish, and now is the
time to train them to take any special kind of food that may be
desired. When in the fry stage they partake freely of food that
they have been brought up to, but will often reject other kinds,
and it is undesirable at that time to check their feeding operations.
Therefore the food that is to be used continually should be the
one commenced with. In July or early in August the food
may be changed if desired, that is if any more convenient
substitute can be found.

Now is the time to train them for rising to the fly, a most
How to obtain it. 247

important part of the fish culturist’s art, and one that seems to
have been entirely overlooked in the past. It was found out years
ago at the Solway Fishery that by allowing the grass and other
plants to grow, instead of cutting them too much, a host of live °
stock was produced, and the fish became accustomed to this from
their infancy. It is a pretty sight, indeed, to watch: the little fish
in May, when just commencing life in earnest, rising freely to the
fly. It is clear that when the sward is kept bare and the flies are
not to be found, the fish cannot take them, and if they do not get
the chance they lose the lesson, and a most important one it is.
Where flies are produced in large numbers the little fish learn to
take them beautifully ; nay, they look for them daily, and depend
upon them, and the lesson which is learnt in infancy, and impressed
upon them in so practical a manner, is never forgotten. They
get a liking for entomology which they never lose, and in after-life
will do credit to their race.

There is undoubtedly a good deal to say in favour of inherited
instinct, and a race of fish brought up to bottom feeding may be
followed by a bottom feeding progeny. Even should this be the
case, however, early training will prove successful, and the trained
fish will win the prize against others. But by feeding them on
the surface, and keeping a large number of fish in a pond, an eager-
ness is acquired to “go for” their food that is not known amongst
wild fish. This tendency provides a wonderful facility for training
them, and, as I have already said, they may be taught to do
almost anything reasonable, if placed in the hands of an expert
who is well up in his work. It must not for a moment be
supposed that Dick, Tom, or Harry, if entrusted with the care of
a lot of trout, would manage them successfully, even with the aid
of books. It requires much patience and skill, and a sort of
“inherited instinct” or love of nature on the part of the man,
without which the case is hopeless. The individual who possesses
this faculty, and there are many who do, may succeed with due
care and a sufficient amount of training.

A good deal has been said about fish, in these days of
progress, ceasing in some places to rise as freely as formerly to the
fly. The fact is that many waters are so overfished that the fly-
taking trout get caught, and so gradually leave behind a bottom-
248 Flow to obtain it.

feeding race. That this is really the case I can well conceive,
from the experience I have had with trout in many ways. There
is a remedy for it, however. I am quite convinced of this,
although the application requires a little working out yet. We
know quite sufficient to be assured of the fact, and have already
learned a good deal regarding the training of fish. A vast deal
more may be looked for from the fish culture of the future than
from that of the past. Many difficulties that existed a few years
ago have been overcome, and barriers to progress that at one time
appeared insurmountable have, by patient endurance and repeated
and untiring effort, been driven to the vanishing point.

Fish culture has been sneered at by some who failed in their
first attempts, and cases have occurred where, through ignorance
or careless working, the great results looked for and perhaps
promised by the enthusiast have not been realised, but this is only
what might have been expected. I have repeatedly seen cases in
which individuals who have perhaps read some fish-cultural work,
or found an interesting paper on the subject in one of our
magazines, have at once come to the conclusion that fish could
be produced by the million for the expenditure of a trifling’
amount. It is needless to say that the work of such enthusiasts,
entered into very often without even a single consultation with an
expert, often results in failure and brings discredit upon a good
cause. It is a well-known truism that where one man can
live well another will starve, and this certainly applies to fish
culture.

The idea that the making of a pond and the turning in of a
lot of fish is all that is necessary must be exploded, and the work
begun on right lines and under careful supervision. It will then
be likely to produce results that will be gratifying to the promoter,
and which will inspire confidence in the looker-on. To work out
all the ramifications of the subject must be left to a few only, who
are willing to make it their life work, but on the results of their
labours may be built up a mass of information which will enable
good work to be done where formerly it was unthought of. With
a view to the improvement and promotion of the work, the Solway
Fishery has been thrown open as a school of fish culture, and

already this step is bearing good fruit. How gladly some of us a
How to obtain it. 249

few years ago would have availed ourselves of such an opportunity
had it been possible.

The natural food of yearlings, as indeed of fry, may be largely
augmented by the introduction of various insects in their larval
forms, not only as regards those which inhabit the water, but also
the soil and its vegetation, and a study of flora and fauna therefore
becomes very desirable. This applies not only to rearing or
nursery ponds but to streams and lakes, which may often be very
materially improved by the introduction and culture of certain
forms of life which were formerly non-existent therein. As
applied to our natural waters this subject becomes, then, an
exceedingly important economic question, which is well worthy of
the study and thought which is being given to it. Some of our
winged insects simply abound in their earlier stages in certain
localities, and under peculiarly favourable conditions. To supply
these conditions in contiguity to our fish ponds is a work of great
importance, but which has as yet hardly been entered upon.

Whilst bearing in mind the value of winged food, the more
substantial and solid organisms should not be overlooked, such
as mollusca and crustaceans. ‘These play a most important part in
the development of fine fish, and also tend to the introduction of
that delicate pink tinge of flesh which is so much admired, and to
a richness of flavour which is unmistakeable. That the food
of fishes has much to do with the flavour of their flesh, fish
culturists know quite well. It affects them just as much as the
flesh of animals is affected by their food, and experience teaches
that a variety of it is the best. It is natural that any animal
should be benefited by a mixed diet, and that it is the case with
the Sa/monide, especially when they get older, there is no room
for doubt.

Where large quantities of fish are dealt with it is desirable to
use a certain quantity of artificial food. In conjunction with a
good amount of natural food the artificial supplies are beneficial,
and with due care in its distribution and a good flow of water
the fish at this stage should give very little cduse for anxiety. The
daily routine of feeding them as their meal times come round,
cleaning the screens, and attending to the water supplies, is the
constant work of their attendant, and very interesting work it is to
250 How to obtain it.

some individuals, who take a real interest in the welfare of the
little fish.

It is not only necessary to supply food regularly, but to see
that the fish get it, and that all get their share. It will be found
that some of them rapidly outstrip the others in growth, and begin
to “bully” their neighbours. This makes sorting desirable, as
these larger fish will, if allowed to remain with their fellows,
develop cannibalistic propensities, and devour a goodly number
of them. When they begin to do this they grow rapidly, and
soon thin down the numbers of the other fish, so that the owner
of a pond may sometimes be surprised to find on letting it off,
and counting his stock at the end of the season, that there is a
great deficiency, far over and above the number which have been
recorded as taken out dead from time to time. These large fish,
too, receive harm by being allowed to remain with the smaller
ones. They naturally grow more and more cannibalistic, and
would, if allowed to do so, eat up all the small fish in a pond, and
then begin to eat each other. Many large trout are developed in
this way, but it is doubtful whether they are desirable fish for
breeding purposes.

No question can be of much greater importance to the fish
breeder than the development of his stock fish. When yearlings
are being sorted from time to time, as they are thinned out a few
of the choicest and best-made fish should be selected and placed
in a pond where they can be taken care of. A pond sixty feet
long, eighteen or twenty feet wide, and four to six feet deep will
do very well, and such a pond will hold fifteen hundred yearling
fish, provided always that there is an ample supply of water. In
selecting these fish, great care should be taken to secure those of
the most perfect shape, and it will be understood by any one
acquainted with cattle or poultry breeding that this is a matter
that requires a considerable amount of judgment, as well as a
good knowledge of the construction or build of the fish themselves.
Some are at once rejected, being too long or too short, or having
misshapen fins or opercles, or being otherwise not quite up to the
mark. These are at once disqualified for breeding purposes.
They may be perfect fish in the ordinary sense of the word and
from an angler’s point of view, and are perhaps even above average,
How to obtain tt. 251

but they are to be carefully kept out of the stock ponds, which
are afterwards destined to produce fish in abundance for many
waters.

In a state of nature trout often develop considerable de-
formities, and here we have the advantage, by careful selection, of
avoiding much of the risk of producing monstrosities and malfor-
mations, such as are found naturally in many localities. Cases
have been recorded of blind trout occurring extensively in some
natural waters, as for instance in the Fischau, near Mandorf, in
Germany. I have met with cases myself, both of total and partial
blindness, and instances have been recorded in which trout were
found to be blind in one eye only. Probably the last-mentioned
cases have been due to external causes, but I am satisfied that
instances of blindness occur amongst trout which are the result of
disease or hereditary weakness of some kind. Blindness is well
known to scientists to occur amongst other fish also.

Deformities of the jaw and head are not uncommon in some
lakes, and, from experiments which I have carried out, I am
satisfied that inter-breeding is one of the causes. Sometimes the
upper jaw is arrested in its growth, and becomes much shorter
than the lower one, whilst sometimes the lower one is similarly
affected. In some cases the lower jaw becomes so fixed that the fish
cannot close its mouth, and occasionally instances may be met
with in which the opercles or gill covers, instead of lying close, as
they should do, stand out at a considerable angle, and when fish
so affected are looked at straight in the face, their faces have the
appearance of being surrounded by a sort of Elizabethan frill.
In the island of Islay is to be found a race of tailless trout, and the
hunchbacked trout of Plinlimmon, in Wales, have been alluded
to by many writers. These and some other deformities may be
caused’ by the fish being carried over waterfalls, as has been
suggested, but, on the other hand, there are many streams of the
same kind in which such cases do not occur. It is beyond
dispute that-a fall from a height is liable to injure the spine of a
fish, and some crooked spines may be produced in this way.
This, however, would not account for the deformities of heads of
fish, and for the deficient gill-covers which have been found to exist.

“Remarkable malformations are observed in the trout of
252 Flow to obtain it.

Malham Tarn, and in a beck on the western side of Penyghent.
This is manifested in the former by the deficiency in the gill-cover
in about one in every fifteen fish caught. . . . Inthe case of
the ground trout of Penyghent, as they are called, Mr. John
Foster informs us that the malformation consists of a singular pro-
jection of the under jaw beyond the upper. These aberrations
are considered to be the result of inter-breeding, due to an
extreme degree of isolation” ( Yorkshire Vertebrata, p. 127). It
is quite likely that deficient gill-covers are in many cases due to
inter-breeding ; certain it is that they can be caused by an attack
of fungus when the fish is young, or by an epidemic of gill fever.
How far in the two latter cases the deformity would prove here-
ditary we have at present no means of knowing, as such fish are
never kept to breed from. J have had opportunites of watching
to some extent cases of head and jaw deformity, and have known
them developed in fish that have passed scrutiny as yearlings, but
have been deformed at the two-year-old stage.

That some deformities are not apparent until fish are well
advanced in life is certain. I have tried the experiment of breed-
ing from deformed parents, but the progeny showed no trace of
the deformity. On the other hand some fish culturists have suc-
ceeded in cultivating races of deformed gold fish which are now
well known in our markets. Here the deformity is hereditary,
and we find the same to be the case with some birds, the different
varieties of fancy pigeons being produced from the wild rock dove
(Columba livia). Amongst domestic fowls and animals the same
tendency develops, and we know what great importance attaches
to it. An exhibitor at one of our poultry shows failed to obtain a
prize for a very fine bird, which to him and some of his friends
seemed perfect in every point. He appealed, and some discussion
followed, when the reason was given for withholding the prize.
The bird had a crooked breast-bone, and was entirely useless for
breeding purposes. It was otherwise perfect, and this point had
either been overlooked by the exhibitor or he had hoped it would
not be noticed. Amongst cattle and horses, too, we know what
importance is attached to the different “points,” and what an
amount of skill and judgment is required in the breeding of
pedigree stock. So amongst trout, too much care cannot be
How to obtain it. 253

exercised in the selection of the fittest, and in their careful
treatment afterwards.

The fish during the yearling stage are peculiarly adapted for
selection. Any cases of deformity at birth, which might easily
pass unnoticed in the fry stage may now be detected by an expert,
and a good selection may be made. Formerly the largest fish
were selected, but it has been found that these are often far from
being the best to keep for breeding purposes. In the first place
more than an average number will probably turn out to be males,
and many of them have grown big by living on their companions,
and so are undesirable stock to keep, as the habit is sure to break
out again. A very good way of dealing with badly-formed fish is
to turn them into a pond by themselves, feed them well till they
are two-year-olds, and then eat them or market them for that
purpose.

I have drawn special attention to this important subject for
the benefit of future fish breeders. For the purpose of stocking
waters the case is very different. Just in the same way that the
ordinary fowls in a farm yard would often be of no consideration
at a show, or for breeding pedigree stock, yet do good work for
their owners, so the ordinary or yearling trout, if bred from a good
stock are excellent for stocking waters for angling purposes. It
is enough for such purposes to lay down ova taken from good fish.
In the past, any eggs from any fish have often been taken, but
this should be altered if breeds of trout are to be kept up to the
mark.

In sorting the yearlings it will usually be found that in some
ponds at least there are two distinct classes of fish. One class is
to be found at the head of the pond where the water comes in,
and the other at the lower end of the pond where the water runs
out. Often the difference between these two groups of fish is
considerable. Those dwelling at the head of the pond live ina
good current of water, which improves even in passing along the
raceway, and drives more oxygen into the upper than the fish can
get at the lower end, consequently these fish have a better chance
in life, and they take advantage of it by feeding better, increasing
bone, flesh, and muscle, and are better made and livelier fish
altogether. They are more than double the value of the others,
254 How to obtain it.

and should be carefully separated from them in sorting. Of
course some judgement is required, as in all probability some of
the best fish will have scattered during the netting, and so will
turn up at the wrong end of the pond. The other class of fish, if
put into a pond by themselves and given plenty of good water
and food, will pull up their condition and improve beyond
expectation with proper care.

August i$ a good month for dealing with yearlings, which are
now for the first time called by that name, and by the end of the
month or in September some may be transplanted, provided the
water for which they are intended is not too far away. It is true
they are not a year old, but they have reached a very important
stage in their development, They have already passed through
three phases or stages of their existence, viz. :—the ovum or egg
stage, the alevin or yolk sac stage, and the fry stage, during which
latter they commenced to take food by means of their mouths.
The last of these stages is passed in spring, and it is one during
which they will travel long distances with perfect safety. After
this, however, comes a period when they will not bear removal,
chiefly owing to the season of the year, and this is during the
months of June and July and part of August. Not only so, but
unless they have been treated with skill, a large portion of them
may die during the months of May and June. To bring the fish
over this stage of their existence is one great anxiety of the trout
grower, and by July the survivors are safe, the dangerous time has
been passed, and the fish are ready for transit again as soon as the
weather will permit.

To places that are within easy distance they may be sent in
September, and often even during the last days of August, and
the advantage of the early planting has been already alluded to.
The fish have indeed reached another stage and are yearlings, by
which name they continue to be known until the weather becomes
too warm for moving them in the following spring. During the
same period the fish that were known as yearlings last season now
become two-year-olds.

Yearlings are decidedly the best fish to use for stocking
purposes, taking all into account. The objections to fry have
already been stated. They do not hold good as regards yearlings,
How to obtain it. 255

which have reached a stage when they can take care of themselves,.
hunt for their food, and feed well when they get it. They are
also much more capable of avoiding their enemies, and do not
run the same chance of being eaten that fry do. Next to eyed ova
yearlings are, I should say, in the long run, the most economical.
Two-year-olds are larger, and are in some instances available for
angling sooner, but I would back a good yearling against a two-
year-old in many cases. They are more easily transferred, are not
so much affected by the journey, and become more readily
acclimatized, as it were, to their new water and surroundings. It
is true two-year-olds are bigger, but the cost of transfer is very
much greater, and the price of the fish is necessarily much higher
to begin with. Good yearlings turned out in autumn, where there
is food in the water, are almost, if not quite, as good as two-year-
olds turned out in winter. The cost is certainly much less.
Yearlings require much less preparation for a journey, and
therefore do not receive such a check to their growth as two-year-
olds. They travel well in either metal or glass carriers, and in
warm weather in spring the glass carriers have several times won
the day. I have often sent yearlings to the Hebrides, Orkneys,
Cornwall, and to distant parts of Ireland, and they travel as a
rule without loss. Of course, with such delicate beings a mishap
sometimes occurs, but it is only one ina crowd. It happens so:
seldom, indeed, that it is quite unlooked for, and, when it takes
place, is invariably due to some very exceptional cause. Some
trout, for instance, were one put close to a large fire in the
baggage room, by some well-meaning porter, who ‘thought the
poor things would like keeping warm.” What the result would
have been had they not been discovered and removed I need
hardly describe. Occasionally, careless shunting may cause a few
deaths amongst fish that have their heads to the carriers, but
these are very few. When yearlings are to be sent away a fine
net is run through one of the ponds, care being taken not to lift
too many fish at once. It is easy to slack away the net a little
before lifting, and so let out a goodly number if necessary, and lift
the remainder. A thousand fish is a sufficient number to lift out at
one haul, and as three or four thousand fish will often be in the net at
once, this. means allowing a good many to escape for the time being.
256 Flow to obtain it.

Even in an ordinary earth pond the fish may be taken out
by a few successive hauls of the net, till only about a hundred
to a hundred and fifty are left. The plug may then be drawn
and the water run off, and the few remaining fish are easily removed
when it goes down. Ina concrete pond the fish have not the
same opportunity of eluding the net, and with care every fish may
be lifted out. If intended for transference to a distant water, the
fish should be placed in tanks for awhile, the time varying
according to the length of the journey, the season of the year, and
the temperature of the water. A good deal of the preparation for
a journey can be done in the pond, and it is very important to
have the fish just in condition for transit, and to bring them into
this condition by a gradual process. Years ago the removal of
trout from one place to another was a difficult work and usually
involved heavy loss. Now it is comparatively easy, and can be
effected without any loss worth naming. More often than other-
wise not a single dead fish occurs during a long journey.
Sometimes there are a few, and considerably under five per cent.,
and these cases are due probably to the shunting on the railway.

From one to three days in the tanks is nowadays usually
sufficient, that is if the fish have been worked into condition
whilst in the ponds. By having them ready counted, and the
travelling tanks all ready, a large number of fish can be packed and
forwarded in a very short time, which is important, inasmuch as it
shortens the time occupied in transit. Orders should, however.
always be booked well ahead, so as to allow ample time for the
preparation, and the time of forwarding should in all cases where
practicable be left for the sender to decide.

One thing purchasers should always remember, and that is,
that when fish are ready to travel, that is after their preparation,
nothing should be allowed to alter the forwarding arrangements.
I have occasionally received a telegram at the last moment:
“Don’t send the fish till next week.” This may suit the sender
of the message, but it certainly does not suit the fish, which must
suffer seriously, and probably some of them will suffer so much
that they will never recover from the effects of such treatment.
They can be retanked and kept for a few days it is true, but at
the end of the time will be out of condition for travelling, and
 

FISHERY.

SOLWAY

YEARLINGS,

Zz
Z
=

 

 

 

 

 
flow to obtain it. 257

will, therefore, suffer materially in transit.- In a case of
emergency, such as the purchaser being called from home
suddenly, someone else. should .be appointed to attend to the
fish on arrival at their destination, and in cases where this is
impracticable an easy way out of the difficulty is for a man
to accompany them who is qualified to see them properly
attended to. :

The net used for taking yearlings may be constructed in
several ways. The ordinary yearling net is simply a seine which
is made large enough to bag considerably in being drawn through
the water. Mosquito netting makes a good material, and a brass
chain with a few leaden weights attached is useful for the bottom
edge of the net. A good heavy weight, say about four pounds,
should be attached to each end of this chain; that is at the bottom
corners of the net, so as to keep them down. No floats or corks
areneeded. Another very useful net is one attached to a large iron
rim and suspended by four cords from a pole or handle. This is
let down to the bottom of the pond and the fish driven on to it,
or fed over it, when it is suddenly lifted, full of fish. This is the
best method for ponds containing a large number of trout, as it
does not disturb the bottom at all, and there is no fear of getting
a lot of mud or other objectionable matter in the net, which may
sometimes happen when using a seine or draw net. The contents
may be discharged into a tub or some other convenient vessel placed
at the pond side, and from this tub the fish may be poured into
buckets, the counting being done as they pass over, and the
sorting may be managed by means of a small hand net. At this
stage they must be manipulated very delicately, and should. be
handled. as little as possible. A novice will make considerable
bungling at the work, and will probably injure some of them, but
with practice all can be done quite easily and without doing any
harm whatever.

At this stage it is not necessary to give the fish doses of earth
as has been recommended for the fry. They are so much larger
and stronger that they themselves stir up the matter that is at the
bottom and on the sides of a pond by their movements, and in
this way they get the benefit of the earth that is at hand. The
bottoms of the ponds should be kept as clean as is practicable.

s
258 Flow to obtain it.

The fish will now do very much of this work by disturbing any
deposit and sending it on to the screen, whence it may be raked
out ; indeed, they often scour the bottom pretty well. There isa
good deal of material to settle to the bottom, such as the sediment
brought down by the current, dust from the atmosphere, splash-
ings from heavy rains, the excrement from the fish themselves,
etc., and care should be taken that masses of filth do not
accumulate unduly. These matters are easily kept right by
constant attention from the beginning, but should accumulations
be carelessly allowed in the ponds, wholesale disaster may be the
result.

I have sometimes been asked whether yearlings reared in
ponds and then turned out can hold their own against the wild
fish. Undoubtedly they can. I have tried many experiments by
way of testing this, and am quite satisfied about it. Should any-
one have any doubt on the subject, nothing is easier than to place
a few large trout for a short time amongst any yearlings to be
turned out. The latter are soon educated, for they value dear life
more than might be supposed.

I turned a number of yearlings into a pool in a natural
stream which flows close by my writing room, and as I now sit
writing this, I can see what goes on in that pool. There was one
big trout in it. The yearlings when once fairly settled took up
their positions, and waited for anything in the shape of food that
was brought down by the current. The big trout did the same,
and I saw him several times make an attempt upon the life of one
or other of the yearlings, but the way in which these eluded him
was instructive. They were together in this pool for some days,
but nothing serious seemed to happen till a flood took place,
during which the big trout disappeared, but the yearlings still
held their own, with an accession to their numbers. They might
or might not be the same fish that were in the pool before, but
there they were.

Yearlings are at first largely fed in the ponds by means of the
feeding box described for fry, the only difference being that the
perforations at the bottom of the box are larger. Some of them
will, however, take sufficiently large pieces of meat by July or
August to make it safe to throw the food with the hand, and as
Flow to obtain it. 259

soon as this is found to be the case this mode of feeding should
be adopted. It has the advantage of being less trouble. The
times of feeding, as the season advances, need not be so frequent.
No definite rule can be laid down as regards the number or times
of the meals, but as time goes on they may be reduced to three
a day, and finally to two. As the fish get older they feed better
and take larger pieces of food and more of it at a time.

The daily routine goes on, and the fish become two-year-olds.
They are, of course, now in larger ponds, say about sixty feet by
eighteen, and four to six feet of water. If only four feet has been
run over them as yearlings, it should now be increased to six feet,
and they will grow all the better. The treatment of the two-year-
olds is very much the same as that of yearlings, only that things
are on a larger scale. The ponds are larger, the fish are larger,
the water is deeper and more of it and the food is coarser, and is
fed to them more freely. At this stage they may be fed partly on
biscuit, which is about as economical as any food that can be
provided, but care should be taken to have the right kind. Ihave
seen some kinds that do great injury, and have therefore made
special arrangements to have a biscuit manufactured that is fit for
trout food, and it has more than answered expectations. At seven-
teen shillings per cwt. it is cheaper than horse beef, as that is the
dry weight, and there is no waste whatever. It possesses also the
great advantages of keeping good for any length of time, which is
of importance, one of the difficulties of fish culture being theliability
to run short of other food during summer when it is most wanted,
and when it must be obtained fresh almost daily. It also makes
a very excellent dog biscuit, and is good for poultry or pigs, so
that there never need be any loss upon it, even if not all required
for fish food.

Two-year-olds may be taken from the ponds either by means.
of a draw net or seine, or by a dip net, and of the two methods I
prefer the latter. The one I use is circular in shape and is six
feet in diameter, and answers all purposes. It also does very well
for lifting so-called coarse fish such as perch, roach, carp, tench,
minnows, etc. Altogether, two-year-olds are a most satisfactory
size of trout to keep. They need about as little attention as at
any stage of their lives, feed well, and there ought to be no loss.
260 Flow to obtain tt.

amongst them worth naming. A greedy individual will occasionally
get choked, perhaps, by trying to swallow something which he
should not have attempted, or one may commit suicide by
jumping out of the pond. Such cases are, however, few in number,
and on the whole nothing alive is perhaps much safer than two-
year-old trout, when in a suitable pond with plenty of good food

and water.

 
CHAPTER XIV.

MANAGEMENT OF MATURE TROUT.

Maturity considerd—How mature trout are dealt with—The net—Its use—
Emptying the pond—Business pond differs widely from a lake or river—Trout
eating trout—Sorting the fish—Food—The maggot factory—Tadpole rearing—
Frogs and Toads considered—Trout get very tame—Approach of spawning time
—Can trout hear—Do fishes sleep—The senses of taste and smell—Varieties of
colour and markings—How many species—Selection and crossing of races—Trout
anadromous in New Zealand—Reversion to type—Square tail and forked tail.
Te management of mature trout is a subject on which a book

might and probably will some day be written. A trout is
said to be “mature” when, according to its sex, it either sheds
its milt or deposits its ova. This has, I think, been the generally
accepted explanation of the term. It does not, however, quite
convey the idea that a fish culturist would have of maturity. I
have seen yearling trout (fairo) yield milt, and two-year-olds
sometimes yield ova. Neither of these fish are considered
mature, however, on a fish farm. Three-year-old females will
spawn, but the eggs are small, and not so good as those from
older fish. It is in reality not until a female trout-is four years old
that it is of much use to the cultivator. It then yields a return in
the shape of eggs which are worth having, but those from older
fish are better.

We have traced the growth of the fish from the egg up to the
two-year-old stage, and when it passes beyond this it has done
with what is a very important part of its life history. I allude to
the time during which it may be sent long distances at the proper
seasons ofthe year without any special difficulty, a time, in fact,
during which Nature seems to have made special provision for
accommodating the wants of man. Up to two years of age trout
can easily be transferred from one place to another, even though
the places are hundreds of miles apart. After that age the
difficulties and cost of transit increase so materially that larger
262 Flow to obtain it.

trout are seldom travelled. Not that there is any very real
difficulty with them when in the care of an expert; it may be
resolved more into one of cost. I have never met with any serious
casualty in conveying large fish, but the labour and constant
attention necessary are often considerable. The care of so-called
large trout continues to be very much the same as they get
older, and I have often compared the work of the fish-farmer with
the work of the sheep-farmer. The trout are now counted, herded,
sorted, marked, spawned, dipped, etc., very much the same
processes that sheep are put through, and each requires its own
peculiar attention.

Let us take a pond of three-year-old trout in hand in autumn.
A net must first of all be run through it. Let it be a fine-meshed.
one, say about thirty-two meshes per foot, counting from knot to
knot. It is true a much coarser net will hold the fish, and will
be lighter and easier to work, but the larger the mesh the greater
is the danger of some of the fish getting their heads fast. Unless it
is as I have described, when one mesh gets broken the hole is big
enough for a trout to get his nose in, and he will not be to blame if
he does not soon get his head forced through. When a fish gills
himself the best course is to cut the net away and liberate him ;
the net is easily mended, the fish is not, and he is sure to be
injured if not speedily released. The size of the net used must
of course depend upon the size of the ponds. Take care to have
it deep enough. It should be at least twice the depth of the
water. This causes it to bag more, and with some good weights
on the bottom rope it will work very well. A couple of extra
heavy weights are required for each end of this rope, that is for
the bottom corners of the net, and when hauled through the pond
it should be done slowly, so as to avoid lifting these weights off
the bottom. When the place for lifting is reached, it should be
done as quickly as possible. With a fine-meshed net which is at
least twice the depth of the water, and in length sufficient to
sweep the pond, two-thirds of the fish should be enclosed at the
first haul, if the work be adroitly done. It is best worked by four
persons, although it is often done by two. Any one can work the
upper or cork line, and a couple of boys do very well. The
bottom ropes should be managed by two men who understand
flow to obtain it. 263

their work, and at a given signal the two heavy end weights
should be hauled up quickly, and the whole of the lead line got
above water as speedily as possible. The cork line is then thrown
well back so as to give the fish room, and they are in a huge bag
from which there is no escape. They may be lifted out by means
of a large landing net and placed in tubs or tanks, a net-full at a
time, the remainder being left in the large net until the lot in the
tub has been dealt with. When all are sorted and disposed of, the
big net should be run through the pond again, and the process
repeated. It may be desirable to draw it a third time; it does
not take long, and is the best way of clearing the fish. A few will
manage to elude it after all, but they should be very few. There
will be room for a fish to get round the end probably whilst being
dragged through the pond. There need not be, if properly
worked. It is a good plan for a boy to walk on each bank just
behind the net, and to splash the water with a stick to deter any
fish from running back. A few will probably get under the net
when the lead line is being lifted. This makes it imperative that
the bottom rope be raised as quickly as possible. When all is
done properly there will be very few fish left in the pond..

The water may now be let off by drawing the outlet plug,
and when it has run down to about:a foot or less, the few
remaining fish can be easily removed by hand nets, and the pond
may be cleaned out and refilled. The cleaning out is a very
trifling business, and is usually done by one man in about two
hours. There should really be very little to clean out. A little
soil must get blown in during the year, and a mischievous rat or
mole may be guilty of turning some in, and there is the excrement
from the fish, but otherwise there should be nothing. When
the pond is to be re-stocked with yearlings great care should be
taken that every fish has been got out. Should one be left
lurking in a corner, or in a hole in the bank, I need hardly point
out what is likely to happen before the next season’s sorting time
comes round.

It is hardly necessary to point out that a small pond used
for business purposes, and stocked with as many yearlings as-the
water will maintain, differs widely from a lake or river. In: the’
latter the fish are free to roam where they like, and soon take up
264 How to obtain it.

their positions and look well after themselves. A few undoubtedly
get eaten, but not many. But in a small pond which is crowded
with fish that are well fed at least twice daily, it will be apparent
that one or two large trout will reduce the numbers of the rest.
The big fellows under such circumstances will become regular
bullies, and will to an extent prey upon the smaller ones, which
are very much at their mercy, as they have no stones to dodge
behind or hiding places to get into. It is surprising, though, how
the yearling fish, even under such circumstances, will avoid being
caught.

- Should a large trout by any means get into a pond full of
yearlings, he must at once be taken out, and usually there is no
difficulty in doing this. A rod and line is the remedy, and for a
lure something that is too big for the yearlings. By skilful hands
the big fish will soon be hooked and landed without injury.

Now to return to the fish in the tub. They must not be left
there a moment longer than can be avoided. They have to be
sorted, and there will be four kinds or classes, therefore four tubs
or other vessels will be required in which to place them. They
may be classified thus :—

I. Males.

II. Spawning females.

III. Non-spawning females,
IV. Small fish.

The males are now readily distinguished, and should be
separated from the females, and put into a pond by themselves.

The spawning females should be placed in another pond,
ready to be overhauled again when ripe.

The non-spawning females may be placed in a tank pro ¢em.,
and then put back into the pond from whence they came as soon
as it is again filled, unless it is desired to stock it with other fish.
In any case, a pond should be in readiness to receive them, and
the spawning females may be put into the same one later on,
when the eggs have been taken from them.

The small fish are those which for some reason have not
grown like the others, and are now very much less in size. There
will often be a few of these, and the best way of dealing with them
is to turn them out into some stream or lake, unless there happens
fHow to obtain it. 265

to be a pond available into which they can be put. Pond room:
is usually too scarce on a fish-farm, but should there be room for
them anywhere they will make good fish if properly attended to.

Sometimes a net has to be hauled under the ice. This is
quite easily done. It usually happens that the water does not
freeze much at the inlet end of a pond, and as those which mean
business are rectangular in shape, the matter is a very simple one.
Cut the ice along the sides of the pond and across the outlet end,
where a slit should be made wide enough to allow for the insertion
of the net. As soon as it is set the cork line should be slipped
under the ice, and it can be hauled along quite easily, the ropes
working in the slits made along the pond sides. At the inlet end
there is usually plenty of open water to allow of the lifting of the
net, and if not it is easy to remove a slab or two, or even to break
the ice up, but not the slightest difficulty has ever arisen. The
most dangerous effect of ice on a pond at such a time, is that it
settles down when the water is let off, and without care and watch-
fulness a fish or two may get smothered by being left underneath
it, especially should there be any mud on the bottom of the pond.

The male fish having now been separated, should be kept to
themselves hereafter, as they do very much better away from the
females. They do not fight so much as they do when mixed
together, and are not so apt to be attacked by that well-known
scourge, fungus (Saprolegnia). The food, too, can be varied a
little. It is a great mistake to suppose that the males do not
require well feeding. At the same time they need not be allowed
to share all the rich and expensive food which it is necessary to
supply to the females. The question of food for the large fish is
a serious item, and is one of the heaviest expenses attached to the
growing of trout. In addition to the beef, biscuit, mussels, etc.,
a large quantity of natural food can be produced on the farm. All
the scraps of meat, sinew, gristle, and bone, may be largely made
use of ; indeed, nothing should be wasted. A great deal of this,
as well as the numerous rats and other vermin which should be
trapped, may be converted into maggots, which are excellent diet
for the fish.

There are many clumsy ways of making these, but they are
of little use practically. One or two proper maggot factories
266 flow to obtain tt.

should be built. They are simply wooden houses, with an upper
compartment, into which the meat should be put. The bottom
of this chamber ought to be made of wooden slats, or, if preferred,
an iron grating can be used. The object of this will be seen at
a glance. It is for the maggots to drop through. A wooden tray
is placed underneath to receive them, and this tray should be
about two or three inches deep, and two of its sides should slant
outwards at an angle of about forty-five degrees. In addition to
maggots it receives also the juices which drop from the meat, and
it should therefore be made perfectly tight. The maggots crawl
easily over the sloping sides, and drop down on to the bottom
floor of the maggot house or factory, which should be covered
with an inch or more of fine dry sand. The grubs roll themselves
in this, and become thoroughly cleaned, and are raked out into a
receiver of any convenient kind, and the sand riddled out, dried, and
used again. Then they are put into a tub or a box and mixed
with a fair quantity of fine meal and dry sand. In the course of
twenty-four hours the meal is consumed by the maggots, which
are very much improved thereby, and the dry sand with which it
is mixed prevents them working it up into a paste, and also helps
to scour them still further. The sand is then riddled out again,
and the grubs are scalded, and after this preparation look
delicious, and are most tempting morsels for hungry trout. The
trout think so too, evidently, by the way in which they take them
when thrown into the ponds,

In addition to the maggots, which may easily be produced in
large masses, a great quantity of food can be provided in the
shape of tadpoles. In spring many tons of frog spawn are
collected and placed to hatch in ponds about two or three feet
deep. When the hatching takes place these ponds are black with
tadpoles, and as there are a great many more than nature can
provide for, they must be fed. The scraps of meat which later in the
season go to the maggot factory are now used for fattening tadpoles.
They are voracious little beings, and will eat any carrion which is
thrown to them. They do not like much running water, but a
very gentle flow should be kept going through the ponds, in order
to prevent contamination by the decomposition of the meat.
They eat ravenously and grow amazingly, and in a few weeks get
Flow to obtain tt 267

as fat as seals. A short time before they turn into frogs tadpole
traps should be set, several in each pond. These consist merely
of a bone, each suspended in the water, or a piece of meat may
be used. These baits are found night and morning to be one
mass of tadpoles, which swarm around them in great numbers,
and rather resemble swarms of bees. They are lifted out twice
daily in a very simple manner. Take an ordinary riddle or sieve
of such fineness that they cannot slip through its meshes, and tie
this firmly on to the end of a short stick. An old hay rake
handle is a very good thing, as it is usually split into two prongs
at the end, and is more easily fixed firmly than an ordinary stick.
Armed with this apparatus the man in charge goes quietly to the
pond, adroitly dips the sieve under the pendant bunch of tadpoles,
and lifts. They immediately leave the bait and fall into the sieve,
which is then withdrawn, and the forsaken bait being tied, is
dragged over the side and falls into the water again, the trap thus
resetting itself. The contents of the sieve are then emptied into
a pail, and another bunch is lifted in the same manner. A very
large number are easily taken in this way twice daily, and the trout
soon make short work of them when they are thrown into the ponds.
This food posseses the great advantage of being alive and of
living in the water, and if any are not immediately devoured they
remain in the trout pond and are eaten afterwards at leisure, and
they do not foul the water. Should a quantity of them remain
unused until they turn into frogs, they do equally well for large
trout, which eat them freely. The only difficulty is that when
they become frogs they will get out of the pond, and many of
them will be lost unless they are sharply looked after.

Toads spawn later in the season than frogs, and the spawn
consists of long ribbon-like masses, the eggs being in a gelatinous-
looking mass like frog spawn. Trout will eat them, but they do
not relish them as they do frog tadpoles. Immense quantities of
worms can often be obtained very easily by sending children to
follow the plough and gather them—aindeed it is sometimes worth
while to drive a plough simply for the sake of the worms. This
is one of the many ways in which agriculture and aquaculture
work together. Willows may be profitably grown on the waste
ground, where such exists, about fish ponds, and a better use for
268 How to obtain it.

these cannot be found than making them into eel baskets, which
are profitable to work, in addition to being exceedingly useful in
keeping down the trout’s worst enemies. The pond mud which
is shovelled out at spawning time when the ponds are cleaned is
a capital manure for many crops, and amongst other things I may
mention a couple of thousand black-currant bushes, which I find
it suits admirably.

Trout cannot see their food at a great distance, but when a
handful is thrown into a pond a few fish are sure to be near, and
they go for it ; other fish seeing them, get the signal, and soon the
water is in a state of great commotion. They soon see the
attendant who feeds them when he makes his appearance on the
bank of a pond, and they get to know him. When very hungry,
however, they will often come to a stranger. Colours evidently
make an impression upon them. I have seen a whole pond-full
of fish not only refuse to feed, but keep out of sight when a lady
in a light-coloured dress or with a parasol has appeared on the
bank.

I have had trout so tame that they would come and take food
out of my hand, but they are rather rough in their manners, and
their sharp teeth will sometimes lacerate the hand severely. Any-
one trying this experiment and being successful, is not likely to
keep it up long. Trout have been credited with very rapid
digestive powers. Iam not so sure that their digestion is always
so rapid, however, and care should be taken not to overfeed them.
They are certainly more liable to disease when too well fed. A
little practice will soon enable the caretaker to know when suffi-
cient food has been given.

It sometimes happens that trout will not take food. This is
often notably the case during times of hard frost when there is
ice on the water. At spawning time also they eat very little, and
after being handled, as for instance for sorting or counting. This
should never be done except at spawning time, when it is desirable
to examine every fish on the farm that is over two years of age.
This work should be carried out just before the spawning work
commences, and should be finished before the actual “stripping”
of the fish is begun. Trout eat twice as much in summer as they
do in winter, and often more than this. As a general rule it may
How to obtain it. 269

‘be held that with a low temperature they eat but little, and with a
high one they eat greedily. There are many other influences at
work, however, which cause them to eat more or less freely, but
which can hardly be discussed here. It is well known that during
the summer months they accumulate a great amount of fat, and
thus they are better enabled to bear the starving which they get
during the winter.

There has been a great deal of controversy as to whether
trout can hear. The ear of a trout may be briefly described as
an internal organ that is tolerably well developed, and is situated
within the cranial cavity. But it has no tympanum, nor yet any
tympanic chamber. That a trout cannot hear in the ordinary
way is, I think, beyond any doubt, as the ear is not constructed
for that mode of hearing. But trout are exceedingly sensitive to
vibration, and any sound made beneath the water, or even in the
earth, as for instance in blasting a rock, may be transmitted by
vibration, and the fish in this case would be immediately sensible
that a disturbance had taken place.

The labyrinth of the ear is well developed, but the external
orifice is closed, and we know what is the effect on ourselves if
we, for instance, put our fingers in our ears when anyone is
talking. I once tried some experiments with fish with regard to
their sense of hearing, and I.came to the conclusion that trout
could not hear sounds made in the air, provided no agitation
of the water occurred. The same applies to some other fishes.
Amongst others I operated upon a shoal of herrings (C/ufea
harengus) ina tank. Moving my hand to and fro close to the
glass, I got the fish so accustomed to the sight that they took no
notice of it whatever. But the moment my hand smacked against
the glass they scattered in bewilderment. I tried shouting and
making noises, but they apparently did not hear at all. Now,
there is in many fishes a connection between the internal ear and
the air bladder. In the herring, for instance, we find at the fore.
end of the bladder two very narrow tubes or ducts, which connect
or at least come into exceedingly close contact with the organ of
hearing, passing right through the skull, and apparently connecting
with the labyrinth of the ear.

There is also in the herring a very curious connection between
270 How to obtain it.

the stomach and the air bladder, so that on inserting a tube and
inflating the stomach, the air passes on and distends the air
bladder also, and, what is more remarkable still, the posterior end
of the bladder is found to narrow into a tube, which ends in an
external aperture near the anal fin. So that the ear of the herring
may be said to be connected with an external aperture. Many
other fishes have the connection between the air bladder and the
organs of hearing ; but the external aperture connecting with the
air bladder seems to be absent, except in the herring.

It has been suggested that the air bladder may act as a drum,
and that sounds may be transmitted from it to the internal ear.
Be this as it may, the question is one of great interest, and is well
worthy of investigation. It is quite likely that many fishes which
have not yet been thoroughly examined may be found to possess
the same external aperture that occurs in the herring, but I cannot
find any trace of it among the Salmonide. As far as regards the
members of this family with which I am acquainted (and I know
a good many of them) I should certainly say that they were very
‘“‘hard of hearing” indeed. I am alluding now to sounds made
in the air and not in the water. I have often had the opportunity
of testing the matter, as for instance, in the case of firing a gun
close to the fish, and in many other ways. If they see nothing
they take not the slightest notice.

Livingstone Stone, the great American authority, is also very
much of the same opinion, and says in his Domesticated Trout
(p. 221) :—“T will not say that trout cannot hear; but this I will
say with the greatest positiveness, for I have tested it repeatedly,
that they are not frightened at noises, however loud, nor do they
pay the slightest attention to them. You may place your mouth
directly over the trout in a pond, and, if they do not see you, you
may scream with all your might, or ring a bell as loud as
you please, and the trout will not move a fin to show that they
are either frightened or attracted, or that they have in any way

‘noticed it.”

Seth Green, in his Zrout Culture (p. 58), says that trout
cannot hear, and that ‘they will not stir a fraction of an inch at
the sound of a gun fired one foot above their heads.” This is, of
course, provided they see no flash or smoke. With regard to the
Fow to obtain it. 271

ringing of a bell, we have heard of fish being summoned to a meal
by the performance, and I have often heard this story brought up
as a direct proof of fish being able to hear. I once had a visitor
who was so sure that the fish, when trained to do so, would obey
the summons, that I at length told him that I had some ponds
full of fish that would do the same, but when I explained that it
made not the slightest difference to them whether the tongue of
the bell happened to be in or out, even he began to be less
credulous. Having procured a bell, and removed the tongue, I
went out for his satisfaction and pretended to ring it, when the
fish came at once.

Although no notice is taken of sounds made in the air, yet
we find that trout are keenly sensible to vibrations of the water,
which are probably transmitted to the body of the fish, and there
is little doubt that noises made in the water are heard by the trout
in this way. Dr. Francis Day, in his British and Irish
Salmonide” (p. 19), says :—“‘ Hearing is developed in fishes, and
it is very remarkable how any diversity of opinion can exist as to:
their possessing this sense.” A little further on he says :—“ But
the chief mode in which hearing is carried on must be due to the
surface of the fish being affected by vibrations of the water, and
the sounds are transmitted directly to the internal ear, or else by
means of the air bladder acting as a sounding board.” Here we
must leave this interesting question. Its bearing on the cultivation
of trout is rather an important one, as cases may often arise in
which the fish might.be so disturbed by noises as to be injuriously
affected thereby. But it is not so, for as regards noises made in
the air the fish are neither alarmed when feeding, nor yet driven
off their spawning beds, provided always that they see nothing.

Some scientists have supposed the lateral line to have some
connection with the hearing powers of fish, hence it has been
called “the lateral sensory apparatus.” It consists of a series
of punctures forming tubes from which nerves run, and com-
municate with the head and possibly with the organs of hearing.
These tubes also discharge a mucous secretion.

Do fishes sleep? is a question I am sometimes asked. That
some fishes do there can be little doubt, but whether sleep is to
them what it is to the mammalia is another thing. Trout cannot.
272 How to obtain it.

close their eyes, but that they rest their bodies is very certain.
We know that they feel fatigue, and that they spend part of their
time in holes or under shady banks. They love shade, in fact,
and cannot do well without it. At night, when viewed by the
light of a lantern, a whole pond full may be watched at times
without their seeming to be in any way inconvenienced by the light.
They are at such a time often found to be in a perfectly quiescent
state, and also in the day-time I have seen a pond-full apparently
sleeping. The great difference between their sleep and that of
birds or animals is that they are apparently able to see at the same
time. We know well enough that all parts of the body do not
necessarily rest at once, and we also know that the sleep of a city
merchant and of a savage are two very different things. The
latter will almost sleep with his eyes open, and we can well under-
stand a fish being on the alert, even though asleep in the sense of
the body resting.

The sense of taste and smell are to an extent existent in
trout. The nostrils are well developed, but have no communica-
tion with the mouth, nor are they used in any way for purposes
of breathing. Probably under some circumstances the power of
smell is useful to the fish in obtaining food, as for instance, in
blind examples which I have met with that have otherwise been
in excellent condition. The odour of water is naturally extremely
varied, according to the different ingredients or pollutions which
may exist in it. That trout are sensible of these variations there
is no room for doubt. They themselves give off odours and so do
other fishes, and I have long had reason for supposing that eels
can smell trout and follow them by scent. An otter can cértainly
do so as I have found to my cost, and these animals on a stream
must become sensible of the presence of an unusual number of
fine trout kept in ponds near, the water from which is discharged
into the stream.

Trout possess in a degree the sense of taste, but it cannot be
said to be at all well developed. They will accept some foods
while they reject others equally.good or even better. This shows
that there must be a distinguishing power between one article of
food and another. Fish culturists know that when accustomed to
certain kinds of food they often refuse an article with which they
How to obtain it. 273

have previously been unacquainted, but on being compelled by
hunger to eat it afterwards become ravenously fond of it.

In cases where trout have absolutely refused some (to them)
new kind of food, and it has not been expedient to break them on
to it by hunger, I have done it by mixing a little and increasing
by degrees, and then diminishing the quantity of the old food, and
they have thus been beguiled into eating the new. It is quite
evident that they have their likes and dislikes, as is shown by
their rejection of one bait whilst they eagerly take: another.
Domesticated trout are fond of frog tadpoles, but dislike those of
toads. There is a foetid odour about toads which does not exist
on frogs, and the trout can at once tell the difference. It is quite
probable that the sense of smell has much to do with this as well
as taste.

The great variety of colour and marking which exists amongst
trout must have struck everyone who has had much to do with
them. There are many influences at work, each of which pro-
duces its own variety. Then, again, the blending of these influences,
and their consequent colouring, the crossing of different races,
hybridism, age, sex, good or bad breeding, migration, season,
food, surroundings, bottom, and last but not least the quality as
well as quantity of the water itself, to say nothing of exposure to
light or otherwise. All these and many other influences are at
work, making up an innumerable number of varieties, many of
which have been regarded by the older naturalists as distinct
species.

Trout may be briefly divided into two kinds, viz., the
anadromous, or sea-going, and the fresh-water forms. Both are
more or less migratory, and therefore the terms “migratory” and
‘“‘non-migratory,” which have been so often used, are not
altogether correct. Even some of the so-called fresh-water kinds
are known to go to sea occasionally.

The question as to how many species of trout exist in Britain’
is one that has evidently puzzled the ichthyological writers of the
past. The tendency has been to increase the number of species
as new types or races were discovered, and very naturally so,
considering the knowledge that was then possessed. But fish
culture has put a new phase on the subject altogether, and we are

T
274 How to obtain it.

now finding out many things about the genus Sa/mo that were
unknown and unthought of a few short years ago.

It is well known that trout in their natural haunts assume
endless varieties; indeed it would be difficult in most cases to
find two exactly alike. We find in a great many instances races
of yellow, silvery and dark-coloured trout (often called black trout)
inhabiting the same lake. In some streams which are frequented
by marine or anadromous forms we often find a considerable
variety, and every connecting link may be obtained at times
between sea-going and fresh-water forms, as for instance, Sa/mo
trutta and Salmo fario. In certain cases undoubtedly these fish
have crossed with each other, and it may be their descendants
have crossed again, thus producing considerable variations,
quite enough to puzzle the older naturalists who were not fish
culturists, and therefore had not the same facilities for ascertaining
the real truth. When we come to deal with these fish in a practical
manner, within the inclosed boundaries of a fish farm, we find out
that there is in reality very little, if any, difference between the
races, beyond the inherited greater migratory instinct of the sea-
going kinds. They spawn here at the same time and in the same
places, and I have more than once found ¢vué¢fa paired with fario.
The mingling of the two races in our streams is inevitable, and
knowing what we do now as to the fertility of the offspring there
can be no doubt whatever that the two forms do at times get
considerably mixed,

Occasionally, owing perhaps to some exceptional circum-
stance, such as rain after dry weather, or it may be a sudden
change of temperature, the streams frequented by the spawning
fish become crowded, and the involuntary mingling of the two
races must, one would think, occasionally take place. I have
seen both forms spawning in such close proximity that I am fully
convinced that milt and ova of the two races must occasionally
come in contact, and impregnation take place. Anyhow, we have
the intermediate varieties occurring in Nature and we can bring
about exactly the same results by artificial means,

We know that in the human family some individuals have a
much greater propensity for roaming than others, and some races
of men exist who make periodical migrations. Why should not
How to obtain it. 275

the same tendency be found, in individuals, amongst fishes? We
know now that trout of the fario type will become anadromous in
their habits, and we know that it is not only possible to retain
sea-going varieties in fresh water, but that they will also breed
there. The typical colouring of the sea-going kinds is of a silvery
hue, with more or less of a steel blue or greenish cast, but when
these fish enter the fresh water their colours soon lose their
brilliancy, and in course of time the fish will assume, pro Zem.,
something more of a fresh-water appearance. ‘This is notably so
in the case of Salmo trutta.

I have trout ( /a770) in the same pond that they have occupied
for years, some of which are silvery, some yellow, some brown,
and some steel blue, and yet all these fish retain their original
characteristics, notwithstanding the fact of their being in the same
water, and having the same surroundings and the’ same food.
One thing I have noticed, and that is that after heavy rain the
water assumes a darker tint, and the fish become darker too, but
they do not lose their original colours, and when the water
becomes lighter again the fish become lighter also, but their
general characters are not altered. A yellow trout remains a
yellow trout, and silvery fish remain silvery, and well-known
individuals have remained so for years. But as regards their off-
spring there may be, and probably is, a slight difference in colour
or in general appearance, and as this is perpetuated, a very
interesting question arises as to how long it takes to establish a
distinct variety or race of trout by natural means.

We know what can be done in artificial culture by careful
selection, in the crossing of two good races. ‘The result is a good
breed or race of fish, combining the colours of the parents. On
the contrary, if we cross two badly-developed fish, or even go on
breeding “in and in” from the same stock, we are sure to develop
inferior races.

It will be apparent at once that there is no end to the
varieties of trout which may eventually be produced, and probably
ere long the ingenuity of some fish culturists will be exercised to
introduce new forms to the fancier, very much as animals, fowls,
pigeons, etc., have been similarly treated.

There is one remarkable feature regarding colour that is
276 How to obtain it.

worthy of note, and that is that trout vary very much more in fresh
water than they do in the salt. Some colours are also much more
permanent than others. The experiment is now pretty well
known of putting fish into a tank that is black and kept almost
dark. When taken out and placed in the sunlight in a white
bowl they look very black, but in a few minutes will often become
light in colour. This is also largely the case with wild fish
passing from lake to stream, or vice versa, or from one geological
formation to another. Much more so is it the case when the
_ Inigration is from river to sea, or sea to river; not only do the
colours and general appearance of the fish become changed, but
we find, in the case of fresh-water forms becoming anadromous,
and wice versa, that the various organs and parts become altered
also, probably by the law of adaptation.

It is now an ascertained fact that trout (Salmo fario) can
become anadromous in their habits. This seems to be largely
the case in some of the rivers of New Zealand, and also in those
of Tasmania. In British waters instances of brook trout migrat-
ing to the sea are common enough. I have examined many
brooks at low water, and have found beautiful little trout under
the stones between tide marks. Quite possibly this may have an
important bearing on the fine quality of the fish occurring in some
lakes in close proximity to the sea, as, for instance, Loch Stennis,
in Orkney.

An interesting experiment was accidentally tried a few years
ago by the owner of a fish pond near the sea. He built a rather
elaborate outlet of heavy masonry, and carried it forward some
distance into an estuary, so that the tide rose and fell within the
walls. In it was placed a grating, which prevented fish passing in
and out. Now it so happened that a few trout passed down out
of the fresh-water pond above, and got into the tidal tank, which
always had some two or three feet of water in it, and at high
water a considerable depth. The water that entered from the sea
usually swarmed with small crustaceans, etc., and when the trout
were discovered some months afterwards they had grown to a
much larger size than any in the large pond above, notwithstanding
the confined area of the place in which they had been living.
This opens up a very large question as to the future possibilities
Flow to obtain it. 277

of growing trout in such situations that they have access to salt
water.

In most trout there exists a tendency to diverge from the
original type, and yet on the other hand we find in very marked
and apparently distinct races, a considerable disposition to revert
again to the original type. This reversion to type is very marked
in the case of some birds and animals which have already been
referred to. In the trout it is so marked that the question as to
how many species we actually possess comes in and claims
our serious attention. We find that fresh-water forms become
anadromous, and also the reverse, viz., that sea-going forms be-
come land-locked, and that the most marked races exhibit strong
symptoms of reversion to original type, and all these facts lead us
to one point, and that is a common ancestry. Here we must
leave this deeply-interesting question. Future investigations will
no doubt throw a good deal of light on so important a subject.
In a few more years we shall know how trout behave themselves
in other parts of the world, as for instance, in South Africa and
the island of Ceylon. Already a commencement has been made
in both these latitudes, and we are hoping soon to be able to
report some results. ‘Trout are introduced, and the future will
possibly develop some new and important facts concerning them.

We know that, by judicious selection and inter-breeding, races
are improved and desirable varieties perpetuated, and we know
also how easy it is to lose the thread, as it were, of a pedigree
race by a little careless manipulation of the breeding stock.
There is endless scope for selection and improvement, the making
of cross-breeds, and of hybrids, and investigating the life histories
of some of the sterile forms that are occasionally met with in
Nature, and which are also easily produced by artificial means.

Trout do not necessarily deposit ova every year. Asa rule
they do, but a few do not, that is to say, a trout occasionally
misses a year. There does not seem to be any hard and fast rule
by any means. Probably trout ought naturally to spawn every
year, but a fish which has been sickly or ill-fed, or that has got
injured in some way or other, proves an exception to the rule.

Broken fins unite again, and those that have been lost are
sometimes reproduced, but they always show traces of having
278 How to obtain it.

been badly used. The fins change with age, and it is, there-
fore, possible that a fish may at different times of its life have
a forked tail or a square
tail.

A tail sometimes ap-
pears to be forked because
it is not fully expanded,
and the accompanying
diagram (Fig. 46). will
show how a forked tail
may sometimes be made
into a square one, by ex-
panding a little.

Many of the older
writers have defined species by the numbers of the pyloric ceca,
but these are found on examination to be ever-varying quantities,
even in forms that have been supposed to constitute distinct species.
From twenty-five to ninety the number of the former seems to
range, the average being between forty and fifty. The usual tem-
perature of a trout is nearly about the same as that of the water
in which it lives. Red spots may sometimes be seen on trout
after death that were not visible during life.

Fig. 46.

 
CHAPTER XV.

SALMON CULTURE.

Great loss in nature—Large number of eggs deposited—Bad management of
our rivers—Some evils may be remedied—Poachers considered—Impounding Salmon
— Where to get the best eggs—Nature's discrepancies provided for—More about
poachers—Fate of the eggs—Falling off in catch of salmon—Rate of natural
increase considered—Feeding of salmon—Migration—Experiments—Smolts and
grilse—The United States—Salmon of Alaska—Alaskan and British salmon
compared—Saprolegnia,

HE so-called artificial cultivation of the salmon (\S. salar) is
in a degree somewhat similar to the cultivation of the trout
(S. fario). ‘That is to say, the treatment of the eggs is very much
the same, as well as of the alevins and young fish. The difference
lies chiefly in dealing with the adult salmon as well as the younger
fish after they have been turned into the rivers, and last, but by
no means least, in the manipulation of the rivers themselves.
The subject is a very large one, and I can only somewhat briefly
allude to it here, but as the presence of the king of fishes is re-
quired, in order to make what many would consider a perfect
“angler’s paradise,” I will give a few of my views on this important
question.

If we take into consideration the fact that when left to Nature
not one egg in a hundred produces a fish that will reach four
ounces in weight, and make a careful examination, in order to
ascertain the cause and whereabouts of this great destruction
during the earlier stages, we find that enemies are so numerous
and the casualties and dangers to which they are exposed so great
that the wonder rather is that any come to maturity at all.

‘In the first place we know that salmon and trout will eat not
only their own eggs, but will, if they can, eat each other; hence
280 Flow to obtain tt.

the enemies which the young fish have most to dread may per-
haps be their own parents. It very often happens that a salmon
has no sooner got rid of its ova than some hungry trout which
has been lurking in the vicinity, and probably anxiously watching
the whole operation, goes in and makes a meal of that which with
proper care might produce hundreds, nay perhaps thousands, of
fish. Thus the eggs which a salmon may travel over a hundred
miles to deposit, threading rapids, wriggling over shallows, leaping
weirs and cascades, and encountering all manner of difficulties
and dangers by the way, are often destroyed as soon as they are
shed by the parent fish.

It is estimated that at least seventy-five per cent. of the eggs
are lost immediately, and of the other quantity a large portion is
destroyed in one way or other before hatching takes place. We
know that whole spawning beds are often washed away, or buried
many feet deep by the dééris brought down by floods, to say
nothing of all the host of enemies (animal, vegetable, and mineral)
that are ranged in battle array against poor unfortunate Salmo
salar. When we consider for a moment that a single salmon
deposits in one season, say ten or fifteen thousand eggs,
according to its weight, and that owing to the great destruction,
natural and otherwise, not one egg in five hundred produces a
mature fish, and remember how at this comparatively small rate
of increase some of our rivers formerly held a goodly number of
fish, surely it will at once be apparent that if one-fourth of the
ova annually deposited came to maturity, the rivers would in a
few years be so full of fish, that it would require some extra means
of capture for adequately dealing with them, and keeping their
increasing numbers within bounds. And to the skilled fish
culturist there is nothing unreasonable in the assumption that
such a result might be brought about by the simple application of
the proper means for doing it.

The work of collecting the ova, being so similar to that
detailed for trout, needs no further description. That which
seems to have been rather badly managed is the collection of the
spawners themselves, before they are ripe, and their retention in
suitable ponds. The cost of collecting ova in the ordinary way,
by netting a stream, is very considerable and, as we have seen
How to obtain it. 281

during the past few years, is somewhat uncertain in its results.
There is no need for this state of things whatever, and it is ex-
ceedingly trying to a fish culturist who is deeply interested in the
work, to look on year after year and see the meagre results that
are accruing to salmon-cultural operations. I have had some con-
siderable experience in the collection of spawning fish and of
ova in years gone by, and my opinion of the method usually
adopted, of trying to net the ripe fish out of the rivers, is that it is
most unbusiness-like. I have often been unable to get a ripe
fish, and have spent days by the river-side, with men, and nets,
and boats, etc., trying in vain, although catching plenty that were
not ripe. I have pointed out the proper course, and the only one
that is really workable, but the excuse usually is that it would be
too costly.

It is the ordinary plan that is too costly. So costly is it,
indeed, that for seven years or more I have not put a net into
the water to catch a salmon. The remedy is to impound the fish,
and when that is properly done, and the rest not left undone, then
I venture to say that salmon culture will yield its fruit.

The expense is very much less than is incurred by the present
system. The real difficulty is that some outlay is required before
the work can be commenced, and it seems to be the fear of this
that prevents it going on. Now, I may as well say at the outset
that our salmon rivers are not to be put into the condition that
so many people desire without a reasonable outlay of capital
upon them. Without that it would be just as hopeless to attempt
any improvement as it would be to attempt to put into order a
piece of cultivated land which had been allowed to run waste, or,
it might be, a piece that had never been cultivated at all.

The impounding of fish cannot be done by anybody. I
believe it has been tried in some instances and found to fail.
Nothing is more likely. The ordinary water bailiff probably
knows as much about impounding salmon as he knows about
harpooning a whale. Even experts have yet a great deal to learn
about this, as about many other things, but that is no reason why
important work should be left undone. That salmon can be
impounded, and impounded successfully, I know from my own
experience, for I have tried a good many experiments with the
282 How to obtain tt.

king of fishes, and would have tried véry many more but for the
way in which he is hedged about, in such a manner that some of
his best friends are unable to help him.

We have done so much to injure both the salmon and his
hunting ground that it is surely time we did something to make
amends for past grievances, and to show our appreciation of the
gallant efforts which he has made to hold his own in many of our
rivers. We have emptied the rivers during many months of the
year by draining the hills ; we have rendered the water distasteful
to him by polluting it. We have altered the temperature of the
estuary by changing its nature; we have left him in pools to be
destroyed by poachers, instead of giving him a friendly lift up or
down, as he may require. We have done many other untoward
acts, and it is about time that we sought to remedy some, at least,
of the evils of the past.

The water question is by no means such a difficult one as
may at first sight appear. The advantages which may be made to
accrue by letting off compensation water from reservoirs made on
some of the upper tributaries of a river are too great to pass lightly
by. This question of water storage is indeed one of the greatest
importance, and entitled to the fullest consideration. The immense
benefit arising from it does not need pointing out. To be able
to make an artificial spate just at the right time is a power which
might be exercised on a salmon river most beneficially ; indeed
the effect is at present almost beyond calculation.

On one river which I was called in to inspect, I saw a pool
from which sixty salmon had been stolen in one night but a short
time before. An artificial spate of a few hours’ duration would
have helped these fish over the barrier which obstructed them.
The loss to the river it is difficult to estimate. The intrinsic value
of the sixty fish might perhaps be represented by as many pounds
sterling, which alone would have paid a watcher a year’s wages ;
but when we consider that these were spawning fish, and that their
eggs and future offspring were lost to that stream absolutely, we
begin to realise, after some reflection, that the loss was very
serious. It might easily have been prevented. This is but one
out of many cases that have come under my notice in one way or
other.
How to obtain it. 283

On another river I was shown a pool in which many fish were
frequently imprisoned, and where the owner did not wish to incur
the expense of a fish-way. These fish were also taken out by
poachers. Nothing could have been much simpler than the best
method of dealing with this pool without making a pass. The fish
were very easily taken out, and I advised that they should be
lifted over the obstruction. A horse and cart a few times a year
would have done the work at a very trifling cost, and would have
saved the fish, or if preferred the stream itself could have been
made, by means of a wheel and elevator, to lift over every fish as
soon as it came up. I am satisfied of one thing, and that is that
it would often pay a great deal better to lift the fish over an
obstruction than to watch them, for the salmon poacher is up to
all sorts of tricks, and often pays more attention to watching the
movements of the bailiff than of the fish. .He can quickly deal
with the latter when he gets his opportunity, and it is for that he
watches. It is all very well to say that poaching is kept down on
this or that river, or that the poachers do not get many fish. I
know the case is often very different, for I have made a special
study of the poacher, his habits and handiwork, and he is not by
any means to be despised.

One great advantage that is to be gained by impounding the
fish is the opportunity it gives for the selection of the fittest.
Often under the present system eggs are so difficult to procure
that any fish that come to hand are gladly taken, and it some-
times happens that milters cannot be obtained, and eggs are lost
or gO unimpregnated, to give endless trouble in the hatcheries
afterwards. One man once told me very seriously that he had
under such circumstances used the milt of a trout, and he
evidently thought he was giving me a good wrinkle by tendering
the information. I heard of another somewhat similar case in
which sea trout milt was used. The sooner the work is put upon
a proper basis the better will it be.

I have often known salmon ova to be collected from any
part of a stream where the fish could be got at most readily,
sometimes being taken from the extreme head waters, and
sometimes close above the tideway, or even in the brackish water
itself. Salmon will occasionally spawn in brackish water, for I
284 How to obtain it..

have seen them do it, but the eggs will in such a case. probably be
lost to the river. And it is better that they should be, for they
would most likely only have produced a poor lot of fish. There
is such a strong migratory instinct implanted in the salmon, such
a desire naturally to push up rivers, that when I see them just
entering a river and then depositing their ova, I am led to the
conclusion that probably some of these may not be the best fish
from which to propagate. I have observed something of the
kind amongst trout, fish that are not in “good form,” and will in
consequence deposit their ova anywhere, so to speak.

Then as regards the fish that push up to the extreme head
waters of a river. The migratory instinct may be a good thing,
but there is an old saying that reminds us that it is possible to
have “too much” even “of a good thing.” My experience is.
that in some rivers at least these fish are late spawners. They
are often also small in size; it is perhaps somewhat natural that’
they should be so. Their size and the extra energy which they
exhibit points to the fact that they may be young fish, and fish
culture teaches us that some young fish spawn later than the older
ones. *- We know also that eggs taken from young fish are not so
good by a great deal as those taken from middle-aged fish. Such
points as these seem to have been very much overlooked in the
past by many collectors, and yet to the fish culturist they are
known to be of vital importance.

Times and seasons for collecting ova have often been beyond
consideration ; that is to say, because eggs could not be got at
the right time and place, owing perhaps to floods or other causes,
therefore the hatching boxes have been filled with any eggs that
could be obtained, irrespective of the source from which they
came, or the time when they were taken. Now if there be any
lesson that fish culturists have learned it is that this sort of thing
will not do. I have learned it for one, and that years ago, and at
considerable cost to myself, for I have had the battle to fight very
often single-handed, whilst those who ought to have rendered
help often ran away instead.

To get on the “wrong tack” in fish culture often means to.
get far out of one’s “course” ; indeed, there are. many who have.
held on until they have found themselves on a ‘lee shore,” and
How to obtain it. 285

this is just why I wish to give a note of warning to those about to
enter upon the work. ‘Do nothing rashly” is a motto that it
would be well to observe in time. Nature provides for every-
thing ; not one little bit of mechanism is wanting, and we find the
result perfect. Take the flowers of the field or the fish of the sea
as examples. Any one of them is perfect in itself. It remains
so, and from generation to generation there is no perceptible
difference in a species, be it what it may. But Nature makes
special provision for this being so, and unless we do the same,
confusion will be the inevitable result.

It is true that we find monstrosities and malformations in the
natural world ; it is according to the laws by which it is governed
that it should be so.. But we only find them perpetuated under
special and peculiar circumstances—they may be called isolated '
cases. Take, for instance, the tail-less trout of Islay, or the
hunchbacks of Plinlimmon, to both of which reference has already
been made. These are cases of fish living in pieces of enclosed
water where they are very much separated from the rest of their
species, and this probably accounts for the apparent discrepancies,
if they be rightly so called, but they end there—they can get no
further. We find, then, that Nature provides for such dis-
crepancies, by arranging barriers beyond which they must not
pass; and, if we take the trouble to investigate, we find that
provision is made for preventing them from spreading, and for the
preservation of a perfect race or type of fish. Nature, indeed,
goes in for the selection of the fittest. .

This, then, is what we ought to aim at in our work of cul-
tivating fish of any kind, viz., the preservation of a perfect race or
type. In order to do it, it is clear that we must take some pains
to secure the best breeders. Having advanced so far, we have
the power given to us of still further improving the stock by
judicious crossing of the fish of different rivers. There is a large
field open for investigation here. We know the great advantage
of having good breeders amongst trout, and also of introducing
new blood, and there is no reason for supposing that salmon
should be made any exception to the rule which applies in such a
marked degree to trout.

Let,us turn our attention again for a few moments to those
286 How to obtain it.

fish that push up to the very sources of some of our rivers. Let
us follow them. First, they are blocked in some pool half-way
up stream by an obstruction that is impassable except during a
heavy flood. What takes place? Why, half of them are taken
out by poachers, and maybe even a larger proportion. The
wholesale or professional poacher, call him what you will, attends
to his work.

Then after awhile a friendly flood comes down and helps
the remainder of the fish over the barrier, and they are soon
scattered over the head waters of the stream. The flood subsides,
and the water is soon in the other extremity. The rapid torrent
becomes a succession of clear pools with fish in them, and so
little water that they are unable to pass from one pool to another.
Another class of poacher now appears, and he is the individual
who would not go far out of his way to catch a salmon, but who,
on seeing one under a bank or in a pool, and a pitch-fork handy,
considers that he has as much right to the fish as anyone else, and
carries it home under his coat. So that not a few of these fish
never reach the spawning beds at all. But suppose a fourth of
them get there. They have escaped their greatest enemy, but
they have not forgotten him. They do things in a hurry, as I
have found on many occasions, and the eggs are often washed
away, or buried, or left dry.

But after all some of them reach the hatching point—What
then? They hatch in spring, and having absorbed their sacs, if
spared to live so long, they start upon a journey. I have watched
them coming down the streams, and have seen how in every pool
they have to run the gauntlet. Hungry trout waiting their prey
get fully half of them, the birds pick up a few; all the way down
for miles they run the risk of being devoured by eels and other
fish, and probably very few indeed ever live to return to the river
as mature salmon. Eels should be well looked after on every
salmon river. They are well attended to in New Zealand, I see,
by one of the reports lately to hand.

There is a serious falling off in the catch of salmon on many
of our rivers, and when this is the case there is usually a cry made
for the extension of the fishing season, which, if allowed, would
only tend to reduce the stock of salmon still more. On the other
How to obtain it. 287

hand, suggestions are made in certain quarters that the fishing
season be curtailed. The way of escape is by cultivation. This
is the key to the situation. The great fecundity of the fish, and
the enormous loss of life that takes place if left to Nature, at once
point to this, and now that we know how to deal with the matter
there is good reason for engaging in the work.

The guillemot and some other sea birds lay but one egg, or
rear but one young one in a season, and yet they are extremely
abundant in their localities. The wood pigeon lays but two eggs,
and probably a pair of birds will not succeed in rearing, on an
average, more than two or three couples of young ones in a year,
whilst an elephant is said to have but half-a-dozen in a lifetime of
a century. Now, the young of animals and birds are cared for by
the parents until they are really capable of caring for themselves.
A salmon, on the other hand, deposits, say, ten thousand eggs,
but they are not cared for by the parents, and, therefore, only ten
of these, according to Buckland and others, arrive at a state of
maturity. I daresay this is not far from the truth. A salmon
does not necessarily spawn every year.

We find, then, that the rate of increase amongst salmon and
amongst some birds is not so dissimilar as might at first.sight be
supposed, The case, indeed, seems narrowed down to this, that
a pair of salmon in one year add five pairs only to the stock. If
the above estimate be correct, and I think it is rather above the
mark on some rivers, it is clear that there is a tendency to in-
crease, and we know that in some parts of the world, as, for
instance, in the rivers of Alaska, the salmon have increased so
enormously that some streams are at times almost blocked by
them.

We do not know exactly what is the cause of this excessive
increase, nor how long it has been going on, but apparently
something has happened that has interfered with Nature’s balance
(I shall, however, have more to say about these Alaskan rivers
presently). Some check has evidently been taken away that has
allowed the salmon to increase as they have done. It is, I
think, more than probable that the excessive destruction of seals
that has been taking place during late years has much to do
with it. : :
288 How to obtain it.

Whilst we find, then, that in one part of the world salmon
have been increasing, we find that in another part they have de-
creased to a considerable extent. The cause of the decrease is,
I think, too obvious to need explanation. Increased means of
capture and number of captors, along with many more indirect
causes, have brought about the result. The destruction has been
greater than the supply, and the consequence is inevitable. The
remedy is also plain—increase the supply by caring for the
helpless salmon during its infancy.

A great deal has been said from time to time about salmon
not feeding in our rivers. That they feed when in the rivers is
beyond any doubt, and there are many instances recorded in
which food has been found in their stomachs. On the other
hand, there is no doubt that they often fast for long seasons or
during those times take but very little food. They are detained
in the fresh water longer than they used to be, owing to the low
state of our rivers during lengthened periods, due to our drainage
systems. That this detention in the fresh water is injurious to
the fish is beyond any doubt, and it is difficult to estimate the
influence which it may have in the course of a few generations.

Salmon take hardly any food at spawning time or during very
cold weather, and when they are feeling rather upset, or “out of
sorts,” which I believe is often more or less the case when in
some of our fresh waters. An idea seems to exist in many minds
that the huge bodies of the salmon are somehow developed by a
very indefinite something, which the fish manages somehow or
other to obtain, by a process which they call “suction.” What
this ‘‘suction” consists of I find they usually do not know. But,
in any case, it seems to point to something very much resembling
microscopic supplies.

We know that the food of salmon in the sea consists largely
of herrings, sand eels, crustaceans, etc. The exceptional and
temporary absence of herrings from a portion of our coast has
been accompanied by a corresponding scarcity of salmon. The
salmon, indeed, feeds voraciously in the sea, and whilst there
lives on the very best of food.

During the sojourn in the salt water it has a great deal to do,
for it has to recover from the sorry plight in which it often finds
flow to obtain it. 289

itself on its return from the river, and it has also to accumulate a
sufficient amount of fat to be of service to it during the time it
remains in the fresh water on its next visit. In going to the sea,.
salmon get a thorough change of water as regards specific gravity,
temperature, composition, and products. The return of the fish
to the rivers is an exceedingly important economic question, some
rivers being early and some being late, and some—no wonder that
it should be so—are getting later.

A great desire has been expressed from time to time to make
a late river earlier. The way to do this, if it can be done at all,
is to deal with the river as well as with the fish. The influences
which affect the habits and migrations of the salmon must be
carefully considered before attempting to deal with so difficult a
problem, but I would by no means discourage attempts to make
improvements in this direction. I have seen quite enough
myself to be led to the belief that it is quite possible to improve
some of our rivers that formerly were earlier than they are at
present.

There are two main influences which more or less affect the
migrations of all fishes, viz., food supply and reproduction of
species. These are the primary elements to deal with in working
out any questions bearing on the improvement of fisheries. We
know that these items have a very important influence on their
welfare, and we know also that there is very much to learn
concerning them. In some cases the more we work out the
variety of facts connected with the migration of fishes, the more
complex do they seem.

We have learned a great deal about the migrations of birds of
late years, but, living as they do in the air, we can to a great extent
follow their movements, by having observers all over a country or
continent, and so we ascertain their exact line of flight. It is not
so easy to follow the salmon through all his wanderings, but it is
a work that has to be done, and it is not very complimentary to
the advanced knowledge of the nineteenth century that we know
as little about the ‘‘king of fishes” as we do.

We know that the salmon in the “parr” stage, as we find him
in our rivers before he has made any acquaintance with the sea,
feeds well. We know, also, that about the month of May these

U
290 How to obtain it.

little fish lose their trout-like appearance, including the bars, or
“finger marks,” and that they become bright and silvery. They
are then called smolts, and are generally supposed to have got a
fresh set of scales, but this is not so. Their shining appearance
is caused, not by new scales, but by a silvery pigment secreted
on the undersides of the scales. This same silvery appearance
also affects the gill covers or opercles, which are not possessed of
scales.

An interesting experiment was tried some years ago. A
number of salmon “parr” were taken from the river, and placed
in a fresh-water aquarium tank. In due course about half of them
assumed the smolt stage, but the others did not. Sea water was
then added until the other was displaced, and, on the water
becoming salt as the sea itself, a very interesting result occurred. It
has been asserted that “ parrs,” as such, will not live in salt water.
These not only lived, but very soon assumed the smolt stage.
We know that salmon “parrs” and smolts when in a river feed
voraciously, for they will take nearly any bait. They are found
gorged with shellfish, larvee of insects, etc. So voracious are they
that we know full well that they often spoil the sport in a river.
Can it be supposed, for a moment, that a salmon in these early
stages, during which periods of its existence it does not make any
great growth, feeds voraciously, and, after going to the sea, takes
either no food or very little, notwithstanding that the “smolt”
which leaves the river weighing only a very few ounces, returns
very soon as a grilse of several pounds? It seems unreasonable.

Some smolts return from the sea as grilse in about three
months, whilst others of the same brood remain in the sea for
about fourteen or fifteen months. Those which return in about
three months have, taking a very low estimate, reached a weight
of some three pounds, but those which remain for fourteen or
fifteen months do not necessarily attain a very much greater size
than those which return in the shorter period. The same
peculiarity is noticeable to an extent amongst trout. Some
grow very much more rapidly than others. A smolt let off at
Stormontfield in May returned in July of the same year, weighing
about three pounds. On the other hand, one which the Duke of
Roxburghe let off on May 14th did not return till July of the following
flow to obtain it. 291

year. It had then attained a weight of only six and a half pounds,
having in fourteen months just about doubled the weight gained
by the other in two months.

During a recent visit to the United States I obtained a mass
of information concerning the habits of the various species of
salmon inhabiting the waters of North America. By the kindness
of Sir Julian Pauncefote, Her Majesty’s Ambassador at Wash-
ington, to whom J had a letter of introduction, the way was made
easy for me to investigate many matters of the deepest interest in
connection with the fisheries. Asa rule things in America are on
a much larger scale than they are here, and this is notably the
case with regard to the fisheries. A single catch of salmon, for
instance, on some of the Western rivers is sometimes as big as a
whole year’s catch on a river over here. Seventeen species of
salmon are recorded as occurring in Alaska alone, and the largest
salmon of the world are credited to that territory.

I am indebted to Dr. Tarleton H. Bean, who is a clever
ichthyologist, and holds an important position on the United
States Fish Commission, for his generous assistance in gathering
particulars respecting the fisheries and fish-cultural operations of
the United States. He has personally worked out upon the spot
a good deal of what is known of the salmon of Alaska. The fish
have been traced as far north as Hotham Inlet, and Dr. Bean
says :—‘ The marine life of the Alaskan salmon is unknown from
the time the young, in their newly-acquired silvery dress, leave
the fresh-water nursery to become salt-water sailors, until they
have ended their cruise, obtained their liberty and come ashore,
when, as in the case of so many other salt-water sailors, their
serious troubles begin. Salmon remain in fresh water until the
second or third spring of their existence, and, not having a
bountiful supply of food, they grow very. slowly, and seldom
exceed eight inches in length when they start seaward. In the
ocean they feed on the capeling, the herring, and a small needle-
shaped fish called the lant.

“As a rule, the fish remain at sea until they are about to
deposit their eggs, and then approach the coast in great masses.
A few young males accompany the schools every year, and may
or may not return to sea without entering the rivers. The adult
292 . How to obtain it.

fish come up from the sea at a certain time of year. . . es
The length of their stay at the river mouths before ascending, aad
the rate of ascent to the spawning grounds, depends upon the:
urgency of the breeding condition. In the long rivers the king
salmon (Oncorhynchus chouica) travels from twenty to forty miles.
a day; this species and the red salmon (Oxcorhynchus nerka)
are reported to be the greatest travellers. The silver salmon
(Oncorhynchus kisutch) and dog salmon (Oncorhynchus keta),
however, are recorded by Dr. Ball as traversing the Yukon at least
a thousand miles.

“From the time the salmon enters fresh water it begins to-
deteriorate in flesh, and undergoes remarkable changes in form
and colour. Arriving as a shapely fish, clad in shining silvery
scales, and with its flesh pink or red, it plays around for a little
while between salt water and fresh, and then begins its long fast
and its wearisome journey. No food is taken, and there are
shoals, rapids, and sometimes cataracts to surmount; but the
salmon falters not, nor can it be prevented from accomplishing
its mission by anything but death or an impassable barrier. Its.
body soon becomes thin and lacerated, and its fins are worn to-
shreds, by contact with the sharp rocks. In the males a great
lump is developed on the back behind the head, and the jaws.
are lengthened and distorted, so that the mouth cannot be closed.
The wounded fish are soon attacked by the salmon fungus, and
progress from bad to worse, until they become unsightly. In the
meantime the body colours will have varied from dark grey in the
humpback (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha), with the lower parts milky
white, to a brilliant vermilion in the red salmon, contrasting
beautifully with the rich olive green of its head.

““The excessive mortality of salmon during the ascent of the
streams, and on the breeding grounds, has led to the belief that
none of the spawning fish leave the fresh water alive. There is a
substantial basis for this view in the long rivers, and it is doubt-
less true that a journey of five hundred miles or more is followed
by the death of all the salmon concerned in it.

“The silver salmon does not usually ascend streams to a
great distance, and I have seen it return to salt water alive after
spawning. The red salmon spawns around the shores of deep
How to obtain it. 293

cool lakes, and in their tributaries, preferring waters whose
highest temperature rarely exceeds fifty-five degrees.

“The king salmon is the first to arrive on the shores in the
spring. Itmakesitsappearance in May . . . . andearlyin
June. The time of its coming into Norton Sound corresponds
with the breaking up and disappearance of the ice. It continues
to enter some of the rivers for the purpose of spawning until
August. The height of the season, however, is reached by the
middle of July in most localities. This fish travels up the rivers
farther than any other species, except the red salmon. In the
Yukon it ascends far above Fort Yukon, more than fifteen hundred
miles from the mouth of the river.

“The king salmon does not ascend rivers rapidly, unless
the spawning season is close at hand. It generally plays around
for a few days, or even a couple of weeks, near the river limit of
tide water. As far as we can learn, only those fish that ascend the
stream short distances return to the ocean after spawning, and
September is the month in which the spent fish go down to the
sea. There is no reason why the king salmon should not return
down the Karluk, as the distance is very short. There is ample
testimony, of a conclusive nature, to the effect that, after a king
salmon ascends five hundred miles from the sea, it never returns
to it alive. ‘The humpback salmon (Oxcorhynchus gorbuscha) is

' the smallest, most abundant, and most widely distributed of the
Alaskan salmon. The height of the spawning season in the
Kadiak streams is evidently about the middle of August. Messrs.
Robert Lewis and Livingstone Stone found the humpbacks
spawning in vast numbers August 15th. On the 24th of August
Alexander Creek was full of humpbacks, in all stages of emaciation
and decay. In Alitak Bay, September gth, the fish were nearly
all dead in the creeks, and Snug Harbour contained many dying
humpback salmon, floating seaward tail first.

“After the great run in the Karluk, the fish came down
dead, or in a dying condition, for a whole month, and the beaches
were strewn with dead salmon. The last stages of this species are
repulsive to look upon, but before the extensive emaciation and
sloughing away of the skin has taken place, the colours of the
breeding fish are rather pleasing, the lower parts becoming milky
294 Flow to obtain it.

white, contrasting beautifully with the darker colour of the sides
and back.

“ Like the king salmon, the red salmon travels long distances
up the rivers, pushing on to their sources ; but it is chiefly a lake
spawner, while the king salmon prefers the head waters of the
principal rivers to their small tributaries. It is asserted by Mr.
Hirsch and others, who have had much experience with the red
salmon, that no spawning fish of this species ever leave Karluk
river alive. Natives say that they can catch salmon any time
during the winter months, through the ice, on Karluk river and
lake. -They assert also that all the red salmon die in the spring,
mostly in April. It is said that this species will not enter a river
which does not arise from a lake.

“Tn Karluk lake, near the sources of the river, ripe red
salmon were speared by the natives, August 17th. On the 18th
of the same month large numbers of dead salmon of this species,
and plenty of both sexes which were spent and nearly dead, were
found in the rivers connecting Karluk lake with its tributary lakes.
In all of the little streams falling into Karluk lake in which red
salmon were found dead fish were moderately common, and
there was an abundance of young salmon about one and a half
inches long, which must have been hatched from eggs deposited
during the preceding fall. The male red salmon develops a lump
nearly as large as that of the humpback, and its jaws are exceed-
ingly enlarged.”

These interesting observations upon the salmon of Alaska
have much instruction in them. Although there are other species
of salmon than our Sa/mo salar, yet they are all salmon, closely
allied, belonging to the genus sa/mo, and having a great deal in
common, although in appearance, in structure, and to some
extent in habit, variations more or less modified occur. When
better known, several species may be found to merge into one,
but it would be premature for me to make anything approaching
a definite assertion on this point at present.

It is very evident that there is a great deal that is common
to the salmon of both continents. First of all with regard to the
early or fresh-water stage, the young, or “ parrs” as we should
call them, remain in fresh water until the second and third spring
Flow to obtain it. 295

of their existence. That this applies to the “parrs” in some at
least of our waters is beyond doubt. There is a good deal of
rather confusing evidence forthcoming on the subject, but I have
found from experience that some reach the smolt stage the first
season, that is as yearlings ; some the second, or as two-year-olds ;
and a few not till the third season, or as three-year-olds. The
same occurs amongst trout and char. From the time they enter
the sea until they reappear in our rivers, nothing very definite seems
to be known of their habits. This part of the life history of the
salmon should by all means be worked out. From the time he
enters a river to the time he returns, either to the sea or to

“The dust from whence he sprung,”

we do know something, but we ought to know a good deal more.
We know too well that violent fungus epidemics occur in our
rivers, and we know also that the greatest destruction of salmon
by this means has been followed by great plenty. This is not
suggestive of the salmon being a “total abstainer,” as so many
of his friends would make him out tobe. There is no doubt that
old kelts destroy a great many young fish, and when these old
kelts are removed the result is benefit to the river. The supply
in the rivers of Alaska keeps up, notwithstanding the great des-
truction of adult salmon. One fact is worth noting. The fungus
attacks them after spawning. They succeed, then, in performing
the duty that impels them to thread their way hundreds of miles
up rivers full of difficulties and dangers.

In this country, although there are exceptions, possibly owing
partly to climatic variations, and to the effects of hill drainage,
etc., yet I have found that as a rule the salmon succeed in
depositing their ova before they die. I venture the assertion that
there is a very great probability that if all the large salmon in a
river deposited their eggs and then died, that it might be the best
thing for that river that ever happened to it. I do not say that it
would be so, but that no great harm would accrue seems to be
certain. The. salmon of Kamschatka have had their numbers
decimated, and yet they have continued their race, and the same
applies to those of Alaska.

- These facts in the life history of the salmon are instructive.
296 How to obtain it.

The further the fish go up rivers of any magnitude the worse it
seems to be for them. Some races or species seem to go up the
rivers only a short distance, whilst others go rather further, and
others again will go more than a thousand miles if they get the
chance. One thing is very certain—“ From the time the salmon
enters fresh water it begins to deteriorate in flesh, and undergoes
changes in form and colour.” There is a marked difference
between a newly-run fish and one that has been in the fresh water
for some time. There is one fact that is specially worth noting,
and that is that when the fish running up these large rivers enter
a tributary, and soon find it blocked up by an impassable fall,
they will there deposit their ova, whereas had they held on their
course up the main stream, they would probably have travelled
hundreds of miles further.

When salmon have done spawning, the sooner they get away
to the sea the better. Detention in the river is evidently very
bad for them, and they are at such times predisposed to attacks
of fungus (Saprolegnia). As sea water is fatal to it, those fish
which succeed in reaching the sea before they are attacked are
freed from further risks, whilst those which have the fungus
actually on them are cured in such cases as have not gone too
far. Saprolegnia is somewhat similar to the fungus of diphtheria,
and that is very amenable to medical treatment, if taken in time.
On the other hand, in cases which have gone too far, or that have
been neglected, death usually results. The same applies to
Saprolegnia—the treatment is the same, the result is the same.
On a fish farm it is usually plain to an expert at a glance whether
a fish, if properly treated, will live or die. Every fish culturist
has cases occasionally of Saprolegnia. It is one of the commonest
diseases among fishes under certain favourable conditions, and it
is much better understood than it was a few years ago. As I have
already alluded to it in my chapter on pond life, it would be out
of place, however, to go further into the matter here.

I regret to hear that some of the American salmon rivers
have recently been depopulated by the pollution of the water by
the lumber companies. Enormous quantities of sawdust being
sent down some of the streams, the salmon have been absolutely
driven out of them.
APPENDIX.

HOW TO MAKE A RAT TRAP.

N page 195 I promised to describe a rat trap. It may be

called a rat exterminator, as it not only clears them but
keeps them clear. Build four walls of stone, brick, or concrete,
so as to make a convenient room in which to store the fish food,
meat, mussels, etc. Put a coping on the top of the wall so that.
rats cannot get over it. It may be covered by a roof or not as
may be convenient. Concrete the floor. Cover the bottom of
the door with sheet iron, and leave a hole in it, or anywhere else
where the rats can conveniently enter. Now fit an iron plate to
slide in a groove so as to block this hole at will, and attach a wire
to communicate with some convenient point, say the keeper’s
house. Every night let him drop the iron plate and go to bed.
The rats will be quite safe till morning. They should have a
bundle of straw to hide in, and a terrier will make short work of
them as they are turned out. I have known fifty rats taken in
one night in such a trap and it is always effective.
INDEX.

eee

Acclimatization of fish, 6, 7, 10, 13, 25
Aérating water, 103

Age of milters, 150

Alaskan salmon, 291

Alder fly, 215

Alevins, 173, 174

care of, 191

eaten by trout, 138

under microscope, 193, 194
weakly, 196

 

 

Alexander Creek, salmon dying in, 293,

Alitak Bay, do. do.
Alisma plantago, 90
Ambassador at Washington, 291
American carp culturists, 99

lakes, 204
———— trout, 25. 71, 100, 201
Anacharis, 84, 87, 88
Anadonta cygnea, 218, 219
Ancylus fluviatilis, 217
Andrews, Thomas, 155
Angler's paradise, 14, 22, 39, 43, 47
Annularia, 222
Aponogeton distachyon, 95
Appleton, Charles, 82
Aquatic plants needful, 82, 83, 84, 86
to be avoided, 84, 87, 94
—-———— tobe encouraged, 87, 93
Arachnida, 208
histrionica, 209
Argulus foliaceus, 221, 222
Artificial hatching beds, £74
—_——- ————_ how to mnake them,

174, 176, 177

———— spates, fish saved by, 63
Arundo phragmitis, 65
August for yearlings, 254
Aulostomum gulo, 221
Australia, 120
Avoid lessening water supply, 53

293

 

 

Baird, Professor, 99

 

Balance of Nature, 20, 77

Barnes, W., 233

Bay ot Chaleur, 122

Bean, Dr. Tarleton H., 291

Benefits of aquaculture, 43

Black bass, 25, 33

Bladderwort, 97

Blindness, 244, 251

Blind eggs, 149, 158, 167

Blue swelling, 197, 198

Bog bean, 91

Borne, Max von dem, 33

Borrowdale, 141, 144, 145

Bottom outlets, 71

best kind of, 73 ~~ 3

——-— how to make, 74,75 |

importance of, 72 4

Box lids, 193 a

“ British and Irish Salmonidz ’, (Day),
150, 163 kaw

British Ambassador at Washington,’291

Brooklime, 91, 110

Buckland, Frank, 6, 23, 25, 120

——_——_ ——_——_ his prophecies, 23

Bullrush, 65, 92

Butomus umbellatus, 92

Buttermere, 144

Byssus, 160

 

 

 

Caddis worm, 196, 213, 214

Caddis fly, 213

Californian baskets, 181

Callitriche, 97

Caltha palustris, 89, 110

Candles in hatchery, 126

Cannibalistic trout, 250

Cape water lily, 95

Carbonic acid, 182

Carbonizing wood, 132, 198
——_——_-——_—— tools used, 132, 133
Carboys, great advantages of, 113, 152
Carriers for fry, 113, 115
INDEX.

Catfish, 33

Catch poul, 134

Catching fish by machinery, 11, 12
Celery-leaved crowfoot, 97

Cement soluble in water, 177
Changing water, 103

Characee, 94

Chara flextlts, 94

Charring wood, 132, 198

tools used, 132, 133
Char alevins eaten by trout, 138
—— cultivation, 44

—— fishery, 44

— in salt water, 45

—— spawning, 45

Chinese, 6, 23

Clupea harengus, 269, 270
Chloride of sodium, 104

Chorda dorsalis, 148, 166
Chrysosplenium oppositifolium, 110
Circulation of blood, 166, 193
Cinclus (water ouzel), 143
Clackamas river, 12

Cleanliness, 128, 153, 156, 172, 173, 195
Cleansing the hatching boxes, 172, 173
Clupea harengus, 269, 270.

Caca, 278

Coleoptera, 212

Cold Spring hatchery, 121
Collecting ova, 140

Columba livia, 252

Columbia river, 12

Compact hatching box, 183
Compensation water, 40
Concussion injures eggs, 102, 163
Concrete, 33, 128, 157, 177
Conchifera, 216, 218

Constitutional weakness, 198
Connecticut river, 122

Copepoda, 46, 87

Copper, effect of on ova, 180
Corixid@, 209

Corixa vulgaris, 209

Corregonid@, 33, 45, 204

Coste, Professor, 31

Count von Golstein, 30

Counting the eggs, 171, 188
Covers for ponds, 110

Cripples, 196

Crowfoot, 97

Crustaceans, 81, 82, 87, 100, IOI, 249
eaten by bladderwort, 98
——_——-—— parasitic, ror,
Cumberland mountains, 141
Cycladide@, 219

Cyclops quadricornis, 206, 237
Cyclus cornea, 219

Cypride, 207

Cypris tristriata, 207

 

 

Dalbeattie reservoir, 82, 83, 100

 

299

Damming up streams, 52

Danger ot delay, 256

Daphnia pulex, 205

Day, Dr. Francis, 100, 150, 163, 271
Débris brought down by tloods, 52
Deep water plants, 93

Deformities in alevins and fry, 196
———=— yearlings, 251
Deficient gill coyers, 251

Depth of water in boxes, 199
Development of embryo, 147, 148
Difficulties overcome, 248
Difficulty of getting milters, 146
Dipping tubes, 169

Dipping the trout, 101, 104
Distributing tanks, 130

Disease, how to avoid, 245
Draining Loch Leven, 42

Dry method of impregnation, 149
Dropsy, 97

Duke of Roxburghe, 290

Dytiscus marginalis, 211, 212, 214

Ear of trout, 269

Ear of herring, 270

Earth in fry ponds, 239

Earth as medicine, 239, 257
Earthenware pipes, 126
Earliest hatching apparatus, 140
East wind bad for fish, 64
Edriophalina, 210

Eels, 102, 286

Eels destructive, 46, 47, 102
Eels, how to catch, 102

Effect of copper on ova, 180
Effect of plants on fish, 88, 110
Egg for feeding fry, 243

—— magnified, 167

— shells, 173, 174

Eggs bursting, 168

— do not overcrowd, 182
—— hatching, 168

—— packing, 184

for export, 188, 189

 

 

Elephant, 287

Embryo, development of, 147, 148
Emptying ponds, care required, 71,72,78
Enemies of ova, 181

Enemies in hatchery, 196

English Lakes, 43

——-—— how to develop, 44, 45
——— —-— naturaladvantages of, 44
Encouraging results of stocking, 81,82,88
Entomostraca, 46, 87, 100, 207, 229, 230
——— eaten by bladderwort, 98
Ephemera, 214

Excelsior chopper, 232

Exterminating water plants, 88

Eye spots, first appearance of, 164
Eyed ova, 119, 120, 166

 
300

Feeding trout fry, 229, 231, 235
Felted moss, 185
Female trout appearing like males, 155
Filters, 127, 156, 161, 163, 178, 181
Filtration of water, 38.
Fingerlings v. fish, 20
Fish carriers, 113, 114, 115, 116
Fish culture, discovery of, 30
- failure of, 3, 4, 5
——-——— in New Zealand, 6, 7, 8
in Tasmania, 6, 11
——-—— in America, 11, 24
———-——. known to Ancients, 6
— Chindse, 6, 23
results of, 4, 5, 18, 20
-—— requires education, 5
——-—_ —— _ Bceess of, 9). 44 5) 24; 129
Fish-eating plant, 97
Fish ponds away from house, 52
cultivation of, 76

— danger of being washed

away, 56

————-— filling of, 80
how not to make, 52
——_-+_— how to make, 52, 53

— how to stock, 103
————— how to deal with neglect-

 

 

 

 

 

ed, 79
— old and full of weeds, 78
———s LES td, OF
—S successful, zo
Fish stealing, 21
Fish wheels, 11, 12
Floating fry boxes, 235, 236
Flora and fauna of importance, 77
Flowering rush, 92
Fontinalis antipyretica, 97
Food supply, 41
— for fry, 231, 232
———— yearlings, 249
———— fish, 46 pact
Forked tail v. square tail, 278
Fort Yukon, 293
Francis, Francis, 6, 120
Fresh-water shrimp, trout feeding on,
82, IOr
Fringed water lily, 95
Frost, guard against, 137
Frog in pipe, 138, 177
Bry escaping, 134
feeding of, 229, 231, 235
— killed in turning out, 114
— mortality amongst, 105, 197
— nurseries or ponds, 108, 109, 110
— on screens, I11, 112
— turning out, old plan, 230, 233, 234
————— new plan, 235, 236, 237
Fully- -eyed ova, 119
its advantages, 120
Fungus, 45, 69, 160, 161, 186, 187, 198,
240, 265, 292, 295, 296

 

INDEX,

Fungus in Alaska, 292, 296

Gale of 1883, 27

Gallinula chloropus, 219
Gammarus pulex, 8, 101, 210
Gasteropoda, 216

Gehin & Remy, 30

Geometra piscicola, 221
Germinal vesicle, 148
Germany, fish-culture in, 13, 30, 32, 33
-— glazed pottery, 182
Gillaroo trout, 100

Glass tubes, 170, 182

—-— fish carriers, 113, 115
Glenridding vale, 145

Glen burn, 17

Golden saxifrage, 110
Goldstein, Count von, 30
Graham & Morton, Messrs., 116
Grange in Borrowdale, 144
Grass round ponds, 238
Gravel for hatching, 175, 176
Grayling in Nith, 122

Great water moss, 97

Great spearwort, 91

Green, Seth, 159, 197, 270
Green drake, 214

Greeks, 23

Gremaz, 32, 205 |

Grilles, 146, 157, 170, 171, 179
Grilles, capacity of, 170
Guard against frost, 137
floods, 110

 

Guillemot, 287
Gyrodactylus elegans, 220
Gyrinus natator, 213

 

‘‘ Harvest of the Sea” (Bertram), 30
Hatchery, 124

candles in the, 126
drains in the, 128
floor of, 128
furniture, 130
lighting, 126

oil lamps in, 126
stove in, 126
Hatching the eggs, 170
———— boxes, 130, 139, 156
Helvellyn, 14:
Hermaphrodite trout, 155
Heron, 142, 237

Herring, 269, 270

Hides to be avoided, 192
Highest flood level to be noted, 56
Hirudinea, 221

Honister pass and crag, 144
Hotham inlet, 291

Howard, Henry (N.Z.), 8
Hunchback trout, 251, 285
Hiiningen, 32

Hydrophilus piceus, 211, 212
INDEX

lee, 137

Iced water, 105, 106
Improvement of fish, 88, 89
Incubation, 129
———— — prolonged, 164
Infusoria, 203, 205. 207
Inspection of hatchery, 169
Injudicious stocking, 59
Tris, 92

Lris pseud-acorus, 92

Iron, 162

Tron pipes, 129

Jacobi, 30

Jaffé, Siegfried, 33
John o’Groats, 106
Johnson, Mr. (N. Z.), 7

Kadiak streams, 293

Kamschatkan salmon, 295

Karluk river, 293, 294
———-—— salmon dying in, 294
Kinder, Loch, 15, 16, 17

King salmon, 291

Lakewort, 95

‘Land and Water,” extract from, 8

Land’s End, 106

Land plants in water, 89

—_——-— often useful, 83, 89

Lanky fry, 244

Larvee eaten by bladderwort, 98

Lateral line, 271

Laws of Nature, 20

Laying down the eggs, 158

Lead pipes, 129

Leaf screen, construction of, 53, 54

position of, 55, 56

Leaves falling into water, 93

Leech, ror

Lesser bulrush, 92

——-— spearwort, 91

Leptomitris clavatus, 160, 222

Leven, Loch, 16, 42, 122

Lewis, Robert, 293

Life in a hatchery, 136

Lighting a hatchery, 126

Lime, 162

Limnea, 94

Limneus auricularius, 216

——_—— pereger, 216, 217

— — stagnalis, 216, 217

Limnea peregra, 100, 101

Littorella lacustris, 95

Living enemies, 160

Liverpool Corporation, 40

———— Waterworks, compensation
water, 40

—— dimensions,

39, 41

———  —_—— —_ nature of,
valley, 41

 

 

301

Liverpool Waterworks, result of fill ng,

 

‘41 -
aa spawning

ground, 41
Livingstone Stone, 13, 87, 161, 180, 201,

270, 293
Llanfyllin, 36

Lobel, Matthias de, 97

Lobelia Dortmanna, 96

Loch Fern, 83, 119

Loch Leven, 16, 42, 43, 122
Loch Leven trout, 16, 71, 81, 201
Loch Awe, 17

Long Island, rar

Low temperature, 46

Lowering water, effect of, 42, 43

Maggot factory, 265, 266

Malham Tarn trout, 252

Male trout appearing like females, 155

Marsh marigold, 89, 110

Marginal plants, 80

Mature trout amongst yearlings, 264

———-—— food for, 265

——-——— management of, 261
-— preparing maggots for, 266
tot ornate Gls Tar,

266, 267

sorting, 264

-——? what is a, 261

Matthias de Lobel, 97

Max von dem Borne, 33

May fly, 214

McCloud river, 12

Menyanthes trifoliata, 9%

Metal carriers, 113, 114, 115

Metallic deposits, 162

Mice, 195

Microscopic life in water, 78

Micropyle, 147, 150

Milfoil, 97

Milt magnified, 147

Milters, difficulty of getting, 146

Migration of birds, 289

-—— salmon, 289

Mixed diet, 249

Mollusca, 81, 82, 87, 100, 216, 249

— trout gorged with, 81, 82

Monks, 23, 25

Mortality of salmon in Alaska, 292

Moss, cultivation of, 186

felting of, 185

kind of, 186

Sphagnum, 186

used in packing, 186

used by Laplanders, 187

Myriophylium, 84, 94, 97

——— scatters seeds, 88

 

 

 

 

 

Nasturtium officinale, 88, 89, 110
Natural loss of ova, 180, 181, 280
302

Net for large fish, 262
——_-———_ how to work, 262, 263
hauling under ice,

26

 

yearlings, 257
Neuroptera, 213, 216

New Zealand, 8, 9, 120, 121, 276
Norton Sound, 293

Notochord, 148, 166

Notonecta glauca, 209

Novice at spawning, 150, 152, 153
Nuphar lutea, 95

Nymphea alba, 94

———_ odorata, 95

Oaks, 93

Oil lamps in hatchery, 126

Olden times, 23

Oncorhynchus chouica, 292
gorbuscha, 292, 293
nerka, 292
Risutch, 292

Reta, 292

 

 

 

 

 

 

Osiers, 93

Osmerus mordax, 121

Otago Acclimatization Society, ro
—-— workat, 8,9

Otters, 143

Outlet screen, construction ot, 65. 66,

position of, 52, 65
———— ‘working of, 65

Outlets, pond bottom, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75

Ova devoured, 56

— easily suffocated, 164

—— lost in rivers, 123

—— packed for export, 7, 188,189

—— protection of, 56

—— rooted up by late fish, 56

—— sensitive, 147

Oxygen produced by plants, 87

Oyster bay, 121

Pacific Coast, rivers of, 121
—_——_——- shad, 121
Packing the eggs, 162, 184
material, 185
“‘Packing”’ of alevins, 192, 193
Paludina vivipera, 217, 219
Parasites, 204, 219, 220, 221, 222, 244
on fry, 244

Parasitic crustaceans, IOI
Paralysis, 199

Parnaby, John, 24, 26
Pauncefote, Sir Julian, 291
Patterdale, 145

Penalty for stealing fish, 21
Perch, 204

——— eaten hy bladderwort, 98
Perca fluviatilis, 204
Permanganate of potash, 104

 

 

 

 

INDEX.

Phryganea grandis, 213
Picking eggs, 158, 167

——— —— apparatus for, 159
Pike, 17, 18, 43, 46

Pillans, Mr. (N. Z), 9

Plants, effect on fish, 88, 110
Planorbis corneus, 217

Plants growing in trays, 99
——— produce oxygen, 87
——— in fry ponds, 243
Planting raceways, 110
Plinlimmon, 251, 285

Plug for pond outlets, 111
Poachers, 20; 283, 286

Pond bottoms, treatment of, 88
cropping with grass, 88
— cleaning, 78, 79, 86

—— life, 202

Ponds at Washington, 99
——-— fed by springs, 60, 61
——-— off the stream, 54
——— scoured by fish, 258
without streams, 60, 61, 201
Potamogeton, 84. 85. 94
crispum, 94
natans, 94
Preparing food for fry, 231
Preparaticn of yearlings, 256
Professor Baird, 99

Pupils, 147

Pyloric ceca, 278

 

Quarantine for fish, 101

Rabbit pest, 20

Raising water levels of lakes, 43
Railway facilities, 112, 113
Ranunculacee, 97

Ranunculus aquatilis, 97
Jlammula, 91, 97
lingua, gt
-————-——_ produces blisters, 97
——_——~ sceleratus, 97

Rapid growth of trout, 81, 82
Rats, 99, 195, 265

— trap for, 297

Raven, 144

Rearing boxes, 131

Rearing trout fry, 228

Reed, 65

Restigouche river, 122

Retaining banks in reservoirs, 42
Rivers depopulated by sawdust. 296
Roach eaten by bladderwort, 98
Rock dove, 252

‘*Rod and Gun,” extract from, 10
Romans, 23

Rotifer, 203

Rotifera, 203

Roxburghe, Duke of, 290

 
INDEX.

Salmo fontinalis, 25, 71, 100, 201

—— stomachicus, 109

Salmon and seals, 287

——— culture, 279

——— cart, over falls, 283

——— destroy salmon, 279, 295

——— deteriorate in rivers, 296

— dangers of infancy, 286

—— dog, 292

——— eggs taken at random, 283

—— feeding in sea, 288

——— fecundity, 287

——— fisheries injured, 282

——— help, over falls, 282

——— humpback, 292, 293, 294

——— impounding, 281, 283

——— king, 292, 293, 294

——w— late, rivers made early, 289

migration of, 289

——w— natural loss of ova, 280

—— ova collecting, 280, 286

——— of Alaska, 287, 291, 292

——— parrs, 289, 290, 295

poachers, 283, 286

-——— preserve perfect type of, 285

——— red, 292, 294

——— rate of increase, 287

——— return to rivers, 289

—— smolt, 290

——— silver, 292

selection of fittest, 283

——— taking food, 288

Salt for dipping fish, 104

fry ponds, 241

——— fungus, 198, 199, 241

Sandfort, 33

Saprolegnia, 45, 69, 160, 161, 186, 187,

198, 220, 223, 225, 265, 296

— experiments with, 224, 225

———— history of, 223

Sawdust in rivers, 296

School of fish-culture, 248

Sea water, 104

———— for fungus, 198, 241

Secret of transporting fish, 103

Sediment, 163, 172

Selecting yearlings, 250, 253

September for yearlings, 254

Seth Green, 270

Severn Fishery Board, 40

——-— Navigation Board, 40

Sexes at spawning time, 155

—-— kept apart, 142

Shad on Pacific Coast, 121

Shrimps as food, 100

Shell fish, 100

——~— trout gorged with, 81, 82

Shunting, effects of, 255

Sialis lutaria, 215

Simms, G. E., 98, 99

Siphone, 223

 

393
Size of fry pond, 242
——— yearling pond, 250, 259
Slates useful, 133, 175
Sluice box, 53
Small hatching apparatus, 139
Smelt, American, 121
Smoking injurious, 112
Snug Harbour, salmon dying in, 293
Société d'Emulation des Voges, 30
Soil for plants, 80
Solway Fishery, 14, 26, 33, 106, 128,
165, 228
—_————— spawning at, 152
——— salmon ova at Exhibition, 164
Sorting yearlings, 250,'253
South-west gales, ettect of, 52, 64
Spallanzani, 30
Spates, artificial, 62, 63, 240
Spawning beds, artificial, 56, 57, 58
——_————— preparation of, 57
—_————-—— washed away, 57
— working of, 57
dishes, 152
ground protected, 56
in spawning houses, 29
out of doors, 29
race, 55
trout, 145, 146, 150, 151
Spearwort, gr
-_——_— good for aquarium, 91
Specific gravity of ova, 152
Spermatozoa, 147, 148, 150
Sphagnum, 186
Spherium corneum, 100
Square tail and forked tail, 278
Starwort, 97
Stennis, Loch, 276
Sticklebacks, 101
Stone, Livingstone, 13, 87, 161, 180,
201, 270, 293
Stone fly, 215
Stonewort, 94
Stocking with fry, 105, 107, 108, 112,
114, 121
Stocking with ova, 174
——_———— two-year olds, 105
——— —— yearlings, 105, 106, 107
Stove in hatchery, 126
Stormontfield, 7, 290 :
Stream kept off the ponds, 54, 55
Submerged vegetation, effect on tish, 42
Successful fish ponds, 70
————— results of stocking, 121, r22
Suffocation, 200
Sweet scented water lily, 95
Syphon, 174

 

Tadpoles, 266, 267

—— traps for, 267
Tail-less trout, 251, 285
Tasmania, 120, 121, 276
304

Thallophytes, 223
Thinning out fry, 242
Thirlmere, 145
Three-year-olds, 262
Time occupied in incubation, 164
Toads, 267
Tortoise, 99
Trap-box, 134
Transport ot fry, 112, 113, 114
———  — ova, 188

— trout, 103, 104, 105
——— _ — yearlings, 105, 106, 115
Tree planting, 93
Trematoda, 220
Trichoptera, 213
Trichodnia pediculus, 220
Troutdale Hatchery, 24, 25, 26, 141, 166
Trout food, how to provide, 60, 63, 76
Trout, anadromous, 273, 276
cannibalistic, 250
colour of, 273, 274, 275, 276
divergence from type, 277

 

feeling, 272
frequent weed beds, 87
gillaroo, 100
hearing, 267, 270
refusing food, 268
reversion to type, 277
seeing, 268
sensible to temperature,’ 105
sleeping, 271
smelling, 272
tameness of, 268
tasting, 272
transport of, 103, 104, 105
variety of, 273, 274
——W— in same lake, 274
Trutta paired with farzo, 274
Turning out fry, 230, 233

————. the new plan, 235, 236,

TILL FLIP ETAT

 

 

237
the old plan, 234
—————__ yearlings, 116, 117, 118, 119
Two-headed fish, 196, 197
Two-year-olds, 255, 259
Typha latifolia and angustifolia, 65, 92

Ullswater, 145

Umbilical sac, 191, 193

United States Fish Commission, 99,
122, 291

United States, salmon of, 115, 121, 122,
159, 291

Unimpregnated ova, 149, 158

Unionide, 218

Unio margaritifer, 218, 219

Unpacking eggs, 189, 190

Utilization of waste waters, 6

Utricularia vulgaris, 97

eat their own eggs, etc. , 138, 279-

 

INDEX.

Vegetation surrounding lakes, 93
Vermin, 195

Veronica beccabunga, 91, 110
Villarsia nympheoides, 95
Visitors, harm done by, 135, 136
Vrasski, M., 149,

Vyrnwy, 36, 38, 71, 122

Ward, G., 37, 71

Washing ova, 146, 153, 154, 163, 164,
172, 187, 189, 190

Wate waters, their utilization, 6

Water, aération of, 103

boards, 133

cress, beneficial, 88, 89, 110

crowfoot, 97

cultivation of, 59, 60

failing, 138

hen, 219

lilies, 80, 94, 95

lobelia, 96

mites, 208

plantain, 90

requirement for ova, 166

small supply of, 60

snakes, 99

supply, 124, 136

under control, 53

Watendlath, 145

Weak alevins, 196

Weed-cutting in ponds, 85, 86

Weight of trout in New Zealand, 120

White eggs, 158, 164, 172, 179

Whitefish, 33

White speck, 199

White water lily, 94

Whitley reservoir, 81

Window curtains, 187

‘« Wigan Examiner,” 81

Willows, 93

 

LTT FETTT

 

Yacht ‘‘ Wildwing,” 137
Yearling deformities, 251
net, 257
Yearlings, feeding of, 258
— for stocking, 255
how to turn out, 106
preparation of, 256
sent long distances, 255
———_ take care of selves, 258
Yellow water lily, 95
iris, 92
—_ perch spawning on, 92
Yorkshire Exhibition, 183
‘‘ Yorkshire Vertebrata,” 252
Youl, Mr., 6, 120
Yukon river, 293

 

 
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