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ALBERT R. MANN
LIBRARY

New YorK STATE COLLEGES
OF
AGRICULTURE AND HOME ECONOMICS

AT

CORNELL UNIVERSITY

 

EVERETT FRANKLIN PHILLIPS

BEEKEEPING LIBRARY

 

 

 

 
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THE ILLUSTRATED

AUSTRALASIAN Bee MANUAL

AND COMPLETE

GUIDE TO MODERN BEE CULTURE

IN THE

SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE. .

By ISAAC HOPKINS, MatamMatTa, AUCKLAND, N.Z.

 

\* WITH WHICH IS INCORPORATED THE

“NEW ZEALAND BEE MANUAL”

GREATLY ENLARGED, REVISED, AND MOSTLY RE-WRITTEN BY THE AUTHOR,
ASSISTED BY

T. J. MULVANY, Bay View Apiary, Katixati.

THIRD EDITION—FOURTH THOUSAND.
143 ILLUSTRATIONS.

Published by the Author.

H. H. HAYR & Co., Agents, High Street, Auckland, N.Z.
MDCCCLXEXVI, :
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
PREFACE.

TuE first edition of ‘‘The New Zealand Bee Manual,” published in
September, 1881, was a small book of some 150 pages, and was
intended to convey, in a popular form, such information with regard
to the modern system of bee-culture as might tend to awaken an
interest in that pursuit among the settlers in these colonies, enable
those who should desire to make a beginning to do so in the proper
manner, and iuduce others, who were already working in the dark
with candle-boxes and gin-cases, to discard such appliances and adopt
a more rational method of bee-keeping. The best proof that the
subject was beginning to attract attention will be found in the fact
that the first edition was disposed of in thirteen months, and a second
thousand had to be issued in October, 1882. That edition being also
exhausted and a new one required, I felt bound to consider the
greatly altered circumstances under which it would have to be pub-
lished, and to endeavour to make it, as far as possible, suitable to
those new conditions and to the advances made in the art of bee-
culture up to the present day.

In the interval since the issue of the first edition, bee-culture has
taken an established footing in New Zealand and the Australian colo-
nies, the suitability of the climate and the flora being no longer a
matter of speculation but one of experience. My duties as Editor of
‘““The New Zealand and Australian Bee Journal ” during the two years
of its circulation, brought me into very agreeable communication with
bee-keepers in all parts of these colonies, and the consequent inter-
change of views and experiences has enabled me to obtain an amount
of information with regard to the condition and prospects of the
industry in this part of the world which was previously entirely want-
ing. I came to the conclusion that there is a rapidly increasing class
of people who are turning their attention to apiculture in Australasia,
and who, whether as professed apiarists or as amateurs, would require
a manual of bee-culture which, while giving in a general but not
:

vi. PREFACE.

merely superficial way an epitome of our present knowledge upon all
apicultural matters, scientific and theoretical, should also enter into
full details upon all the practical points necessary for the guidance of
a beginner in the art, and which should be specially prepared with
reference to the seasons of the southern hemisphere, and to the flora
and other local peculiarities of the Australasian colonies. A revision
and enlargement of the original manual to meet these views has led
to the re-casting and re-writing of all the chapters, and the intro-
duction of so much new matter and additional illustrations as to
constitute it in point of fact an entirely new work.

In carrying out this programme I have availed myself of the able
co-operation of Mr. T. J. Mutvany, of Bay View Apiary, Katikati,
to whom I tender my sincere thanks for his valuable aid, without
which, with the limited time at my disposal, I could not have under-
taken the task. The share taken by Mr. Munvany in the new matter
to be found in many of the following chapters will be recognised by
the readers of “The New Zealand and Australian Bee Journal,” to
the columns of which he so ably contributed, during the two years of
its existence ; condensed extracts from several of his papers are here
‘given in places where their introduction seemed to work in with the
present plan.

T have also to acknowledge my indebtedness and tender my thanks
to Mr. C. Futiwoov, of Brisbane, Queensland ; Mr. Tros. E. Winxis,
of Sydney, N.S.W.; Mr. Davip Grass, of Ballarat, Victoria; Mr.
A. E. Bonney, of Adelaide, South Australia ; and Mr. Tuos, Luoyp
Hoop, of Hobart, Tasmania, who so willingly and ably acceded to my
request to furnish me with facts connected with apiculture in their
respective colonies, and so aided me in giving much local information
valuable to beginners in all parts of Australasia, and which must also
prove interesting to apiarists working under very different circum-
stances in other parts of the world.

In endeavouring to ‘place before the novice (whose necessities have
been kept constantly in view in the preparation of this work) a clear
picture of the rise, progress, and present condition of the art of bce-
culture, I have made free ase of all the standard works already pub-
PREPACE, vii.

lished in England, America, and Germany, as well as the bee journals
and technical periodicals of the same countries, extracting from each
what appeared to me to be the most essential to be impressed upon
the mind of the reader. In every case I have been careful not only to
specify the sources from which such extracts have been taken, but
also to give the quotations accurately in the words of the respective
authors, I feel convinced that no reader of this volume can fall into
the mistake of supposing that the quotations given from such writers
as Huser, Dzierzon, LANGsrrotu, QvinBy, Cook, Root, CHESHIRE,
Lussock, MiiLLeR, and many others are meant to supersede the
necessity of studying the original works from which those quotations
are taken ; on the contrary, they cannot fail to excite the desire to do
so on the part of all who, after the general view here given, shall wish
seriously to pursue the study.

On all practical points of working detail I have given the practice
followed by myself, and with special regard to the experience of
myself and others in the peculiar circumstances of the Australasian
colonies. On many of these points the beginners in these countries
could find no reliable guide in any of the European or American works,
for although there are in both of those continents some honey-pro-
ducing districts similarly situated, at least in point of climate, to the
semi-tropical parts of Australasia, yet it happens that all the standard
works on apiculture have had their origin in places situate in com-
paratively high latitudes, where the severe winters and the absence of
an evergreen flora tend to place the practice of bee-keeping upon
essentially different principles in many respects. Many subjects
indirectly connected with practical apiculture are also introduced in
this volume which I have not seen touched upon in any other work.
Among these I would direct special attention to Chapter XIX.

In order not to confuse the novice I have given, in all ordinary
matters, full details of such methods as I have adopted and consider
the best; but in special cases, where there is some divergence of
opinion, I have also described the plans recommended by some of the
leading apiarists of the day, and in every case I have sought to bring
the accounts of improvements in the art down to the latest date.
viii. PREFACE,

I have spared no trouble or expense in procuring the numerous
illustrations which appeared to mo to be necessary for the complete-
ness of the work; and notwithstanding the necessary difference in
price of the book as compared with the former editions, I trust it may
be considered in that respect, as well as in regard to the style of bring-
ing it out, as creditable to the publishing trade of New Zealand.

I. HOPKINS,
Maramata, Auckuanp, N.Z.,
JANUARY, 1886,
ERRATA.
Page 27 line 15—For fasciaca, read fasciata.
» 72 ,,  1—After the word ‘‘ which” insert “the eges of.”

» 86 ,, 11—For execeted, read excreted.

» 117 ,, 1—For fig. 39, read fig. 37.

» 131 ,, 2 (from bottom)—For Qin. read 1#in. and in

ee er ee | + For 1#ia., read 2in.

«, 157 4 8 “3 For “1,8001lbs. ” read 1,4501bs.
CONTENTS.

 

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTORY AND HISTORICAL.

Antiquity of the Use of Honey—Origin of the Art of Bee-keeping—
Modern Art of Bee-keeping—Bee-keeping in New Zealand and
Australia--Introduction of the Black or German Bee into New
Zealand—Introduction of Italian Bees—Imrroved System of Bee-
keeping in New Zcaland—Introduction of Bees and Bee Culture
into Australia and Tasmania—Italian Bees in Queensland, in
New South Wales, in Victoria, in South Australia, in Tasmania
—Suitability of New Zealand and Australia for Apiculture—
Climate—Native Flora—Importance of Apiculture as an Industry
—Protits of Bee-keeping—Adaptation to Women—Advice to Be-
ginners—State Aid to Apiculture—Bee Publications ... 1—24

CHAPTER II.

THE HONEY BEE, ITS VARIETIES AND DISTRIBUTION.

Apis Mellifica—Geographical Distribution of its Varieties—German
or Black Bee—Italian or Ligurian Bee —Markings of pure Italian
Bees— Hy brids— German, Italian, Cyprian, Syrian and Palestine
Bees—Carniolans, Herzegovian, Dalmatian, Koumelian, and Hy-
mettus Bees—Other Races of Bees—Native Bees of New Zealand
and Australia aa a oe is 25—39

CHAPTER III.

INMATES OF THE HIVE, THEIR NATURAL HISTORY.

General Description—The Queen—The Drone—The Worker—
Physiology and Anatomy of the Honey. Bee—Classification of
Species—General Characteristics of Structure—Nervous System
x. CONTENTS,

—Respiratory Organs—Air-Sacs of Bees—The Head—The Eyes
—The Mouth—The Antennze—Senses of Hearing and Smelling—
The Wings—The Legs—The Honey Sac—The Sting—Repro-
ductive Organs of Queen—Parthenogenesis—Dzierzon Theory —
Development from Egg to the Bee—Fertile Workers—Relation of
Bees to Flowers ee we wh 40—79

CHAPTER IV.

WHAT BRES COLLECT, AND WHAT THEY PRODUCE.

Honey—Nectar of Blossoms—Adulteration of Honey—Honey - Dew—
Wax—Bees Wasting Wax—Extravagant Waste of Wax—Method
of rendering Wax — Comb, how constructed—Advantages of
the hexagonal form of Cells—Pollen and Bee-Bread—Artificial
Pollen—Propolis 8s sais il os 80—98

CHAPTER V.

THE APIARY.

Location—General Arrangement—Shade—Water—Area of Ground—
Arrangement of Hives—Extracting House and Honey Store—
Workshop and Hive Store —Fumigating House — Stocking ti.e
Apiary—Moving Hives—House Apiary ... aah 99—110

CHAPTER VI.

HIVES, FRAMES, AND SECTION BOXES.

Movable Comb Hives—Choice of a Hive—An ideal Hive—Various
forms now in use—The Langstroth Hive—General Description
—-Instructions for making—Body of Hive—Bottom Board—
Alighting Board — Cover — Half-Story Hives— Hive Cramp—
Nucleus Hive—Observatory Hive—Timber for Hive-making—
Painting Hives—Frames--Narrow or brood Frames—Broad, or
Section Frames—Half-story Frames—Frame Form—Number of
Frames to a Hive—Mats for covering Frames—Section Boxes—
Requisites_ of good Sections—To Make sections—One Piece
Sections—Putting dovetailed Sections together—Clinching the
Dovetails— Separators — Dispensing with Separators — Section
Racks and Cases—The Bedien Section Case—Honey Boards —
How to construct Honey Boards and Section Cases ~111—144
CONTENTS. xi.

CHAPTER VII.

THE HONEY EXTRACTOR, AND MANIPULATION OF EXTRACTED
HONEY.

Strained or pressed and melted Honey—Invention of the Centrifugal
Extractor — Two-comb Extractor— Single-comb Extractor — Six-
comb Extractor—Preparing Combs for_extracting—Uncapping
Knife—Unecapping Can—Broken-Comb Basket—Manipulation of
extracted Honey—Arrangement of Extracting House ;

145—15

CHAPTER VIII.

COMB-FOUNDATION.

History of the Invention—Advantages derived from its Use—Principal
Points of good Foundation—Comb Foundation Machines—Drone
Cell Foundation—Progress of Manufacture—To fasten Foundation
in Frames—To Fasten Foundation in Sections—Wired Foundation
—Wiring the Frames—-Imbedding the Foundation — To secure
straight Combs ss 8 as fa 158-170

CHAPTER IX.

MANIPULATION OF BEES, AND FEEDING.

Handling Bees—Bee Veil—Bee Gloves—Quieting Bees—Smokers—
Fuel for Smokers—How to open a Hive—Comb Holders—Cures
for Stings—Feeding—Feeding for Winter—Stimulative Feeding—
What and When to feed—How to feed Syrup .... 171—182

CHAPTER X.

TRANSFERRING.

Implements Required—Wires and Clasps--Transferring Board —
Driving—Fixing Combs in Frames—Mr. Heddon’s new Practice,
—Open Driving sie ine ; sts 183—187

CHAPTER XI.

INCREASE OF STOCKS, NATURAL SWARMING, DIVIDING.

What Rate of Increase is desirable ?—Circumstances which affect a
Decision— Mode of attaining the Object—Natural Swarming—
xii,” CONTENTS,

Causes of Swarming—The eo Season— Symptoms of
Swarming—Issue of the Swarm—Objections raised against
Natural Swarming—Preparing for Swarms—Swarm Box—Taking
and Hiving Swarms—Absconding Swarms—Clipping the Queen’s
Wing —Process of clipping — After-Swarms— Prevention of
Swarming—Prevention of After-Swarming—Supplying the old
Stock with Fertile Queen—Preventing Increase of Colonies—
Dividing ss ane aes ve oe 188 —207

CHAPTER XII.

QUEEN REARING.

Necessity of the Practice—A Word concerning Drones—Entrance
Guarés—How to secure choice Queen Cells—Forming Nuclei—How
to insert Queen Cells—My Method of forming Nucleiand inserting
Queen Cells—Mating Young Queens—Necessary Distance apart
of different Races to insure pure Mating—Queen Nurseries—
Introducing Queens —Direct Introduction of Queens—Introducing
Virgin Queens—‘“ Shipping ” Queens—Shipping whole Colonies

208—230

CHAPTER XIII.

SURPLUS HONEY, MODE OF SECURING AND MARKETING.
Spring Management—Division Boards ~Spreading Brood—Putting on
surplus Boxes—Reversing Frames—Heddon’s reversible Frames
-— Queen Excluder Honey Board—Taking surplus Honey—
Ripening Honey—Comb Baskets—Marketing Honey—Extracted
Honey—Comb Honey—Benefits of co-operation ... 231—243

CHAPTER XIV.

WINTERING, UNITING.

Difference in Character of Winter Seasons—Australasian Winters—
Precautions for Wintering—Reducing interior Room in Hive.—
Providing Food—Inner Covering of Frames—Reducing Entrance
—Securing Covers— Providing Winter Forage —Ventilation—
Chaff Hives—To make a Chaff Hive—Providing Space above
Frames in Winter—Uniting weak and queenless Colonies—
Uniting Swarms 3 a ga : 244—251

CHAPTER XV.

ROBBER BEES.

Causes of Robbing—How to know Robber Bees—Precautions to be
observed—Bee Tents—How to stop Robbing ..  252—255
CONTENTS. xiii.

CHAPTER XVI.

DISEASES OF BEES.

Dysentery and its Prevention—Bacillus alvei (foul brood)—Symptoms
of Bacillus alvei—Investigations of Mr, Frank Cheshire—Bacillus
alvei under the Microscope—Tho Cheshire Cure—The Salicylic
Acid Remedy—Bacillus Gaytoni—Other Diseases of Bees—Ar-
renotokia—Spray Diffuser bis a a8 256—268

CHAPTER XVII.

ENEMIES OF BEES.

Australasian Exemptions—Spiders —Mice---Ants—-Bee-hawk (dbellula)
+The Bee or Wax-moth—Tinea cereana—Damage to Combs—
Remedies—Bee-mite—A Caution to Importers of Bees—Fumi-
gating Combs... i sit ee 269—277

CHAPTER XVIII.

BEE FORAGE,

Ordinary Sources—Native Flora of New Zealand—Native Flora of
Australia --New South Wales—South Australia — Victoria —
Queensland—Tasmania—Eucaly pti and Acaciasin New Zealand—
European Plants and Tiees—American Plants and Trees—Bass-
wood—Sages — Horse Mint—Figwort—Golden Rods — Asters—
Spider Plant—Mellilot Clover—Giant Mignonette—Duration of the
Honey Season—Flight of Bees—Over-stocking ... 278—296

CHAPTER XIX.

APICULTURE IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE.

Are Bees Trespassers ?—Beneficial Influence of Bees on Agriculture—
Can bees harm the Soil or the Crops ?—Saccharine Matter of
Plants not derived from the Soil—Derived from the Atmosphere
and Rain Water—Nectar of Plants intended to attract Insects—
Sometimes thrown off as superfluous—Superfluous Nectar eva-
porated if not taken by Insects—Question as to grazing Stock—
Quantity of Honey furnished by pasture Lands—Proportion
yossibly consumed by Stock—Bee-keeping as a Branch of
tacmine oa a 297—307
CHAPTER XX.

USES OF HONEY FOR FOOD, DRINKS, MANUFACTURES AND

MEDICINE,

Honey as Food—For Domestic Cookery—For Preserves—Moderation
in Use—Deleterious Honey —Fermented Drinks —Manufactures —
Honey as Medicine—Recipes—Honey Cakes—-Mead —Metheglin—
Miodomel — Fruit Wine with Honey —Light Beverages —
Medicinal “ wht se ‘ 308—319

CHAPTER XXI.
CALENDAR, BEEKEEPERS AXIOMS.
Variability of Seasons—Use of Meteorological Observations—Calendar,

adapted to Auckland, New Zealand—Bee-keepers’ Axioms
320—321

GLOSSARY... a bag si das sits 326—330

INDEX... Sn eh ade ae ise 331—335
1G. ; PAGE
1. German or Black Queen 28
2. Italian Queen .. 29
3. Abdomen of Italian Worker 32
4. The Queen Bee 41
5. The Drone 42
6. The Worker 42
7. Wings of a bee 46
8. Nervous system of the bee.. 47
9. Trachea, magnified . 48
10. Respiratory organs of the bee 49
il. Airsacsandovariesof queen 50
12. Air sacs of worker 50
13. Head of worker bee .. 51
14, Hooklets of wings 56

15. Hind leg of bee, showing
pollen basket.. 57

16. Anterior leg of worker,
magnified 58
17. Bee sting, magnified 60
18. Ovaries of queen ate - 63

19. Queen’s egg under the mi-
croscope ‘ .. 69
20. From the egg to ‘the bee 70

21. Worker nymph and larva,
in comb i “i 71

22. Worker larve and queen
cells ‘ 72

23. Queen cells puiltover worker
cells 8 ae 7h

24. Salvia officinalis, young
fluwer visited by a bee i7
25, Ditto, stamens and anthers 78

26. Ditto, older flower, with pis-
til developed .. 7

27. Under side of abdomen of

worker bee, showing wax
pockets and wax scales 88
28. The Gerster wax extractor 91
29. Jones’ wax extractor 92

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FRONTISPIECE : Burwood Apiary, Matamata.

 

FIG.

30.
31.
32,
33.

34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41,
42.

43,
44,
45.
46,
47,
48.
49,
50.
51.

52.
53.
54,

55.

56.
57.

58.
59.
60.
61,

PAGE

Worker cells'and drone-cells

Hexagonal cells

Circular cells on

Pollen grains under the mi-
croscope

Water bottle 4

Arrangement of hives

House apiary for 20 hives ..

Movable comb-hive ..

Two-storied Langstrothhive

End of hive (inside view) ..

Ditto (outside view) ., si

Side of hive (inside view) ..

Showing how the different
parts of the hive go to-
gether .. i

Bottom board ..

Alighting board i

End of cover (inside view). .

Side of cover, ditto

Ridge board of cover

Roof board of cover ..

Cover complete

Hive cramp ‘5

Nucleus hive, with | cover
and mat

Observatory hive

Narrow or brood frame

Broad or section frame, with
sections and tin separators

Half-story frame, with sec-
tions and tin separator ..

Frame form or gauge

One-pound section box, with
starter of comb-foundation

One piece section

Section cramp and form

Prize section rack

The Heddon section case ..

93
of
94

96
102
103
110
M11
116
119
119
120

135
136
137
139
140
xvi.

FIG.
62.

63.
G4,

65.
66.

67.
68.
69.

70.
71,
72.

73.
TA,
75.

76.
77.

78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
84a,

85.
86.
87.
88.

89,
90.
91.
92,
93.
94,
95.

96.
97.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE
Heddon’s honey board 142
Honey extractor 147
Framework for two- comb
extractor ke us «. 148
‘Little Wonder” .. 149
Reversible six-comb honeys
extyactor, with one basket
detached. 150
Cowan's automatic basket... 151
Root’s uncapping knife 152
Bingham and Hetherington
knife, with cap-catcher .. 152
Dadant’s uncapping can 153
Broken-comb basket. . 154
Cross-section of extracting
house, with view of ex-
tractor, strainer,andtanks 155
Ground plan of ditto.. 156
Comb foundation .. .. 158
A. I. Root’s 10in. roller
machine 161
The Given press : 162
Gauge for trimming founda-
tion 6 164
Comb-i foundation board 165
Mode of fastening inframe 165
Wax-smelter : 166
Parker’s comb-lever .. 167
Wired frame 168
Wiring board . 169
Easterday’s wire imbedder 169
Device for securing
straight combs ‘ 170
Wire-cloth bee-veil .. 172
Tarlatan bee-veil . 172
Clark’s cold-blast smoker .. 174
Bingham’s  direct-draught
smoker ae . lid
Comb-holder 176
“Simplicity” comb- holder... 177
“Simplicity” feeder .. 181
Grey’s entrance feeder 182
Transferring wiresandclaps 183
Transterring board 184
Pieces of comb transferred
to frame 185
Jones’ entrance guard . 210
Alley’s drone excluder,
drone and queen trap 210

 

FIG.

98. Comb containing eggs

99.

100.
101.
102.

103.
104.
105.
106.
107.

108.
109.
110.
111.
112,

11d.

115.
116.
117,
118.
119.
120.
121,
122.
123,
124,

126.
127.
128,
129,
180.
131.
132,

133.

139.

Frame for raising queen
cells on . we

Frame of queen cells

Comb stand sa

Inserted queen cell, from
which queen has emerged

Alley’s queen nursery

Alley’s queen nursery cage

Alley’s introducing cage

Queen shipping cage ‘

Benton’s shipping cage for
two queens

Division board .

Hive with division boards...

Heddon’s reversible frame..

Queen excluder

Bliss’ sun evaporator..

. Comb basket

Shipping crate and show
case for comb-honey

Brickell’s chaff-hive ..

Hill’s device

Bee tent ..

Bacilli a

Bacilli spores .. :

Healthy juices of larva

B. alvei (last stage)

B. alvei (early stage)..

B. alvei (late stage)

Spray diffuser ..

. Bee-hawk (Libellula)

Bee-moth.. ‘

Male and female beo-moth

Silken tube of bee-moth
larva

Silken tube in comb .

Larvee of bee-moth

Comb destroyed es moth
larvee .. é

American linden or bass-
wood a

Horse-mint of lexnaie,

. Figwort .. é

. Three varietiosof golden rods
. Aster

. Spider plant

. Mellilot clover

Giant mignonette

GE
ra

212
214
216

217
221
221
223
227

232
233
237
238
239
240

243

250
255
260
260
261
261
262
262
268
271
272
273

273
274
274

275
288

290
291
292
293
294
295
CHAPTER L.

INTRODUCTORY AND HISTORICAL.

In the whole range of created objects presented to our con-
templation in the study of what we familiarly call Naturg,
from the inconceivably great systems of inanimate matter
rolling in infinite space to the inconceivably small but
animated forms revealed by the microscope, there is probably
no class more calculated to excite our wonder and admiration
than that of Jnsects ; and of all the different kinds of insects
there is none more interesting as an object of study, and none
that can be made more useful and profitable to man, than the
Honey Bee. Its history is as old as that of the human race ;
its product, honey, was recognised in the earliest ages as a
most desirable, almost an indispensable, addition to the food
of man: and yet it is only now, some 3400 years after its first
authentic historical mention, that we are beginning to realise
the full economic importance of that product and to avail our-
selves fully of the bounty of Providence, evidenced not only in
its production, but also in the endowment of the bee with
those wonderful instincts which render its collection so easy.

ANTIQUITY OF THE USE OF HONEY.

A certain proportion of saccharine matter in the food of
man appears to be essential for his sustenance in a healthy
condition, and previous to the comparatively modern invention
of preparing sugar from vegetable juices, the only form in
which such saccharine matter was attainable in a concentrated-
state was that of honey. The temperate or semi-tropical
climate of that part of the globe which formed “ the cradle of
the human race” was most favourable to the spontaneous
spreading of the honey-bee and the collection of surplus honey
in its natural hives or nests. These would be built in the
hollows of trees, in the clefts and under the ledges of rucks, as
they are at the present day in such climates, and their stores

B
2 AUSTRALASIAN

would soon be discovered by men engaged in the grazing of
flocks and herds in a very thinly populated land. It is not,
therefore, surprising that in the Scriptures of the Old Testa-
ment, the earliest written records of the human race, we find
frequent reference made to honey as a thing universally known
and intimately connected with the comforts of man. The
name is said to be ghoneg in the original Hebrew, signifying
“delight,” evidently the root of the German word “ honig,”
which easily becomes ‘‘ honey” in English. The name is used
generally in the ancient Scriptures in combination with that of
milk, the most universal of all foods, to form the Oriental
metaphor denoting abundance—“ a land flowing with milk and
honey” being the words used in nearly twenty passages of
those writers, from Moses down to the prophet Ezekiel, to
describe the country promised to the descendants of Jacob.
In the non-historical parts of Scripture, the Prophecies, the
Psalms of David, the Song of Solomon, Proverbs, and the book
of Sirach, the words “honey” and “ honey-comb” are always
used as the types of everything good and wholesome as well
as sweet; in the last mentioned book (which, though its
canonical value is a matter of dispute, may be safely quoted in
this respect) it is distinctly mentioned as one of the necessaries
of life. In the historical portions it is first mentioned as
one of the choice articles sent as a present by Jacob to the
tuler of the Egyptians when his sons went to that people to
obtain a supply of corn during a time of scarcity, about 3600
years ago. Some 700 years later King Jeroboam sent a “ cruse
of honey” with other presents to propitiate the prophet
Ahijah. A curious case is mentioned about Samson (in the
twelfth century before our Christian era) finding “a swarm of
bees and honey in the carcass of the lion” which he had killed
some time before. In explanation of this strange sort of bee-
hive, we are told that in the climate of Palestine, in some hot
seasons, dead bodies are often so quickly dried up that they
become like mummies and remain a long time undecayed, so
that a swarm of bees might well select the inside of a dricd-w

lion’s body (supposing it to have been disembowelled) to build

in.* Somewhat later in date a circumstance is related of

* Possibly some such case may have given rise to the extraordinary thi
i ane by Virgil that bees were generated in the decaying dnttalls of
BEE MANUAL. 3

Jonathan, with a part of Saul’s army, entering a wood and
finding “honey on the ground.” ‘ When the people came
into the wood, behold the honey dropped,” and Jonathan
refreshed himself by “ putting forth the end of the rod that
was in his hand and dipping it in a honey-comb and putting
his hand to his mouth.” This is very interesting as showing
so clearly how honey was then commonly obtained. About
the year 1023 B.c. honey is mentioned as one of the things
supplied by friendly hands for the refreshment of David and
his followers when ‘they were hungry and weary and thirsty
in the wilderness ;” and three centuries later it is enumerated
amongst the things of which tithes were to be paid to the
Levite priests by order of King Hezekiah. Finally, it is men-
tioned in the Prophecy of Ezekiel, when describing the ancient
commerce of Tyre, as an article of commerce sent to that port
from Palestine.

ORIGIN OF THE ART OF BEE-KEEPING.

Those passages relating to honey in the writings of the Old
Testament are quite sufficient to prove the great antiquity of
its use, but they give us no grounds for looking upon the
patriarchs and the early inhabitants of the earth as bee-keepers ;
on the contrary, there is ample evidence afforded that, at the
time referred to, honey was obtained from the natural haunts
of the bees—in the forests and rocky pasture lands—just as it
may be obtained at the present day in the bush districts of
warm climates, and especially in parts of India, where the bees
build not so much in the hollows of trees as in the open air in
the branches, and under ledges of rock on the sides of hills.
The climate of Palestine, Assyria, and Egypt is quite suited to
the natural propagation of bees in the woodsand “‘wildernesses”
on the borders of the Arabian desert, and the nomadic life of
the shepherds and cattle-herds afforded the best opportunities
for tracing the bees to their haunts and collecting the wild
honey. We may then fairly conclude that such were the
sources from which honey was ordinarily obtained by the
inhabitants of those Kastern countries, and we have no reason
to suppose that they practised any art of bee-keeping, or knew
anything abcut a system of providing bees with artificial
dwellings and inducing them to gather honey and to store it in a
manner more convenient to man. We must suppose that the
“4 AUSTRALASIAN

‘haunts of the wild bees, when found, had to be pillaged with
the aid of smoke or sulphur fumes, and that the operation
‘was not always an agreeable one we may conclude from the
way in which bees are mentioned in the few passages of
‘Scripture where they are incidentally alluded to, as in Deut.
i. 44, where Moses, recapitulating all that had happened to the
Israelites during their migration, tells them, ‘The Amorites
came out against you and chased you as bees do.” And in
Psalm exviii. 13, “They (the heathens) encompassed me about
like bees.”

Amongst the Western nations the civilised Greeks had un-
questionably practised the art of bee-keeping at a very early
period. The laws of Solon, 600 years B.C., contain regulations
as to the distances apart at which bee-hives may be kept ; and
‘both Greéks and Romans wrote ana sang about bees and bee-
keeping from the times of Homer down to those of Aristotle,
Virgil, Palladius, Pliny, and Columella. It is very probable
that the Romans first introduced the practice into Palestine.
The term “wild” honey is never met with in the ancient
‘Scriptures, simply because ail’ honey deserved that name in
those times;*but the Evangelists Matthew and Mark, who
wrote when Palestine had been for nearly a century virtually
‘a Roman: Province, both use the term “locusts and wild honey.”
We may conclude that at that time the people were accustomed
to keep bees in artificial hives, and they would naturally make
‘a distinction between honey so obtained and that gathered by
“wild ” bees in the “ wildernesses ” or unfrequented places.

When Alexander carried his conquests into India, in the
fourth century B.v., he found honey so plentiful there that he
imposed a tribute payable in honey and'wax. The Romans,
at a much later period, levied a tribute of 200,000 lbs. of wax
yearly upon Corsica, and the countries of the “barbarians ”
outside the limits of the Roman Empirein Europe were known
to produce (and certainly without any art of bee-keepiug)
large quantities of both honey and wax. Inthe early part of
the third century, when the Goths were gradually migrating
towards the Roman Provinces, Gibbon ‘mentions that when
they took possession of the present Russian district of the
Ukraine,* “ The plenty of game'and fish; the innumerable bee-

* This is the part of Russia from which the largest quantiti f
obtained at the present day. Pe SpE OnE ore
BEE MANUAL, 5.

hives deposited in the hollows of old trees and in the cavities
of rocks, and forming, even in that rude age, a valuable branch
of commerce, . . . all displayed the liberality of nature
and tempted the industry of man.” The same writer tells us
that in the time of Constantine the Great (A.D. 306 to 337)
the people of Chersonesus (the present Crimea) were supplied
from the Roman Provinces of the East, with corn and manu-
factures “ which they purchased with their only productions, salt,
wax and hides.” The ambassadors of Theodosius II. to Attila,
king of the Huns, when travelling through part of the country
now called Hungary (about a.D. 450) “received from the con-
tiguous villages a plentiful supply of provisions,” amongst
which is noted “mead instead of wine.” But however
primitive may have been the mode of obtaining honey in
those unsettled countries, great progress, both in the art of
bee-keeping and in mercantile dealings in honey and wax,
must have been made in the civilised provinces, as it is
mentioned, on the authority of a writer named Synesius,
that when the Goths, under Alaric, sacked the city of Athens,
A.D. 396, that city “was at that time less famous for its
schools of philosophy than for its trade in honey.”

In the seventh century the Emperor Heraclius raised a sort
of forced loan from the churches at Constantinople to meet
some war expenses, and on that occasion it is related that
barrels of honey (ostensibly) packed away among the church
stores were found. to be really filled with gold. This anecdote
serves to indicate how extensively honey was used, and how it
was kept in those times. About the same time, when Persia
was overrun by the Saracen Caliph, after the great battle of
Nehavend, the fugitive general of the Persians was stopped
and overtaken ‘in a crowd of camels and mules laden with
honey,” an incident which, as Gibbon remarks, “ however
slight or singular, will denote the luxurious impedimenta
of an Oriental army.” It is also related that Mahomet,
who was very temperate and sparing in his diet, ‘“ delighted
in the taste of milk and honey ;” and that this taste was
general among the Arabs we may conclude from the
circumstance mentioned by Gibbon, that with them “the
perfection of language out-stripped the refinements of
manners, and their speech could diversify the fourscore names
of honey.”
6 AUSTRALASIAN

In the earliest history of the Russian people, in the ninth
and tenth centuries, we find mentioned among the chief articles
of their trade, “the spoils of their bee-hives and the hides of
their cattle,” and “their native commodities of furs, wax, and
hydromel ;” and a Greek historian, describing the state of
Britain at the time of the visit of the Greek Emperor Manuel
(about 1400), says: “The land is overspread with towns and
villages ; though destitute of vines, and not abounding in
fruit trees, it is fertile in wheat and barley, in honey and
wool.”

The true history of the rise and progress of the art of bee-
keeping amongst the Greeks and Romans, and its extension
over Europe during the middle ages, is as yet unwritten, but
there can be no doubt that amongst the Northern nations the
use of honey became with time more and more a matter of
necessity, much of their fermented liquors being prepared
from it, and the more northern the positions, and the more
severe the winter seasons, the more essential it became to
domesticate the bees, or use artificial means for preserving
them during the winter months.

The primitive system of bee-keeping adopted in the earliest
period of Greek civilisation seems to have been followed with
little change or improvement by the Romans and the nations
which rose upon the ruins of that empire, and to have been
handed down from father to son almost unaltered until the
close of the last century. In the first half of the present
century some important improvements were introduced into
England, especially by Thomas Nutt, a self-instructed apiarist,
who was one of the first to condemn and abolish the barbarous
custom of destroying the bees with sulphur, and to invent and
practice a more rational and humane method of taking the
surplus honey in separate boxes and bell-glasses. Since the
middle of the seventeenth century much attention had been
paid to the natural history of the bee and other insects by
Von Swammerdam in Holland, Maraldi in Italy, Réaumur,
Lepeletier and Latreille in France, Bonnet in Switzerland,
Linneus in Sweden, and by Dr. John Hunter and Dr. Bevan
in England; but it is to the researches and discoveries of
Huber and Dzierzon that we are indebted for that knowledge
of the physiology of the honey-bee which has led to those great
practical improvements which may be said to constitute the
BEE MANUAL. 7

MODERN ART OF BEE-KEEPING.

This may be considered to have commenced with the second
half of the present century, although the most important strides
in the progress of the honey industry have only taken place
within the last twenty years. In the year 1845, the results of
Dzierzon’s investigations were first made known in the Eichstadt
Bienen-Zeitung, and in 1848 his book on the “Theory and
Practice of Bee Culture” was published at the instance of the
Prussian Government. Not many years afterwards, Lang-
stroth’s work on “The Hive and Honey Bee,” and Quinby’s
“Mysteries of Bee-keeping Explained,” appeared almost simul-
taneously in America. All these men had been working inde-
pendently for some twenty years, studying the habits of the
bee, and inventing a hive and a system which should enable
the apiarist to control the working of his bees, and to obtain
the largest amount of surplus honey without injury to them.
They all attained a very high degree of success, and they
bestowed the knowledge of their successful labours upon the
public nearly at the same time. All their works have great
and independent merits, and must always remain as classics in
bee literature. To Dzierzon must be allowed the merit of having
so completely worked out and supplemented Huber’s theory
with regard to the physiology of the bee, and also the priority
at least in the publication of his system of bar-hives. Lang-
stroth and Quinby both produced frame-hives, simpler and
more practical than that of Dzierzon, and each of them have
their advocates to the present day. Subsequently the inven-
tion of the honey extractor, of comb-foundation, and a number
of ingenious implements and appliances, have led to a complete
revolution in the practice of bee-keeping, and helped to raise it
to the rank of an important national industry which can no
longer be neglected in any country possessing the natural capa-
bilities for its establishment.

BEE-KEEPING IN NEW ZEALAND AND AUSTRALIA.

None of the countries of the New World, of North or
South America, or of Australasia, were found, when first dis-
covered, to possess any variety of the true honey-bee (Apis
mellifica) ; a necessary preliminary, therefore, to the practice of
bee-culture in any of those regions was the introduction of bees
8 AUSTRALASIAN

from the old country, an operation which was attended with
.far greater difficulties even forty or fifty years ago than in these
days of rapid steam navigation.

INTRODUCTION OF THE BLACK OR GERMAN BEE INTO
NEW ZEALAND.

The first bees introduced into New Zealand are said to have
arrived in the ship Westminster, in the early part of 1840.
These bees belonged to Lady Hobson, wife of the first Governor.
and were watehed over on board the vessel by Mr. McElwaine,
the Governor’s gardener. They were landed at the Bay of
Islands. Mr. William Mason, who was, at the period above
mentioned, Government Architect and Inspector of Public
Works, told me that he distinctly recollected seeing the bees
on board the ship, and that they were in straw hives, which
were wrapped in blankets. He believed they remained at the
Bay when the Government party left to establish the seat of
government on the Waitemata, now the city of Auckland.

Dieffenbach, in his “Travels in New Zealand,” mentions
having seen (in December, 1840) a hive of bees, thriving
remarkably well, with the Rev. Richard Taylor at Waimate,
but says “the bees had been introduced into New Zealand
from New South Wales.” This may be an error. It is not
improbable that the hives referred to may have been stocked
with some of Lady Hobson’s bees, but it is also quite possible
that they may have been brought from New South Wales where
they had been first introduced in 1822.

For the introduction of bees into this colony we are also
indebted to the late Rev. William Charles Cotton, and to
Mrs. Allom, mother of our respected and esteemed fellow-
citizen, A. J. Allom, Esq., of Parawai. With regard to
Mr. Cotton’s success, I quote the following from the British
Bee Journal of January 1st, 1880 :—

‘*In 1841 Mr. Cotton became chaplain to the late Bishop of New
Zealand, Dr. Selwyn, with whom he embarked on board the Tomatin
at Plymouth, on the 30th December of that year. On the voyage out,
and subsequently, Mr. Cotton rendered the Bishop much assistance in
transluting the Bible into the native tongue.

“Mr. Cotton took with him four stocks of bees; and many
marvellous stories are told of his mastery over his favourites on ship
board. He was very successful in the introduction of the cultivation
BEE MANUAL, 9

of bee-keeping in his adopted country, and in 1848 he produced his
‘Manual for New Zealand Bee-keepers,’ published at Wellington,
New Zealand. Before the introduction of the honey bee intu New
Zealand, they had to send over to England every year for the white
clover seed (7'rifolium repens), as it did not seed freely there, but b
the agency of the bees they are now able to export it. New Zealan
is such a good country for bees, that Mr. Cotton told me, one stock
had increased to twenty-six in one year. The natives call the bee the
white man’s fly.”

Mrs. Allom, the lady before referred to, some time in 1842
(as Iam informed by Mr. Allom), serit some colonies of bees
to Nelson and Wellington ; those sent to Nelson were con-
signed to Captain Wakefield, the then head of that settlement,
and reached their destination safely, while those forwarded to
Wellington died before arrival. This lady’s claim has never
before, as far as I know or can ascertain, been recognised except
by the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Adelphi, London.
That Society awarded her the Silver Isis Medal in 1845, for
her “communication respecting her successful introduction of
bees to New Zealand.”

From the bees thus introduced in the years 1840 to 1842
have sprung the whole of the black stock of New Zealand.

INTRODUCTION OF ITALIAN BEES INTO NEW ZEALAND.

Previous to the year 1880 several unsuccessful attempts
were made to introduce Ligurian bees into this colony. I
believe the Honourable Thomas Russell, C.M.G., spent a large
sum of money to secure this object, but in vain. The hot
weather encountered in the passage from America to this
country, and also the imperfect knowledge as to the best mode
of packing bees to travel long distances, acted as almost in-
superable barriers to their introduction. By these repeated
failures, however, apiarists gained knowledge, and as a result,
in September, 1880, two splendid colonies of Ligurians were
landed in Auckland—one consigned to the Acclimatisation
Society, Christchurch, the other to Mr. J. H. Harrison, Coro-
mandel. Too much praise cannot be given to Captain Cargill,
who took charge of the little creatures from the moment they
were shipped and personally attended to all their wants on the
passage across. These hives came from Los Angelos County,
California, and were procured by Mr. R. J. Creighton, the
10 AUSTRALASIAN

New Zealand Government representative, to whom much
praise is due. This consignment, owing to the method of
packing, having been so successful, Messrs. Hopkins and Clark,
of the Parawai Apiary, took steps to procure some colonies,
and two were received in due course from Ventura County,
California. These, too, were received in splendid condition,
thanks again to the care taken of them by Captain Cargill.
Following upon this I obtained from America two other con-
signments, in all twenty nuclei and two full colonies. An
event of considerable importance in the history of bee-keeping
in New Zealand was the first successful importation of queens
direct from Italy. After some correspondence with Mr. Full-
wood, of Brisbane, I decided to give the matter a trial, and
the result was that four out of eight queens shipped at Naples
by Mr. Chas. Bianconcini on 10th of November, 1883, arrived
in good condition at the Matamata Apiary on the 11th of
January, 1884. Another shipment was made later in the same
year, when six out of twelve queens arrived alive. Since the
first importations numbers of Italian queens have been reared
and distributed over the colony ; fresh importations have been
made by other parties, and the greater number of New Zealand
apiaries are now being Italianised. These bees flourish splen-
didly in this country, and will, Iam quite sure, eventually
replace with profit the German or common black bee. A full
account of the Ligurian bee is given in another chapter.

IMPROVED SYSTEM OF BEE-KEEPING IN NEW ZEALAND.

Till within the last five or six years bee-keeping here was,
with a few exceptions, in a very backward state. The hives
in general use were composed of old gin cases, candle boxes,
and in fact any wooden material in the shape of a case that
was handy to the bee-keeper when his colonies happened to
swarm. Asa rule, no preparations were made for the swarm-
ing season, and it was not until the swarm was in the air that
the need of a spare hive was realised. These boxes in some
cases have been so neglected that they have actually fallen to
pieces through age, and the bees left exposed to the weather.
The sulphur pit has, I am sorry to say, not been unknown
here, and it is in use even at the present day. In a German
work on bees the following epitaph is given, which, as
Langstroth remarks, might be properly placed over every pit
BEE MANUAL. ll

of brimstoned bees, as a brand of disgrace to those who practise
this horrid system :—

HERE RESTS,

CUT OFF FROM USEFUL LABOUR,
A COLONY oF
INDUSTRIOUS BEES,
BaSELY MURDERED
BY ITS
UNGRATEFUL AND IGNORANT OWNER.

But this most barbarous and cruel practice is fast passing
away, through the efforts of more enlightened and humane
bee-keepers.

Amongst those who have done good service in this direction
is Dr. Irving, of Canterbury, who, soon after his arrival there
in 1879, took steps to put bee-culture in the South Island on
a proper footing. To do this, he placed a modern hive, con-
taining a colony of bees, in the Public Gardens at Christchurch,
and occasionally delivered lectures, with experiments, to those
interested in bee-keeping. He has also written many interest-
ing and valuable articles on bee-culture in the Canterbury
Times. He was elected first president of the Christchurch Bee-
keepers’ Association, which he was mainly instrumental in
founding.

About the same time, with the object of giving information
to our bee-keeping settlers, I wrote a series of articles upon
bee-culture, which appeared in our local papers, and which
created such a large amount of interest and produced so many
requisitions to me to publish them in book form, that I was
induced, in the year 1881, to publish the first edition of this
Maaoual. The extent of the newly-awakened interest in the
improved system of culture was shown by the fact that a new
edition of the work was required within thirteen months ; and
that being now exhausted, I am led to lay before the public
the third edition in its present revised and greatly enlarged
form. In July, 1883, the New Zealand and Australian Bee
Journal was started by Mr. J. C. Firth, under my editorship,
I having in the meantime entered into arrangements with that
gentleman for the establishment aud working of extensive
12 AUSTRALASIAN

apiaries on the Matamata estate. The Journal was, for two
years, widely circulated and ably supported by. the literary
contributions of enthusiastic and successful apiarists in New
Zealand and the Australian colonies. It was, for reasons
given at the time, incorporated with the New Zealand Farmer,
Bee and Poultry Journal, in June, 1885.

Attractive displays of honey and of apiarian appliances have
been made at the last two annual shows of the Auckland
Horticultural Society. The New Zealand Bee-keepers’ Asso-
ciation was formally constituted on the 7th of August, 1884,
and held its first annual meeting this year. It forms an admi-
rable centre point for the combined action of all New Zealand
bee-keepers in their endeavours to promote the general interests
of the industry in the colony. The Auckland Provincial Bee-
keepers’ Association has been in operation since February,
1884, and its proceedings are likely to help effectively in ad-
-vancing the new industry, especially in the Waikato district.
Other local associations are about being formed, and it is hoped
that the example will be followed wherever there is a sufficient
number of apiarists living within such a distance of each other,
or of their common centre, as may render their regular peri-
odical meetings practicable. A great many persons in different
parts of the country have already taken up bee-keeping with
the intention of making it their sole or principal occupation ;
many others have commenced to practise the improved system.
of culture on a small scale, for their own gratification and. the
supply of honey for their own households. The numbers of
both these descriptions of apiarists are increasing every, day.
The production of honey in ‘the Auckland province alone is.
calculated to have exceeded eighty tons last season. As a further
proof of the progress of the industry, we may take the number
of hives and other implements sent out by that well-known
firm of hive-makers, Messrs. Bagnall Bros. & Co., of Turua,
Auckland, since 1879. In the year mentioned, I arranged with
them to cut my hives, etc., at their saw-mill, and in 1882 they
took over my supply business. Since then the firm has sent
hives and all other apiarian implements to every part of, Aus-
tralasia, and they are fairly entitled to be called the premier
hive-makers of these colonies. In response to some inquiries.
I made concerning the number of hives, etc., they had supplied
since first commencing the business, Messrs. Bagnall Bros. & Co,
BEE MANUAL. 13

kindly sent me the following :—‘ The following figures are as
near correct as possible of the number of hives, extractors, and
smokers we have supplied: Hives, 4,500; extractors (single
and double), 300; smokers, 750. These are the principal
items : sections are a very large item ; last season we sent out
about 100,000.” Of comb-foundation, since I first commenced
making it, I have supplied nearly eight tons. I think we
shall not be very far out. if we allow a like number of hives and
half as much comb-foundation as being home-made and supplied
from other sources. Presuming this to be correct, we have,
then, about 9,000 hives and twelve tons of comb-foundation
distributed through Australasia—not at all a bad showing for
so young an industry. On the whole, there is the gratifying
prospect that New Zealand and Australia, before many years
have elapsed, shall have taken an important station among
honey-producing countries.

INTRODUCTION OF BEES AND BEE CULTURE INTO AUSTRALIA
AND TASMANIA.

The black or German bee was introduced into New South
Wales in 1822. The following extract is from Haydn's
Dictionary of Dates, for which I am indebted to the kindness
of a correspondent in Sydney :—

“« Bees were first imported by Captain Wallis, in the ship Isabella,
into Sydney, in April, 1822, and from these original hives the stocks
were propagated into the interior by the colonists.”

Mr. Thos. Lloyd: Hood, of Hobart, has very kindly furnished
me with the following information concerning the introduction
of bees and state of apiculture in Tasmania. He says :—

“« Bees were first introduced into Tasmania by Dr. Wilson, R.N., in
the ship Catherine Stewart Forbes, in the year 1831. Great interest
was taken in their arrival, and there was a general expression of
gratitudé to Dr. Wilson for the disinterested benefit he had conferred
on the coiony at considerable trouble and cost to himself.

‘« Bee-keeping here is carried on on the most primitive principles,
frame hives and other appliances are only known by repute. Bees are
generally kept in some handy sized’ boxes (gin cases, etc.), and at the
end of summer these boxes are lifted, and the heavy ones mercilessly
put over the ‘sulphur pit ;’ or by the more merciful bee-keepers, the
bees are driven into another box, and so on from year to year. Very
great interest is now being taken in the improved system and modern
appliances since I introduced them last year, and I hear of many'who
intend taking up bee-culture as a commercial industry.”
14 AUSTRALASIAN

I have not been able to obtain any information as to the
introduction of the German bee into South Australia, Victoria,
or Queensland. Probably the importation may have been made
from New South Wales or Tasmania, and nct direct from Europe.
To Mr. C. Fullwood, of Brisbane, I am indebted for much
information as to the progress of bee-culture in Queensland.
The following extract from a communication of his in the first
number of the New Zealand and Australian Bee Journal gives a
graphic description of bee-culture uader the old regime :—

‘Some years ago large quantities of bees were kept by farmers and
others in a very primitive fashion, and the bush resounded with the
hum of the ‘ busy bee.’ Timber getters, wood carters, and aborigines
frequently secured large quantities of honey from hollow trees; both
the black bee and stingless bee, peculiar to Australia, were found
almost everywhere. Gin cases, tea, or any kind of rough boxes were
appropriated to bee use, and such is the climate, and the yield of
honey so regular, that bees appeared to thrive everywhere, and in any
kind of hive, so long as they had a cover under which to build their
comb and rear their brood. No skill was demanded in their manage-
ment. Given a swarm—put it in a box, on a stand, under a‘sheet of
bark ; then look out for swarms in a few weeks; and, after a while,
turn up the box, cut out some honey, or drive the bees into another
box to go through the process of building and storing, to be again
despoiled in like manner.

“No thought about the destruction of brood, waste of honey and
wax; no care about the queens. Would not know a queen from a
drone, or their value in the hive. What matter if a few boxes (stock)
perish? Such was the natural increase by swarming that a few losses
were of no consequence.

‘* Anybody could keep bees who had courage enough to rob them.
The aborigines knew how to doit. With a tomahawk and fire-stick
they would attack the ‘ white-fellow sugar bag,’ and driving the bees
with smoke, deprived them of their honey. ‘ Pettigrew’s old Irishman’
was not required here to teach the Australian aborigines how to rob
the bees by means of smoke.

“A few years ago, however, a great: change cameover the land. A
moth, unknown previously, commenced its ravages. The bees suc-
cumbed before it, and were rapidly swept away. Farmers owning
from fifty to two hundred stocks lost all. The bees in the bush gave way
also before the terrible onslaught, leaving the invader all but master
of the field. Only a very few individuals, by dint of determined
persevering watchfulness and care, managed to save « few stockr
amid the general devastation.

“*Bee-keeping naturally came to be viewed as a very precarious,
risky, and unprofitable business ; and, although it has its charms for
many, there are but two or three persons in the colony who have any
number of stocks, or who attempt bee-keeping as a means of obtaining
an income.’
BEE MANUAL, 15

ITALIAN BEES IN QUEENSLAND.

In order to remedy this state of things Mr. Fullwood very
properly determined to introduce Italian bees, which are known
to defend themselves more effectually than the German bee
against the inroads of moths, ants, and other enemies. In the
year 1880 he brought five queens with himself from Liverpool
to Melbourne, and thence to Brisbane. In 1882 he got twelve
queens sent direct from Charles Bianconcini of Bologna, and
of these five arrived alive ; and again in 1883 he got a second
consignment of twelve, of which seven arrived safely. These
spirited effoits appear to have been crowned with the success
they deserve. The Italian bees seem to be quite able for the
moths, and honey in abundance can be gathered by them in
Queensland. Owing to Mr. Fullwood’s enterprise and example,
a number of people are now turning their attention to bee-
keeping, and I have no doubt that in a comparatively short
time, Queensland will show to the front as a honey-producing
country.

ITALIAN BEES IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

It is stated by Dr. Gerstaecker, that four stocks of Ligurian
bees were shipped in England by Mr. I. W. Woodbury, in Sep-
tember, 1862, and that they arrived safely in Australia, after a
passage of seventy-nine days. It does not appear, however,
that these stocks succeeded and propagated their race, any
more than a colony which Mr. Angus Mackay, the present
editor of the Town and Country Journal in Sydney, subsequently
brought with him to Brisbane, at great expense, from America,
Mr. 8. McDonnell, of Sydney, imported two colonies from
America in 1880, and succeeded in raising stock from them ;
and later Mr. Abrams, a German bee-master, brought some
colonies with him from Italy in 1883, settled in Paramatta,
and having succeeded in rearing a pure race from his queens,
started an apiary for the Italian Bee-Farming Company, of
which he is the manager, and Mr. McDonnell secretary.

ITALIAN BEES IN VICTORIA.

In Victoria, we are told that the late Mr. Edward Wilson
had a stock of Ligurians sent out to him in 1862, by Messrs.
Neighbour and Sons; but I am informed that no successful
attempt had been made to establish the race there until quite
16 AUSTRALASIAN

recently, when, in the latter part of 1884, Mr. Herman Naveau,
-of Hamilton, obtained some of those.bees from Queensland,
and has had great success with them.

ITALIAN BEES IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

In South Australia, as Mr. Bonney informs me, the Chamber
of Manufactures imported a colony of Italian bees from Mr.
Fullwood, of Brisbane, in December, 1883, and succeeded in
establishing them on Kangaroo Island, where they are doing
remarkably wéll. Mr. Bonney himself has since successfully
imported queens direct from Italy, a parcel of twelve from
Bologna, to his order, having arrived safely in September, 1884,
at Adelaide. ‘He states that “around Adelaide, bee-keeping is
now all the rage, very many persons taking it up as an amuse-
ment, while « few are making it a means of livelihood.” Much
credit is due to this gentleman for the trouble he has taken to
place apiculture on a proper footing in South Australia.

ITALIAN BEES IN TASMANIA.

To Mr. Thos. Lloyd Hood, of Hobart, the gentleman already
referred to, belongs the credit of being the first person to
introduce Italian bees into Tasmania. They arrived at Hobart
from New South Wales in the s.s. Flora, Captain Bennison, on
the 4th October, 1884. Mr. Hood, writing in May, 1885,
informs me that he has had great success with them. “ Though
kept in the city they increased the first season to five strong
colonies and two rather weak ones. Most of the young queens
are hybrids.”

SUITABILITY OF NEW ZEALAND AND AUSTRALIA FOR
APICULTURE.

Any person who had a practical knowledge of apiculture,
who had witnessed the results obtained from its improved
scientific practice in Europe and America, and who afterwards
visited the New-Zealand and ‘Australian colonies, could not
fail to be struck with the advantages they offer for the prose-
cution of the honey industry. First, as regards
BEE MANUAL. 17

CLIMATE.

The influence of climate upon the operations of the bee-
keeper is of a two-fold nature : first, as it affects the bee itself,
especially the condition of the insect during the winter season ;
and, secondly, as it is favourable or otherwise to that class of
vegetation which affords forage for the bee and a flow of nectar
in the honey season. Looking to the old country, we shall
find that all those portions of Southern Europe, Asia Minor,
and Pheenicia which constitute the ancient home of the honey-
bee lie between the isothermal lines of 41° and 59° mean winter
temperature, the medium line of 50° passing through or close
to all the localities most celebrated both in ancient and modern
times for the quality of its honey. The same places lie between
the summer isothermals of 68° and 77°. California in North
America and Chili in South America, both rich honey-pro-
ducing countries, have a mean winter temperature of 50° to
51° and a summer temperature of 67° to 68°. The colony of
Victoria in Australia and the province of Auckland in New
Zealand have exactly the same mean temperature as these last
mentioned countries, both in winter and summer ; and the
whole of the New Zealand islands, as well as nearly all the
Australian colonies south of Queensland, lie between the lines
of 41° and 59° mean winter temperature, exactly as in the case
of the most favoured honey countries in the northern hemi-
sphere. Queensland and some northern portions of New South
Wales and South Australia have a winter temperature several
degrees warmer than, and a tropical summer nearly equal to,
that of Egypt and Syria. The rainfall in most of these colonies
is amply sufficient for a luxuriant vegetation. In the most
southern parts of New Zealand and Tasmania bees can fly
about and even gather some honey and pollen all through the
winter; and in some of the Australian colonies they can
even gather surplus honey all the year round. When we
remember the trouble, risk, and expense that has to be
incurred in wintering bees in many parts of Europe and
America, where they have to be confined in cellars for three
or even for five or six months of the year in a state of semi
or complete torpor, we can appreciate the advantages for the
purposes of bee-keeping of a climate such as we enjoy in these
colonies.

Cc
18 AUSTRALASIAN

NATIVE FLORA,

This is a matter to be dealt with more fully in the chapter
on bee forage; it is only necessary to mention here, in
elucidation of this part of our subject, that the indigenous trees
are nearly all honey bearers. ‘This is abundantly proved by
the amount of honey sometimes taken from colonies wild in
the bush. It is quite a frequent occurrence to take from 100
to 200 Ibs. and very often more from these hives. This honey
could not, in many cases, have been gathered from any other
source than the bush, for as the colonies are sometimes found
eight or ten miles from any cultivation, and as the bee does
not usually exceed from one mile and a half to two miles’ radius
in its flight, it follows that honey obtained from the hives
mentioned must have come exclusively from the indigenous
flora. If further proof be required, may we not find it in the
fact that the bee has so quickly and universally spread over
New Zealand and other parts of Australasia from a few
colonies ?

The apiarist has not only the benefit of a splendid native
flora, but the climate being so well adapted for the growth of
all honey-producing plants of the old world, he is especially
favoured in this country.

In Australia the native acacias and eucalypti are especially
valuable for bee forage, varying as they do in their times of
blossoming, so that some of them are available at almost any
season of the year. These trees also grow rapidly and thrive
well when introduced into New Zealand.

IMPORTANCE OF APICULTURE AS AN INDUSTRY.

The degree to which the production of honey may be de-
veloped in a comparatively short time will be best illustrated
by the case of the United States of America. Professor Cook,
in the last edition of his Manual of the Apiary, gives the
following picture of the present state of the industry :—“ An
excellent authority places the number of colonies of bees in the
United States in 1881 at 3,000,000, and the honey production
of the year at more than 200,000,000Ibs ; the production for
that year was not up to the average, and yet the cash value of the
year’s honey crop exceeds thirty millions of dollars.” G. W.
Mead and Co., of San Francisco, in their annual review issued
BEE MANUAL. 19

afew months ago, state that the total output of California
honey, comb and extracted, for 1884, aggregated nearly the
enormous total of 9,000,000 Ibs. It has no parallel in any part
of the world. These appear to be enormous results, and yet
the apiarists of America still speak and act as men convinced
that their industry is scarcely out of its infancy as yet, and who
see no prospect of a sudden or early check to the progressive
increase either of production or consumption.

The use of manufactured sugar has now for many generations
almost entirely supplanted that of honey, which could not be,
under the old system, produced in sufficient quantities or at a
sufficiently low cost to compete with the new sweet. But sugar,
although so nearly the same in chemical constitution, is not
honey, and never can take the place of that delicious product
as an agreeable and wholesome addition to the food of man.
Modern apiculture, which renders possible an enormously in-
creased production of honey at a greatly reduced cost, cannot
fail to lead to its general use again, not of course to the ex-
clusion of sugar, but upon a scale which would have been quite
impossible in former times.

PROFITS OF BEE-KEEPING.

This is a question with reference to which it is necessary to
guard against false or exaggerated views. It must be recollected
that all industries require the combination in certain propor-
tions of three elements—capital, labour, and skill. Some
afford aready and safe investment for the first ; others require
an immense quantity of the second; and others again are
chiefly dependent upon the exercise of the third. The honey
industry especially may be reckoned of the latter sort. An
apiary cannot, it is true, be established without a certain
expenditure of capital, nor worked without some labour; but
both these factors are small as compared with the value of the
personal care and attention of the skilled apiarist, upon which
the question of profit or loss mainly depends, and the profits
of a successful apiary are rarely indeed more than sufficient to
fairly remunerate the time and skill so applied. Bee-keeping
is therefore not to be looked upon as a profitable investment for
large capital, or as a large employer of labour, but as a fair
field, and certainly a fairly remunerative one, for the industry,
20 AUSTRALASIAN

skill and perseverance of him who lays himself out to be not
only a bee-keeper but a bee master.

The question is continually asked—‘‘ What is the average
yearly production of honey, and what the average profit from
each hive?” The answer must be, the former depends
practically upon the skill of the apiarist (within certain limits
of course), and the latter mainly upon his commercial intelli-
gence. It is easy to show what results are attained in some
eases, but it is dangerous to apply these results as a measure
of success or failure in our own case. Such results as 300,
400, or even 500 Ibs. of extracted honey from one hive in
a good season are not unknown nor even very rare. An
average of 200 lbs. per hive may be often attained under
favourable circumstances and good management ; but 100 lbs.
of extracted, or 60 lbs. of comb honey per hive may be nearer
to the mark of what a prudent apiarist will look forward to
obtaining, and any one who can show such results as the
average of a number of successive seasons, may fairly count him-
self a successful bee-keeper, and his location a favoured one.
It must, however, be understood that it is a rule, with
perhaps no exceptions, that the larger the apiary the lower
the average production per hive; so that supposing 100 lbs. of
extracted honey to be a fair average through an apiary of 100
hives I would consider 75lbs. a good one per hive for 250
hives under the same conditions.

ADAPTATION TO WOMEN.

There is a feature in this industry which, I think, especially
recommends it to notice, viz., its adaptation to women. In
both England and America, at the present time, some of the
most successful apiarists are ladies, and several of the most
extensive bee-keepers in America are assisted by their wives
and daughters. Professor Cook states that Mrs. L. B. Baker,
of Landsing, Michigan, who has kept bees very successfully for
four years, read an admirable paper before the Michigan con-
vention of bee-keepers, in which she said :—

“But I can say, having tried both (referring to boarding-house-
keeping and bee culture), I give bee-keeping the preference, as more
profitable, healthful, independent, and enjoyable. I find the labours
of the apiary more endurable than working over a stove, and more
BEE MANUAL. 21

pleasant and conducive to health. I believe that many of our delicate
and invalid ladies would find renewed vigour in body and mind in the
labours and recreation of the apiary. My own experience of the
apiary is that it is a source of interest and enjoyment far exceeding
my anticipations.”

Although apiculture offers as good an opening to people of
either sex as can be found amongst ordinary industries, I do
net mean to say that it is a “royal road” to wealth, or that it
is suitable to every person who thinks proper to engage in it;
but we have ample proof that it has been the means of many
people of both sexes regaining their health and strength, and
so enabling them to earn a respectable livelihood when they
were almost incapable of undertaking any other employment.
One notable instance in this respect I can quote in the person
of Mrs. L. Harrison, of Illinois, now one of the most successful
lady apiarists and writers on bee matters known. This lady
was at one time told by her physician that she could not live ;
but, as she herself states, “apiculture did for her what the
physicians could not do—restored her to health, and gave her
such vigour that she has been able to work a large apiary for
years.”

ADVICE TO- BEGINNERS.

Let me impress upon the minds of those about to embark
in the culture of bees the fact that success in this industry,
as in all others, can only be obtained by tact, patience, and
perseverance. As the Rev. L. L. Langstroth says :—“ There
is no royal road to profitable bee-keeping ; and while large
profits can be realised by careful and experienced bee-keepers,
those who are otherwise will be almost sure to find their outlay
result only in vexatious losses. An apiary neglected or mis-
managed is worse than a farm overgrown by weeds or exhausted
by ignorant tillage ; for the land, by prudent management,
may again be made fertile, but the bees when once destroyed
are a total loss.”

It would be injudicious for an inexperienced person to start
with a large number of colonies, not more than four or five, for
under modern management these could be increased very rapidly
after he had acquired skill and experience. I would recommend
beginners to procure good stocks or early swarms to start
with, from some reliable person in his immediate neighbourhood
if possible. For the sake of economy get black bees, and after
22 AUSTRALASIAN

gaining some little experience procure either an Italian queen
or a nucleus colony of Italian bees, and Italianise the black
stocks, according to directions given in another chapter. By
adopting this plan much expense and risk will be saved at the
commencement. The beginner should of course adopt all the
latest improvements in bee-culture, and, if possible, visit an
apiary where the modern system of management has been
introduced. Let me also impress on him the necessity and
advantage of only having one kind and size of hive throughout
the apiary. The reason of this is so obvious that it needs no
further comment. Let him also remember that “ practice
makes perfect ;” that no matter how fully any book may enter
on a given subject, yet without experience the reader, practi-
cally, will be like a ship without a rudder, for itis only by
practical experience that we gain lasting knowledge and success.
He should become a member of the nearest bee-keepers’ asso-
ciation and a subscriber to a local bee journal, which will keep
him posted up in everything relating to the progress of the
industry in these colonies, and serve as a means of communi-
cation between him and his fellow bee-keepers. He should follow
the simple instructions given in this Manual, and avoid trying
new experiments until he feels that he is master of the rudi-
ments of the art; he may afterwards with advantage study all
that has been written on the subject of apiculture, and form
his own judgment on points (not a few) where he finds that
“the doctors differ.”

STATE AID TO APICULTURE.

Germany and other continental states have long felt it to be
one of the duties of a paternal government to promote the
diffusion of a knowledge of the principles of bee-culture by
means of suitable publications and by placing at the disposal
of agricultural societies an annual contribution in aid of their
objects. The United Sates of America have, at their Agricul-
tural Colleges, professors of entomology and of bee-culture, who
give both theoretical and practical instruction to the students ;
and in England a movement has been for some time in progress,
which has now received the sanction of the Education Depart-
ment, to place among the “ extra subjects,” the optional study
of which is provided for by the Education Act, the branch
BEE MANUAL, 23

of “ practical scientific bee-keeping, the natural history of the
honey-bee, and the fertilization of tlowers by insects generally.”
This is a step which might well be followed by our own Edu-
cation Boards. Itis to he hoped that our Colonial Governments
will show themselves alive to the importance of encouraging
the study of scientific bee-culturé. The industry itself is not
one which calls for state aid in the shape of subsidies or of
protective duties, and it is therefore all the more deserving of
all the indirect assistance which an enlightened Government
may find opportunities of extending to it.

BEE PUBLICATIONS.

The following are some of the best works on modern
apiculture :—

‘*LANGSTROTH ON THE Hive anp Honry Bes.”—This work is con-
sidered by some to be the best bee book in the English language.
I can, from my own knowledge, bear testimony to its excellence
and usefulness.

“*Coox’s MANUAL OF THE APIARY.”—This is unquestionably a first-
class work, and is fully up with the times as far as regards
apiculture and the physiology of the honey-bee.

“Tue ABC. or Bee-Cutture.”—This work 1s in the form of an
Encyclopedia, containing all the latest information relative to
this matter, and is both plain and practical. By A. J. Root.

‘*Quinsy’s New Beze-Keerine.”’—This is a very useful work, written
by one of America’s most practical bee-keepers.

“Kine’s New Bexe-Keepers’ Text Boox.”—A capital work, kept
well up with the times. Has had an enormous sale.

“Bees anD Honey,” by T. G. Newman.—This is a sprightly little
book, well illustrated, and contains a large amount of practical
information.

“¢ AriEy’s Hanp-Boox.”—‘ New method of queen-rearing,’ by one of
the most experienced queen-breeders living.

“BuesseD Brees” and ‘“ Puin’s DicrioNaRy oF PracticaL API-
CULTURE” are well worthy of a place in every bee-keeper’s
library.

The foregoing are all American publications ; the following
are some by English authors :—

‘¢ Bevan oN THE Honey-BEz.”— This book is especially devoted to
the natural history, anatomy, and physiology of the honey-bee,
and would be very valuable to the student.

‘Hunter’s Manvau,”—A good work ; specially written for British
bee-keepers.
24 AUSTRALASIAN

‘* Tur APIARY, OR Bers, BEE Hives, AND BEE Cutrure,” by Alfred
Neighbour.—This is, I believe, the best work now published in
England—quite up with the times.

“‘Cowan’s British BEE-KEEPERS’ GuIpE Boox.”—Written by a
thoroughly practical beekeeper. Cheap, and first-class.

PERIODICALS (Weeklies). — ‘‘ AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL,” ‘‘ KANSAS
BEEKEEPER,” and ‘‘ CANADIAN BEE JoURNAL.” (Bi-Monthlies)—
‘British Bex JOURNAL,” and “‘GLEANINGS IN BEE CULTURE.”
(Monthlies)\—“ AmeRicaAN BEE JoURNAL,” ‘‘ BEEKEEPERS’ Maca-
ZINE,” ‘‘AMERICAN APICULTURIST,” THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE,”
and ‘“‘New ZEALAND FARMER, BEE AND PouLTRY JOURNAL.”

jprxiom.

‘* BEES GORGED WITH HONEY NEVER VOLUNTEER AN ATTACK,”
Langstroth.
BEE MANUAL. 25

CHAPTER Il.

THE HONEY BEE: ITS VARIETIES AND
DISTRIBUTION.

THERE are many species of the genus Apis, or Bee, but only
one which stores honey in such a manner as to be practically
useful to man, and which Linnzus distinguished by the name

APIS MELLIFICA.

The particular variety of this species known to Linnzus was
the Black, or German bee. Since the beginning of the present
century, other varieties were observed and described by Spinola
and others, and were classed at first as distinct species. In the
year 1862, Dr. A. Gerstaecker, of Berlin, first published the
results of his investigations upon the

‘GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE HONEY-BEE AND
ITS VARIETIES,”

from which I take the following condensed extracts. He says
that up to within some ten years of the time when he was
writing, bee-keepers knew only one sort of honey-bee—that
which had been reared for ages—the Apis mellifica of Linnzus ;
but they then (in 1862) distinguished the German from the
Italian bee. The latter had, in fact, been noticed in the
beginning of this century, by Spinola and by Latreille, as a
separate species of the genus Apis, and was named by the for-
mer zoologist, Apis ligustica ; nevertheless it proved to be only
a coloured variety of the same species ; the size, as well as the
structural peculiarities of the insect, being the same in every
respect, and the two sorts admitting of 'cross-breeding to any
extent whereas, if they belonged to different species, the off-
spring would, in all probability, consist of unprolific hybrids.
The knowledge of the practical apiarist was, at all events, then
confined to these two varieties of the honey-bee, and they were
supposed to be indigenous almost exclusively to Europe, the
26 AUSTRALASIAN

northern coast of Africa being their supposed boundary on the
south, and the coast of Asia Minor on the east. When Dr.
Gerstaecker, however, undertook his investigations, he obtained
samples of a large number of varieties mentioned in the works
of Fabricius, Latreille, Lepeletier, and others, as being found
in various parts of Africa and of Asia, north of the Himalayas,

‘and subjected them to a minute examination, comparatively,
with each other, and with the two varieties already known in
Europe. He soon satisfied himself beyond all doubt that they
were all merely varieties of the one species, the Apis mellifica,
differing only in colour and size—all capable of being cross-bred,
and of being utilised by the apiarist. He also found that this
one species, represented by many different varieties, was spread
over a vastly larger area than had been supposed, comprising
nearly the whole of Europe (up to 60° or even 64° north lati-
tude in some places), the whole continent of Africa, and the
whole of Asia Minor, Syria, Persia, and other portions of Asia
north of the Himalayan range, up to eastern Siberia and
China.

Out of the numerous varieties brought under review, six
have been selected as being of sufficient importance to be sepa-
rately dealt with. These, with their distinguishing marks and
the regions to which they seem particularly to belong, are
classified and described as follows :—

1. The single coloured, dark, northern, or German bee (Apis
mellifica of Linnzeus), found in the whole of north and middle
Europe, and also in the south of France, south of Spain, Por-
tugal, a few parts of Italy, in Dalmatia, Greece, at the Crimea,
and along the coast of Asia Minor, including the adjacent
islands. It is also found on the African continent, at Algiers,
Guinea, and at the Cape of Good Hope, to which latter place,
however, it was probably introduced direct from Europe. As a
very slight sub-variety of the same may be noted the Hymettus
bee (Apis cecropia), differing only in being slightly smaller and
more hairy, often also showing reddish spots on the sides of
the second abdominal ring. This bee is found in the south of
Spain, as well as in Greece, and even, in some isolated cases,
in Germany.

2, The Italian bee (Apis ligustica of Spinola), of equal size
with the German bee, but with golden yellow colour on the
first three abdominal rings, whilst the back plate (of the
BEE MANUAL. 27

thorax) is of a dark colour. It was first noticed by Spinola as
being peculiar to all parts of Liguria. Its first or original
habitat was difficult to be ascertained in 1862, as during the
previous ten years it had been artificially distributed to many
new places. Although to be found in various parts of Italy,
it is by no means general in that country. Besides the pro-
vince of Liguria, the southern slopes of the Tyrolese and Swiss
Alps would appear to have been its original home.

3. The Italian bee, with yellow back plate—otherwise of the
same size and colour as the last. It is found in southern
France, Dalmatia, Banat, at Sicily, and in the Crimea, in the
islands and on the coast of Asia Minor, and in the Caucasus,
and in many of those places in common, partly with the Italian
(No. 2), and partly with the German bee.

4, The Egyptian bee (Apis fasciaca of Latreille). It is nearly
one-third smaller than the German or Italian bee, its body
coloured like the latter, and the back plate also yellow ; the
hair of the chest and body whitish. Its proper habitat is
Egypt, Arabia, and Syria, but it is found, with scarcely any
observable difference, on the northern slopes of the Himalayas
and in China. It was introduced into Germany in 1863, by
the Acclimatisation Society of Berlin, and thence into England
in 1865.

5. The specific African bee (Apis Adansonii of Latreille) is of
the same size and colour as the last, but differs in the greyish-
yellow colour of the hair on the chest and body. It is spread
over the whole African continent, with the exception of Algiers
and Egypt, from Abyssinia and Senegambia to the Cape of
Good Hope.

6. The remarkable black Madagascar bee (Apis unicolor of
Latreille) is something smaller than the German bee, all dark
coloured, and its hairs black. It is confined to Madagascar
and the Mauritius.

With reference to the countries of the New World, North
and South America, and Australasia, Dr. Gerstaecker asserts that
in none of them were any species of the genus Apis found until
they had been imported from Europe. He gives the dates of
importation into Florida, North America, as 1763; thence to
Kentucky in 1780, and to New York in 1793; into Brazil,
South America, in 1845, Rio Grande in 1853, and to Buenos
Ayres (from Chili) in 1852. Into Mexico and central America
28 AUSTRALASIAN

generally, the bee appears to have been introduced at an early
period by the Spaniards, and probably spread itself thence to
the districts of Venezuela, Peru, and Chili, in South America.
Its introduction into Australia and New Zealand has been
noticed in the preceding chapter. With regard to its first
importation into North America, Dr. J. P. H. Brown, an emi-
nent American apiarist, in a paper read by him at the National
Convention in 1881, says, “The Black or German bee was
introduced, it is believed, into Pennsylvania from Germany,
about the year 1627.” It certainly appears very probable that
William Penn’s followers would have endeavoured to introduce
bees from England, if not from Germany, as soon as they began
to settle down ‘in their new home; nevertheless it is very
likely that in the severe winter climate of Pennsylvania and
New York the bees would not spontaneously wander far from
the human settlements, and that it was only when they got
fairly established in the favourable climate of Florida, as
mentioned by Dr. Gerstaecker, that they began to spread
themselves westwards in advance of the new settlements.

GERMAN, OR BLACK BEE.

 

Fig. 1._BLACK QUEEN,

Neither of the names, German or Black, is a correct designa-
tion of this variety ; for, as Dr. Gerstaecker has shown, it was
by no means confined originally to Germany, and its prevailing
colour is more brown than black ; but these are the names by
which it is now universally known.
BEE MANUAL. 29

This variety has held undisputed sway in the north and west
of Europe for a couple of thousand years at least, and has been
the pioneer in culling the sweets of all the countries of the
New World. Wherever Europeans have colonised, there
may be found this little insect. It is now being rapidly super-
seded by the Italian race, but it has still some faithful admirers,
and in more than one respect it is admitted by all to hold the
advantage over its Italian rival. I shall compare its qualities
with those of the Italian further on. However we may admit
the superior beauty, as well as the more useful qualities, of
the new races, we cannot avoid feeling a sort of regret for the
extinction of our old favourites.

ITALIAN, OR LIGURIAN BEE.

 

Fig. 2,_ITALIAN QUEEN,

The Italian bee was evidently known to Aristotle and Virgil.
The latter writer refers to it in the following lines :—

‘These gaily bright their radiant scales unfold,
Spangled with equal spots, and dropped with gold ”

Although known so well to these ancient writers, very little
notice appears to have been taken of this variety till quite
modern times, when, in the beginning of the present century,
the Marquis de Spinola described it as being distinct from the
common bee, and gave it the name of “ Ligurian,” after a pro-
vince in Northern Italy, where it was first discovered. This
district being very mountainous, and the Alps intervening
between it and Northern Europe, it is in a manner isolated,
which will no doubt account in some measure for so little
30 AUSTRALASIAN

having been known of this bee, and, as some think, has helped
to develop a distinct variety.

It was introduced into Germany in 1853, by Dr. Dzierzon,
who, on the twenty-fifth anniversary of its introduction, pub-
lished in a German bee paper a very interesting account of it,
speaking in very high terms of its superior quality.

It was introduced into England in 1859, by Mr. Neighbour,
and into America by Messrs. Wagner and Colvin the same
year. Wherever it has been introduced, its superiority over
the common bee in many respects has been always acknow-
ledged. In America it has become so universal, that it is said
to be impossible to find a pure black bee in some of the States ;
and I have no doubt, now it has become established in Austra-
lasia, that, notwithstanding the fears of a few individuals, it
will be found to deserve all that has been said regarding its
superiority over the black bee.

With regard to the many excellent qualities it is said to
possess, I will first quote Cook; he being a professor of ento-
mology, as well as an apiarist, his opinion should be doubly
valuable. He says :—

‘* The Italians certainly possess the following points of superiority :-—

‘1. They possess longer tongues, and so can gather from flowers
that are useless to the black bee. How much value hangs upon this
structural peculiarity Iam unable to state. I have frequently seen
Italians working on red clover. Inever saw a black bee thus employed.
It is easy to see that this might be at certain times and seasons a very
material aid. How much of the superior storing qualities of the Italians
is due to this lengthened ligula, 1 am unable to say.

“2. They are more active, and with the same opportunities will
collect a good deal more honey. This isa matter of observation, which
I have tested over and over again; yet I will give the figures of another.
Mr. Doolittle secured from two colonies 309 Ib. and 301 Ib. respectively
of box honey during one season. These surprising figures, the best he
could give, were from his best Italian stocks. Similar testimony comes
from Klien and Dzierzon, over the sea, and from most of our apiarists.

‘3. They work earlier and later. This is not only true of the
day, but of the season, On cool days in spring I have seen the dande-
lions swarming with Italians, while not a black bee was to be seen.
On May 7th, 1877, I walked less than half a mile, and counted sixty-
eight bees oe from dandelions, yet only two were black bees,
This might be considered an undesirable feature, as tending to spring
dwindling ; yet, with proper management, I consider this no objection,
but a great ats Ue

“4, They are far better to protect their hives against robbers. Rob-
bers who attempt to plunder Italians of their hard-earned stores soon
BEE MANUAL. 31

find that they have dared to ‘beard the lion in his den.’ This is so
patent, that even the advocates of black bees are ready to concede it.

“5, They are almost proof against the ravages of the bee moth’s
larva. This is almost universally conceded.

“¢6. The queens are decidedly more prolific. This is probably in

art due to the greater and more constant activity of the workers.

his is observable at all seasons, but more especially when building
up in the spring. No one who will take the pains tv note the increase
of brood will long remain in doubt on this point.

‘7, They are less apt to breed in winter, when it is desirable to have
the bees very quiet. This refers to cold climates.

*©§. The queen is more readily found, which is a great advantage.
In {the various manipulations of the apiary, it is frequently found
desirable to find the queen. In full colonies, I would rather find three
Italian queens than one black one. Where time is money this becomes
a matter of much importance.

“<9, The bees are more disposed to adhere to the comb while bein:
handled, which some might regard as a doubtful compliment, thoug
I consider it a desirable quality.

‘©10. They are, in my judgment, less liable to rob other bees. They
will find honey when the blacks ees none, and the time for robbing
is when there is no gathering. This may explain the above peculiarity.

“11, And, in my estimation, a sufficient ground for preference, did
it stand alone, the Italian bees are far more amiable. Years ago I got
rid of my black bees because they were so cross. Two years agoI got
two or three colonies, that my students might see the difference, but
to my regret; for, as we removed the honey in the autumn, they
seemed perfectly furious, like demons seeking whom they might
devour, and this, too, despite the smoker, while the far more numerous
Italians were safely handled without smoke. The experiment at least
satisfied a large class of students as to superiority. Mr. Quinby speaks
in his book of their being cross, and Captain Hetherington tells me
that if not much handled they are more cross than the blacks. From
my own experience I cannot understand this. Hybrids are even more
cross than the pure blacks, but otherwise are nearly as desirable as
the pure Italians. I have kept these two races side by side for years,
I have studied them most carefully, and I feel sure that none of the
above eleven points of excellence is too strongly stated.”

Having now had over four years’ experience of Italian bees,
I can fully endorse nearly all that Professor Cook says of them,
though I am not convinced as regards his third point. I have
often seen black bees out in the morning, when not an Italian
was stirring; at other times they were about equal in this
respect. Neither can I admit that black bees never work on red
clover, as I have frequently myself of late seen them do so.
And although it is quite true, and a decided advantage, that
Italians and hybrids defend their hives better than black bees
32 AUSTRALASIAN

against the attacks of robbers, I cannot acquit them of a pro-
pensity to act as robbers themselves. I have found hybrids, at
least, as bad as the black bees in this respect.

MARKINGS OF PURE ITALIA N BEES.

In describing the markings of pure Italian bees, all writers
agree that the workers should have three yellow bands on the
abdomen.

 

Fig. 8\— ABDOMEN OF ITALIAN WORKER ‘BEE.

ABO, Fig. 3, represent the three yellow semi-transparent
bands ; D E, and the shaded parts of A B GC, are rows of greyish
hairs. A strain of Italian bees having these rows of hair
unusually developed have been sold in America under the
name of Albinos. Now, with some of the worker bees bred
from queens which I have imported direct from Italy, although
they have the three bands, the first next to the thorax (A, Fig. 3)
is so narrow that it cannot be seen unless closely inspected,
while others show all three bands plainly. In a personal con-
versation with Mr. Fullwood, of Brisbane, on this subject, he
told me he had frequently noticed the same difference in the
markings of his imported bees. I mention this the more
particularly, because some persons, after reading the description
of pure Italian bees in other works, where they are stated to
be of a bright colour, with the three yellow bands plainly
BEE MANUAL. 33

visible, are apt to think their bees are not pure unless they
answer that description. The bees from the queens I imported
from America were, as a rule, much lighter and handsomer
than those that came direct from Italy, and I account for this
by their having been bred for lightness of colour rather than
for honey-gathering qualities, though I have no doubt the two
objects may be attained in the same bee. It is worthy of note
that some of the most experienced bee keepers of America
prefer a strain of dark leather-coloured bees to the lighter ones.
My own opinion is that the test of purity is uniformity of the
markings on the whole of the worker-bees of a colony, whether
the three bands be plaiuly visible or not. The lightest coloured
and most handsome variety of the Italian bee is to be found
in the Swiss-Alpine districts, from which place the most of the
English importers now obtain their supplies.

HYBRIDS—GERMAN-ITALIAN.

Much has been said for and against the cultivation of
hybrids. My own experience leads me to believe that, as
honey-gatherers and for hardiness, they are far superior to
either the German or Italian race pure, but as regards docility
they would be nowhere in a comparison. The first cross
between an Italian queen and a black drone produces, I believe,
the best workers. Should, however, any person prefer a greater
degree of gentleness in his bees to a larger production of honey,
I would advise him not to keep hybrids longer than he can
possibly help.

In briefly stating what I consider to be the superior qualities
of each sort, Germans, Italians, and hybrids, as compared with
each other, I shall first take the Germans, or black bees.
Without a doubt, for raising comb-honey they beat both
Italians and hybrids. First, they will take to the section
boxes sooner than the others; second, they leave a slight
air space between the honey and the capping of the cells,
which preserves the brightness of the cappings and gives to
comb-honey that nice white appearance which is so much
admired. On the contrary, the Italians, and in a less degree
the hybrids, allow little or no air space, consequently the comb
has a dark, damp look, on account of the proximity of the
honey to the cappings. Italians are superior to the Germans—

D
34 AUSTRALASIAN

first, in being better honey-gatherers ; second, in possessing
longer tongues; third, in being more prolific; and fourth, in
being more gentle, though, if once aroused, I believe them to
be as vicious as hybrids. Hybrids I have found best of all for
honey-gathering and for hardiness. As to prolificness, I think
they are about equal to Italians. To sum up, I would place
the three sorts in the following order for the different qualities
required :—As honey-gatherers—Hybrids, Italians, Germans ;
for gentleness, Italians, Germans, Hybrids ; for prolificness,
Italians and Hybrids equal, Germans; for hardiness, Hybrids,
Italians and Germans I have seen little difference between ;
for protecting their hives against robbers, Italians, Hybrids,
Germans ; for comb-honey raising, Germans, Hybrids, Italians.

CYPRIAN, SYRIAN, AND PALESTINE BEES.

The first of these varieties is a native of the Island of Cyprus.
The name “Syrian” is now confined to a race of bees coming
from the part of Syria north of the mountain range which
extends from the Mediterranean at Mount Carmel eastward to
the Jordan, while those coming from the south of that range,
although still in Syria, are called “ Palestine” or “ Holy Land”
bees. The first two differ very little from each other; they
have the yellow bands of the Italian, with which race they are
probably nearly related, but have also more or less yellow on
the thorax. They are evidently those comprised by Dr. Ger-
staecker under one head, No. 3, which he mentions as being
found on the coast of Asia Minor and the adjacent islands, as
well as in other places. The third sort, or “ Palestine bee,” is
as evidently the No. 4, or Egyptian bee of Gerstaecker, which
he says inhabits Egypt, Arabia, and Syria.

Mr. D. A. Jones, of Ontario, Canada, one of the most ex-
tensive and enterprising apiarists in the world, paid a visit to
Europe and the Kast in 1879, in search of a superior race of
bees, believing that such existed somewhere in those parts.
He was accompanied by an experienced entomologist and bee
master, Mr. Benton. These gentlemen, after visiting Cyprus,
established a queen-rearing apiary there, consisting of about
100 colonies. Mr. Jones also procured some bees from Syria
and Palestine ; ‘shortly after which he returned to Canada with
a number of these bees, leaving Mr. Benton in charge of the
Cyprus apiary.
BEE MANUAL. 35

The connection between these gentlemen has since been
severed, and Mr. Benton has established apiaries at Beyrout,
Syria; Larnaca, Cyprus ; and Munich, Germany, where he at
present resides.

Opinions are still much divided as to the positive and
relative value of the different races of Eastern bees. Mr.
Benton, in a circular he is now (July, 1885) issuing, says :
“ After five years’ experience I am of opinion that the first
rank should be given to Cyprian bees as the best bees, all
things considered, yet cultivated.” He gives them credit for
all the good qualities of the Italian bees, but in a much greater
degree, and with regard to their stinging propensities, which
has been the principal objection urged against their general
cultivation, he says: “The claim that the Cyprian bees are
possessed of such great stinging propensities as to make them
nearly unmanageable I have not found well based ; indeed, in
common with many others who have carefully tested them, I
prefer to manipulate Cyprians rather than Italians, and find
that, while getting no more stings from them, I can get on
much faster with the work.”

Syrian bees Mr. Benton considers nearly equal in every
respect to Cyprians. The former vary slightly more in their
markings, and are not quite so active as the latter, but in other
respects they are about equal. He says, “Syrian bees are
never to be confounded with Palestine bees.” Of the latter
race he does not speak very assuringly, and remarks, “ Though
Palestine bees possess some valuable qualities common to
Cyprians and Syrians, still, on account of their bad temper and
poor wintering qualities, I cannot recommend them for general
introduction.” He concludes that for the experienced—above
all, for the professional—beekeeper either of the two sorts,
Cyprians or Syrians, is rost to be recommended. For those
who suffer much from bee stings, or who “haven't steady
enough nerves to manipulate Cyprians or Syrian bees,” the
variety most to be recommended is the

CARNIOLAN.

These bees take their name from the Austrian province of
Carniola, a part of the ancient Illyria, to the east of the
Carnic Alps, and on the upper part of the river Save, the great
36 AUSTRALASIAN

southern tributary of the Danube. Attention was first called
to the qualities of this race, as we are informed by the British
Bee Journal, by Mr. Edouard Cori, of ‘Bohemia, who calls it
the Carniolan or the Ukraine bee. Now the Ukraine is a
Russian province on the Dnieper River, more than a thousand
miles east of Carniola, with the whole of Hungary, Roumania,
etc., lying between. It appears strange, then, that the two
names should be connected in this way; but it will be found
that Dr. Gerstaecker has described the German bee as being
found also at Dalmatia (a little south of Carniola), and at the
Crimea (a little south of the Ukraine) ; and it is evident from
all accounts that the Carniolan is only a very slight variety of
the German bee, although Mr. Benton implies that it is not. A
writer in the British Bee Journal describes it so, and says that
“ oreat difficulty is experienced in keeping the Carniolan bee
pure, from its resemblance to the common black bee, which
renders it difficult to distinguish an hybrid of the two.” They
are greatly praised for their gentleness and other good qualities.
Mr. Benton says they are “the gentlest of bees,” that “their
gentleness casts that of the gentlest Italians all in the shade ;”
that they are even more prolific than the Italians, and are equal
to them in honey-gatheriny qualities and in sticking to their
combs and defending their hives (when not queenless) ; while
they ‘are equal to the black bees in comb-building, disposition
to enter boxes,” etc. Their faults are, considerable disposition
to swarm, the same tendency to rob which the black bees show,
and that, when queenless, they do not defend their hives as well
as the other Eastern bees. Mr. Marshall, the manager of Mr.
Neighbour’s apiary, says he prefers them to Ligurians, that—

‘“‘They are hardier, and therefore more suitable to our changeable
climate. They breed as quickly, are very quiet, and a practised bee-
keeper can handle them without smoke or veil, and he very rarely gets
asting. Some of our bee-masters give them the character of bein
much given to swarming, but I have not found them more disposed
than Ligurians or blacks in that respect. If you want a business bee,
get a good English queen mated with a Carniolan drone ; the combi-
nation of the two races makes a really useful bee. They are the silver
bees, as the Ligurians are called the golden bees.”

The description of this bee given by a writer in the British
Bee Journal is as follows :—

“In outward appearance the Carniolan bee is slightly larger than
BEE MANUAL. 37

the Italian, and not so slender in shape. It is, in fact, a larger bee—
probaly the largest domesticated bee. The entire body is of a rich

ark brown, almost approaching to black. The golden rings of the
Italian are wanting, but each rim of the abdomen is clearly marked by
whitish-grey hairs, which render it distinct from any other known
race ; and these hairs being longer and brighter than those of the
Italian, give the bee ahilvary: butik appearance which is very pleasing
to the eye. . . . The Carniolan queen is a larger bee, broader in the
thorax, and especially in the upper part of (he abdomen, than the
Italian or black queen.”

HERZEGOVIAN, DALMATIAN, ROUMELIAN, AND HYMETTUS BEES

Mr. Benton has lately introduced queens under these four
names. The three first mentioned would seem to be, like the
Cyprians and Syrians, only slight varieties of the sort comprised
by Gerstaecker under head No. 3. The Hymettus bee is, how-
ever, specially mentioned by him as a slight variety of the
German or black bee, and already known by the name of Apis
cecropia. This bee has, at all events, the advantage of a classic
reputation. Gibbon mentions, on the authority of Geoponica,
that ‘‘the ancients, or at least the Athenians, believed that all
the bees in the world had been propagated from Mount Hy-
mettus.” The qualities of all these four varieties (if they are
such) have yet to be tried. Mr. Benton wrote of them in
November, 1883—

‘Of the four races mentioned last, I have only tried practically the
Hymettus, or Greek bees (also called Cecropian or Attic bees). They
are prolific, good honey-gatherers, quite cross, but can be managed
with plenty of smoke. Herzegovian and Dalmatian bees I know by
reputation, and am thus safe in calling them superior to common bees
and to Italians. Of Roumelian bees I know nothing ; but as I have
an opportunity to get some of them next spring, and having reason to
hope they may have good qualities, I shall try them.”

OTHER RACES OF BEES.

There are three sorts of bees mentioned by Dr. Gerstaecker
as being “indigenous to India and the adjacent islands,” Apis
dorsata, A. indica, and A. sirialis of Fabricius ; all, no doubt,
being varieties of the 4. mellifica. The Indian Government
lately published the results of some inquiries they had insti-
tuted concerning the “ popular treatment of bees in India,”
from which it would appear that there are plenty of bees and
38 AUSTRALASIAN

honey in the hilly districts both in the north and south of
India. Mr. Morgan, Deputy Conservator of Forests, reports
that “only one kind of bee, the Apis indica, is capable of
domestication, and that only in hilly districts, not in the
plains.” The larger sort of bees, which they call “large cliff
bees ” (building in cliffs, under projecting ledges of rock) are
represented as so ferocious in habit, and furnished with such
formidable stings, as to be dangerous to both men and beasts
coming within their neighbourhood. A circumstantial account
of a bad case of stinging by these bees appeared in a recent
issue of the American Bee Journal, taken from the London
Lancet, which called forth the following editorial remarks :
“We do not think we want any of these bees in America. The
Cyprians are bad enough; but for these bees of India (Apis
indica), as well as their more irascible cousins (Apis dorsata),
we have no use. Let them stay where they are.” Mr. John
Douglas, of the Indian Telegraph Department, says, ‘A swarm
of these bees has been known to put a regiment of cavalry to
flight, and innumerable are the instances in which man and
beast have fallen victims to their unrelenting animosity;” yet
he proposes the domestication of this “ great tiger honey fly”
(as it is called in parts of the country) as the “first question
for Indian apiculturists !” Mr. Benton has been making efforts
to import the Apis dorsata from Ceylon; but if they are not
very different in disposition from the Apis indica, we in Aus-
tralasia may echo the words of the American Bee Journal,
“ Let them stay where they are!”

NATIVE BEES OF NEW ZEALAND AND AUSTRALIA.

Notwithstanding the assertion of Dr. Gerstaecker, there are
indigenous bees both in New Zealand and Australia. The
small bees indigenous to New Zealand, I believe, belong to the
species Apis tregona. It makes its nest in the ground, by boring
a small hole from the surface, about two inches in depth; holes
then branch off in different directions : these branch holes ex-
tend two or three inches, and at the bottom of each is deposited
a mixture of honey and pollen, in which the eggs are laid. I
dug up several nests last season, and found brood in different
stages, but there only appeared to have been one ege deposited
in each compartment. It is of no service to the apiarist.
BEE MANUAL. 39

Mr. F. A. Joyner, of North Adelaide, 8. A., at the suggestion
of Mr. Bonney, very kindly sent me lately some specimens of
native bees, accompanied by the following remarks :—

“‘T have observed them pretty closely for some time past, and find
that they gather honey and pollen, are very swift in their movements,
have particularly long stings and proboscis, and as late as last evening
(April 16th, 1885), for the first time discovered that they exist in
swarms, I was unfortunately unable to take the swarm, as the bees
were disturbed before I reached them, and I was afterwards unable
to find their new alighting place. It appeared an average-sized swarm,
and moved similarly to our black bees, with the exception of moving
much swifter.”” :

I submitted the bees, which had been very much broken to
Mr. T. J. Mulvany, for microscopical examination, and’he
very kindly supplied me with the following information con-
cerning their structure :—

“The rings on the abdomen, which are alternately black and silver-
grey, are very handsome, and the three ‘subcostal cells’ in the front
wings, as well as the hooklets in the under wings, beautifully deve-
loped. The wings, compared with those of a common bee, measure as
16 to 19, and as 11 to 13, which shows them to be 0°84 of the length;
from this, and from appearance of head, legs, and abdomen, I take the
live insect to be more than four-fifths of the size of the black bee and
therefore larger than the Egyptian or the Palestine bee. The hind
legs have the pollen basket and the long hairs on the ‘basal tar-
sus,’ the front legs the peculiar spur at the knee joints, and both have
a coating of silver-white hair on the outer side of the ‘tibia.’ The
head is very handsome ; the compound eyes wide apart, with golden
hairy forehead between. The mouth organs appear to me to be re-
markable ; the mandibles are horny, with sharp double points like
teeth. I should think this bee could bite as well as sting. The max-
ille are also stiff, and, at least in the dry state, look like the beak of a
bird. Icould also see the ‘labial palpi,’ but not the tongue itself.
Altogether, to my unpractised eye, it looks more like a variety of the
Apis mellifica than a different species. It would be very desirable to
get some more specimens in a better state of preservation, and, if pos-
sible, to take a swarm and try them in a hive.”

From what I have heard of the wild or native bees in other
parts of Australia, I take them all to be the same as those
described.
40 AUSTRALASIAN

CHAPTER ILI,

INMATES OF THE HIVE--THEIR NATURAL
HISTORY.

THE honey-bee is, above all things, gregarious in its habits.
As Langstroth remarks, “It can flourish only when associated
in large numbers as a colony. In’a solitary state a single bee
is almost as helpless as a new-born child, being paralysed by
the chill of a cold summer's night.” This is true; but it is
not alone for the sake of mutual warmth that bees aggregate ;
their nature compels them to form a sort of republic (or, if
rather a monarchy, then certainly a very limited one), which
presents the peculiar feature that all the active citizens are, as
we shall see further on, females, who are doomed to a life of
celibacy as well as of toil, while the head of the community is,
in the strictest sense of the word, the mother of her whole
people; and although they support, for a time, a “pampered aris-
tocracy ” of idle males, they use very little ceremony in getting
rid of them as soon as there appears to be no further chance
of their presence being required.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION.

Every hive in a normal working condition, during the swarm-
ing season, will be found to contain bees of the three different
kinds, the characteristics and relative sizes of which are shown
in the illustrations which follow. First, one bee only of the
peculiar form which denotes the queen or mother bee ; secondly,
a few hundreds (sometimes more than a thousand) of large
bees, called drones ; and thirdly, many thousands of the smaller
kind, called workers, which are the common bees to be seen on
blossoms, as neither the queen bee nor the drones gather
honey or work outside the hive.
BEE MANUAL. 41

The queen is indispensable to the prosperity of the hive.
She is the only perfectly developed female, and lays all the
eggs, of which she can, on occasions, produce two to three
thousand in twenty-four hours. Without her the colony would
soon dwindle down and die out, or be attacked and killed for
the sake of its stores, as, after being deprived of their queen,
the workers generally (unless they are in a position to rear a
new one, as will be seen further on) lose the disposition to
defend themselves and their home. The queen is not provided
with the special organisation which enables the workers to
gather honey and pollen and to secrete wax. She is furnished
with a sting, which, however, she very rarely uses, except in
a struggle with arival queen. When she has been once impreg-
nated, and has taken her place in a hive, she never leaves it
except to accompany a swarm. Her term of life may extend

 

Fig. 4.--THE QUEEN,

to four years at least, and during that time she may lay many
hundreds of thousands of eggs; but she is considered to be in
her prime in the second year, and is seldom very prolific after
the third. She can be easily distinguished from the other
bees, and be recognised even by the most inexperienced from
the following description :—Her body is not so bulky as that
of a drone, though longer; it is considerably more tapering
than that of either drone or worker; her wings are
much shorter in proportion than those of the other bees; the
under part of her body is of a lighter and the upper of a
darker colour than the worker’s; her movements are
49 AUSTRALASIAN

generally slow and matronly, and indeed she looks every inch
a queen.

The drones, or male bees, are much stouter than’ either
the queen or workers, although their bodies are not so long
as that of the queen. They are neither furnished with a
sting nor a suitable proboscis for gathering honey, no baskets
on their legs for carrying pollen, and no pouches on their

 

Fig 5.,-THE DRONE,

abdomens for secreting wax, so that they are physically
incapable of doing the ordinary work of the hive. Their
office is to impregnate the young queens, but very few have
the chance of doing so; those that have, die immediately
afterwards, and the rest are usually destroyed by the workers
at the end of the swarming season, having by this time
become an incumbrance only. i

 

Fig. 6THE WORKER.

The worker bees, the smallest in size, constitute the bulk of
the population of the hive. A good-sized swarm should contain
at least twenty thousand,* and a well-stocked hive, during the

* About 4000 ordinary bees weigh one pound, so that a 5 lb. swarm contains
about 20,000. Good swarms, however, sometimes weigh 7 lb. to 10 lb.
BEE MANUAL. 43

full working season, will have twice, and sometimes three times,
that number of workers. ‘They are all females, but not fully
developed as regards their sexual organization—they are incapa-
ble of being impregnated by the drones ; but in some rare cases
their ovaries are sufficiently developed to admit of their laying
eggs, which, however, as will be shown later, are unfertilised,
and produce only drones. On the other hand, these workers
are specially provided with the means of successfully prosecut-
ing their useful labours. They have a wonderfully constructed
tongue, or proboscis, which enables them to suck or lap up the
liquid sweet from the nectaries of blossoms, and to store it in
a “honey sac,” which is, in fact, a first or extra stomach, from
which they can again disgorge it at will into the cells of their
combs. Their hinder legs are provided with a hollow, or
“basket,” for carrying pollen, which they are enabled, by the
use of their front legs and their proboscis, to work up into
little pellets, and pack in these receptacles. They have the
power of secreting wax in small scales under the folds of the
abdominal rings of their body, and they are furnished with a
sting to protect themselves and their stores, and of which they
make effective use when provoked. They perform all the work
both inside and outside the hive; collect the materials for
honey, beebread, and propolis; carry water, secrete the wax,
build the combs, nurse and feed the young brood, ventilate the
hive, and stand guard at the entrance when it is necessary to
keep out intruders. Although division of labour is beautifully
exemplified in the economy of the hive, still there are not
separate classes of worker bees (as was at one time supposed)
to perform the different sorts of work; on the contrary, every
worker bee is capable of doing all these things, and they take
their turns accordingly. “ One dce in her time plays many parts.”
The young bees are employed on “home duty” for the first
week or two; they then take their turn of outdoor work, and
are gradually worn out in the service. Their term of life is
short, varying from only six or seven weeks in the busiest
working season to nearly as many months after that busy time
is past.

PHYSIOLOGY AND ANATOMY OF THE HONEY-BEE.

T shall now devote some space in the endeavour to place
before the reader, as concisely as practicable, and with the
44 AUSTRALASIAN

aid of illustrations, a clear view of the more important facts
relating to the physical structure and functional peculiarities
of these wonderful insects. For the present advanced state of
our knowledge on these points we are mainly indebted to
the investigations of Huber and Dzierzon, which have been
successfully followed up by the skilful dissections and micro-
scopic examinations more recently made by Professor Cook in
America, and by Mr. F. R. Cheshire in England. A familiar
acquaintance with these facts may be said to be indispensable
to all earnest apiarists, not only because the system of modern
scientific bee-keeping is based upon the knowledge so obtained,
but also because the close observation of the habits of the bee,
and of the operations performed in the hive, which constitute
the great charm of the bee-keeper’s occupation, can only be
really effective and satisfactory when guided by the light of
those brilliant discoveries. A writer upon the fine arts, when
pointing out the necessity of a knowledge of anatomy to the
draughtsman of the human form, has remarked that ‘“ no one
can see things as they are, unless he knows how they ought to
be.” This is perfectly true with all of us in our observation
of the works of nature. As long as we are uninstructed, we
“have eyes and cannot see.” The bee-keeper who shall have
acquired some knowledge of the physiological peculiarities of
the honey-bee, and its “relation to flowers,” will ever after-
wards view its every movement and all the phenomena of the
hive with new eyes; he will take an entirely new interest in
the various structural features of the honey-bearing plants and
their blossoms ; he will have obtained at least some inkling of
the Divine intention in these varieties of form, and in the simple
act of watching a bee’s visit to a flower, he will perceive, what
would otherwise have escaped his notice, how beautifully in the
different cases the instinct of the insect and the structure of the
flower combine to attain the object of the former—the collection
of the nectar and the pollen—and the intended beneficial effect
upon the latter—its cross fertilization.

CLASSIFICATION OF SPECIES.

All the different races of the honey-bee with which we are
as yet well acquainted are (as mentioned in Chapter IT.) only
varieties of the one species, the Apis mellifica ; that is to say,
BEE MANUAL. 45

they differ only in size, colour, and perhaps in the greater or
less development of some organs; but none of them present
any marked distinction in structure or in habits ; they therefore
admit of cross-breeding, producing fertile crosses or hybrids
which may be continued as a new variety, or re-crossed with
other varieties. This would not be the case if they belonged
to different species. They belong further to the genus Apis,
the family Apide, the order Hymenoptera, sub-class Heaapoda,
and class Insecta.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF STRUCTURE.

As characteristic of their class and sub-class, the body of
these insects is divided into three parts—the head, the thorax,
and the abdomen, which are connected by small and hollow
ligaments; they have six legs, attached to the thorax, and
they breathe air through a system of tubes to be described
further on. As belonging to the order Hymenoptera, they have
four membranous wings attached to the thorax, of which
the two foremost cover the hinder ones when at rest; also a
proboscis or tongue by which they can suck or lap, and strong
jaws for biting. The family Apide, according to Professor
Cook,

*‘Includes not only the hive-bee but all insects which feed their
helpless young or larve entirely on pollen, or honey and pollen.

The larve of all insects of this family are maggot-like—wrinkled, foot-
less, tapering at both ends. . . . They are helpless, and thus,
all during their babyhood—the larve state—the time when all insects
are most ravenous, and the only time when many insects take food,
the time when all growth in size, except such enlargement as is
required by egg-development occurs, these infant bees have to be fed
by their mothers or elder sisters. They have a mouth with soft lips
and weak jaws, yet it is doubtful if all or much of their food is taken
in at that opening. There is some reason to believe that they, like
many maggots, such as the Hessian fly larve, absorb much of their
food through the body walls. From the mouth leads the intestine,
which has no anal opening, so there are no excreta other than gas and
vapour. What commendation for their food, ald capable of nourish-
ment, and thus all assimilated ! ”

The genus Apis, to which the species 4. meilifica belongs, is
characterised chiefly by slight peculiarities in the legs and
wings. All bees of this genus have no tibial spurs (stiff spines
46 AUSTRALASIAN

at the end of the tibia or long joint of the Jeg) on their posterior
legs, and as to their wings, “they have three cubital or sub-
costal cells—the second row from the costal or anterior edge—
on the front or primary wings.” Here we cannot help
remarking how wonderful are those minute rules of organic
structure. Who that examined for the first time the wing of
a bee, and compared it with that of any other insect of the
same order, would imagine that the differences in the sub-
divisions of the membrane, which have all the appearances
of chance formation, and which are probably not precisely the
same in any two examples, are yet so characteristic in their
arrangement as to afford an easy means of distinguishing the

 

Fig. 7._WINGS OF A BEE,

genus to which the insect belongs! Professor Cook gives the
following further details as marks of this whole genus :—

“Qn the inner side of the posterior basal tarsus, opposite the pollen
baskets, in the neuters or workers, are rows of hair (Fig. 15) which
are probably used in collecting pollen. In the males, which do no
work except to fertilise the queens, the large compound eyes meet
above, crowding the three simple eyes below, while in the workers and
queens the simple eyes, called ocelli, are above, and the compound
eyes wide apart. The drones and queens have weak jaws, with a
rudimentary tooth, short tongues, sal no pollen baskets, though they
have the broad tibia and wide basal tarsus.”

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

Coming now to the special anatomy and physiology of the
Apis mellifica, it may be well, in the first place, to show the
general arrangement of the nervous system as depicted by Mr.
F. R. Cheshire in his admirable “‘ Diagrams on the Anatomy and
BEE MANUAL. 47

Physiology of the Honey-Bee,” of which I shall present a few
examples for the benefit of the reader, as an incentive to a
more thorough study of the whole subject. This illustration
speaks for itself, the black spots representing the ganglia or
nerve-centres, from which issue the minor systems of nerves
appropriated to particular uses, ‘‘ the great masses positioning

NG

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fig, 8.—NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE BEE,

themselves,” as expressed by Mr. Cheshire, “at the roots of
the wings and articulations of the legs, to supply stimulus
to the organs of locomotion. The ganglia energising the
compound eyes are also large.”
48 AUSTRALASIAN

RESPIRATORY ORGANS.

It has been already mentioned, as one of the main charac-
teristics of the class Jnsecta, that they breathe air through a
peculiar system of tubes. These tubes are called trachea, and
are of a very beautiful formation. They are thus illustrated
and described by Mr. Cheshire :—

 

Fig. 9 TRACHEA, MAGNIFIED.
b. Elastic Spiral of Trachea.

“The tubes consist of two membranes, between which lies
the elastic spiral thread, which prevents the closing of the tube
through movement. In the same intervening space the fluids
of the insect become aerated, so that the purpose of the lungs
of the higher animals is answered.” The outer openings of
these tubes, in the sides of the insect, are called spiracles. The
bee has fourteen of these spiracles, two on each side of the
thorax, and five on each side of the abdomen. The trachea
expand into large lung-like sacs in the abdomen of the bee, as
shown in the following illustration, where a represents one of
the air sacs, b b b the spiracles, and c ¢ some of the trachea.
BEE MANUAL. 49

In this engraving details of only one side are shown, and
only one air sac on that side.

 

Fig. 10.—RESPIRATORY ORGANS OF THE BEE,

AIR SACS OF BEE.

There are however, in the worker bee, two sacs on each side
a large and a small one; and, what is very remarkable, the
larger sac is in fact the undeveloped ovary of the insect, and in
the queen bee is replaced by the ovary proper, so that she
possesses only one small air sac on each side. The large air
sac of the worker is only distended during the time of flight,
and we may notice in this substitution of a valuable auxiliary
to the flight and carrying power of the worker bee, in place of
an organ not required by her, a beautiful adaptation of
means to the end. The queen we know is not required to fly
far or often, and then not to carry any loads of honey or
pollen—indeed it is a well-known fact that she cannot fly far,
when her ovaries are filled with eggs, and the smaller air sacs
therefore are sufficient for her purpose. The following diagrams
show (in Fig. 12) the arrangement of the large and small air

E
50 AUSTRALASIAN

sacs in the case of the worker, and it will be seen at a glance
that they take the places of the smaller air sacs a, and of the
ovary 0, in the case of the queen (Fig. 11).

 

Fig. 11,- AIR SACS AND OVARIES Fig, 12,—AIR SAOS OF THE
OF QUEEN, WORKER,

a, Air sack ; b. Ovary.

Every person accustomed to bees must frequently have
observed that some of the workers, when returning from the
field, remain for some time on the alighting-board before
entering the hive, and that during that time the rings of the
abdomen are in constant motion. These bees are simply
breathing themselves after along and tiresome flight. Mr.
Cheshire remarks :—

“The constant elongation and contraction of the abdomen of the
bee’s body has for its object the ejection of air which has become car-
bonised and the drawing in of fresh supplies. The spiracles admit of
being closed voluntarily. When the bee is in flight with the air sacs
filled, if the spiracle be closed and the abdomen contracted, the faces
are extruded. This explains why bees never soil their hives, except
BEE MANUAL. 51

when in a dysenteric condition, and why mating only occurs on the
wing.”

From this sketch of the general features of the bee’s struc-
ture I shall now proceed to notice the separate parts more
particularly appertaining to the Apis mellifica, commencing
wit

THE HEAD.

Within the small limits of a bee’s head there are contained
several important organs, some of them of a very complex
nature. These are—the compound eyes; the simple eyes, or
stemmata; the mouth and its appendages ; and the antenne.
The following engraving shows a front view (on a greatly
magnified scale) of a worker bee’s head :—

 

Fig. 13,_HEAD OF WORKER BEE.

a, Antenne; b. Compound eyes; c. Jaws; d. Mazille; e. Lateral
palpi ; f. Ligula, or tongue ; g. Stemmata.
52 AUSTRALASIAN

THE EYES.

In this illustration the compound eyes are shown on the
right and left hand side, at b 6, and the simple eyes between,
on the top of the forehead, in a triangular position, at g. In
the drone the compound eyes meet together at top, and the
simple eyes are forced down to near the middle of the fore-
head. The compound eyes occupy a great portion of the head ;
they form on each side an oval lube, convexly rounded, with a
brown, horny surface, which is divided into an immense number
of hexagonal facets, looking, when magnified, very like a
honeycomb, and each of which facets is in fact the surface of a
separate eye. There are supposed to be about 3,500 in each
compound eye of a bee. These are immovable, and each has a
very limited range of vision, but from the way in which they
are placed the bee must be able to see with them in a great
range without turning its head. These eyes are not supposed
to be capable of adjustment for different distances, but to be
chiefly useful for distant vision, while the small simple eyes,
or stemmata, in front of the head, are most probably intended
for seeing objects near at hand. Our knowledge about the
bee’s sense of vision, as well as its other senses of hearing, taste,
and smelling, is still very imperfect. Sir John Lubbock, after
making very careful experiments, is clearly of opinion that
bees can distinguish different colours easily, and that they have
a partiality for blue. It has been frequently remarked that
they seem to discern objects better at a great distance than
when near at hand. They fly homewards from any distant
point in very direct lines, apparently guided by remote land-
marks, but they frequently knock against persons or things, as
if they had not perceived them at a little distance ; and if they
happen to alight ever so little to one side of the entrance to
their hive, they are just as likely to go to the wrong side as to
the right one in looking for it.

THE MOUTH.

The mouth consists of an upper lip (Zabrum) and under lip
(labium), and of two pairs of jaws, the upper pair short and
horny, called the mandibles, shown atc in the figure, and the
lower pair long and more membranous, called the maxilla, and
BEE MANUAL. 53

shown at dd. The under-lip, or labium (not seen in the figure)
has a broad base, called the mentum, which forms the floor of
the mouth, and at the same time the root of the tongue, or
ligula, f, and of the labial palpi, ¢e. The ligula itself is some-
times called a proboscis, a name which is, in most minds, asso-
ciated with the trunk of the elephant, which is a hollow tubular
prolongation of the nasal organ. This is no ways analogous with
the proboscis of insects in general, and of the honey-bee in
particular; the latter is a prolongation of the labium, as above
mentioned, which organ is capable of being pushed forward and
drawn back into the under cavity of the head, carrying the
ligula of course with it. The labial palpi, together with the
maxille, appear to be brought into use to assist the ligula, or
tongue, in conveying nectar from the flowers to the honey sac
of the bee. The end of the tongue is furnished with a spoon-
shaped hollow on the under side, which opens into a capillary
tube on the upper side, covered with whorls of hair, as is also
the end of the ligula. When the bee is sipping, the liquid
enters the capillary tube, and the tongue is drawn back by
muscles at the base into what Herman Muller terms a suctorial
apparatus formed by the labial palpi and maxille. In his
valuable work on “ The Fertilisation uf Flowers,” he beauti-.
fully describes the above process as follows :—

** When the bee is sucking honey which is only just within her reach,
all the movable joints of its suction apparatus, cardines, the chitinous
retractors at the base of the mentum, laminz (maxill), labial palpi,
and tongue, are fully extended, except that the two proximal Joints
of the labial palpi are closely applied to the tongue below, and the
laminz to the mentum and hinder part of the tongue above. But as
soon as the whorls of hair at the point of the tongue are wet with
honey, the bees, by rotating the retractors, draw back the mentum,
and with it the tongue, so far that the laminz now reach as far for-
ward as the labial palpi; and now labial palpi and lamine together,
lying close upon the tongue, and overlapping at their sides, form a
tube, out of which only a part of the tongue protrudes. But almost
simultaneously with these movements, the bee draws back the basal
part of its tongue into the hollow end of the mentum, and so draws
the tip of the tongue, moist with honey, into the tube, where the
honey is sucked in by an enlargement of the foregut, known as the
sucking stomach, whose action is signified externally by a swelling of
the abdomen.”

Doubts have been expressed as to whether the bee empties
the contents of its honey sac into the cells through its proboscis
54 AUSTRALASIAN

or simply through its mouth; but the statement of Muller, that
when gathering pollen from some kinds of flowers the bee
ejects a little honey on the anthers through its suction tube—
which in another part of his work he calls the “ proboscis” for
shortness—would incline us to suppose that the honey may be
ejected into the cells in the same manner.

The maxille, or so-called lower jaws, form the under sheath
of the ligula and palpi when at rest, and the whole organ is
then folded under the lower part of the head.

THE ANTENNZ.

The antenne, or “feelers,” as they are commonly and not
inappropriately called, are very sensitive organs of touch-sen-
sations, and, beyond all donbt, of vital importance to the
insect. Huber tried experiments with queens deprived of the
antenne, and found that the loss of one was not very injurious ;
but when both were gone, the bee became apparently delirious,
avoided the worker bees, dropped her eggs at random about
the hive, and rushed towards the opening, as if to escape.
Having introduced a second queen, similarly mutilated, it was
found that they had both lost their natural instinct for a com-
bat, and met several times without exhibiting the smallest
resentment. The worker bees did not seem to distinguish
their own mutilated queen from the strange one, and both were
left to do as they liked ; but when Huber introduced a third
unmutilated queen, the workers seized her, bit her, and confined
her so closely that she could hardly move. When he removed
this last and one of the others, and left one fertile but muti-
lated queen in charge of the hive, she left it, and tried to fly
away, but being unable, she fell and died on the ground. Mr.
Harris mentions also that worker bees, if deprived of the
antenne, and allowed to fly, become incapable of recognising
their own hive again, and are hopelessly lost as to their where-
abouts. Huber tried other experiments hy dividing the bees
of one stock by two fine wire gratings placed so far apart that
the antennz of the bees on each side could not meet, and after-
wards removing one of the gratings, so that they could touch
each other ; and from the results of these experiments he drew
the conclusion that they could actually communicate intelligence
to each other by means of their autenne. There is, at all
BEE MANUAL. 55

events, much yet to be learned with regard to the tiue nature
of these organs.

SENSES OF HEARING AND SMELLING,

Closely connected with the conjectures as to the uses of the
antenne are those which many naturalists have made as to
the organs of hearing and smelling in the honey-bee. That
they are possessed of a keen sense of smell, as well as of taste
is indisputable ; and that they are capable of hearing seems
very probable, though still doubtful ; but through what organ
these senses may be worked upon is only matter of conjecture.
Huber suggested that the antenne might be organs of smell
as well as touch ; Leltmann and Cuvier considered that the
spiracles used for the purposes of respiration were also the
means by which the sense of smell was exercised; while
Kirby and Spence incline to the belief that the organ lies
somewhere in or near the mouth. We can only assert with
certainty that bees have a very keen sense of smell, that they
are attracted by the odour of flowers, honey, ete., and rendered
furious by disagreeable odours, especially by the smell of their
own sting-poison. As to their sense of hearing, it seems hard
to believe that they are unconscious of such sounds as their
own humming, so varied according to circumstances, or to the
calls so distinctly made by young queens, and which appear to
us to exercise such an influence on their conduct; still it is
true that Sir J. Lubbock, who has tried so many experiments
on the hearing of bees, with musical instruments, dog whistles,
shrill pipes, etc., seems to have satisfied himself that no noise
he could make, either harmonious or discordant, was capable
of making any impression on them, or of disturbing them in
the least.

THE WINGS.

It has been already stated that the honey-bee, like all insects
of the order Hymenoptera, is provided with four membranous
wings, springing from the thorax, of which the foremost, or
primary wings, slide over and cover the hinder ones when at
rest. This arrangement is of importance, as enabling the bee
to enter without difficulty the narrow cells of the comb in order
to stow honey and bee-bread, to feed the larve, etc., as well as to
56 AUSTRALASIAN

work its way into the small corolla-tubes of some flowers and
so reach the nectaries at bottom. A pair of these wings has
been shown in Fig. 7 to illustrate the arrangement of the cells
or subdivisions of the membrane, upon referring to which it
will be seen that the two wings, fully expanded, look asif they
were stitched together for a certain length. This apparent
stitching is a line of about twenty hooklets upon the front
edge of the under wing, of which a greatly magnified view is
given below :—

 

Fig. 14,—HOOKLETS OF WINGS.

Nine of the hooklets are shown in the lower diagram, while
the upper one shows, on a still larger scale, the last hooklet of
the row, and a line of strong bristly hairs, which furnishes the
margin of the wing where the hooklets cease.

Mr. Cheshire explains that

“These four wings, though individually small, collectively présent
sufficient surface for a rapid flight, which is greatly aided by a
beautiful arrangement for locking the two pairs into one. The front
wing is folded under at its posterior edge, and as the wing is advanced
to bring it into position for flying this fold catches into a line of
hooks from twenty to twenty-three in number, which turn upwards
from the front edge of the back wing.”

Can anything more admirable than this arrangement be
imagined ?
THE LEGS.
The legs, six in number, spring, like the wings, from the
thorax, which is the chief seat of muscular power. It is,
indeed, one mass of muscles, with the exception of the narrow
BEE MANUAL. 57

passage of the oesophagus or gullet connecting the mouth with
the honey sac and stomach. Lach leg has four principal joints,
the coxa, trochanter, femur, and tibia, and five smaller joints,
called tarsi, terminating in a two-hooked claw. The coxa and
trochanter are short and broad joints, the former working with
a ball and socket movement in the so-called coxal cavity in the
body ring; the femur represents the thigh, the tibia the leg,
and the tarsi the foot joints of the higher animals. In the
honey-bee the first of the tarsi is nearly as large as the tibia, to
which it is attached ; it is called the basal tarsus, and in the
posterior legs of the worker bee it and the tibia are widened
out and hollowed on the under side so as to form the “pollen
basket” already mentioned at page 42, and as shown in the
following engraving :—

 

Fig. 15,-HIND LEG OF BEE, SHOWING POLLEN BASKET,

The front legs of the workers have also a very peculiar
formation, shown in the next engraving. Under what may be
termed the knee joint there is a cavity, c, in the tibia, and a
spur or finger, 6, on the femur joint, which can be pressed
over the cavity or opened at the will of the bee.

Most modern Writers* describe this apparatus as performing
an important part in the gathering of pollen, as follows :—
When a bee is about to transfer the pollen she has gathered to
her pollen baskets, she places her tongue in the cavities of both
legs, closes the blades, and then withdraws it, leaving the
pollen adhering to the sides of her knees. It is then worked

* Especially Mr. A. I. Root, in his ‘‘A BC of Bee Culture ” it is not men-
tioned by Langstroth or Quinby.
58 AUSTRALASIAN

up into a small pellet by her tongue and feet, and placed by
the second pair in the spoon-shaped hollows, or baskets, on
the third or last pair of legs, and neatly patted down.

 

Fig. 16.—ANTERIOR LEG OF WORKER, MAGNIFIED.

It must, however, be observed that Professor Cook, one of
the best authorities, writes very cautiously on this point. He
says :— :

“‘ For several years this has caused speculation among my students,
and has attracted the attention of observing apiarists. Some have
supposed that it aided bees ii reaching deeper down into tubular
flowers ; others, that it was used in scraping off pollen, and still others,
that it enabled bees to hold on when clustering. The first two
suggestions may be correct, though other honey and pollen-gathering
bees do not possess it. The latter function is performed by the claws
at the end of the tarsi.”

This throws a doubt upon the matter, and we must be
cautious not to assert asa fact anything that is not already
universally admitted to be such, or that we cannot decisively
prove by our own investigation. I have often watched bees
gathering pollen, and thought I could observe the process of
scraping the tongue, or something very like it. But it must
be admitted that the movements of the bee on such occasions
are so amazingly rapid that it would be difficult to say there
could be no mistake as to the operation performed.

Muller says :—

“In collecting pollen, hive-bees and humble-bees use ~ their
mouth-parts in two different ways to moisten it, according as it
is the fixed pollen of entomophilous flowers, or the loose, easily-
scattered pollen of anemophilous flowers. In the former case (e.g.,
when Apis mellifica collects pollen on Salix) the bee has its suctonal
apparatus completely folded down, bringing the mouth opening, which
lies between the mandibles and the labrum, close over the pollen. The
bee ejects a little honey on the pollen, and then takes it up by means
of its tarsal brushes and places it in the baskets on the tibie of its
BEE MANUAL. 59

hind legs ; it often makes use of its mandibles to free the pollen before
moistening it with honey. In the latter case, which I have observed
in Plantago lanceolata . . . the bee, hovering over the flower,
ejects a little honey upon the anthers from its suction-tube which is
fully extended, but completely sheaths the tongue. . . . Since
hive-bees and humble-bees on entomophilous flowers suck honey with
outstretched proboscis, and collect pollen with it folded up, and on
anemophilous flowers collect pollen only, it follows that they can
never suck honey and gather pollen simultaneously ; they must always
do first one and then the other, and since the pollen has to be moistened
with honey, the act of sucking must always be first.”

THE HONEY SAC.

This is merely a widening of the cesophagus, forming a first
stomach, in the anterior part of the abdomen, a sort of ante-
chamber to the true stomach, which is very different in shape,
and which is followed by the intestines leading to the anus, or
vent. Everything passing from the mouth to the stomach
must go through the honey sac, but the bee has the power of
retaining the nectar in this sac, and afterwards disgorging it
through the mouth, without letting it enter the true stomach
at all. Connected with the cesophagus, in front of the honey
sac, there are important glands in the head and in the front
part of the abdomen, which secrete the so-called salivary juice,
which, as Professor Cook states, “aids in kneading wax, etc.,
as already described. It also probably aids in modifying the
sugar while the nectar is in the bee’s stomach.” This would
account partly for the difference observable between honey and
other merely saccharine matter.

THE STING.

The sting of the worker bee is a very complicated organ, as
will be seen by a study of the following engraving, taken from
Root’s “A BC of Bee Culture.”

In the general view of the sting, I, is the double gland which
secretes the poison ; A, the cylindrical reservoir in which the
poison is collected from the glands, and from which it is trans-
mitted through hollows in the spears or lancets to the wound ;
B, the two barbed lancets; and p, the third spear or awl,
usually styled the sheath, in which the other two partly slide
when at work. In the cross section (greatly enlarged) of the
60 AUSTRALASIAN

lancets, at the point D, it will be seen how the two hollow
lancets, A and B, slide on ribs or guides in the concave side of
the so-called sheath, D. They have tubes, F and G, through
which, as well as through the tube &, formed between the three
parts of the sting, the poisonous fluid is transmitted. There is
a hollow, ©, in the awl or sheath, D, but it is only for strength
and lightness, and is not open either above or below. In the

 

 

 

Fig..17,—-THE BEE STING,

I. Bee sting, magnified.
II. One of the barbed lancets.
III. Cross section of lancets at v.
IV, Drop of the poison, crystallised.

barbed lancets, the end of one of which is shown, greatly mag-
nified, there are grooves, G, to fit on the ribs of the sheath, and
BEE MANUAL. 61

the poison, which is conveyed down the hollow tube inside of
each, finds vent by small side openings to the barbs at Hu. It
appears that when the wound is first pierced by the smooth and
highly polished point of the awl D, a sliding motion is com-
municated to the barbed lancets by the muscles shown at J and
K, and the poison is pumped into the wound through the
centre cavity E; the barbed lancets are then driven in by
alternate motions, and at the same time the centre cavity is
closed by valves at the root of the sting, and the poison is
forced through the tubes in the hollow lancets, and through
the side openings near the barbs. The barbs having once
penetrated any tough material, such as the human skin, cannot
be withdrawn by a direct pull. The bee, if left to itself, will
gradually work round and round until it screws out the sting,
but if it be abruptly shaken or brushed off, the whole sting is
torn out of its body and left behind. In that case the muscles
will continue to work and to force poison into the wound for
some time, if the sting be not carefully extracted, which
should be done without squeezing the poison reservoirs at its
base. The body of a bee that had been dead for hours has
been known to sting in that way. The injury occasioned to a
bee by the tearing out of its-sting must be very severe, and it
has been generally supposed that they must die immediately
afterwards. Sir John Lubbock, however, in his work on “ Ants,
Bees, and Wasps,” says: “Though bees that have stung and
lost their sting always perish, they do not die immediately,
and in the meantime they show little sign of suffering from
the terrible injury.” He mentions having seen a bee after
losing its sting, remain twenty minutes on the floor-board,
enter the hive, return in an hour, feed quietly on some honey,
and again return to the hive. Mr. A. I. Root says he has
kept bees some time in confinement after being so injured,
and could not see but they flew off just as well as bees that
thad not lost their sting.” He even inclines to think they may
live and gather honey afterwards.

Recent researches by the French naturalist, M. G. Carlet,
show that the two glands secrete two different sorts of liquids,
the combined action of which makes the poison so virulent.
In the translation of M. Carlet’s paper, given in the American
Apiculturist of December, 1884, it is stated that although the
stinging of a fly by a bee causes the instantaneous death of
62 AUSTRALASIAN

the former, yet if a fly be inoculated with the product of one
of the two venomous glands of the bee, it will not die for a
long time ; the successive inoculations of the same fly with the
products of the two glands causes death in a very short time
after the second inoculation. The conclusions come to are—
“1, The poison of the hymenoptera is always acid. 2. It is
composed of a mixture of two liquids, one strongly acid, the
other feebly alkaline, and acts only when both liquids are
present, 3. These are produced by two special glands that
may be called the acid gland and the alkaline gland. 4. These
two glands both expel their contents at the base of the throat
from which the sting darts out.”

REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF THE QUEEN,

The most important organs of the queen-bee—themselves
forming perhaps one of the most wonderful objects of nature,
and~of which the very accurate knowledge which we now
possess, owing to the patient researches of many naturalists,
has done more than aught else for the progress of scientific
bee-culture—are her ovaries and the parts attached thereto,
which are illustrated in the following engraving.

The two fig-shaped bodies are the ovaries, which are multi-
tubular, there being more than a hundred tubes (called the
ovigian tubes) in the two ovaries of a queen bee. In these
tubes the eggs grow and develop themselves until they are fit
to be deposited. Each ovary has a separate oviduct at bottom,
through, which the eggs pass for some distance, until the two
join in one common oviduct leading to the vulva, or vent,
through which the eggs are ultimately deposited. A little
below the junction of the passages from the two ovaries, and
on the outside of the common oviduct, is a small globular body,
shown on the right hand side in the engraving. This is a
hollow vessel, called the spermatheca, of which much has to be
said. More than two hundred years ago Swammerdam published
an excellent illustration of the ovaries of a queen bee, showing
the spermatheca, but he conjectured that it secreted a fluid for
sticking the eggs to the bottom of the cells in the comb. In
his time but little was known of what went on within the hive.
It was no doubt assumed by many that every single egg laid
by the queen required to be fertilised by a separate act of the
drone, while Swammerdam himself conceived the idea that no
BEE MANUAL, 63

copulation was necessary, but that some gaseous emanations
from the body of the drone produced fecundation by pene-
trating the body of the queen. About a hundred years later
great advances were made in the knowledge of the physiology
of the bee. It is said that Jansha, apiarist to the Empress
Maria Theresa of Austria, discovered the fact that young
queens have to leave the hive to meet the drones ; but it is to
the labours of Huber in 1787 and following years, and com-

 

 

       

   
  

 

 

 

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ca nsdn ge
OOD D000 EE Gun fy
9900 0900
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Corian) Bog

 

     

  

Fig. 18.—OVARIES OF QUEEN.

municated in his letters addressed to Bonnet in the years 1789
to 1791, that we owe the first knowledge of the following main
facts:—1. That the queen bee is truly oviparous; that what
she deposits is a true egg, which takes three days to produce
a living maggot or larva—(even the great Bonnet was inclined
up to that time to believe that a minute worm, and not an egg,
was produced by the queen). 2. That the queen must be
impregnated by the drone in order to become fertile. 3, That
64 AUSTRALASIAN

copulation is accomplished outside the hive and while on the
wing high in the air. 4. That one impregnation was sufficient
to fertilise all the eggs laid by the queens subsequently for two
years at least, perhaps for life. 5. But that if the act of
impregnation was delayed beyond the twenty-first day of the
queen’s life, her eggs would afterwards produce only drones.
Huber also proved that queens could be reared from the larva
of worker eggs, and also that in some rare cases workers were
able to lay eggs, which, however, could only produce drones.
He investigated other matters of the greatest importance to
the science of bee-culture, and has been gratefully designated
THE PRINCE oF APICULTURISTS by Langstroth. He failed,
however, to discover the secrets of the spermatheca, and re-
mained under the false impression that the fertilisation of the
eggs took place in the ovaries and that there were two sorts of
eggs, one sort to produce workers and queens, the other to
produce drones, and that they occupied separate portions of
the ovaries. His cotemporary, Schirach, who also contributed
much to apiarian science, supposed that one branch of the
ovaries contained the one sort and the second branch the other
sort of fertilised eggs. In this state the science remained for
some sixty years. Langstroth says it is now ascertained that
Posel, in a work published at Munich in 1784—therefore
previous to the experiments of Huber-——“ describes the sperma-
theca and its contents and the use of the latter in impregnating
the passing egg;” and also that “years ago the celebrated
Dr. John Hunter and others supposed that there must be a
permanent receptacle for the male sperm opening into the
oviduct.” Nothing certain was known, however, until 1845,
when the brilliant discoveries of Dzierzon led to the promul-
gation of the THEORY which bears his name, and especially to
the doctrine of

PARTHENOGENESIS.

On this point Professor Cook says :—

“This strange ee pe peehia ee of the eggs without impreg-
nation—was discovered and proved by Dzierzon in 1845. Dr. Dzierzon,
who as a student of orsetiol and scientific apiculture must rank with
the great Huber, is a Roman Catholic priest of Carlsmarkt, Germany.
This doctrine—called Parthenogenesis, which means produced from a
virgin—is still doubted by some quite able bee-keepers, though the
proofs are irrefragable.”
BEE MANUAL. 65

No wonder that people were slow to accept this wonderful
doctrine. Von Berlepsch, in his exposition of the Dzierzon
Theory, says :—

“From time immemorial naturalists have regarded as universally
true the doctrine that no living creature can be developed from the egg
of a female without male impregnation, And whee occasionally
exceptional cases were addwcad the men of science treated the state-
ments with contempt, or endeavoured to impugn their force or
validity by assuming that the observers were either incompetent or
careless.”

Dr. Dzierzon’s discoveries accordingly were received with
incredulity and sometimes with derision ; but magna est veritas,
et prevalebit / Dr. Dzierzon was assisted in proving his case
by such scientists as Professors Leuckart and Von Siebold of
Munich, and by the Baron von Berlepsch, the author of the
celebrated “ Apistical Letters.”

Von Siebold ‘‘demonstrated clearly, that not only do living larve
occasionally issue from a portion of the unimpregnated eggs of the
silkworm, and develop as moths—some male, others female ; but that
in various species of butterflies the virgin females regularly lay eggs
which, not partially only and occasionally, but uniformly and without
exception, produce females.”

Prof. Leuckart subsequently noticed a still greater number of
exceptions, and says :—

“‘ There can be no doubt that parthenogenesis exists far more exten-
sively among insects than is now known or anticipated.”

And Von Berlepsch adds :—

“This exception is found also among bees; with this difference,
however, that among them al/ the eggs which remain unimpregnated
invariably develop as males, and those which are impregnated invaria-
bly develop as females, and that the impregnation of the egg determines
its feminine sexuality. Consequently, in the case of bees, not only is
every egg susceptible of development, though unimpregnated, but
masculinity pre-exists therein, which (marvellous indeed !) is trans-
formed into feminity by impregnation with the male sperm.”

THE DZIERZON THEORY.

Space will not admit of going into the details of observations
and experiments by which the case has been proved. I shall
only add the thirteen “ propositions” of the Dzierzon theory,

F
66 AUSTRALASIAN

which are now accepted as correct in almost every particular,
and each one of which is fully discussed in the excellent work
of the Baron von Berlepsch :—

“1, A colony of bees, in its normal condition, consists of three cha-
racteristically different kinds of individuals—the queen, the workers,
and (at certain periods) the drones.

“2. In the normal condition of a colony, the queen is the
only perfect female present in the hive, and lays all the eggs
found therein. These eggs are male and female. From the former
proceed the drones; from the latter, if laid in narrow cells,
proceed the workers, or undeveloped females; and from them
also, if laid in wider, acorn-shaped, and vertically suspended,
so-called royal cells, lavishly supplied with a peculiar pabulum or
jelly, proceed the queens.

“*3, The queen possesses the ability to lay male or female eggs at
pleasure, as the particular cells she is at the time supplying may
require.

‘4, In order to become qualified to lay both male and female eggs,
the queen must be fecundated by a drone, or male bee.

‘5. The fecundation of the queen is always effected outside of the
hive, in the open air, and while on the wing. Consequently, in order
to become fully fertile, that is, capable of laying both male and female
eggs, the queen must leave her hive at least once,

“6, In the act of copulation, the genitalia of the drone enter the
ee of the queen, are there retained, and the drone simultaneously

erishes.
e “7, The fecundation of the queen, once accomplished, is effica
cious during her life, or so long as she remains healthy and vigorous;
and when once become fertile, she never afterwards lgaved her hive,
except when accompanying a swarm.

‘*8, The ovaries of the queen are not impregnated in copulation ;
but a small vesicle, or sac, which is situated near the termination of
the oviduct, and communicating therewith, becomes charged with the
semen of the drone.

“*9, All eggs germinated in the ovary of the queen develop as
males, unless impregnated by the male sperm while passing the mouth
of the seminal sac or spermatheca when descending the oviduct. If
they be thus impregnated in their downward passage (which impregr-
nation the queen can effect or omit at her pleasure) they develop as
females.

10. If a queen remain unfecundated she ordinarily does not lay
eggs. Still exceptional cases do sometimes occur, and the eggs then
laid produce drones only.

‘11. If, in consequence of superannuation, the contents of the
spermatheca of a fecundated queen become exhausted; or, if from
enervation or accident, she lose the power of using the muscles
connected with that organ, so as to be unable to im regnate the
passing egg, she will thenceforward lay drone eggs only, if she lay
at all. *
BEE MANUAL, 67

‘©12, As some unfecundated queens occasionally lay drone eggs,
so also in queenless colonies, no longer having the requisite means of:
securing a queen, common workers are sometimes found that lay
eggs, from which drones only proceed. These workers are likewise
unfecundated, and the eggs are uniformly laid by some individual
bee, regarded and iecoted more or less by her companions as their
queen.

‘13. So long as a fertile queen is present in the hive, the bees do
not tolerate a fertile worker. Nor do they tolerate one while cherish-
ing the hope of being able to rear a queen. In rare instances,
however, exceptional cases occur. Fertile workers are sometimes
found in the hive immediately after the death or removal of the queen,
and even in the presence of a young queen, so long as she has not
herself become fertile.” :

The foregoing enunciation of the Dzierzon theory is now
generally accepted, with scarcely any modification, as the basis
of the modern science of Apiculture. As regards Proposition
5, some doubts are still entertained as to whether it may not
be possible that fecundation may be, in some rare instances,
accomplished within the hive. Professor Cuok indeed states a
case as having come under his own observation, where a
“queen whose wing was clipped just as she came from the
cell, and the entrance to whose hive was guarded by per-
forated zinc so that she could not get out, was impregnated,
and proved an excellent queen.” He adds, ‘‘so it seems more
than possible that mating in confinement may yet become
practicable.” Certainly it has not been found practicable as
yet, and many additional authentic cases must be recorded
before it can even be admitted that there was no possibility of a
mistake in the isolated case referred to.

Attempts have also recently been made to effect artificial
fecundation of the queen larva, and thus produce a queen
capable, when she first issues from the cells, of laying both
male and female eggs. Some cases of success in this delicate
operation have even been asserted, but no satisfactory practical
results have been as yet attained. It is the opinion of some
who are well qualified to judge, that ultimate success in this
direction may be possible, and no doubt the most searching
investigation and the most careful experiments will be made until
certainty shall be attained on the point. Should it ever be found
really practicable to regulate cross-breeding in such a certain
manner, it would undoubtedly open quite a new era in queen
rearing and in the propagation of peculiar races of bees.
68 AUSTRALASIAN

The statement in Propositions 3 and 9, that the queen
“can effect or omit at pleasure” the impregnation of the egg
when passing the spermatheca, has also been open to much
doubt until the recent investigations made by Mr. F. R.
Cheshire, which were published in the British Bee Journal
in the months of November and December, 1884, and which
seem to decide that question in the most satisfactory way, and
beyond all doubt. Referring to fig. 18, the reader will bear in
mind that it is now ascertained, as set forth in Proposition 8,
that the result of the act of fecundation by the drone is simply
to fill the spermatheca with a glandular secretion containing
the infinitely small spermatozoa, one of which must be intro-
duced into the egg through a small opening at its lower end,
called the micropyle, in order to change its nature from male
to female. The eggs so developed in the ovaries are now
understood to be all male eggs ; if they pass through the ovi-
duct unaltered, they will produce drones; if they receive a
spermatozoon into the micropyle while passing the spermatheca
on the downward passage, they develop into workers or queens,
z.¢., into worker eggs. The question heretofore has been, how
can the queen control the fecundation of the egg? It was for
a long time supposed that when the queen inserted her abdomen
into the narrow worker cells, in order to deposit her egg, the
pressure from the sides of the cell was sufficient to open the
passage from the spermatheca, and lead to the impregnation of
the passing egg, whereas in a drone cell there was supposed to
be no pressure on the body, and that therefore an unimpreg-
nated ege was laid init. With regard to the queen cells, in
order to support this theory, it had to be assumed that the
queen did not lay direct in them, but that the workers supplied
these cells with impregnated eggs from the worker cells. Mr.
Cheshire, on the contrary, proves that the queen does lay eggs
in the queen cells, and further, that no outside pressure, even if
leading to the death of the insect, could force open the sperma-
theca; that, on the other hand, she has perfect control over
the impregnation of the eggs, and can lay male or female eges
‘when and where she pleases. He has discovered and described
the beautiful valves by which the passage from the spermatheca
into the oviduct are guarded, the muscles by which the queen
can open and close them at will, and the manner in which the
egg passing down from the ovary is allowed to receive one of
BEE MANUAL. 69

the spermatozoa through the opening of the micropyle; and
this leads him to the very natural reflection—

‘*What children we must feel ourselves, how utterly baffled and
confounded by the reflection that this tiny spermatozoon, eight or ten
millions of which the queen may carry in her microscopic spermatheca,
has about it—somehow and somewhere—that which shall determine,
not sex merely, but all distinctions of species, such as the external
form of the body, the length and modelling of the tongue, the arrange-
ment of the pigment cells, the colour of the covering plates, the tint of
every hair, and the general temper and disposition of the resulting
insect, besides a thousand other peculiarities! We speak of what the
microscope has revealed, and without gainsaying it is surpassingly
poe ; but how little have we found, compared with what lies

ehind!”

And in another place he has a beautifully expressed passage
which we gladly copy as an appropriate conclusion to our slight
survey of the anatomy and physiology of the bee.

“Our bees,” he concludes, ‘‘ are miracles of creative skill, which to
a better insight but thinly veils the Worker whose understanding is
infinite ; and we are not in our weakest moments when He, ‘ clearly
seen by the things that are made,’ draws us to bow the head and
worship.”

DEVELOPMENT FROM THE EGG TO THE BEE,

Having now come to understand the manner in which the
egg, whether male or female, comes to be laid, we may examine
the egg itself, and the way in which the germ it contains
becomes developed into the full-grown insect.

 

Fig, 19.-QUEEN’S EGG UNDER THE MICROSCOPE.

The egg, when laid in the cell, requires a tolerably sharp
sight to distinguish it as it lies at the bottom, attached by one
end to the comb by means of some glutinous fluid with which
70 AUSTRALASIAN

it is coated. It is very small, and not round or oval likea
bird’s egg, but long, like a small worm or maggot. It is, how-
ever, a true egg, and presents, when greatly magnified, the
appearance shown. Sites
Tt appears covered with a sort of delicate network, which is,
in fact, its shell, and it has a yolk and surrounding white, or
albumen, like all eggs of birds or reptiles. When deposited in
a worker cell, it remains unchanged in outward appearance for
three days, when the larva first appears as a minute worm, and
goes through the stages of development shown in the following
figure ; the numbers underneath denoting the age, in days,
from the laying of the egg.

ut

    

it

ase

 

 

 

 

 

te
rs

= AT)

 

A

     

 

a
_

18

1 38 4 56
Fig, 20,_FROM THE EGG TO THE BEE.

The larva, when it emerges from the egg, is fed by the
workers, which act as nurses, with a mixture of bee-bread,
honey, and water, the two first-mentioned materials having
undergone a partial digestion in the stomachs of the bees, and.
been converted into a species of chyle. Whether the water is
mixed with the food so prepared, or is required for the process
of digestion to prepare it, certain it is that during the breeding
time great: numbers of bees are to be seen imbibing water, and
bringing it to the hive. This process of feeding the larve
continues five days for the workers and six and a half days for
the drones, and the cells are then capped with a mixture of
wax and pollen, which forms a safe covering for the cells, but
is sufficiently porous to admit the air necessary for the life of
the larva and pupa, or nymph, during its period of metamor-
phosis. As soon as the cell is closed, the grub begins to spin a
web or cocoon round itself; this spinning goes on for thirty-six
hours, when the cocoon is complete, and then ensues a period
of rest, or apparent rest, and subsequent metamorphosis, during
which time a wonderful transformation is going on from hour
BEE MANUAL. 71

to hour. This includes the pupa or nymph period, and lasts
altogether thirteen days for workers and fourteen and a half
for drones ; and at length, on the twenty-second day from the
laying of the egg in the former, or on the twenty-fifth day in
the latter case, the fully formed bee cuts through the capping
of the cell with its mandibles, and emerges complete in every
respect, and ready, without any previous training, education, or
experience, to fulfil its functions, to execute all the delicate
operations, and to observe those rules of conduct which appear
to us (and justly) to be such marvels of intelligence, ingenuity,
dexterity, and even foresight. Itis true that the actions of
these insects, from the moment they break through the cover-
ing of their cells, are evidently prompted and guided by such
intelligence and foresight—so indeed was the action of the grub
in spinning its own cocoon ;—but is it not absurd to attribute
the consequent results to any exercise of a reasoning faculty in

   

Fig. 21_—WORKER NYMPH AND LARVA, IN COMB.

the insect? Even if we suppose it endowed at once with the
reasoning powers of man himself, would it not require a long
period of experience, or education, or both, before it could be
capable of building a cell or seeking for and bringing home a
load of honey or of pollen? It is therefore a mistake to talk
of the intelligence or ingenuity of the bee; we have here to
deal evidently with instinct, which is simply the exercise, on
the part of the insect, of an intelligence not its own, and which,
to make use again of Mr. Cheshire’s most appropriate words,
“but thinly veils the Worker whose understanding is infinite.”

The foregoing illustration (Fig. 21) shows very clearly, at
about three times the natural size, the larva when just closed
in its cell, and before spinning its cocoon, and the pupa, or
nymph, when nearly developed, with the exception of the wings.
72 AUSTRALASIAN

The cells in which queen, or perfect female bees are laid and
developed differ widely from those of the workers and drones :
in the natural state, they are only built in the swarming season,
or in cases where the colony has become queenless ; in the
former case the cells are laid out for the purpose on the under
side or on the edges of the comb, as shown in the following
engraving, which exhibits, on an enlarged scale, the top view
of a number of worker cells, with the egg and larva in the dif-
ferent stages of development up to the time of capping the
cells (in the line marked a); a section of a queen cell (0),
showing the larva and a supply of the royal jelly, and a similar
one completed and closed (at c). ,

 

Fig. 22,—WORKER LARVE AND QUEEN CELLS,

Langstroth, in describing the queen cells, says :—

‘These cells somewhat resemble a small pea-nut, and are about an
inch deep and one-third of an inch in diameter. Being very thick,
they require much wax for their construction. They are seldom seen
in a perfect state after the swarming season, as the bees, after the
queen has hatched, cut them down to the shape of a small acorn cup.”

The material of which these cells are composed is not pure
wax; there is much pollen mixed with it. The outside surface
is uneven and indented like the sides of a thimble. The num-
ber built at one time varies much, according to circumstances—
sometimes only two or three, but ordinarily not less than five,
BEE MANUAL. 73

and sometimes more than a dozen. They are built to hang as
nearly vertical as possible, the broader end uppermost, and
gradually narrowing towards the point below. The queen lays
her egg in the cell when it is about half built; after three days,
as in the case of workers and drones, the larva is hatched ; the
workers then feed the larva for five days with an abundance of
so-called “royal jelly,” which appears to be much the same as
that fed to worker larve, only perhaps more carefully prepared.
Mr. Root says on this point :—

«Tt has also been said that the queens receive the very finest, most
perfectly digested, and concentrated food that they (the workers) can
prepare. This I can readily believe, for the royal jelly has a very rich
taste—something between cream, quince jelly, and honey, with a
slightly tart and rank, strong milky taste, that is quite sickening if
much of it be taken. Iam inclined to think that the same food that
is given the young larve at tirst will form royal jelly, if left exposed
to the air, as it is in the broad open queen cells.”’

This food is deposited in a considerable quantity in the
quecn cell before it is closed (see 6 in last figure). The queen
larva takes only one day to spin its cocoon, as it only covers
the upper half of the body. This fact was observed by Huber,
and commented upon in the following manner :—

‘<The worms both of workers and males fabricate complete cocoons
in their cells; that is, close at both ends and surrounding the whole
body. The royal larve, on the other hand, spin imperfect cocoons,
open behind, and enveloping only the head, thorax, and first ring of
the abdomen. The discovery of this difference, which at first may
seem trifling, has been the source of extreme pleasure to me, for it
evidently demonstrates the admirable art with which nature connects
the various characteristics of the industry of bees. .... Of several
royal nymphs ina hive, the first transformed attacks the rest, and
stings them to death” (by biting through the side of the cell, and
inserting her sting through the hole so made). ‘‘ But were these
nymphs enveloped in a complete cocoon, she could not accomplish
this. Why? Because the silk is of so close a texture, the sting
could not penetrate, or if it did, the barbs would be retained by
the meshes of the cocoon, and the queen, unable to retract it, would
become the victim of her own fury. Thus, that the queen might
destroy her rivals, it was necessary the last rings of the body
should remain uncovered; therefore the royal nymphs must only
form imperfect cocoons. You will observe that the last rings alone
should be exposed, for a sting can penetrate no other part. The
head and thorax are protected by connected shelly plates, which it
cannot pierce.”
74 AUSTRALASIAN

The transformations of the queen larva are completed in
seven days from the closing of the cell, so that on the sixteenth
day from the laying of the egg (six days shorter than the
period for the worker, and nine days shorter than that for the
drone) the fully developed queen emerges from the cell.

The only other matter to be noticed in this place is the
exceptional development of a queen bee from an egg or young
larva originally laid in a worker cell. This takes place in
abnormal cases only where the hive has suddenly become queen-
less. As soon as their loss is discovered by the workers, they
proceed to build queen cells over worker eggs, or over larvee not
more than three days old. They select a cell for the purpose, with
the egg or very young larva in it; they break down the parti-
tions of the adjoining cells, and so make room for the base of
a queen cell, which they proceed to build in the usual manner,
and to feed the larva with the usual royal jelly, and in due
course of time a developed queen is produced. The subjoined
figure shows the appearance of such queen cells built over ordi-
nary cells. The ordinary worker cells, with eggs in them, are

 

Fig, 23,—QUEEN CELLS BUILT OVER WORKER CELLS.

shown at A; B is a queen cell partly built ; and c one completed
and closed. D shows a case, which sometimes occurs, of a queen
cell built over drone brood. Such cells—which may be known
by the absence of indentations on their outer surfaces—are of
course useless, as the nature of the drone egg is not altered by
the form of the cell or the quality of the food given to the larva.

This phenomenon of queens being reared from worker larva
caused much astonishment when it was first observed by Schirach
BEE MANUAL, 75

and recorded by Huber; but since the Dzierzon theory has
been established it is of course easily understood. If, after a
hive becomes queenless, there should be no recently deposited
eggs or very young larve of workers in the combs, it is of
course impossible for the bees to rear a new queen for them-
selves ; and if they be not provided with a new queen, or with
some young larve or eggs to rear one from, the colony is certain
to dwindle away and perish either from the attacks of robbers
or from starvation.

FERTILE WORKERS.

The existence of egg-laying workers in a hive upon certain
rare occasions was noted by M. Riem even before Huber’s
time, and fully confirmed by the latter. The circumstances
under which they do occur are given in Propositions 12 and
13 of the Dzierzon theory. They are of course quite useless
for keeping up the stock of a hive, as their eggs can only pro-
duce drones. Prof. Cook sums up in a few words all that is as
yet known about their origin. He says :—

‘< Huber supposed that these were reared in cells contiguous to royal
cells, and thus received royal food by accident. The fact as stated
by Mr. Quinby, that these occur in colonies where queen larve were
never reared, is fatal to the above theory. Langstroth and Berlepsch
thought that these bees were fed, though too sparingly, with the royal
aliment by bees in need of a queen, and hence the accelerated develop-
ment. Such may be the true explanation. Yet if, as some apiarists
aver, these appear where no (royal?) brood has been fed, and so must
be common workers, changed after leaving the cell, as the result of a
felt need, then we must conclude that development and growth, as
with the high-holder, spring from desire.”

This is evidently one of the matters relating to apiculture
about which we have still much to learn. Prof. Cook adds:
“Fertile workers seem to appear more quickly and in greater
abundance in colonies of Cyprian and Syrian bees after they
become hopelessly queenless, than in Italian colonies.” If so,
it is a point decidedly against the cultivation of those races.

RELATION OF BEES TO FLOWERS.

This subject (the word flowers being taken in its widest sense,
as applying to all sorts of blossoms of plants, shrubs, and trees)
is one of the most important and interesting to which the apiarist
76 AUSTRALASIAN

can give his attention. The general principle of the relation
is very simple, and may be shortly stated here. The detailed
investigation and illustration of the subject can only be glanced
at in a work of this description. Any one who wishes to follow
up the study must apply himself to the works of Darwin, Sir
John Lubbock, Herman Miiller, and other writers who have

_ done so much for the service of botany, as well as for apiculture,
by their labours in this direction. The perusal of such books
will be found to be a rich treat, of which we can only give one
or two samples which will serve to whet the appetite of the
student.

The main principle of the relations between insect-life and
plant-life is simply that of mutual advantage, the insects being
almost entirely dependent upon the vegetable kingdom for their
sustenance, and plants of most sorts being mainly dependent
upon the insects for the propagation of their species. A whole
host of insects, large and small, but of which the bee is by far
the most important, feed chiefly on the saccharine matter
secreted in the nectaries of blossoms of all sorts ; and some of
them, the honey-bee in particular, require for their own food,
or for that of their young, a good deal of farinaceous matter
which they find supplied by the fecundating dust of the anthers
of the same blossoms, which is called pollen. On the other
hand, it is necessary for the fertilization of the plant, that the
dust of the anthers should be brought in contact with the pistils
of either the same blossom or of some other blossom of the
same species. Until a comparatively recent date it was assumed
to be the rule, and the intention of nature, that each blossom
should be self-fertilizing, except in cases where the stamens
and pistils are found in separate flowers ; even then the inter-
position of insects would in most cases be necessary for the
conveyance of the pollen to the pistil; but it is now made clear
to us, by the researches of botanists, especially of Sprengel,
Darwin, and H. Miiller, that cross-fertélisation is one of the chief
laws of nature in the vegetable kingdom; that the pollen of
one blossom is intended to be transferred to the pistils of sepa-
rate plants of the same species; and that the means for such
transfer are furnished by the visits of insects; these are at-
tracted by the sweets to be found in the nectaries, and in
searching for them they become powdered with the dust of the
anthers, which is afterwards rubbed off by their contact with
BEE MANUAL. 17

the pistil of the next blossom they visit and that may happen
to have that organ developed. In order fully to understand
the advantages proposed to be obtained by cross-fertilization,
one must read the works of those who have made the subject
their special study; it only concerns us here to note that, as
Mr. Harris says in his book on “The Honey Bee ”—

“Tt must not be supposed, however, that even the hermaphrodite,
or double-sexed, flowers are independent of the visits of bees and other
insects. In all of them, as Darwin has abundantly proved, cross-
fertilization is a most important factor in the continued vitality of any
species, and gives an immense advantage in the ‘struggle for exist-
ence,’ where the conditions for life are not wholly favourable. Indeed,
in many instances, special provision has been made by the Creator
against self-fertilization ; in some cases, by the anthers and pistils com-
ing to maturity, in the same flower, at different times; in others, by
the placing of the stamens in such a position relatively to the stigma
(or top of the pistil) that it is not possible for the pollen grains of the
one set of organs to fall on the surface of the other.”

We shall here give an illustration of one out of the many
interesting cases of special provision, in the structure of the

flower, to secure cross-fertilization by the aid of the bee’s
visits.

 

Fig, 24.SALVIA OFFICINALIS.
Young Flower visited by a Bee.

In the common sage, Salvia officinalis, both the stamens and
the pistil are of a very peculiar form, and the latter is not
fully developed and ready to be fecundated until after the
anthers of the same blossom have shed their pollen. The
shape of the flower, and the mode in which the bee enters it
is shown in the above figure, in which the tip of the still
undeveloped pistil is seen just over the back of the bee, which
is forcing its way down to the nectary, through the stamens.
The latter are not visible.
78 AUSTRALASIAN

The anthers are shown in the next figure, but on an enlarged
scale.

 

Fig. 25, _STAMENS AND ANTHERS,

The anther cells, instead of being close together, are at the
two ends of a long connective, which is attached by a sort of
pivot joint at about one-third of its length to the stalk of the
stamen. The lower anther cells contain very little pollen,
sometimes none at all, while the upper ones are fully developed
as shown in the figure. When the bee thrusts its head into
the tube, it presses against the lower cells and pushes them
back; the connectives revolve on their axis, and the upper
anther cells are brought down on the bee’s back, the hairs of
which brush off the pollen which the bee carries away, and as
soon as it meets with an older blossom, in which the pistil is
fully developed as seen in the next figure, it is evident that

 

Fig. 26,—SALVIA OFFICINALIS,
Older Liower, with pistil developed.

upon entering'the tube of this blossom, the pollen already on
the bee’s back must be rubbed against the stigma, and the
cross-fertilization be thus effected.
BEE MANUAL. 79

Darwin has proved experimentally the great advantages
rendered to agriculture by the bee, in the fertilization of clo-
vers, etc.; and Mr. Cheshire and many other writers have
demonstrated in a satisfactory manner the services rendered to
horticulture by the action of bees upon the fruit blossoms.
Finally, the peculiar value of bees, as compared with other
insects, in the business of fertilizing plants, is thus described by
Herman Miiller, in his book on “ The Fertilization of Flowers,”
when speaking of the various fertilizing insects :—

“ Bees, which not only feed on the produce of flowers, but nourish
their young also thereon, are in such intimate and lifelong relations
with flowers, that they show more adaptation to a floral diet, and are
more important for the fertilization of our flowers, and have therefore
led to more adaptive modifications in these flowers, than all the fore-
going orders (of insects) put together... ..

‘* Bees, as the most skilful and diligent visitors, have played the
chief part in the evolution of flowers ; we owe to them the most nume-
rous, most varied, and most specialised forms. Flowers adapted to
bees probably surpass all others together in variety of colour. The
most specialised, and especially the gregarious, bees have produced
great differentiations in colour, which enable them, on their journeys,
to keep to a single species of flower. While those flowers which are
fitted for a miscellaneous lot of short-lipped insects usually exhibit
similar colours (esnecially white or yellow) over a range of several
allied species, the most closely allied species growing in the same loca-
lity, when adapted for bees, are usually of different colours, and can
thereby be recognised at a glance (e.g., Trifolium, Lamium, Tenerium,
Pedicularis).”

fixiom.

“Bers, WHEN FRIGHTENED BY SMOKE, OR BY DRUMMING ON THEIR
HIVES, FILL THEMSELVES WITH HONEY, AND LOSE ALL DISPOSITION TO
STING, UNLESS THEY ARE HURT.” Langstroth.
80 AUSTRALASIAN

CHAPTER IV.

WHAT BEES COLLECT, AND WHAT THEY PRODUCE.

Bess collect three different sorts of raw materials, all of vege-
table origin: (1) the sweet liquids secreted by plants in the
nectaries of their blossoms, or exuded on any parts of their
leafy structure ; (2) the pollen, or fecundating dust of plants ;
(3) resinous matter exuded on various parts of some trees and
other plants. They produce, on the other hand, honey, wax,
bee-bread, and propolis. This distinction must be borne in
mind if we wish to be precise both in our ideas and our mode
of expression. We must look upon bees as manufacturers to a
certain extent. The nectar, or vegetable sweet, is not properly
called honey until it has gone through the honey-sac of the bee,
and been stored and ripened in the cells of the honey-comb ;
neither does the pollen of flowers become bee-bread until it has
been manufactured by the bees, mixed with a little honey and
probably some product of their salivary glands ; and even the
resinous matter is not used in the hive in its raw state, but is
worked by the bees with some mixture of wax before it becomes
what we call propolis. The most important product of the bee
is, of course,

HONEY.

The raw material of the honey is entirely a vegetable pro-
duction ; it is excreted or thrown off by the plant, from the
superfluity of its saccharine juices, which, when subjected to
chemical analysis, are found to consist of nearly the same con-
stituents as all sugars, starch, gum, and other non-nitrogenous
vegetable secretions, namely, of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen,
the two latter in the proportions required to form water. This
nectar, therefore, does not contain any of the nitrogenous or of
the mineral substances furnished by the soil, and which require
to be returned to it, in some degree at least, by the use of
BEE MANUAL. 81

manures, Liebig und other chemists have proved that all the
elements of the non-nitrogenous vegetable substances are
derived from the atmosphere and from rain-water ; it is clear,
therefore, that no quantity of honey produced in any district
can tend to impoverish the soil from which the nectar is col-
lected. While lying in the nectaries of blossoms, and being
collected by the bee, or afterwards when being stored in the
honey-comb, it may by accident take up some particles of pollen,
which will account for the fact that minute grains of that
substance are generally discoverable in honey when examined
with the microscope. In its passage through the honey-sac of
the bee, and in the act of being stored in the cells of the comb,
the raw juice goes through a process of ripening, which deprives
it of all superfluous watery particles, and while in the honey-sac
it is also probably in some way chemically affected by the juices
from the salivary glands of the bee. When quite “ripe,” it is
hermetically sealed in the cells by the worker bees, just as the
preserves of a careful housekeeper are closed up so as to save
them from the action of the oxygen in the atmosphere. The
honey in this ripened state is nearly the same, in point of
chemical composition, as ordinary sugar ; but it owes its per-
fume and flavour apparently to ‘the same volatile oils which
attracted the insects to the flowers from which it is derived,
and that it is indeed something very different from common
sugar is sufficiently clear to every one. Chemical analysis is
an invaluable aid in the prosecution of scientific investigations,
and it is quite astounding to the layman to observe the nicety
of the results which modern chemists can arrive at; but still
there are some subtile peculiarities of matter which seem to
evade all analytical examination. The constituent parts of
starch and of gum are very nearly the same as those of sugar,
and yet how different to our sight, touch, and taste are all
those substances! On this subject Professor Cook remarks as
follows :—

‘¢Nectar of flowers and honey are quite different. The former
contains more water, is neutral instead of acid, and the sugars taken
frcm the flowers are much modified while in the alimentary canal of
the bee in transit from flower to comb. Nectar consists of sucrose, or
cane sugar, from twelve to fifteen per cent., and mellose, or uncry-
stallisable sugar ten per cent. The remainder is mostly water, though
there is always a small amount of nitrogenous material. In honey the

G
82 AUSTRALASIAN

cane sugar is largely changed to a substance chemically like glucose :
the mellose seems also somewhat modified. There is a little mannite,
probably the result of chemical change in the bee’s stomach. The
acid condition of honey is plainly recognisable by the taste, as all
lovers of honey know.”

The small amount of nitrogenous material above referred to
is no doubt owing to the minute particles of pollen which get
accidentally mixed with the honey in the way already men-
tioned.

Langstroth, who has left scarcely any point connected with
his subject unconsidered, says in reference to this matter :—

‘‘The notion that bees can change all sweets, however poor their
quality, into good honey, on the same principle that cows secrete milk
ron any acceptable food, is a complete delusion. . . . . That the
honey undergoes no change during the short time it remains in their
sacs cannot positively be affirmed, but that it can undergo only a very
slight change is evident from the fact that the different kinds of sugar
syrup fed to the bees can be almost as readily distinguished after they
have sealed them up as before.”

This is undoubtedly true; it is clear that bees do not secrete
the honey, as they do wax, for instance; but it is not quite
correct to say, in the words of Aristotle, as quoted by Lang-
stroth, that “bees gather honey, but do not secrete it.” They
gather a substance which is converted into honey, partly, perhaps,
in its passage through their honey-sacs,; and partly by a sub-
sequent process of evaporation in the cells of the comb. The
flavour and perfume may be retained, notwithstanding an
important change in other respects ; and that some such change
does take place is shown clearly by Langstroth himself, though
he attributes it chiefly to the evaporation of the watery particles
of the honey. He remarks that “bees are very unwilling to
seal it over until it has been brought to such a consistency that
it is in no danger of becoming acid in the cells;” and in another
place, when speaking of honey gathered from poisonous flowers,
he says, “In some of our Southern states, all that is unsealed
is rejected. The noxious properties of honey gathered from
poisonous flowers would seem to be mostly evaporated before
it is sealed over by the bees.” However this may be, it is
evident to our senses that a change does take place, and the
conversion of a poisonous or deleterious substance into a whole-
some article of food would seem to indicate a decided chemical
BEE MANUAL. 83

action in addition to the merely mechanical separation of the
watery particles.

The characteristic structwre of honey is described as follows in
an American publication called the Druggists’ Advertiser --—

‘* Under the microscope, the solid part of honey is seen to consist of
myriads of regularly formed crystals ; these crystals are for the most
part exceedingly thin and transparent, and very brittle, so that many
of them are broken and imperfect ; but when entire they consist of
six-sided prisms, apparently identical in form with those of cane
sugar. Itis probable, however, that these represent the crystals of
dextrose, as they occur in honeys from which cane sugar is nearly or
wholly absent. Intermingled with the crystals may also be seen
pollen granules of different forms, sizes, and structure, often in such
perfect condition that they may be referred to the particular plant
from which the juices have been gathered. Crystalline sugar, analo-
gous to grape sugar, may be obtained by treating granular honey with
a small quantity of alcohol, which, when expressed, takes along with
it the other ingredients, leaving the crystal nearly untouched. The
same end may be attained by melting the honey, saturating its acid
with carbonate of calcium, filtering the liquid, then setting it aside to
erystallise, and washing the crystals with alcohol. Inferior honey
usually contains a large proportion of uncrystallisable sugar and vege-
table acid. When diluted with water honey undergoes the various
fermentations, and in very warm weather an inferior grade of honey
will sometimes undergo a change, acquiring a pungent taste and a
deeper colour. The usual adulterations of honey are with various
forms ot starch, as those of the potato and wheat, and with starch and
cane sugars. The starch is added to whiten dark honey, and to
correct the acidulous taste which old honey is apt to acquire, as well
as for the sake of increased weight. The presence of starch may be
readily detected by the usual iodine test.”

ADULTERATION OF HONEY.

The honey industry is so injuriously affected by any attempts
to impose adulterated stuff upon the public in place of the
pure article, that it becomes a matter of importance to the bee-
keeper to know how to detect and expose any such attempts at
imposition. In Quinby’s “New Bee-keeping” we find the
following passage, which is worthy of particular attention :—

“The first fact to be understood is that all granulated or candied
honey is presumably pure. The natural inference is that such is the
best to buy. It is also well established that all pure honey will, as a
general rule, granulate if exposed to a sufficiently low temperature.
To this rule exceptions have been reported, and such have occurred
under my own observations, as will soon be noticed. Thus, ordinary
honey remaining liquid in cold weather, when exposed to the air,
should be regarded as suspicious, and put to a test. The presence of
84 AUSTRALASIAN

glucose in such honey may be ascertained as follows :—Place a smal!
quantity in a cup, and add to it some strong tea ; if the poorer grades
of glucose are present it will turn dark like ink ; if it is combined with
the better quality of glucose, the fact may be determined by the use of
a little alcohol ; pure honey will unite with alcohol, but glucose has no
affinity for it, and they willseparate, like oil and water. A common
method of adulteration has been practised by placing a piece of fine
comb-honey in a jelly cup and filling it up with glucose. If this were
pure honey it would become candied and conceal the comb. Yet these
are found unchanged upon our grocers’ shelves the year round. If
honey is put in a can, and heated and sealed, the same as fruit is
canned, it will remain liquid until opened. The specimens of comb
mentioned above could not have been thus treated, as the process
would have melted the comb.”

The only thing which appears to call for remark in the fore-
going quotation is the expression that the honey will granulate
“if exposed to a sufficiently low temperature,” which might
lead to the idea (which is sometimes erroneously entertained)
that the granulation or solidifying of the honey is owing to a
Freezing process ; it is, indeed, sometimes rather loosely termed
congealed honey. In this climate the honey very often granu-
lates most rapidly in the warmest summer weather, and in the
height of the honey season it will sometimes become quite
solidified within a week or two after being extracted. This
appears to be especially the case with white clover honey.
Here at Matamata I have known it to become quite solid in
the tank in forty-eight hours from the time it was extracted,
and this in the middle of summer. Perhaps the most notable
exception to the rule of pure honey granulating easily may be
found in some of the sage honey of California. I have kept
some, obtained from Mr. Wilkin, of San Buena Ventura, all
through the winter months, without its showing the slightest
sign of change from its liquid state.

In the process of ripening, most honeys become darker as
well as thicker; so that clear, transparent honey is not always
the best.

Mr. Otto Hehner, analyst to the British Bee-keepers’ Asso-
ciation, has reported pretty fully on the subject of adulterated
honey, in a paper read before the conference of bee-keepers at
the International Health Exhibition, in the month of July
1883. In that paper he informs us—

‘‘ There are three classes of manufactured honey : first, honey made
from ordinary sugar, and essentially consisting of cane-sugar syrup ;
BEE MANUAL, 85

second, that obtained by the action of an acid upon cane sugar, and
consisting, as does genuine honey, of water, dextro and levoglucose ;
and third, the product of the action of acid upon starch, called corn
syrup. Ihave never met with any samples of the first of these three
classes, and I doubt whether any such article can now-a-days be found,
although in older works on adulteration their occurrence is asserted.
The second kind is also very rare, but yet it exists; but the third,
starch syrup, is the main substitute and adulterant used at the
present time.”

After describing the characteristics of the first two sorts of
adulteration, and the mode of detecting them, he goes on to
the third sort, which is the most important, as being the most
likely to be met with :—

“Corn or starch-syrup, lastly, differs in almost every respect from
the genuine product. It throws down abundant precipitates with
lead or barium solutions, often with alcohol ; it does not ferment com-
pletely, but leaves about one-fifth or one-sixth of its weight as
unfermentable, gummy residue, and, examined by the polariscope,
turns the ray of light powerfully to the right.

‘“* These few simple tests readily enable us to distinguish these pro-
ducts from each other, and from honey. Examined with the
microscope they all are found to be devoid of pollen ; and, in conse-
quence, are without the delicate aroma, the bouquet, which is
inseparable from the product of the flower and the bee.

‘“‘From the very variable amount of pollen granules met with in
different honeys—some samples which I have examined containing
enormous numbers, others but very few—there appears to be a con-
siderable difference in the degree of cleanliness with which bees store
the honey. Some flowers yield an infinitely larger number of pollen

ranules than others, but the importation of the latter to a greater or
ess extent into the honey itself appears to me to depend mainly upon
the bee itself.”

The inference to be drawn from the latter part of this quota-
tion, that honey owes its flavour and bouquet to the pollen
grains which may chance to be mixed with it, is one, the
correctness of which appears to us to be more than doubtful.

HONEY DEW.

Bees sometimes gather a quantity of saccharine liquids found
on the leaves or branches of trees and other plants, or dropping
from them on to the ground. This liquid is generally called
honey-dew; but there appears to be a great diversity of opinion
amongst otherwise well-informed writers, as to its nature and
origin, some even describing it as “a dew that falls at night,
86 AUSTRALASIAN

and is sweet like honey;” while some assert that it is the
secretion of aphides, or plant lice ; and others, that it is simply
an exudation from the plants or trees on which it is found.
The first-mentioned idea is now quite exploded ; the two latter,
between them, contain the truth. German apiarists make a
distinction between Honigthau (honey-dew), which they look on
as an excretion of aphides, and Nebenblatthonig, which they
consider to be exuded by the leaf-buds of certain plants or
trees. Liebig asserts that when

“the quantity of sugar present (in the sap of a tree) is greater
than can be exhausted by the leaves and buds, it is execeted from the
surface of the leaves or bark. Certain diseases of trees, for example
that called honey-dew, evidently depend on the want of the due
proportion between the quantity of azotised and that of the unazotised
substances which are applied to them as nutriment..... When a
sufficient quantity of nitrogen is not present to aid in the assimilation
of the substances destitute of it, these substances will be separated
as excrements from the bark, roots, leaves, and branches. The exuda-
tions of gum, mannite, and sugar, in strong and healthy plants,
cannot be ascribed to any other cause.”

He instances several cases of copious exudation of a thick
sweet liquid from the leaves of trees, more especially from
those of the linden, during a hot and dry summer. Ludwig
Huber, in his Bienenzucht (1880), mentions threé sorts of
Honigthau, one which is voided by the plant lice, which is the
worst; “it is tough, tasteless, and unhealthy for the bees in
winter ;” another is obtained from the leaves of the oak, which,
when bitten by a certain kind of beetle, give out, “ by favour-
able temperature, a sweet liquid, which the bees eagerly lick
up;” and the third sort is exuded from the leaves of the linden,
oak, plum, and other trees, generally in the early mornings, by
a change of temperature after very close, hot weather. Most
of the American writers on bee-keeping appear to have had
little or no personal experience of honey-dew. Professor Cook
mentions it as occurring in California, in a case where it was
unmistakably exuded from the tree leaves; and Langstroth
quotes the English entomologists, Spence and Kirby, as to clear
cases of plant-louse origin ; also Bevan, who, however, does not
suggest anything as to the cause of the phenomenon, but merely
says :—

‘Honey-dew usually appears upon the leaves as a viscid transparent
substance, as sweet as honey itself, sometimes in the form of globules,
BEE MANUAL. 87

at others resembling syrup. It is generally most abundant from the
middle of June to the middle of July—sometimes as late as September.
It is found chiefly upon the oak, the elm, the maple, the plane,
the sycamore, the lime, the hazel, and the blackberry ; occasionally also
on the cherry, currant, and other fruit trees. Sometimes only one
species of trees is affected at a time. The oak generally affords the
largest quantity. At the season of its greatest abundance the happy
humming noise of the bees may be heard at a considerable distance,
sometimes nearly equalling in loudness the united hum of swarming.”
Langstroth adds, ‘‘ that in some seasons the bees gather large supplies
from these honey-dews, but it is usually abundant only once in three
or four years. The honey obtained from it, though seldom light
coloured, is generally of a good quality.”

Some writers in the American Bee Journals at present,
however, speak of the honey gathered from honey-dew in some
of the States as being wretched stuff, neither fit to be sent to
market, nor to be fed to the bees in winter. No doubt there
are many different qualities of honey-dew, as well as of blossom
honey, and bee-keepers in New Zealand and Australia should
be on their guard to ascertain all the sources from which their
bees gather their stores, and to test the qualities of the different
products.

WAX.

Previous to Huber’s time it was generally believed, and
asserted by writers upon apiculture, that wax was collected by
the bees, or furmed by them from bee-bread, either in its crude
state or after undergoing a process of digestion. The accurate
observations of Huber, however, led him to doubt the correct-
ness of that theory, and he ultimately proved its utter fallacy
by careful experiments made in the following manner. He
confined bees to their hives, without a particle of pollen, and
fed them with sugar syrup, and at the end of a few days they
had built several beautifully white combs. They were then
deprived of these, and supplied with honey and water, when
combs were again constructed. This was repeated seven times ;
all the time the bees were prevented from flying, thereby prov-
ing that wax is secreted, and not gathered, by them. :

Langstroth remarks, with his usual sagacity and caution,
that although Huber has clearly proved
“that bees can construct comb from honey or sugar, without the aid

of bee-bread, and that they cannot make it from bee-bread, without
honey or sugar, he did not prove that they can continue to work in
88 AUSTRALASIAN

wax when permanently deprived of bee-bread. . . . . Some bee-bread
is always found in the stomach of wax-producing workers, and they
never build comb so rapidly as when they have free access to that
article. It must therefore either furnish some of the elements of wax,
or in some way assist the bee in producing it. Further investigations
are necessary, before we can arrive at perfectly accurate results.”

He further points out the fact that, while honey and sugar
contain by weight about eight pounds of oxygen to one of
carbon and hydrogen, the wax contains only one pound of the
first to more than sixteen of the two latter; and that, as the
combustion of oxygen is the great source of animal heat, the
great quantity consumed in the conversion of honey into wax

 

y
Fig. 27,-UNDER SIDE OF ABDOMEN OF WORKER BEE, SHOWING
WAX POCKETS AND WAX SCALES.

“must aid in generating the extraordinary heat which enables
the bees to mould the softened wax into such exquisitely deli-
cate and beautiful forms.” The force of this observation will
be seen when we recollect that wax requires a temperature of
about 145° to melt it, though it may be moulded, by pressure,
at 100° or less. Is it not probable that the way in which
“ bee-bread assists the bee in producing the wax,” as Langstroth
expresses it, is that its nitrogenous qualities serve to keep up
the bodily strength of the insect during the exhansting work
BEE MANUAL. 89

of secreting the wax and building the comb? This appears to
be Professor Cook’s view ; he says,

‘‘ That nitrogenous food is necessary, as claimed by Langstroth and
Neighbours, is not true. Yet, in the active season, when muscular
exertion is great, nitrogenous food must be imperatively necessary to
supply the waste ae give tone to the body. Secretion of wax
demands a healthy condition of the bee, and so indirectly requires
some nitrogenous food.”

At all events, it is now well known that the wax is exuded
from the body of the worker bee, and formed in thin flakes in
what are termed the wax pockets, of which four may be
observed in the foregoing engraving, on each side of the centre
line on the under part of the abdomen, and which are, in fact,
the folds of the shell-like plates covering the abdominal rings.

The wax can only be secreted when the temperature of the
hive is above a certain point, and during the time of secretion
the bees appear to hang in clusters or festoons, in a state of
absolute repose. In the height of the honey season, or so long
as new comb is required, this secretion goes on night and day.
The constituents of wax, according to the analysis of Hess,
are—

 

Oxygen ... He .. 7.50
Carbon ... wit a .. 79.30
Hydrogen fe si .» 13.20

100-00

Langstroth says that “careful experiments prove that from
thirteen to twenty pounds of honey are required to make a
single pound of wax.” This has been until lately accepted as
a well-ascertained fact ; but within the last few years some
American apiarists have begun to doubt if quite so much honey
was consumed, and lately it has been stated, on the strength of
some isolated experiments, that the bees do not consume more
than eight pounds of honey in order to secrete one pound of
wax. Many more careful experiments will be requisite before
this can be satisfactorily proved or disproved. In the meantime
it may be asserted that something between eight and twenty
pounds are required, and we cannot be far astray if we assume
the mean of these figures, or fourteen pounds, to be correct for
any purposes of calculation.
90 AUSTRALASIAN

BEES WASTING WAX.

It has been generally asserted and believed that wax secre-
tion only takes place as required; but recently two or three
leading bee-keepers—Mr. Doolittle amongst the number—have
expressed the opinion that during a heavy flow of honey the
secretion goes on, whether wax may be required for comb-
tuilding or not ; and that at such times, if not needed, the
wax goes to waste. From my own observations I think these
cases are very rare. A certain amount of wax is wasted while
comb-building is going on, as may be seen by examining the
bottom board of a hive shortly after a swarm has been placed
in it, when small scales of wax will be found scattered under
the place where the bees are working. In accounting for this
waste, I am of the same opinion as Mr. Dadant ; he says:

‘‘The cause can be told in two words, cold nights. When bees
harvest honey in large quantities, the weather is often cool in the
nights, and very hot in the day. The wax producing bees hang in
clusters ; but in a cool night, those which are on the outside of the
cluster feel the change of temperature, and when the scales of wax
come out of the rings of the abdomen, if they are not at once taken by
other bees and fastened to their places, they become too hard for easy
manipulation, and are allowed to drop to the floor.” He quotes an
instance in support of this view where he found about three dozen
bees of a small swarm, upon which the wax had cooled so promptly
mie} the little white scales were still fastened in the rings of their
abdomen.

EXTRAVAGANT WASTE OF WAX.

There is a much more serious waste of wax going on in these
colonies, that might easily be avoided. The number of bush
hives taken by bushmen and country settlers every season must.
be enormous, yet probably in not one case out of a hundred is
the wax saved. A country settler once informed me that he
and others had taken about fifty bush hives during the season,
and when asked what he had done with the wax, he replied,
“ Oh, we threw it away.” Now each bush hive will, on an
average, yield four pounds, or more, of clean wax, worth at
the present time from tenpence to one shilling per pound, with
a market demand for it far beyond the supply. Careless bee-
keepers also waste much wax by not taking care of the pieces
of comb that will accumulate about an apiary. If all the pieces,
BEE MANUAL, 91

however small, were saved and put away in some moth-proof
place till the end of the season, and then cleaned, the proceeds
from this source would make a sensible addition to the profits
of the apiary.

It may not be out of place here to show the importance of
the trade in beeswax, in the United Kingdom alone, during
the years 1882 and 1883. The imports in the former year
amounted to 1,776 tons 18 cwt., valued at £126,926, and in
the latter to 1,409 tons 12 cwt., valued at £87,146. The
exports of wax from Chili to all parts in 1883 were 93 tons
1 cwt., valued at 85,617 dollars. These figures are taken from
official records, and will serve to give some idea of the impor-
tance of wax as an article of commerce.

METHOD OF RENDERING WAX.

No doubt one great cause for the waste of wax in this part
of the world has been the want of means and knowledge to
clean it in a quick and inexpensive manner. This want is now

 

Fig. 28,-THE GERSTER WAX EXTRACTOR.

supplied by what is called the “wax extractor,” a figure of
which is placed above, and the following is the method by
which it is accomplished :—

The basket B is made of perforated tin, and it is into this
that the pieces of comb, etc., are to be put. When the basket
is filled, the cover of the vessel A is to be removed, and the
basket placed inside, resting on the fixed shallow pan, shown
where the side is cut away. This pan has three pieces of tin
92 AUSTRALASIAN

fixed near its inside rim (only two of which are visible), to
support the basket a little distance from the bottom. The
spout D is fixed to the pan inside, so as to take all the wax as
it falls from the perforated basket above. Now, to set the
machine working, we have only to supply steam around the
basket. This is done by setting a over a pan or kettle of boil-
ing water. The steam then melts the wax, which will run out
at D, while the refuse is retained in the can.

     
  

   
   
 
  

a

corey

i
i
H

: i

CG

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ih

4
Ht
es

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ny
Wy
hs

ON

Fig. 29.—JONES’ WAX EXTRACTOR.

     
             

Another wax extractor, an improvement on the “Gerster,”
is shown above. It was invented by Mr. D. A. Jones, of
Canada. The improvement consists in carrying a perforated
cone up through the centre of the basket to near the top, thus
allowing the steam to penetrate more easily through the mass,

aving both time and fuel.

The extractor which I have in use, and which may be con-
sidered a rather large one, measures as follows: outside can,
diam. 134 inches, depth 13 inches; inside basket, diam. 114
inches, depth 114 inches; boiler, 11 inches deep. The can
and basket are made of stout tin, the boiler of galvanised iron;
cost 30s.

There is also another very simple way of cleaning wax, in
places where the apiarist may not find it convenient to use the
“wax extractor ;” 7.¢, by taking small bags made of coarse
scrim, into which the combs, after being squeezed into balls,
should be placed. These bags are then put into a kerosene tin
BEE MANUAL. 93

partly filled with water, and boiled ; this melts the wax, which
floats on the top of the water, while the refuse remains in the
bags. The wax isskimmed off and put into vessels containing
some hot water, and allowed to cool gradually. By this method
any remaining dirt or foreign matter will be precipitated, and
can be scraped off the bottoms of the cakes when cool. Tu
get all the wax out of the bags it is necessary to press them ;
this can be done by having a piece of inch board cut rather
less than the inside dimensions of the tin, with a few holes
bored in it. This should be pressed down on the tops of the
bags, and held in that position while the wax is being skimmed.
By adding a little vinegar to the water in which the wax is
melted, it may be separated from the refuse much more readily.

COMB.

Wax, after being produced by the bees, is formed by the
workers into comb, which consists of hexagonal-shaped cells of
two sizes—one for the deposit by the queen of the worker
eggs, the other for the same purpose, for drone eggs ; and these
are known to apiarists by the names of “worker” and “drone”
comb (Fig. 30).

eoeeeor es

Fig. 30,
WORKER CELLS. DRONE CELLS.

HOW CONSTRUCTED.

The wonderful instinct of these little workers is amply shown
in the construction of the comb; for there is no other form
known to mathematicians in which the cells could be con-
structed—Ist, to occupy the least possible space ; 2nd, with a
view to consume the least material ; 3rd, for the comfort and
health of the young bees. The cells are constructed on both
sides of the foundation, in a horizontal plane to it, which is
94 AUSTRALASIAN

perpendicular. Some of our greatest naturalists have made
the process of building up honey-comb their special study.

“The expedients tried by Huber unfolded the whole process. He
was enabled to bring each bee so completely under view that it could
be seen to extract with its hind feet one of the plates of wax from
under the scales where they were lodged, and, carrying it to the
mouth, in a vertical position, turn it round ; so that every ae of its
border was made to pass in succession under the cutting edge of the
oe It was thus soon divided into small fragments; and a frothy
iquor was poured upon it from the tongue, so as to form a ae
plastic mass. This liquor gave the wax a whiteness and opacity
which it did not possess originally, and at the same time rendered it
tenacious and ductile. These materials, thus blended, having been
accumulated in the hollow of the teeth, issued forth like a very narrow
ribbon. The tongue, during this process, assumed the most varied
shapes, and executed the most complicated operations; and after
drawing out the whole substance of the ribbon in one direction drew
it forth a second time in an opposite one. It was, doubtless, the
issuing of this masticated mass from the mouth that mislead Reaumur
ea caused him to regard wax as nothing more than digested pollen.”
—Bevan.

ADVANTAGES OF THE HEXAGONAL FORM OF CELLS.

There are only three geometrical figures into which a given
plane surface can be divided into perfectly equal parts—the
square, the triangle and the hexagon; and of these three the
form which most nearly approaches that of a circle, and there-

 

Fig. 31.—HEXAGONAL CELLS, Fig. 32,_CIRCULAR CELLS,

fore the most suited for the development of the larva and
nymph forms of the young bees, is the hexagon. The above
figures will exhibit at a glance the loss of space and the
waste of material that must result if the cells of the comb were
built of circular, as compared with the hexagonal form.
BEE MANUAL. 95

In the American Apiculturist for March, 1885, there is
an interesting article on the “ Origin of the Cells of the Hive
Bee,” by A. Todd, and also a description of ‘“ Holman’s new
illustration of cell formation” in vegetable structure. The
latter consists of an apparatus for forcing soap bubbles between
two parallel plates of glass, when it is seen that the spherical
bubbles, when crowded together, are changed into “ polygonal
forms analogous to those that we see in cross sections of wood
fibre.” These new forms are nearly all hexagonal, though by
no means regular hexagons. Founded on this and upon other
considerations—such as the natural tendency of bees to build
cylindrical cells when working with an excess of material—Mr.
Todd informs us that “Herr K. Mullenhoff has found a quite
simple and satisfactory solution of the question ” (the form of
the hive bee’s cells), “which neither admits of any mysterious
instinct, nor, on the other hand, ‘credits the bee with the
knowledge of the differential calculus.” He argues that the
bees are in some way forced to build the foundation of the
cells and the side walls of the hexagons, in consequence of the
position they assume when beginning to build, and in conse-
quence of the natural tendency of the soft wax to take form in
accordance “with the laws which Plateau has discovered for
his equilibrium figures.” Mr. Todd considers this solution
very satisfactory, as “not a few writers, even to the present
day, maintain that we have here a typical case of ‘ instinct,’ in
the old acceptation of the word; that is, of blind, unconscious,
untaught action, producing results which men can only reach
by dint of highly cultivated reason.” The line of reasoning
intended to confound those old-fashioned writers is scarcely a
convincing one. Somehow, between the bee and the wax, the
comb receives the form we admire and find to be the best. If
the result can be proved to be partly owing to the wax being
affected by a law of nature, which Plateau has been so fortunate
as to discover, then it only demonstrates the truth that inert
matter, as well as the living organism, exhibits a ‘blind,
unconscious, untaught action,” leading to some end intended
by the Giver of that law. It would be equally silly to
attribute to the bee, as to the wax, a knowledge of the differen-
tial calculus, and therefore we are thrown back upon the
quality of instinct, which is admirably defined by the words
quoted above.
96 AUSTRALASIAN

The bees, if left to themselves, usually build a large amount
of drone comb for storage of honey; and thus in another
season a great and what appears to be an unnecessary quantity
of drones appear on the stage. This is now obviated by the
introduction of artificial comb foundation ; for, as will be seen,
the apiarist now can regulate the work, and so force the bees
to produce either drones or workers, as he may most require.

POLLEN AND BEE-BREAD.

Pollen is the name given to the dust-like particles of farina-
ceous matter which constitutes the fecundating principle of the
stamens of flowers and blossums of all sorts. The manner in
which it is collected by bees, and the part it plays in the
“relation between insects and flowers,” have been already de-
scribed in Chapter III. It is of great importance in the economy

 

Fig. 38,—POLLEN GRAINS UNDER THE MICROSCOPE.

of the hive, as, after being mixed with a little honey, and
packed in the cells of the brood comhs, it forms the bee-bread,
which is indispensable to the nourishment of the young bees,
and, without which, as has been proved, no brood can be raised.
It is very rich in nitrogenous substances, which are necessary
for the formation and maintenance of muscular tissue, and
therefore to the development of the young bees.
BEE MANUAL, 97

The grains of pollen, although sc minute as to form an almost
impalpable dust, exhibit when viewed through a powerful
microscope very beautiful and distinctive markings, according
to the plants from which they are obtained. The engraving
(Fig. 33) shows four different sorts of grains; that marked A
being from the hollyhock ; the sources of the other grains are
not given in Root’s “A BC of Bee Culture,” from which the
illustration is taken.

Previous to Huber’s experiments, bee-bread was supposed to
be used in comb-building. He, however, proved, as we have
seen, that comb could be built by the bees in confinement, by
being fed with honey or sugar syrup alone. He was not long
in discovering that pollen was used for the nourishment of the
young bees. Confining some bees to their hives without pollen,
he supplied them with larve, honey, and eggs. In a short
time the young all died. A fresh supply of brood being given
them, with plenty of pollen, the development of the larve pro-
ceeded in the natural way. The following analysis of bee-bread
is taken from the Journal of Horticulture -—

 

Artificial nitrogenous organic substance ie v 386'59
Water ... sits ae at aa cn ‘8 w. 12°74
Ash... sh ait se et ses 8 ae TD
Albuminous . aie aay ae aise sie we 21°75
Sugar ... ave na iS as eit aga .. 26°20

100-00

Here we find nitrogen and albumen predominating.

The mode in which the bee-bread is deposited in the comb-
cells is graphically described in the British Bee Journal for
May, 1876, as follows :—

‘ The pollen laden bee, upon entering the hive, makes directly for
the brood nest, and where its load is required, it quickly disencumbers
itself. Sometimes the nurse bees are in want of the all-necessary
pollen, and nibble it from the legs of the worker without ceremony ; -
but more often the bee goes to a cell devoted to pollen-storing and
hangs by its first pair of legs to another cell immediately above, and
(as it were) kicks the balls of pollen into the proper receptacles. Here
they are mixed with a little honey and kneaded into a stiff paste,
which is then rammed hard against the bottom of the cell for future
use, the bee using her head as a battering ram; these operations are
repeated until the cell is almost filled with the kneaded dough, when
a little clear honey is placed on the top, and itis sealed over and
preserved as bee-bread. Ifa cell full of pollen be cut in two longitu-

H
98 AUSTRALASIAN

-dinally its contents will, as a rule, be found of many colours, stratified,
the strata of varied thickness standing on edge, as if the bees, instead
of storing bread had stored pancakes.”

ARTIFICIAL POLLEN,

In cold climates, to induce brood-rearing in early spring,
before there is a supply of natural pollen, recourse is had to a
substitute. Artificial pollen, as the substitute is termed, gene-
rally consists either of pea-flour, wheaten flour, rye-flour, or a
mixture of finely ground oats and wheat. This is placed in a
sheltered position in the apiary, with short straws or shavings
mixed with it, for the bees to alight upon, and a little honey
or syrup ‘near to attract the bees and get them started, when
there will be no further trouble, save the replenishing the
material, if required. This is unnecessary in most, if not all,
parts of New Zealand and Australia, where bees can work
freely all through the winter, and gather abundance of pollen
all the year round.

PROPOLIS.

This is a substance used by the bees for glueing things to-
gether, and for stopping up all crevices in their hives. In order
to make it they gather the resinous matter which exudes from
some trees ; or when this is scarce, they will take varnish, or
even tar, whenever they can find it. They carry this substance
home in their pollen baskets, and use it, mixed with wax,
wherever they want to fasten any loose parts, or to fill up
joints to exclude enemies or air. They make a very liberal
use of it at the end of the honey season. It is also used for
other purposes by them, as the following anecdote will testify: —

‘A snail having crept into one of M. Reaumer’s hives early one
morning, after crawling about for some time, adhered, by means of its
own slime, t2 one of the glass panes. The bees having discovered the
snail, surrounded it, and formed a border of propolis round the verge
of its shell, and fastened it so securely to the glass that it became
immovable.”— Bevan.

Ihave seen the same thing occur at the Thames, when trans-
ferring bees from an old box to a bar frame hive.
BEE MANUAL, 99

CHAPTER V.

THE APIARY.

LOCATION.

TAKING into consideration the climate, the native flora, and
the results which have heretofore followed the introduction of
bee culture, according to the reports furnished to the New
Zealand and Australian Bee Journal, in all parts of Austral-
asia, I feel safe in saying that there is no part of these colonies
which is at all fitted for European settlement, where the culture
of bees may not be carried on to a greater or less extent with
advantage. But it does not therefore follow that every district
is adapted for the working of extensive apiaries. No person
should attempt the establishment of a large apiary without first
making himself acquainted with the resources of the neighbour-
hood, and to do this effectually he must first have a knowledge
of the flora which is best suited to his purpose. A careful
perusal of the chapter on “ Bee Forage ” will aid him in that
respect, so that it is here only necessary to draw attention to
the subject.

GENERAL ARRANGEMENT.

The first consideration should be to have the apiary as
convenient to the dwelling of the person who is to work it as
may be compatible with a due regard to aspect and shelter. If
it can be laid out so as to be within view of the dwelling-house,
it will be all the better. It should not, however, be so near to
a public road, or to a railway, that the ground could possibly
be shaken by the passing traffic. Shelter, to protect the hives
from the prevailing high winds, is absolutely necessary for the
welfare of the inmates. Bees do not thrive nearly so well
when their hives are exposed to cold and stormy winds, and
especially in early spring, when it is so essential to the bee-
100 AUSTRALASIAN

keeper to keep them in the best possible condition. Much
time is saved in a well-sheltered apiary, as all the necessary
manipulations can be got through more rapidly and securely,
and with greater satisfaction to the apiarist. At the same
time there must be free access to the hives on every side ; and
there can be no greater mistake made than that of placing
hives with their backs close up toa hedge, wall, or paling ;
first, because the hives have to be manipulated from behind,
and from the side, but never from the front; and secondly,
because such a position exposes them to the ravages of spiders
and other insects, and favours dampness. If the shelter is to
be secured by planting, I would advise the selection of trees or
shrubs which will not grow very high ; ten to twelve feet is
high enough for shelter, and if there be no higher trees in the
immediate vicinity of the apiary, it may save much trouble in
climbing after swarms. There are many kinds of quick-growing
evergreen shrubs suitable for shelter hedges, from which a
choice may be made; and the bee-keeper should, of course,
make it a point, when planting, to get something that will also
be ornamental and afford forage for bees.

The apiary must bo well fenced in, so as to be secure from
cattle or poultry ; the ground should be dry, level, or gently
sloping to the front, so that each row of hives may be on a
slightly higher level than that in front of it, and clear of
everything that would tend to impede a free movement about
the hives. Swampy or badly drained places must be avoided,
as excessive moisture is very injurious to bees. Some writers
recommend spreading a layer of sand, or even sawdust, over
the ground ; but having tried both sand and grass, I prefer the
latter. Grass, if kept trimmed, looks very neat and tidy, keeps
the ground cool in hot weather, as compared with sand, and as
a contrast to the white hives is a great relief to the eye in bright
sunshine. My method is to sow a mixture of perennial rye-
grass aud white clover seeds over the ground with a little bone
dust in spring or autumn, and roughly rake them in, and by
the end of the season there is a good permanent grass-plat. A
small lawn mower is useful to keep it nicely trimmed.

SHADE.

There can be no doubt that shade for the hives from the hot
inid-day sun of our summers is a desirable thing, but there seems
BEE MANUAL. 101

to be no convenient way of obtaining it. If they are placed
under fruit trees, which, according to my idea, are the most
suitable, these must be kept trimmed very high, or else the
branches will be in the way. The same difficulty occurs with
evergreens, besides being very likely to keep the hives con-
tinually damp in winter. Where only afew hives are kept,
shady spots may be selected without inconvenience in other
respects, but in a large apiary it is rather a difficult matter to
supply shade to each hive without involving disadvantages
which are more than equivalent. I have recommended and
have tried fruit trees, but I find they are a great hindrance
to rapid work where many hives have to be gone through.
A. I. Root recommends planting a grape-vine on the sunny
side of each hive, and training it on a trellis high enough to
afford shade; but in these colonies, where the sun is so nearly
vertical in midsummer, we require the shade directly over the
hives, and the vines could not be trained to effect that without
great inconvenience in the working of the hives. Some
American apiarists use and recommend loose shade-boards laid
on top of the hives, and kept in place by heavy stones. This
is a contrivance so clumsy and unsightly, and attended with so
much inconvenience in working, that it could scarcely
be justified unless the necessity was very urgent. Here, how-
ever, with the hive recommended, which has not a flat cover,
but one sloping to each side, with a considerable space between
the mat and the inside of the roof, and ventilating holes in
front and rear, I find that when the covers are painted white,
and careful attention is paid to the ventilation, very little
inconvenience is felt from want of shade, and I have therefore of
late dispensed with all contrivances for obtaining it, except such
temporary expedients as throwing some branches of ti-tree over
newly hived swarms for a while. If, however, trees are
considered to be desirable, I believe fruit trees are the best to
plant, as they afford shade just when it is required, and do not
obstruct the sun’s rays or occasion dampness in winter.

WATER.

A supply of water for the bees is indispensable, and the
nearer it is to the apiary the better. A large number of bees
belonging to each hive will be occupied in carrying water all
102 AUSTRALASIAN

through the breeding season, and if they have to go a distance
to procure it so much labour will be unprofitably expended.
A shallow stream affords about the best drinking place ; if
the only water near the apiary happens to be deep and not
accessible by means of flat sloping edges, some contrivances of
wicker work, or thin boards with a number of holes bored in
them, should be provided to float on the surface and enable the
bees to rest on them and sip up the water without risk of being
drowned. In the absence of any natural source it would be
advisable to supply the water artificially in shallow troughs
placed near at hand, under the shade of a tree or hedge. For
two or three hives an arrangement like that shown in Fig. 34
will be found to answer very well. The neck of a glass bottle

   

 
     

ae ce
A :

Fig, 34, WATER. BOTTLE,

is let down a short distance into a hole in a block of wood, on
the upper surface of which are cut shallow grooves from ‘the
centre to the outer edges.

The bottle is filled with water and turned bottom upwards,
with its neck in the central hole in the block. The atmos-
pheric pressure prevents the water from running out faster

than it is taken away or evaporated from the surface of the
block.

Be

      
    

 

 

i !

  
BEE MANUAL. 103

AREA OF GROUND.

If the space available for placing the hives happens to be
very limited, one hive may be allowed for every 50 square feet,
so that a space of 100 feet square would be sufficient for two
hundred hives. This supposes the hives to be placed in rows
six feet apart from centre to centre in each row, and eight
feet from the centre of one row to that of the next behind it.
If space permits, however, it will be more desirable to have
them eight or even ten feet asunder in each row; there will then
be less risk of loss of young queens when returning from their
first flight, or even of mistakes being made by worker bees
returning loaded to their hives, and also less chance of incon-
venience from “robber bees” when extracting honey, or in
any other way working at the hives. Allowance has also to
be made for the apiary buildings, consisting of an extracting
house and honey store, a workshop and store for hives and
implements, and a fumigating room. These buildings may be
combined in one plan or separate according to circumstances,
but in the former case they must be central in the apiary, and
in any case the extracting house should be as near the centre
point of the whole number of hives as may be possible, and the
other buildings not far from the apiary.

ARRANGEMENT OF HIVES.

For the convenience of the bees, in giving them a free flight
to the entrance of their hive, and for that of their master,

a is)
ia) o [a
Ea |

Fig. 35, ARRANGEMENT OF HIVES,

 

 

that he may, when working at any one hive, not be in the line
of flight to that just behind him, the rows must be so arranged
that the hives in each shall be opposite the centre of the spaces
104 AUSTRALASIAN

between those in the row either before or behind it, as shown
in Fig. 35.

For the same reasons which recommend this arrangement as
to plan, it is very convenient, if the ground slopes gently—but
very gently, so that a barrow or light carriage can be easily
wheeled to any part—from rear to front, in order that each
successive row may be a little above the level of that in front
of it, something like the seats in a theatre. If space and the
natural formation of the ground admit it may also be found a
very convenient plan to arrange the hives in three or four long
and curved lines, so as to form something of a horse-shoe shape,
having the extracting house, etc., in the centre, with a wing of
the apiary on each side, instead of being placed in a compacti
square with so many rows one behind the other as that
arrangement requires. A great number of hives placed in this
latter form, with the geometrical precision of the squares on a
chess-board, present probably the greatest difficulties to both
bees and bee-keeper in finding the position of any one particular
hive, while the longer lines, with not more than three or four
rows to choose between, and perhaps with occasional breaks
or gaps in the line, can be made to offer a variety of land-
marks which will easily impress themselves upon that sense,
whatever it may be, of the bee which guides it in seeking its hive;
and also on the mind of the bee-keeper, who if he devotes
full attention to his business, will generally have something to
remember about most of the hives individually, and should have
a pretty clear idea in his head as to where each is to be found.

When placing the hives in position, the bottom boards have
first to be put down firmly, perfectly level from side to side,
but with one inch of dip from the back to the front. The
stands, as fully described in the next chapter, are nailed to the
bottom boards and keep them a sufficient height off the ground
to avoid dampness. As the bottom boards are laid, the hives
can be placed upon them ready for use, the entrances being
closed until they may be required.

EXTRACTING HOUSE AND HONEY STORE.

The extracting house should, as I have already said, be
nearly in the centre of the apiary, so as to make the average
distance from the hives to it the least possible. If the same
BEE MANUAL 105

building is intended to serve as a honey store it must be more
carefully built, and, of course, much larger than would be
necessary for an extracting house only. It should be well
floored, lined and ceiled, well ventilated and lighted, but all
openings for ventilation, and such windows as are intended to
open, should have an outer guard of wire gauze fine enough to
keep out bees. The portion of the building required for
storage should be partitioned off from the extracting part and
have a northern or north-eastern aspect, and will be all the
better by being painted a dark colour outside in order to absorb
the heat of the sun. If honey storage be provided in another
building, as in the case described below, a much smaller house
will answer the requirements of the extracting and ripening
process (to be described in Chapter VII). It need not be
close lined or ceiled, but must still be made bee-proof, and
well ventilated.

WORKSHOP AND HIVE STORE.

This building should be situated either within the apiary
inclosure or very convenient to it, and should be large enough
to contain all the spare hives and supers in winter, and fitted
up with the necessary appliances for making or putting together
hives, frames, packing-cases, etc. A small lean-to at the back
or end of the workshop may be made to serve as a

FUMIGATING HOUSE.

The use of this building will be explained in Chapter XVII.
The one I have in use at Matamata is very convenient, and a
description of it will best illustrate the mode of arrangement I
would recommend. Our workshop is 34ft. long, with 10ft.
studs ; against the back of this is built a lean-to 10ft. wide and
the length of the shop. There is a drop from the floor of the
workshop to the floor of the lean-to of about 10in., which
allows of that much more pitch in the roof, the back studs
being 8ft. At one end of the lean-to is the office, 8ft, x 10ft.,
at the other end a comb-honey room, 12ft. x 10ft., leaving the
centre compartment 14ft. x 10ft. This is the fumigating room.
The whole of the lean-to, including partitions and roof, is close
lined with tongued and grooved lining, making the different
compartments as nearly smoke-tight as possible. In the centre
of the partition, between the honey and fumigating rooms, is a
106 AUSTRALASIAN

door leading from one room to the other, and a window in the
centre of the back of the fumigating room. A passage is left
down the centre of the room, from the door, 3ft. 6in. wide, and
on each side of this passage 2in. x 3in. scantling are nailed in
an upright position from floor to ceiling, 20in. apart, the narrow
edge of the scantling towards the passage. On each side of
the scantlings 3in. x lin. battens are nailed in a horizontal
position to carry the frames. These are nailed a sufficient
distance above each other to allow a space of about lin.
between each tier of frames. The space on the side of the
window and immediately opposite it is unoccupied, so as not
to block out the light. When we are stowing away our spare
combs they are carried into this room and hung on the battens
exactly as they hang in the hives, the battens answering as
rabbets. The combs are kept about an inch or so apart. As
soon as we detect the slightest sign of the bee moth we fumi-
gate the roomin the usual way. This sized room has a capacity
for storing about 2,500 combs.

STOCKING THE APIARY.

The best time of the year to start an apiary is the spring,
although there can be no objection to procuring bees at any
time during the summer months. It is not advisable for a
beginner to purchase his first bees in the autumn, unless he
can get established colonies in movable frame hives from some
reliable person, and can also get advice occasionally, if it should
be necessary, from some experienced bee-keeper. For various
reasons I would recommend the novice to deal with an advanced
bee-keeper, one who knows exactly what he is selling, in pre-
ference to picking up apparent bargains from box-hive men.
When sufficient experience has been gained, so that the pur-
chaser can judge of what he is buying, there can of course be
no objection to his dealing wherever he finds it most advan-
tageous.

The value of a swarm or stock of common bees, like that of
everything else, depends so much upon the circumstances of
demand and supply that it may be best described in the ordinary
phraseology to be “that which it will fetch in the market.”
There is and can be no fixed price. One person may sell a
swarm for five shillings, for which another would, and with
reason, ask a pound. A good strong swarm (over five or six
BEE MANUAL. 107

pounds weight of bees), with a fertile queen not more than two
years old, if obtained near at hand in the spring, I consider
worth fifteen to twenty shillings ; a similarly good established
colony in a Langstroth hive, just at the commencement of the
swarming season, should be worth half as much more, besides
the value of the hive and combs. For the sake of economy it
is as well to start with common (black) bees, and, if considered
desirable, purchase an Italian nucleus colony or queen later on
and Italianise the common stock, according to the instructions
given in Chapter XII.

MOVING HIVES.

Beginners are apt to think that bees may be moved about
their grounds from one place to another without making the
slightest difference to the colony. A litile knowledge of the
habits of bees would at once convince them of their error.
The usual range of a bee’s flight is from one and a half to two
miles. For the first day or two after a newly-hived swarm
has been placed in position the bees, on taking flight, will fly
and dodge about the front of the hive for some time, with
their heads towards it, marking the surroundings ; presently
they begin to fly in circles, enlarging each one till out of sight.
As soon as they are used to the locality they do not need to.
take these precautions, and consequently fly direct from the
hive. Now, if it should be moved to a new position within
the range of their flight, the bees when returning, recognising
some of the old landmarks, will make direct forthe old locality.
On arriving there, and finding their hive gone, they will hover
about the place till they are starved to death or die with cold ;
or possibly, if there is another hive near, will try to enter it,
and so meet death that way. This will happen even if the
hive has only been shifted a few rods.

Moving established colonies short distances should always
be avoided if possible, but if it is absolutely necessary, they
should only be shifted a few feet every day, till in their new
position. If there is more than one to move, the first must
be allowed to get a considerable distance away before the next
is moved, and so on.

Natural swarms may be located anywhere as soon as hived,
but if an established colony is procured near at hand it would
be better to move it, say, two or three miles away, and let it
108 AUSTRALASIAN

remain there about three weeks before bringing it back.
By doing this very few bees would be lost.

Where bees are to be moved in a cart or wagon a good thick
layer of straw to stand the hives on will prevent jarring to a
considerable extent. If movable comb hives, the frames should
be secured so that they cannot move. 1 am frequently obliged
to shift bees at Matamata, and I secure the frames by putting
two end bars between each pair and wedging the last frame
tight from the side of the hive. The bottom board is secured
to the hive body by screwing two thin battens on each side to
both parts, a strip of wire cloth is fastened over the entrance,
and the cover is also made secure. The hives are prepared in
this way over night and shifted as early as possible the next
day. :

‘When moving bees in box-hives I have always practised the
method recommended below to a correspondent of the New Zea-
land and Australian Bee Journal, who applied for advice in the
following manner : “I have purchased 10 boxes of bees at a farm
eight miles off. I want to get them over to my own apiary, and
to put them into frame hives. The road is a rough one. I
propose about the end of September to drive the bees from
each box, and to bring them over here in empty boxes covered
with cheese cloth; then to hive them on full sheets of
foundation, and to utilise the old combs and honey as best I
can, They will most probably be a good deal broken up on
a journey over. Can you advise any improvement on this
plan ?

To this I replied as follows :—The present is a very good
time to move bees in box hives, but we do not think the above
is the best method that could be adopted, for several reasons.
First, a good deal of brood would be destroyed, which at this
time of the year is of greater value than later on. Second,
you would need to feed liberally to get your foundation drawn
out, and unless the colonies are very strong and the bees
crowded together by divisioa boards, very little comb building
would go on for the next two or thres weeks. If the bees are
in common boxes we would advise you to adopt the following
plan in preference to the one you suggest :—Take some scrim
or cheese cloth, tacks, paper, and your smoker with you to the
boxes the afternoon or evening before you intend to move
them. Cut the scrim into pieces that will cover the bottoms
BEE MANUAL. 10

of the boxes. Now light your smoker and blow a few puffs
into the entrance of No. 1, turn it bottom up and give a little
more smoke. You can now fitin some paper wads between
the combs to steady them. This done, the scrim can be
tacked on if all the bees are in, if not turn the hive up again,
and proceed in the same way with the others. Tack on the
scrim when all the bees are in and keep the boxes bottom up
till you have them in your own apiary. Have your bottom
boards laid permanently, place a box on each, and liberate
the bees; in a week or so transfer the bees and brood
to your Langstroth hives in the usual manner. By this
method you will save yourself the trouble of getting extra
boxes and driving the bees, save the brood, and your
colonies will be in much better condition when transferred.
We moved 58 colonies in two waggons a distance of 40
miles over a very rough road and a high range of hills—
two days on the road—and did not have one mishap by
the above plan.

My correspondent informed me some short time afterwards.
that he had followed this advice and had been completely
successful.

HOUSE APIARY.

A few years ago bee-sheds and bee-houses were considered
quite indispensable, at least by British bee-keepers. In most
of the English works on bee-culture, and in bee-catalogues.
published seven or eight years ago, or even at a later date,
these things are figured in all designs. Very few however
seem to advocate their use now. They are in the first place
expensive, and in the second inconvenient. Possibly a house
aplary might be found of some use in rearing queens very
early in the season, as the work could be carried on at any
time independent of the weather; but for raising honey I much
prefer to have the hives outside. JI have had several years’
experience with bee-houses, and desire to have no more.
Should any of my readers however wish to erect ar‘ornamental
house apiary, the following illustration will give an idea of one
suitable for twenty hives.

In this house, it will be seen, there are places for six hives
on each side, and four at each end; one row standing on the
110 AUSTRALASIAN

floor, and the other on a shelf sufficiently high up to allow of
working the lower hives without inconvenience.

LEH eT ie

(eae (RL

hy

 

Fig. 36.—HOUSE APIARY FOR TWENTY HIVES.

jprxiom,

‘(BEES DISLIKE THE OFFENSIVE ODOUR OF SWEATING ANIMALS AND
WILL NOT ENDURE IMPURE AIR FROM HUMAN LUNGS.”
Langstroth.
BEE MANUAL. 111

CHAPTER VI.

HIVES, FRAMES, AND SECTION BOXES.

AMONG all the aids to improved apiculture which have been
invented within the last thirty-five years, the movable comb-
hive stands first in importance. The most advanced improve-
ments in our system of working are traceable back to, and are
the result of, this invention. Although the honey-extractor
and comb-foundation are invaluable helps which no one can
now afford to dispense with, they could not be made use of
‘without the movable comb-hive. Thirty-five years ago the

 

average bee-keeper knew little or nothing of the internal eco-
nomy of the hive, as compared with the degree of knowledge
which the merest tyro can now acquire before even commencing
to practise. Although Huber had shown, nearly a hundred
years ago, how to obtain control of the combs to a certain
extent, and especially for purposes of observation, yet his
‘leaf or book-hive” was impracticable in the hands of an
112 AUSTRALASIAN

ordinary person, and for the ordinary purposes of bee-keeping.
After Huber’s time the attention of apiarists was for many
years directed chiefly to improvements in straw skeps or in
wooden box-hives, in order to obtain the surplus honey in good
condition, and without the destruction of the bees; and the
first great step in advance was made some sixty years after the
publication of Huber’s discoveries, when the Rev. L. L. Lang-
stroth, of America, gave to the world the present simple form
of movable comb-hive. No doubt Langstroth was greatly
assisted, as he has himself informed us, by his knowledge of
what Huber had donc; and it is a remarkable coincidence,
that at the very same time he and another enthusiastic apiarist,
Dzierzon, in Germany—already noticed in Chapter I.—were,
unknown to each other, pursuing the same object, and that the
latter produced also in Germany, nearly simultaneously with
the former in America, a movable comb-hive. The two inven-
tions were, however, quite independent of each other; and
although the grand principle of having the combs in movable
frames is common to both, still there is a very marked supe-
riority in the practical working out of the American one, and
it is quite certain that nothing like a simple and practicable
form of movable comb-hive had been invented or was known
anywhere outside of Germany, until that one was introduced.
Mr. Langstroth not only gave us a hive which, after the lapse
of so many years, stands pre-eminent at the present day, but
he also gave us his book, “ The Hive and Honey Bee,” which,
although now necessarily somewhat behind the times in the
practical work of the apiary, must always be of the greatest
value to the advanced bee-keeper, containing, as it does, a full
and interesting account of the writer’s able researches in api-
culture. I shall always have a grateful remembrance of the
name of Langstroth, as I feel indebted to his work for my first
insight into the advanced system of bee culture, and for the
foundation of my present knowledge of the art. He has held
up Huber as the “ Prince of Apiarians,” and I think he may
himself be justly called the Huber of America.

CHOICE OF A HIVE.

No sensible person who intends to devote himself to api-
culture would think nowadays of beginning without first getting
BEE MANUAL. 113

some advice from a practical bee-keeper or studying some of
the bee literature of the day ; there is, therefore, no likelihood
of his being led through ignorance into the adoption of any
form of box hives, so that any discussion of their shortcomings
or warning against their use is here unnecessary.

Before proceeding to speak of the varieties of hives now in
use I will mention a few of the most important requisites of a
complete or ideal hive, and the reader will then more easily
understard much that is to follow.

AN IDEAL HIVE.

A complete working hive should be so constructed as to allow
of any and every portion of the interior being inspected at:
pleasure with little trouble or loss of time. Its construction
should be as simple as possible, consistent with strength, good
workmanship, completeness, and durability. It should permit
of all necessary operations (such as removal of combs, bees,
brood, and surplus honey) being performed without neces-
sarily killing a single bee. While affording ample protection
from the weather, it should permit of increased or diminished
ventilation at a moment’s notice. It should be capable of
being contracted, as regards working room, to the smallest
space required at any time for the stock, and enlarged to any
size that may be found necessary. The entrance should be so
arranged as to be easily enlarged or contracted whenever
required; the hive should permit of the surplus honey being
stored in the best and most convenient form for depriving ;
and last, though not least, it should have as few loose parts
belonging to it as possible.

VARIOUS FORMS NOW IN USE.

There are various modifications of the original Langstroth
hive in use at the present time, the main difference being in the
size. The principle is the same in all, namely, that the combs
are built within light wooden frames, suspended in a case,
which forms the body of the hive. These frames can be in-
serted in or removed from the hive, or made to change places
with each other, at pleasure; hence the name of movable comb
or movable frame hives. As the size of the body is guided by

I
114 AUSTRALASIAN

the dimensions of the frames, it is usual to speak of the latter
only when comparing different hives. Now the principal
frames—modifications of the “Langstroth,” which is_173in.
by 9}in.—are known by the following names :—The Quinby,
18}in. by 1l}in.; the American, 12in. by 12in. ; the British
Standard, 14in. by 84in.; and the Gallup, 11}in. by 114in.
All these are the outside measurements of the frames. There
are a few other sizes used, but the foregoing are the principal
ones. All these frames have their advocates, but it has
been frequently asserted, and I believe with truth, that there
are more of the original Langstroth size in use than of all
the others put together. The general opinion of late years
has been in favour of a shallow frame, of medium length, as
being best for the storage of surplus honey and most convenient
and handy for manipulation. Of the frames mentioned
above, two answer this description, viz., the “British Standard”
and the “Langstroth.” For several reasons I consider the
latter preferable.

To give a detailed description of each of the hives enumerated
above would occupy too much space, and I feel convinced that
it could only serve to confuse beginners, who require at the
start not so much to know the particulars of all hives as to be
guided in the selection of the best. It would be impossible in
a work of this kind to enter into the details of all the different
hives and systems of management without extending it to an
unreasonable length, nor do I consider it either necessary or
desirable for the reason already given. I shall therefore, with
only occasional reference to other appliances and systems, and
without dogmatically condemning any, confine myself as much
as possible to describing and recommending such as I have
found by experience to be the best.

THE LANGSTROTH HIVE.

This hive, which has now stood the test of thirty years’ trial,
is more in favour to-day than at any previous.time. In 1851
Mr. Langstroth gave it to the world, and, as Professor Cook
says, “it left the hands of the great master in so perfect a form
that even the details remain unchanged by many of our first
bee-keepers.”

Early in 1878 it was my good fortune to become acquainted
with this particular hive,- For years. previous to that time I
BEE MANUAL. 115

had been trying different forms of frame hives, but none pleased
me so well as the Langstroth. T finally adopted it in its most
simplified form as a ten-framed hive, and now, after seven
years’ experience, I have the fullest confidence in recommending
it to all who require a good hive ; and this confidence is sup-
ported by the knowledge that it has given entire satisfaction to
all who have heretofore adopted it upon my recommendation.
Many thousands of these hives are now in use throughout
Australasia. It has practically become the standard for these
colonies, and that is another and a very urgent reason why it
should be adopted by beginners. I would not, however, wish
it to be supposed that I lay too much stress upon the form of
the frame or hive, or that the novice should entertain any idea
that success depends on the precise form of either. Without
intelligent management the best hive may be of no more value
‘to its owner than a common box. Bees may be kept in either ;
but it has been well observed that “everyone who keeps bees
is not necessarily a bee-keeper,” the latter term as now used
being synonymous with “ bee-master.”

There is one rule, in the correctness and importance of which
the advocates of every variety of hive will agree. Whatever
sort may be adopted, all the hives in the apiary should be the
same, and none other should be tolerated amongst them, except
of course for experimental purposes.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION.

Fig. 38 gives a view of a complete Langstroth hive, as now
generally made and used in New Zealand. It consists of four
principal parts—the floor-board, the hive, or brood chamber,
the super, and the cover. The first two and the last are
indispensable parts of any hive; the super may consist of a
whole story (same as the brood chamber), or of a half-story
or there may be two or even more supers between
the brood chamber and the cover. The outside dimensions of
the brood chamber and of the one-story super are 204 inches
by 16 inches, by 10 inches in height, including the rabbet, or
92 inches from joint to joint. The half-story supers are, of
course, the same in length and breadth, but only 53 inches in
height, including the rabbet. The .bottom, or floor-board, is
the same width as the brood chamber, but four inches longer ;
116 AUSTRALASIAN

it is raised about four inches from the ground by the two
stands which are nailed to the bottom, and has a sloping
alighting board in front (which may be nailed to the front
stand, or used as a separate movable part), to facilitate the
entrance of any bees that may fall short of the flat floor-board
when returning laden to the hive. A convenient entrance,
which can be enlarged or contracted at pleasure, is provided
by cutting a V shaped piece out of the surface at the front end
of the board, to a depth of 2 inch. The wide part of the
depression so formed is at the outer edge, joining the sloping
alighting board ; the angular end is five inches back towards

 

Fig. 388,_TW0-STORY LANGSTROTH HIVE.

the centre of the board. When the back of the brood chamber
is flush with the back of the floor-board, the entrance for the
bees is quite closed ; according as the hive is shoved forward,
the length of the opening is of course increased, and can be
easily fixed to suit all requirements. The roof fits down upon
either the brood chamber or any of the supers, in the, same
way as these are made to fit one on the other. The ends area
couple of inches higher in the centre than at each side, so that
the covering boards, which‘are made to project two inches in
front and rear, and an inch and a half at the sides, slope to
each side, and cast off the drops of rain. Ventilation is pro-
vided for by two round holes, one in each end of the cover,
which are protected by pieces of wire gauze or perforated zinc,
BEE MANUAL. 117

The interior of the hive is shown in Fig. 39. The brood
chamber is intended to contain ten narrow frames of comb;
the super, if worked for extracting, has generally nine of the
same frames, the intermediate spaces being left a little wider
than in the brood chamber. If worked for comb honey, the
super contains only seven broad frames, fitting close together,
each frame containing four or eight section boxes of the sort
to be described further on. The half-story supers are made to
contain either shallow frames, with section boxes, or a section
rack. An inside covering mat is placed on top of the frames
in the hive or super just under the cover. The stands and
the bottom of the floor-board may be painted a dark colour ;
the hive itself is better if either white or a light tint; the
top of the roof should in any case be of a pure white, in
order the better to cast off the hot rays of the sun in
summer.

These hives can be procured at very moderate prices, and
very complete in every respect, from the manufacturers. For
the convenience of those who wish to put their own hives
together and to save expense in the transport, they can be had
in the flat, that is, all the separate parts complete and ready to
be nailed together, and. packed as close together as possible in
crates or packages containing generally four one-story hives, or
three of two stories, or of one and ahalf. If the beginner
decides upon getting his hives in this way, and if there be no
hives already in use in his neighbourhood, or no one to show
him how to set to work, it will be advisable for him to procure
one hive complete and fitted together, to serve as a pattern,
and the rest in the flat.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING.

To those not skilled in the use of tools, or who have other
occupation, it may be found the most profitable to purchase all
their hives as they require them. On the other hand, there
will always be some having plenty of spare time, who would
prefer to occupy a part of it in making their own hives, had
they clear instructions how to proceed. I shall now endeavour,
with the aid of illustrations, to give plain instructions for
making the Langstroth hive, the one I have already advised
my readers to adopt.
118 AUSTRALASIAN

The first, and it will be found the principal point to be
observed, is to use none but thoroughly seasoned wood. Of
course all know that unseasoned wood will shrink and twist
after it is made up; but some inexperienced person may say,
“Well, what does it matter in a beehive, supposing it is a little
twisted or a quarter of an inch larger or smaller than the
prescribed size?” Let me remind those inclined to look at
the matter in this light, that a complete hive is composed of a
number of movable parts, each part of which ought to fit in
its place like a piece of cabinet work, or the hive, as a whole,
cannot give satisfaction. It is absolutely necessary that every
movable part of a complete hive should be interchangeable with
like parts in all other hives throughout the apiary, let them
number two or two thousand ; they must therefore be exactly
alike, and not liable in the slightest degree to alteration by
twisting or shrinking. Even to be within an eighth of an inch
is not near enough—they should be exact. It is not always
possible to purchase seasoned wood when required, and as an
extra price is charged for it when it can be got, it is just as
well for the bee-keeper, if he has the convenience, to get the
driest timber available, and season it himself. Some place
under cover can nearly always be found to stow a few boards
to season. So that the rain is kept out, the more open the
place is to the wind the better. The autumn is a good time of
the year to purchase timber for the purpose, as dry boards can
be got, and there is enough time for seasoning purposes before
it will be necessary to make them up. Care must be taken,
when stacking boards, to put thin strips of wood between each
two to allow the air to circulate freely around them. I have
dwelt on this matter at length, knowing by experience how
important it is.

The thickness of the timber used principally throughout the
hive is seven-eighths of an inch ; and as one-inch boards—the
nearest size most easily obtained—when well seasoned are a
sixteenth less, there is just sufficient substance left to allow of
a smooth surface being put on one side with a plane. The
body of the hive, with which I will start, is 10 in. deep, and
takes exactly 5 ft. 11 in. of board to form the two sides and
two ends; so that boards 12 ft. x 1 ft. will cut two “bodies,
allowing two inches for saw cuts and waste. I would advise
getting 1 ft. boards, as the exact 10 in. can be cut after they
BEE MANUAL. 119

are seasoned, while the 2 in. strips will come in for making
frames. Plane the 12 x 1 ft. board on one side, reducing the
thickness to seven-eighths of an inch, and run a trying plane
along one edge till the edge is perfectly straight. Mark the
depth (10 in.) from the straight edge, and rip off the strip ;
now cut from your 12 ft. board four pieces 16 in. long, for end
pieces, and four 194 in. long, for sides; then set your gauge to
mark three-eighths, and take each of your end pieces, lay them
on the bench, planed side up, and run your gauge along the
rough edges, marking for the rabbet D shown in Fig. 39.

 

Fig. 39.—END OF HIVE (INSIDE VIEW):

Next hold the pieces on their edges, and mark with the same
gauge in from the planed side. This will show the piece to be
taken out to form the rabbet D. The pieces should now be

0.

ee

Fig. 40.—END OF HIVE (OUTSIDE VIEW),

turned the planed edges up, and the same gauge run along the
edges from the planed side of the board to mark for the rabbet
B, shown in Fig. 39. Now lay the ends flat (rough side up),
120 AUSTRALASIAN

and mark with same gauge in from the edges for rabbet E, and
also run the gauge down the ends of the boards from the planed
' sides to mark for rabbet c (Fig. 39). Before shifting the gauge,
the rabbets on the side pieces can be marked. The rabbets D
and E (Fig. 41) are marked exactly the same as the rabbets D
and E in Fig. 39. We have now the rabbets D, E, and the edge
of c marked. The gauge will then require to be set at seven-
eighths of an inch to mark in from the ends of the end pieces
on the inside for rabbet c, Fig. 39, and also down from the top
edges for rabbet B, Fig. 39. All that is wanted now is to reset
the gauge to a quarter of an inch, and mark on top edges from
the inside for rabbet B, Fig. 39.

 

Fig. 41,—SIDE OF HIVE (INSIDE VIEW),

The rabbets, being all marked, will require cutting out.
The best tool for this purpose I have ever used was an iron
plough (American). With this tool, fitted with a 2-iron and
set to a 2-gauge, it will scarcely require the marking gauge to
be used. By cutting out the rabbets D and E (Fig. 39) first,
some little labour will be saved when cutting c. If a saw cut
is put in across the latter it will expedite the cutting. For
c and B a firon will be required, with the gauge of the plough
set to the proper depth. After the rabbets are cut, strips of
tin, 14in. wide by 14in. long, should be folded in the centre to
form the metal supports A (Fig. 39). These are tacked on, as
shown, so as to allow the upper edges to project above the
lower part of rabbets about one-eighth of an inch. Metal
supports, or, as they are commonly but incorrectly termed, “tin
rabbets,” are for supporting the frames, the projecting ends of
BEE MANUAL. 121

which rest on them ; but I shall have more to say respecting
these in another place.

The ends and sides being properly formed will have the
appearance of the figures and will themselves suggest how they
should be put together. Fig. 42 represents the two ends and
one side nearly in place, the ends of the side pieces dropping
into the rabbets c (Fig. 39) should fit nicely, and be firmly
nailed with three 24 in. wire nails at each end. These should
not be driven through the end pieces into the sides, but
through the sides into the ends, dovetail-fashion.

 

Fig. 42,-_SHOWING HOW THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF
THE HIVE GO TOGETHER,

BOTTOM BOARD.

For the platform of the bottom board a piece of board 2it.
long, 16in. wide, by lin. thick, is required. Although this may
be made out of two or more pieces, it is much better to have it
in one, as the joints give facilities for moths and other insects to
deposit their eggs where it is difficult for the bees to get at them.
The entrance A (Fig. 43, next page) is cut out of one end 3ths
of an inch deep, starting 1din. from each side and running back
5in. to a point, as shown. After marking it out, a saw-cut can
be run on each side to save labour in chiselling. The stands
122 AUSTRALASIAN

B Bare 4in, wide, 1}in. thick, and 16in. long ; nailed on edge,
3in. back from each end. These pieces keep the hive a
sufficient height off the ground and prevent the bottom board
twisting.

 

Fig. 43,—BOTTOM BOARD.

ALIGHTING BOARD.
This is a very necessary part of the hive. Placed in front
of the entrance, it makes a capital landing stage for the bees,
and thus saves many from falling to the ground when heavily

 

Fig, 44,_ALIGHTING BOARD,

laden. The platform B (Fig. 44) is 16in. long, Qin. wide, and
Bin. thick. The upper edge should be slightly bevelled, to fit
snug against the bottom board. The pieces A are Sin. long
and 4in. wide at their widest part, tapering down to lin. at
the outer end. The handiest way of making these is to cut
BEE MANUAL. 123

them out of a board 5iin. wide and lin. thick. Every eight
inches of the board will make two without any waste and save
a deal of cutting.

COVER.

This is a part of the hive that requires to be very carefully

 

SSSSSSS SSNS

Fig. 45._END OF COVER (INSIDE VIEW).

made. Leaky covers are an abomination. The ends (Fig. 45)
are made of {in. timber, 16in. long, 4in. wide for 1Zin. in the
centre, then tapering down to l#in. wide at each end. A
rabbet, 3in. wide by in. deep, is taken out of the lower edges
on the inner or rough side, to allow it to fit over the rabbet on
upper edge of the body of hive, and another rabbet is cut in
the ends, as shown, {in. by din. deep, for the sides to house
into. An inch hole for ventilation (shown in figure) should be
bored m the centre, and have a piece of perforated zinc tacked

 

over it. The side pieces (Fig. 46) are the same thickness as
the ends—194in. long, 2in. wide on the insides, and 1#in. wide
on the outsides, the upper edges being bevelled jin. to give
them a similar slope to the end pieces. The lower inside edges.

 

Fig. 47,—RIDGE BOARD OF COVER.

of these are rabbeted the same as the ends. The ridge board
(Fig. 47) is 2ft. long, 4in. wide, and {in. thick. This should
be rabbeted on the under side in a sloping manner, similar to
124 AUSTRALASIAN

the rabbets shown in the figure, tapering off from nothing at
the edge to Bin. at the deepest part. The width of each rabbet
from the edge is lfin., leaving 1#in. of the full thickness in
the centre, corresponding with the top centre of end pieces.
When making my hives by hand I had an iron fitted to my
plough made the shape of these rabbets, which was the means
of saving much time and labour.

ie s

c_

 

B
Fig. 48,ROOF BOARD OF COVER.

The roof boards (Fig. 48) are made of in. timber 2ft. long
by 8in. wide, the lower edge being slightly bevelled to suit the
slope of the cover.

To put the cover together, the sides and ends are nailed
first ; then place the ridge piece on, allowing it to project an
equal distance at each end, but before nailing it, put on one of
the roof boards in its place—the upper edge under the ridge,
and nail through both ridge and board to the end pieces.
Now nail the other board on in the same manner, and fasten
both boards securely round the sides. The engraving (Fig. 49)
shows the cover finished.

We have now gone through the whole hive, with the
exception of the frames, and if every part is made according

CTT MANTA UO Ava UA TU
DT
Fig, 49,COVER COMPLETE.

to the foregoing instruction, they will fit each other like a
glove, and when two or three story hives are required, it is
only a question of having extra bodies similar to the one
already described.

   
     

    
     

HALF-STORY HIVES.

_ These are always used for the purpose of raising comb-honey
in, and are made exactly similar to the full hive described, but
only 5hin. deep.
BEE MANUAL. 12

HIVE CRAMP.

To secure the best results in utility and appearance, it is
just as necessary to be as careful when putting the body of
the hive together as when making the different parts.
Although the ends and sides will, if properly made according
to the instructions given, go together nicely, something more
than hand pressure is required to hold them in place while
nailing them. As each body may at any time be required to
take the place of a top or lower box in any hive throughout
the apiary, all of them should be so firmly fastened as to stand
ordinary knocking about without getting out of the square.

The following engraving shows a very useful hive cramp
atht I have had in use for some years :—

 

 

 

Fig. 50.-HIVE CRAMP.

It is made by taking four pieces of timber 6in. x 2in. three
feet long for uprights, and two 4in. x 3in. five feet six inches
long for horizontal pieces to form the platform and to bolt the
uprights to. Two uprights are halved into each horizontal
piece two feet ten inches apart, and sixteen inches from the
upper ends of uprights. The uprights are let in to the hori-
zontal pieces on the inside, as shown. A scarf four inches
wide by three-quarters of an inch deep is made in each up-
right. Another scarf six inches wide by one and a-quarter inch
deep is made in each horizontal piece ; so that when the pieces
are put in position they are flush with each other. All parts
go together on their flat. Two 4in. x 3in. four feet six inches
long are fastened in a similar manner to the lower ends of
126 AUSTRALASIAN

uprights. The two parts of the framework are held parallel
to each other six inches apart by two spreaders eight inches
long of 6in. by lin. stuff let in flush in the upper horizontal
pieces between the uprights, as shown in engraving; these
spreaders form part of the platform. Similar spreaders can
be nailed across the lower horizontal pieces. Two gin. iron
bolts run through the double part of horizontal and upright
pieces with a nut and screw hold all firmly together. The
uprights and horizontal pieces should be exactly at right
angles to each other. If made correctly, when the frame is
standing erect, the platform formed by the 4in. by 3in. pieces
should be exactly the width of a hive (16in.) below the upper
end of uprights.

The next things required are the two jaws, one stationary
and the other movable. To make the stationary jaw, one pair
of the uprights is made use of. To these are screwed two
pieces of 1din. square, one at the top and one close down to
the platform. If thought necessary a stay may extend from
the back of each upright to the ends of the horizontal pieces,
For the movable jaw a piece of 9in. by 2in. sixteen inches long
is required. A carpenter’s wooden bench screw is made to
work between the other pair of uprights by fastening the
screw-block between them. The end of the screw is now
fastened to the movable jaw in the usual manner. To steady
the jaw when screwing up, a short piece of inch board is
nailed on the bottom of it, which slides between fillets nailed on
each horizontal piece ; this forms the cramp. When working
it, one side of the hive is placed on the platform between the
jaws; the two ends are then put in their proper position,
and the remaining side; we have now only to give the screw
a turn and all the parts of the hive are cramped together close
and held firm and square while nailing them. When one side
is nailed the screw is loosened, the hive turned over, and the
other side is nailed in the same manner. The cramp is also
useful for putting the ends and sides of the covers together,
and for many other purposes; in fact it is one of the most
convenient appliances a bee-keeper can have in his workshop.
It is easily constructed, and if made by a carpenter should not
cost more than 30s, :
'-A simple form of cramp may be made of timber 2in.
square. Cut two pieces 244in. long and two pieces 204in.:
BEE MANUAL. 127

Halve them together at the ends, and nail firmly, taking care
that the pieces are nailed squarely to each other. To make
the frame more secure, a broad piece of hoop iron should be
nailed across each corner. Two such frames are required, and
a few thin hardwood wedges. The inside measurement of the
frames will be }in. longer aud tin. wider than the outside
dimensions of the hive. This extra space allows them to slip
over the parts easily, and gives room for wedging.

NUCLEUS HIVE.

This hive is used both for the purpose of rearing queens
and keeping spare ones in till required.

 

It is the same length and depth as the ordinary hive, but is
usually made to contain three frames only. It may be made
out of light material and in a more simple manner than the
ordinary hive. The bottom board can be nailed on, and the
entrance cut out of one end of hive; the figure does not show
the bottom board. The width inside should be 43in. or 5in.
to take three frames. A full explanation of the use of it is
given in the chapter on queen rearing.

OBSERVATORY HIVES.

There is no branch of entomology so interesting to the
ordinary individual as the natural history and habits of bees.
To the majority of people there is not a more pleasing sight
than the interior of a beehive during the busy season, if the
working of the bees can be observed leisurely without danger
of receiving a sting. To watch the queen surrounded by some
of her subjects as she moves in a stately manner from cell to
cell depositing her eggs; to view the worker bees building
comb, bringing in and storing honey and pollen ; to see the
young bees gnawing their way out of the cells and first catch-
128 AUSTRALASIAN

ing sight of their future surroundings, is indeed interesting.
Hives for observatory purposes can be so constructed as to
allow of the interior being examined at pleasure by the most
timid person without disturbing or exciting the bees.

The most simple form of this hive may be made to hold one
frame only, but for several reasons I prefer one that will take

         

  

Pp wes oa eS
a
ra te UTP Oe, ee
VT Zl. m@ Tee, :
"1 ee ta as = =)
e

Fig. 52.—OBSERVATORY HIVES,

three. The engraving represents the one I have in use. This,
as will be seen, has three leaves (cases), each of which holds an
ordinary Langstroth frame. The centre one is a fixture, while
the two outside leaves may be opened to allow of both sides of
each comb being inspected. The woodwork of the cases is
made of battens 2in. wide by lin. thick; a narrow groove to
take the glass sides is run along each inner edge, so that the
sides may be just 13in. apart, the length and height of each
case inside being the same as a Langstroth hive. A one-inch
hole should be bored out of the bottom of the front end of each
face to form an entrance for the bees. Next cut an entrance
gin. deep in the bottom board, somewhat like an ordinary
entrance ; then over the back part of this tack a flat piece on
tin having two tubes, lin. in diameter and lin. high, soldered on
BEE MANUAL. 129

in the right position, so that when the tin is on, the outside
cases will fit over these tubes, that is, the tin tubes will fit in
the holes bored in the bottom of each case. Now if the centre
case is nailed to the bottom board, and the side cases fitted
over the tubes and hinged on top to the centre one, it will be
pretty near complete. It must, of course, be seen that the
entrances to each case through the tubes are clear, and that
there is no place the bees can get out but through the entrance
in the bottom board. We have now only to make a cap to fit
over the cases when closed, to darken the interior when not in
use, and the hive is complete.

Every bee-keeper should possess an observatory hive, as it
will not only be interesting and instructive to himself, but a
source of amusement to his family and friends. To stock it,
take an ordinary frame of brood, with the adhering bees and
the queen, from a hive and place it in the centre compartment; a
frame of honey and an empty comb or frame of foundation can
be put in the outside cases ; close the entrance with perforated
zinc or wire cloth; put on the cap, keep the hive in a cool
place, and let it remain closed for 48 hours, when it may be
put on its stand and the entrance opened at dusk in the evening.
In a week the queen may be removed if it be desired, and the
process of queen-rearing be observed.

TIMBER FOR HIVE-MAKING.

Soft porous timber is usually recommended as being the best
for hives, though it should at the same time be of a tough
lasting nature. Wood that is soft and porous is a better non-
conductor of heat than hard close-grained wood ; hence hives
made of the former give better protection to the bees both in
winter and summer than would hives made of the latter kind
of wood. It is also preferable to use straight grained timber.
more especially for the frames, as being most easily worked
and not so likely to twist.- The bottom boards and stands
may be made of a harder timber in order the better to with-
stand any dampness that may arise from the ground, as these
would be the parts of the hive that would be most affected
by it.

PAINTING HIVES.

Hives should never be used until they have been painted.

They ought to receive three coats to start with. The first coat
K
130 AUSTRALASIAN

should be very thin, and may consist principally of red lead
and linseed oil—I believe equal parts of raw and boiled oil to
be the best. The heads of the nails should be punched in
before applying the first coat, and the holes be puttied
as well as the joints before giving the second. The colour
of the second and third coats ought to be white or nearly so ; on
no account should hives that are to be exposed to the sun’s
rays be of a dark colour. The whiter the hives are the cooler
will the interior be in hot weather. White paint, made even
of the very best lead, does not last long when exposed to the
sun ; but if a little black be mixed with it, just sufficient to
give it a very slight slate tint, it will last much longer,
Rubber paint for the last coat answers very well indeed, and
is more lasting than white lead.

The under side of the bottom boards and stands may be
painted with a cheaper paint ; I find hematite paint to answer
the purpose, but the part exposed on the upper side and the
alighting board should be white.

FRAMES.

From what has already been stated at the beginning of this
chapter, the reader will understand that the frames of a hive
are those movable structures, suspended within the body, in
which the combs are built. There are two kinds generally
used, each adapted for a different purpose, viz., the narrow or
brood frame and the broad or section frame. The narrow
frame is invariably used in the lower or breeding part of the
hive as being most suitable for the brood combs, and is also
used in the super when working for extracted honey. The
broad frame is specially adapted for holding section boxes
when raising comb-honey, and is rarely used for any other
purpose.

NARROW OR BROOD FRAMES.

It is of great importance that the timber used for making
frames as well as the hives should be thoroughly seasoned, and
that the different parts of the frames be cut exact in size. It
is frequently necessary to shift one or more frames from one
hive to another, so that if all hives and frames are not the.
exact counterpart of each other, there will be no end of vexa-
tion and trouble. The width of the timber out of which the
BEE MANUAL. 131

narrow frame stuff is to be cut should be Zths of an inch.
The top and end bars (A and BB Fig. 53) should be 3ths of an
inch thick, and the bottom bar (c) + of an inch. The length
of the top bar is 18in.; end bars, 83in.; and bottom bar,
173in. When the end bars are nailed Sths of an inch from
each end of the top bar, as shown in the engraving, and the
bottom bar nailed on, the inside dimensions of the frame will

Liisi le ee te

 

 

Fig. 53._NARROW OR BROOD FRAME.

be 17in. long and 8iin. deep, the exact size required for the
Langstroth hive. Before, however, nailing them together, a
groove must be cut along the centre of the top bar 2th of an
inch wide, and of the same depth, for fastening a sheet of
comb-foundation in. It would be better to do this before
cutting the stuff into short lengths.

BROAD OR SECTION FRAMES.

The top, bottom, and end bars of these frames are exactly
the same in length as the narrow frames, and with regard to
thickness, should be made out of similar material.

Tia LE i

 

Tig. 54,—SECTION FRAME WITH SECTIONS AND TIN SEPARATORS,

The top and bottom bars should be th less than 2in.
wide, and the end bars ;;th less than 13in. Sometimes
132 AUSTRALASIAN

these frames are made too wide, the ends afull 2 inches. ‘The
consequence is that with the separators on there is barely room
in the hive for the seven frames, and the last one has to be
jammed in, a state of things that should not be tolerated.
Everything about a hive should work with the greatest of ease.
The top and bottom bars being a quarter of an inch narrower
than the ends, they should be nailed on in such a way as to
allow an equal projection of the end bars on each side of them,
so that when the frames are pushed close together in the hive
there will be sufficient space between the tops and bottoms of
each two frames for the bees to pass to and fro.

HALF-STORY FRAMES.

For raising comb-honey I very much prefer using two half-
story supers in place of one full story. My reasons are fully

 

 

Fig. 55.HALF STORY FRAME WITH SECTIONS AND TIN SEPARATOR.

explained in another chapter. The section frames for a half-
story hive—with the exception of the depth which is only
four and a-quarter inches inside—are exactly similar to the
larger ones.

FRAME FORM.

To aid us in putting the different parts of the frames to-
gether true and square, it is absolutely necessary that* we
should have a gauge or form for holding the pieces in their
proper places while nailing them. The engraving on page 133
represents a useful kind of frame form :—

It is made as follows :—Take an inch board a, 1ft. 82in.
long x 8fin. wide, and plane both edges true. Next cut two
battens BB, 1Zin. thick x 2in. wide x 84in. long. Out of
one end of each cut a shoulder Zin. deep x 3in. on, as shown,
and nail them on edgewise on the ends of the board aA. The
length between the battens should be the same as the outside
length of frame, viz., 173in. The block c may be an inch or
BEE MANUAL. 133

more in thickness, 2in. wide, and 1ft.in length, and should
be securely nailed to the board a. On the underside of this
block screw a piece of steel band 2 inches wide bent to the
required form, as shown in the engraving. Three or four
inches of the ends of the band should press tightly against the
battens BB, to hold the end bars of the frames in their places.

When making the frames, the end bars are to be pressed
down between the ends of the band and the battens B B, close
up to the board a. The top bar, groove down, is next placed
on top, resting on the shoulders of the battens, and nailed to
the end bars with two thin wire nails, an inch long, at each
end. Now turn the form upside down and nail on the bottom
bar; by lifting the frame top bar first, it will come off the
form square and true. A narrow strip of thin steel stretched
between and riveted to the lower ends of the band DD, will be
found a handy contrivance by which the pressure on the end

 

 

 

   

Fig, 56._FRAME FORM OR GAUGE,

bars may be removed. A slight pull on this will draw the
ends of the band towards the centre, when the frame may be
taken off without trouble. Both brood and section frames may
be made on this form, but it will save time when putting the
latter together if a thin strip of wood an eighth of an inch
thick is tacked on the upper part of the board a, just where
the top bar touches; this will guide the bar into its proper
position on the end bars. For half-story frames a shallow
form suitable to their depth will be required.

NUMBER OF FRAMES TO A HIVE.

The hive I have described and given instructions for making
will take ten narrow frames or seven broad ones. ‘There are
134 AUSTRALASIAN

a few bee-keepers in America who have adopted an eight-
frame Langstroth, but I feel safe in saying that the brood
chamber of such a hive would be too small for the climate of
any of the Australasian colonies.

The inside of the hive is 14} inches wide, which allows each
of the ten frames to be three-eighths of an inch apart—the
right distance. They may be spaced very quickly by standing
on one side of the hive and moving the farthest frame along the
rabbets with a forefinger and thumb at each end, till your fingers
touch the side of the hive. Now move the next till your
fingers touch the first frame, and so on with the whole of them ;
after a little practice a person can become quite expert at it.

When working for extracted honey the same kind of frames
are used in the super as in the lower hive, but for comb-honey
the broad frames and sections are used in the super, seven of
which, when placed close together as already explained, nearly
fill the body, just leaving sufficient space for moving the first
one on the rabbets a little to facilitate its removal. Cases, or
racks as they are sometimes termed, for holding the sections
on the hive instead of frames, are often used. I shall have
more to say concerning these in another place. z

MATS FOR COVERING FRAMES.

Mats answer two purposes—for keeping the bees below the
tops of the frames, and preventing a chillmg draught through
the hive. No perfectly satisfactory material has yet been
introduced that will answer the purpose of a good mat that
the bees will not gnaw holes in after a time or propolize fast
to the frames. No material should be used that is not porous
or that will not absorb the moisture given off by the bees. I
have used different kinds of mats, but the cheapest, and I be-
lieve the best I have made, was from coarse packing stuff to
be obtained at most general merchants. I have had some of
these mats in use for the last three years without being gnawed
through. I cut them a trifle larger than the space above the
frames and leave them with the raw edges.

SECTION BOXES.

There is no way in which comb-honey can be raised equal
to the section box system. Not many years ago comb-honey
BEE MANUAL. 135

was raised and exposed for sale in large slabs weighing several
pounds each, but owing to the messy job of retailing it and
the flies attracted by it, very few respectable shopkeepers
would have anything to do with comb-honey. In contrast to
this, section boxes full of nice white comb-honey may now be
seen in nearly every grocer’s window in districts where the
advanced system of bee-culture has been introduced. They
were first brought into use in America some thirteen years
ago and have since been adopted in England and many parts
of the European continent by progressive bee-keepers ; they
were introduced into these colonies in 1878.

 

Fig. 57.,—ONE-POUND SECTION BOX WITH STARTER OF COMB-FOUNDATION,

There appears to have been almost as many different sizes
and forms of section boxes adopted by different bee-keepers
since they were first brought into use as there have been
different hives, but the most popular at the present day is the
one-pound section box, Fig. 57. The two-pound section makes
a very nice package but is not nearly so handy nor saleable.
Half-pound sections have lately been adopted by some bee-
keepers in America, but Iam inclined to think they will never
become very popular either with bee-keepers or consumers.

REQUISITES OF GOOD SECTIONS.

They should be made of the cleanest and lightest coloured
wood obtainable. The material should not exceed one-eighth
of an inch in thickness and should be cut smooth. They should
be capable of being put together quickly and without nails or
glue. And last though not least, they should not cost much.

TO MAKE SECTIONS.

I feel quite satisfied that it will never pay any person not
provided with suitable machinery to attempt to make section
136 AUSTRALASIAN

boxes. Nothing destroys the nice appearance of comb-honey
more than a clumsily-made section box. Before the neat dove-
tailed sections now made by Messrs. Bagnall Brothers were
obtainable in these colonies I used to get my material cut by
a cabinet-maker who had a very fine-toothed circular saw, but
as the different parts of the boxes had to be nailed together
stouter material was required for the sides to hold the nails,

The size of the one-pound section—outside measurement—
is 4tin. by 4}in. The width of the top, bottom, and sides
should be the same as the section frame, viz., top and bottom
a sixteenth less than one and three-quarter inches, and the
sides a sixteenth less than two inches. When cut for nailing,
the sides should be four inches long by three-sixteenths of an
inch thick, and the top and bottom four and a quarter inches
long by an eighth of an inch thick. A small form on the
principle of the frame form should be used when nailing them.
Half-inch brads I found best for driving, not being so liable to
split the wood as a larger nail. For two-peund sections, suit-
able for the Langstroth frame, the tops and bottoms require to
be 84 inches long, but the sides are the same as for the
one-pound box,

ONE PIECE SECTIONS.

Section boxes made out of one piece of timber are now very
largely used in England and America, and I think might be

E F—j [}

Fig, 58,-ONE PIECE SECTION,

 

introduced by manufacturers into these colonies with advantage.
The pieces, after being ripped from a block of wood that has
been previously shaped to the required form and dovetailed at
the ends, are run across three saws placed the proper distance
apart. The saw cuts run nearly through the pieces, leaving
sufficient wood, however, to hold the joints when they are
folded up.

PUTTING DOVETAILED SECTIONS TOGETHER,

When first using dovetailed sections I found something more
than hand pressure was required to put them together firm and
strong; I therefore made a small lever cramp, shown in Fig. 59
BEE MANUAL. 137

(No. 1), for this purpose, which answered very well indeed.
The base board of the cramp is 5in. wide, 18in. long, and lin.
thick. On one end of this a block, 3in. wide, 4}in. high, and
2in. thick, is securely nailed. A lever, 2ft. long and 3in, wide,
tapered to form a handle, is hinged to the block with a strong
strap hinge. Another block, similar to the one on the base
board, tapered on the back, is nailed to the lever a bare 44in.
from the stationary block. If the cramp is made correctly a
one-pound section box will barely go between the blocks when
the lever is down.

 

Fig, 59._SECTION CRAMP AND FORM.

The sections should be put together by hand and then placed
between the blocks ; by pressing the lever down the pieces are
forced into their places.

CLINCHING THE DOVETAILS,

To make a good finish of them the dovetails should be
clinched. For this purpose I use the form, Fig. 59 (No. 2),
made by nailing two blocks, similar to those on the lever-cramp,
on a short base board, just far enough apart to allow a section
box to slide between them. The form is to steady the section
138 AUSTRALASIAN

while tapping down the ends of the dovetails at each corner.
Complaints are sometimes made that the joints of dovetailed
sections are not firm enough to keep the boxes from twisting
out of the square, even when carefully handled, but I find that
when put together as I have described they are equally as firm
for all purposes required as when nailed.

SEPARATORS.

In raising comb-honey it is most desirable to have the section
boxes uniformly filled, the combs of an even thickness through-
out, built with perfectly flat faces, and not projecting beyond
the edges of the sections. To this end temporary partitions or
separators are generally placed between each two rows of section
boxes while in the hive. Were the bees not confined to each
particular box by these divisions or walls we should be likely
to find the combs built very irregular and bits of wax stuck
about the edges of them.

Separators are usually made of tin, but sometimes of very
thin wood ; tin appears to be the best, as the bees are not so
likely to attach comb to it as to wood. They should be made
of very light tin, cut three-quarters of an inch longer than the
outside dimensions of the frames and 34in. wide; the ends
should be bent at right angles, to hook, as it were, round the
end bars, and be lightly tacked to keep them in place. Care
should be taken to put them on perfectly flat, and to leave an
equal space of a quarter of an inch at the upper and lower parts
ot the sections to allow the bees to pass in and out and from
one box to the others (see Fig. 54).

DISPENSING WITH SEPARATORS,

Much thought has been given lately by some leading bee-
keepers to the question of dispensing with separators alto-
gether. No doubt it would be very desirable to do so could we
have our comb-honey raised in as good form without them.
Not to speak of a saving of expense, there are other objections
to their use. For instance, the sections being divided off from
each other, and thus to a large extent cutting off continuous
communication through the super, tends in a very great mea-
sure to prevent the bees entering the boxes as readily as they
otherwise would, hence the greater tendency for a colony to
BEE MANUAL. 139

swarm when supered for comb-honey. Then, again, there is
the space occupied by these separators which might be more
profitably filled with honey.

The only method which appears practicable at present to
attain this end is to use narrower sections. Nearly all who
have experimented conclude that with the two-inch sections
separators are indispensable, but with sections running seven
to the foot, ora width of slightly under 1 jin. to each box, they
have obtained satisfactory results without separators. With
only one bee space between the combs, instead of two, as there
must be with separators, the narrower sections when well filled.
are said to weigh about the same as the two-inch ones. A
Langstroth hive would take eight rows of the smaller size in
the place of seven of the larger boxes. Opinions are very
much divided upon the matter at present ; I would therefore
advise those who might wish to give the system a trial not to
go to much expense or trouble at first in making the necessary
alterations in their present appliances.

SECTION RACKS AND CASES.

Hitherto I have only mentioned the broad frame system in
connection with sections, but there is another method of

 

Fig, 60.—PRIZE SECTION RACK.

A. A wedge fer jamming the sections together. BB. Tin separators.
co. Glass in outside boxes.

placing section boxes on a hive which dispenses with the
frames. What is termed a rack is formed, consisting of a light
framework of wood, across which thin laths are nailed three-
eighths of an inch from the bottom at equal distance apart ;
on the edges of these the sections rest. The rack is set on
top of the frames, and takes the place of an ordinary super, a
deep cover fits over all, and rests on the hive. Fig. 60 shows
140 AUSTRALASIAN

a rack filled with prize-sections, that was at one time thought
a great deal of in America. The rack and case system for
sections has been adopted by a great many bee-keepers in the
United States, but there are a few leading men who still
adhere to the frames. Some five years ago I gave the above
kind of rack a fair trial through one season. At that time I
was raising large quantities of comb-honey by the frame
method. I soon discarded the racks, and have never used
them since. The objections I had to them were :—Ist. I could
not tier them up, a fatal objection, in my opinion, to any
system for raising comb-honey. 2nd. The trouble and expense
of blocking up the outside sections with glass or wood to pre-
vent bees getting out. 3rd. When removing some of the
boxes the bees would crowd outside, and so get in the way
when the cover was to be put on; and 4th. I could not
examine one of the central boxes without disturbing nearly all
the others.
THE HEDDON SECTION CASE.

Improvements are continually being made in racks as well
as other appliances connected with bee-culture, consequently

 

Fig. 61.—THE HEDDON SECTION CASE.

there are more convenient ones in use now, but no rack, in my
opinion, is equal to the Heddon case for sections (Fig. 61). It
is much easier to make than a rack, and to my mind very much
handier to use. It will be seen by the engraving that the case
is very similar to the body of a half-story hive, divided by
partitions crosswise into four compartments, each wide enough
to take a one-pound section box. Mr. Heddon, who has raised
comb-honey on an extensive scale, was, as he says, “one of the
pioneer opposers of wide frames and separators,” but having
been persuaded to give them another trial, he says :—

“‘I did so by making 350 wide frame supers (one story or tier of
sections high), and used these side by side and over and under 300 of
BEE MANUAL. 141

our cases, all worked on the tiering up plan. I used separators of
both tin and wood, about 1,800 of wood and 300 of tin.”

In his report of the trial to Gleanings of May 15th, 1885, he
sums up the results as follows :—

“1, My case is the best style of surplus receptacle I know of to ase
without separators, and admits of no improvement by me. 2. I would
rather abandon separators altogether than use them in two-story
supers. 3. I do not think there is any system of using separators equal
to the wide frame when used one story high. 4. I would use no system
of surplusage (either for comb or extracted honey) that did not give me
the sivatitage of tiering up. 5. I prefer tin to wooden separators.
6. There are many advantages in the use of separators, and many in
the non-use of them, and each person must be governed by his own
special circumstances. 7. Their use or non-use need not affect the
quantity of surplus secured. I mean to continue the use of separators,
and I am now perfecting a different style of super, which I think will
aid us greatly in their quick and easy manipulation as well as their
usefulness.”

Mr. Heddon’s opinions, as above quoted, are worth noting,
and with the exception of the seventh clause I quite agree with
them. JI feel convinced that separators are a hindrance to the
bees entering the supers in the early part of the season, and
also to the rapid filling of the sections at all times. I see no
reason to doubt that the Heddon section case is better than
frames for use with narrow sections without separators. Pro-
fessor Cook and others speak very highly of it. I will first
give some explanation regarding an appliance used with the
section case, and then show how this and a case may be made
adaptable to the Langstroth hive.

HONEY-BOARDS,

These are appliances to be placed on top of the frames of
the lower hive when putting on a super, and between every
two supers when more than one are required on a hive. They
are used for the purpose of preventing the building of comb
between the upper and lower frames. Every bee-keeper who
has had frame hives in use even for a short time will have
experienced the nuisance of having the lower part of the frames
of a super fastened to the upper part of those in the lower
hive ; I have tried several means to prevent it, such as greasing
the frames, and allowing but the smallest bee-space between
142 AUSTRALASIAN

them, but to no purpose. It appears, however, that with the
use of a properly constructed honey-board the desired result is
obtained. It is curious to note how various appliances that
have been discarded come into favour again. Honey-boards
were in common use at one time with frame hives, but until
quite recently a person known to be using them after they
dropped out of general favour would have been looked upon
as non-progressive ; now it has been decided that we cannot
well do without them.

The principle on which the most improved honey-boards are
made to act, is to divide the bee-space between the upper and
lower frames; in other words, there is a greater space left
between them, and this is divided into two equal parts by the
board, so that there are two bee-spaces between the frames in
place of one. It does not prevent the bees fastening the board

No!

  

Fig. 62._HEDDON’S HONEY-BOARD.
No. 1. Slatted board complete. No. 3. Section of same.

to the lower frames with bits of comb, but it is claimed by those
who have used them that the upper bee-space is left entirely
clear, so that the frames can be lifted out or the whole super
taken off at any time without trouble. Although honey-boards
would no doubt be useful on all hives, still, I have felt the
most need of some such appliance on hives supered for comb-
honey. I find broad frames more frequently “ bridged ” than
narrow ones, perhaps for the reason that the latter are shifted
oftener during the extracting season.

HOW TO CONSTRUCT HONEY-BOARDS AND SECTION CASES.

The above engraving of Heddon’s honey-board is taken
from Gleanings for January 15th, 1885. This board (No. 1,
Fig. 62) consists of an outside frame, with thin slats running
from end to end, tacked on ths of an inch apart (No. 3, Fig. 62).
BEE MANUAL. 143

The slats are 3ths of an inch below the upper edge to give the
top bee-space, but there is no allowance made in the board
itself for a bee-space below. This is secured by making the
frame large enough to rest on the outside edges of the hive, the
tops of the frames being about bee-space below the edge.
With the hive in general use here (already described) we
could not very well, nor wisely, I think, break the junction
between the hive and its super with the frame of a honey-
board, unless the frame could be made to fit in a similar
manner. I see nothing to prevent the honey-board resting on
the frames themselves ; we could then make the section cases
to fit the lower hive, or each other, the same as our hive bodies
do at present.

For strength I would make the frame #in. deep by Sin. wide,
of the exact dimensions of inside of hive, viz., 184in. by 14}in.
Before nailing it together, run a groove din. wide by Hn. deep,
along the centre of the depth of the end pieces. Next cut nine
slats, bin. by fin. wide, $in. longer than the inside dimensions
of the frame. Nail the two ends (grooves inwards) and one
side together, slip the ends of the slats into the grooves, and
nail on the other side of frame. Space the nine slats in. apart
and fasten them with small nails at each end ; cut six slats,
3in. square, to nail on (three on each side) across the others at
equal distances apart, to keep them firm and prevent them
twisting. The sides of the frame might be bevelled on their
inner edges, to give room for the bees to get up into the
sections at the sides of the case. The honey-board is now com-
plete, and may be placed on the frames either side up, as there
is 2ths of an inch bee-space on both sides below the long
slats.

A half-story body, used with the Langstroth hive, can be
converted into a Heddon section case for use with the above
honey-board by merely putting in the divisions, its measure-
ments for this purpose being correct. The length of the inside
is 183in., and as this space is to take four 4}in. sections and
three division boards (see Fig. 61), we must make the latter of
half-inch material, or rather less, so that the sections may slip
into their places readily. The divisions should be cut 44in.
wide and 14}in. long (the width of the case), and nailed in the
body, so that they will divide the length into four compart-
ments of a full 44in. each. The upper edge of each division
144 AUSTRALASIAN

board should be a din. below the top edge of the case. Three
strips of stout tin, or, what would be better, thin galvanised
iron, 14}in. long by lin. wide, are now required ; down the
centre of each punch a few holes, and nail them along the
bottom edges of the divisions, allowing the strips to project a
quarter of an inch on each side ; these projections are to rest the
sections on. Two more strips are required for the ends of the
case, which must be bent along their length, so that they may
be tacked on in their proper places, allowing only jin. to
stand out as a support for the sections. The case is now com-
lete.

: Each compartment will take eight 1Zin. sections or seven |
2in. ones, and just leave sufficient space for blocking them off
with a thin piece of wood. If separators are to be used one
will be required for each section. When the honey-board is
placed on the lower frames, and the case or half-story put on
in the usual way, there will be the requisite space, 3ths of an
inch, from the frames to the board, and the same from the
board to the bottom of sections. The #in. pieces across the
honey-board might be put on so as to come directly under the
divisions of the case ; or, instead of the wood, strips of tin
could be tacked across the slats; this would leave free com-
munication all over the honey-board. To use honey-boards
with our extracting hives we would have to make the boards
larger, so that the outside frame could rest on the edges of the
hive and support the super to give the necessary bee-spaces.

jprxiom,

‘BEES MAY ALWAYS BE MADE PEACEABLE BY INDUCING THEM 10
ACCEPT OF LIQUID SWEETS.” Langstroth,
BRE MANUAL. 145

CHAPTER VIL.

THE HONEY-EXTRACTOR AND MANIPULATION OF
EXTRACTED HONEY.

NEXT in importance to the movable comb-hive itself, as an api-
arian appliance, ranks undoubtedly the honey-extractor. By its
means we are enabled to obtain the liquid honey in perfect
purity from the comb, in the form best suited for storing and for
transport, and without injury to the combs themselves. These
can in this way be made to do duty over and over again, a matter
which has an important effect upon the quantity and the cost
of the honey produced each season by one colony of bees.
Without the extractor the improved form of hive could not
have developed half its real advantages. It would, of course,
have enabled us, as it does now, to raise comb-honey in the
best condition, but the importance of honey as an article of
general consumption and of commerce could never have been
anything like what it is at present if we had been obliged to
follow the old system of obtaining it in a liquid state from the
combs.

STRAINED OR PRESSED AND MELTED HONEY.

Formerly, when it was required to separate the honey from
the comb, the bee-keeper had his choice of two methods—the
one consisting in squeezing or pressing the honey out of the
comb in its cold state, the other in melting or boiling down the
honey and comb together and separating the wax, etc., which
would settle on the surface, as soon as the mass cooled. By
both these processes the comb must of course be sacrificed or
reduced to the state of melted wax, and it will easily be under-
stood that by either process the original delicate flavour of the
honey would be partially or wholly destroyed. Those who
have had any experience in separating honey from the combs

L
146 AUSTRALASIAN

in any other way than by using the “extractor” will know
what a disagreeable business it is, and will not wonder that no
one should have been found formerly to undertake that portion
of a bee-keeper’s duties as a matter of choice. Those who still
adhere to the box hive and sulphur pit, as well as those who
obtain honey from bush hives, are obliged to strain or melt
the honey in that way. Such people, it may be supposed, will
not be over nice as to whether or not a little more or less of
bee-bread, brood, dead bees, and other rubbish may be squeezed
or boiled with the comb ; and, indeed, if they should be ever
so particular they cannot prevent some such mixture taking
place. I venture to say that no one who has had the oppor-
tunity of tasting honey taken with the “ extractor ” would care
to eat the old sort of strained honey again.

INVENTION OF THE CENTRIFUGAL EXTRACTOR,

To the Austrian Major von Hruschka, of Dolo, near Venice,
we are indebted for the invention of the honey-extractor in
the year 1868. Like many other important inventions, the

‘idea seems to have been suggested in a very simple manner.
It is said that Herr von Hruschka’s son was amusing himself
twirling a small tin pail, tied to the end of a string after the
manner of a sling, while his father was engaged taking some
honey, and happened to give him a piece of unsealed honey-
comb. This the boy put in his pail, and afterwards continued
to twirl it round. The father subsequently chanced to notice
that one side of the piece of comb was quite clear of its honey.
He turned it in the pail, swung the latter round as the boy had
done, and found the other side of the comb emptied of its store.
He grasped the idea at once, set to work, and gave the world
the first honey-extractor. Although many improvements have
been made in the details of construction, the principle of the
extractor remains the same as in the first one made by Von
Hruschka : the honey is thrown from the combs by centrifugal
force. There are several kinds made and sold at present,
differing only in trifling details. The engraving on the next
page shows the form, taken from an American pattern, now
generally used in these colonies.

This is called a “ double” or ‘ two-comb” extractor, because
it receives two comb frames at atime. It consists of a strong
BEE MANUAL. 147

metal (usually tin) cylinder, about 17in. in diameter by 24in.
in height. It contains a square basket of tin work, with wire
cloth covering on two opposite sides, sufficiently large to take
two frames of the Langstroth hive, one on each side, placed on
end, and resting against the wire cloth. A spindle, to which
the basket is attached, passes down the centre, the lower
end working in a bearing raised some height above the bottom
of the cylinder, so that there is a space for honey to accumu-
late below the bottom of the basket. The upper end of the
spindle works through a bearing exactly in the centre of the

iT

Ay

in

 

Fig. 63.-_HONEY EXTRACTOR. INSIDE BASKET.

cylinder and attached to the inside of its rim by a light casting ;
to the top of the spindle is attached a handle with gearing to
multiply the motion, so that by turning rather slowly with the
hand a considerable velocity is got up on the outsides of the
basket. When combs are to be extracted, the capping of the
cells having been removed with the uncapping knife hereafter
to be described, one frame is placed against each wire cloth
side of the basket and made to revolve uutil the honey from
the outer side of each comb is thrown out, through the wire
cloth, and, striking against the inside of the cylinder, trickles
down to the bottom, to be withdrawn by the tap or honey-gate
148 AUSTRALASIAN

shown in the figure. The frames are then lifted out and turned
in the basket until the second side is emptied like the first.
In placing the frames in the baskets care should be taken that
the bottom bar shall be going foremost when the basket is set
revolving, as the honey cells are generally built by the bees
with a greater or less slant upwards, and they are more easily
emptied by the centrifugal force when the mouth of the cell is
turned away from the direction of motion.

As there is a considerable strain on the machine when two
heavy combs are made to revolve at a high speed, both the

 

Fig. 64,—FRAMEWORK FOR TWO-COMB EXTRACTOR,

cylinder and the interior basket require to be strongly con-
structed, and combs of nearly equal weight should be operated
upon at the same time in order to equalise the strain on the
central gear. If it be desired to extract from only one comb
upon any occasion, a piece of board or some such counterpoise
should be placed in the opposite side of the basket.

To make the extractor firm and steady, and to raise ita
sufficient height off the floor (if it should he so placed) so that
a vessel can be put under the tap to draw off the honey, it
should be encased in a framework of wood placed upon feet,
as shown in the above figure engraved from a photograph.

No regular apiary should be without one of these machines,
unless a still larger and more expeditious one (described further
BRE MANUAL. 149

on). be considered necessary. But people who keep only very
few hives, and do not care for a little more trouble with the
comparatively few combs they may require to extract in the
season, may find it convenient to use a

SINGLE-COMB EXTRACTOR.

A simple and cheap implement of this sort was introduced
in 1875 by Mr. Abbott in England, where it is extensively used

by cottagers and
others cultivating
bees on a small
scale. It is known
by the name of the
“ Little Wonder ;”
can be had for
about one-third of
the price of a two-
comb extractor,
and is of the con-
struction shown in
Fig. 65.

The can, or body,
is made of tin, two
broad straps of the
same material are
soldered to it and
screwed to the
handle. A frame
of wire netting (a,
6) is made to fit
inside, against
which the comb
is placed after
being uncapped.
Theiron pin at the
lower end of the
upright rod being
firmly fixed in the
floor, a circular
motion is given to

the machine by a Fig,

 

sway of the hand
which grasps the
loose portion of
the handle on the
top. As the revo-
lutions increase in
rapidity the honey
is thrown out of
the comb into the
can, from which
it may be drawn
off by the opening
on top.

SIX-COMB EXTRAC-
TOR.

In order to faci-
litate the work in
large apiaries ex-
tractors have been
madeto take three,
four, six, or even
eight combs at a
time. The engrav-
ing onnextpagere-
presents one that I
have had made for
use at the Mata-
mata Apiary.

The following
description of this

65," LITTLE WONDER.” Machine wasgiven
150 AUSTRALASIAN

in the New Zealand and Australian Bee Journal in November,
1883:—The case or cylinder inside of which the framework
supporting the comb baskets revolves, is made of 1}in. timber,
lined with stout tin. It is hexagonal in shape, 44in. in diameter
at its widest parts; each of its six sides measuring 22in.,
making its circumference 132in.; height, 33in.. The above
are outside measurements. Wood is the most suitable material
for the case, as it keeps the machine firm while at work.

The outer part of the framework upon which the baskets.
hang is cast metal; cast in pieces to form each of the six sides.

 

Fig. 66.—REVERSIBLE SIX-COMB HONEY-EXTRACTOR WITH ONE
BASKET DETACHED.

These pieces are shaped thus II, the top and bottom bars
being 164in. long, and the depth of the frame 19}in. The
bars are lin. in width, by =3,in. thick. At the corners, where
the sides join each other, socket-pieces are riveted in the angles
at top and bottom. These pieces, as well as securing all the
sides together, answer as parts of the hinges for the comb
baskets.

The comb baskets, which are made of tinned wire cloth, are
2in. wide by 19in. deep, secured at top and bottom by two bands
of metal, like the bars of the framework. At one end of each
BEE MANUAL. 151

of the bands arms project two inches; each being furnished with.
a pintle, which is made to fit in the socket-pieces, and so form
hinges like those of a field gate. These hinges allow of the
baskets being turned so as to take each other's place, and thus
bring the opposite side of the comb to the front, after one side
has been extracted. The baskets turn towards the centre.

The spindle, or journal, is a in. round iron bar, 37in. long.
A short distance from the top and bottom ends are two six-
sided nuts. From each of the six sides of each nut the sup-
porting arms of the framework project; these are made of #in.
round iron, their ends being screwed on to the framework.
The lower part of the spindle works in a socket fastened on to
the bottom of the case, while the top passes through a curved
bar of iron which is screwed on to opposite sides of the case.

 

Fig. 67,COWAN’S AUTOMATIC BASKET.

A handle 10in. long fits on to the spindle above the bar of
iron, and is made secure by a screw-nut. At one side of the
bottom a honey-tap is fastened in, and the extractor is complete.

The only alteration I found necessary to make, after some
trial of the machine, was to attach a gearing with multiplying
power, having the driving handle at the side instead of working
direct from the spindle, as in the figure. This enables the
operator better to regulate the speed and keep the basket
revolving at an uniform rate. With this machine one man can
do nearly three times as much work as with a two-comb
extractor, and with but little more labour.

Mr. T. W. Cowan, who has done much to improve apiculture
in England, has invented an arrangement, shown above, by
which the baskets of the extractor are made to turn automati-
152 AUSTRALASIAN

cally by simply reversing the motion of the gearing. A sort of
rachet movement is fixed in the upper arms, by which the
reversiny is effected.

PREPARING COMBS FOR EXTRACTING.

_As a rule the combs intended for extracting are left in the
hives until the cells are sealed or capped. This is a sure indi-
cation that the honey is in good condition, as the bees will not
seal up any which has not been properly “ripened.” In cool

    

Fig. 68._ROOT’S UNCAPPING KNIFE.

and moist weather, when the nectar brought in by the bees is
very thin, it is hardly safe to extract the honey before it is
sealed, as it may, if not artificially ripened afterwards by
evaporation, show a tendency to ferment. In hot weather,
however, when the honey is pretty thick, it may safely be
extracted as soon as the cells are filled and before the bees
have had time to seal them over. When this can be done it
saves much valuable time, some labour, and some injury to the
combs, inseparable from the process called “uncapping.” In
most cases, however, some portion, if not all the surface of the

  

Fig. 69,_BINGHAM AND HETHERINGTON KNIFE, WITH
CAP-CATCHER,

comb, will require to be uncapped before being put into the
extractor, and for this purpose an uncapping knife is necessary.
eee are made of various forms, two of which are shown
above.

The blade of the knife is of steel, thin, and sharpened on
both sides. The Bingham and Hetherington knife takes more
of the form of a trowel, except that it is much thicker in the
blade and has bevelled edges. After using both kinds I much
BEE MANUAL. 153

prefer the latter. The cap-catcher can be fixed on the knife to
prevent the cappings, after they are shaved off, falling on the
comb, but I have not found the need of using it, for by giving
the comb a slight inclination forward the cappings drop clear.
With the aid of one of these knives the operator, after a little
practice, can shave off the cappings very easily and cleanly,
with the least possible injury to the tops of the cells. While
this is being done the comb must be held on end over an un-
capping box or can, so formed as to retain the wax cappings,
to be afterwards melted down, and to allow the honey, which
is sometimes unavoidably cut off with the cappings or which
may trickle from the comb during the operation, tv pass through
a strainer into a receptacle provided for it. Various contri-
vanccs are adopted for this purpose. The following (Fig. 70)
is one I have generally used, and can recommend :—

mM ai ca aT
a

ES

 

Fig. 70.—DADANT’S UNCAPPING CAN.

It is somewhat like the cylinder of a honey-extractor, but
made in two parts—-the upper one, to the bottom of which the
strainer is attached, slipping a short distance into the lower
one. The cone rising from the bottom of the can gives sup-
port to the strainer. Those I have in use are made of
galvanised iron, are 20 inches diameter, and 30 inches high.
154 AUSTRALASIAN

A flange 2 inches from bottom of upper can forms a support
for it by resting on upper edge of lower one. The strainers
are made of stout wire-cloth ten meshes to the lineal inch, and
permanently fixed to upper can. A tap at bottom and two
strong handles to each can make them complete; cost, 30s.
A light wood framework is made to hook on upper rim, as in
the figure, on which to rest the frames of combs while uncap-
ping them.

Sometimes it is advisable to extract the honey out of a piece
of broken comb, or a whole comb not built in aframe. For
this purpose a so-called broken-comb basket of the form shown
below (Fig. 71) is convenient.

The two pieces of wirecloth are joined by hinges atcc. A
wire, with two bent ends, B B passes through the tin frame of
one piece, and can be easily turned to hook into the other

 

Fig. 71.—BROKEN-COMB BASKET.

frame at A when the comb to be extratted has been placed
between the two; the whole is then suspended on the top
bar of the extractor-basket by means of the hooks A A.

MANIPULATION OF EXTRACTED HONEY.

The honey as it flows out of the extractor is by no means
in a fit condition to be filled into the vessels in which it is to
be stored or sent to market; no matter what care is taken with
the uncapping and extracting, there will be some pieces of wax
mixed with the honey, and perhaps some larve or dead bees.
If it be passed through a suitable strainer, all these foreign
substances may be removed, or if it be collected in a tank and
allowed to settle long enough, until they, being lighter than
honey, accumulate on the surface, the clean honey may then be
BEE MANUAL. 155

drawn off from the bottom of the tank, through a tap or honey-
gate. To obtain the honey in the best possible condition, it is
desirable that both these processes—the straining and the
settling in the tank—should be gone through.

The most convenient form of fitting up the extracting house
has been a subject of many inquiries and much thought amongst
bee-keepers ; but of all the plans I have seen suggested, that
of Mr. T. J. Mulvany, in the New Zealand and Australian Bee
Journal of October, 1884, is the most simple, least expensive,
and best. The idea of the double tank is an excellent one. I
have adopted it myself, and find it most convenient. The
following description is in nearly his own words.

ARRANGEMENT OF EXTRACTING-HOUSE.

Much may be done to save time and labour by a proper
arrangement of the extractor, strainer, and tanks in the extract-

D

 

Fig. 72.—CROSS-SECTION OF EXTRACTING HOUSE WITH VIEW OF
EXTRACTOR. STRAINER, AND TANKS.

ing house. The two sketches, Figures 72 and 73, show, in
elevation and in plan, the arrangement above referred to, by
156 AUSTRALASIAN

means of which the honey is allowed to flow direct from the
extractor into a strainer, and thence into a tank, the whole
process being automatic, so that the pure honey can ultimately
be drawn off from the tank without further trouble, direct
into the packing tins or other vessels.

In both figures, A represents an ordinary two-comb extractor,
fixed on a platform about 2ft. 7in. above the level of the floor
at one end of the extracting-house ; B, the strainer; CC, a
double tank; p, the position of a 60 lb. tin or other vessel
ready to be filled from the tank ; and 5, the uncapping can.

The strainer is a vessel of strong tin, stretching across the
double tank, on the outer edges of which it rests by means of

 

 

|)

ee

 

 

 

Fig. 73.—GROUND PLAN,

flanges attached to its ends. The bottom, for one half its
length, is close, the other half having a fine wire gauze (sixteen
wires to the lineal inch) let in and soldered like a milk strainer.
By simply turning the strainer end for end, it can be made to
work into either of the two divisions of the tank. The honey,
as it flows from the extractor, passes first through a rough
strainer, consisting of a frame of wood, two inches deep and
BEE MANUAL. 157

half an inch thick, the bottom covered with perforated zinc,
fitting loosely in the top of the deep tin strainer, on the sides
of which it hangs by means of bent lugs. This coarse strainer
catches all dead bees, larvae, and large pieces of wax, and is
easily lifted out and cleaned without disturbing the fine strainer,
through which the honey passes more slowly into the tank.

The tanks can, of course, be made of any size that may be
considered desirable. That shown in the sketches was consi-
dered large enough for an apiary of a hundred hives. It
was only 4ft. 2in. long, by 2ft. 6in. wide, and lft. 4in. deep
(outside measure), made of inch boards, with a division board
in the centre; each division lined with strong sheet tin,
soldered so as to be quite water-tight. Each division holds
upwards of 500Ib. of honey. The tank is made in two divi-
sions in order to admit of the honey of any one day’s extracting
remaining to settle all the next day, even if extracting be going
on every day. If more than 500Ib. of honey be likely to be
extracted in any one day, the tank should be made larger.
The process of double straining and settling in the tank tends
materially to ensure the complete “ripening” of the honey ;
and being, as already observed, automatic, it saves all manual
labour, all waste of honey, and ensures perfect cleanliness.

I have two double tanks at Matamata, of the following
dimensions (inside measure): 6ft. x 4ft. x 18in. deep; each
division will hold over 1,8001b. when level full of honey of the
specific gravity of 1-488. Fora short time last season I found
I required both in use at one time, and had over 5,800|b. in
the two tanks. If the extracting house is large enough, two
such tanks can easily be placed across the room, with the
extractor stage between them; so that when one tank is full, the
extractor will only require turning round to the other. They
are made of l}in. timber, lined with stout tin.

(OLDEN fruce.

.
‘*KgEP YOUR COLONIES STRONG.”
Oettl.
158 AUSTRALASIAN

CHAPTER VIII.

COMB FOUNDATION.

Tue third great improvement introduced of late years, taking
rank only after the inventions of the movable frame-hive and
the honey-extractor, is that of furnishing the bees with the
foundation or septum of the combs which we wish them to
build. By this means we are now enabled to dictate to the
busy little workers exactly where a comb is to be built, and
whether it shall contain worker or drone cells ; to secure its

 

Fig. '74.-COMB FOUNDATION.

being built quite straight, and with an even surface ; and to
save the bees a great deal of time in the secretion of wax
just at the period when their labour can be best employed in
the storing of honey.

HISTORY OF THE INVENTION.

There would be no use.in fitting up a hive with movable
bars or frames, unless we could secure the building of the
combs along the line of the bars or within the frames. The
bees, if left to themselves, would be just as likely to build
their combs across such lines, connecting all the bars or frames
together, and thus rendering them quite useless. It was
BEE MANUAL, 159

necessary to give them a fair start, at all events, and the early
practice was to attach a strip of old comb to the bottom of the
bar or the under side of the top bar of the frame. These pieces
of comb were called “ starters,’ and it was no doubt with the
idea of furnishing such starters in a convenient manner that
apiarists first commenced experiments in order to produce strips
of manufactured comb-foundation. As soon as any success had
been achieved in that direction, it could not long escape the
notice of intelligent apiarists, that great advantages would
ensue if the bees could be furnished with an unerring guide
for the whole extent of the comb, and with a considerable
portion of the wax required for its construction. It was not,
however, until numerous experiments had been made, and a
considerable time had elapsed after the first successful attempt
to make narrow strips of comb-foundation, that the beautiful
sheets, with which most bee-keepers are now familiar, were
produced.

It appears that so early as the year 1840 or 1842 a German,
named. Kretchmer, used strips of linen coated with wax and
passed between engraved rollers to give them the impressions
of the bottom of the cells. His son, E. Kretchmer, of Iowa,
writing to the American Bee Journal of December, 1878, says:
“Comb-foundations were made by my father in Germany in
1842; they were made by a pair of engraved rollers, and starch
was used to prevent the wax from adhering to the rollers.”
This sort of foundation does not seem to have been a success,
and it was not until the year 1857 that another German, Herr
Mehring, of Frankinthal, introduced impressed sheets of wax,
instead of waxed linen. These wax sheets were four or five
times as thick as the partition in the natural comb, which is,
as Prof. Cook informs us, only 74, of an inch in thickness ;
they were pressed between metal plates, which gave them
impressions corresponding to the rhomboidal bases of the
natural cells ; and this foundation soon found a very general
use in Germany. In 1874, a poor German, named Friedrich
Weiss, residing in America, invented the machine which brought
the foundation to something nearly like what is now made.
Professor Cook gives to him the whole credit of the invention,
and to Mr. A. I. Root the no less laudable merit of having, by
his energy and enthusiasm, brought both the roller machine
and the foundation into general use.
160 AUSTRALASIAN

ADVANTAGES DERIVED FROM ITS USE.

It has already been stated (in Chapter III.) that bees require
to consume a large quantity of honey—taking the mean of
experiments, about fourteen pounds— in order to secrete one
pound of wax. Assuming the honey to be worth only fivepence
per pound, each pound of wax thus secreted represents a value
of nearly six shillings. By supplying wax foundation, which
costs less than half that price, we save more than half the cost
of the material. A still greater advantage is the saving of
time to the bees, and the opportunities thus given them to
store a much greater quantity of honey. Not only can they
store, instead of making into wax, upwards of twenty pounds
of honey, represented by some pound and a half of foundation
supplied to the ten frames of a hive, but they can have the ten
combs fully built out in one-fourth of the time that should be
devoted to the building of entirely new comb ; and all the bees
that would be so employed are set free to store honey instead.
We may reckon that in an ordinary season a fair swarm will
work out the ten sheets of foundation in a Langstroth hive in
one week; without the aid of the foundation it would take
them four or five weeks. I have had swarms that worked out
and filled with honey and brood all the sheets in a ¢wo-story
hive, and threw off a good new swarm, within three weeks from
the date of hiving. The time thus gained may make all the
difference between profit and loss in a short honey season.
Besides this saving of ‘time and gain in honey, we secure
straight and even combs, such as are rarely, if ever, built
without the aid of foundation ; we can control the building of
drone-comb, and consequently the breeding of drones within
such limits as may be deemed advisable; and it will be found
that, even without the precaution of wiring, the combs so built
will be much stronger and will withstand the strain of extracting
much better than those built without foundation. It is also of
very great value in the case of swarms hived late in the season,
which are thereby enabled to build their comb in a short time,
and put themselves in a better condition for the winter.

PRINCIPAL POINTS OF GOOD FOUNDATION.

Good comb-foundation must, in the first place, be made of
nothing but pure beeswax; various substitutes have been
BEE MANUAL. 161

tried, but they have all failed. The nearer it approaches
nature in the size and shape of the cells the better. The
cells should have a thin base, with high and soft rudiments of
the side walls. I have hitherto advised the use of foundation
running about six square feet to the pound ; but I now think,
after further experience, that for brood and extracting combs,
where wire is not used, a little heavier, say five square feet to
the pound, is better. The lighter kind will do where wire is
used.
COMB-FOUNDATION MACHINES,

There are two methods for impressing the wax sheets—one
by passing them between engraved rollers, as shown in Fig.
75; the second by heavy pressure between flat plates in a

 

Fig. 75.—A. I, ROOT’S 10in. ROLLER MACHINE,

machine like a small hand printing press. There are many
who prefer the pressed to the rolled foundation; but after
making both kinds, I cannot see any superiority in either. Of
the roller machines there are five different sorts made, known
as the Root, the Dunham, the Vandervort, the Pelham, and
the Van Deusen machines. The first four make the natural
based foundation, while the last impresses the sheet with a
flat-bottomed cell. This latter also has its admirers.

M
162 AUSTRALASIAN

I have nsed both the Root and the Vandervort, and have
seen samples of foundation made in the other machines ; but
I prefer that made in the first-mentioned to any other. The
flat-bottomed foundation is used mostly, I believe, for section-
boxes.

With the given press the sheet.of wax is placed ‘between two
copper .plates, which are made to close dike a book. The

 

Fig. 76.—_THE GIVEN PRESS.

plates are then put under the press,-and with the aid of a
compound lever are subjected to a tremendous pressure, which
gives the sheet the desired impressions. This press has one
advantage-over the roller machines: it can imbed wires in the
BEE MANUAL. 163

sheets of foundation while they are being impressed. A frame
already wired is placed over the lower plate and a sheet of wax
on the wires; the plates are put through the usual process,
and the sheet comes out wired and fastened in'the ‘frame.
The Given press numbers among its friends many of the
leading bee-keepers of America.

!

DRONE CELL FOUNDATION.

All the machines now manufactured, whether of the roller
or press description, are made to impress worker-sized eells,
unless specially ordered for drone cells. It was at first thought
that the larger cells would be advantagecus in the surplus
boxes, and a number of drone comb machines were'sold ; but
it was found that the use of such foundation encouraged the
breeding of too many drones and the consequent occupation -of
the surplus boxes by the queen—two things which it is im-
portant to guard against. I had given this matter some
thought when ordering my first machine in 1878, and decided
not to order a second one for drone cells, as I anticipated-that
the use of drone comb would result, as it has proved to do, in
a disadvantage. I find no difficulty in obtaining as much good
drone comb as I desire by the following method. During the
height of the honey season place a few frames, with only
starters of foundation, in the top boxes ; the bees will, at that
time, work them out at once with drone comb and fill them
with honey before the queen has an opportunity to take charge
of them for the purpose of egg laying.

PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE.

The wax used for this purpose must be not only pure beeswax,
_ as already stated, but must also’be-as clean as possible; any
dirt mixed with the wax tends to:make the foundation brittle.
When melting the wax a double boiler should always be used,
the inner one for the wax and the outer one for water, in order
to prevent the wax from burning; burnt wax is of no use for
foundation. To make rapid work two such double ‘boilers
should be used, one in which the wax is melted from its cold
state, the other to be kept supplied with melted wax at the
proper temperature and used as a dipping boiler. The next
things needed are a tub of cold water, two or more dipping
164 AUSTRALASIAN

boards the length of the sheets required, and a thin knife.
The boards should be made of very thin wond—or stout
galvanised iron will answer—and made so that they can be
reversed when dipping. Wax melts at a temperature of about
145° Fahr., and the contents of the dipping boiler should be
kept at very little over that temperature. The boards, after
being soaked in the cold water and drained, are at first just
slightly touched over with soapy water to give them a start ;
care should be taken to use no more soap than is absolutely
necessary, as it is said the bees dislike it. Take a board and
dip it overhead in the wax ; lift it out and let it drip; as soon
as it has ceased to drip, quickly reverse the board and dip it
overhead again; and repeat the process until the sheet is of
the desired thickness. Two or three times is sufficient for stout
foundation, and once or twice for thin. After the last dip
plunge the board into the cold water, and if everything is
right the sheets will peel off without trouble. If the wax is
too hot the sheets will break, if too cold they will stick to the
board. ‘ According as the wax in the dipping boiler is used up
it should be replenished from the melting boiler, which must
be kept on a good fire. For the Given press the dipping
boards are made about the size of the inside dimensions of the
frames, and are used in the same manner as the others.

 

Fig. 77,_GAUGE FOR TRIMMING FOUNDATION.

After all the sheets are dipped it is better to leave them
until next day before putting them through the machine. They
should be nice and pliable, or else they will bieak when pressed.
or rolled. If the sheets are placed in warm water it will soften
them. A little thin starch is a very good thing to put on the
rollers in order to prevent the wax from sticking to them ; tins
for holding the starch are supplied with the machines. For
the Given press it is better to brush the plates over occasionally
with concentrated lye. As the sheets require trimming to fit
the frames after coming from the machine, a gauge should be
made for that purpose as shown above.
BEE MANUAL, 165

By laying five or six sheets squarely together, and the gauge
on the top, so many can be trimmed at once with the aid of a
sharp butcher’s knife. The sheets of foundation, when not to
be used in wired frames, should be cut a quarter inch shorter
and half an inch shallower than the inside dimensions of the
frames, but for wired frames they should be made to fill them
as nearly as possible.

TO FASTEN FOUNDATION IN FRAMES.

For this purpose a board is required, three-eighths of an inch
in thickness, to fit easily inside the frames. Two thin battens
should be nailed on the back, projecting a little at the ends, as
shown below.

Fig. 78._COMB-FOUNDATION BOARD.

This board is to steady the sheet of foundation while it is
being fastened in the groove of the frame. The following
engraving and explanation will make the operation clear to the
reader :—

 

In cold weather slightly warm the sheets before handling.
Cut one edge perfectly straight with a sharp knife and straight
166 AUSTRALASIAN

edge. Hold the board, A, in the left-hand; lay, the frame, c
inverted), against the projections B; the board itself. will then
e within the frame. Lay the sheet. of comb, D, against the

board:and. press into groove in frame. Now, by elevating one

end of the frame : (as shown in the figure) and pouring a little
melted wax in groove.at upper corner, it will run down to £,
and fasten the sheet securely. As soon as firmly set; support
the sheet while reversing the frame, and do the same on the
other side. When done, hang in an empty hive for safety.

Use stoutest sheets in lower hive. For melting the wax required

for fastening the sheets the most convenient appliance we can

possibly. have is a wax-smelter, made. upon the principle shown
in the following sketch :—

 

Fig. 80.—WAX-SMELTER,

It is double jacketted, the space between the two containing
hot water, and the wax thus kept from cooling in the inner
vessel. These smelters are generally made of tin, but are
better (though of course more expensive) if made of copper.
A lamp or slow fire can be used to rest:the-smelter upon and
keep up the temperature during the intervals of using it.

TO FASTEN FOUNDATION IN SECTIONS.

The Parker comb lever is an indispensable appliance for
fastening either starters or small sheets of foundation in section
boxes.

The lever is fastened at the sides to the block in such a way
that it can be pushed forward or drawn back. A stop is nailed
to the block, against which the edge of the top piece of the
section box is placed ; the front edge of the lever is now pushed
forward to the centre of the section top, the edge of the starter
or sheet of foundation placed under it ; the end of the handle
BEE MANUAL. 167

being then raised, the front of the lever presses upon the edge
of the foundation, the rest of which is at the same time to be
bent upwards to: its proper position in the box; the end of
the: lever is then drawn backwards, with pressure, and the
foundation: remains fastened in its place. The machine should

   

Fig. 81_-PARKER’S COMB-LEVER.

be screwed to a table or bench, and the under edge of the lever
moistened with a little honey, to keep it from sticking to the
wax.

WIRED FOUNDATION.

In order to prevent sagging or bulging of the foundation,
owing to undue heat and the weight to which it is sometimes
exposed during the operation ef comb building, and especially
to prevent breakage of the comb when thick honey is being
extracted, it has been found desirable to strengthen the septum
in some manner. Different substances, such as wood, vegetable
parchment, strong paper, linen, vulcanite, and wire, have been
tried as a base for foundation, but none of these, except the
last, have been found to answer the purpose. Capt. Hether-
ington, of Cherry Valley, New York, was, I believe, the first to
use wired foundation some few years ago, and already it is
coming into .very general use. Very thin wire is first secured
in. the frames, and afterwards imbedded in the foundation,
either by hand or by the Given press. The.following answer
to a correspondent, in the New Zealand and Australian Bee
Journal, expresses nearly all I have to say as to a choice hetween
hand and machine wiring :—“ As soon as a demand sprang up
for wired foundation in America a Mr. Given invented a
168 AUSTRALASIAN

machine by which sheets of wax are pressed into frames already:
wired for the purpose, and at the same time giving the sheets
the ordinary impressions of the base of the cells. Several
manufacturers at once commenced making and selling frames
of wire foundation, but it was soon discovered by purchasers
that this method of obtaining it was too expensive, as, in
packing, one frame of comb would occupy nearly as much
space as l4lbs. of ordinary foundation, consequently the
freight on a few sheets of the wired article came very
heavy. It was also found that many of the sheets broke
away from the wires in transit through rough handling. The
method now generally adopted by bee-keepers is to purchase
the ordinary foundation and wire it themselves. This is by
far the cheapest and best plan, and the one I would advise
those who desire to use wired foundation to adopt.” Professor
Cook says also, “Some, even with the Given press, prefer to
put the foundation into the wires by hand.”

The following instructions will enable any one to fix the
wiring in his frames : - Pierce the top and bottom bars-of the

WIRING THE FRAMES.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 82. WIRED FRAME.

frames, before putting them together, with holes two inches
apart, commencing a half inch inside the end bar. The holes
should be exactly along the centre of the bars, the number
required being nine to each. A small lever press, with a set of
short steel awls firmly fixed in it, could be made to pierce the
nine holes at one stroke. The wiring is done after the frames
are put together, No. 30 tinned wire being best for the purpose.
When imbedding the wires by hand, fasten one end of the wire
to a tack driven in near one end of the top bar, and pass the
other end through the holes (as in figure), fastening it in the
same manner at the other end of the frame. Care should be
taken, when tightening the wires, not to draw the frame out
of the square.
BEE MANUAL. 169

IMBEDDING THE FOUNDATION.

Cut an inch board (A in the figure) a little larger than the
size of the frame ; on this screw another piece, B, three-eighths
of an inch thick, cut slightly smaller than the inside of the
frame, letting the grain of each board cross that of the other,

 

 

 

Fig. 83._WIRING BOARD.

which will prevent twisting. Lay a sheet of foundation on the
board 8B, and a wired frame over it, resting upon the lower
board a. One edge of the sheet should be close against the
top bar of the frame. The wires can now be imbedded in the
centre of the sheet by passing over each a button-hook in
which a shallow groove has been filed. The sheets should be
slightly warmed. A still better implement for imbedding the
wires is shown here (Fig. 84). The lower curved part, upon

     

 

Fig, 84. -EASTERDAY’S WIRE IMBEDDER,

which the points are fastened, is just long enough to reach
from the top to the bottom bar of the frame. It is grasped
by the upper part in the hand, is used on the wires with a
rocking motion, and imbeds them very rapidly. Mr. Root
says he considers it does the work ‘‘ quicker and easier than
any other plan hitherto tried.”
170 AUSTRALASIAN

TO SECURE STRAIGHT COMBS.

It is of very great importance to have the combs built
perfectly straight, and within the frames. To secure this the
hives should stand Jevel, as already explained, so that the
frames may hang plumb. When wires are not used and the
frames are not hanging vertically the lower parts of the sheets
will project beyond them, and if much out, they are very likely
to be fastened by the bees to the next frame. There is a very
simple device, however—shown in the following engraving—
which will prevent the sheet getting out of place and help to
support it while being worked out.

      

     
  
   
    

    

  
      

aOR SEES
pecineaeeeenaeg ta

sreieietatenesceemntacantes

perccnatantceccnernesectrn,

Sot ses see Sieeshesnieter eae e es
SS _

S58
SS
ee
eecaiaienstonretearee ence ene]

Sse teehee tence aees
seSentataraeereoean
ee Sete LS

       
     

   

Fig. 4a,—DEVICE FOR SECURING STRAIGHT COMBS.

No. 1 represents a frame of comb-foundation. No. 2 is a
section of No. 1. About 1}in. from the bottom of the sheet a
thin piece of twine is passed round one end bar of the frame,
then crossed (as shown) and one part taken along each side of
the sheet, crossed again, and tied at the back of the other end
bar. The twine need only be tied sufficiently tight to prevent
it slipping down the end bars. There is another method of
fixing the twine, z.¢., by boring a small hole in each end bar
and passing the double part of the twine through one, putting a
small toggle in the bight, and fastening the two ends after
passing them through the other hole. This simple arrange-
ment will be found of great value in securing straight combs.
The twine may be removed after the combs are fastened to
the end bars.
BEE MANUAL. 171

CHAPTER IX.

MANIPULATION OF BEES AND FEEDING.

THE common, but erroneous, idea prevailing amongst those
who have paid little or no attention to the nature and habits
of the honey-bee, that to go near one is to run a risk of being
attacked. by it, may, I think, be attributed to the fact that
they have had instilled into their minds while young an idea
that the bee is an enemy they have to fear. It is not an
uncommon occurrence for a mother, on seeing her infant near
flowers on which there are bees flitting about, to say, “ Oh! come
away, my child ; there’s a bee, it will sting you,” and she imme-
diately takes the child away from the supposed danger. This.
lesson, to dread the bee,-thus early inculcated, is never forgotten.

Again there are many people who believe that bees have a
special aversion to them, that they cannot go within fifty yards
of one, as they will sometimes tell you, without its making for
them and “ declaring war ;” and no amount of persuasion will
convince them that they may be mistaken. A person who has
this idea firmly fixed in his mind is likely to act in such a way
when a bee is near him as to invite its attack, and so condemn
the bee for what he has himself, unconsciously perhaps, been
the cause of. It is my opinion that if there are any such
people that bees attack without apparent provocation they are
very few indeed, and that no one, as far as my experience teaches
me, is more liable to be stung than another provided they both
act ina like manner. People of a nervous temperament as a
rule make very poor manipulators.

HANDLING BEES.

There are certain fixed rules to be observed when handling
bees if freedom from stings is to be secured. The most
important are: Ist, to avoid jarring the hive; 2nd, to avoid
172 AUSTRALASIAN

breathing into the hive or upon the bees ; 3rd, to avoid making
any quick movements about the hive; 4th, to be careful not to
stand in the line of flight to the hive; 5th, let all manipula-
tion, as far as possible, be conducted during fine weather and
while the bees are flying; 6th, the operator should act in a
fearless but gentle manner ; and 7th, never strike at a bee, but
when one gives warning of stinging bow the head slightly, if
unprotected with a veil, and walk slowly away.

Bees are more irritable during cloudy or showery weather,
owing, perhaps, as it is said, to the peculiar electrical condi-
tions of the atmosphere. Queenless colonies are more easily
provoked to anger than when in their normal condition. So
marked is this as a rule that I can often detect them on first
opening the hives. The scent of the poison from their stings
will excite bees, and the crushing of one while manipulating
will usually make the rest very angry. For the protection of
the face the manipulator can wear a

BEE-VEIL.

This should be made of some light material, such as leno or
tarlatan, long enough to hang from the brim of a hat to the

   

NS hi Lif Y LALA
Fig. 85,—WIRE-CLOTH BEE-VEIL. Fig. 86.—TARLATAN BEE-VEIL,

lower part of the chest, when there will be ample to tuck under
the collar of the vest or coat (Fig. 86). A piece of strong
BEE MANUAL. 173

elastic run through a hem round the top will keep it tight and
close round the hat, which is the better for having a broad
brim. Some bee-keepers prefer having a piece of wire cloth
sewed into the veil (Fig. 85), on account of the wire being less
obstruction to the sight and not confining the breath so much
as the other material. A bee-veil should always be worn by a
beginner ; it gives him a sense of security, and therefore more
confidence. My first veil was made about three years ago. I
never felt the need of one till I commenced to handle hybrids
pretty extensively.

BEE-GLOVES.

These I have never worn, therefore I cannot say whether
they are useful or not, but as it seems to me that I require the
most perfect freedom with my fingers for handling the frames,
I should think gloves of any kind on the hands are an encum-
brance. Indiarubber gloves are usually sold for this purpose,
but a pair of thin woollen gloves covered with cotton ones, and
the whole dipped in a strong solution of soda and water, have
been highly recommended. I should think that if gloves be
worn at all the extreme joints at least of the fingers and thumbs
ought to be left free.

QUIETING BEES.

During the season, when honey is being gathered rapidly,
bees as a rule can be handled without showing any signs of
displeasure, but at other times it may be necessary to proceed
with caution, and have at hand some means of quieting them
should they resent our interference. Smoke is one of the best
bee quieters we have; afew puffs will generally cause them
to gorge themselves with honey, in which condition of super-
abundant fulness they may be handled with impunity.

SMOKERS.

One old-fashioned method of applying smoke to bees was to
make a tight roll of cotton rags, which, being lighted at one
end, was held in the hand while the smoke was blown by the
mouth into the hive, but now we have a more pleasant and
convenient method. A tube or fire-box of tin is attached to
a small bellows worked with a spring (Figs. 87 and 88) ; a few
live embers are first placed in the tube, then the material for
174 AUSTRALASIAN

‘burning, which may consist of cotton rags, dry: rotten -wood,
dried cow-dung, or any other material that :will burn .and
produce .a dense smoke, when a few puffs of the: bellows will
set. the smoker in working order.

 

Fig. 87. CLARK’S COLD-BLAST SMOKER,

‘Two of the best smokers now in use are made on different
principles. In one the blast of air fromthe bellows is blown
through the fire; in the other the draught enters the tube
between the fire and the mouth of the tube. By this arrangement
cold air is mixed with the smoke as it leaves the tube. The
latter is termed a “cold-blast” smoker (Fig. 87) and the
former a “ direct-draught ” smoker (Fig. 88). Each has special

 

Fig. 88.-BINGHAMW’S DIRECT-DRAUGHT SMOKER,

advantages not possessed by the other. The smoke blown from
the “ cold-blast ” smoker being mixed with cold air instead of
hot is an advantage I have no doubt appreciated by the bees ;
BEE MANUAL. 175

but with the “ direct draught,” the air going through the fire
must necessarily be hot when it leaves the smoker, and after
using it steadily for some little time the smoke is apt to be very
hot ; herein I prefer the “cold blast.” On the other hand, the
advantage of the Bingham direct-draught smoker over all others
in use, with perhaps the exception of King’s (which I have not
seen), is that it can be set down without the fire going out
immediately ; in fact, it will burn away for hours, or until the
fuel is exhausted. Those who have been troubled with their
smoker going out every now and then as soon as they laid it
down fora minute will be able to appreciate this advantage.
I don’t know anything more annoying than while manipulating
bees, especially if they happen to be hybrids, to find your
smoker out that you only a minute before laid out of your
hand. The peculiar feature about the Bingham (patented
in America) which insures the constant burning of the fire is
the non-attachment of the small tube directing the blast from
the bellows to the fire-box itself. There is about a quarter of
an inch space left between the end of the air tube and the fire-
box, so that a current of air is always rushing through this
opening into the fire.

I have both the above smokers in use at Matamata, and
although I like the principle of the “cold blast” I prefer the
Bingham for the reasons given. Could the prindiples of the
two be combined in one I think it would make a perfect
smoker.

FUEL FOR SMOKERS.

For the cold-blast smoker I find very dry half-rotten wood
or dry cow-dung as good as anything I have used ; but for the
Bingham it is better to use good dry sound wood, cut into lengths
of about four inches by one-half inch square. To set the smoker
going, drop in first a few live embers and cover them with
small fuel, give a few puffs to start the fire, and fill up with the
larger pieces. A correspondent to the Mew Zealand and Aus-
tralian Bee Journal recommended soaking the fuel in a solution
of saltpetre (an ounce to the pint of water) and drying it care-
fully before using it ; a match will then be sufficient to light it.

As it would be difficult to explain clearly how to make a
smoker without a number of illustrations, and more difficult
still for an ordinary bee-keeper to make one even were instruc-
176 AUSTRALASIAN

tions given, it will be sufficient to mention that they can be
purchased of Messrs. Bagnall Bros. and Co., or their agents,
at the following prices: Clark’s cold blast, 3s., by post, 4s. 6d. ;
Bingham’s direct draught, 4s. 6d., by post, 6s. At these
prices it would not pay any bee-keeper to make one or two for
his own use.

HOW TO OPEN A HIVE.

During the honey season it is usually only necessary to be
careful when removing the cover and mat, and if the bees
“oil up” over the top of the frames to give them a puff or
two of smoke. But at other times, or with bees inclined to be
vicious, it is better to blow a little smoke in at the entrance
half a minute or so before removing the cover ; this will give
the bees time to begin filling themselves with honey. After
the cover is removed a few more puffs on top will make them
quiet.

When removing any of the frames it is better first to move
two or three of the side frames a little to make room for taking
out the first one, when any of the others can be taken out
without trouble.

COMB-HOLDERS.

A small comb-holder, similar to the one shown in Fig. 89,
to hook on the side of the hive, is very handy for hanging a

 

Fig. 89.COMB-HOLDER.

frame on when taken from the hive. It is made of stout folded
tin. Another kind, easily made, is shown in Fig. 90. This is
very much like the body of a hive cut in half lengthwise, with
a bottom nailed on. A double one can be made by extending
the ends and putting the division in the centre of them; a
hand-hole cut in the top of the division is necessary for carry-
ing it.
BEE MANUAL. 177

CURES FOR STINGS.

I am inclined to believe that there are as many “ infallible
cures” for stings as there are for rheumatism—every person
seems to have one. The first thing to be done is to remove the
sting—-not, however, as most people would do, with the thumb
and finger, but by a scraping process with the thumb or finger-
nail. If the former plan were adopted the contents of the
poison bag would be squeezed into the wound, but by the latter
method the sting is more easily and quickly removed without
expressing any poison.

I must here plead ignorance of the best or even a good
remedy to stop the irritation caused by a sting. I have tried
a few on myself, but I cannot say whether they had any effect
or not; certain it is that they did not stop the irritation at
once, as they were supposed to do. The poison being an acid,

 

Fig, 90.—SIMPLICITY COMB-HOLDER.

we naturally expect that an alkali will neutralise its effects,
therefore ammonia should be about the best remedy if it is
applied immediately. A writer in a recent number of the
British Bee Journal recommends the use of strong carbolic acid,
such as is used for disinfecting drains. His method of
applying it is as follows :—

“<TImmediately after we have been stung we extract the sting, touch
the place with a stick or glass rod which has been dipped into carbolic
acid, and then apply a drop of water ; and the union of the two causes
a paralysis of the nerves which control the lymphatics, and so prevents
the poison being taken up into the system. Only the smallest possible.
quantity muat be used, as the acid, being a caustic, when mixed with
water, leaves a scar, which, however, will disappear in a few days,
unless an excessive quantity is used.”

Some recommend an onion, cut and applied to the wound,
but whatever is done should be done quickly, before the poison
N
178 AUSTRALASIAN

has time to get into the system, and be careful not to rub any-
thing in. :

It is very rarely that any serious effects ensue from a sting
beyond a little pain, and perhaps a swelling of the part around
the wound, but there have been cases where death has resulted
from the sting of a bee, the immediate cause being either suf-
focation, a shock to the nervous system, or blood poisoning,
where the person has been in a bad state of health. The
following from a correspondent to the British Bee Journal gives
the treatment for extreme cases :—

‘* In the Journal for December ‘ E. H. B.’ wishes to know the treat-
ment to be adopted when a man or woman gets into a state of coma
from a bee sting, which, of course, will depend on the cause of the
coma.

‘The bee poison, when taken into the system, gives rise to a form
of blood poisoning, but as the amount of poison even from twenty
stings is so small, the symptoms, except in those cases where the person
stung is in a bad state of fealth, never become serious.

“Death has resulted from persons having been stung inside the
mouth or the throat, by eating fruit, honey, etc., in which a bee has
been overlooked, and the swelling caused by the bee poison, closing up
the windpipe, has killed the patient by suffocation.

“In these cases the only remedy would be to make an artificial
opening in the windpipe, an operation difficult even for an experienced
surgeon,

Fin those cases where death is imminent from the ‘ shock,’ the best
remedies would be stimulants, either in the form of brandy, whisky,
etc., sal-volatile internally, or by injection under the skin, strong
coffee or tea, together with galvanism, and hot cloths applied to the
head and chest.

“The after treatment would consist in building up the patient’s
strength by means of stimulants, strong beef-tea and soups, milk and
eags, with quinine, bark, and mineral acids.—Grorck WALKER,
L.R.C.P., Wimbledon, 22nd December, 1882.”

FEEDING.

There are times and seasons when a little attention given to
the matter of feeding stocks will tend greatly to increase the
profits from the apiary. A prudent apiarist will no more
neglect feeding his bees when they require it than he would
his horse, cow, dog, or any other of his domestic animals.
Feeding is resorted to for one of two reasons, viz., either to
supply a colony if it has fallen short of the necessary food, or
for the purpose of stimulating breeding. The seasons when
BEE MANUAL. 179

food is more likely to be required than at any other time are
autumn and early spring.

FEEDING FOR WINTER.

In the autumn examination of the hives, when preparing them
for winter (see Chapter. XIV.), the first point is to see to the
supply of food. In most districts 25lbs. of honey will be ample
for winter stores ; in others again, like Matamata, where there
is comparatively no forage between clover and clover, 35lbs. is
little enough for an ordinary colony. I believe it to be poor
policy to run the bees too close at the end of the season for the
sake of getting a little more honey ; for although we may get a
greater price for the honey than the syrup will cost for feeding,
still when we come to add the expense in time and labour of
feeding, to say nothing of the many inconveniences attached to
it, and the risk of starting robbing, we shall find very little
profit in the extra honey that has been taken. A colony well
supplied with food in the autumn will keep up breeding later
than one with a scant supply, and thus come out stronger in
spring. When food is required for winter stores it should be
supplied before cold weather sets in, and is best given as rapidly
as the bees will take it. Where there has been a short supply
for winter it will most likely be necessary to feed again just as
breeding commences at the end of winter; in short, food
should be given at any time it is required.

STIMULATIVE FEEDING.

It has already been stated that the activity of the queen as
regards egg-laying in spring depends upon the amount of honey
being gathered. As the season advances, and the worker-bees
are enabled to gather more than is sufficient for present re-
quirements, so egg-laying increases until the queen is depositing
to the full extent of her capacity. Where early spring forage
is abundant breeding will go on rapidly and the colonies will
gain strength much earlier in the season than where it is scarce,
unless we make up for the want by supplying the bees with
food artificially. Itis a fact that rapid breeding does not so
much depend upon the amount of food already in the hive as
upon the amount being stored ; so that when we wish to stimu-
late breeding at a time when honey in the fields is scarce we
180 AUSTRALASIAN

must feed. For stimulating purposes the amount of food given
does not so much matter as supplying it regularly ; half a pint
of syrup or less given every twenty-four hours is ample.

WHAT AND WHEN TO FEED.

Next to sealed honey, a good syrup made from white sugar
is the best food we can give. Candy is very good, and when
run into a frame is handy for hanging in the centre of the
cluster in winter. J have wintered bees on it, but I think on
the whole a fairly thick syrup is best even in winter if placed
convenient for the bees. Our winters in any part of Australasia
are not so severe, however, as to prevent bees reaching food
in any part of a hive.

Recipe for Syrup.—To every pound of sugar add half-pint of
water, put it into a saucepan and boil for a few minutes; keep
stirring. This when cool is ready for use.

Candy.—Take, say, 10lbs. of sugar, put in a little water
(about three half-pints), mix well, and boil, keeping it well
stirred to prevent burning. Boil until it is ready to sugar off.
You can determine when this point is reached by putting some
in a saucer ; or test it, as confectioners do, by dipping your
finger in a cup of cold water, then in the candy, and back into
the water again. When it breaks like egg-shells from the end
of your finger it is just right. Take it off the fire at once, and
as soon as it begins to harden round the sides keep stirring till
it gets quite thick. Very great care must be taken to prevent
the food from burning ; it is said burnt sugar is poison to bees.
The candy can be made into cakes by pouring it into plates
previously greased, or it may be poured into a frame by fasten-
ing the frame down on a Hat board on which a sheet of paper
has been spread to prevent the candy sticking to the board.
The frame should rest on the board closely all round, so that
the candy will not run underneath it. As soon as the candy is
ready, pour it into a frame—a Langstroth frame will hold about
8lbs. If made according to the directions it will be firm, dry,
and opaque when cold, and will stick to the frame, so that it
may be suspended in the hive like a frame of honey. It should
be warmed a little in cold weather before being put in a hive.
Cakes of candy can be placed on top of the frames under the
mats, care being taken not to uncover the bees.
BEE MANUAL. 181

The best time to feed syrup is just before dusk. Feeding is
sure to cause some excitement amongst the bees, and if it is
given in the daytime numbers of them will fly out in an
excited manner and so attract the attention of other bees,
which may cause robbing. Candy may be placed in the hive
at any time. The food for stimulative purposes should be
given every evening.

HOW TO FEED SYRUP.

Food should always be given to a colony in such a manner
as to be out of the reach of strange bees. A number of dif-
ferent kinds of feeders are made for holding syrup ; some for
placing on top of the frames, others for hanging on the hive, but
only one that I know for placing outside. Undoubtedly the
safest plan is to place all food within the hive, where it can
best be protected by the inmates. Perhaps the most simple
and handiest feeder is the “ Simplicity ” (Fig. 91), for standing

 

Fig, 91.—‘‘ SIMPLICITY ” FEEDER,

on top of the frame under the mat. As usually made, it is
cut out of a solid piece of wood 1ft. long, 3in. wide, by 2in.
deep. The grooves are cut with a circular saw. I have made
them by cutting the grooves with a plough and nailing ends on
afterwards. The partitions afford a foothold for the bees and
prevent them getting drowned in the syrup. In wide feeders
a thin float should be used. In top feeding the mats must be
so arranged as to leave no part of the frames uncovered.
Empty combs can be utilised as feeders, and I am very much
in favour of these, as they can be hung in the centre of the
cluster of bees. They can be filled by laying them on an
182 AUSTRALASIAN

inclined board-and allowing the syrup to drop through a per-
forated vessel held about a foot above the combs. They should
be hung up fora time after being filled, till there is no drip
from them, before being placed in the hives. Another kind,
for hanging in the hive, answers the purpose of a division board
at the same time. A simple but at the same time a very useful
feeder can be made out of an empty broad frame by nailing
three bottom bars lengthwise in the centre of it, so as to form

 

Fig, 92._GREY’S ENTRANCE FEEDER.

a trough. Grey’s feeder, for placing across the entrance to the
hive, is shown in Fig. 92; it can also be used inside like the
“ Simplicity.” Any or all of these feeders can be purchased
for a small sum from hive manufacturers, and it is the better
way for those who wish to make their own to buy one to serve
as a pattern. An ingenious person will find many things that
he can utilise as feeders. All wooden feeders should be given a.
thin coating of hot wax before being used, to keep them clean
and prevent them absorbing the syrup.

RULE,

“(SEE THAT YOUR BEES ARE NEVER SHORT OF FOOD.”
BEE MANUAL. 183

CHAPTER X.

TRANSFERRING.

ALTHOUGH the operation of transferring bees and combs from
a box to a frame hive may appear a formidable undertaking
to the beginner, he will soon find that it only requires a little
confidence to get over all the difficulties easily. After he has
succeeded with the first case, he feels astonished that he should
have felt half afraid to commence.

IMPLEMENTS REQUIRED.

Transferring may be done at any time during the summer,
but the best time for it is in the spring, before the combs are
heavy with honey. A few tools are necessary, and these should
be ready at hand before commencing. A hammer and chisel
will be required to knock the box asunder, a long knife to cut
the combs, a lighted smoker, an empty box, a hive with frames,
and a box or barrel turned bottom upwards to serve as a bench.
Some transferring wires (Fig. 93, No. 11.) will also be required
for fastening the combs in the frames.

eee |
» f} : =

% T=
Fig. 98,_TRANSFERRING WIRES AND CLASPS,

These I usually make out of No. 16 wire in the following
manner :—Lay a frame on its side, and cut the wires an inch
longer than the outside depth of the frames, and then make a
bend in the wires half an inch from each end, so that they can
be made to grip the top and bottom bars of the frame. About
thirty of these may be required for each hive. A few clasps
(Fig. 93, No. 1.) made of tin strips are also handy. A trans-
184 AUSTRALASIAN

ferring board, of the construction shown in the following
figure, is a most useful appliance.

It is easily made, and very convenient when working. The
spaces between the bars admit of the transferring wires being
fixed on the lower side of the frame as well as on the upper
side as it lies with its enclosed comb upon the board. Any
honey that drips from the combs during the operation can be
caught on a dish placed underneath the board.

A fine warm day should be chosen, and I find the morning
the best time for this work. Everything required being at
hand, blow a few puffs of smoke into the entrance of the box,

 

Fig. 94. TRANSFERRING BOARD.

and after a minute or two turn it bottom upwards, just at the
back of the place where it stood, and place the empty box over
it. A cloth may be tied round the junction of the two boxes,
to steady them and to keep the bees confined, if the operator is
at all timid. An empty box may be placed where the old one
stood, to catch any bees that return from the field during the
operation.
DRIVING.

The bees are now to be forced to leave the old box and their
combs and to cluster with their queen in the empty box which
has been placed on the top, just as a natural swarm does when
newly hived. This process of forced swarming is called
“driving.” It is done by rapping on the sides of the box hive
in such a way as to frighten the bees until they fill themselves
with honey and retire from the apprehended danger, as it is
their instinct to do under such circumstances. This rapping
on the sides of the box may be done with the hands, but better
with a pair of sticks, beginning gently and gradually increasing
BEE MANUAL, 185

the force of the blows, but not so violently as to endanger the
breaking down of the combs inside. When the drumming has
been continued without intermission for a period ranging from
ten to twenty minutes the bees will be nearly all clustered in
the upper box. When this has taken place the upper box may
be lifted off and placed on the old stand, free ingress and egress
being allowed for the bees in front.

FIXING COMBS IN FRAMES.

The combs are now ready to be transferred. If there are
robber bees about—which may soon be known by seeing them
settling on the combs—take the box of combs into a room or

é

shed—if no bee tent (see Chapter XV.) be at hand-—where the .

robbers cannot get in. With your long knife cut the combs
free from the sides of the box, and take an end and a side off

 

Fig, 95.,—PIECES OF COMB TRANSFERRED TO FRAME.

carefully. Now cut the combs out separately without breaking
them, and select the straightest containing brood in the first
instance. Lay a comb on the transferring board, with a frame
over it, and if it be larger than the frame, cut it just a trifle
larger than the inside, so that by springing the frame a little
it will go over and grip the comb so cut. If this be neatly
done the comb will require no other fastening. According as
each frame is finished, hang it in the hive.

When more than one piece is required to fill a frame, select
only such as are straight, containing brood or honey, and
secure them in the frames with the wires and clasps, as shown
in the above illustration.

With the aid of the transferring board (Fig. 94) the wires
can be put on both sides of the frame without moving it
186 AUSTRALASIAN

Proceed thus till all the straight worker combs containing brood
or honey are transferred; take no others, unless there happen
to be any perfectly straight worker comb empty large enough
to fill the frames in one piece, when these may be used also.
Under no circumstances should crooked or drone comb be
transferred. The hives may be filled up with frames of comb
taken from other hives or with frames of foundation, the brood
combs being kept in the centre. Place the hive, as soon as it
is ready, where the box-hive stood ; raise the front a little, and
shake the driven bees out of the box, so that they can enter
the hive, which they will do at once, and if all be well, and no
accident have happened to the queen, they will proceed without
delay to fasten the combs in the frames. In the course of a
day or two the wires can be removed.

Other methods are sometimes recommended for securing the
combs in the frames, but having tried most, and having trans-
ferred some hundreds of colonies with their combs, there is no
plan I have found to answer so well as the wires I have
described. They are easily put on, and may be taken off
without lifting the frames from the hive.

I have often transferred without driving the bees into an
empty box, merely turning the box-hive up, driving the bees
with smoke to one end, then tearing off the other end, cutting
out and transferring the combs and shaking the bees into the
new hive, which had in the first instance been placed where
the old box-hive had stood. The first described process takes
a longer time, but it makes cleaner work, and is the proper
plan for a beginner to adopt.

MR. HEDDON’S NEW PRACTICE.

Mr. Heddon recommends doing away altogether with the
transferring of the combs into frames. He drives the bees
into an empty box, as already explained, and then shakes them
at once in front of the new hive, already filled with frames of
comb or of comb-foundation, and placed where the box-hive
had stood. The old box-hive with its contents is then set
aside for twenty days, until all the young bees have emerged
from the cells. If the weather turns cold the box should be
placed in a warm room uatil a sufficient number of bees have
emerged to keep up the temperature of the box. The young
BEE MANUAL. 187

bees are now drummed out as before. If a queen should be
present she is killed, and the bees are either united with the
others or taken to forma separate colony. If there be any
honey left in any of the combs, it is extracted, and all the
old combs are melted down.

OPEN DRIVING.

There is a method known as open driving practised by
experienced bee-keepers and experts when competing at bee-
shows, at which prizes are given to those who shall in the
neatest and quickest manner drive the bees and capture and
exhibit the queen. In open driving the cloth round the
junction of the boxes is dispensed with, and one end of the
upper or receiving box is elevated in such a way as to permit
the passage of the bees to be seen by the operator and spec-
tators. A sharp look out is kept, and the queen captured
while ascending.

RULE.

‘“©ONE STRONG COLONY WILL BE MORE PROFITABLE THAN SEVERAL
WEAK ONES.”
188 AUSTRALASIAN

CHAPTER XI.

INCREASE OF STOCKS—-NATURAL SWARMING—
DIVIDING.

THE question of the increase of stocks in an apiary, how to
promote, control, or even to prevent it, is one of importance in
all cases, and one which must be treated by each bee-keeper
according to the special objects he has in view—the first point
to be determined being

WHAT RATE OF INCREASE IS DESIRABLE.

It may be desirable to stock a new apiary as quickly as
possible, or, if opportunity offers, to dispose profitably of a
number of colonies ; in which case the largest increase com-
patible with the formation of none but strong colonies must be
worked for, regardless of a honey harvest. If the object be
to form an apiary gradually, and with the least outlay of
capital, the best plan will be to try for such a moderate annual
increase of stocks as may be consistent with securing a fair
return in honey at the same time ; or, lastly, if the apiary has
attained the full extent intended, the bee-keeper will naturally
want to obtain the greatest possible quantity of honey from a
fixed number of hives ; and it then becomes a question whether
that end may be best secured by suppressing all increase, as
far as it is possible to do so.

CIRCUMSTANCES WHICH AFFECT A DECISION.

Having settled the preliminary question of large, moderate,
or no increase, the bee-keeper will next have to consider the
circumstances with which he has to deal and which may exert
an influence upon the results he wishes to attain. These may
be said to consist chiefly in: 1, the climate, as it affects the
BEE MANUAL. 189

habits of the bee and the commencement and duration of the
swarming season ; 2, the sources from which the chief honey
harvest is to be derived, when they come into blossom, and
consequently, when the chief take of honey should commence ;
and 3, the race of bees he keeps, and their natural tendency to
increase by swarming, which tendency is greater in some races
than in others.

The bearing of these circumstances upon the matter will be
apparent when it is borne in mind that in some climates, where
the bees are inactive during nearly half the year, and where
the honey season is probably very short, the ordinary swarming
period may occur just at the commencement of that honey
season. If the bees should swarm just at that time, unless
recourse be had to the most improved system of management,
the swarm or new stock will be taken up in building comb,
and the parent stock in rearing a young queen and recruiting
its strength, at the very time when all the workers should be
employed gathering in the honey harvest, and thus the best
part of the season may be lost. On the other hand, in coun-
tries where the climate is mild and the queens begin to breed
early in the spring, the swarming season may occur a month or
more before the beginning of the regular honey harvest ; and
in such a case, if a colony casts off an early and strong swarm,
then even, if left to nature, the new stock may have ample time
to build the necessary comb, and the parent stock to be re-
cruited, so that both may be in a position to take full advantage
of the honey season, and probably to collect twice as much
honey as the original colony could have done if it had not
swarmed. It is obvious that the same rules would not apply
to both these cases, and there are intermediate phases which
would require to be treated according to the peculiarities of
each.

MODES OF ATTAINING THE OBJECT.

Whatever rate of increase may he desired, and whatever the
circumstances of the case may be, there are two modes by
either of which the bee-keeper may seek to attain his ends—
the one by “natural swarming” (that is, by availing himself
of the natural tendency of the bees to cast off swarms, and
using the art of modern apiculture to control that tendency as
far as possible in the direction he aims at), the other by
190 AUSTRALASIAN

“ dividing,” or, as it is commonly but not very appropriately
termed, “ artificial swarming.” Each of these methods has
certain advantages; the modern system of movable frame
hives, the use of comb-foundation, and the aid of queen-
rearing give wonderful facilities for dividing colonies in a way
which was quite impossible with the old straw skeps or box
hives.“ With them it was only practicable to force a colony to
swarm by “driving” the bees, and that process was properly
enough called artificial swarming; but the modern process of
dividing is quite a different thing, as we shall see presently.
The same improvements, however, which render this artificial
mode of increase so practicable, also give great facilities for
controlling to a great extent the operations of natural swarm-
ing. There has been considerable difference of opinion even
among experienced bee-keepers as to which mode of increase
should be practised. Many leading men still think that the
natural swarming system possesses advantages which more
than counterbalance some very obvious inconveniences which
attend it ; while on the other hand there are many among the
most advanced apiarists who are in favour of the dividing
method, which undoubtedly is capable of being carried out
with extraordinary success by experts. Some writers go so
far as to say that no intelligent bee-keeper with a full know-
ledge of his business should allow a natural swarm to take
place in his apiary. I do not like to lay down such dog-
matical rules. I am firmly of opinion, after practising both
methods of increase pretty extensively, that except under
special circumstances or in the hands of expert apiarists,
natural swarming, controlled according to modern practice, is
productive of as good results as any known method of artificial
increase ; and ] am sure it will be wiser for the beginner to follow
its practice at first, and until he shall feel himself capable of
carrying out the non-swarming or dividing method with perfect
ease and certainty. I shall therefore say what has to be said
with respect to both systems, leaving it to the judgment of the
reader to determine whether the one or the other should be
adopted, either as a general rule or under special circumstances.

NATURAL SWARMING.

The natural instinct for swarming, with which bees are
endowed, is an admirable provision for the propagation of their
BEE MANUAL. 191

race and its spread over any district favourable for their exist-
ence. When we recollect that it is only by means of the queens
and drones that the race can be propagated ; that these queens
and drones cannot exist by themselves, or without the workers
of a colony ; that the queens require to be renewed every two
or three years, in order to keep up strong stocks, while the
workers are only for a season, and the drones for a few months;
and finally, that only one queen can be tolerated at a time in
any colony, we cannot fail to be struck with admiration at the
beautiful manner in which the swarming instinct is adapted to
this state of things.

CAUSES OF SWARMING.

The queen and a comparatively small stock of workers pass
through the winter months under various conditions, according
to the climate, as will be noticed under the head of ‘ Wintering.”
In spring, as soon as the temperature and the forage are such
as to set the workers in a state of full activity, the queen com-
mences her great work of egg-laying, and as we have seen, she
is capable of laying from ten to twenty thousand per week ; at
all events, after five or six weeks she will, if all be right, have
laid so many eggs, that if all were hatched, and developed into
workers, there would be far more than the number requisite
for, or that could be reasonably employed in, an ordinary hive,
‘One half of the number will have come to maturity at the end
of the six weeks, and the other half will be out in three weeks
more. The hive will be already rather overcrowded, and some
twenty or thirty thousand bees can be well spared to form a
good swarm, there being fully as many in the egg and larva state
ready to supply their place within three weeks. In this state
of affairs instinct leads the workers to build several queen
cells, and the queen, as soon as the queen cells are closed, to
lead off the swarm, all filled with honey and ready to commence
comb-building at once in their new home, wherever it may be.
The bees left behind in the old hive have several young queens
maturing, lest one or more of them should fail; they have also
the drones, usually flying at this time, or maturing in the
drone-comb, and an ample stock of workers also maturing by
degrees—therefore all the elements of their future strength.
If the old queen has left with her swarm just when the first
192 AUSTRALASIAN

queen cells were closed, then the first young queen will emerge
in eight or nine days, and in the meantime the stock will have
been recruited by a large number of young bees. If they still
feel themselves over-strong, or are still actuated by a desire for
swarming, the first young queens may go off with one or more
after-swarms or “casts;” if not, the first out will remain in
possession of the hive, and all the others will be destroyed in
their cells. In five or six days more the young queen will
probably be fertilised, and shortly after will begin to lay eggs.
This is the natural course of the swarming, which provides for
a multiplication of the self-sustaining stocks or colonies, and at
the same time for a succession of young queens.

THE SWARMING SEASON.

The time of year when first swarms may be expected depends
upon the climate, season, and strength of the colonies. In New
Zealand, in the northern part of the province of Auckland, they
sometimes issue as early as September; at the Thames it is
usually the middle or latter part of October before the earliest
come off ; while further South it is later still, Swarms should
be expected all through the months of November and December,
and even up to the middle or end of January.

As to the Australian colonies, I have taken care to obtain
the best information I could upon this as well as other apicul-
tural matters, from bee-keeping correspondents, to whom I
have already expressed my acknowledgments, and the general
result is as follows. In Queensland, with its nearly tropical
climate, the swarming season continues from mid-August to
mid-April ; the great difficulty there is to check the swarming
tendency and keep the stocks strong enough to collect a fair
return of surplus honey. Mr. Fullwood mentions cases of
increase in one year elevenfold. In New South Wales the
ordinary swarming season is given as October to December ; but
in some parts it begins in September and lasts till February.
In South Australia, as Mr. Bonney informs me, the regular
swarming season is September and October, but in good seasons
the bees swarm again in December and January. He has
known stocks to increase by natural swarming in eighteen
months, from one to thirteen. In Victoria the season varies,
but in some of its northern parts swarming has been known to
BEE MANUAL. 193

commence as early as August. In Tasmania the season is
similar to that in the southern portion of the Province of
Auckland—from mid-October to mid-January.

SYMPTOMS OF SWARMING.,

It is generally known amongst experienced bee-keepers, that
first swarms give but little outward indications by which the
apiarist may know when they are likely to issue. True, the
bees may hang clustered outside the hive, which is thought by
some people to be a sure sign; but although this may be'caused
in some instances by an over-crowded hive, it more often occurs
through bad ventilation and want of shade, and can by no
means be taken as an indication of the immediate issue of a
swarm. I have known cases where the bees have been hanging
outside the hive in large numbers for weeks prior to swarming,
keeping the household constantly on the alert lest they should
lose them.

This waste of time on the part of the bees during perhaps
the best part of the season should not be allowed, and could
not occur with movable comb-hives and proper management.
Mr. Langstroth says, “There are no signs from which the
apiarian can predict the certain issue of a first swarm. For
years I spent much time in the vain attempt to discover some
infallible indications of first swarming, until facts convinced me
that there can be no such indications.” One of the surest signs
in the interior of the hive is the presence of newly built queen
cells, and this can be easily ascertained at all times by the use
of movable comb-hives.

ISSUE OF THE SWARM.

The actual process of swarming is so admirably described by
Langstroth, whose closeness of observation and clearness of
description are equally inimitable, that I cannot withhold from
the reader a passage from the chapter upon natural swarming
in his treatise upon “ The Hive and Honey Bee.” He says, at
p. 112 —

“IT have repeatedly witnessed, in my observing hives, the whole
process of swarming. On the day fixed for their departure the queen
is very restless, and instead of depositing her eggs in the cells, roams
over the combs and communicates her agitation to the whole colony.

0
194 AUSTRALASIAN

The emigrating bees usually fill themselves with honey just before
their departure ; but in one instance I saw them lay in their supplies
more than two hours before they left. A short time before the swarm
rises, a few bees may generally be seen sporting in the air, with their
heads turned always to the hive ; and they occasionally fly in and out,
as though impatient for the important event to take place. At length
a violent agitation commences in the hive; the bees appear almost
frantic, whirling around in circles, continually enlarging like those
made by a stone thrown into still water, until at last the whole hive is
in a state of the greatest ferment, and the bees, rushing impetuously
to the entrance, pour forth in one steady stream. Not a bee lurks
behind, but each pushes straight ahead, as though flying for dear life,
or urged on by some invisible power in its ee

‘* Often the queen does not come out until many have left; and she
is frequently so heavy, from the number of eggs in her ovaries, that
she falls to the ground incapable of rising with her colony in the air.
The bees soon miss her, and a very interesting scene may now be
witnessed. Diligent search is at once made for their lost mother; the
swarm scattering in all directions, so that the leaves of the adjoining
trees and bushes are often covered almost as thickly with anxious
explorers as with drops of rain after a copious shower. If she cannot
be found, they commonly return to the old hive in from ten to fifteen
minutes, though they occasionally attempt to enter a strange one, or
to unite with another swarm,”

In a case of the sort last mentioned a careful search should
be made in the neighbourhood of the hive and between it and
the place where the swarm settled, when the queen may be
found on the ground, and probably surrounded by a number of
her bees, and may thus be saved and returned to the hive. The
attempt to swarm will then most probably be repeated the next
day, if the weather should prove favourable.

OBJECTIONS RAISED AGAINST NATURAL SWARMING.

The three great objections usually raised against natural
swarming are, first, the uncertainty of the time when a stock
may swarm, and the consequent necessity of watching for it ;

second, the risk of being unable to capture the swarm if it
should settle in some place not easily accessible, and the cer-
tainty of losing it if it should abscond ; and third, the probabi-
lity of two or more swarms issuing about the same time in a
large apiary, and uniting together in one cluster. I think
none of these objections, practically speaking, very formidable.
As to the first, {a careful and observant apiarist, from his
periodical outward inspection of his hives, will be able to form
a pretty correct idea of the strength of the colonies, and the
BEE MANUAL. 195

probabilities of their swarming, without constantly examining
the interior. It is well known that first swarms issue, as a
rule, only on fine sunny days, and not earlier than nine or ten
o’clock in the morning, nor later than two or three o’clock
in the afternoon, unless, indeed, they have been kept back
by unfavourable weather for several days. The necessity
for watching is therefore, as a rule, confined to that portion of
the fine days in the swarming season. If there is reason to
expect any of the stocks to swarm, and if the bee-keeper himself
is not engaged, during the time referred to, at or tolerably near
to the apiary, it certainly will be well to have somebody (an
intelligent child will do as well as any) to keep an eye on the
hives during those hours of the forenoon and afternoon. An
occasional visit to the apiary every hour or so, to see if a swarm
has settled on any of the bushes generally used for the purpose,
may be sufficient as far as securing the swarm is concerned ;
but it is much more satisfactory to see from what hive it pro-
ceeds, and to watch, and if necessary force its settling in the
way hereafter mentioned, in case of its showing any tendency
to abscond. Any danger from the second cause may be reduced
to a minimum, if care be taken to grow a few shrubs in conve-
nient positions just in front of the apiary; the bees will almost
invariably settle and cluster, for awhile at least, upon a tree or
shrub in the neighbourhood of the apiary, if they find a few to
choose from which are inviting and suitable for the purpose.
With regard to the third objection—the voluntary uniting of
swarms—it may sometimes cause a little trouble in a large
apiary; but it is not always objectionable—on the contrary, it
is sometimes very convenient in the case of small after-swarms.
These latter, however, are, as a rule, to be avoided altogether
under proper management. And with regard to the larger
swarms which it is wished to keep separate, this can generally
be managed by the prompt intervention of the bee-keeper, if
on the spot, and by having several swarm-boxes always at
hand; or if two large swarms should unite, they may be
divided and hived in two lots, as shown further on, but with
the almost certain loss of one queen at least.

PREPARING FOR SWARMS.

At the approach of the swarming period, everything requisite
to facilitate the hiving of swarms should be in readiness, so
196 AUSTRALASIAN

that the bee-keeper can lay his hand on the necessary appliances
at a moment’s notice. All the new hives likely to be required
for the season’s increase should be placed in position, according
to the directions given in Chapter V., great attention being
paid to the proper bedding and levelling of the bottom boards.
In the next place it is necessary to have some kind of

SWARM-BOX

or other contrivance in which to take a swarm previous to
hiving it. Some form of box is generally used, though a
round-bottomed bag with a light hoop of stout wire or cane
sewn round the mouth of it to keep it open is a very handy
device, especially for fastening to the end of a light pole to
take a swarm settled above arm’sreach. The bag, if large
enough, may be put right round the cluster, and with the aid
of the hoop the bees can be scraped, as it were, off the branch,
and so be taken with ease. Mr. T. J. Mulvany, jun., uses for
this purpose a light box about 20 inches long by 10 or 11 wide
and deep, to which is attached an open sack of stout calico
about two feet long. One end of this sack-like appendage is
tacked round the open part of the box, the other end being
open and bell-mouthed, just large evough to fit over a Lang-
stroth hive. In each end of the box there is a ventilating
hole about 3 inches in diameter, over which is tacked per-
forated zinc. The mode of using it in taking a swarm will be
described further on. As a receiving box when driving bees,
or for carrying a swarm in, I do not know of a more handy
contrivance. Ihave had one in use—that Mr. Mulvany kindly .
presented me with—tkrough two seasons, and I have found it
of great service. The main points to look to in whatever form
of implement may be chosen are lightness, strength, dura-
bility, and handiness. With regard to the latter feature, each
individual bee-keeper will have his own ideas; and I need
only here remark that I find a plain box made out of S inch
material 18 inches square by 10 inches deep to suit me very.
well.

TAKING AND HIVING SWARMS.
To many people the taking of a swarm and hiving it appears

rather a dangerous operation, whereas there is nothing con-
nected with the work that need excite the least alarm or
BEE MANUAL. 197

prevent any person undertaking it. It has already been stated
that the bees fill themselves with honey just previous to
swarming, and as “ bees gorged with honey never volunteer an
attack,” they may be handled at this time with little risk of
their stinging; and so long as they are not unnecessarily
hurt they may be tumbled and shaken about to an astonishing
degree without attempting to defend themselves. Usually
swarms cluster in such a manner that they may be shaken
into a box or other receptacle with the greatest ease, though
it may occasionally happen that a swarm will settle in a very
awkward place for taking it; however, there are few difficul-
ties in this way that may not, by the exercise of a little
ingenuity on the part of the operator, be successfully over-
come.

First swarms, headed as they are by laying queens, are not
long before they commence to settle. If it is a still, hot day
the bees will choose the shady side of a tree or shrub, and, if
a windy day, the lee side. Should they, however, cluster in a
spot where the hot rays of the sun are beating down upon
them, or the wind is blowing the cluster about, it may be taken
for granted that the swarm will not remain long in that posi-
tion, and if compelled to rise again there is no knowing where
the bees may make for ; at any rate there would be but little
chance left of the owner securing them. A swarm should
always be taken as soon as possible after it has settled, and
the sooner it is located in the hive to commence work the
better. My own plan of taking and hiving swarms is as
follows: When I find the swarm settling, I take a bottom
board and a hive already fitted with frames of comb or foun-
dation—the latter is temporarily removed from its permanent
position—and place them close under or near the cluster, the
hive being set as level as circumstances will admit and the
frames spaced correctly. The front of the hive is propped up
a little on the bottom board, and some kind of cloth—a sack
ripped open will do—is spread in front, one edge resting on
the bottom board. By this time the bulk of the bees will
probably have settled. I now take a light, convenient-sized
box similar to the one described—several of which are always
at hand—and shake or brush the bees into it, yetting as much
of the cluster in as I can, and turning the box partly on its
side in my hands I empty a few bees out of it on to the
198 AUSTRALASIAN

bottom board at the entrance to the hive. I continue shaking
out a few ata time till the bees commence running into the
hive, when the box may ke emptied in front by degrees. It
is as well not to shake all the bees in front at once or they
may rise again and give extra trouble. A few bees will be
sure to rise and settle again in the same place, but unless there
is a large cluster no notice need be taken of them, for when
they find the queen not there they will soon go in search of
her, and hearing the joyous hum of their companions entering
the hive will soon join them. If by any chance the queen
should not have entered the hive, the fact may soon be known by
the bees running about in all directions in search of her, and
led by them the bee-keeper will soon discover her whereabouts,
when he must take steps to get her in, and the bees will soon
follow. After all the bees are in the hive, it may be shifted
at once to its permanent stand from whence it was removed,
or it may be left till evening. I prefer shifting it at once.

I have fouad the above plan of hiving swarms the best of
any I have yet tried. Some recommend leaving the hive in
its permanent position, and carrying the swarm to be shaken
out in front of it; but with me this plan has not been at all
successful. A large number of bees are sure to rise again and
fly back to the place where they were brought from, when
they are lost to the new colony, whereas, if they are hived at
the spot, those that rise will soon find their way back to their

ueen.
: Mr. Mulvany describes his mode of hiving swarms as
follows :—

‘*The mouth of the sack, or the box itself with the sacking drawn
back, according to circumstances, is held around or just under the
cluster, and the bees shaken or brushed into the box, which is then
laid on the ground, mouth downwards, but partly raised, until all
stragglers have found out and joined the queen in the box. When all
the bees are secured, the sacking is drawn forwards, gathered in one
hand, and tied with a string as near the mouth of the box as possible.
The swarm can then be carried anywhere, accurately weighed (which
I consider one of the conveniences of the plan), and either hived at
once or hung up in a shady place till required. When brought to the
hive, which is already in its place and provided with frames of founda-
tion, comb, or honey and brood as desired, the cover is lifted off, the
end of the sacking drawn over the opened hive, the string untied, and
the bees shaken down on top of the frames. The entrance of the hive
may be stopped loosely with cotton wadding, and the bees left to
BEE MANUAL. 199

themselves till they settle down on the frames, which they usually do
in a very short time. The swarm-box is then taken off, the mat
and cover placed on the hive, the entrance made free, and the new
colony goes to work at once. Swarms taken at the apiary are hived
immediately when taken—any brought from a distance, and which
may have been a day or more in the box, are hived in the evening or
after dark. In this way we never have any trouble from the bees
deserting the new hive.”

Should a swarm settle in the midst of a bush or on the
ground, a cloth should be spread as near as possible, and the
box placed on it in the most convenient position for brushing
some of the bees into it. As soon as the main body of the
bees begin to make for the box they may be left to take their
own time, care being taken always to see that hives and boxes
containing new swarms are shaded from the heat of the sun.
When a box has to be left, as in the above case, till the swarm
clusters in it, itis better tu let it remain till a little before dusk
before hiving the bees. I have found in the majority of cases
that when swarms have been disturbed by trying to hive them
before evening, after they have been left long enough in the
boxes they were taken in to settle themselves, they have
risen again, and sometimes have gone straight away. In
the case of a swarm having settled and no one at hand
with sufficient courage to hive it, a sheet thrown around it
will usually prevent the bees absconding till assistance can be
obtained.

When two swarms issue atthe same time, and cluster toge-
ther (a circumstance which, as already mentioned, is liable to
take place in a large apiary), and we are desirous of keeping
down increase, they may be hived together, if sufficient room
is provided by putting on the supers. But in the event of
there being more than two, and the bees are too numerous to
be put in one hive, the cluster should be divided into parts,
the size of a good swarm each, and put into two or more sepa-
rate hives, into each of which a frame of brood and eggs has
been placed. Should none of the queens be seen, it may be
ascertained in a short time which of the hives, if any, are
queenless, by queen cells being started over the eggs or
larve provided them, when, if any are at hand, we may, to
save time, give them either a queen or a nearly mature
queen-cell.
200 AUSTRALASIAN

ABSCONDING SWARMS.

There are few things connected with bee-keeping more vexing
than to have swarms leave for parts unknown. Absconding
swarms may be divided into three classes, viz., those that go
off without clustering, those that leave after being hived, and
established colonies that leave their hives in despair. With
regard to the first, in my experience the cases have been very
rare indeed in which swarms have left without first settlin
somewhere in or near the apiary. I cannot call to mind half
a dozen altogether. But I have known many to leave after
being hived, more especially with those hived on the plan of
carrying the swarm some distance to the hive immediately
after it is taken; this is the principal reason for my adopting
and advocating the plan of carrying the hive to the swarm. I
have had very few leave when hived in this way. Sometimes
a swarm will not stay, no matter how carefully it has been
hived, or what inducement there may be for it to remain.
There is no accounting for this. They do not always go
straight away, but sometimes give you an opportunity to hive
them again and again, only to repeat the same process of
leaving their hives. If the queen of such a swarm could be
captured and have a wing clipped, it would most likely prevent
any further trouble. As tothe lastclass, where established colonies
leave their hives en masse, this is caused in almost every case
through starvation, and is only carried into effect as a: last re-
source, after the colony has dwindled down and apparently lost
all hope of surviving: Of course, no one working on the lines of
advanced bee culture will permit such a thing as this to happen.

Nucleus colonies (see Chapter XII.) are sometimes known to
leave their hives in a body and follow their queen on her
“wedding flight,” though I do not remember ever having had
one that did so. I think this is only likely to occur where
very -small nucleus hives and colonies are used for queen-
rearing, and I would therefore recommend having none but
fair-sized ones, such as described in Chapter XII, and keeping
the bees well supplied with brood until the young queens
commence to lay. ‘

It is a good practice to give every newly hived swarm a
frame of eggs and larve either from the parent stock or from
BEE MANUAL. 201

another hive; it will not be so likely to leave when this is
done, and the bees are provided with the means of raising a
queen, should any accident in hiving them have deprived them
of their own.

CLIPPING THE QUEEN’S WING.

For the purpose of obviating some of the inconveniences
connected with natural swarming, many leading bee-keepers
have adopted the plan of clipping a wing of the queen after she
has been impregnated, to prevent her flying with the swarm.
Many reasons can be given in favour of this method, while
there is only one that I know of which some consider against
it.

When a swarm issues, the clipped queen, although she cannot
fly, will make an attempt, and consequently fall to the ground
close to the hive. The bee-keeper, being at hand, must pick
her up and cage her. As soon as the bees are all out, remove
the hive to another stand some distance away, and place an
empty one, fitted with frames of comb or foundation, and a
frame of eggs and brood, in its stead. Open the entrance as
wide as possible, and lay the caged queen down close to it. In
the meantime the swarm may have settled ; but when the bees
discover that the queen is not with them they will not be long
before they return and naturally enter the new hive. While
they are going in, release the queen, and see that she goes in
with them. When two or more swarms issue at the same time
and form one cluster, they will separate in a short time, and
return to their several stands; so that if the bee-keeper has
secured the queens and changed the hives before their return,
he will have done his hiving with little trouble. Care must
be taken to clip a wing of every queen; for if there should
happen to be one queen in the cluster, the bees will not
return.

The objection to this method sometimes put forward is the
necessity of having some one constantly on the alert to secure
the queen and change the hives. In a large apiary it would
be necessary to see the swarm coming out of the hive, or else
it would be difficult to find the queen. It is quite certain that
if the bees return with or without their queen, they will make
another attempt next day, and if they have to return to the
old hive again, the probability is that if they find her they will
202 AUSTRALASIAN

injure or kill the queen, and swarm out with the first young
one that emerges; so that some person should always be at
hand during the swarming season. On the other hand, it can
be said that where the bees are allowed to swarm at all, some
one must be about pretty often, if not all the time, as already
noticed in this chapter. The facilities afforded for hiving
swarms, and the certainty of not losing any, will no doubt be
considered by most bee-keepers sufficient to more than repay
for the little extra care required in watching the apiary.

PROCESS OF CLIPPING.

Take hold of the queen by the wings with the thumb and
forefinger of the left hand—be careful not to hold her by the
body—place her on a board (still keeping the wings between
the thumb and finger), so that she can stand upon her feet—
this will keep her legs out of the way—now pass the point of
a small pair of scissors under one of the front'wings and clip.

AFTER-SWARMS.

It has already been explained in another part of this chapter
that in the ordinary course of things a second swarm may be
expected about eight or nine days after the first, and in some
cases a third and even a fourth may issue within a few more
days, unless the necessary steps have been taken to prevent it.
These are what are termed after-swarms, and are invariably
headed by virgin queens which have been reared from one lot
of queen cells. After-swarms are much smaller than the first,
and unless a large increase is required they should always be
suppressed, It often occurs when a number of young queens
emerge about the same time that all save one will accompany
the last swarm ; hence it is that we often find four or five dead
queens about the front of a hive shortly after placing one of
these swarms in it. To an experienced bee-keeper it is not
difficult to judge correctly, when a swarm is in the air, whether
or not it is headed by a virgin queen. An impregnated queen
leading off a swarm usually acts in a business-like manner, and
quickly makes choice of a place for settling, and as quickly
alights; but a virgin queen often leads her bees and their
master dancing attendance upon her for a considerable time
while she is undecided where to alight, and then probably she
BEE MANUAL. 203

' will suddenly lead the swarm off a long distance before she
makes up her mind to stop. When aswarm remains in the
air longer than usual, and has no appearance of settling, some
fine dirt, sand, or a spray of water should be thrown among the
bees to disorganise them ; this will generally have the desired
effect. It is said that a blank charge fired at or near the head
of an absconding swarm will cause it to settle.

PREVENTION OF SWARMING.

By carefully following out certain rules based upon our
knowledge of the nature and habits of bees we can control or
regulate swarming to a very great extent, but there is no
system at present known which will give us such complete
control as would enable us to prevent swarming altogether, when
we desire to do so. We may indeed do as some have advo-
cated, that is, take away the queens for a time, and so stop
breeding, but I would much prefer to put up with the inconve-
nience of a few extra swarms rather than adopt such a doubtful
method.

The best aids we can have towards the prevention of swarm-
ing are roomy and well-ventilated hives, and if need be shade.
At the same time very much will depend on the knowledge
and tact of the bee-keeper, that is, his knowing what to do and
how to do it, and his doing the proper thing at the right time.

There are times when everything depends upon the ability
of the bee-keeper to adapt himself to circumstances, when his
judgment for the time being is all he can trust to, and if this
fail him, it may result in the loss of the greater part of the
season’s crop. Such a time is when the honey season has been
retarded by bad weather, and suddenly gives promise of a better
state of things towards the last few weeks of it, when just
sufficient honey has been gathered to keep up breeding. ‘The
colonies are strong, and it only requires two or three days of
favourable weather to start them swarming. The bee-keeper
is aware that the season, however favourable it may turn out,
can only last for a short time; he knows his colonies are liable
to have a bad attack of the “swarming fever,” and also that
his chance of securing a crop of honey depends entirely upon
his being able to keep the majority of his bees steady at work
instead of swarming.
204 AUSTRALASIAN

If done at the right time, much may be accomplished in the
desired direction by the use of the extractor and giving more
room by putting on an extra super, or even two, if they should
be needed ; and as a great deal will depend upon keeping the
brood-nest at its normal temperature, the extra supers should
be put on immediately above it. Abundant ventilation can
generally be secured in the hives herein described by pushing
them forward till the front overlaps the alighting boards an
inch or two; should more be required, however, the covers
can be raised an inch or so, for while plenty of honey is coming
in there need be no fear of robbery. Swarming may be kept
down toa great extent in the early part of the season by
enlarging the hives in good time before the main honey harvest
sets in ; but, as I have before remarked, all operations connected
with the prevention of swarming require good judgment and
foresight on the part of the bee-keeper, that he may hit on the
right time to perform them.

It may here be incidentally remarked that some bee-keepers
make use of drone and queen excluders at swarming time—
among them Mr. Alley, who uses the excluder shown in
Chapter XII. When a swarm issues, the queen is trapped
behind the excluder, where she can be caught, and the process
of hiving is carried out the same as with a clipped queen.

PREVENTION OF AFTER-SWARMING.

This, as compared with the previous question, may be con-
sidered an easy matter. We have seen that in the ordinary
course of events a second or after-swarm may be expected in
eight or nine days after the first issues, and that there are
several embryo queens maturing in the hive. But should
unfavourable weather set in about the time for the first leaving,
it would be kept back, and may be prevented from issuing till
near the time for the young queens coming to maturity. I
have even known cases where, owing to the prevalence of bad
weather, after all preparations had been made for swarming,
the young queens have been destroyed, and swarming given
up for the time. At all events, we can reckon, as a rule, that
the first young queen will not emerge from her cell in less than
eight days from the time the first swarm issues. Now if we
see that all but one of these embryo queens are removed, that
BEE MANUAL. 205

is, all the queen cells but one, and only allow this one to come
to maturity in the hive, there cannot be any after-swarm, as
this queen will be required in the hive. It would not, however,
be correct to remove the cells immediately after the first swarm
leaves, as will be presently shown. The old queen would be
laying up to within a very short time of her leaving the hive ;
consequently there wculd be eggs in the cells at that time.
Supposing the queen cells to be cut out during the first day or
two after, the bees would be almost sure to build others, and
thus frustrate our plans; but if we let them remain for about
five days before we remove them, the larve would have grown
large by that time, and there would be little likelihood of other
cells being started. Choice of a good cell should be made for
the one that is to remain in the hive, and the others'can be
utilized in forming nuclei. (See Queen-rearing.)

SUPPLYING THE OLD STOCK WITH A FERTILE QUEEN.

There is another method by which we may both prevent
after-swarms and the delay caused by waiting for the young
queen to emerge and commence laying, which takes up a con-
siderable time. If we allow eight days for the queen to emerge,
we may add another five before she shall be impregnated, and
six more before she commences to lay, making nineteen days
in all that the hive will have been practically queenless. By
rearing and keeping on hand a supply of young queens for the
purpose, we may prevent the loss of the greater part of this
time by cutting out all the queen cells and supplying the stock
with a fertile queen at once, making use of the cells as previously
advised. By this plan we can gain at least sixteen or seventeen
days, which with a young and vigorous queen would mean pro-
bably over 30,000 eggs, that is provided she has facilities for
depositing them. Another advantage, there is no risk of the
hive becoming queenless by the loss of the young queen during
her “ wedding flight,” as often occurs. On no account should
the bees be overcrowded for want of room.

PREVENTING INCREASE OF COLONIES.

This is a question of the best method for dealing with swarms
so as to prevent as far as possible an increase in the number
of colonies. Itis often the case that the bee-keeper has as
206 AUSTRALASIAN

many stocks as he can well look after, and wishes to keep
down increase; he cannot prevent swarming altogether, and
would like to make use of the swarms, but without increasing
the number of his colonies. In this, as in most operations
connected with bee-keeping, various methods are advocated
by different bee-keepers to attain. the same end. I have been
very successful with the following plan: Hive the swarm in
the manner already described, and after cutting out all queen
cells from the parent stock, place the hive containing the
swarm as a super on the hive it came from. In the course
of a day or two examine the hive, and if there are any eggs
and larve in the super, shift the combs containing them below,
taking care to provide plenty of room. Should there be a
very large quantity of brood in the hive, some of it might be
given to other and weaker colonies. When this method is
carefully carried out, I find it very rarely fail to have the
desired effect. ‘

DIVIDING.

Colonies may be increased by dividing at any time during
the swarming season, but it should only be attempted with
strong ones, and then only during a fair honey flow, such as
would be likely to cause them to swarm naturally. If it be
intended to increase solely by dividing, then it should be
carried out just at the commencement of the main honey
harvest, when the colonies are very populous, and just before
they make preparations for swarming. Itit be desired to double
the number of stocks, and there are already young fertile
queens in nucleus hives on hand, then the nucleus plan may
be adopted as follows: On a fine warm day cage one of the
young queens from a nucleus hive, and transfer the frames
with the adhering bees to an ordinary hive; hunt up the queen
of the hive about to be divided, and place her, with the frame
she is on, in an empty hive for the time being, that it may
be known where she is. Next move the hive into which the
nucleus colony has been placed alongside the one to be divided
and lift four of the central frames well supplied with brood
and the adhering bees, and hang them alternately with those
of the nucleus colony; also shake the bees from two or three
frames into the new hive, and after filling the remaining space
with empty combs or comb-foundation, place it in the position
BEE MANUAL. 207

formerly occupied by the nucleus hive, and hang the caged
queen between two of the central frames. The old queen
with her frame can now be placed in her hive again, and the
hive filled with frames of comb or foundation in the place of
the frames removed. To prevent too many bees returning to
the divided colony, I have often blocked up the entrance with
wire cloth—taking care to allow plenty of ventilation—till
the evening of the following day, and then liberated both bees
and queen, but usually the latter is at liberty before that time
with the cage I use. In the course of a few days the surplus
boxes can be put on. If less increase is desired, the nucleus
colony can be made up by taking frames of brood and bees
from two or more old colonies in the same way, instead of
from one. It should of course be seen to that each hive is
supplied with sufficient food.

When there are no spare queens or queen cells at hand, a
different plan must be adopted. In this case one frame of
brood, with the adhering bees and queen, should be taken from
the old hive and placed in the new one; then move the old
hive to a new stand, and put the new one in its place. A
frame of honey, if it can be spared, without bees, may also
be removed from the old hive to the new one, and another
taken from some other hive can be put in, and both be filled
up with empty combs or foundation. Most of the old bees
from the removed hive will return to the old stand, but the
young bees left and those gradually maturing will be sufficient
to do the necessary work of the hive and raise a queen for
themselves.

Dividing should only be done during fine weather, and great
care must be taken to see that the hives are kept snug, and
that the brood does not get chilled. Spare queen cells may
be utilized in dividing.

PrxIoM,

‘© A MODERATE INCREASE OF COLONIES IN ANY ONE SEASON WILL, IN
THE LONG RUN, PROVE THE EASIEST, SAFEST, AND CHEAPEST MODE OF
MANAGING BEES.”

Langstroth.
208 AUSTRALASIAN

CHAPTER XII.

QUEEN REARING.

NECESSITY OF THE PRACTICE.

In order to obtain good results from the apiary we must, as a
matter of course, have good bees and plenty of them; and in
order to have good bees we must first of all have good queens
to breed from. That there is often a vast dissimilarity in the
characteristic qualities of different colonies in the same apiary,
no one who has had even a short experience will deny. How
often do we find the bees of some colonies constantly irritable
and disposed to sting, while those of others may be handled
with impunity ; or some giving a good return of honey, while
others are doing little or nothing. Such cases may be seen in
every apiary where a careful breeding of queens has not been
systematically carried out. That itis possible, on the other
hand, by means of such a system, to develop to a greater
extent the good qualities, and to breed out the bad ones in
the honey-bee, is no longer a matter of doubt. Such advanced
apiarists as Alley, Heddon, Doolittle, and others in America,
who have gone about the work in a conscientious as well as a
scientific manner, have undoubtedly succeeded in developing a
superior strain of bees. There is nothing to cause surprise in
all this, when we consider the analogous case of the results
obtained by select breeding of horses, cattle, and all our
domestic animals. The breeder of bees has one advantage as
compared with breeders of horses and cattle—he has not to
wait so long for the results of his experiments ; the bee-keeper
can do as much with his bees in the way of crossing and
improving races in from four to five years as the cattle breeder
could probably accomplish with his stock in twenty or thirty
years. Considering the many advantages to be gained by
cultivating the best qualities in our bees, I am induced to look
BEE MANUAL. 209

upon the rearing of select queens as one of the most important
branches of modern apiculture, and I would therefore advise
every bee-keeper to make it one of his special studies.

But independent of all considerations about improving the
breed, the modern system of apiculture cannot be carried out
in its entirety if this important branch of it be neglected,
therefore it becomes imperatively necessary for bee-keepers of
the present day to rear and keep a stock of queens on hand
sufficient for their needs. It has been shown in the preceding
chapter that in the successful practice of either the natural or
artificial methods of increase a supply of queens is required,
and some spare ones should also be kept ready to make up
for losses that may, and in a large apiary certainly will, occur
during the season when surplus honey is being taken. The
sudden loss of a queen at this time would cause a delay of
about 24 days before the hive would be furnished with a
laying queen again, that is, if the bees have to rear one for
themselves from a newly-hatched larva, and it is easy to under-
stand what effect this would have upon the colony, and how
necessary it is that we be prepared for such contingencies.

A WORD CONCERNING DRONES.

When endeavouring to improve our bees by cross-breeding
we must of course be as particular about raising select drones
for mating purposes as about the queens themselves. As the
mating takes place in the air (see Chapter IIT.) and is not, at
least as yet, under our control, our only security is to have
our select young queens mated when only select drones are
flying. The periods of the year when we are most likely to
succeed in this way are the early spring and the late autumn;
in the former by managing to breed our select queens and
drones in advance of all others, in the latter by making the
colony which produces the best drones queenless before the
drones are killed off, and thus secure that these shall be flying
when there are none alive in the other colonies. At other
times throughout the season there will of course be drones
from all the hives upon the wing.

ENTRANCE GUARDS.

It is, however, claimed by some breeders, that with the aid of
entrance guards, or “drone excluders,” the drones which are not
P
210 AUSTRALASIAN

intended for mating purposes may be restrained from flying.
These guards (Fig. 96) are made of perforated zinc, and fitted

 

Fig. 96,JONES'S ENTRANCE GUARD.

so as to cover the ertrance to the hive. The perforations,
being ,5, of an inch wide, are large enough for the worker bees
to pass through, but too small for the drones. Another kind
of entrance guard is shown below. It is an invention of Mr.
Alley’s, and answers the double purpose of a trap as well as an

 

Fig. 97,-ALLEY’S DRONE EXCLUDER, DRONE AND QUEEN TRAP,

excluder. This guard has an upper compartment, into which
lead two wire-cloth cones, seen through the side openings in
the figure. The drones, after failing to make their way out
through the perforated zine, finally force their way up through
the cones ; but not being able to return the same way they
become prisoners in the upper compartment. Should workers
‘go up through the cones, they can still make their way out
through the perforated zinc on top. From various conflicting
reports which have come under my notice, I am inclined to
doubt the efficacy of all these guards, as they are now made,
for the objects intended.
BEE MANUAL. 211

HOW TO SECURE CHOICE QUEEN CELLS.

During the past seven years I have paid great attention to
the rearing of queens, both for home use and for sale. I have
tried several methods for raising queen cells, but none have
given me so much satisfaction as the one I first saw described
in Gleanings in Bee Culture for August, 1880, by Jos. M.
Brooks, and which I have since practised. It is very similar
to Mr. Alley’s method, explained in his ‘“‘ Handy Book,” a copy
of which should be in every bee-keeper’s library.

To secure good queen cells early in the season, we should
select, as soon as breeding has commenced in early spring, two
or more, as may be required, of our best colonies, and work
them on in advance of the rest by slow feeding, or, if need be,
by giving them frames of emerging brood from other colonies,
taking care to keep them covered up well. As soon as the one
chosen for raising drones is sufficiently strong, insert a clean
empty drone-comb—to be obtained in the manner explained
in Chapter VIII.—in the centre of the brood-chamber. Note
the time when the drone-brood is capped, and in eight or nine
days after, place a frame of clean new worker-comb in the

Fig. 98.—COMB CONTAINING EGGS.

centre of the brood-chamber of the hive containing your
choicest queen. I would here point out that the cleaner the
comb is the better; I find combs built the previous season,
that have only contained honey, give the best results. The
colony now being pretty strong, with plenty of brood in the
combs, the new one inserted will soon be in charge of the
queen, and in three or four days will be full of eggs. As
soon as the eggs commence to hatch, which will be in three
days after they were laid, remove the comb to a warm room,
212 AUSTRALASIAN

and if more eggs are required, insert another in its place. Lay
the frame of comb flat on a table or other convenient place,
and with a sharp, thin-bladed knife, dipped in thin starch or
diluted honey to prevent its sticking, cut the comb into strips,
by running the knife along every second row of cells, as shown
by the white lines in Fig. 98, taking care to leave one row of
cells containing eggs intact in each strip. Some empty frames
will next be required, having two thin laths of wood nailed
inside longitudinally, so as to divide the depth into three com-
partments, as shown below. Next take the strips of comb,
and after destroying the egg in every alternate cell on one side
of the strip—which may easily be done by pressing it with the
head of a wax match —fasten the strips under the top and two
centre bars of the frame with a little melted wax, allowing the
cells in which the alternate eggs have been destroyed to point

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 99._FRAME FOR RAISING QUEEN CELLS ON.

directly downwards. The object of destroying each alternate
egg is to prevent the cells being built too close together. A
space intervening gives facilities for cutting them out subse-
quently without injury. Care must be taken, when fastening
the strips, that the wax is not too hot, or else it may melt the
comb and kill the eggs. Having filled as many frames as may
be required (I generally find one comb sufficient to afford strips
for three frames), the next step to be taken is to remove the
queen, every egg, and all uncapped brood from some one or
more strong colonies, and place a frame of strips in the centre
of the brood-chamber in each case. Mr. Alley recommends
preparing the colony by removing the queen, etc., some twelve
hours or so before giving them the selected eggs. Mark the
date and age of the eggs on the frame, and also upon the
cover of the hive. A memorandum book is very useful in
connection with this work for keeping records in. The queen
and brood removed can be utilized in forming a nucleus colony
by caging the queen, removing a strong colony from its stand,
BEE MANUAL. 213

placing the hive containing the brood and caged queen in its
place, and shaking the bees from a couple of frames down near
the entrance, to secure some young bees with the old ones that
will return from the removed hive ; the queen can be released
in twenty-four hours.

We have now, by removing the queen, forced the colony to
turn its attention to raising others, and by depriving it of its
own eggs and larve, have compelled it to raise queens from
those supplied to it. We have also, by taking away all its
uncapped brood, lessened its labours, and thereby obliged it in
a manner to give more heed to the matter in hand.

It is often stated that better queens, as a rule, are developed
under the swarming impulse than can be raised by the forcing
process. The reason given is that the larve from which queens
are to be reared, when the bees are preparing to swarm, receive
the attention of the nurse bees, with this object in view, from
the time of hatching, and are abundantly supplied with the
‘royal jelly” —so much so, indeed, as to apparently have more
than they can consume, some usually being found in the bottoms
of the cells after the queens have emerged. This surplus jelly
being found in a cell is considered a good sign that a strong,
healthy queen has developed from it. I have no doubt that
this is all correct ; but if these conditions can be brought about
by the forcing process, there appears to be no good reason for
supposing that the queens raised in that way will not be just as
good ; and by the method I am describing this can be effected,
as I have proved time after time. The main considerations are
to develop the queens in strong colonies, and to let the nurse
bees have as little to do as possible, that their whole attention
may be devoted to rearing the queens from the selected eggs or
larve we have supplied them with. The larva of a worker bee
several days old can be transformed into a queen, but all breed-
ers agree that such queens are of little use.

In less than twenty-four hours after the eggs have been
given to the colony, several queen cells will be started
over them. Some colonies will build more than others, but I
think we may reckon the average at about fifteen with Italian
bees, though I have had as many as thirty-five in a frame.
There will be more built when honey is plentiful ; and if little
or none is being gathered, the bees should be fed while cell-
building is going on. Twelve cells are considered enough for
214 AUSTRALASIAN

one colony to care for, and this is near the number that is
usually found in a hive from which a strong colony has just
cast aswarm. As soon as the cells are forward enough to be
plainly seen, destroy all except about ten or twelve of the
largest and best-looking ones.

Having now as far as possible fulfilled on our part every
condition necessary to ensure the rearing of good queens, we
must be content to leave the rest to the bees for a few days.
The cells, when fully formed and capped, will have something
of the appearance of Fig. 100, though the engraving is rather a
flattering one.

 

Fig. 100,_FRAME OF QUEEN CELLS.

It will be remembered that the date and age of the eges—
three days—was marked on the frame, so that we can calculate
the day when the queens will be at maturity ; that will be on
the thirteenth after inserting the eggs. Being able to know
within a few hours when the queens will emerge is one of the
great advantages of this system of queen-rearing. By the old
methods, and even when cells are built under the swarming
impulse, it is impossible to say correctly how old the embryo
queens may be.

As soon as the cells are capped, a frame or two of emerging
brood may be given to the colony to strengthen it. It will
have been noticed by those who have had any experience in
queen-breeding, that there is often a marked difference between
queen cells; some are long, pointed, and dense-looking, while
others are stunted and thin-walled. The latter are always
reckoned to contain poor queens, and it will be well to shun
them, and make use of none but well-formed, rough-looking,
long, pointed ones. On the morning of the twelfth day after
the eggs were given the nuclei can be formed.
BEE MANUAL. 216

FORMING NUCLEI.

A nucleus colony in connection with queen-rearing is a small
colony formed for the special purpose of caring for a young
queen during her maidenhood, or until she may be required to
do duty in another colony. A nucleus hive, described on page
127, is a small hive suitable for the colony, and is rarely used
except for queen-rearing purposes. Some queen-breeders use a
very small hive, with much smaller frames than their common
ones for keeping their queens in till mated, but for several
reasons I consider it best to have but the one frame in both
the queen-rearing and the ordinary hives. In the first place, a
nucleus colony can be formed in a few minutes from any hive
by simply'‘transferring two or three frames and the adhering
bees from it to a nucleus hive. Then again, a nucleus colony
can be built up at any time, or united with another, where the
frames are, all alike, with very little trouble. And lastly, we
have only the one sized frame to make. I have always used a
nucleus hive such as I have described, and would not care to
use any other.

The required number of nucleus hives being ready—their
entrances covered with wire cloth to confine the bees—take
the frame of cells and cut out carefully all but one; then
return the frame to the hive until the queen shall have emerged,
when it may be removed and a frame of comb or of foundation
inserted in its place. Care must be taken that the queen cells
are not injured or chilled ; a small box, with some soft material
to lay the cells upon, is handy to keep them in until they are
inserted in the combs. Now go to a strong colony and hunt
up the queen. This is sometimes a difficult task with a
strong colony of black bees. If you have an empty hive
alongside to place the frames in after you have examined
them, much trouble may be saved. Having found the
queen, place her with the frame she is on in a hive by
herself for the time being, and insert a queen cell in each
of the other combs as you take them from the hive, remember-
ing that you require some brood, a fair number of bees, and a
fair share of houey in each nucleus. I usually put either one
pretty full frame of brood, or two that are not so well filled,
with the adhering bees, and a frame with honey, which may
216 AUSTRALASIAN

be taken from another hive, or else a frame of foundation, in
each nucleus. The frames of brood and bees should be taken
as equally as possible to form the different nucleus colonies.
A strong stock will generally furnish enough for five nuclei.

Something is required to support the combs while the cells
are being inserted. To enable one to work easily and quickly
the comb should be about on a level with the shoulders while
stooping or kneeling beside the hive. A stand like that shown
below is quickly made and is very serviceable.

 

Fig. 101.—COMB STAND.

The drawer near the ground will be found handy for keeping
queen cells and small tools in.

HOW TO INSERT QUEEN CELLS.

When cutting the cells from the frame, as much as possible
of the base should be taken, clear up to the wood. With the
frame which is to receive a cell placed on the support or stand
in a convenient position, cut a small hole in the comb just
large enough to put in the cell without pinching it in any way.
Tn cutting the part for the base let it fit as nicely as practicable,
as shown by the white line in the next illustration.
BEE MANUAL. 217

As soon as the cell is inserted, place the comb with the
adhering bees in the centre of a nucleus hive ; put in the other
combs as already explained, and put on the mat and cover.
Be sure that you have blocked up the entrance with wire
cloth so that no bees can escape. Then proceed with the other
nuclei in the same manner. When all are finished, take the
nucleus hives to a cool shady place, or if they can be put in a
dark, well ventilated room or shed, it will be better still.
Keep them closed till the evening of the second day after that
on which the cells were inserted, when they may be placed
where they are to remain, and the bees liberated a little before
dusk. By confining the bees in this way for a day or two they

 

Fig. 102,_INSERTED QUEEN CELL (from which the Queen has emerged).

become reconciled to their new quarters, and very few fly
back to their old hive. Before I adopted this plan I some-
times had a deal of trouble on account of so many bees
deserting the nuclei.

The above method of forming nuclei and inserting queen
cells is no doubt the best to adopt when queen rearing is only
carried on on a limited scale, and where the loss of a queen
cell would be felt, but where, as in my own case, a saving of
time is of greater consequence than the loss of a cell now and
again, a knowledge of my plan may be of service.
218 AUSTRALASIAN

MY METHOD OF FORMING NUCLEI AND INSERTING
QUEEN CELLS.

With the nucleus hives, a few spare combs, and provided
with some long pins, I go to a hive, and without troubling to
look for the queen—except merely to glance over the combs
as I take them out—I insert the cells as quickly as possible.
Instead of taking time to fit them nicely, I give a hasty look
at the cell, cut a hole in the comb J think will suit, put in the
cell and fasten it there by running two pins through the base
of it into the comb, one each way—sometimes one is sufficient.
Advantage may be taken of a depression in the comb and so
save cutting a hole. In this way I can insert the cells and
form the nuclei in a very short time. If the queen should be
seen during the operation, she is placed with the frame she is
on to one side till all is finished, when she is put back into the
hive after contracting it with division boards, if necessary.
Should she not be seen it only means the loss of one queen
cell, which is more than made up for by the time saved in not
waiting to find her. I have often spent a considerable time
looking for the queen in a strong colony and then perhaps had
to give it up. Professor Cook recommends inserting the
queen cells twenty-four hours after the nuclei are formed, but
says : “We may do it sooner but always at the risk of having
the cell destroyed.” I very rarely find one destroyed, and I
think the risk is likely to be greater when time is allowed for
the bees to commence building cells before giving them one.
Occasionally it happens that a nucleus colony will not accept a
queen cell even when it has been queenless for some little
time. When this occurs a cell should be protected in a cage
when placed in the hive until the queen emerges, when there
is likely to be no further trouble.

MATING YOUNG QUEENS.

To return to our nuclei. We left them just after liberating
the bees. At that time the queens would be one day old; in
four or five more they will take their wedding flight just when
our select drones are about fourteen days old and flying. If our
plans have been carefully matured there would be no other
BEE MANUAL. 219

drones flying from our apiary at this time, so that there would
be every likelihood of our queens mating as we desired.

Sometimes quite a number of young queens will be lost
during their wedding trip, at other times very few. I have
never been able to satisfactorily account for this difference.
Whether it be that there are more bee-enemies about at one
time than another I cannot say, but of this Iam certain, that
there are a less number lost when the nucleus hives are far
apart and located some little distance away from the main part
of the apiary. Mr. Alley says that the daughters of some
queens are more liable to be lost than others but cannot account
for it. In another place he says: “I bred from a queen last
season, not one in fifty of whose daughters were lost in mating.”
Possibly some have a sense of locality better developed than
others, and are therefore less likely to miss their proper home
on their return from their first flight. At any rate it is a
matter worth giving attention to.

When the young queens commence to lay, which they will
do in a few days after mating, they are ready to be made use of
unless we desire to test them, and when raising them for sale
they should always be tested for purity and laying qualities for
at least a month. By following up with cell building others
may be ready to place in the nuclei when the young laying
queens are removed, though there may not be the same chance
to have the second lot of queens mated by selected drones
unless it can be accomplished by the use of drone excluders,
the utility of which, as I have before remarked, I am rather
doubtful about. Even then no other bees should be near the
apiary.

NECESSARY DISTANCE APART OF DIFFERENT RACES TO
ENSURE PURE MATING.

This is a question upon which a considerable difference of
opinion exists. Mr. Alley thinks that half a mile is far enough,
while many other experienced apiarists consider that a mile, or
even two, is rather close. It is one of those still debatable
questions connected with apiculture which may be argued on
both sides for any length of time without being settled satis-
factorily one way or the other by actual proof. I am inclined
to think, however, that if we want to make sure of our queens
220 AUSTRALASIAN

being mated with drones of our own apiary, there should be
no other bees located nearer than one or two miles off.

QUEEN NURSERIES.

When queen rearing is carried on extensively, that is, as a
special business, appliances termed queen nurseries are often
brought into requisition to aid the queen breeder. By the use
of these, as will be presently seen, much time is saved, and a
proportionately greater number of queens can be reared by
each colony so employed, as the queen cells may be taken
away from them after they have advanced a certain stage and
be brought to maturity in the nurseries, when the bees may
again be furnished with material for cell building, or have
fertile queens given to them. There are two descriptions of
nurseries in use. One is a kind of double cased hive without
a top—usually made of tin. The space between the inner and
outer cases, which extends all round the sides and bottom, is
about an inch wide. This space is filled with water, and a
small lamp is kept burning underneath; regulated so as to
maintain a temperature within the nursery of about 90°—the
ordinary temperature of a hive when the colony is rearing
queens. They are usually made large enough to hold about
six frames conveniently, which can be suspended within them
in the same manner as in a hive. When queen cells are to be
matured in this nursery, they are removed from the colony in
which they were built, soon after being capped, and placed in
it, and the nursery covered. Several lots of cells can be
maturing in it at the same time, but great care must be taken
to keep the nursery at an even temperature or the embryo
queens will be destroyed.

The other kind of nursery—so called—is a set of small
cages fitted into a frame ; the cells are placed in the cages and
the frame is suspended in a hive containing a strong colony,
which supplies the necessary heat for maturing them. Two
or even three frames of cages would not be too many for a
very strong colony.

The nursery shown in Fig 103 is the invention of Mr.
Alley, and as I have had some experience with it I can answer
for its usefulness. One great advantage in making use of a
colony instead of the lamp nursery for maturing cells is that
BEE MANUAL, 221

there is no risk, nor trouble in attending to the regulation of
the temperature. In Alley’s nursery the young queens are
protected when they emerge, and the cages are so made that a
supply of food can be placed in them to serve the queens

 

 

 

Reest

;

 

  
  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fig, 103.—ALLEY'S QUEEN NURSERY.

should it be necessary to keep them in the cages for a time
until they can conveniently be disposed of. Of course the cells
can be removed before the queens emerge and be given to
nuclei in the manner before explained.

To make the cages (Fig. 104), eighteen of which fit in a
narrow Langstroth frame, I use a smooth batten Zin. thick by

 

Fig, 104,—ALLEY’S QUEEN NURSERY CAGE.
2;‘;in. wide and mark it off into lengths of 214in. for each cage.

Before cutting them off, the holes are bored—I find an expansive-
bit best for this purpose as it bores smoothly. The large central
222 AUSTRALASIAN

hole in each cage (see Fig. 104) should be 1}in. diameter, and
after boring these, turn the batten on its edge and bore one
12in. and one 8in. hole to communicate with each of the larger
ones. Cut the battens into the lengths marked for each cage
and tack fine wire cloth over both ends of the central holes.
Next nail two end bars a full 3in. thick in a Langstroth frame,
dividing it lengthwise into three equal compartments, and the
nursery is ready. If the cages have been accurately made six
cages will fit nicely in each compartment.

The queen cell is put into the larger hole on the edge, and
food in the smaller one. The cell may be fastened by pressing
the wax at the base of it against the edge of the hole or by
running a pin through the wood and base of cell. The food
should consist of honey, which can be given on a piece of.
sponge. Place the cages in the frame with the holes in the
edges toward the top bar, and hang it in the centre of a strong
colony—I usually put them in the upper part of a two story
hive. The queens as they emerge are protected, have
sufficient food to last them for a short time, and are safe till
they can be made use of. If they are to be kept in for a day or
two more food must be supplied.

INTRODUCING QUEENS.

Next to rearing queens we must know how to introduce
them safely into strange colonies. The ordinary conditions to
ensure safety are,—that the colony must first be made queen-
less, that is, the old queen must be removed. In the next
place the new one, when first placed in the hive, should be
protected in such a way that while the bees can see her and
even feel her with their antenne they are prevented from
stinging her, as some would be apt to do before they become
used to her. And lastly, the colony should be fed if there is
no honey being gathered while the queen is being introduced.
There are exceptions to the second clause. In the busy season,
when honey is coming in rapidly, if the queens can be changed
without much disturbance of the hive, the new one is likely to
be accepted just as readily if she is turned loose on the frames,
as she would be were she protected for a day or two. I have
often introduced them in this manner with success. On the
other hand, I have had great difficulty with some colonies
BEE MANUAL. 223

trying to get them to accept a queen even when introduced in
the usual way. Last season, when introducing some queens
that had just arrived from Italy, I succeeded with four out of
five without any trouble, each taking up their respective
stations in less than twenty-four hours, but the fifth one I
found balled, and was just in time to save her. I caged her
again but in such a way that the bees could not liberate her,
and on looking over the combs I found queen cells com-
menced, which I destroyed. In twenty-four hours I turned
the queen loose, when the bees again balled her ; this occurred
twice more, when I gave it up with that colony and tried
another, to which she was successfully introduced by the
following day.

 

Fig. 105._ALLEY’S INTRODUCING CAGE.

From what has been stated in a former chapter it will be
understood that if we wish to change our bees from one variety
to another we have only to change our queens. In this way
we may change from blacks to Italians, or vice versa.

I have used several kinds of introducing cages but the most
simple and handiest, according to my judgment, is Alley’s (Fig.
105). I have used no other for the past two seasons. It is
made by boring a l}in. hole half-an-inch from one end in a
small block of wood 3in. long, 2in. wide, by half-an-inch thick ;
224 AUSTRALASIAN

cut out the notch (A) to communicate with the hole, sufficiently
large to admit the queen after the wire cloth is tacked on.
Cover both sides of the block with fine wire cloth (as in figure),
and tack on a strip of tin 2in. long by half-an-inch wide, to the
centre of the solid end, in such a manner that it may be turned
at right angles to the cage.

Place the queen to be introduced, with a worker or two, in
the cage, and plug up the notch pretty firmly with some comb
in which there is a little honey to answer as food. Remove
the queen you are about to supersede, and queen cells if any,
and hang the cage by the tin from the top bars of two of the
centre frames. The bees will liberate the queen by gnawing
away the plug of wax. Examine the hive in twenty-four hours.
If honey is scarce feed liberally while introducing.

DIRECT INTRODUCTION OF QUEENS.

Mr. Simmins, a prominent English apiarist, has made known
a system by which he claims to be able to introduce queens
successfully without going through the usual process of caging
them. A number of leading beekeepers have reported
favourably of the method, while some failures have also been
mentioned. Briefly the system is as follows :—The queen to
be introduced, with the comb she is on and the adhering bees,
are taken straight from the nucleus or other hive that she may
be in and placed at once in the centre of the queenless
colony. To quote his own words :—

‘In manipulating use smoke as under ordinary conditions, not on
any account to excess. Never handle the queen, or cause her to
become restless by any carelessness on your part. The comb to be
inserted with queen and bees should not be taken from one part of
the apiary to another openly in the hand; nevertheless, let it be
carried in a nucleus hive, or comb-box having no lid so the bees may
be exposed to the light and air. The colony to receive the queen
should first have its combs parted to give ample room to insert
the queen-comb without crushing, or the bees ‘ brushing’ each other ;
let the whole surface of tlie frames be exposed to the light while
obtaining the nucleus, then insert the same and close the hive at once.
When no honey has been coming in feed over night the colonies to be
operated upon. . . . The original queen is not to be removed
until the introduction takes place.”

I have not tried the above plan, but I believe it would work
very well during the busy season.
BEE MANUAL. 225

INTRODUCING VIRGIN QUEENS.

This is a matter in which I cannot claim to have had special
success. To introduce successfully a mated queen is an easy
matter compared to introducing an unmated one. Sometimes
I have had fair success with a considerable number ; at other
times, and under similar conditions as far as I could judge, I
have lost fully 50 per cent. However, several experienced
apiarists have lately given the matter much thought, and
experimented in different ways, and some now claim to be able
to introduce unmated queens without difficulty.

The principal feature in Alley’s method appears to be making
the colony queenless three days before attempting the intro-
duction. He says :—

“In order to introduce such queens (virgins) successfully the colony
should remain queenless three days (seventy-two hours); then give
the bees a pretty good fumigating with tobacco smoke. Remember
the bees must remain queenless three days at the least, and during
the meantime no queen must be near them, otherwise the operation
will prove a failure. Virgin queens can also be introduced successfully
by daubing them with honey and using no tobacco smoke. . . . Thia
isa much neues process than by fumigating them with tobacco smoke,
but just as successful.”

In another place he gives the ordinary plan of introducing
queens, only laying stress upon the point of keeping the bees
queenless for three days.

Mr. Doolittle, who claims to have introduced several
hundred without having lost one, says: “To secure the best
results the queens should be about three days old when placed
in the introducing cages, but a difference of two days either
way will make no great difference.” After removing the
queen which he wishes to supersede, he places a caged virgin
queen, well supplied with food, on the top of the frames, and
leaves her there for five days, when he opens the cage and closes
the hive, leaving the queen to come out of the cage at her
leisure. Twenty-four hours afterwards he examines the combs
and removes any queen cells that have not been already
destroyed by the bees. Both Alley’s and Doolittle’s plans
appear to be specially meant for introducing to nucleus colonies.

Mr. D. A. Jones, of Ontario, stated at the Toronto Con-
vention that he had introduced fifty queens into fifty hives in

Q
226 AUSTRALASIAN

fifty minutes with the aid of chloroform. His method is to
fit three pieces of sponge pretty tightly into the nozzle of a
smoker ; on the middle piece he pours a teaspoonful of chloro-
form ; he then puffs the fumes for a quarter of a minute into
each hive which has been previously prepared by being made
queenless. In about two minutes he returns to the first one
and gives it a few more puffs, and so on through the whole, at
the same time letting the queens run in; and if it be in the
middle of the day he puffs them a third time after about two
minutes more, in order to catch the bees that are coming in.
He says: “I have during the past season taken the worst
cases of fertile workers and the most difficult queenless colonies
that I ever had to deal with, and I never missed yet.” I
believe this statement refers more particularly to mated queens,
but I suppose the plan would work equally well with virgins.

“ SHIPPING” QUEENS.

I make use of this term “shipping” because it is now so
generally adopted that scarcely any other word would be under-
stood to convey the meaning intended, although it is by no
means necessarily connected with the idea of conveyance by
ship or by water. It is the term which Americans apply to all
manner ef © sending off” yueens, bees, honey or other com-
modities, whether by road. railway, or sea. As regards the
transport of queens it would be more correctly termed posting
or mailing queens, as they are generally forwarded by post

arcels.

Wonderful progress lias been made of late in sending bees
and queens safely over long distances. Not long ago it
was considered risky to send a caged queen on a voyage
occupying more than eight or nine days, but within the
last eighteen months they have arrived safe after travelling
over twenty days. This success is due to the improve-
ments made both in the shipping cages and in the food
supplied to the queens and bees. Formerly hard candy
and water was placed in the cages, but some two years
ago Mr. I. R. Good, an American, invented a much more suit-
able food which serves the purpyse without water. The use of
this, together with the improved cages, has quite revolutionised
the queen trade. I make the “Good candy,” asit is called, by
BEE MANUAL. 227

putting some ordinary sugar into a mortar, a little at the time,
and grinding it up very fine, then adding a little heney while
still grinding it till it is as fine as butter. It must not be made
very soft, just so that it can be rolled into pretty firm balls
without flattening out much when placed on a board.

@

 

Fig, 106._QUEEN SHIPPING CAGE,

The cage I have been using lately, and found to answer very
well, is similar to the one used by Mr. Doolittle (Fig. 106). It
is made from a biock of wood 33in. long, 2in. wide, by 1}in.
thick. A lin. hole is bored in the centre of the flat side of
the block to within less than a quarter of an inch of going
through. Two #in. holes are then bored in the edge, passing
down within an eighth of an inch of the sides of the larger
hole, but not breaking into it; these also go nearly through
the block. <A little very hot wax is poured into the small
holes to give the wood a thin coating ; this prevents it absorbing
the moisture from the food which is placed in these holes. A
small hole is cut with a penknife from the larger into each

 

Fig. 107,—BENTON’S SHIPPING CAGE FOR TWO QUEENS,

of the feed holes, and the latter are filled with food pressed
in tight and corked. The wire cloth can be partly tacked
on, leaving one corner open to put in the queen and bees;
about eight bees are sufficient to accompany the queen. To
prepare it for mailing run a wide groove a quarter of an inch
deep in a three-eighth inch batten the width and length of the
228 AUSTRALASIAN

cage, and tack this on after the bees are in, groove down, next
the wire cloth, to give ventilation at the ends when the cage is.
wrapped for addressing.

Another shipping cage (Fig. 107), invented and used by Mr.
Benton, has been successful in conveying queens safely from
Europe to America, the trip occupying twenty-four days. Mr.
A. E. Bonney, of Adelaide, writes me that he has used it with
great success. Mr. A. I. Root gives the following description
of it in Gleanings, from which the illustration has been taken :—

‘The cage is made of some tough wood resembling pine. The
board is planed on both sides, and then cut up in pieces 23 by 4 inches.
The cage shown contained two queens when it was sent. The holes
bored in the piece of wood are lfin., and are bored nearly through.
They come so near each other that passages are cut with a penknife
connecting them; that is, each three are connected in this way. One
of the holes at each end row of three is coated with melted wax, and
then filled with the usual candy made of powdered sugar and honey.
No water is used, but abundant ventilation is given in several different
ways. Only one of the three holes is ventilated, however, viz., the one
in the end opposite the one containing the candy. The middle hole in'
each row has no ventilating passages. It would seem that this affords
the bees an opportunity of choosing one of the holes that is much
ventilated, or the central, where there is but little ventilation. A few
bees could keep pretty warm in one of these round holes, especially if
they choose the one without ventilating-holes.

‘The cage is so made that, even when cramped in the mail bags,
the holes cannot well all yet closed. It is for this reason the grooves
are made in the side of the piece of wood. Ten holes about the size of
an ordinary darning needle are pricked through these side grooves into
this end hole. The spur of the bit makes another hole. . . . You will
observe two smaller-sized holes near the centre of the block. These
smaller holes are connected with a hole about as large as a gimlet
would make, shown partly at one end of the block. This also comes
out where the block is grooved or cut in. Five small holes are made
through into this gimlet-hole, so these ventilating-vestibules at each
end of the block are both ventilated from two sides in such a way that
the ventilating-holes cannot well get stopped up. A cover of wood
about an eighth of an inch thick is taokea over the holes when com-
pleted. I do not know how friend B. gets in his queen and bees
unless he lays the wooden cover on the block so as to partly close the
holes, and then puts in the bees and queen one by one, after which he
slides the cover on and fastens it with wire nails.”

It conduces to safety to cage the queen and bees the evening
previous to mailing them. ‘There is one matter connected with
mailing queens that should be borne in mind, that is, the bees
and queens should be put up in such a way that there can be
BEE MANUAL. 229

no possibility of them stinging any person handling the cage,
nor the contents injuring anything in the mail bag. In the
postal regulations, any article likely to injure the contents of
the mail bag or do bodily harm to the officers is not allowed to
be sent by post. Some years ayo I wrote to the Postmaster-
General of New Zealand, and sent him a specimen quecn-cage,
asking his permission to mail queens, and received his consent ;
but this would assuredly be withdrawn if any complaints were
made by the officials. Bee-keepers in America some four years
ago were put to great inconvenience and loss owing to queens
being prohibited to be sent through the mails, due to the
negligence of some one not putting them up properly, and it
was only after some considerable time and difficulty that Pro-
fessor Cook managed to get the prohibition withdrawn. It
therefore behoves all to be very careful in this matter.

SHIPPING WHOLE COLONIES.

It is often necessary to deliver valuable queens accompanied
by either a nucleus cr a full colony, and therefore a few words
with reference to the safe packing of such colonies when
intended for travelling long distances will not be out of place
here,

The main requisites are, to have the frames well secured so
that they cannot move; to see that the box or hive is well
ventilated ; and that sufficient food and water are supplied.

Shipping boxes made for the purpose out of light material
are much handier and less expensive than the ordinary hives.
I make mine out of half-inch timber. The sides are 1 lin. deep
and 19in. long ; the ends 104in. deep and wide enough to take
the number of frames required. Fillets of wood half-an-inch
square and the length of an end of a frame are nailed inside on
each end, far enough apart to allow the frames to slide between
them easily. A small notch is cut out of one end for an
entrance, and covered with a piece of tin. Nine holes of one
inch diameter are bored on each side, six in a line two inches
from the bottom and three the same distance from the top edge,
and these are covered with wire cloth on theinside. The sides
are nailed to the ends, and kept flush at bottom; this leaves
the ends three-quarters of an inch short on top. A batten Zin.
thick and 2in. wide is then nailed on the outside at top of the
230 AUSTRALASIAN

ends to come flush with the top of the sides. The shoulders
of the frames rest on the top of the ends, and are secured
from moving by the fillets. The bottom is then nailed on and
the box is ready for the bees.

The greatest difficulty I have had in shipping bees has been
to ensure a plentiful supply of water on the voyage. I have
tried two methods, but neither has been as satisfactory as I
could have desired. First I arranged a sponge so that the
bees could get at it through a piece of wire cloth, and pasted
instructions on the box to water it every day—but this was
often neglected. Next I made flat zinc bottles with a tapering
neck ; these were filled and placed neck downwards on a piece
of flannel in a smal! shallow zinc pan tacked to the bottom of
the box, the bottle being secured with tacks to the side. This
plan was also found frequently to fail. I think the heat of the
boxes caused the water to evaporate too quickly ; at all events
the water soon disappeared. I now believe the better way will
be to adopt a combination of both plans; that is, to put in one
or two bottles of water and to arrange a sponge on the outside
in the manner already desciibed. The risk will at least be
diminished by such precautions.

Old tough combs are the best to use for shipping purposes,
not being so liable to break as new ones. No uncapped brood
should be put in. nor too many bees; neither should heavy
combs of honey be used; it is better to have the food fairly
distributed through all the combs. The top should be screwed
on for greater convenience of taking it off afterwards without
any hammering or unnecessary jarring of the box. Full in-
structions for keeping the box in a cool dark place, etc; etc.,
should be pasted on top of each box, and if at all possible let
the sender, or some very careful person acting for him, see to
the shipping personally.

jXIOM,

“‘(QUEENLESS COLONIES, UNLESS SUPPLIED WITH A QUEEN, WILL
INEVITABLY DWINDLE AWAY, OR BE DESTROYED BY THE BEE-MOTH, OR
BY ROBBER BEES,” Langstroth,
BEE MANUAL. 231

CHAPTER XIII.

SURPLUS HONEY—MODE OF SECURING AND
MARKETING.

THE provident instinct which induces the honey-hee to store
up honey for future use, and the restless industry with which
it utilizes every opportunity of doing co, are the inherent
qualities of the insect which enable man to turn its labours
profitably to his own account. Bees, like all other animals,
are actuated by a natural desire to “increase and multiply,”
which is perhaps more strangely evidenced in their case than in
most others, because out of twenty thousand or more that
form a colony there is only one, the queen, which can be sup-
posed to have a truly parental instinct. It is, however, clearly
with the object of supplying food for the rearing of future
generations, and for the use of all during a time when little or
none can be gathered, that these busy workers are led to collect
on all favourable occasions so much larger quantities of honey
than what can be required for immediate use. The aids
afforded to the bees in a state of domestication under the
improved system of culture enable them to store much larger
quantities than they could do if living in their natural homes,
and by preventing as far as possible the multiplication of
swarms, the great bulk of the surplus honey, which would
otherwise be devoted to the formation of new colonies, can be
utilized for the benefit of their owner without detriment to
the bees.

SPRING MANAGEMENT,

With the advent of spring come some of the chief duties of
the apiarist. The object of his labours at this time will be to
see that his stocks are progressing favourably, and that nothing
is left undone to get them into good condition for taking every
232 AUSTRALASIAN

advantage of the honey season from its commencement. Much
of the season’s success depends upon good management in
spring. Whatever may be the desire of the bee-keeper—
whether it be to take all the honey he can, to increase his
colonies at the expense of honey, or to secure a share of both—
the management in early spring will be the same.

On the first favourable opportunity, after breeding has com-
menced, an examination of the stocks should be made and the
condition of each noted for future reference. The first point
is to see that they have a plentiful supply of food, any de-
ficiency to be made up in the manner explained under the
head of ‘‘ Feeding” ; and the next, to confine the bees on to
as few combs as they can cover. The object of this is to con-
serve the heat of the bees as much as possible for the benefit
of brood-rearing. Hives containing less than will cover seven
frames should be contracted by division boards (Fig. 108), and
where there are not sufficient bees to cover four or five frames,
unless the colony has a young and valuable queen, it would be
better to unite it with another (see page 249). It.should be
borne in mind that—other circumstances being equal—the
more bees there are to cover the brood the more rapid will
brood-rearing proceed.

DIVISION BOARDS.

No bee-keeper should be without a supply of these on hand,
as they are often most valuable in winter and early spring.

 

 

Fig. 108,—DIVISION BOARD.

With the aid of a pair of close-fitting division boards I have
been able to keep up brood-rearing in small colonies all through
he winter. A hive can be contracted to any size, and be
BEE MANUAL. 233

made as snug as possible in a few minutes, by the use of these
boards. I make them out of an inch board 9$in. wide, cut off
in lengths of 14}in. (the inside width of a hive). The two
ends, A A, and bottom, B, are bevelled so as to leave a thin edge
all round to come in contact with the hive. This enables a
person to fix them in more readily without injury to the bees.
A top bar of a frame is nailed on the upper edge of each, so
that when they are placed in the hive they should touch the
bottom board and sides of the hive, and the top bar should
rest lightly on the tin supports, the same as the frames, to keep
them steady and in place. When contracting a hive for a
small colony, remove or place at the side all the unoccupied
combs, leaving just as many in the centre as are sufficient for
present requirements; then place a division board on each

 

Fig, 109.—HIVE WITH DIVISION BOARDS,

side of them, as shown in Fig. 109.—a 4 are the division boards
raised in order to show them. Some bee-keepers use chaff
division boards, made by tacking calico or other light material
over both sides of a close-fitting broad frame and filling in
between with chaff, but the one I have described is easily made,
will last for years, and is all that is required, at least in any
part of Australasia. An extra mat or so should be placed in each
hive and everything done to make them snug and warm.

An examination of the hives should be made once a week,
or as often as may be necessary ; if food is being given to any
of the colonies they may require looking through every day or
234 AUSTRALASIAN

two. Where spring forage is scarce and stimulative feeding is
requisite to quicken brood rearing, it should be started about
six weeks prior to the commencement of the main harvest, the
object being to get the hives full of young bees at this time, as
everything depends upon having strong colonies to gather the
honey while it lasts. No fixed time can be given for com-
mencing to work up the colonies; this must be left to the
judgment of each individual bee-keeper, as it depends upon the
flowering of the particular vegetation from which the main
supply of his honey is secured ; it should not, however, be less
than six weeks before that period.

SPREADING BROOD.

As brood-rearing progresses and plenty of young bees are
emerging from the centre combs, the brood nest may be en-
larged by spreading the frames and placing a clean empty comb
in the centre, provided there are plenty of bees to cover all the
brood. The empty comb, from its position will be taken
charge of by the queen almost at once, and in a short time will
be filled with eggs, whereas an outside comb would be very
sparingly occupied at first. Division boards may be moved
as required to enlarge the brood nest. This spreading of the
brood, however, requires great care and judgment; if carried
too far, a cold night may drive the bees from the brood in the
outer frames, and the result would be that such brood would
get chilled and die. An empty comb may be carefully inserted
at intervals as the number of bees increase. If the caps of the
cells of a frame of honey be bruised with a knife just
sufficiently to start the honeyrunning, and the frame be inserted
in the brood nest, it will have the same effect with regard to
stimulating the queen as syrup feeding. From some of the
strongest colonies a frame of emerging brood may occasionally
be given to the weaker ones to equalize their strength.

PUTTING ON SURPLUS BOXES.

Having followed out the foregoing instructions and worked
the stocks into good condition by the commencement of the
main honey harvest, they may, if increase is the principal
object in view, either be allowed to swarm, or be divided, as
the case may he, before putting on the surplus boxes; but if
honey only, or honey with a moderate increase is desired, these
BEE MANUAL. 235

boxes should be put on before the bees make the slightest pre-
parations for swarming.

My own method is to place the surplus boxes on when the
hives are fairly full of bees, plenty of young ones emerging, the
weather warm, and honey commencing to come in pretty
steadily, taking care to get them on before any queen cells are
started. To induce the bees to start work at once in them I
lift one or two of the side frames from the lower hive con-
taining honey only, with the adhering bees, and place them in
the centre of the top box, with an empty comb between them,
replacing thuse from below with empty combs, which may be
put toward the centre of the brood nest. By this plan
swarming is kept back, and in the course of a day or two, if
the weather is favourable, comb-building and honey storing
will be going on above. As the season advances and ‘more
honey is being gathered, and the top box is getting well
stocked with workers, if I wish to kcep swarming down, | place
another super with empty combs or frames of foundation, neat
the lower hive under the super already on, and commence to
extract from the combs wholly or partly sealed, always taking
care to keep the lower super well supplied with empty combs.
After a while the hive contains an enormous force of workers,
and when it does throw off a swarm it is an extra laree one—
one that is large enough to occupy a hive and surplus boxes at
once ; while if the queen cells are cut out of the parent stock
and it is supplied with a young laying queen it will scarcely
feel the loss of the swarm. Or even if nothing more be done
than to prevent after swarms issuing, the colony will not be
long before it is in a very strong condition again.

The same method applies when raising comb-honey, but to
induce the bees to enter the sections some half-worked ones
should be placed in each super; if these are not to be obtained
a clean new comb may be cut into sizes to fit the sections and
fixed in them.* If the broad frame system be adopted, then
half-story supers should be used, and as soon as the bees
are fairly started to work in the first one another should
be placed underneath. The same applies to section cases,

* Mr. J. B. Mason, in a late issue of the American Bee Journal, says, that
if a section or two with the het wax-workers,” that is, the bees just com-
mencing to draw out the combs, be transferred from some other hive to the
new super, it will cause the bees to take charge of it at once.
236 AUSTRALASIAN

which I have recommended as being preferable to racks.
Much closer attention to ventilation and supplying extra room
in the surplus boxes is needed to keep down swarming when
working for comb than for extracted honey.

REVERSING FRAMES.

A system of reversing frames—which at present bids fair to
become generally adopted—has within the past year or two
been tried by a number of prominent bee-keepers in America.
The objects sought to be accomplished by the system are, first,
to ensure the frames being perfectly filled with comb and
fastened all round, and second, to prevent the combs in the
brood-chamber being clogged with honey, or, as Mr. Heddon
puts it, “an aid in supplying a brood-chamber for breeding
purposes only, and the surplus arrangement above to possess
nearly all the honey.” Should these results be obtained—and
late reports leave little room for doubt—it will be a great step
in advance in the practice of apiculture.

A large proportion of combs are not built down to the bottem
bars of the frames, neither are they fastened the whole of their
depth down the end bars—consequently there is both a waste
of room and a want of strength in the combs. If the frames
are reversed, that is, turned upside-down after the combs have
been built in the first place, the bees, for their own safety, are
compelled to attach them securely both to the end bars and
what were formerly the bottom bars, thus filling the frames
solid. The next advantage, and which more nearly concerns
us here, is the storing of the surplus honey in the surplus
boxes ; it is claimed that by the proper use of the system the
bees may be induced to enter the surplus boxes more readily,
and even in a manner be compelled to transfer the honey from
the brood-clamber to the surplus receptacles. As arule, the
brood-combs are about one-third filled with honey, which is
always stored along the upper part, next to the top bar, with
the brood in the centre and lower part. When the top boxes
are about to be put on, if the frames are reversed, the honey
and brood being in an unnatural position with regard to each
other, the bees, to rectify matters, will remove the honey, with
a view to storing it above, and as the upper parts of the combs
now contain brood, there is no alternative but to store it in the
surplus boxes, and thus more breeding space is secured below.
BEE MANUAL. 237

Mr. Heddon, who appears to be a thoroughly careful and
observant apiarist, has had. several thousand reversible frames
in use for the past two seasons, and states in his report to
Gleanings for July, 1885 :—

**T heve to report not only practical success in their manipulation
(the second year of their use), not only as far as gluing, etc., is con-
cerned, but the generally conceived advantages of reversing are more
than realised. he comfort of frames solid full of comb, and that
comb nearly solid full of brood, is pleasing to the eye of the apiarist.
I tind the three-fourths space between the lower half of the end of the
frame and the hive a great advantage. A few hives that were over-
looked, and became clogged with honey, crowding out the queen, had
to have the brood-combs extracted. Before replacing them with the
bees we reversed them, giviny plenty of surplus room above, and this
reversing prevented any further clogging of the brood-frames. I am
pleased beyond expectation, and never expect to use anything else but
reversible frames for either comb or extracted honey production.”

HEDDON’S REVERSIBLE. FRAME.

Scores of devices have been suggested for making frames
reversible without altering the hives; but Mr. Heddon’s
(shown in the following engraving) appears to be as simple and
practicable as anv, and the fact that he has found it to answer
so well is a strong recommendation in its favour.

 

  

Fe eee

Fig. 110—HEDDON’S REVERSIBLE FRAME,"

On reference to the figure it will be seen that the frame
consists of an ordinary top bar, to which aze attached two
short end bars, with a rectangular frame pivoted between them ;
—it is very simple and easily made. For a Langstroth frame
the rectangular frame should be 17 inches long by 83 inches
deep, outside measure, and made out of three-eighth-inch
material, one of the longest sides having a groove to fasten
comb-foundation in when wires are not used. The short end
bars to which the frame is pivoted should be about 5} inches
238 AUSTRALASIAN

long and tapered at their lower ends. These are fastened to a
top bar in the usual way of making an ordinary frame. All
that is necessary now is to fasten the end bars to the centre of
the ends of the rectangular frame in such a manner that the
latter will turn under the top bar.

QUEEN EXCLUDER HONEY BOARD.

This device is for preventing the queen entering and laying
in the upper boxes. Itis usually made of a sheet of perforated

Fig. 111.—QUEEN EXCLUDER.

zinc (Fig. 111), and is placed over the frames of the lower hive.
The perforations are a scant ,% of an inch in width ; this space
allowing the workers te pass through, but restraining the queen.
Mr. D. A. Jones, of Canada, who raises his comb-honey at the
side of the brood-chamber, places a sheet of this perforated
zinc between the brood-frames and sections. They have been
extensively used in England, and a number of bee-keepers in
America have lately tried them, but I do not think they are
likely to come much into favour. I believe that any advantages
gained by their use will be more than counterbalanced by some
great disadvantages, such as creating a tendency to swarm by
confinement of the brood-chamber, and the extra time taken by
the workers getting into the supers. It appears to me that it
would be more profitable to run the risk of having brood in the
surplus boxes occasionally, rather than that of having extra
swarms.
TAKING SURPLUS HONEY.

When storing in the surplus boxes is in full swing, and
honev coming in rapidly, it should be taken away as soon as
ready. Sections should be removed as soon as finished (but
not until every cell has been capped), and empty ones put in
their places. Any propolis or wax that may be about the edges
BEE MANUAL. 239

of the boxes should be scraped off, and the boxes placed for a
day or two on shelves in the honey room, which must be dry
and well ventilated, after which they can be crated for market.
Any unfinished sections at the end of the season should have
the honey extracted from them, and be put away for next
season’s use.

Frames of honey for extracting may be removed as soon as
about one-third capped. Some prefer to leave the combs in
the hives until the whole of the cells are sealed, while others,
again, remove them as soon as they are full, whether sealed or
not, and ripen the honey after it is extracted. There is cer-
tainly a great saving of labour by the latter method, little or.
no uncapping to be done, and the honey can be thrown from
the combs with much less trouble. I prefer to see combs
partly capped, but I think there is no necessity to wait till
they are sealed all over, if proper precautions are afterwards
taken to finish the ripening of the honey before putting it up
for market.

RIPENING HONEY.

In California, where they have no rain during the height of
the honey harvest, some of the bee-keepers ripen their
honey in what is termed a “sun evaporator.” This is a

\\

 

ATM

 

 

 

 

Br BY Br

i

Fig. 112,—BLISS' SUN EVAPORATOR,

wooden tank lined with tin, one side of the cover being fitted
with sheets of glass (aA 4, Fig. 112); and to allow surplus
moisture to evaporate, there is a space two inches wide, the length
of the tank immediately under the ridge, covered witin wire-cloth.
The tank is exposed to the sun, and a pipe is led into it from
the extractor. When full, the honey is allowed to remain for
two or three days to ripen before being tinned. However, if
240 AUSTRALASIAN

the arrangement of honey-house and tanks given in Chap.VIL.,
and the methods of management therein detailed be adopted, I
believe they will be found to be as good as any, if not the best
yet recommended.

COMB BASKETS.

When removing surplus honey from the hives it is necessary
to have something to place the frames or sections in, both for
convenience of carrying and to keep the honey secure from the
bees until it is safe in the honey or extracting house... I find
tin comb-baskets, similar to the one shown below, answer

 

Fig. 113,—COMB BASKET.

the purpose admirably. They are light, strong, clean, and
handy. They should be made so that the frames will hang in
them the same as in a hive, and should have a space of at least
two inches below the bottoms of the frames, io hold any honey
that may drip from the combs after they have been uncapped.
To hold six frames conveniently they should be 7}in. wide
inside.
MARKETING HONEY.

The first aim of the bee-keeper should be to produce a first-
class article, and the next, to place it upon the market in the
most suitable sized packages, prepared in a neat and attractive
manner. Until within the last few years, most of the honey
in well-got-up packages seen upon the Australasian markets
was of foreign production, the locally produced article having
BEE MANUAL. 241

usually been put into all sorts of odd things, from a pickle
bottle to a kerosene tin. To create a demand for our produce,
we must adopt a form of package for placing it upon the
market that will not add much to the cost of the honey, and
at the same time be capable of being made attractive to the
eye of the general public.

EXTRACTED HONEY.

When put up in small packages, I believe the most suitable
for the Australasian markets are 2lb., 10lb., and 20lb. tins.
Although I find the two larger sizes sell fairly well, I would
advise putting the bulk in 2lb. tins, and only a limited quantity
in the others. Some bee-keepers prefer selling their honey
wholesale in barrels of any size, rather than take the trouble
of tinning it. This may be a convenient plan in some cases,
for instance, if there should be an opportunity of selling direct
to manufacturers who require to use the honey in the pre-
paration of other articles, otherwise it is scarcely to be.
recommended as a means of establishing a character for the
honey, or of securing the best price in the market. A great
deal of mischief has been done to the industry in England and
America by dealers buying up honey in bulk and adulterating
it before putting it on the market in retail packages. This is
much less likely to be practised in future, and besides, it is
true that after the apiarist has disposed of his honey in the
public market, whatever way he may have made it up, he can-
not be accountable for what may be done with it afterwards.
But he can and should always hold himself responsible for the
quality of his honey in the original packages, and this he may
do by tinning it before it leaves the apiary.

The following are the sizes of the different tins mentioned :

2lb. tins, round bog 3gin. diameter, by 43in. high
10lb. 55 wit 6in. 3 » vin. ,,
20lb. as ee Jin. - » l0in. ,,
201b. tins, square... 6in. by Gin. » l0Zin. ,,
60lb. a ai 9sin. by Yin. ,, 134in. ,,

I find tins with a top the same as made for fruit tins the
handiest for filling and packing; a little practice will enable
any handy person to solder the discs satisfactorily.

R
242 AUSTRALASIAN

The look of the tins depends much on the label, and this
ought to be neatly lithographed in colours, bearing some kind
of design, with a trade mark and the name of the apiary and
proprietor. Our Matamata labels also contain the following :—
“Notice.—This honey is separated from the combs by the
‘Honey Extractor,’ thereby retaining its original aromatic
flavour,” on one end, and on the other :—‘ Directions. —Should
this honey granulate, which may be taken as one of the surest
tests of its purity, it may be liquidated again by immersing the
tin in hot water.” Our labels are made to go round and cover
the whole circumference of the two-pound tins, and the same
labels answer very well for the larger ones. The tops and
bottoms of the two-pound, and the whole of the large tins, are
japanned before the labels are put on. Black japan can be
bought at most colourmen’s, and it only requires thinning
down with an equal or greater quantity of turpentine to bring
it to the required shade ; a broad camel-hair brush is the best
to put it on with. Our packing cases are made to hold thirty
2lb. tins, six 10lbs., or four 201bs.—each case being stencilled
with the name of the apiary and the nature of its contents.

The 60lb. tins are a very convenient size for making up
honey to be sold in bulk or for export. Two of these tins in
one packing-case are heavy enough, though not too heavy for
handling by one man, and will pack together conveniently for
any mode of transport.

Honey while in a clear liquid state looks very well in glass.
I should not be disposed to put much up in that way when it
is liable to granulate quickly, nor in any case in bottles holding
more than about two pounds. In this form, if the bottles are
well made, of clear white glass, and neatly stoppered and
labelled, they generally find favour for retail sale, although
necessarily something dearer than if made up in tins.

COMB-HONEY.

This, as I have already observed, is more readily sold in
one-pound sections than in any otherform. It is not advisable
to raise more comb-honey in any district than can be sold in
it, or at some market near to it. The demand for it is more
limited than that for extracted honey, and it runs great risk
of getting damaged when sent to distant markets. To preserve
BEE MANUAL. 243

the combs from flies and dust when exposed for sale the
sections should be packed in crates having a sheet of glass in
front, similar to the one shown in the engraving. The cover
should be tight fitting, and the whole should be neatly painted.
It is better to affix a label to each section rather than to put
anything on the crate, as it might be made use of to retail
other honey from. A price can be put on the crates when
selling the honey, and made returnable. I find crates holding

 

Fig, 114._SHIPPING CRATE AND SHOW CASE FOR COMB-HONEY.

twenty-four llb. sections a handy size. Care should be taken
that the sections next the glass are a fair sample of the rest,
and every section should be full and the combs completely
capped, or it is likely there will be leakage.

BENEFITS OF CO-OPERATION.

The whole question of the most suitable and effective manner
of placing the honey crop of any particular district upon the
market, as well as the more general one of promoting by
judicious means a more extensive consumption of honey, is one
which peculiarly calls for the co-operation of the bee-keepers
concerned. There are few matters in which a local association
can make itself more useful than in deciding such points ac-
cording to the local circumstances ; obtaining the best in-
formation for its members, with samples of the sorts of packages
used in different places; and then, by a joint action, obtaining
the most suitable kinds for all who require them, on the most
favourable terms.
244 AUSTRALASIAN

CHAPTER XIV.

‘

WINTERING.—UNITING.

A STRIKING feature in the practical working of apiaries in the
Australasian colonies (and indeed in all the habitable regions
of the Southern Hemisphere, with the exception, perhaps, of the
most southern extremity of South America), is the facility for
carrying the stocks safely through the winter, as compared with
the difficulties experienced in that respect in the most important
bee-keeping districts in the Northern Hemisphere.

DIFFERENCE IN CHARACTER OF WINTER SEASONS.

In no part of New Zealand or Australia is there a lower mean
winter temperature than 40° Fahr., which is as mild as that of
Northern Italy, and in the greater portion of the Northern
Island of New Zealand, in New South Wales, Victoria, and
South Australia, it is up to or above 50°, with a perfect freedom,
_ in the level country, from anything deserving the name of heavy
frost or falls of snow. There are certainly many countries in
the northern part of the world similarly circumstanced, some of
which, like the countries of the Mediterranean, have been the
earliest seats of bee-culture, and others, like the Southern and
Western States of the American Union, are now amongst the
most advanced in that industry; but in consequence of scientific
apiculture having grown up in Germany, England, and the
Northern States of America, all of which countries have to
contend with severe and protracted winter seasons, it happens
that all the works which have been published on the subject of
bee-culture naturally dwell much upon the difficulties to be
contended with in wintering bees, and the modes of overcoming
those difficulties ; and nearly all those works treat the subject
as if it were a difficulty inherent in the practice of bee-keeping,
and not merely dependent upon peculiarities of climate. At
BEE MANUAL. 245

least, there is not one which has as yet treated on the subject
of “ wintering” in semi-tropical climates ; yet that is a matter
which, although not attended with the same difficulties as in
colder climates, nor indeed with much difficulty of any sort,
cannot be passed over lightly by Australasian bee-keepers.

AUSTRALASIAN WINTERS.

Nowhere in these colonies can there be any question of
housing or cellaring the hives during the winter months, or of
confining the bees to their hives. ‘There is nothing to prevent
the bees being left on their summer stands, and upon all fine
days the bees will fly as freely, and collect honey and pollen (if
to be had) as regularly as in summer-time. At no time is the
day temperature so low as to check this tendency; there is no
snow lying on the ground to entrap unwary bees that may be
induced by a gleam of sunshine to venture away from home ;
it is only on days of continued rain or of very high winds that
flight would be likely to be injurious to bees, and on such
occasions they may be safely trusted to remain comfortably at
home.

PRECAUTIONS FOR WINTERING.

The precautions necessary to insure safe wintering may be
confined to the following points :—1. Reducing the interior
room in the hive to the size suitable to the strength of the
stock. 2. Providing a fair supply of food to be drawn upon
when the bees are prevented from working. 3. Securing pro-
tection from the effects of night frosts by sufficient mats or
cushions between the frames and the hive covers. 4. Reducing
the entrance so as to effectually exclude mice, and to enable
the bees easily to keep out other enemies. 5. Making sure
that all covers are perfectly water-tight, and not liable to be
blown off by high winds. 6. Last, but not least, providing
winter forage in the neighbourhood of the apiary.

REDUCING INTERIOR ROOM IN HIVE.

Usually the season for taking surplus honey closes a
month or six weeks before the time when it is necessary
to prepare for wintering. In such cases the spare supers
or surplus boxes should be removed, and the bees confined
246 AUSTRALASIAN

to as few frames as they can cover. If the stocks are strong
enough at the end of autumn to fairly cover all the ten frames
of the Langstroth hive, no furthur reduction of space will be
necessary, and it will be very desirable to keep as many stocks
as possible ap to that strength, by uniting weak colonies. If,
however, the stock to be wintered does not cover more than
six or seven frames, the space should be contracted by the use
of division boards, which, whether made of solid wood or of
frames covered with cloth and stuffed with chaff, should fit
close to the ends and bottom of the hive, as explained in
Chapter XIII. It is not, as a rule, desirable to winter a stock
covering less than six frames; in such cases unite two to form
one good stock (see page 250).

PROVIDING FOOD.

As the matter of providing winter food has already been
fully dealt with in Chapter IX., under the head of “Feeding
for Winter,” I must refer the reader to that portion of the book
for information on the subject.

INNER COVERING OF FRAMES,

The nature of the covering over the frames inside of the
hive cover should depend upon the degree of sharp night frosts
to be apprehended during the winter nights. With a mean
winter temperature over 50°, and where the night temperature
seldom falls below 32°, and then only for a few hours at a time,
nothing more is required than the ordinary mat which is used
all through the year. Where severer night frosts are likely to
occur, a thin chaff cushion may be laid over the ordinary mat.
The use of a sheet of ordinary cotton wadding has been recom-
mended by Mr. Beloe, who has used it with advantage in the
Waikato district. In more southern and colder districts it may
be advisable to leave an additional half-story box over the main
hive, filled with a loose-fitting sack or cushion of chaff.

REDUCING ENTRANCE.

One of the great advantages of the form of Langstroth hive,
as herein recommended, is the facility with which the size of
the entrance can be enlarged or diminished by simply sliding
the hive forwards or backwards on the floor-board. In winter
BEE MANUAL. 247

the back end of the hive should be within an inch or less of
the back of the floor-board ; the entrance will then only admit
of one or two bees going in or out at the same time, which will
enable the sentinels to guard it effectually, and will render it
impossible for the smallest of mice to force their way in.

SECURING COVERS.

It is equally important, in summer as in winter, to see that
all hive covers are impervious to wet, and not liable to be dis-
placed by sudden gusts of wind ; it is only more necessary to
look well to these points at the beginning of winter than at
other times, because the hives will not require to be so, con-
stantly under the eye of the bee-keeper during the few months
which are to follow, and indeed, if everything has been done
that ought to be done, the less the hives are meddled with
during that time the better. Not that I would recommend
leaving the apiary to take care of itself in winter, any more
than at the busy season of the year ; on the contrary, a prudent
bee-keeper will take care that a general outward inspection of
the hives is made every morning, if possible, to make sure that
nothing unusual has occurred, and occasionally to brush away
spiders and their webs. The security of the covers from being
displaced by wind will of course depend very much upon the
judicious shelter of the apiary. In some climates, however,
sudden violent gusts of wind, sometimes coming in the form of
small passing whirlwinds, cannot be well guarded against, and
in such cases it may be prudent to secure the covers to the
boxes by means of clasps or hooks and eyes.

PROVIDING WINTER FORAGE.

The necessity of attending to this point in a country
where the bees fly and work all through the year, and
the facilities for doing so in these colonies by the planting
of such evergreens— especially acacias and eucalypti— as
are peculiarly suited to the climate, and which afford honey
and pollen all though the winter and early spring months, will
be found fully dwelt upon in the chapter upon “ Bee Forage,”
to which it is only necessary in this place to direct special
attention.
248 AUSTRALASIAN

VENTILATION.

A certain amount of ventilation is required during the winter
months to prevent moisture condensing within the hive. Mould
showing on any of the combs is a sign of insufficient ventilation.
With a hole bored in each end of the cover, and such mats as
I have recommended, together with a contracted space suitable
to the strength of the colony, there need be no fear of bad
results under ordinary circumstances.

CHAFF-HIVES.

Hives made with double walls, the space between (about 2in.
wide) being filled with chaff, cork-dust, or some such material,
are frequently used in England, the Northern States of America,
and in some of the colder parts of the European continent.
Some of our New Zealand bee-keepers recommend their use in
the southern parts of the colony; but I doubt very much that
there is any part of the Australasian colonies so cold as to require
the use of chaff-hives for the safe wintering of bees. Mr. T. G.
Brickell, of Otago, has had some in use, and speaks very
favourably of them. In response to a request to furnish me
with a description of his way of making them, he very kindly
sent me the following and a photograph of one, from which the
engraving has been made.

‘‘7O MAKE A CHAFF-HIVE.

‘Both outside and inside walls are made of half-inch stuff, planed
on one side, and mine is made to take the Langstroth frame, to which
the following dimensions apply : For the inside end walls two pieces
154in. long, 88in. wide are checked, 4in. deep, 144in. between the
shoulders ; on bottom edge of one piece, an equal distance from each
end, cut out a piece 8in. long, gin. deep for entrance. Cut two pieces,
182 by 88in. for the sides. Nail together, and fix on the bottom.

‘For outside end walls cut two pieces, 19} by 10din. and two pieces,

244 by 10}in. for sides. Nail the sides into the ends, and cut in centre

of one end a slot for entrance 8}in. from top, 8in. wide, Zin. deep to
and correspond with that cut in the inner end. Two battens, 2 by ldin.
194in. long, are nailed across the bottom, projecting 2in. on either
side ; slip the outside case over the inside one, so that the bottom edge
is half an inch below the battens, and level with the second and lower
bottom when screwed on, taking care that the space between the two
boxes is equal allround. Cut pieces 4in. wide, planed to the necessary
bevel, and fix them fair on the upper edge of the cases—mitred at
corners. Two pieces of tin, 144 by 14in., turned up jin. on one edge,

~
BEE MANUAL. 249

are tacked on to form metal supports, and four pieces of tin, 2in. wide,
bent neatly over the mitred corner, ensure its being waterproof. A
fillet rebated to fit the super in use, fixed round the top, 4in. deep from
outside shoulder, ensures gin. between the frames. Four pieces, 10}in.
long and l4in. square, are rebated lin. each way, and fixed up to the
angles ; the two slots for entrance are connected, and an alighting
board screwed on. Turn it upside down to fill it with chaff, and put

 

Fig. 115,—BRICKELL’S CHAFF-HIVE.

a piece of tarred felt over the chaff before the bottom is screwed on ;
this prevents the damp from turning the chaff musty. The advantages
of chaff hives made in this way are that they can be manipulated as
easily as the ordinary two-story hive in the summer, and yet afford
the necessary protection in winter.”

PROVIDING SPACE ABOVE FRAMES IN WINTER.

This is another expedient which many bee-keepers in cold
climates have recourse to for the better wintering of their
bees. The object in the first place was to provide a winter
passage from comb to comb in the warmest part of the hive,
and for this purpose small sticks were placed across the frames
to raise the mats and chaff cushion a little; but some four
years ago a Mr. Hill conceived the idea of providing a space
large enough to allow of the bees clustering in it, and it was
250 AUSTRALASIAN

found to answer so well that many have adopted the plan
since. The contrivance for placing on top of the frames to
raise the mats or chaff cushion, shown in the engraving below,
and which has been named after Mr. Hill, is made of small
pieces of wood sawn or bent to form part of a circle of about
11 inches in diameter ; the two centre pieces are 9 inches in
length, and the two outside ones 8 inches. A thin piece of
hoop iron 12 inches long is tacked on the back of the pieces to

 

Fig. 116.—HILL’S DEVICE.

keep them in position. I have tried them on small colonies
and find them to answer very well indeed. The bees cluster
on frosty nights right up in the space thus formed. Care must be
taken that the side frames are well covered with mats.

UNITING WEAK AND QUEENLESS COLONIES.

The advisableness of keeping none but strong colonies, and
of uniting together two or more of any found to be below a
certain standard of strength, has been more than once pointed
out in previous chapters; but to impress it upon the mind of
the reader I would here remark that special attention should
be paid to the matter of uniting weak colonies in the early
spring months and when preparing the hives for winter (see
pages 232 and 246). Colonies that become queenless at a time
when no queens are available should also be united as soon as
discovered to others possessing queens. Queenless colonies
are frequently to be found at the latter part of winter and in
early spring.

When the hives containing the colonies to be united are
located some distance apart, move one a few feet every day
till it is alongside the other. The queen may now be removed
from one of the colonies, and in the evening place the frames
on which the bees that still have a queen are clustered, to one
BRE MANUAL. 251

side of the queenless hive, and the queenless bees on the other,
with a vacant comb or two in the centre ; do this as quietly as
possible, and close the hive. If this is done on a cool evening,
without much disturbance, the bees will remain quietly in their
respective quarters during the night and unite peaceably the
next day, when their combs may be placed together.

Another and very good plan is to place a frame with bees
from each colony alternately in the hive, and so mix them up
thoroughly ; and I have found that a little syrup sprinkled
over the bees when practising this method tends to prevent
them interfering with each other. I have also united colonies
by simply placing one hive over the other, and after a day or
two have lifted off the upper one and put all the bees into the
lower hive. In any case united colonies should be watched
for a while, and if fighting should commence use the smoker
freely ; in most cases two or three strong applications of smoke
will put a stop to it.

UNITING SWARMS.

When swarms issue late in the season it is often advisable
—especially when increase is not desired—-to hive two or more
together in order that there may be a larger working force
brought into union, and so be better able to provide them-
selves with ample winter food during the remainder of the
season. Swarms that issue on the same day may be hived
together without the least trouble, and a swarm may be united
with one that was hived a day or two previous, by placing
the hive containing the new swarm as a super on top of the
other, watching the bees for a while, as already advised.
Swarms can be united in the same way at any time.

jprxiom,

‘©THE BEE-KEEPER WILL ORDINARILY DERIVE ALL HIS PROFITS FROM
STOCKS, STRONG AND HEALTHY, IN EARLY SPRING.”
Langstroth.
252 AUSTRALASIAN

CHAPTER XV;

ROBBER BEES.

ALTHOUGH bees have so many commendable qualities, as we
all know, still their most ardent admirers cannot deny that
they possess one which does not redound much to their credit,
according to our ideas of morality, namely, a propensity to rob
their neighbours in order to increase their own store. They
have this faculty very strongly developed, although it must
certainly be admitted, by way of qualification, that they very
seldom steal while honey is to be easily obtained in a legitimate
way. When they once enter upon this bad course, however,
they are almost quite incorrigible; and if we adopt the theory
of the “survival of the fittest,” we should expect to find the
honey-bees of to-day much superior to their ancestors, since
they never display the slightest compunction about robbing,
starving, and killing their weaker sisters of other colonies. It
may, however, be objected to this conclusion, that the worker
bees do not propagate their own race, and the charge of robbery
can be brought home to them only, and not to the queens or
drones.
CAUSES OF ROBBING.

Immediately after the close of the regular honey season, as
soon as their ordinary sources of supply begin to fail, the bees
not only become more jealous of any interference with their
own stores, but they are at once on the alert to pick up honey
or any kind of saccharine matter wherever it is to be found.
At such times they will visit grocery stores, breweries, jam
factories, or in fact any place where saccharine matter can be
obtained. On one occasion, when transferring some bees for
Captain Moore, of s.s. Vivid, Thames, I noticed that the honey
cells were of a very peculiar colour. I examined the contents,
and on tasting found it to be raspberry syrup, which, no doubt,
BEE MANUAL. 253

had been obtained from a neighbouring cordial factory. Captain
Moore informed me that Mr. Koefoed, of tomato sauce fame,
told him he lost on one occasion several pounds of tomato sauce
that he had forgotten to cover up, thanks to the robber bees.

“ Robbers” will at this time be found visiting all the hives
in the neighbourhood, flying round the covers and joints, trying,
like burglars, to effect an entrance without being seen by the
inmates. If, in these expeditions, they should come across a
weak hive, they are bold enough to go in by the entrance door.
If one bee should be fortunate enough to get away with a
pilfered load, he will soon be back with some more of his hive
companions ; and this will go on systematically until in the
end the hive is emptied of its honey, leaving the inmates in a
starving condition. In most cases these villains will commit
murder ; they will find the queen and kill her, and while the
colony is, in consequence, in a demoralised state, “do a good
business ” in their nefarious practices. They also exert an evil
influence over the inmates of the robbed hive; for these will
sometimes join with the robbers, and help to steal their own
stores, leaving their old home to take up their quarters with
the plunderers.

HOW TO KNOW ROBBER BEES.

It is rather difficult at first for the inexperienced to detect
robber bees approaching a hive, but by careful observation one
may soon become familiar with them. A robber bee, instead
of alighting at once at the entrance, will fly and “dodge”
about, making now and then a feint to settle ; but should one
of the sentinel bees at the entrance approach her, she at once
starts back, as it were, out of the sentinel’s range. If she finds
the entrance too well guarded, she will try to find some other
plage to enter, hovering about the sides and back of the hives,
and examining the joints of the floor-board, super, and cover,
which the proper inhabitants of the hive would not be likely
to do. Should there be reason to suspect that robbing has
been started in any particular hive—and sometimes it is not
easy to detect it at first—watch the bees as they come out of
the hive; and if they appear to be loaded (which can be seen
by the increased size of their abdomen), and find it difficult to
rise and fly away, you may be certain that they are robbers.
To find out which hive—if in your own apiary—the robbers
254 AUSTRALASIAN

have come from, dust the suspected bees with flour as they
leave, and watch the other hives to see which they enter with
their loads. A sure sign that robbing has been going on in a
hive is the appearance of small pieces of wax—cappings of
cells—scattered about near the entrance.

PRECAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED.

More can be done in the way of precaution to guard against —
the starting of robbing than to put a stop to it when once
started. A very slight cause may give rise to the first attempts ;
and if the bees once get infected with the desire, it may mate-
rially affect the prosperity of the apiary for the time being.
No honey, pieces of comb, or sweets of any sort should be
left lying about where the bees can get at them. No hives
should be opened more than is absolutely necessary when rob-
bers are about. If much manipulation should be necessary at
such times, a bee-tent, such as described below, should be used
to enclose the hive to be operated on. Robbing is likely to
occur both in autumn and spring, but the first four or five
weeks after the close of the honey season I have always found
to be the worst in that respect. Entrances should be contracted
at this time, to give the bees a better opportunity to defend
them ; and if all the colonies are kept strong, there will be
less danger of any of them being attacked.

BEE TENTS.

A most useful appliance is a small tent (Fig. 117), which can
be placed over a hive when necessary. The artist has made the
tent in the engraving rather large in proportion to the hive
inside. It may be made of a light framework of wood, covered
with mosquito netting, and should be large enough to cover
‘the hive and an empty one beside it, or the super when taken
off, and to give the manipulator room to work comfortably.
It should ke made to fold when not required for use, so that
it may be stowed away conveniently. It will answer for trans-
ferring combs under its shelter, manipulating bees in at the
close of the season, and in other ways for keeping off the
attacks of robbers.

HOW TO STOP ROBBING.

T have adopted the following methods to stop or check rob-
bing, when it has taken place. I take a watering-pot, fitted
BEE MANUAL. 255

with a fine rose, containing water, and, with a cloth laid across
the entrance of the robbed hive, pour the water on to the
cloth and over the bees that are flying about the front. In a
short time I remove the cloth and let any bees that wish to
do so come out, without letting those outside get in. As soon
as they are out, I put the cloth back, and again wet it. This
process I repeat two or three times. This appears to frighten

 

Fig, 117,_BEE TENT,

the robbers, and in most cases I have found it effectual ; but
in extreme cases I have tried the following plan, which has
had a satisfactory result: Found out where the robbers have
‘come from, and changed the places of the robbed and robber
hives. There are other methods; but having found the two
above described successful, I think it is not worth while to go
into them and perhaps confuse the beginner.

It has been already noticed that when a colony becomes
hopelessly queenless, that is, without the possibility of the bees
rearing a new queen for themselves, they lose the energy for
working and for defending their stores, and become an easy
prey to robbers. In a well-kept apiary such cases will not
be allowed to occur. Keeping all colonies supplied with good
queens, and consequently “strong,” is the sovereign remedy
against robbing, as well as against many other evils in the
-apiary.
256 AUSTRALASIAN

CHAPTER XVI.

DISEASES OF BEES.

UNTIL quite recently it had been generally supposed that bees
were subject to two diseases only, viz., dysentery, and what was
termed ‘foul brood.” The scientific investigations of Mr.
Frank Cheshire, however,—which are still being carried out—
point to the existence of other diseases, and there is good
reason to believe that when he shall have finished his re-
searches, many things connected with apiculture which are now
inexplicable will be made clear.

The former of the two diseases mentioned is a very common
and often a dangerous one in cold climates, but in Australasia it
is not very troublesome and rarely dangerous. The latter,
foul brood (now generally known by the scientific name of
bacillus alvei), is of a most dangerous nature wherever it breaks
out, and cannot be too carefully guarded against, as will be
seen further on.

DYSENTERY AND ITS PREVENTION.

The presence of this disease may be known by the bottom-
board within and around the entrance to the hive being spotted
with a dirty, yellowish, disagreeable-looking excrement, which
has an intolerably offensive smell. The abdomens of many of
the bees become so distended that they can no longer fly, but
may be seen dragging themselves outside the hive to die. The
chief causes of the evil are—cold, damp hives, unwholesome
food, and long confinement during severe winters. It usually
makes its appearance in the latter part of winter and early
spring. Ineffective ventilation with a low temperature is pro-
ductive of dampness by causing the condensation of the watery
vapour given off by the bees, which, settling on the combs,
dilutes and sours the honey, and consequently makes it un-
BEE MANUAL. 257
/
wholesome as food. The ventilation of hives, both in summer
and winter, should receive close attention. Owing to the
disease usually appearing in the northern part of New Zealand
about the time when peach trees commence to blossom, it has
sometimes been wrongly attributed to the honey gathered from
that source. There is, however, reason to believe that it is
sometimes caused by the honey gathered from the wharangi
shrub, which blossoms about the same time, and which will be
found more particularly mentioned in Chapter XVIII.
The best preventive measure that can be taken is to provide
the bees with clean, warm, tight, well-ventilated hives, and the
surest cure is a spell of warm, genial weather.

BACILLUS ALVEI (FOUL BROOD).

This disease is the most fatal to bees, and if prompt action
is not taken to stamp it out on its first appearance it may very
rapidly lead to the loss of the whole apiary. The disease
appears to have taken a pretty firm hold in a few districts in
both Australia and New Zealand, and the difficulty of getting
rid of it in these places is increased by the carelessness and
wilfulness of box-hive bee-keepers, who, in the utter disregard
of the advice given them by more careful men, will persist in
leaving the old boxes with their combs lying about in which
diseased colonies have died for other bees to enter, and occa-
sionally hiving stray swarms in them, only to propagate the
disease and finally perish as the others have done before them.
A gentleman who went to much trouble to assist some box-hive
bee-keepers in his neighbourhood to get rid of the disease, and
supplied them with a remedy free of cost, wrote me some short
time since, that as they would not follow on with the work he
had commenced, he had given the whole thing up in disgust,
and that he had no hopes of the district ever being clear of the
disease while such men remained in it. Fortunately, I have
had no experience of the disease beyond inspecting pieces of
diseased combs that have been sent to me.

SYMPTOMS OF BACILLUS ALVEI.
Dr. Dzierzon, who once lost 500 colonies by it, describes the
symptoms as follows :—

“* An infallible symptom of the presence of foul brood (bacillus alve?)
is the discovery of dead, dried-up, shrivelled larve or nymphs in
5
258 AUSTRALASIAN

separate cells amongst healthy brood. These dead larvae have passed
into a pap-like or tough mass, and later on into a greyish-brown or
quite black crust on the floor or the lower surface of the cells. If the
majority of the cells are in that condition, the infection took place
some time ago, and the evil has already become very great. Because
a stock with foul brood generally ventilates considerably, the evil may
* be recognised in hives with immovable combs by an unpleasant smell
proceeding from the entrances ; the smell is similar to that of putrid
glue or meat. As the bees take the trouble to bring out separate
larve that have not yet entirely rotted, such will be found sometimes
on the floor of the hives affected. The bees take the trouble partially
to remove to the outside the blackish-brown crust forming finally from
the rotten matter. There are therefore found on the floor a dark-
coloured dust and entire skins torn off, which, when rubbed down
between the fingers, give off the same unpleasant smell. In spring,
when other stocks are already diligently building, the foul-broody do
not generally make any preparation for it ; at most they will only do
so when they are still fairly strong and unusually good pasture sets in.
If the combs are examined, the sealed brood is never found en masse,
but standing in isolated irregular patches. To be thoroughly satisfied,
a piece of brood-comb must be cut or torn out; and if it shows cells
with the matter described above, foul brood is certainly present.”

He says that there are two kinds of foul brood,

‘* One kind that is mild and curable, and another kind malignant and
incurable ; both kinds are, however, contagious ;” and that ‘‘the cura-
ble kind may occur of itself, under certain conditions of ingathering,

.... and sometimes disappear again of itself when the conditions
have changed.”

It has long been the opinion of many bee-keepers, that bees
occasionally contract this disease while working on certain
plants ; Dzierzon mentions two of this class, “ bilberries and
pines ;” while on the other hand it has been said that it never
appears in apiaries situated in the neighbourhood of certain
other plants. As the name, foul brood, implies, it was thought
—until Mr. Cheshire proved otherwise—to be a disease of the
larvee, and that the old bees and queen were not affected by
it. This and other errors, however, of earlier investigators have
been brought to light by the above-mentioned gentleman.

Beyond the fact that it was a germ disease, nothing reliable
was known about foul brood up to a very recent period. The
fungoid growth was supposed to belong to the sort known to
microscopists as micrococci ; it was supposed to originate in the
decaying bodies of the larve. A treatment with salicylic acid
and borax, used in solution, to spray over the affected combs
BEE MANUAL. 259

and to mix with syrup as food for the bees was recommended,
and has in some cases proved to be efficient as a cure; but the
successful application of this treatment was so uncertain, that
many very experienced bee-keepers in America still held to
the opinion that the only safe and effectual course to be followed-
was to stamp out the plague and prevent its ruinous spreading
by burning everything supposed to be infected—bees, combs,
larvee, and hives. New and very important discoveries have,
however, been made, and the bee-keeping world is now relieved
from much of the dread caused by the apprehension of this
disease, owing to the

INVESTIGATIONS OF MR. FRANK CHESHIRE.

This distinguished English scientist, in the month of July, 1884,
read a paper before the International Conference of Bee-keepers
at the International Health Exhibition at Kensington, giving
the results of his long-continued investigations into the nature
of this disease, “the means of its propagation, and the method
of its cure ”—results which bid fair to solve all the difficulties
of the case, and to lay all apiculturists under a deep debt of
gratitude to the investigator. It would be out of place here
to give anything like a réswmé of the paper referred to ; it has
been published at length in the Bee Journals ; but it is neces-
sary to state as shortly as possible the conclusions arrived at
by Mr. Cheshire. After mentioning the fact that “science has
recently shown that all putrefactive changes, fermentations,
and very many diseases are brought about entirely by minute
organisms, which are, in fact, rudimentary vegetables,” and to
which the general name of Schizomycetes is given, divided into
four genera, micrococcus, bacterium, bacillus, and spirillum, he
proceeds to point out the chief characteristic differences between
bacilli and méicrococci in the following words :—

“‘ Under certain conditions the bacilli produce spores, or seeds (Fig.
119), which the mcrococci never do; while in addition bacilli, unlike
micrococei, are provided at their extremities with wondrously delicate
filaments, called flagella, with which they strike the fluid containing
them, and so swim much as a fish does by the use of its fins ; so that
shape and the power of locomotion sharply divide one from the other.”

It must be remembered that although the powerful micro-
scopes now used enable the observer to discern these peculiar-
260 AUSTRALASIAN

ities of form, and approximately to measure the size of these
organisms, still they are so minute, that, as calculated by Mr.
Cheshire, one thousand millions may be contained in the larva
of a bee, and of the spores or seeds, as many as one hundred
‘ millions in the bee’s egg, which is itself only one-fourteenth of
an inch in length, and one-seventeenth of an inch in diameter.

~
YY WSS r? LS ia
SIN AZ es ~"S4 28, é
ae =s=V= 2@Zs a q io went
_— XK \) — e % %, |
Fig, 118,—BACILLI Fig, 119,_SPORES OF BACILLI

(greatly magnified). (greatly magnified),

Having premised so much, it may be stated that Mr. Che-
shire has established, as the first result of his investigations,
that the fungoids present in cases of foul brood are not miecrc-
cocci, but always bacili, that they are not the result of the
disease generated by the decaying larvae, but the cause of it,
generated in the fluids of the bees themselves, and possibly
transmitted even by the eggs of an infected queen. He says:

‘‘Foul brood, then, is a bacellus disease ; and in these days, when
the ‘germ theory’ is the question of questions amongst pathologists
and physiologists, it is extremely interesting for us to note that science
has lately shown that different species of bacil/z also cause consumption,
cholera, typhoid, leprosy, and many other diseases afflicting the human
family ; whilst amongst animals glanders, splenic fever, sepitcemia,
etc., arise from a similar cause.”

The particular species found in the hive, and which causes
the disease, has been named by Mr. Cheshire and the late
lamented secretary of the British Bee-keepers’ Association,
bacillus alvei, by which name the disease is now more correctly
designated than by its old one.

BACILLUS ALVEI UNDER THE MICROSCOPE.
Mr. Cheshire’s description (illustrated) of the disease, as
seen by him under a very powerful microscope, is very inter-
esting ; he says:

“Taking a small quantity of the juices of a healthy grub, and spread-
ing it out under a thin glass under the microscope, one is presented
BEE MANUAL. 261

with such an appearance as is seen in Fig. 120; fat globules are
numerous, while blood-discs abound, and everywhere may be noticed
tiny particles which are constantly slowly dancing with what are called
Brownian movements. But if a speck of coffee-coloured, foul broody
matter be similarly treated, we find neither fat globules, blood discs,
nor molecular base, but observe the field crowded with very small ovoid
bodies, as we have them represented in Fig. 121. These are the
micrococci of Schonfield ; but if this substance be stained according
to the modern plan of Weigert and Koch, and then carefully examined,
in all probability we shall discover, associated with the ovoid bodies, a

 

   

  
 
 

7
er Sn Ps
away, Sass
Atesh SS vads
eee

a VEO

 

 

 

OF LARVA, (last stage),

very few other organisms, longer and rod-shaped, while we notice that
the so-called micrococci are neither round nor dumb-bell like, but oval
or boat-shaped. This led me at once to suspect an error, and further
searching showed me if, instead of coffee-coloured matter, such as
that usually sent for microscopic examination, the body of a grub, dead,
but in a fresher condition, were taken, the number of the rod-like
bodies very considerably increased, while that of the ovoid ones dimi-
nished, as seen in Fig. 122. My own inoculated stock—inoculated for
experimental purposes—was cured, and gave me no material ; but soon
I obtained a comb from a suffering hive, and then had the opportunity
of expressing the juices from a death-stricken larva. These, when
examined under a power of 600 diameters, and carefully illuminated,
were seen, to my great delight, to be full of active rods, swimming
backwards and forwards, and worming their way between the degene-
rate blood discs and fat globules, as represented in Fig. 122, while here
and there were long strings of them, the lepothrix form previously
referred to.”

As to the means by which the disease is propagated, Mr.
Cheshire has no hesitation in saying—

“That the popular idea that honey is the means by which it is
carried from hive to hive, and that mainly through robbing, is so far
262 AUSTRALASIAN

an error, that only occasionally and casually can honey convey it from
stock to stock.”

And after giving his reasons at full length, he concludes this
part of his subject by saying :

“ Although I would not dogmatise, my strong opinion is, that com-
monly neither honey nor pollen carries the disease, but that the feet
and antenne of the bees usually do. I also think it probable that,
occasionally at least, nurse-bees infected bring the disease germs to

 

    

VE AS <
oa a My Sar. coo Soy =
CN TOR SS ye SANS oF
\ ‘s : zn, ne
AG ED FS, | hg re OES “fh
P VE OF Sea 7! VANE asa

Fig, 122,—B. ALVEI (early stage). Fig. 123.—B. ALVEI (late stage).

S

 

 

the mouth in feeding the larve, and then turning foragers, leave a
germ or germs in the nectary of a flower, which, visited by another
bee, becomes the means of infection to it; the malady is thus carried
by adult bees into other and perhaps somewhat distant apiaries.
Balancing all the probabilities, it would appear that most generally
the adult bee takes the disease, and then carries it directly or indirectly
to the brood.”

THE CHESHIRE CURE.

As to the method of cure, Mr. Cheshire is entirely opposed
to the use of salicylic acid and of borax. He considers the
spraying does more harm than good ; that any beneficial results
from the acid can only be obtained by its use mixed with food ;
that even in that way it requires to be used with great discri-
mination as to the dose, because salicylic acid is likely to act
as a cumulative poison, and that borax, itself a drug nauseous
BEE MANUAL. 263

to the bees, is only of use as a solvent for the salicylic acid, if
used for spraying ; and when mixed with it in the food, only
reduces its curative effect, and renders the treatment somewhat
dangerous.

Mr. Cheshire’s principle is, that as the disease originates with
the adult bee, and is conveyed by it to the larvae, so the fungi-
cide intended to cure it must be administered in food to the
adult bee, and be transmitted in the same way to the larve.
On the suggestion, as he informs us, of Mr. Robert Sproule, he
tried experiments with phenol as a fungicide, and has come to
the conclusion that when used in the proper manner, which he
has taken great pains to arrive at, it is a thoroughly effective
cure for bacillus alvei. Phenol is generally known as “ pure
carbolic acid,” but care must be taken to obtain the really pure
article—absolute phenol, sold as Calvert’s phenol No. 1. Mr.
Cheshire warns us to be cautious about this. ‘Carbolic acid
is an impure phenol, and is useless. It contains creosote and
creosols, and bees abhor it.”

Having obtained the pure article, the next point is te know
how to administer it. Mixed with syrup or honey, in the pro-
portion of one part in two hundred, it will be refused by the
bees altogether. In the proportion of 1 to 400 it might be
administered to a sound stock without any injurious conse-
quences; but Mr. Cheshire found that “1 to 500 dissipated
foul brood quickly, even while honey was coming in,” and that
“1 in 750 appeared enough when it was not being gathered.”

These, then, are established as the correct quantities under
the circumstances mentioned. If honey be coming in, it will
be useless to place the medicated syrup in a food bottle in
the hive, as the bees will not touch it; but he recommends
to

“¢Take out the brood combs, and to pour from a bottle having a drop-
ping-tube loosely placed in its neck the medicated syrup into those
cells immediately around and over the brood, anc the bees will use a
curative quantity of phenol. The syrup is best poured in by holding
the comb at an inclination of ordinary writing, not by placing it on its
side.”

By pursuing this course of treatment for some time, the
adult bees should become all sound, the diseased larve be
removed by them from the cells, and all the new brood be
264 AUSTRALASIAN

brought out in a healthy condition. Mr. Cheshire says at the
conclusion of his paper :

“I could take an apiary at the beginning of March with every stock
diseased, and by May Ist, with but very little labour, deliver it up
clean and strong, as strong as though the disease had never appeared.”

After the reading of the paper the late editor of the British
Bee Journal, in company with many prominent bee-keepers,
examined a stock that had been treated by Mr. Cheshire for
the cure of bacillus alvei, and which had been placed in the
Health Exhibition. This stock had been sent to Mr. Cheshire
five weeks before, with seven of its combs “ affected with foul
brood in its most virulent form, being a mass of corruption.”
These seven combs, with two others, when examined, were
perfectly clean and had

“literally not one single cell affected. Whole sheets of brood in all
stages were to be seen quite healthy ; young bees hatching out and
eggs being laid in the vacated cells. This wonderful change had been
effected by the bees alone, aided simply by the administration of the
medicated food.”

The simple manner of prepariny a syrup of the strength 1 to
500 is to take one ounce of the phenol with three ounces of
warm water, to thoroughly dissolve it, and then mix with
thirty-one pounds of sugar syrup or of diluted honey.

Writing later in the year, Mr. Cheshire announced that he
found the plan of pouring the medicated syrup into the combs
to answer admirably in spring and summer; but if the cure
has to be effected in autumn, he recommends to give the phenol
in a cake made of sugar and pea-flour, placed on the top of the
frames, under the mat, as the bees are not disposed at that
season to clean out the combs, as they would in spring and
summer, and the use of the liquid syrup is likely-to start rob-
bing. The cakes he prepares “in the usual way; but after
removal from the fire, during the stirring and cooling process,
painstakingly mix with it one-fifth ounce of phenol to each
seven pounds of sugar.”

THE SALICYLIC ACID REMEDY.

Notwithstanding what has been said against the use of
salicylic acid in cases of bacillus alvei, many reports of cures
BEE MANUAL, 265

having been effected by it have from time to time reached the
bee journals. Mr, A. E. Bonney, who has been very successful
in eradicating the disease from his apiary by Muth’s method,
described the plan in a very able paper read by him before the
South Australian Bee Keepers’ Association, on January 5th,
1885, in the following words :—

‘‘Remove from its stand the hive containing the diseased colony,
and put in its place a clean hive with starters of foundation in all the
frames. Brush the bees into the clean hive, and feed them with honey
or sugar syrup, adding to every quart of food an ounce of the following
mixture, namely, sixteen grains salicylic acid, sixteen grains soda
borax, one ounce water. This feeding should be kept up for about ten
days. The diseased combs should be cut from the frames and burned
up, and the hive and frames scraped and well scrubbed with carbolic
soap and water. Calvert’s medical soap, containing 20 per cent. of
acid, is most effective for this purpose. That is the whole opera-
tion; but when there are more hives than one, certain precautions
must be taken, or else the bee-keeper will discover that in curing this
one he has spread the disease into others. The best time for this work
is the early morning, and everything should be prepared the previous
evening. The entrances to all adjacent hives should be closed with
perforated zinc, which must not be removed until after the operation
is completed. Before removing the zinc, the alighting-boards and
fronts of the hives should be washed over with a solution of 1 of phenol
in 200 of water. While the disease exists in the apiary the apiarist
should make a practice of always washing his hands, smoker, etc., with
the above solution before going from one hive to another, A small
piece of sponge is convenient for this purpose. After treating a bad
case Ihave my clothes washed before wearing them again amongst
healthy hives. Carbolic acid No. 5, well mixed with water, in the pro-
portion of one ounce of acid to two quarts of water, should be sprinkled
on the ground where the diseased hive stood. This will destroy the
germs in any foul broody matter which may have been carried out of
the hive. All honey extracted from diseased combs should be tho-
roughly boiled with one-fourth of its quantity of water before being fed
back to the bees. . . . . Thirteen of my hives have been cured by
Mr. Muth’s method, and it isto mea source of much pleasure to go
from hive to hive and see large sheets of healthy brood in all stages,
knowing that not long ago some of these colonies were dying out in
rottenness..... Mr. Stevens, of Goodwood, by the persistent use of
this cure got rid of foul brood last year, and has not since been
troubled with it.”

Writing in June, 1885, he says :

“It is quite possible that in many places in Australia, where the
honey supply is intermittent, or in the more rigorous climate of New
Zealand, the Cheshire cure may be the best to adopt, but it certainly
is not in this locality (Adelaide).”
266 AUSTRALASIAN

Mr. R. Harding, of Hawke’s Bay, New Zealand, also reported
favourably of Muth’s remedy, and it seems quite possible that
it may be the most suitable one for districts like that around
Adelaide, where more or less honey is gathered throughout the
greater part of the year.

I believe it to be a good plan to give all spare hives, frames,
and bottom-boards a brush over with a solution of carbolic
acid at the end of the season, before putting them away for
winter ; it can do no harm, but may do a great deal of good.

BACILLUS GAYTONI.

In the further pursuance of his investigations, Mr. Cheshire
has discovered that there are other species of bacilli which
affect bees with diseases different altogether in their symptoms
from those of foul brood. Through the close observation of
Miss Gayton, a well-known successful bee-keeper, who for-
warded to him for examination some bees of the glossy black
and hairless appearance which has heretofore been very gene-
rally supposed to indicate “old robbers,” he found them filled
with a bacillus altogether different from the bacillus alvei, and
to which he has given the name of bacillus Gaytoni. He says
“it is a very mild offender beside the bacillus alvei, but it will
be very interesting to note whether it succumbs to the same
treatment.”

OTHER DISEASES OF BEES.

It is probable, as I previously intimated, that we may be
still further indebted to Mr. Cheshire for a knowledge of other
diseases which have heretofore puzzled the bee-keeper. There
is one sort of symptom which has attracted attention of late in
America and here, generally alluded to as that of “trembling
bees,” about which we are still in the dark. Mr. Cheshire
says, in a paper which appeared in the British Bee Journal of
September, 1884:

‘During the last two months I have been able to make out no less
than five, or possibly six, distinct disorders arising from that number
of specifically different germs, all of which will require prolonged
attention, if anything very definite is to be arrived at respecting them.
In addition I suspect strongly that true dysentery will also turn out to
be an infectious disorder; but since specimens fail me, the question
must remain, as far as Iam concerned at least, till another season.”
Then, after describing the bacillus Gaytont, he adds: ‘* With regard
BEE MANUAL. 267

to the other germs found, my knowledge is at present so slender, that
I must advance nothing beyond the discovery of an enormously large
bacillus which takes what is called the zooglea form—two, or reel
three, very minute kinds of bacilli and a micrococcus. The micrococ-

cus will most probably turn out to be a putrefactive kind accidentally
present.”

ARRENOTOKIA.

This name is given to a certain defective condition of queens:
Mr. Cheshire, in carrying out his investigations, required a
number of queens, which have been furnished him by different
bee-keepers. Amongst them he discovered two drone-breeders,
each with its spermatheca “ furnished completely with sperma-
tozoa.” In explanation he says:

“The name ‘arrenotokia,’ applied by Leuckart in 1857 to a case
similar to the one we are considering, indicates that the queen, as dis-
tinguished from a normal drone breeder, is fully furnished with sper-
matozoa, and is yet incapable of fertilising her eggs. ' The possible
causes are various, since the mechanism, so wondrously delicate and
complex, which pays out the spermatozoa as they may be required,
and which I explained a few months since, may fail in its muscles or
nerves, or even the spermatozoa themselves may be defective, as
actually appears to be the case in this instance.”

In speculating upon the probable cause of defective sper-
matozoa, he asks :

‘‘Can the lateness of the season at which this queen was hatched in
any way explain the matter? Drones, at the date given (October), are
normally gone ; but the progeny of fertile workers are then discover-
able in the prime of youth, as well as old drones permitted to live in
queenless stocks. Speculation is easy, and the possibility suggests
itself, that the defective spermatozoa owe their faults to the fact that
old or abnormal drones yielded them.” The first case he examined he
thinks ‘‘ was probably due to paralysis of some of the muscles attached
to the spermathecal valve ;” and further says: ‘This production of
drones only has been artificially produced by pinching the extremity
of the abdomen, so that the last ganglion is injured.”

I have myself known young queens—to all appearance per-
fectly healthy—after laying worker eggs for a time, suddenly
turn to drone-breeders in some unaccountable manner. It cer-
tainly would be interesting to know the cause of such a change ;
—injury to the abdomen would be almost certain to cause it.
268 AUSTRALASIAN

SPRAY DIFFUSER.

A very handy appliance is shown in the following engraving ;
it is useful for spraying combs, when necessary, and is some-

 

Fig. 124,_SPRAY DIFFUSER,

times used for sprinkling bees with scented syrup to prevent
fighting when uniting two or more colonies. There are some
of a different construction to that shown, any of which can be
purchased for a few shillings at most chemists.

RULE.

PROFITABLE BEE-KEEPING DEPENDS UPON STRONG COLONIES. No
BEES NO HONEY.
BEE MANUAL. 269

CHAPTER AVIL

ENEMIES OF BEES.

THE Australasian colonies are certainly favoured with an
exemption from many of the natural enemies of the bee, which
are very troublesome in some of the older bee-keeping countries.

AUSTRALASIAN EXEMPTIONS.

There is here a total absence of wasps, hornets, and toads ;
and I can answer for it that in New Zealand at least the ants
are harmless, and the wax-moth not of a very formidable
character. The principal enemies here are spiders, mice, the
bee-hawk (libellula), and the bee or wax moth. There are also
other insects which occasionally enter weak hives, viz., wood-
lice, earwigs, ants, and beetles; but it is thought these latter
only enter the hives for shelter rather than plunder. I am not
aware that there are any birds here that attack bees, although
I have been keeping a sharp look-out, and I have come to the
conclusion that we have little to fear from that quarter.

SPIDERS.

These insects, if opportunity offers, spread their webs in front
and around the hives to capture unwary bees; therefore the
fewer corners or angles about them the better. Porches to
hives, so much admired by some amateur bee-keepers, are not
only useless, but make a very convenient place for spiders to
carry on their work of destruction. The same may be said of
bee-sheds and other unnecessary fixings.*

* In the American Bee Journal for August, 1885, there is an interesting
communication from the Rev. L. Langstroth, showing that in his experience
he has found “spiders one of the bee-keeper’s best friends, to preserve
empty combs from the ravages of the bee-moth.” He even recommends rear-
ing spiders; that is, to place the so-called ‘“‘spider bags,” or webs, full of
eggs, in the boxes in which the empty combs are kept over winter. This
270 AUSTRALASIAN

MICE.

These little pests are sometimes as great a nuisance in the
apiary as they are in domestic dwellings. They destroy the
combs, create disgusting smells, and when they gain a footing
in a hive it usually ends in the destruction of the colony. It
is a good plan to keep a cat or two about the apiary, especially
if it should be some distance from the dwelling-house. If the
hives, however, are made in accordance with the instructions
given in Chapter VL., it will be almost impossible for these little
wretches to enter, as the entrance will not be large enough to
admit them.

ANTS.

In some countries ants are the cause of much annoyance to
bees and bee-keepers. In the warmer parts of the Australian
colonies some of the larger species are numerous, and there
they become very troublesome. In South Australia Mr. Bonney
says, “In some districts the hives must be protected from them
(the ants), otherwise they would destroy the bees. I find
Italians protect themselves against ants much better than the
blacks.” In New South Wales I am informed that “ants are
sometimes troublesome ;” and Mr. David Gloss, writing from
Victoria, says he never found or heard of ants being trouble-
some in the cool districts (Kyneton and Ballarat), but they
may be in the warm districts. The smaller species, such as I
have seen in New Zealand, do but little damage; and as it is
a rare occurrence to find them in hives that are properly man-
aged, they are scarcely worth taking into consideration. But
where the larger kinds exist, I would advise the bee-keeper to
keep a sharp look-out for their nests, and destroy them. When
in the hive, they usually congregate above the mat in the upper
part, where they may be swept off and destroyed.

Some writers recommend placing poisoned saccharine matter
or meat in vessels well protected from the bees by a covering
of wire-cloth, and putting these near the hives where the ants
are numerous. Large numbers may be trapped in this way.
A narrow strip of fur tacked completely round the under edge
hint, like everything coming from the same source, is worthy of all attention.
But though in this way we may indeed convert the spider into a friend or

ally of the bce-keeper, we must continue to class it amongst the “ enemies of
bees, and to banish itfrom the vicinity of working hives.
BEE MANUAL. 271

of the bottom-board—hairy side down—affords a good protec-
tion against these insects entering the hive. If this practice
is to be followed, the cross-pieces or stands below the bottom-
board would need to be cut shorter to allow room for the strip
of fur to pass them, and nothing in the shape of grass or weeds

must be allowed to touch the hives, or the fur would be
useless,

BEE-HAWK (LIBELLULA).

This is a handsome four-winged insect (Fig. 125), commonly
known as the dragon-fly. It captures the bees while on the
wing, swooping down on them with great swiftness, and no

 

Fig. 125,-BEE-HAWK (Libellula).

doubt it is from this circumstance it derives its name. I once
caught a splendid specimen, measuring fully three inches in
length ; it had just caught a bee in its formidable jaws and
settled close to where I was standing. It is easily scared or
frightened away, and maybe killed on the wing by using a
whip. It is found in greatest numbers near still water, in
which it lays its eggs and the larve are reared.

THE BEE OR WAX MOTH.

I believe there will be found to be many separate species or
varieties amongst the moths which infest beehives in different
272 AUSTRALASIAN

countries. Langstroth, following Linneus and Réaumur, speaks
of the tinea cereana and tinea mellonelia; Cook, following Fabri-
cius, calls the bee-moth galleria cereana, and says it belongs to
the family of snout-moths, Pyralide, and that “its members
are very readily recognised by their usually long palpi, the
so-called snouts.”

The moth has been found a serious evil in some of the
Australian colonies, at least previous to the introduction of the
Italian bee. Mr. Fullwood states that the race of black bees
was nearly exterminated in Queensland by the moths, but that
when Ligurians were imported they soon defended themselves,
and obtained the mastery ; and Mr. E. Palmer, of New South
Wales, says, ‘The bee-moth is the great scourge of the wild
and cultivated bees, and the only serious obstacle to successful
bee farming of which I have, during a series of years, had any
experience.” I believe the Australian moth to be identical
with the American one. In New Zealand, the moth found in
hives is of a smaller species, and is not likely to give much
trouble in well-kept hives.

TINEA CEREANA-
The following description of this moth in America is taken
from Dr. Harris's report on the insects of Massachusetts, as
quoted in Langstroth’s work :—

 

Fig. 126,—BEE-MOTH (Tinew cereana).

“Very few of the tinew exceed or even equal it in size. In its adult
state it is a winged moth, or miller, measuring, from the head to the
tip of the closed wing, from five-eighths to three-quarters of an inch
in length, and its wings expand from an inch and one-tenth to one
inch and four-tenths. The four wings shut together flatly on the top
of the back, slope steeply downwards at the sides, and are turned
up at the ends somewhat like the tail of a fowl. The female is much
larger than the male, and dark coloured. There are two broods of
this insect in the course of a year. Some winged moths of the first
BEE MANUAL. 273

brood begin to appear towards the end of April or early in May—
earlier or later, according to climate and season. Those of the second
brood are most abundant in August ; but some may be found between
these periods, and even much later.”

The bee-moth I have seen here in New Zealand does not
exceed a quarter of an inch in length, and, as far as my expe-
rience teaches me, is identical with the clothes moth, and will
be easily recognised by most of my readers.

 

Fig. 127,—-MALE AND FEMALE BEE-MOTH.

The engravings shown in this chapter represent the bee-moth
and its ravages described by Langstroth ; but as its habits are
the same as those in Australasia, they convey all the informa-
tion necessary to put the apiarist on his guard.

DAMAGE TO COMBS.

In warm evenings the female moth may be often seen about
the hives, seeking for a place to deposit eggs, which she usually
does in any cracks or crevices about it. These eggs are white,
round, and very small. Ina short time they hatch into dirty
grey-looking caterpillars, and it is in this stage they commit
their ravages by destroying the combs.

 

Fig. 128,-SILKEN TUBE OF BEE-MOTH LARVA.

As a defence from the attacks of the bees, each of the larve
envelopes itself in a silken tube (Fig. 128), which they extend
v
274 AUSTRALASIAN

through the combs as they advance, often detaching them and
and causing them to fall together. These tubes will, in time,
extend through the whole of the combs, killing the larve of
the bees, and ultimately destroy the whole colony.

 

Fig, 129,—SILEEN TUBE IN COMB,
Cook says :
“In three or four weeks the larve are full grown (Fig. 130). ....

They now spin their cocoons, either in some crevice about the hive, or,
if very numerous, singly (a, Fig. 131), or in clusters (b, Fig. 131), or on

 

Fig. 180.—LARVZ OF BEE-MOTH

the comb, or even in the drone cells (c, Fig. 131), in which they become
pupz ; and in two weeks—even less sometimes—during the extreme
heat of summer, the moths again appear. In winter they may remain
as pupe for months.”

And Bevan remarks :

‘‘Wax moths are remarkably active in their movements. ‘They
are,’ says Réaumur, ‘the most nimble-footed creatures I know.’ And
if the approach to the apiary be observed on a moonlight evening, the
moths will be found flying or running round the hives, watching an
opportunity to enter; whilst the bees that have to guard the entrances
against their intrusion will be seen acting as vigilant sentinels, per-
forming continual rounds near this important post, extending their
BEE MANUAL. 275

\
antenne to the utmost, and moving them to the right and to the left
alternately. Woe to the unfortunate moth that comes within their
reach! ‘It is curious,’ says Huber, ‘to observe how artfully the moth
knows how to profit by the disadvantage of the bees (who require

 

much light for seeing objects), and the precautions taken by the latter
in reconnoitring and expelling so dangerous an enemy.’ ”

REMEDIES.

The most effectual remedies against all attacks of insects,
including the moth, is to keep all the colonies strong, and by using
movable frame hives an enemy can be easily dislodged. The
bottom-board of a suspected hive should be occasionally exa-
mined ; for if the bee-moth has gained a footing in the hive,
the eggs and larve may be often found upon it, when of course
they must be at once removed and destroyed. If, however,
any colony should have become, through neglect, hopelessly
injured by these moths, then the bees should be transferred to
another hive, and the old one, with its combs, fumigated with
sulphur.

It is now an established fact, that wherever Italian bees are
introduced, there this terrible scourge ceases to exist, and there-
fore this one feature alone is enough to justify the introduction
of Italian bees in the place of blacks.

BEE-MITE,

My attention was called last May (1885), by Mr. A. Bow, of
Hokianga, to an insect he had found in his hiyeg.in great num-
276 AUSTRALASIAN

bers, which, he said, resembled cheese-mites. In a foot-note to
his letter, which was published in the late Journal, I suggested
the probability of their having been bred in the pollen, but
could not say what insects they were. Since then I have
examined under a microscope several lots of pollen taken from
combs that had been stowed away for winter, and in each case
I discovered these mites. On describing their appearance to
Mr. T. F. Cheeseman, curator of the Auckland Museum, he
said he had no doubt they were mites, but whether parasitical
or not he could not say. Professor Cook says: “The bee-mite
is very small, hardly more than five milimeters (one-fiftieth of
an inch) long. The female is slightly larger than the male,
and somewhat transparent. The colour is black, though the
legs and more transparent areas of the females appear yellow-
ish.” Those I examined were of a greyish colour, and semi-
transparent ; the full-grown insects possessing eight legs, and
some having long bristly-looking hairs scattered over their
bodies.

I have no doubt that where very numerous they might
become very troublesome, and do considerable injury to the
bees, though I doubt much whether they would be able
to gain a fvoting in strong colonies. I would suggest as a
remedy making an examination of the pollen in the hives
where they are found, and removing all that is infested by
them ; also to shift the bees into clean hives, and wash the
bottom-boards with a solution of carbolic acid. Probably
spraying the infested vombs with a solution of phenol would
rid them of the pest.

A CAUTION TO IMPORTERS OF BEES.

I have it from good authority that the bee-moth mentioned
by Mr. Fullwood as having worked such sad havoc amongst
the black bees in Queensland was accidentally introduced into
that country in the following manner :—In one of the earlier
attempts to introduce Italian bees (previous to the one made
by Mr. Fullwood in 1880) an imported hive with bees had
been landed at the apiary of a bee-keeper in the vicinity of
Brisbane. This hive, it appears, not only contained bees, but
also their greatest enemy, the wax moth peculiar to the country
from whence the bees had come, in all stages of growth, from
BEE MANUAL. :277

the larva to the perfect insect. The bee-keeper, in blissful
ignorance of the fact, opened the hive, and before he could
prevent it some of the moths took flight, and thus it was that
this terrible enemy came to be introduced into Queensland.
It is easy to understand that in so favourable a climate it
would take but a very short time for the country to be over-
run with the pest, and it is quite likely that ere this the moth
has spread over the greater part of the warm districts of
Australia.

Such a circumstance nearly occurred to myself. Some of
the boxes containing queens imported direct from Italy, that
came to Matamata in the latter part of 1884, were crowded
with eggs and larve of an enormous bee-moth, as well as the
perfect insect. Some of the larve measured over an inch in
length. As soon as I made the discovery that the boxes con-
tained such unwelcome intruders, I opened them very cau-
tiously, shifted the queens and bees to clean boxes, and burnt
the others, with their combs, without delay. The boxes were
opened in a room, so that if any moths had flown, they could
have been easily captured.

I would therefore warn all who may hereafter import bees
to be very cautious in opening hives or boxes, and to see that
no insects escape, and to examine the combs, or what is better,
put the bees into a clean hive, on clean combs, and make a fire
with those they came in.

FUMIGATING COMBS.

I have previously referred to fumigating combs to destroy
the bee-moth larve, or any other insects that. may have har-
boured in them. The following is the method :—Hang them
in a small close room (or if only a few, a large close box will
do as well), burn one pound of sulphur to every one hundred
cubic feet contained in the room or box. To burn it, get an
iron pot, put some ashes in the bottom, with hot embers, and
pour on the sulphur; shut the door of the room, or close up
the box, for two or three days.

When combs are stowed away during the winter months,
‘they should be looked over occasionally, and if necessary fumi-
gated again as above described. Combs containing honey
stowed away should also be fumigated, if eggs or worms of
‘bee-moth are detected in them.
978 AUSTRALASIAN

CHAPTER XVIII.

BEE FORAGE.

THE vegetable origin of both honey and pollen being under-
stood, and the facts being botne in mind, that bees can only
collect the substances they require from plants and trees that
are in blossom, and that the quality, colour, and flavour of the
honey vary very considerably according to the source from
which it is obtained, it will be easily seen how necessary it is
for the bee-keeper to make himself acquainted with the
resources within his reach; and not only with the names of
the different plants and trees, but with the character of the
honey or pollen afforded by each, and with the usual periods
of their coming into and remaining in blossom. These circum-
stances, as well as their bearing upon the practical operations
of the apiary, vary very importantly in different countries and
climates. In high latitudes, where the witters are severe, and
the bees confined to their hives for four or five months
of the year, it is clear that even if there were plants which
blossomed in winter, they would be useless to the bees, and
the bees equally useless to them. In temperate climates, how-
ever, where the bees can work more or less freely all through
the winter, though only producing surplus honey in summer,
it becomes a matter of great importance that there shall be a
variety of nectar and pollen-bearing plants coming into blossom
at different periods of the year, even in the depths of winter,
in order to afford forage at all times, and keep up the health
and strength of the bees without artificial feeding. And iu
more tropical climates, where the bees can rot only work, but
also breed, swarm, and store surplus honey, more or less, all
the year round, such a variety in the habits of the plants and
trees as will afford a succession of bloom at all seasons becomes
essential to the prosperity of the apiary. An intelligent
BEE MANUAL. 279

apiarist will therefore carefully study the peculiar circumstances
of his immediate neighbourhood, see what he has to expect
from the natural or existing flora of his district, and consider
whether he can improve his position by raising any varieties
of plants or trees suited to supply the wants of his bees at
times when the existing resources would be likely to fail.

ORDINARY SOURCES.

Some of the best and most generally known sorts of bee
forage are of a character which plainly invites the establishment
of apiaries in their neighbourhoods, wherever they are found
extensively, such as clover, heather, wild thyme or wild sage,
large orchards with their abundance of fruit blossoms, or forest
trees of some particular descriptions. The heaths of Scotland
and Ireland, the wild thyme of Greece and the wild sage of
California, are not to be sought for in New Zealand or Aus-
tralia ; but, on the other hand, the clovers and the fruit trees of
all kinds flourish so well in all parts of these countries as to
hold out the strongest inducements for their cultivation, and
the great majority of the bush or forest trees are peculiarly
valuable, not only on account of their honey-bearing qualities,
but also because they vary so much in their times of blossom-
ing, that some of them are available at almost every season of
the year.

NATIVE FLORA OF NEW ZEALAND.

Most of the forest trees indigenous to New Zealand are
honey-bearing, some of them remarkably so. The following
are the native, English, and botanical names of the principal
ones :—

1. Rewa-rewa .. Honeysuckle, Knightia excelsa.

2. Pohutukawa ... Christmas tree, Metrosideros tomentosa.
3. Rata... ... Oak-elm, Metrosideros robusta.

4, Hinau ... ee Elaeocarpus hinau.

5. Kahikatea ... White pine, Podocarpus dacrydioides.
6. Matai ... ... Black pine, Podocarpus spicata.

7. Miro... wee Podocarpus ferruginea.

8. Puriri .. ... New Zealand oak, or teak, Vitex littoralis.
9. Kohekohe .. Cedar, Hartighsea spectabilis.

10. Tawai ... sith Leiospermum racemosum.
11. Kowai ... ae Edwardsia microphylla.
12. Nikau ... ... Native palm, Areca sapida.
280 AUSTRALASIAN

In the bush are also generally found the native fuchsia, wild
clematis, rata creeper (white and red), karaka (laurel, corino-
carpus), koromiko (veronica), and many other flowering shrubs
or creepers ; in the open, both on hillsides and swampy places,
cabbage trees (Cordyline Australis and Dracena Australis), and
the New Zealand flax (Phormium tenaz), and in the fern-lands
generally, manuka (tea-tree, Leptospermum sccparium), rawiri,
(Leptospermum ericoides), and tutu (Coriaria sarmentosa).

Most of the forest trees, especially the first five in the fore-
going list, afford, in seasons when they blossom freely, not only
excellent quality, but also a great quantity of honey. They do
not, however, blossom equally well every year ; some of them
even do not blossom at all in some seasons. The same may be
said of the flax, which, however, in favourable seasons, exudes
such quantities of nectar, or honey-dew, that it may be collected
by hand. Dieffenbach observed, when examining the Taranaki
district in 1840, large patches of land covered with Phormium
tenaz of great size. “The leaves in many instances were twelve,
and the flower-stalks twenty, feet long; their flowers contain a
kind of sweet liquid in considerable quantities, the extraction
of which forms a favourite occupation among the New Zealand
children.” The honey obtained from it is generally so thick as
to be difficult to extract. The periods of blossoming of all
these trees and plants varies considerably with their geographi-
cal situation ; and it is very desirable that the particulars of
their habits in that respect, as well as the character of the
honey afforded by each, should be carefully noted by bee-
keepers in all the different parts of the country. Mr. J. Blair,
of the Great Barrier Island, about fifty miles north of Auckland,
reports as follows with regard to the native flora of his dis-
trict :—

“Here the cabbage tree blooms in October—Novemher; flax, Novem-
ber—December. Tea-tree, it is possible to get a specimen of bloom all
the year, but for practical purposes it blooms from the last week in
March to the end of December, and the bees work on it all the time.
My bees have been working on it now a fortnight, but it only gives
honey in quantity from the beginning of October to the end of Decem-
ber, and during that time they gather honey only. From March to
October they gather both honey and pollen. From October to Decem-
ber any one can both taste and see the honey in the blossom. Rewa
rewa blossoms from September 20th to December 20th: any one can

lick the thick honey off it with the tongue. When the bees get pro-
perly started on these, they don’t take notice of any honey lying about.
BEE MANUAL. 281

“In the middle of November the tree rata and pohutukawa begins,
and lasts to the middle of February. The white rata (creeper) begins
in December, and lasts till April; red rata (creeper) begins in January,
and lasts till May; koromiko begins in January, and lasts till June ;
nikau begins in February ; puriri begins in March, and lasts till No-
vember, although it is easy to get a specimen all the year; hohere (it
has a thick stringy bark), kohekohe cedar, mangeo, and another I do
not know the name of, all bloom in April, May, and June. These are
the principai trees we get honey from here. There are plenty of other
trees that bees work upon, but they either give honey in small quan-
tities, or we have not got them in sufficient number for the bees to
store honey from.”

In the Thames district, about as far south of Auckland as
the Barrier Island is north of it, my own experience is as
follows: Kowai commences to blossom in September, as also
tauro and mahoi—the first lasts four weeks, the second sixteen,
and the last eight ; hinau in November, lasting four weeks ;
rata and flax commence in December, and blossom four or five
weeks; cabbage-palm, beginning of December, lasting four weeks.
Besides those enumerated, there are other native trees and
shrubs which blossom between October and March ; amongst
the best for honey are pohutukawa, kahikatea, puriri, matai,
tawai, tariri, miro, karaka, native fuchsia, and nikau. Tea-tree
blossoms in September, but yields no honey in the Thames
district.

The honey from most of the native flora of New Zealand is
of a first-class quality, though not equal to that obtained from
white clover. Some of it granulates very slowly ; I have kept
samples nearly all through the winter without granulating.

NATIVE FLORA OF AUSTRALIA.

All the species of those two great families of trees so peculiar
to Australia, EUCALYPTUS and ACACIA, are good for bee forage,
yielding both nectar and pollen in abundance, and, what is of
especial importance in a climate like that of most of the Aus-
tralasian colonies, where the bees can gather surplus honey
nearly all the year round, they seem as if specially designed
to supplement each other; the eucalypti blooming, as a rule,
in the summer half, and the acacias in the winter half of the
year.
983 AUSTRALASIAN

NEW SOUTH WALES.

Mr. Thomas E. Willis, to whose kindness I am indebted for
much information with reference to bee culture in New Sotith
Wales, reports on the bee forage of that colony as follows :—

‘The honey season on tke coast takes place in spring, whilst inland
the sumnier is the best season; this is owing in a great measure to
the vast forests of gum trees being then in full bloom, whilst on the
coast there is a profusion of winter and spring flowers and golden
wittles, the latter being a favourite with the bees. The principal
bush trees about Sydney are, spotted gum,* black butt,t iron bark,
woolly butt, and honeysuckle: from all these the bees derive susten-
ance I have also noticed them on the large flowers of the dogwood,
a kind of dwarf gum. In Baron Miiller’s Botanic Teachings, he
méntions the honey eucalyptus (Z. melliodora) as a favourite with bees,
as its blossom: exude much nectar, and also the Cape honeysuckle, or
Protea mellifera. The Wigandea caracasana, which keeps in flower
from August till November, is an espécial favourite with the bees ; it
has large leaves, about eighteen inches by twelve, and bears numerous
spikes of blue flowers ; it is an ornamental shrub, and thrives well in
gardens about Sydney. It isa native of America, tropical and sub-
tropical.”

SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

With reference to the district immediately around Adelaide,
Mr. A. E. Bonney informs me that the chief sources of the
honey crop are the blossoms of the Eucalypti :—

“These trees, of which there is a great variety, flower on the plains
from December to the end of March, and on the hills from October to
March. The quality of the honey is very fine. Perhaps the most
valuable is #. rostrata (red gum), which produces a copious flow of
honey during January and February. In spring the dandelions, or
Cape marigold, yield a large harvest, but the honey is of poor quality.
In favoured localities, such as Mount Barker, the honey season lasts
all the year round ; but as arule, from January Ist to February 28th
may be called the honey season. At Mount Barker, Mr. Justice Bou-
cant has been getting surplus honey during the past eighteen months;
also one of my colonies has been filling section boxes for eleven months,
only stopping for four weeks whilst I was treating them for foul-brood.”

Acacias, or wattles, are also plentiful here as elsewhere in
Australia. The black wattle (.4. decurrens) and the coast wattle
are described as furnishing very good bee forage on the south-
east coast. Mr. Bonney, in writing to the Mew Zealand and

* E. goniocalyz. t E. pilularis. t EB. leucoxylon.
BEE MANUAL. 983

Australian Bee Journal, about one species known here in New
Zealand as common wattle, says:

“‘The botanical name of the acacia referred to by T. J. M., in
‘Notes about Bee Forage’ (Part I.), is Acacia lophantha. I can fully
endorse all he says about the usefulness of this tree as a honey pro-
ducer ; but in South Australia it is objectionable, because of its rank
growth and very unpleasant smell. At the end of the second part of
his ‘ Notes on Bee Forage,’ T. J. M. remarks that none of the red or
blue gums in his neighbourhood are more than seven or eight years
old, and scarcely any have as yet commenced to bear blossoms. This
is an objection to most of the eucalypti; it is so long before they
flower, and when they do, little honey appears to be secreted until
the trees attain a large size. Mucalyptus carophylla (the red gum of
Western Australia) is an exception, and is a tree that I would like to
bring under the notice of all bee-keepers throughout Australia and
New Zealand. According to Miiller, this tree, in its native land,
grows to a height of 150 feet, with stems occasionally ten feet in dia-
meter. It is the most ornamental gum I have seen; the foliage is
denser and more horizontal than that of any other species we know of,
and the tree is readily distinguished by its large seed-pods. Around
Adelaide it does very well, comes into flower a few years after planting,
and offers a fine pasturage for bees. In some instances the foliage is
almost hidden by the large masses of beautiful white blossom. The
tree remains in bloom several months, and during that time it is always
crowded with bees. I have never known a season when this gum did
not flower.”

VICTORIA.

As regards this colony, Mr. David Gloss informs me that the
chief sources of honey supply in the cool districts are white
clover and thistles, and in the hot districts eucalypti, or gum
trees ; and that in several hot districts, which are also treeless,
bees have generally died out when introduced. Another cor-
respondent praises the acacias, black wattle and coast wattle,
as invaluable for bee forage.

QUEENSLAND.
Mr. Chas. Fullwood says, with regard to Queensland :

‘Our principal source of honey is the various species of eucalypti,
which afford supplies the greater portion of the year, as they bloom
during all the months from August to April and May, and, in’ fact,
some bloom during the winter menths, when the bees gather, through
the warmer hours of the day, a small amount of honey. What is most
popularly known as ‘tea tree’ here is just now (June) going out of
blossom ; this supplies a large amount of honey of rather high colour
and rank sweet flavour, which it to a large extent loses while ripening,
but which is easily detected when first gathered.
284 AUSTRALASIAN

‘‘There are many tropical and European trees, shrubs, plants, etc.,
cultivated here, that yield good supplies of excellent honey, blooming
at various periods during the warm months, yet, as a rule, not culti-
vated in sufficiently large numbers in any localities to supply any
number of stocks with a particular kind of honey. Clover is not much
cultivated ; so we do not obtain ‘clover honey.’ Lucerne is largely
grown in localities near town ; and where it is allowed to bloom and
mature, I believe the bees work on it well, In the neighbourhood of
orange orchards bees gather very fine honey from thence; still our
principal source is eucalypti, which affords a very sweet article, ranging
in colour from amber to dark orange; wild flowers and grasses, too,
yield nectar. Iam not able to state if any of the latter a in suffi-
cient numbers to grade honey as from such sources, or detect by the
flavour from whence it is secured.

‘* As the industry progresses, and keener observation is awakened,
we shall be able to glean much more retiable information, of which we
may avail ourselves in the future.”

TASMANIA,

This island, as the native place of the #. globulus, or Tasma-
nian blue gum, is well supplied with that and other varieties,
as well as with acacias. Mr. Hood informs me that amongst
the native trees, ‘the different varieties of the eucalyptus, box,
and lightwood are splendid honey producers. When the box
is in bloom, a friend tells me, ‘ you would think there must be
a swarm of bees in each tree.’ Immense quantities of honey
are got from the bush. One friend tells me he felled a tree in
which there were three large colonies of bees, and secured
630 Ib. of honey.” There are also large quantities of a native
heath which affords good forage for bees. Its splendid native
flora, fruit orchards, and beautiful climate must altogether
make Tasmania a grand country for apiculture.

EUCALYPTI AND ACACIAS IN NEW ZEALAND.

Von Hochstetter, when comparing the native flora of New
Zealand with that of Australia, mentions as a very remarkable
fact, “that under the families of Myrtacee and Leguminose,
exactly those genera which are most numerously represented
in Australia, the eucalypti and acacias, are entirely wanting in
New Zealand, although when introduced there they flourish
with extraordinary luxuriance.” The latter observation is so
true, that the different varieties of gum trees and wattles which
have been already introduced here are likely, in course of time,
to become as general as in Australia, if we except the great
natural forests, and confine ourselves to the plantations in
BEE MANUAL. 285

settled districts. The eucalypti heretofore generally planted
in New Zealand are E£. globulus (blue gum) and &. rostrata
(red gum). Of the acacias a greater variety have been already
cultivated ; amongst the rest, the following :—

—~ 1. A. lophantha, common wattle.
2. A. decurrens. black wattle.
3. A. dealbata, silver wattle.
4, A. pycnantha, golden or broad leaf wattle.
_. we 5. A. longifolia, long-leaf wattle.
6. A. melanoxylon, lightwood or blackwood.
~~ 7, A, undulata, Kangaroo Island prickly acacia.

Of these, the most valuable as bee forage in this country is the
first (notwithstanding the objections referred to by Mr. Bonney),
as it blooms luxuriantly from May to August, both months
inclusive, and sometimes also in Apri] and in September, and
during all that time affords ample stores of both nectar and
pollen ; so that where these trees are convenient, bees cannot
know what want is during the late autumn and the whole of
winter. Nos. 2, 3, and 4 are the sorts valuable as producing
tanners’ bark ; they are all great nectar and pollen producers
in July and August. No. 5 is an evergreen shrub, with long
lancet-shaped leaves, which blossoms luxuriantly from July to
September, but which also exudes nectar from a pore in the
upper edge of the leaf, near the stalk, and furnishes food for
the bees in that way for a couple of months before the blossom-
ing time. It is thus available for bee forage (and is a great
favourite with the bees) from early in May until the end of
September. No. 6 is somewhat similar to the last as regards
its leaves and blossoms, but is a tree, not a shrub, and one
of the largest of the acacias. No. 7 is used as a hedge plant,
and flowers from the beginning of August to the middle of
October; it is therefore available as bee forage when all the
other acacias are out of bloom, but at a time when there is
generally abundance of other spring forage.

EUROPEAN PLANTS AND TREES,

The climate of New Zealand and of most parts of the Aus-
tralasian colonies is so favourable to the growth of many
European plants, that we already enjoy the advantages of most
of the old-world bee forage. The clovers (and especially white
clover), which are the sources of probably the finest quality of
honey, not only grow well when sown in pasture or meadow
286 AUSTRALASIAN

lands, but spread rapidly over the still uncultivated lands in
the neighbourhood. Dandelion, or capeweed (something differ-
ent from the British dandelion, but equally good as bee forage),
is very abundant, and thistles, which furnish a very good honey,
spring up everywhere, for a time, in newly laid down lands, and
spread themselves along the roadsides and into the waste or
fern lands, wherever these have been for a while used as cattle
runs ; they thus become a very considerable source of the honey
supply in some parts of the country. The white thorn, sweet-
briar, and furze, or gorse, are all more or less used in different
districts as hedge plants; and whatever objections there may
be to the two latter sorts on the score of their spreading over
the lands and being troublesome to eradicate, wherever they
do occur they can only be welcome to the bee-keeper. Fruit
blossoms of all sorts are valuable in spring, and the willow,
which is here a widely spread tree, is one of the earliest sorts
of spring bee forage.

It may be interesting here, before proceeding to notice some
particular sorts of honey-bearing plants and flowers, to copy an
alphabetical list given in the work of Thomas Nutt, an English
apiarist, who wrote in 1832, as a catalogue of British “trees,
plants, and flowers most frequented by bees,” and all of which
either are already or may easily be cultivated here.

‘Alder, almond, Althea fontex, alyssum, amaranthus, apple, apricot,
arbutus (alpine), ash, asparagus, aspin, balm, bean, beech, betony,
blackberry, black currant, borage, box, bramble, broom, bugloss
(viper’s), buckwheat, burnet, cabbage, cauliflower, celery, cherry,
chestnut, chickweed, clover, cole (or coleseed), coltsfoot, coriander,
crocus, crowfoot, crown imperial, cucumber, currants, cypress, daffo-
dil, dandelion, dogberry, elder, elm, endive, fennel, furze, golden-rod,
gooseberry, gourd, hawthorn, hazel, heath, holly, hollyhock (trumpet),
honeysuckle, honey-wort (cerinthe), hyacinth, hyssop, ivy, jonquil,
kidney-bean, laurel, laurustinus, lavender, leek, lemon, lily (water),
lily (white), lime, liquid amber, liriodendron, lucerne, mallow (marsh),
marigold (French), marigold(single), maple, marjoram (sweet), millelot,
melon, mezereon, mignonette, mustard, nasturtium, nectarine, nettle
(white), oak, onion, orange, ozier, parsley, parsnip, pea, peach, pear,
peppermint, plane, plum, poplar, poppy, primrose, privet, radish,
ragweed, raspberry, rosemary (wild), roses (single), rudebchiz, saffron,
sage, saintfoin, St. John’s-wort, savory (winter), snowdrop, snowberry,
stock (single), strawberry, sunflower, sycamore, tamarisk, tansy
(wild), tare, teazel, thistle (common), thistle (sow), thyme (lemon),
thyme (wild), trefoil, turnip, vetch, violet (single), wallflower (single),
woad, willow-herb, willow tree, yellow weasel-snout.” ;
BEE MANUAL. 287

In many parts of continental Europe the chief honey harvest
is derived from the linden (Tilia Europea) and the acacia
(robinia or pseudacaci«), trees which are easily grown in these
countries also. Buckwheat, which is also much grown in
America, affords a late harvest of honey of dark colour and
inferior quality.

AMERICAN PLANTS AND TREES.

The American species of linden, the basswood (Tilia Ameri-
cana) stands at the head of the honey producers in the
Northern and Eastern States; the honey locust, named by
Quinby robinia or pseudacacia, but to which Professor Cook
gives the botanical name of Glidischia triacanthus, the latter
being the correct one, according to Johnson’s ‘‘ Gardener’s
Dictionary.” The liriodendron, or tulip-tree, the Judas-tree, or
red-bud, the magnolia, and the sugar maples, are all prized, in
various parts of the States, as bee forage.

Speaking of the basswood (Fig. 132) in his “A BC of Bee
Culture,” A. I. Root says of it: ‘‘With perhaps the single
exception of white clover, the basswood, or linden, as it is
often called, furnishes more honey than any other one plant or
tree known.” Comparing it with clover, he says: “ The best
yield of honey we have ever had from a single hive in one
day was from the basswood bloom: the amount was 43 lb. in
three days. The best we ever recorded from clover in one
day was 10 lb.” Fully ripened basswood honey is noted for
its delicious flavour. It blossoms in July in the United States,
and in many parts it is the chief dependence of the apiarists.
It does well in New Zealand.

The sages (salvia) of California are perhaps amongst the
most wonderful honey plants known at the present time.
There are different varieties growing wild on the mouttains
and in the cafions of this State, but I believe most of the
honey is gathered from what are commonly known as the
white, black, and button sages. The estimated crop of honey
last season (1884), for California, was about 4,500 tons. This
plant would thrive well north of Auckland, and in the warmer
parts of Australia. I grew some from seed sent me by Mr.
Wilkin, of San Buenaventura, when I was living at the Thames,
and they flourished splendidly ; but on taking the plants to
288 AUSTRALASIAN

Matamata, I lost them the first winter, as they could not with-
stand the frosts there.

  
 

 
      
 

mi
Pil

H

Fig. 132._AMERICAN LINDEN, or BASSWOOD (Tilia Americana).

The horse-mint (Fig. 133) is another plant (allied to the
salvias) from which enormous crops of honey have been taken
in the State of Texas, though it does not appear to yield honey
BEE MANUAL, 289

in quantity every season. Mr. B. F. Carroll, of Dresden, Texas,
reported a yield of nearly 1000 Ib. from one colony, gathered
principally from this shrub. I have now some young plants
growing, which have withstood the frosts remarkably well.
They would do well in most parts of Australasia.

The United States can boast of a number of what may be
termed fine honey-bearing weeds, among which figwort (Fig.
134) stands high. I have grown this plant myself for several
years, and can speak well for its honey-yielding qualities. As
soon as the first little pitcher-like flowers open, the bees are
constantly visiting the plants till they are out of blossom. They

 

ay Uf
Fig. 133,_HORSE-MINT OF TEXAS (Mouarda punctata).

flower for about two months, commencing at the end of No-
vember. Being tuberous-rooted plants, and dying down every
winter, frost does not affect them. The honey, as far as 1 can
judge of it, is very fine.

The golden-rods (Fig. 135) are members of a very numerous
family to be found growing nearly all over the United States.
They must be very valuable honey plants; for A. I. Root
states that “in some localities they furnish the bulk of the
great yield of fall honey.” These and the asters (Fig. 136),

U
290 AUSTRALASIAN

which are also autumn-blooming plants, and allied to each
other, would be of great value on that account in these colo-
nies, more especially in New Zealand, where there is rather a

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 134,—FIGWORT (Scrofularia nodosa).

scarcity of honey in the fall of the year. With regard to the
quality of the honey from these’ plants, Mr. Root, when speak-
ing of the golden-rods, says: “The honey is very thick, and of
africh golden colour, much like the blossoms. When first
BEE MANUAL. 291

gathered, it has, like the honey of most other fall flowers, a
rather rank, weedy taste; but after it has thoroughly ripened
it is very rich.

Spider plant (Cleome pungens) (Fig. 137) is another common
weed in some parts of the United States, which yields a good
quantity of nectar ; it is allied to, and very much like, the Rocky
Mountain bee plant (Cleome integrifolia). The peculiarity about
this plant is that it only yields nectar at night, commencing late
in the evening, at which time and very early morning the bees

 

Fig. 135.—THREE VARIETIES OF GOLDEN-RODS (Solidago).

visit it. I have had some very good reports of this plant from
those I have supplied with seeds. It lasts a long time in blos-
som, and is rather handsome when in flower. Mr. Root speaks
very highly of both the plant and the quality of the nectar it
yields. The seeds of the foregoing plants—that is, figwort,
horse-mint, golden-rods, asters, and spider plant—together with
any of the herbs, such as horehound, catnip, etc, might be
scattered about in waste places and odd corners, without doing
any harm, and with profit to bee-keepers.
292 AUSTRALASIAN

The next two plants, mellilot clover and giant mignonette,
are not natives of America. I obtained some seeds of them
from that country, have grown them both, and am therefore
acquainted with their honey-yielding qualities, and believe,
where there is ground to spare, they will pay to grow for honey,
though I do not at present advocate growing special crops for
honey, unless these crops are profitable in some other direction.

Mellilot, or sweet clover (Fig. 138), is a great favourite with
bees, though I think of little use for anything else than its

 

Fig. 1836.—ASTER (Starwort).

honey, of which it yields a large quantity. It has a delightful
perfume when in flower, and scents the air for a long distance.
It blooms for nearly four months, lasting right up to near the
commencement of winter. It will grow aimost anywhere, but
does best on fairly good land. It is a biennial, and blossoms
the second year; but it can be made to perpetuate itself by
sowing the same land two years in succession. I have had it
_ growing to the height of seven feet.
293

BEE MANUAL.

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Giant mignonette (Fig. 139) is another grand bee plant. All
the mignonettes are good for bees, and handsome as garden
plants. The giant variety has not the sweet scent of the
smaller and common kind, but the flowers are exactly similar
in appearance. I have had it in blossom for seven successive
months, and during the whole of this time it was continually
visited by bees, even when clover was at its best.

DURATION OF THE HONEY SEASON.

From what has been already said under the heads of
“Climate” and of “Native Flora,” both in this and in the

 

Fig. 188.—MELLILOT CLOVER (Melilotus).

first chapter, it will readily be seen that within the range of
New Zealand and Australia there must be considerable dif-
ferences in the time of commencement, and in the duration of
the so-called honey season, or that in which the apiarist expects
to take his crop of surplus honey. This is one of the points
deserving of the most particular consideration, as the judicious
bee-keeper will have to regulate many of his operations in
accordance with the peculiar circumstances of his district in
this respect, in order to obtain the best general results, and to
grade his honey according to the sources of supply which pre-
dominate during different portions of the honey season. I
shall here add only a few observations with reference to my
BEE MANUAL. 295

own experience in the Thames and Waikato districts, some
thirty miles south of Auckland.

Here the dawn of the honey season opens with the willows
and early flowering peaches. These blossom about the beginning
of September, and enable the bees very quickly to replenish the
stores of honey, at this time nearly exhausted.

Then follow other fruit trees, dandelions, daisies, hawthorn,
wild rose, some native trees, &c., and the honey season may be
said to have fully commenced in October, when clover begins
to blossom, and lasts without cessation, in a fairly good season,

       

y 2
YY a) s
Ww

Fig, 139.—GIANT MIGNONETTE.(Reseda gigantea).

till near the latter end of February, when the hot dry weather
causes a break, which lasts till the rains commence again
(usually in the latter part of March); when, if the weather is
showery, a considerable amount of honey will be gathered from

different sources through the latter part of March, April, and
a part of May.
296 AUSTRALASIAN

The time of commencement and duration of the autumn crop
entirely depends upon the rains ; if these should be late it will
of course affect the crop in the same manner, and also shorten
the honey season.

The autumn gathering is very valuable ; it enables the bees
to fill up empty brood combs with honey, thus putting the
colony in good condition for wintering, and renders feeding
unnecessary, a very important matter, especially to beginners.

In this district it is seldom that any surplus honey can be
obtained from the autumn crop ; but I have no doubt in more
favourable situations a considerable amount might sometimes
be taken.

FLIGHT OF BEES.

lt is generally understood that the usual range of a worker
bee’s flight is from 14 to 2 miles in all directions from the
apiary, although bees are known to go much further when
pasturage is scarce within that distance.

Of course the greater the flight the less honey is stored ; so
that the apiarist will understand how necessary it is, where
practicable, to have good and abundant pasturage near the
apiary. It is Mr. Langstroth’s opinion that “although bees
will fly in search of food over three miles still if it is not within
a circle of two in every direction from the apiary they will be
able to store but little surplus honey.”

OVER-STOCKING.

On the question of over-stocking many different opinions
exist, some thinking it almost impossible to over-stock a good
district, while others, again, believe it may be done. The for-
mer argue in support of their opinion that each day’s secretion
of honey in the flowers will, if not gathered the same day, dry
up or be wasted before evening. This being so it would take
an enormous number of bees to visit all the honey-producing
flowers every day, and until this is done, there can be no fear
of the district being over-stocked. This appears to me to be a
very reasonable way of looking at the matter.

My own idea is, that in most districts of New Zealand, and
the settled districts of Australia, a very large number of colo-
nies might be profitably supported in every square mile, and
the possibility of such districts ever being over-stocked is very
remote.
BEE MANUAL. 297

CHAPTER XIX.

APICULTURE IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE.*

THE benefits derived by both agriculturists and horticulturists
from the labours of the bee are now very generally understood
and acknowledged ; but still cases do sometimes occur, though
rarely, of farmers objecting to the vicinity of an apiary, and
complaining of bees as “trespassers,” instead of welcoming
them as benefactors.

ARE BEES TRESPASSERS ?

It is not, perhaps, surprising that at first aman should ima-
gine he was being injured in consequence of bees gathering
honey on his lund, to be stored up elsewhere, and for the use
of other parties ; he might argue that the honey belonged by
right to him, and even jump at the conclusion that there was
so much of the substance of the soil taken away every year, and
that his land must therefore become impoverished. It is true
that if he possessed such an amount of knowledge as might be
expected to belong to an intelligent agriculturist, working upon

A paper, from which the matter of this chapter is abridged, appeared in
the three numbers of the New Zealand and Australian Bee Journal for the
months of August, September, and October, 1884, and has since been partially
reprinted in more than one of the American hee papers. Since it was first
written, the subject of which it treats has been brought prominently forward
in consequence of the action taken by a farmer in one of the United States to
claim damages from a neighbouring bee-keeper for supposed injury done to
his grazing sheep by trespassing (?) bees. Just now, whilst these sheets are
passing through the press, the American Bee Journals are full of communi-
cations from bee-keepers, pointing out the absurdity of such claims, and
calling for united action in opposing all such attempts that may be made to
check the progress of bee culture. However unfounded and unreasonable
such claims really are and must appear to those who understand the nature
and habits of both bees and grazing animals, the mere fact of their being
seriously advanced is sufficient to show the necessity of bee-keepers adducing
such facts and arguments as are calculated to prove satisfactorily the ground-
lessness of all assertions to the effect that bees occasion any injury to the
farmer, either as regards the fertility of his soil, the condition of his crops, or
the safety and comfort of his grazing stock. [Since the above was in type the
lawsuit—Sheep v. Bees—has been dismissed by the Judges.]
298 AUSTRALASIAN

rational principles, he should be able, upon reflection, to see
that such ideas were entirely groundless. Nevertheless the
complaint is sometimes made, in a more or less vague manner,
by persons who ought to know better; and even bee-keepers
appear occasionally to adopt an apologetic tone, arguing that
“bees do more good than harm,” instead of taking the much
higher and only true stand by asserting that bees, while con-
ferring great benefits on agriculture, do no harm whatever, and
that the presence of an apiary on or close to his land can be
nothing but an advantage to the agriculturist.

BENEFICIAL INFLUENCE OF BEES ON AGRICULTURE.

We have already, in Chapter III., dwelt upon the value of
the intervention of bees in the cross-fertilisation of plants, and
can here only refer the reader for further information to the
works of Sir J. Lubbock and of Darwin. The latter, in his
work on “Cross and Self-Fertilisation of Plants,” gives the
strongest evidence as to the beneficial influence of bees upon
clover crops. At page 169, when speaking of the natural
order of leguminous plants to which the clovers belong, he
says, “The cross-seedlings have an enormous advantage over
the self fertilised ones, when grown together in close competi-
tion ;” and in Chapter X., page 361, he gives the following
details of some experiments, which show the importance of the
part played by bees in the process of cross-fertilisation :—

“Trifolium repens (white clover).—Several plants were protected from
insects, and the seeds from ten flower-heads on these plants and from
ten heads on other plants growing outside the net (which I saw visited
by bees) were counted, and the seeds from the latter plants were very
nearly ten times as numerous as those from the protected plants. The
experiment was repeated in the following year, and twenty protected
heads now yielded only a single abortive seed, whilst twenty heads on
the plants outside the net (which I saw visited by bees) yielded 2,290
seeds, as calculated by weighing all the seeds and counting the number
in a weight of two grains. Trifolium pratense (purple clover).—One
hundred flower-heads on plants protected by a net did not produce a
single seed, whilst one hundred on plants growing outside, which were
visited by bees, yielded sixty-eight grains weight of seeds; and as
eighty seeds weighed two grains, the hundred heads must have yielded
2,720 seeds.”

Here we have satisfactory proof that the effect of cross-
fertilization, brought about by bees, upon the clovers and other
BEE MANUAL. 299

plants growing in meadows and pasture lands, is the certain
production of a large number of vigorous seeds, as compared
with the chance only of a few and weak seeds if self-fertilization
were to be depended upon. In the case of meadow cultivation
it enables the farmer to raise seed for his own use or for sale
instead of having to purchase it; while, at the same time, the
nutritious quality of the hay is, as we shall see further on,
improved during the process of ripening the seed. In the case
of pasture lands, such of those vigorous seeds as are allowed
to come to maturity and to fall in the field will send up plants
of a stronger growth to take the place of others that may have
died out, or to fill up hitherto unoccupied spaces, thus tending
to cause a constant renewal and strengthening of the pasture.
The agriculturist himself should be the best judge of the
value of such effects.

The beneficial effect of the bees’ visits to fruit trees has been
well illustrated by Mr. Cheshire, in the pages of the British Bee
Journal, and by Prof. Cook, in his article upon “ Honey Bees
and Horticulture,” in the 4merican Apiculturist. In fact, even
those who complain of bees cannot deny the services they
render ; what they contest is the assertion that bees do no harm.

CAN BEES HARM THE SOIL, OR THE CROPS ?

Is then the question to be considered. The agriculturist
may say, “ Granting that the visits of bees may be serviceable
to me in the fertilisation of my fruit or my clover, how will
you prove that I am not obliged to pay too high a price for
such services?” For the answer to such a question one must
fall back upon the researches of the agricultural chemist, which
will furnish satisfactory evidence to establish the two following
facts :—First, that saccharine matter, even when assimilated
and retained within the body of a plant, is not one of the
secretions of vegetable life which can in any way tend to
exhaust the soil, being made up of constituents which are fur-
nished everywhere in superabundance by the atmosphere and
rain water, and not containing any of the mineral or organic
substances supplied by the soil or by the manures used in
agriculture; and secondly, that in the form in which it is
appropriated by bees, either from the nectaries of flowers or as
honeydew from the leaves, it no longer constitutes a part of
300 AUSTRALASIAN

the plant, but isin fact an excrement, thrown off as superfluous,
which, if not collected by the bee and by its means made
available for the use of man, would either be devoured by
other insects, which do not store honey, or be resolved into its
original elements and dissipated in the air.

The foregoing statements can be supported by reference to
authorities which can leave no doubt as to their correctness,
namely, Sir Humphrey Davy in his “ Elements of Agricultural
Chemistry,” written more than fifty years ago, and Professor
Liebig in his “ Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and
Physiology,” written some ten years later, and the English
version of which is edited by Dr. Lyon Playfair and Professor
Gregory. These works, which may be said to form the foun-
dation of a rational system of agriculture, were written with
that object alone in view, and the passages about to be quoted
were not intended to support any theory in favour of bee culture
or otherwise ; they deal simply with scientific truths which the
layman can safely follow and accept as true upon such unde-
niable authority, although he may be incapable himself of
following up the processes which have led to their discovery or
which prove their correctness.

SACCHARINE MATTER OF PLANTS NOT DERIVED FROM THE
SOIL,

Liebig, when describing the chemical processes connected
with the nutrition of plants, informs us (at page 4*) that—

“There are two great classes into which all vegetable products may
be arranged. The first of these contain nitrogen; in the last this
element is absent. The compounds destitute of nitrogen may be
‘divided into those in which oxygen form a constituent (starch, lig-
nine, &c.), and those into which it does not enter (oils of turpentine
and lemon, &c.).”

And at page 141 that

“Sugar and starch do not contain nitrogen ; they exist in the plants
in a free state, and are never combined with salts or with alkaline bases
They are compounds formed from the carbon of the carbonic acid and
the elements of water (oxygen and hydrogen).”

* The edition to which reference is made is the fourth, published 1847.
BEE MANUAL. 301

Sir Humphrey Davy had already stated that, ‘ according to
the latest experiments of Guy Lussac and Thenard, sugar
consists of 42°47 per cent. of carbon and 57:23 per cent. of
water and its constituents.”

Now Liebig, in several parts of his work, shows that the
carbon in sugar and all vegetable products is obtained from
carbonic acid in the atmosphere ; and that “ plants do not ex-
haust the carbon of the soil in the normal condition of their
growth ; on the contrary, they add to its quantity.”

DERIVED FROM THE ATMOSPHERE AND RAIN WATER.

The same authority shows (as we have already stated in
Chap. IV.) that the oxygen and hydrogen in these products
are derived from the atmosphere and from rain water; and
that it is only the products containing nitrogen (such as gluten
or albumen in the seeds or grains), and those containing
mineral matter (silex, lime, aluminium, &c.), which take away
from the soil those substances that are required to be returned
to itin the shape of manures. The saccharine matter, once it
is secreted by the plant and separated from it, is even useless
asa manure. Liebig says on this head, page 21 :—

‘‘The most important function in the life of plants, or, in other words
in their assimilation of carbon, is the separation, we might almost say
the generation of oxygen. No matter can be considered as nutritious,
or as necessary to the growth of plants, which possesses a composition
either similar to or identical with theirs; because the assimilation of
such a substance could be effected without the exercise of this function.
The reverse is the case in the nutrition of animals. Hence such sub-
stances as sugar, starch, and gum, themselves the products of plants,
cannot be adapted for assimilation; and this is rendered certain by
the experiments of vegetable physiologists, who have shown that
aqueous solutions of these bodies are imbibed by the roots of plants,
and carried to all parts of their structure, but are not assimilated ;
they cannot, therefore, be employed in their nutrition.”

NECTAR OF PLANTS INTENDED TO ATTRACT INSECTS.

The secretion of saccharine matter in the nectaries of flowers
is shown to be one of the normal functions of the plant, taking
place at the season when it is desirable to attract the visits of
insects for the purposes of its fertilisation. It may then be
fairly asserted, that the insect, when it carries off the honey from
any blossom it has visited, is merely taking with it the fee or
reward provided by nature for that special service.
302 AUSTRALASIAN

SOMETIMES THROWN OFF AS SUPERFLUOUS.

There are, however, occasions when considerable quantities
of such matter are thrown off, or exuded by the leaves, which
effect is taken to indicate an abnormal or unhealthy condition
of the plant. At pages 106 and 107 of Liebig’s book (speaking
of an experiment made to induce the rising sap of a maple tree
to dissolve raw sugar applied through a hole cut in the bark)
he shows (in a passage already quoted at page 86) that,

‘* When a sufficient quantity of nitrogen is not present to aid in the
assimilation of the substances destitute of it, these substances will be
separated as excrements from the bark, roots, leaves, and branches.”

In a note to this last paragraph we are told that

“Langlois has lately observed, during the dry summer of 1842, that
the leaves of the linden tree became covered with a thick and sweet:
liquid in such quantities that for several hours of the day it ran off the
leaves like drops of rain. Many kilogrammes might have been collected
from a moderate-sized linden tree.”

And further on, at page 141, he says :—

‘‘In a hot summer, when the deficiency of moisture prevents the
absorption of alkalies, we observe the leaves of the lime tree, and of
other trees, covered with a thick liquid containing a large quantity of
sugar ; the carbon of the sugar must, without doubt, be obtained from
the carbonic acid of the air. The generation of the sugar takes place
in the leaves; and all the constituents of the leaves, including the
alkalies and alkaline earths, must participate in effecting its formation.
Sugar does not exude from the leaves-in moist seasons ; and this leads
us to conjecture that the carbon which appeared as sugar in the former
case would have been applied in the formation of other constituents of
the tree, in the event of its having had a free and unimpeded
circulation.”

These quotations will probably be considered sufficient to
justify the assertion that the gathering of the honey from
plants can in no possible way tend to exhaust the soil, or affect
its fertility. There is no difference of opinion amongst scien-
tific men as to the sources from which the saccharine matter of
plants is derived. Since Liebig first put forward his views on
that subject, as well as with regard to the sources from which
the plants derive their nitrogen, the principles of agricultural
BEE MANUAL. 303

chemistry have been studied by the most eminent chemists,
some of whom combatted the views of Liebig on this latter
point (the source of nitrogen and its compounds), and Liebig
himself seems to have modified his views on that point ; but
there has been no difference of opinion about the saccharine
matter, as to which Liebig’s doctrine will be found given
unaltered in the latest colonial work on the subject, Maclvor’s
“Chemistry of Agriculture,” published at Melbourne a few
years ago.

SUPERFLUOUS NECTAR EVAPORATED IF NOT TAKEN BY
INSECTS.

That the nutritive quality of the plants in any growing crop
is not diminished by the abstraction of honey from their blos-
soms would appear to be evident from the fact already referred
to, that those plants have actually thrown off the honey from
the superfluity of their saccharine juices, as a matter which
they could no longer assimilate. There would appear, on the
other hand, to be good reason to believe that the plants them-
selves become daily more nutritive during the period of their
giving off honey, that is, from the time of flowering to that of
ripening their seeds. This is a point upon which, I believe, all
agricultural chemists are not quite agreed, but the testimony of
Sir H. Davy is very strong in favour of it. In the appendix
to his work already quoted, he gives the results of experiments
made conjointly by himself and Mr Sinclair, the gardener to
the Duke of Bedford, upon nearly one hundred different
varieties of grasses and clovers. These were grown carefully
in small plots of ground as nearly as possible equal in size and
quality ; equal weights of the dried produce of each, cut at
different periods, especially at the time of flowering and at
that of ripened seeds, were “acted upon by hot water till all
their soluble parts were dissolved; the solution was then
evaporated to dryness by a gentle heat in a proper stove, and
the matter obtained carefully weighed, and the dry extract,
supposed to contain the nutritive matter of the plants, were
sent for chemical analysis.” Sir H. Davy adds his opinion
that this “ mode of determining the nutritive power of grasses,
is sufficiently accurate for all the purposes of agricultural in-
vestigation.” Further on he reports, “In comparing the com-
304 AUSTRALASIAN

positions of the soluble products afforded by different crops
from the same grass, I found in all the trials I made, the largest
quantity of truly nutritive matter in the crop cut when the
seed was ripe, and the least bitter extract and saline matter,
and the most saccharine matter, in proportion to the other
ingredients, in the crop cut at the time of flowering.” In the
instance which he then gives, as au example, the crop cut when
the seed had ripened showed nine per cent. ess of sugar, but
eighteen per cent. more of mucilage and what he terms “truly
nutritive matter” than the crop cut at the time of flowering.
From this it would follow, that during the time a plant is in
blossom and throwing off a superfiuity of saccharine matter in
the shape of honey, the assimilation of true nutritive matter in
the plant itself is progressing most favourably. In any case it
is clear that the honey, being once exuded, may be taken away
by bees or any other insects (as it is evidently intended to be
taken) without any injury to the plant, by which it certainly
cannot be again taken up, but must be evaporated if left ex-
posed to the sun’s heat.

QUESTION AS TO GRAZING STOCK.

There is, however, a plea put in by the agriculturist on
behalf of his grazing stock, and one which he generally seems
to consider unanswerable. He says, ‘“‘ Even if it be admitted
that the removal of the honey from my farm is neither exhaust-
ing to the soil nor injurious to the plants of the standing crops,
still it is so much fattening matter, which might be consumed
by my stock, if it had not been pilfered by the bees.”

Now it may at once be admitted that honey consists, to a
great extent, of fattening matter, though it may be allowable
to doubt whether, in that particular form, it is exactly suitable
as food for grazing cattle. Although it is quite true that the
saccharine matter assimilated in the body of a plant tends to
the formation of fat in the animal which eats and digests that
plant, still one may question the propriety of feeding the same
animal on pure honey or sugar. We may, however, waive that
view of the subject, as we shall shortly see that itis only a
question of such homceopathically small doses as would not be
likely to interfere with the digestion of the most delicate grazing
animal, any more than they would considerably increase its
BEE MANUAL. 305

weight. Admitting, therefore, that every pound of honey of
which the grazing stock are deprived by bees is a loss to the
farmer, and therefore to be looked upon as a set-off, to that
extent, against the benefits conferred by the bees in other ways,
it will be necessary to consider to what extent it is possible
that such loss may be occasioned.

QUANTITY OF HONEY FURNISHED BY PASTURE LANDS,

In the first plave it must be recollected that a large propor-
tion—in some cases the great bulk—of the honey gathered by
bees is obtained from trees, as, for instance, the linden in
Europe, the basswood and maple in America, and in this coun-
try the forest trees, nearly all of which supply rich forage for
the bee, and everywhere from fruit trees in orchards. A large
quantity is gathered from flowers and flowering shrubs reared
in gardens—from clover and other plants grown for hay, and
not for pasture ; and even in the field there are many shrubs
and flowering plants which yield honey, but which are never
eaten by cattle. Pastures therefore form but a small part of
the sources from which honey is obtained ; and in dealing with
this grazing question we have to confine our inquiries to clovers
and other flowering plants grown in open pastures, and such as
constitute the ordinary food of grazing stock. In order to meet
the question in the most direct manner, however, let us assume
the extreme case of a large apiary being placed in a district
where there is nothing else but such open pastures, and grow-
ing only such flowering plants as are generally eaten by stock.
Now, the ordinary working range of the bee may be taken at
a mile and a half from the apiary on all sides, which gives an
area of about 4,500 acres for the supply of the apiary; and if
the latter consists of a hundred hives, producing an average of
a hundred pounds of honey, there would be a little more than
two pounds of honey collected off each acre in the year ; or if
we suppose so many as two hundred hives to be kept at one
place, and to produce so much as ten tons of honey in the season,
the quantity collected from each acre would be four to five
pounds.

PROPORTION POSSIBLY CONSUMED BY STOCK.

Let us next consider what proportion of those few pounds
of honey could have found its way into the stomachs of the
Vv
306 AUSTRALASIAN

grazing stock if it had not been for the bees. It is known that
during the whole time the clover or other plants remain in
blossom, if the weather be favourable, there is a daily secretion
of fresh honey, which, if not taken at the proper time by bees
or other insects, is evaporated during the mid-day heat of tlhe
sun. It has been calculated that a head of clover consists of
50 or 60 separate flowers, each of which contains a quantity
not exceeding 1-500th part of a grain in weight, so that the
whole head may be taken to contain one-tenth of a grain of honey
at any one time. If this head of clover is allowed to stand
until the seeds are ripened it may be visited on ten or even
twenty different days by bees, and they may gather on the
whole one, or even two grains of honey from the same head,
whereas it is plain that the grazing animal can only eat the
head once, au consequently can only eat one-tenth of a grain
of honey with it. Whether he gets that one-tenth grain or not
depends simply on the fact, whether or not the bees have ex-
hausted that particular head on the same day just before it was
eaten Now, cattle and sheep graze during the night and early
morning, long before the bees make their appearance some
time after sunrise ; all the flowering plants they happen to, eat
during that time will contain the honey secreted in the evening
and night time ; during some hours of the afternoon the flowers
will contain no honey, whether they may have been visited by
bees or not ; and even during the forenoon, when the bees are
most busy, it is by no means certain that they will forestall the
stock in visiting any particular flower. If a field were so
overstocked that every head of clover should be devoured as -
soon as it blossomed, then, of course, there would be nothing
left for the bees, but if, on the other hand, as is generally the
case, there are always blossoms left standing in the pasture,
some of them even till they wither and shed their seeds, then
it must often happen that after bees shall have visited such
blossoms ten or even twenty times, and thus ccllected one or
even two grains of honey from one head, the grazing animal
may, after all, eat that particular plant and enjoy his one-tenth
of a grain of honey just as well as if there had never been any
bees in the field. _If all these chances be taken into account,
it will he evident that out of the four or five pounds of honey
assumed to be collected ty bees from one acre of pasturage,
probably not one-tenth, and possibly not even one-twentieth,
BEE MANUAL, 807

part could, under any circumstances, have been consumed by
the grazing animals—so that it becomes a question of a few
ounces of fattening matter, more or less, for all the stock fed
upon an acre during the whole season ; a matter so ridiculously
trivial in itself, and so ous of all proportion to the services
rendered to the pasture by the bees, that it may safely be left
out of consideration altogether,

BEE-KEEPING AS A BRANCH OF FARMING.

There is still one point which may possibly be raised by the
agriculturist or land-owner: “If the working of bees is so
beneficial to my crops, and if such a large quantity of valuable
matter may be taken, in addition to the ordinary crops, without
impoverishing my land, why should I not take it instead of
another person who has by right no interest in my crop or
my land?” The answer to this is obvious. It is, of course,
quite open to the agriculturist to keep any number of bees he
may think fit; only he must consider well in how far it will
pay him to add the care of an apiary to his other duties. No
doubt every one farming land may, with advantage, keep a
few stands of hives to supply his own wants in honey; the
care of them will not take up too much of his time, or interfere
much with his other labours; but if he starts a large apiary
with the expectation that it shall pay for itself, he must either
give up the greater portion of his own time to it, or employ
skilled labour for that special purpose; and he must recollect
that the profits of bee-keeping are not generally so large as to
afford more than a fair remuneration for the capital, skill, and
time required to be devoted to the pursuit. In any case, he
cannot confine the bees to work exclusively on his own pro-
perty, unless the latter is very extensive. When such is the
case, he may find it greatly to his advantage to establish one
or more apiaries to be worked under proper management, as a
separate branch of his undertaking ; but in every case, whether
he may incur or share the risks of profit and loss in working
an apiary or not, the thing itself can only be a source of
unmixed advantage to his agricultural operations, and con-
sequently, if he does not ocucpy the ground in that way
himself, he should only be glad to see it done by any other
person.
308 AUSTRALASIAN

CHAPTER XxX.

USES OF HONEY IN FOOD—DRINKS—MANUFAC-
TURES—MEDICINE.

In Chapter I. the great antiquity and universality of the use of
honey has been dwelt upon with a view to impress upon the
reader its importance as one of those gifts of nature so evidently
intended by a bountiful Providence for the use and benefit of
man; in this chapter it is proposed to glance at the variety
of uses to which it is, or may be, applied at the present day,
with the object of turning the attention of the bee-keeper to
the practical question of developing a market for his produce.

HONEY AS FOOD.

Of the ordinary use of honey as a condiment for the break-
fast or tea table it is unnecessary to say much; every one
knows, and has known since his childhood, the enticing ap-
pearance of the luscious sweet in its delicate white comb—the
aroma and the delicious flavour, so different from most other
sweets; and of late years people are becoming accustomed to
appreciate also tle pure honey, separated from its comb (with-
out any unappetising process of squeezing through cloths), and
served either in its clear liquid state or in a thick granulated
condition which is now gradually gaining favour with hone
eaters. It is probable that the greater portion of all the honey
now produced is consumed in this way— either as comb honey
or in its extracted state, but still it has not reached the tables
of the hundredth part of those who could afford to use it as a
cheap luxury, if it were as generally produced as it might
easily be, and brought within easy reach of all consumers at
reasonable prices. It is capable of being made not only acheap
luxury, but a really economical article of food, for those to whom
strict economy is a necessity. Under proper arrangements it
BEE MANUAL. 309

can be placed on the table, as extracted honey, at half or less
than half the price, weight for weight, of ordinary butter, and
might with decided advantage be used as a substitute for some
portions of that admittedly desirable and wholesome article of
consumption. Dr. W. G Phelps, writing lately in an Ameri-
can paper (the Practical Farmer) says on this point :—

«Honey can really no longer be considered one of the mere luxuries
of life. For the poor it has become a cheap and wholesome sub-
stitute for the too frequently impure butter. Millions of pounds are
to-day consumed by rich and poor alike, where ten or fifteen years
since but a few thousands were used. The severe stab which the
manufacturer of the miserable glucose has received is due to a great
extent to this production of extracted honey. This being the pure
article, and produced even at a profit for ten cents (five pence) per
pound, has virtually gained the mastery in competition with the above
‘falsely so-named cheap sweet.’”

FOR DOMESTIC COOKERY.

But in addition to this well-known use of honey it can be
used with the greatest advantage in a hundred different ways
in domestic cookery. Mr. Newman, in his “‘ Bees and Honey,”
remarks: “The use of honey instead of sugar for almost
every kind of cooking is as pleasant for the palate as it is
healthy for the stomach.” And again: “In fact, honey may
replace sugar as an ingredient in the cooking of almost any
article of food, and at the same time greatly add to its relish.”
At the end of this chapter will be found a few of the recipes
usually given for honey-cakes of different kinds.

FOR PRESERVING FRUIT.

Honey is an excellent medium for stewing peaches or other
fresh fruits for table use, or for fruit pies; and it is also
strongly recommended for preserving fruits of all kinds. Dr.
Phelps, already quoted above, says :—

“Used instead of sugar for preserving raspberries and other fruits,
I know of nothing its equal, as to many such compounds it imparts a
peculiarly delicious flavour.”

And Mr. Newman observes :—

‘« Well purified honey has the quality of preserving, for a long time
in a fresh state, anything that may be laid in it or mixed with it,
310 AUSTRALASIAN

and preventing its corrupting in a far superior manner to sugar ; thus
many species of fruit may be preserved by being laid in honey, and by
this means will obtain a pleasant taste, and give to the stomach a
healthy tone. One who has once tried it will not use sugar for pre-
serving fruit.”

MODERATION IN USE,

There is no doubt honey, like everything else, may be abused
as well as used. Dr. Phelps remarks :—

‘‘Honey in its purity is a God-given sweet, and in its proper use is
conducive to health and strength. Indulged in immoderately, and
only then at rare intervals, it may, like many other excellent articles
of food, provoke an attack of colic or indigestion. Used however fre-
quently, and in connection with other food, it has a tendency to
produce pure blood and give tone to the human system.”

This is no more than might be expected, and something of the
same sort has been said a Icng time ago. Solomon, though
describing honey as something which is “sweet to the soul,
and health to the bones,” does not omit to warn against its
excessive use, as in Proverbs xxv. 16, ‘‘ Hast thou found honey,
eat so much as is sufficient for thee, lest thou be filled there-
with and vomit it.” And again in verse 27, “It is not good
to eat much honey, etc.” There are besides some people of
exceptional constitutions who cannot with impunity eat even
in moderation any of the purest honey, but such cases are very
rare. Referring to them, Dr. Phelps says: “To the rare
individual for whom the temperate use of honey may produce
functional disorders, I would say try heating honey before
using it, and see if all such trouble is not remedied.” Perhaps
however it would be wiser for such persons to abstain
altogether from the use of honey.’

DELETERIOUS HONEY.

As to some particular kinds of honey which are found to be
deleterious, if not absolutely poisonous, and which have been
referred to in Chapter IV., it is of course the duty of every
beekeeper to see that no such article finds its way into the
market from his apiary. His brand should be a guarantee for
purity in this respect as well as in all others. ‘The cases are
indeed exceedingly rare in which it can be truly asserted that
the pure honey itself is in any degree deleterious. When dis-
BEE MANUAL. 311

agreeable results sometimes arise from partaking of such honey,
it is much more likely to be caused by some portion of pollen
or bee bread, or even propolis taken perhaps in old parts of
the comb, and it is quite possible that even in such cases, if the
honey could be cleanly extracted, it would be found by itself to
be quite harmless. ‘The only instance at present known of
honey gathered in New Zealand being suspected of injuring
either bee or man, is that obtained from the Wharangi shrub
—and even in that case it is by no means proved that the evil
lies in the honey itselfi—and as that shrub only blossoms in a
few places where it is well known, and only for a short time,
and not in the season of the regular honey harvest, there is
very little chance of its becoming even mixed with the surplus
honey of an apiary. At all events it can scarcely be stored
without attracting the attention of the beekeeper, as its first
effects are shuwn upon the bees themselves, who are to be seen
lying stupefied, as it were, about their hive, though they seem
mostly to recover soon from these attacks.

Heretofore I have only referred to what may be termed the
domestic consumption of honey. It is used besides in the pre-
paration of certain articles of human consumption, upon so
large a scale as to be more properly noticed further on under
the head of manufactures.

FERMENTED DRINKS.

Mead and metheglin are two names meaning nearly the same
thing, and derived, no doubt, from the same root, which may
be traced through a great number of the most ancient languages,
thus showing the antiquity and the general use of the article
designated, which is simply a fermented drink, made chiefly
from honey. Methw is wine in the Greek, as is medo in the
Zend, or ancient Persian, and madia in Sanscrit. When we
come to the less ancient nations of the north and west of
Europe, who did not enjoy originally the juice of the grape,
but made their first fermented drink from honey, we find the
Teutons called that liquor meth; the Saxons, medo or medu, the
Gaels in Wales, mez, and in Ireland and Scotland, miodh or
meadh. These words were evidently all intended to mean a
“wine,” or strong drink, made from honey. The Russians
seem to have adopted the name for honey itself, which with
312 AUSTRALASIAN

them is med or meda. The name metheglin seems to be pecu-
liarly Welsh ; mezyglin, derived, according to Owen, “from
mezyg, a physician, and lyn, water,—a medicinal liquor.” But
we must recollect that mead in the same language is Bez. Mr.
Harris, the author of “The Honey Bee,” who seems to have
turned his attention to the history of honey drinks in Britain,
says, “Properly speaking, the word Betheglin was applied to
the superior sorts of mead, the two beverages being related
much in the same way as effervescing cider and the ordinary
draught cider.” He tells us that the manufacture of mead was
considered of such importance, that the brewer of that beverage
for former princes of Wales was the physician of the household,
and ranked eleventh in point of dignity; that Athelstan, when
king of Kent, is recorded to have expressed his satisfaction
that “ there was no stint of mead” when he paid a visit to his
relative Aethelfleda ; and that, ‘according to an antique rule
of the Welsh court, there were ‘three things which must be
communicated to the king before they were imparted to any
other person : first, every sentence of the judge ; second, every
new song; and third, every cask of mead.’” Mr. Harris also
gives us the recipe according to which the mead was made
every year for Queen Elizabeth, who was, it appears, very fond
of that beverage. It will be found amongst the recipes at the
end of this chapter.

There appears to be no sufficient reason why the making of
mead should have been given up, except that the great increase
of population, without a corresponding increase in the produc-
tion of honey, rendered it impossible to supply the requisite
quantity of such drinks, and brought into fashion the use of
beer and ale, which can be manufactured in any quantities
from malted grain. It is nevertheless indisputable that mead
continued in great favour, as Mr. Harris remarks, long after
the introduction of malt liquors, and it is probable that it only
ultimately gave way to foreign wines and to more potent, but
less wholesome, distilled snirits.

Considering the increased supply and reduced price of ex-
tracted honey at the present day, there is no reason why the
taste should not be revived, and some portion at least of the
beverages now in common use be replaced, probably with ad-
vantage in a sanitary point of view, by drinks prepared from
honey. For home use in country places where bees are kept,
BEE MANUAL. 313

or where honey can be cheaply obtained in the immediate
neighbourhood, such drinks are sure to come into favour.
Annexed will be found several recipes for the preparation of a
variety of beverages, varying in strength from a light summer
drink, like ginger-beer, to the potent miodomel of the monks of
Tokal.

MANUFACTURES.

The chief purposes for which honey is used in such large
quantities as may be considered to bring the operations under
the head of manufacturing industry, are beer brewing, liqueur
and vinegar making, confectionery, biscuit making, and fancy
soap making.

As regards the use of honey in beer breweries, an American
writer, Mr. G. W. House, says :—

‘*Grape sugar is now largely used in the manufacture of beer. Ina
conversation with a prominent brewer of Brooklyn, who is now using
dark extracted honey in place of grape-sugar, he said ‘that the honey
could be used at eleven cents (fivepence-halfpenny) per pound, and be
cheaper than grape-sugar, besides making a beer that could not be
excelled in purity and healthfulness.’ If bee-keepers will go to a little
trouble, they can establish a trade in this line that would demand more
honey than is now produced.”

There can be little doubt that brewers in all parts of the
world, where they find they can get a sufficient supply of honey
at a reasonable rate, will be glad to follow the advice of their
American colleague, or at least to give the system of manufac-
ture a fair trial.

Great quantities of honey are required for the manufacture
of liqueurs, vinegar, and for confections of various sorts. Some
fancy confectioners, or sugar bakers’ establishments, use up as
much as ten to twenty tons of honey each in a year.

A large demand has lately arisen for fine honey to be
employed in the manufacture of biscuits. In May, 1884, it
was announced in the British Bee Journal that Messrs. Huntley
and Palmer, the well-known firm of biscuit manufacturers, of
Reading, were prepared to contract for a supply of twou tons
of honey per week, or one hundred tons at the end of the
season, for the manufacture of honey biscuits. There are other
extensive biscuit makers who may be expected to follow this
example, though, probable, not upon so large a scale. Honey
314 AUSTRALASIAN

is also used in the preparation of honey soap, and probably in
some other branches of manufactures.

HONEY AS MEDICINE.

Gibbon, the historian, remarks of the ancient Greeks, and
especially the Athenians, “ They taught that health might be
preserved, and life prolonged, by the external use of oil, and
internal use of honey.” Physicians have continued to use
honey, more or less, in all ages up to the present time, both as
a medicine and as a medium for administering some drugs.
Mr. Newman, who has collected much information with regard
to the uses of honey in his work, ‘‘ Bees and Honey,” gives the
following quotation from a pamphlet by Herr Karl Gatter, a
German teacher, and editor of the Bienenvater, at Vienna, who
considers that his own life was saved by the use of honey for
the cure of diseased throat and lungs :—

‘*TIn medicine, and especially in the healing of wounds, was honey,
already in early times, used as a universal remedy ; it yet constitutes
the principal ingredient of several medical preparations, is used with
the best results in many internal and external diseases, serves as a
means for taking powders, for the preparation of salves, and the
sweetening of medicine.

‘*Honey mollifies ; promotes festering; causes gentle purging,
divides and dissolves, warms, nourishes, stops pains, strengthens the
tone of the stomach, carries away all superfluous moisture, aids diges-
tion, thins and purifies the blood, and animates and strengthens the
breast, nerves and lungs. Honey is therefore to be used when suffering
from cough, hoarseness, stoppage of the lungs, shortness of breath, and
especially with the best results in all affections of the chest.

“* Many persons afflicted with various species of consumption, thank
the use of good honey, either for their entire restoration to health, or
for the mitigation of their often painful condition of body and mind.

‘¢ Honey is also an excellent remedy for the occasional inactivity of
the abdominal organs, and a means of strengthening weak nerves. For
severe coughing, barley-water mixed with honey and the juice of
lemons, drank warm, is a pleasant relief. It appeases and mitigates
fevers, and owing to its taste and its soothing qualities, it is used as
a gargle. :

“* Honey can also be used with advantage in asthma, in constipation,
in sore throat ; promotes perspiration, lessens phlegm, and is very
healing to the chest, sore from coughing.

‘‘With old persons the use of honey is very useful, since it produces
warmth and a certain activity of the skin. For persons leading a
sedentary life, and suffering from costiveness, and especially from piles,
pure unadulterated honey, either mixed in their drink, used alone, or
on bread, is the best and healthiest means of relief.
BEE MANUAL, 315

‘‘Honey has also great value as a medicine for children, and is
readily partaken of by thom as a choice dainty dish. It is especially
useful to children attlicted with scrofula or rickets. In difficult
teething, rub the gums with a mixture of honey and an emulsion of
quinces. For the removing of worms, lioney has often been beneticially
used, and it is often used in diseases of the mouth and throat.

‘* Honey mixed with flour and spread on linen or leather is a simple
remedy for bringing to head, or to maturity, boils, &e. Also, honey
mixed with flour or fried onions, serves an excellent purpose as a
covering for any hard swelling or callosity or abscess; and for ulcers
it is often mixed with turpentine, tar, and tincture of myrrh. A
plaster made of unslaked lime and honey has sometimes relieved most
obstinate sciatica.

‘Tf good honey is applied to inflamed wounds or boils, it lessens the
drawing, quiets the pain and produces a good festering or suppuration.
Undoubtedly, for all wounds, pustulous inflammations, bruisesand bad
festerings, honey is the best and most reliable remedy, and affords
quicker and safer help than all other known plasters ; all that is needed
is to spread it rather thick on a piece of linen, place it upon the fresh
wound, bind it fast, and renew the plaster every four or five hours.
Of course, if bones are broken, surgical aid must be had.

‘‘ Honey-dough—arto mele—a plaster made out of honey and rye
flour or rye bread, into which henbane or other narcotic substances is
mixed, is an excellent means of irritation ; which should be used in
festering and bringing the sore to a head, and assuage the drawing
and pain. It should be warmed, spread on a piece of linen and placed
upon the sore part.

‘« For persons who are weakened through fast living, honey is, of all
helps, the best nourishment, since it not only removes the poisons in
the system, but also through its virtues strengthens the system ; hence
it has made itself so necessary to the inhabitants of the Orient.”

as

RECIPES.
HONEY CAKES.

In Germany “Honig Kuchen” or honey cake, is quite an
institution. The booths exhibiting this article in all its
varieties form one of the most characteristic features of the
German Kirmesses or Fairs, which are -held periodically in
most of the towns, as well as at the Schutsen Fests and all
similar public festivities. Some of the following recipes taken
from Mr. Newman’s book no doubt represent the articles ex-
posed for sale on such occasions :—

Hampure Honey Caxz.—The flour intended for this cake should

be well dried and sifted before being weighed; then take twelve
pounds of flour and twelve pounds of honey; bring the honey toa
316 AUSTRALASIAN

boiling heat, pour it in the flour, and mix thoroughly. Dissolve two
and a half ounces of pearlash in two gills of rose-water, the evening
before ; take one pound of butter or lard, two tablespoonsful of West
India rum, the grated rind of two lemons, the candied or sugar-coated
rind of two oranges, and.a very small quantity of pounded cloves.
The solution of pearlash is to be added when the dough has become
cool, and the mass must be thoroughly kneaded. The dough may be
prepared several days in advance of the baking.

Howry Brown Caxu.—To four pounds of flour take four pounds of
honey, one half pound of pulverized loaf or lump sugar, one-half ounce
of Canella, three ounces of lard, a small quantity of cloves, one ounce
of pearlash, one gill of rose-water, and two spoonsful of rum or French
brandy. The honey and lard are to be incorporated by boiling, and
when again cooled off, add the pearlash previously dissolved in the
rose water. Knead the mass well, let it stand for several days, and
then work it over again very thoroughly. Some persons prefer to
omit the cloves, and substitute for them pounded cardamon seeds,
grated lemon peel, or sugar-coated orange peel.

Honey Apprie Caxes.—Soak three cups of dried apples over night ;
chop slightly, and simmer in two coffee cups of honey for two hours,
then add one-and-a-half coffee cups of honey, one-half coffee cup of ©
sugar, one coffee cup of melted butter, three eggs, two teaspoonsful of
saleratus ; cloves, cinnamon, powdered lemon or orange peel, and
ginger syrup, if you have it. Mix all together, add the apples and
then flour enough for a stiff batter. Bake in aslow oven. This will
make two good-sized cakes.

Honey Fruir Cakz.—Four egge, 5 cups of flour, 2 cups of honey,
1 teacupful butter, 1 cup sweet milk, 2 teaspoonsful cream of tartar,
1 teaspoonful soda, llb. raisins, 1llb. currants, $lb. citron, 1 tea-
spoonful each cloves, cinnamon and nutmeg ; bake in a large loaf in a
oe oven. This will be nice months after baking as well as when
resh,

MEAD, METHEGLIN, MIODOMEL,

MrEsaD—QUEEN ExizaBETH’s Recire.—Take of sweetbriar leaves and
thyme each one bushel, rosemary half a bushel, bay leaves one peck.
Seethe these ingredients in a furnace full of water (containing probably
not less than 120 gallons), boil for half an hour ; pour the whole into a
vat, and when cooled to a proper temperature (about 75° Fahr.), strain.
Add to every six gallons of the strained liquor a gallon of fine honey,
and work the mixture together for half an hour. Repeat the stirring
occasionally for two days; then boil the liquor afresh, skim it till it
becomes clear, and return it to the vat to cool. When reduced again
toa proper temperature (about 80° Fahr.) pour it into a vessel from
which fresh ale or beer has just been emptied ; let it work for three
days, and then barrel it. When fit (after fermentation) to be stopped
down, tie up a bag of beaten cloves and mace (half an ounce of each),
and suspend it in the liquor from the bunghole. When it has stood
for half a year, it will be fit for use.—Harris’s Honey Bee.
BEE MANUAL. 317

MeErTHEGLIN.—Mix honey and water strong enough to carry an egg ;
let it stand three or four weeks in a warm place to ferment; then
strain through a cloth and add some spices to suit the taste. [Norz.
In working on this recipe we find 3lb to 4lb of honey to the gallon of
water is sufficient. About a teaspoonful of powdered ginger and half
as much allspice to each gallon. The bottles require to be well
corked as the liquor is as effervescent as champagne. ]

Sack Mrap.—To each gallon of water add 6lbs. of honey, and also
the white of an egg, and the shell broken up. Boil this mixture until
the scum has all been cleared off, then add one ounce of hops to the
gallon, and boil slowly for one hour. Strain away the hops, and
when new-milk warm add a small quantity of yeast on a toast ; let it
stand a couple of days, and then put it into a barrel, which should
only have been used previously, if at all, for white wine. Skim off
any yeast that rises before being put into the barrel. Let the mead
stand two years before bottling, and then when bottled it will keep
for any length of time, and the colour will deepen with age.

MrovomeE.. —The following recipe is from the prior of the celebrated
stronghold of Tokal, situated on the banks of the Bug, built in the
thirteenth century, asa security against the invasion of the Tartars
and Muscovites. This monastery enjoys a widely spread fame, through
its miraculous Holy Virgin, and still more through its excellent
miodomel. To twenty-four gallons of water put twelve gallons of
honey, and 12lbs. Lops ; boil them together over a very slow fire, till the
whole is reduced one-third. Care must be taken that the fire be not
too strong, yet the heat must increase gradually ; from a sudden and
excessive heat, a burnt taste will be communicated to it. From the
boiler empty it into a large tub or barrel, which must be deposited ina
warm place during eight days to undergo fermentation, afterward filter
through a wooden filter into a barrel, and place in a cellar for use;
the older it is the better and stronger it becomes. After twelve
months it may be bottled and kept for years. The peasantry gene-
rally keep it in barrels, where it is preserved as well as in bottles.
Half a pint of good old miodomel taken every second night before
going to bed, improves—and even restores to the stomach—the power
of digestion ; but if the miodomel be very old, say from ten years
upwards, a wine-glassful is quite sufficient and more effective. It is
also good in cases of gout and rheumatism.

Fruit Wine with Honry.—Take ten pints and a half of ripe fruit,
which may be either gooseberries, currants, raspberries, blackberries,
peaches, cherries, plums, or sloes ; pound them in twenty-one pints of
water, let them steep for four days, and then pour off the liquid. Press
the skins between the hands and add twenty-one pints of water ; let it
stand six hours, squeeze the skins hard, pour off the liquid and throw
away the refuse. Mix the two liquids together ; add 9lbs. of honey,
mix well, put into a cask, which must be entirely filled, and place it
where the temperature is from 59° to 68° Fahr. The liquid will soon
ferment and work out of the bunghole, which should be left open.
The cask should be constantly filled up with some of the diluted juice
reserved for that purpose, and when fermentation has nearly ceased
318 AUSTRALASIAN

the cask may be securely bunged up. It has a particular aroma, be-
coming better as it grows older, and is more valuable as a drink than
most wines sold by merchants.

Wine Mrap.—To make mead, not inferior to the best foreign wines,
put 3lbs. of the finest honey to two gallons of water, two lemon peels
to each gallon ; boil it one half hour, and skim well. Put in the lemon
peel while boiling. Work this mixture with yeast, and then put it in
a vessel to stand five or six months; then bottle for use. If you
choose to keep it several years, add 4lbs of honey to a gallon of water,

LIGHT BEVERAGES.

Curar Harvest Drink. —To those engaged in harvesting and
other occupations tending to create thirst, we recommend the following
preparation, which makes a very palatable: and healthful drink in hot
weather :—Take 12 gallons of water, 20lbs. of honey, and 6 eggs,
using the whites only. Let these boil one hour ; then add cinnamon,
ginger, cloves, mace, and a little rosemary. When cold, add one
spoonful of yeast from the brewer. Stir it well, and in 24 hours it will
be good,

Honry Mrav.—Take three gallons of water of blood warmth, three
half-pints of honey, two-thirds of a tablespoonful of ginger ; one-third
of a tablespoonful of allspice, and mix well together with a gill of
yeast; let it stand over night, and bottle next morning. It will be
in good condition to drink in 24 hours,

Hyprome..—This is a very nice drink and easily made. For Illbs,
of honey take from 26 to 52 pints of water, according to the strength
you wish to give the drink ; boil in a copper saucepan for an hour or
two on a moderate fire ; take off the scum assoon as itforms. Remove
from the fire, let it cool, and pour it into a clean barrel, which must be
quite filled, and place it with the bung-hole open in a dry, wholesome
place, having a temperature from 60° to 66° Fahr. At the end of two
or three days fermentation takes place. If long in fermenting adda
little yeast ; it will be active enough in afew days. Take care to fill
the cask out of a bottle previously filled forthat purpose. In a month
or six weeks the cask may be closed and putin a cellar. The liquid
clears and is soon fit to drink. .

MEDICINAL.

Honey Garcie (Consumptive Hospital recipe for sore throat),—
Borax, 1 drachm ; honey, 2 drachms; water, 4 ounces. Mix,

Honey Paste (pate au miel), for chaps, etc.—Clarified honey and
cold cream, equal parts, rubbed smooth together.

Honey anpD Borax, for sores in children’s mouths. — Dissolve 1 ounce
of borax in 1 ounce of glycerine, and then add 6 ounces clarified honey.

To CLartiry Honry.—Melt in a water bath (z.e., place a vessel con-
taining honey in a saucepan of water and heat), and strain while hot
through flannel previously moistened with warm water.
BEE MANUAL. 319

For Astuma honey is an excellent remedy. Mix 1 ounce of castor
oil with 4 ounces of honey. Take one tablespoonful night and morn-
ing. A simple and beneficial remedy.

One of the best uses that honey can be put to medicinally is in cases
of sore and inflamed eyes. There are numerous reports of late in the
bee journals from people who, after suffering for some time with these
complaints, and trying many remedies without getting relief, have
been cured by using honey wash.

Honey Eye Wash, for sore or inflamed eyes.—One part of honey to
five parts of water. Mix, and bathe the lids, putting a few drops into
the eye two or three times a day until well.

Honey also makes excellent vinegar. The washings of the extractor,
cappings, or vessels that are used for honey, that otherwise would
be wasted, will do for this purpose. About 3 or 4 poundsare sufficient
for 5 gallons. Putin acask and stand in the sun. Makes splendid
pickling vinegar.

These recipes have been taken from various sources and may be
relied upon, many of them having been tried by myself.

PROVERB.

‘© PLEASANT WORDS ARE AS AN HONEY-COMB, SWEET TO THE SOUL,
AND HEALTH TO THE BONES.”

Prov. xvi, 24.
320 AUSTRALASIAN

CHAPTER XXII.

CALENDAR AND BEE KEEPERS’ AXIOMS.

VARIABILITY OF SEASONS.

No invariable rules can be laid down for the work to be done
in an apiary each month, which can be strictly followed in every
place, nor even in the same place in every year. The whole
plan of operations must be suited in the first place to the
normal climate of the district in which the apiary is situated,
the nature of the bee forage available both in the spring and
the honey season, and to the natural habits of the bees as
influenced by their local peculiarities. If these circumstances
be properly taken into account, a set of general rules may be
established suitable to the average of seasons ; but even these
must be liable to modifications at the judgment of the apiarist,
according to the variations, or the more or less abnormal
features, of different seasons.

USE OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.

To any one at all acquainted with the subject it will be
apparent how much depends upon the manner in which the
bees get through the winter months, upon their condition in
early spring, upon the period at which they commence to rear
brood extensively and to prepare for swarming, and upon the
time when those trees or flowers which are to furnish the chief
crop of honey come into bloom; and it must be equally
apparent that all these things depend mainly upon the meteo-
rological character of the winter, the spring, and the summer,
especially upon the rates of temperature and of moisture which
vary a good deal occasionally in each season, even in the best
climates. We are all accustomed to speak in a vague manner
about mild or severe winters, early or late springs, and wet or
BEE MANUAL. 321

dry seasons, but without attaching any very exact value to
these different terms. To the bee-keeper it may be strongly
recommended to avail himself constantly of the records of the
nearest meteorological observatory—to make himself acquainted
with the normal mean temperature and rainfall of each month
and each season of the year—that is, with the average results
of observations continued over a large number of years, and
then to watch, note, and compare with this normal standard,
the mean temperature and the rainfall of each passing month.
He will thus, at least, impress upon his mind some definite
idea of how far the seasons of the current year correspond with
or differs from the average of years, and this will considerably
assist him in anticipating the probable course of events in the
approaching honey season, and will suggest to him the most
suitable mode of treatment for getting his bees into a condition
to make the best use of the harvest season when it arrives.
The system of recording such observations as those alluded
to above in a graphic form upon a diagram prepared for the
purpose is now so universally used in similar cases that it is
only necessary here to suggest its adoption to any one who
wishes to keep before his eyes a clear picture of the few simple
facts bearing upon the character of the months and seasons.

a as

CALENDAR.

IN arranging the apiary work for the different months I have
chosen the dates of the bee-seasons for the latitude of Auck-
land, New Zealand, as being nearest to those in the majority
of places in Australasia. Where they differ much the dates
can be altered to suit by carefully noting the time when willows
and early flowering peaches blossom, which in the latitude of
Auckland is at the latter end of August and beginning of Sep-
tember.
JANUARY.

In average seasons a good quantity of honey is gathered
during this month, and in late seasons the bulk of the crop is
often secured. Late swarms should be expected, but unless

w
322 AUSTRALASIAN

increase is required all precautions should be taken to prevent
swarming at thistime. Remove sections as soon as completely
sealed, and place them in the honey house for a few days to
ripen before packing them for market; take care that there
are no bee moths in the house. Extract as often as necessary
the surplus honey in frames.

FEBRUARY.

This is sometimes a hot dry month with a scarcity of bee
forage toward the latter part. Beware of robber bees as soon
as honey gathering slackens. The first month or six weeks
after the close of the honey season is the worst time for
robbing. If necessary to open a hive while robbers are about
use a bee tent to cover it. Keep down weeds and tall grass
around the hives.

MARCH.

Breeding will now begin to diminish, and a gocd look-out
should be kept for queenless stocks. AIl poor queens should
be superseded. With occasional showers the autumn flowers
now coming into blossom will yield some nectar which will
provide winter stores. Timber should now be stacked under
cover to season for making into hives and frames during the
winter. Look out for robbers ; contract entrances if necessary.
Rape and mustard seeds may now be sown for early spring
forage.

APRIL. ‘

Any colonies likely to be short of food for winter stores
should be supplied with sufficient towards the end of the
month. There should be from 25lbs. to 35lbs. in each hive at
the commencement of winter. All implements in the honey-
house and apiary, for which there is no further use, should be
cleaned and stowed snugly away till required again.

MAY,

Now will be the time to prepare the hives for winter by
removing all boxes not occupied by bees. Unite all weak and
queenless colonies, also queen-rearing nuclei, and see that all
are well supplied with food. Contract entrances and cover
the frames with an extra mat as the weather becomes cooler.
BEE MANUAL. 323

Stow all spare combs in the fumigating room, and give the
spare hives and boxes a brush over with a solution of carbolic
acid before putting them away for the winter.

JUNE,

If the instructions given for last month have been attended
to, the bees will need but little attention this month, and the
less they are meddled with during cold weather the better.
The planting of evergreens or other plants for shelter or bee-
forage may now be commenced. This is the best time for
shifting evergreens. The timber for hives and frames will
now be ready to make up as opportunities offer. See that the
hives are sufficiently ventilated to prevent dampness.

JULY.

Look out for leaky covers, and remove damp mats, re-
placing them with dry ones. Contract hives with division
boards where necessary, and confine the bees to as few frames
as possible. Select a warm day when the sun is shining to
examine the hives, and get through the work quickly.
Examine the combs in the fumigating room, and if moths or
their larvee are seen fumigate with sulphur.

AUGUST.

All hives should be well overhauled on the first fine days
this month and the condition of each noted. See to the food
supply, and feed where short, as a larger quantity will now be
required for feeding the brood. Clean the bottom boards, and
put in division boards where required. As breeding will have
commenced, care should be taken to keep the interior of the
hives warm. Remove any combs that are mouldy. Place
the hive on a stand alongside while cleaning the bottom board.
Unite weak and queenless colonies, and stimulate those re-
quired for queen-rearing purposes. Make up hives, frames,
etc., and send orders to the manufacturers for material required
for the coming season. Willows and early-flowering peach-
trees blossom at the end of the month. Sow seeds of honey
plants as soon as frosts are passed.
324 AUSTRALASIAN

SEPTEMBER.

Where spring forage is scarce, the bees should be fed
sparingly to stimulate brood rearing. As more room is
required in the brood nest, shift the division boards and place
a clean empty comb in the centre. Early in the month place
a clean drone comb in the centre of the brood chamber of the
colony chosen for raising drones. About the middle of the
month, if the season promises to be favourable, start cell-
building for queen rearing. Finish uniting, and beware of
robbing. Give frames of emerging brood from the strongest
to the weaker colonies. Sow seeds of honey plants for suc-
cessional blossoms.

OCTOBER.

Hives for the expected increase should now be ready to set
out before the swarming season commences, which will begin
in ordinary seasons about the third week in this.month. Cut
out queen cells as soon as ready, and form nuclei. Transfer
in the early part of the month. If increase is not desired, put
on surplus boxes before the bees prepare for swarming. Pre-
vent after-swarming. Enlarge entrances as the weather gets
warmer, and keep the apiary clear of weeds and long grass.

NOVEMBER.

As the surplus honey is secured, keep each kind as far as
possible by itself, more especially white clover honey. Extract
when necessary, and remove sections when filled and sealed.
Provide plenty of room in the brood chamber for breeding
purposes by extracting the honey from the combs carefully, if
necessary. Keep some spare queens on hand in nucleus hives.
Shade all newly-hived swarms, and give plenty of ventilation.
Buckwheat and mustard may now be sown for autumn flower-
ing.

DECEMBER.

The instructions given for last month will apply to this.
Keep down swarming by giving plenty of storage and breeding
space, and deprive before the hives get too full. Supersede
all poor and feeble queens. The main crop of buckwheat
should now be sown.
BEE MANUAL. 325

BEE-KEEPERS’ AXIOMS.

Mr. Langstroth, in his invaluable work so often alluded to in
these pages, has given the following axioms as “a few of the
Jirst principles in bee-keeping,” which ought to be as familiar
to the apiarian “as the letters of his alphabet.” They are so
true, that they are still, and must continue to be, as important
to all bee-keepers, whether novices or experts, as they were
when first penned. I have already given each a prominent
position at the close of some of the preceding chapters, in
order the better to impress them on the mind of the reader :—

1. Bees gorged with honey never volunteer an attack.

2. Bees may always be made peacable by inducing them to accept
of liquid sweets.

3. Bees, when frightened by smoke or by drumming on their hives,
fill themselves with honey, and lose all disposition to sting, unless they
are hurt.

4. Bees dislike any quict movements about their hives, especially
any quick movement which jars their combs.

5. Bees dislike the offensive odour of sweaty animals, and will not
endure impure air from human lungs.

6. The bee-keeper will ordinarily derive all his profits from stocks
strong and healthy in early spring.

7. In districts where forage is abundant only for a short
period, the largest yield of honey will be secured by a very moderate
increase of stocks.

8. A moderate increase of colonies in any one season will, in the long
run, prove the easiest, safest, and cheapest mode of managing bees.

9. Queenless colonies, unless supplied with a queen, will inevitably
dwindle away, or be destroyed by the bee moth, or by robber bees.

10. The formation of new colonies should ordinarily be confined to
the season when bees are accumulating honey ; and if this, or any other
operation, must be performed when forage is scarce, the greatest
precautions should be used to prevent robbing.

The essence of all profitable bee-keeping is contained in Oetil’s
golden rule—Keep your stocks strong. If you cannot succeed in doing
this, the more money you invest in bees the heavier will be your losses ;
while if your stocks are strong, you will show that you are a bee-master
as well as a bee-keeper, and may safely calculate on a generous return
from your industrious subjects,

FINis.
GLOSSARY

OF SOME OF THE TECHNICAL .AND SCIENTIFIC WORDS
MOST COMMONLY USED IN WORKS UPON
APICULTURE.

ABNORMAL.—Not according to a gene-
ral rule.

ABSCONDING SwaRM.—A swarm of
bees which goesaway tosome distant
place, either before or after first
settling ina cluster, or even after
being hived.

ANTHER.—In botany, the top of the
stamen of a flower, containing the
pollen or fecundating dust of the
plant.

APIARY.—A place where bees are kept
in hives.

APIARIST, APIATOR.—A person who
keeps an apiary ; a bee-keeper. The
second word not much used.

APICULTURE. — Bee-culture ; the art
of cultivating bees for practical pur-
poses.

APIARIAN, APISTICAL (adjectives).—
Relating toan apiary or toapiculture
in general.

APIDA.—The family of insects to
which bees belong.

APiIs.—Latin for bee; the name of the
genus of insects of the family a idee,
to which all species of bees belong.

APIS MELLIFICA.—The species of the
genus apis, to which all varieties of
the honey-bee belong,

ARRENOTOKIA.—The name applied by
Leuchart to denote a certain defec-
tive condition of queens.

ARTIFICIAL FECUNDATION, ARTIFI-
CIAL FERTILISATION. — Impregna-
tion of queens under the control of
the apiarist, said to have been ac-
complished, but not generally ad-
mitted to be practicable. The former
term is most correct.

BAcILLUS ALVEI.—Thescientificname
of the disease known as “foul
brood,” and also the name of the
germ which is the cause of the dis-
ease.

BACILLUSGAYTONI.—A germ disease,
causing the bees it attacks to become
hairless. .These hairless bees were
formerly thought to be old robbers.
(See page 266.)

 

BALLING A QUEEN.—Bees surround-
ing a queen in a small compact ball
or cluster, usually ‘done for the ‘pur-
pose of injuring or killing her.

BEE-BREAD.—Pollen of flowers pre-
pared by the bees-as food for their

arvee. In cold climates wheat, rye.
and pea flour are often provide

as a substitute for poles in early
spring. (See page 96.)

BEE CULTURE.—(See APICULTURE,)

Bux Forscu.—Trees, flowersorplants
of every description which furnish
the materials usually collected and
stored by bees. (See Chaps. IV. and
XVIII.)

BEE PasTURAGE.—Used in the same
sense as bee forage, but not so cor-
rectly, as pasture infers, strictly
‘speaking, an act of grazing.

Buiacks, BLack BEES.—Terms gene-
rally, though eee applied to
the common brown or German bee.

Broop.—Young bees, in all stages of
the change they undergo from the
egg until they emerge from the cell.

Broop CHAMBER, BRooD NEst. —

* The whole or part of the lower hive
occupied by the queen for breeding

purposes.

CaPpPED BRoop, CAPPED HOoN«EyY.-
Brood.or honey when covered up in
the cells of the comb with a cap
made OF the bees of wax, or a mix-
ture of ‘wax and propolis; also
termed SEALED. :

CAPPINGS.—The caps which are re-
moved from the -cells when the
honey is to be extracted. :

Cocoon.—The silky web which the
larva of the bee (or other insect)spins
round itself previous to its change
to the pupa state.

CoLony.—An established stock or col-
lection of bees, consisting of a queen
and workers,sometimes with drones,
settled in ahive. (See STock.)

Comsp.—A. double set of waxen cells
to contain honey, bee bread or brood,
built by the bees, one set on each
GLOSSARY.

side of a division called the septum,
which serves as bottom to the cells
on both sides—the whole forming a
sheet of comb.

CoMB-FOUNDATION.—A sheet of wax,
go stamped on each side as to form
the bases of two sets of cells, consti-
tuting an artificial septum,which the
bees can quickly build into a com-
plete comb

ComB GUIDE.—(See STARTER.)

Comps Honey.—Honey in the comb,
specially raised for table use.

DEPRIVATION. — Removing
from hives.

DiarRHa@aA, Dysentery.—For this
disease of bees—generally called by
the latter name, although the first
is pene the more suitable—see
Chap. XVI.

Drivine BeEs.—Forcing bees to leave
one box orhive and to enter another.
(See Chap. X.)

Drone Ece.—An egg that will pro-
duce a drone only; an egg unfer-
tilised by the male germ; may be
laid by an impregnated queen, a
virgin queen, or fertile worker.

DRUMMING.—Rapping on the sides of
a hive when driving bees.

DzIERZON (pronounced Tseertsone)
THEORY. — The theory of Pastor
Dzierzon, formulated into thirteen
peers and which forms the

asis of modern scientific apiculture.
(See pages 65 to 67.) “

EMBRYO QUEENS.—Queens in their
rudimentary or undeveloped state,
ae arriving at maturity in their
cells.

EMERGING BROOD, EMERGING BEES,
—Young bees which have under-
gone all the changes from the egg to
the perfect insect and then cut their
bea through the cappings of the
cells.

Farinacreous Foop.—Of a mealy or
floury nature, such as the pollen of
flowers.

FECUNDATE.—To impregnate. The
queen after her ‘‘ wedding flight” is
properly said to be fecundated,
though the term fertilised is more
generally but not so correctly used.

FERTILISE.—To render fruitful. Ap
plied by botanists correctly to the
effect produced by the pollen on the
ovules of the flowers; not so cor-
rectly applied to the fecundation of
the queen bee, as she is, ina certain
sense, fertile of herself. (See Par-
THENOGENESIS.)

FERTILE WORKER.—A worker bee
whose ovaries have been partly de-
veloped, and which is able to lay

honey

 

327

eggs in cases where a colony be-
comes queenless; but not having
been fecundated by a drone, such
eggs can only produce drones, like
those of an unfecundated queen.

Fpn." or fdn.—An abbreviation of
the compound word “ comb-founda-
tion” (which see),

Fiieut (Wedding or Marriage).—The
excursion which a young queen
usually makes from the hive a few
days after she emerges from the
cell, for the purpose of meeting the
drone in the air and becoming fecun-
dated.

Fuiieut (Cleansing).—The first issue
of bees from the hive after a lon;
confinement, for the purpose o
voiding their foeces.

ForaGE.—(See BEE FORAGE.)

Fou. Broop.—A disease of bees, now
called bacillus alvei. (See Chap.
XVI)

FoUNDATION.—Sometimes expressed.
Sdn. (See COMB FOUNDATION.)

FUNGICIDE.—Any chemical substance
which destroys the vitality of fun-
gus sperms, which in a microscopic

‘orm are the causes of disease, such
as bacillus alvei, etc.

GLucosE.—One of the chemical forms
of sugar, known also as grape sugar
and fruit sugar; a cheap and in-
ferior sort of syrup sometimes used.
to adulterate honey. .

GRANULATED Honey. — Crystallised
honey. Nearly all ane liquid honey
will granulate and become opaque
after a while, unless heated to a
high degree and then hermetically
sealed while hot. Adulterated honey
rarely granulates. On the other
hand, there are rare cases of pure
honey remaining in a clear liquid
state.

GRAPE SuGAR.—(See GLUCOSE.)

HatcHine.—This term is only cor-
rectly applied tothe production of the
larva from the egg of the bee, which
happens three days after the egg is
laid. The changes from the larva
to the complete insect do not pro-
peuy come under the designation of

atching.

Hexacon.—A figure having six sides
and six angles. If the sides and
angles are all equal the figure is a
regular hexagon. The cells of
honeycomb are, as a rule, of this
form. (See page 94.)

Hexapopa.—Six-footed. The sub-
class of Insecta, which includes the
order Hymenoptera,
328

Hive Cramp.—A machine for press-
ing the four parts of a hive firmly
together while nailing them.

Honey Boarp.—A board or frame-
work placed between the frames of
the lower hive and super to prevent
the bees building comb from the
lower to the upper frames and so
fastening them together. (See pages
141 to 144.)

Hypriv.—A mule or mongrel pro-
duced by parents of different species
or varieties. In the latter case,
where both parents belong to the
same species, the progeny is more
correctly termed a cross; but it is
the custom of apiarists to call all
crosses between varieties of the
Apis mellifica hybrids.

HYMENOPTERA.—The order of insects
with four membranous wings, to
which the family Apidee and the
genus Apis belong.

IMaGo.—The last form assumed by
insects in their transformation from
the larva before emerging as a com-
plete insect.

Insrecta.—Insects. The class of arti-
culated animals which includes the
sub-class Hexapoda, the order Hy-
menoptera, family Apidee, and the
genus Apis.

INTRODUCING A QUEEN. — Giving a
strange queen to a colony of bees
which has become queenless.

INTRODUCING CaGE.—A small cage in
which the queen is placed for pro-
tection when introducing her. (See
page 223 )

JELLY, RovAL. -The food prepared by
bees for the larves which are in-
tended to be developed into queens.
(See page 73.)

Larva (pl. Larv).—The maggot or
grub hatched from the egg, which
is afterwards developed into the
pupa or nymph, and ultimately into
the imago and perfect insect.

MANIPULATION. — Handling. In a
more general sense, the process of
treating or dealing with things even
where actual manual contact is
avoided. Bees and honey may be
manipulated without being touched
by the hand.

MaRRIsGE FLIGHT, OR WEDDING
FiicHt.—(See FLIGHT.)

METAL SUPPORTS. — Uusually, but
wrongly, termed tin rabbets; strips
of metal (generally tin), about an
inch wide, tacked on each end of
the hive inside for the purpose of
Teporing the frames, (See Chap.

 

GLOSSARY.

METAMORPHOSIS. — Transformation,
as from the larva to the complete
insect. 7 vanes

MIcROPYLE.—The minute opening in
the egg of the bee through which
the spermetozoon is introduced.
(See page 69.) ;

NeEcT4rR.—The liquid saccharine mat-
ter secreted and exuded by plants
in their blossoms or flowers.

NEcTAaRY.—That portion of the flower
in which the nectar is exuded for
the purpose of attracting insects.

NORMAL. — Acco: g to a general

tule. |

NUCLEUS (pl., NUCLE).—Literally, the
kernel of a nut; figuratively, the
source from which something is to
be developed. Used by apiarists to
ee a small colony of bees in-
tended for queen rearing.

Nursing Bers.—Those which attend
to the feeding of the larve; gene-
rally young bees so employed for
about two weeks before leaving the
hive to gather honey.

Nympu (alsocalled Pupa or Chrysalis):
—The second form in the transform”
ation of insects, between the larva
and imago stages.

OBSERVATORY Hive.—A hive con-
structed so that the operations in

progress within it may be observed.
(See page 128.)
Ovary.—The organ of a female insect

or other animal in which the eggs

are formed and developed.
Ovipuct.—The passage which con-

veys the cag from the ovary when

about to be deposited.
OvuLE.—In botany, the “egg” or
rudimentary seed.

Pasutum.—F'od, or aliment.

PaRENT StTock.— The stock from
which a swarm issues.

PARTHENOGENESIS.—The production
of young by a virgin. (See page 64.

PASTURAGE, BEE.— (See BEE FoRAGE.

PistiIL.—In botany, the central organ
of a female flower which receives
the pollen and contains the ovules
from which the seeds are developed.

PoLLEN.—The fecundating dust of
male plants, obtained from the an-
thers of flowers, and_used by the
bees to make bee bread.

PROPOLIS.—A resinous matter used
by bees for fastening movable parts
of a hive, stopping fissures, and
sometimes in covering foreign sub-
stances found in their hives. (See
page 98.)

Pupa.—(See NyMPH.)
GLOSSARY

QUEEN CELL.—A a cell of peculiar
form, specially built for the purpose
of developing a queen from a worker
egg or larva. (See page 72.)

QUEENLESS. — Applied to a colon
when from any cause it is deprive’
of its queen.

QuIncuNx.—A term used in garden-

ing with reference to the position of

plants or trees—meaning five in a

parallelogram, one in each corner,

and one in the centre. Applied to
the position of hives in an apiary.

(See page 103.)

ABBET.—A corruption of the word

rebate; a rectangular longitudinal

recess made in the edge of any-

wing as when one part of the edge

of a board is planed or cut out lower
an the rest.

Race.—In apiculture this word is used
to designate a variety of the single
species A. mellifica which has ac-
quired some peculiarities of colour
or qualities in course of time from
natural or climatic causes.

Racx.—A name given to the frame or
tray made to hold section boxes for
the production of comb honey. (See
page 139.)

REVERSIBLE FRAME.—A comb frame
so made that the bottom can be
turned to the top, and vice versa, at
the option of the apiarist. (See
page 237.)

RiPENING Honry.—The process by
which superfluous moisture is eva-
porated and the honey rendered safe
to keep without fermenting.

Rospgine.—Bees from one hive or
colony entering another and taking
the honey from it. .

Roya CELL.—(See QUEEN CELL.)

Roya. JELLY. —(See JELLY.)

SEALED (Brood or Honey). — (See
CAPPED.

SECTION Box, OR SECTION.—A small
frame in which surplus honey is
stored and sent to market without
being extracted from the comb,
usually made to hold from one to
two pounds. 5

SEcTION CasE.—A shallow case with-
out frames for holding section boxes
on a hive; used as a super.

SECTION, OR BROAD FramMuE.—Ajframe
made to hold one or two tiers of sec-
tion boxes while suspended in a
hive.

SEcTIon Rack.—(See Rack.)

SEPARATOR.—A piece of wood or metal
placed between two boxes to con-
fine the bees to build their comb
me an even surface. (See page
138,

a

 

329

Seprum.—A partition. In apiculture
enorally applied to the vertical
ivision between the two series of
cells in a comb, which forms the
bottoms of all the cells.

SHIPPING CAaGE.—A small cage, usu-
ally made of wire-cloth and wood,
used for sending queens through the
post. (See page 227.)

SHIPPING CRATE.—A case used for
packing comb honey in to send to
market. (See page 243.)

SKeEP, Sxip.—Literally, a basket. The
name given in Scotland and other

laces to the old form of straw bee-
ve.

SMOKER.—An implement constructed
to burn rags, rotten wood, or other
fuel, and furnished with a bellows
for blowing the smoke where re-

uired. Used to quiet bees when
about to be manipulated.

Sprecirs.—In natural history, a sub-
division of a genus or family of

.. animals or plants, which may again
be divided into varieties or races
possessing some peculiarities but no
important structural differences.

SPERMATHECA.—A small vessel at”
tached to the oviduct of the queen
bee, and containing, when fecun-
dated, the spermatozoa for impreg-
nating the eggs on their passage
from the ovary. (See page 62.)

SPERMATOZOON (pl., ZoA).--A minute
spore or germ, of which many mil-
lions may be contained in the sper-
matheca, itself scarcely visible to
the naked eye. One of these sper-
matozoa must be introduced into
the egg, through the opening called
the micropyle, in order to make it
capable of producing a worker bee
or a queen, :

SPRING DWINDLING.—Colonies which
pase through the winter strong may

ecome weak in the spring, in con-
sequence of the old bees dying off
before young ones are bred in the
same proportion. This result, from
whatever cause brought about, is
termed spring dwindling.

STraMEN.—In botany, the male organ
of fructification in plants, carrying
the anther and the pollen.

STARTER.—A narrow strip of comb or
of foundation put in a frame or sec-
tion box to give the bees a “start”
in the right direction in building
the new comb.

Stiem4.—In botany, the top of the
oo which receives the pollen or
‘ecundating dust of the male plant.
330

STocK.-—A complete collection af bees,
consisting of a queen and workers
(with sometimes drones), settled in
a hive, and capable of propagating
their race. (See CoLony.)

SUPER.—Amn additional box or hive
set over another to increase the
‘space for the bees to work and store
surplus honey in.

SUPERING.—Putting on supers.

SwaRM.—A portion of the bees of an
old stock which leave the hive with
either the old ee or a young one
just emerged from the cell, to form
anew colony. The latter is called
an after-swarm.

Swarm Box.—A box for taking
swarms in.

TIERING-UP. — Placing additional
stories, one over the other, on a
hive, to induce increased production
of either frame or section honey.

TIN RABBETS. — (See MertTaL Sup-
ports.)

"TRANSFERRING.—Changing the combs
and stock of bees from one box or
hive to another. Generally applied
‘to cases of changing comb and bees
from a straw or box hive to a
movable comb hive.

‘UncaPPpine.— Removing the wax
eoverings from cells of capped or
sealed honey preparatory to extract-

ing.
UnitTine. — Making one colony out of
two or more stocks or swarms.
UnriPr Honry.—Honey which has

not been long enough stored by the.

bees to get rid of all superfluous
moisture and become fit to be capped
or sealed,

 

GLOSSARY.

VaRIEeTY.—As applied to bees, a sub-
division of the single species having
some peculiarity of colour or quali-
ties. (See Race-and SPEcrIEs.)

VESICLE.—A little bladder or sac.

VIRGIN ComB.—Comb which has only
been used once for storing honey
and never for brood.

VIRGIN HonrY.— Honey stored in
virgin comb only.

Note.—The two latter terms are
now obsolete, but were formerly
common among box-hive bee-
keepers.

Wax.—This word, when used without
any addition or qualification, is
taken to mean bee’s wax—the sub-
stance secreted by bees, and of
which they build their comb. (See
pages 87 to 89.)

Wax Pockets.—The overlapping of
the abdominal rings of the worker
bee, in which the seales of wax are
secreted. (See fig. 27, page 88.)

WINTERING.— Passing colonies of bees
safely through the winter months.
(See Chap.

WIRED FouNDATION.—Comb founda-
tion strengthened by the introduc-
tion of wires in the wax sheet.

WoRKER EeG.—An oap led by an
impregnated queen which has been
fertilised by receiving the male
sperm as it passed the spermatheca
on its passage from the ovary; will
develop into a queen or worker.

WORKER, FERTILE—WORKER, LaAy-
InG.—(See FERTILE WORKER.)
INDEX.

iota
. PAGE PAGE
Absconding swarms .. .. 200 | Atmosphere and _ rainwater,
Acacias in New Zealand .. 284 sources of saccharine matter 301
Adaptation to women of bee- Australia, Native flora of .
keeping .. he ‘Australasian exemptions from bee
Adulterntion of honey si enemies .. «. 269
Advantages of hexagonal form Automatic basket, Cowan’ 5 -. 1a
ofcells .. ; Axioms, Bee-keepers’ 6 325
Advice to begi 21 | Bacillus alvei (foul brood).. .. 257
After-swarming, Prevention of .. 204 Salicylic acid nesaeny Ne .. 264
After-swarms . * 202 euece Of ive 261, 262
Agriculture in ‘relation to api: es of 5 i -» 257
culture .. a . 297 e Cheshire cure for.. .» 262
Aid (State) to apiculture oa ae 22 Under the microscope. . -. 260
Air sacs (of honey bee) .. 49 | Bacillus Gaytoni . . 266
Alighting board (of hive) : ‘) 192 | Bees, Beneficial influence of, on
Alley’s drone and queen trap .. 210 agriculture
troducing cage ~» 223 Can they harm the soil or the
American linden or basswood |. 287 crops? .. . 299
Plants and trees . -- 287 Diseases of os 256
Analysis of bee-bread a8 om OT Enemies of. . a .. 269
Of wax on 89 Flight of en ‘ on S08
Anatomy of the honey bee .. 43 | Bee-bread sn hs = 96
Antenne of honey bee .. 54 Analysis of os OF
Ants .. 270 | Bee han (libellula).. , «» 271
Antiquity of the use of i honey .. 1 | Bee-keepers’ axioms. 325
Apiary, Area of ground for .. 103 | Bee-keeping, adaptationto’ women 20
Arrangement of hivesin ., 103 As a branch of farming é aif
General SnenSetient of .. 99 Improved system of ..
House ie . .. 109 In New Zenland and Australia 4
Location of | ~~ .. 99 Profits of 19
Shade for .. wa 8 .. 100 | Bee-mite.. ws sis i 2) 279
Stocking Bee-moth «. 271
Apiculture, as an industry, Impor- Larve, silken tube of |. .. 273
portance of . = Male and female. . oi .. 273
In relation to agriculture |. 297 | Bee forage (see Forage).
State aid to 21 Gloves... -. 173
Suitability of, for New Zea Publications ae ES .. 28
land and Australia . 16 Tents. . cee BB
Apis Adansonii ae ae 27 Veils.. i 34 .- 172
Dorsata .. sey si ". 37 | Beginners, Advice to sie anal
Fasciata.. ss .. 27 | Benefits of co-operation .. ». 243
Indica i es a .. 87 | Benton’s queen shipping cage .. 227
Ligustica .. ‘a 2 .. 26 | Beverages, light,from honey .. 318
Mellifica .. .. 25 | Bingham an Hetherington’ Ss un-
Sirialis  .... .. 37 capping knif 152
Tregona.. a : .. 38 | Bingham’s direst ardent smoker ue
‘Unicolor .. ws .. 43 | Black (or German) bee
Are bees trespassers? .. 297 | Bliss’ sun evaporator "939
Area of ground for apiary.. 103 | Bottom board oF ie » 121
Arrangement of extracting ‘house 155 | Brickell’s chaff hive. .. 249
Of hives in apiary a 103 | Broken-comb basket. . 154
Arrenotokia .. ds ' 967 | Calendar, adapted to Auckland,
Artificial pollen F .. 98 New Zealand ..
‘Art of bee-keeping, Modern ‘. 7 | Carniolan'bee. ae oe 8S
4 af Causes of robbing. he . 252

Originof .. 3

 
Domestic HOARD es of honey for 309
Drinks made from honey 311-316

 

332 INDEX,
PAGE PAGE
Causes of swarming.. 191 | Driving .. oe Ee se va
Caution to importers of bees... 276 Open. -. 187
Cells, qe eranieees of hexagonal once A word. i concerning .» 209
Drone (b me (b ee), T: a. 42
Centrifugal extractor, invention : queen ne ae ‘Alley’: Ss -. 210
. 146 Cell foundation .. .. 163
Chat’ hives .. es .. 248 | Duration of the honey season ., 294
Brickell’s .. 249 | Dysentery «» 256
Characteristics of structure of the Dzierzon, Dr., his discoveries .. 64
honey bee , Theory als .. 65
Characteristic structure of honey 83 Easterday’s wire embedder ” 469
Cheshire, Mr. Fr., a eeERnOns Enemies of bees 2 . 269
of Bacillus alvei - 259 | Entrance guard, Jones’ os 209
Cure for Bacillus alvei .. 262 Reducing ..
Choice ofahive  . -- 112 | Bxemptions (from bee atenaayy
Clarke’s cold blast smoker 174 ‘Australasian .
Classification of species of the bee 44 Extracted honey, Manipulation of 145
ue Influence of, on Apical: Packing for market .. 241
17 Extracting house and honey store 104
cupping the queen’s: wing | -. 201 angement of . . 155
rocess Of .. - 202 | Bucalyptiin New Zealand =... 284
Comb-foundation | .. - 158 | Buropean plants and trees » 285
Advantages of its use . 159 Byes (of the honey bee)... 52
Board : 165 | Farming, Bee-keeping aga ‘branch
Gauge for trimming . 164 of . 307
History of the invention of | 158 Feeding .. si " an "178
Machines, Root’s roller 161 For winter.. a =a 179
Mode of fastening in frame .. 165 Stimulative es
Principal points of good _ .. 159 | Weeder, Grey’sentrance :. i
Process of manufacture of .. 163 Simplicity ..
The Given press .. 1: 162 | permented drinks from honey $11 316
To fasten in sections .. 166 | Fertile workers ir .. 75
Wired 167 Fixing combs in frames |. .. 185
vont poney, packing for market 242 Flight of bees
ping crate for . +» 243 Flora, native (see Ni ative’Fiora).
Comb, Ow scare “ms ‘ Food, Providing for winter...
Baskets. +. +, 240 | Forage, Bee. .. 278
Holder i ae ws ave SG erican linden, or bass-
Stand fo, 216 wood
Combs, Damage to . 273 Eucalypti and acacias in New
Destroyed: y bee-moth larvae 275 Zealand .. .
Fumigating o -- 112 European plants and trees |! 287
Co- re Benefits of |. .. 243 In New South Wales .. “" 999
Cover (of hive) -» 123 ‘ In Queensland . ais .. 283
Covering for frames (winter) .. 246 In South Australia | ** 99
Covers, securing .. 247 In Victoria... a2 * 983
Cowan's eons basket | .- 11 In Tasmania. ae na * 984
ca for stings . ‘ WT Native flora of Australia as 1. 281
yprian bee .. we .. 34 » New Zealand a as 279
Dadant’s uncapping can .. »» 153 Ordinary sources of 278
Dalmatian ‘bees z i a2 30. pa eat mnclel is ‘ie t. 215
Damage tocombs .. a .. 273 218
Deleterious honey .. -. 810 | Foul- raed (ees Bacillus alvei).
Pevelepment from egg to bee .. 69 Frames, broad or section .. . 181
Deviceforsecuring straight combs 170 Halt- story . ay .. 132
Difference in character of tee Narrow, or rood’ foe -. 130
seasons .. a Number oftoahive .. -. 133
Diseases of bees : 266 | Frame form, or gauge wis .. 133
Distribution geographical) of the Fruit wine, made with honey: .. 317
honey bee Fuel for smokers « 175
Dividing 4 3 - 306 Fumnigating combs .. Ky «. 277
Divisio. boards ‘House - 105

Gauge for trimming foundation’ 164
General arrangement of apiary.. 99
INDEX.

PAGE
Geographical distribution of the

honey bee and its MBRLEHSD 25
German (or black) bee ae 28
Given press, The * 162
Grazing stock, question ‘as to

 

quantity o: oney pees
consumed by ‘ ». 805
Grey’s entrance Vtodee en .. 182
Ground for apiary, Area of -. 103
Handling bees . ct » 171
Head (oft honey bee) . 51
Hearing, senses of, in ‘honey bee 55
Heddon's honey board 142
New practice of transferring 186
Reversible frame . 237
Section case aie os .. 40
Herzegovian bee 37

Hexagonal foen of cells, Advan-
tagesof .. . 94
Hil’sdevice.. se aie .. 250
Hive, An ideal.. 2 .. 113
Choice of a. te i .. 112
How to open B . .. 176
Instructions for making ws AAT
Movable comb .. .. 1
Nucleus... sia .. 127
The Langstroth | aa .. lt
Various forms now in use |. 113

With division boards .. 3
Hives, Arrangement of in apiary 103
Chaff.. 248

Frames and section boxes for Pe

Observatory i a
Hivecramp.. ae «. 125
Hive store 4 108
Hive making, Timber for... .. 129
Hive painting . aa .. 129
Hiving swarms ati .. 196
Honey, Aduiteration of |. .. 88

Antiquity of useof .. ee |

Characteristic einuuare of .. "82

Deleterious. . ‘ .. 310

Nature of .. ye .. 80
Honey as food .. oe .. 808

As medicine 7 «. Slt

Cakes -. 315

For domestic cookery -. .. 309

For preserves... A .. 809

Moderation in use of .. -. 310
Honey bee, Air sacs of ie ~ 49

Classification of speciesof .. 44

General characteristics of

structure of
Its varieties and distribution 25
Nervous system of ate 46
Physiology and anatomy of.. 43
Reproductive organs of queen 62
Respiratory organs of . 8
ances of laarine ane smell-

" 55
The 2 aneawe of a 54
The eyes of et a ie OD
The head of ‘ aa 51

The honey sac of | i .. 59

 

333
PAGE
Hae Bee—
The legs of oo i . 56
The mouthof .. a «. 52
The sting of “s .. 69
The wings of 4 55
Honey boards . “i -. 141
How to construct, aa «. 142
Honeydew... ni oe . 85
Honey extractor a os 145
Honey sac (of bee) ie .. 69
Honey store... ss a -. 10t
Honey, strained, pressed, or
melted « 145
Honey season, Duration of «» 204
House apiary .. : § 109
How to feed syrup .. 2% -. 181
Insert queen cells a .. 216
Know robber bees ‘ +. 253
Open a hive oe a .. 176
Stop robbing -. 254
Hybrids—German- Italian || .. 33
Hymettus bees 3 .. 37
Implements required for ‘trans.
ferring .. Ii
Importers of bees, Cautionto .. 276

Improved system of bee-keeping,
Introduction of, into New

Zealand 10
Importance of apiculture “as an
industry . Se 18
Increase of stocks | 1 188
Circumstances which affect'a
decision . 188
Modes of attaining the obj ect 189
Preventing «. 205
What rate is desirable? -- 183

Industry, Apiculture as an aie 418
Inmates of the hive, their natural

history .. 5 - 40
Inner covering for frames ~. 246
Introducing queens . te -- 222

Direct method .. oF -. 224
Virgin queens... «- 225
Introducing cage, Alley’s .. «. 223

Introduction of ‘bees and bee-
culture into Australia and

Tasmania 13
GermanbeeintoNew Zealand 8
Italian bee into New Zealand 9
Investigations of Mr Fr. Cheshire 259

Italian (or Ligurian) bee .. -. 29

Markings of -. 32
Italian. boos in N.S. Wales ve 15
In New Zealand.. or we 9
In Queensland .. ae AS
In South Australia .. 16
In Tasmania es . 16
In Victoria a . 15
Langstroth hive i ~ 11d
eneral description of .. 115
Instructions for MEINE -. 117
Larvee of bee moth .. ‘ -. 274
Comb destroyed by .. .. 275
Legs (of honey bee) .. aie .. 56
334 INDEX.
PAGE PAGE
Libellula (bee-hawk) 271 | Parker's comb-levér... i .. 167
Light beverage, from honey . 318 | Parthenogenesis -- 64
Li ian bee (see, Italian). Physiology of the haney- bee |. 43
ittle Wonder” jextraston .. 149 | Pollen and bee-bread he .. 96
Conticn of ape oe .. 99 Artificial .. -- 98

Management, s aa
Manipulation o can -. 171
Extracted honey 145-154

Manufactures, Use of honey in. : og
Marketing honey ai
Markings of pure Italian bees |! 2

Mating young queens 3 a
Mats for covering frames.. .. 134
Mead .. 316
Medicine, Use of honey as . 314
Medicinal recipes... 318
meee as ial observations, Use ea
Metheglin .. 316
Method of rendering wax.. .. 91
Mice’. i .. 270
Miodomel ae we .. 316
Mite (bee) 275
Mode of securing and marketing
surplus honey . +» 231
Moderation in use of honey 310
Modern art of bee-keeping
Moth (bee or wax) . me 271
Mouth (of honey bee), a vi 3162
Moving hives .. 10

My method of forming nuclei
and inserting queen cells .. 218
Native flora of Australasia 8

Australia -- 281
Of New South Wales . +» 282
Of New Zealand... ++ 279
Of Queensland . we +. 283
Of South Australia .. «» 282
Of Tasmania a ie .. 284
Of Victoria és “ ae OS

Natural swarming .. -. 190
Objections raised against .. 194
Nature of honey .. 80
Wax 87

Nectar 7s plants evaporated if
not taken by insects . - 303
Intended to auaaet insects |: 301

Sometimes thrown off as
superfluous... . 302
Nervous system (of honey-bee) . 46

New South Wales, Native flora af 282
New Zealand, Native flora of 279
Eucalypti andacaciasin . 284
Nuclei forming as ete . 215
Nucleus hive .. sis - 127
Objections raised against natural
swarming . 194
Observatory hives .. 127
Origin of the art of ‘bee- keeping 3
Ovaries of maeen bee 63
Over-stocking . i se - 296
Painting hives aie me . 129
Palestine bees . ag .. 3£

 

Precautions for ‘wintering
To be observed against rob- aon

ing
Preparing combs for ‘extracting... 152
Preserves, use of honey for -- 309
Preventing increase of colonies.. 205
Prevention of after- ents -. 204
Of dysentery ist . . 256
Of swarming
Process of clipping “the queen’ 3

we . 202
Profits of bee- -Keeping ee .. 19
Propolis .. ei 98
Providing food for winter’ . 246
Space above framesin winter 249
inter forage . 247
Publications, Bee 23
Pure mating, Necessary distance
apart of different races to ” ae
Puttioe a annids boxes .. -. 2B4

Quantity of honey furnished by
pasture lands .. 5
Possibl consumed by stock... : 305
Queen (bee), Th
Queen cells, Frame f for raising on es

Frame of .. :

How toinsert .. oe . 216
How to secure choice .. . 211
My method of inserting 218

@usen excluder honey a -. 238
Queen nurseries .. 220
Queen rearing . «» 208

Necessity of the practice «. 208
Queenless colonies,.to unite -. 250
Queen’s wing, process of clipping pe
Queens, Introducing. .

Shipping sh 308
Queens anae Native flora of -. 283
Question as to sen ace .. 304
Quieting bees .. i .. 173
Recipes .. ». 315
Reducing entrance to hive’ -» 246

Interior room in hive .. -» 243.
Relation of bees to flowers « 75
Remedies against bee moths _.. 276

Reproductive organsof queen bee 62
Respiratory organs of hone bee 48

Reversible frame leddon's 8 » 237
pees frames .. - 236
Hine ning honey ve -. 239
Robber bees... eri ie .. 253
Howtoknow .. a «. 253
Robbing, causes of .. ale .. 252
How to stop ae 2s, .. 254
Root’s roller machine 0% .. 161
Uncapping Khife A -. 152

Roumelian bees sis aa » 37
 

INDEX. 335
Saccharine matter derived one erst
Swarms, Absconding, i
the at I , ni Tounite .. 251
net ee ea eee
ot derived from the s ee ie 1,
Salicylic acid, remedy for Bac sis Sw: aes ras te
hee e pails a g season ‘ 192
Salvia officinalis i 77-78 Brena tee - Bacitian ae et
Seasons, Variability of 320 a Hon oe or
Ae a mo S7rap, ow tofeed - -. 181
Cramp and form for .. | 136 Taieing ae nehes suena ie
Dovetailed, To put together.. 136 | Tas fee Oey ae
One piece 136 hoe mee ) eee ae ot
Requisites of in 5
peduiaes es good os a 1a nee for making hives . 129
Section case, Heddon’s “140 naar. te
Section racks and cases .. +. 139 3 al be 5 an “ee
es 1. 247 Wires and clasps" os 183
mses of hearin, ue
Bee Fcc" smelling a Uncapping can, Dadant’s 153
Separators , ia ss Bingham and Hether-
Shade for apiary sis ae -. 100 fica t's Bio Bs ie
Shipping cage . si ‘op ” 997 Uniting ee a te bit
Ship or two queens sts . 227 ever fs ce a oat
by ‘
pi ne Ee se to cont ho honey - "ee wi wens and ees colonies 250
= teh colonies |. 229 or tocn i ee a2
ac:
en ee of HES moth larva oe tures, and medicines 308
sqnitine Desai, é E : Use meteorological observa-
Sing comb extractor : "= 449 a ¥ Us as
Six comb extractor 149 Variability of seasons Be 320
Smelling, Sense of, in honey bee 55 | Ventilation — .. ++ 248
Smok eT win "473 Victoria, Native flora of .. 2. 983
ingham’s direct dr:
Clarke s cold blast ena ; i Water fae ee ee
elfor .. a a
Soils een ie be injured by bees? | 900 bearers a 9
as ee matter not de- ae ae Gerster * OL
Sources, Ordinary, of bee forage 279 E eae >; at
xtravagant waste of ..
sone ue Australia, Native sia of bee Method of Pendbring a a1
eked “a ane ei 268 Smale 43 os 186
r os én a
ne eanemamenieite, ; da or Ba Ww. for Se ee = 7 isp
a Sg eee ee
oe io 7 ee ,
Sinetron ae | Winters Aetmeles fee iG
Stoc. ne the apiary .. oa 105 Winter f lg eee oo 3
Straight combs, To secure 170 | Winter peancn Dhenenee re
Suitability of New Zealand and cone at. eer enter Bie
Australia for apiculture .. 16 | Wintering seen
a ee Bliss’ Precautions for |: oe aS
app. ae ae poe with 1 fertile | ae Ep eiaoees Easterday\ 3s 169
Surplus boxes, Putting in. BB Wiring oe oe tH
Surplus poney, Mode oe securing Wiring the frames |. as 168
a one 2 : oH ag ean of bee- “keep:
Swarm,Tssue ofthe... .. 192 Worker bee, The °: ‘ 1. 42
Swarms, Absconding |. |) 200 Workshop and hive store . i 103
gandhiving .. .. 196 | Young queens, Mating .. ~. 218
ADVERTISEMENTS.

BAGNALL BROS. & CO.

Mauraki Sawmills,

TURUA, THAMES, NEW ZEALAND

TIMBER MERCHANTS,
Shipping and fommiss lon A gonts

 

MANUFACTURERS OF

Ceilings, Flooring, Dressed Lining, Skirtings, and Mouldings

of every deseription,

BEE HIVES

AND OTHER APIARIAN REQUISITES.

 

The AUSTRALASIAN BEE MANUAL supplied. Ilustrated
Catalogues free on application.

ae eee
BISCUIT AND ALL OTHER KINDS OF PACKING CASES.
See
ON SALE—

Bricks, Lime, Doors, Sashes, Local and Colonial Produce generally.
ADVERTISEMENTS.

 

P.0, BOX 186,

 

 

 

 

1. WH. HAYR & CO.

IMPORTERS

AND

General Commission Merchants

HIGH STREET, AUCKLAND, N.Z.

——>>t__

 

AGENTS FOR MATAMATA APIARY

AND

MESSRS, BAGNALL BROS. & CO.

Apinrian Requisties

AGENTS FOR SALE OF

THE AUSTRALASIAN BEE MANUAL.

Supplied by the
-NATUY auiats PosTaL Boorsu
GE Mc COARTNEY, TARE.8. SCOTLAND

 

 

 

 
ADVERTISEMENTS.

Mw Hobson Nursery & Seed Warehouse

(Established iu Auckland and Suburbs a quarter of a century.)

 

The Stocks embrace almost everything required from a
General Nursery and Seed Establishment, including Fruit
Trees, Ornamental and Shelter Trees and Shrubs, Hedge
Plants, Climbers, Flowering Plants, and Plants and Sets of all
kinds. Choice Ferns and New Zealand Plants packed in
Wardian Cases for all parts of the world. Agricultural,
Vegetable, Flower, and Tree Seeds in choice and
extensive variety. Seeds of Economic Plants and Novel-
ties. Seed Potatoes, embracing the cream of the kinds
exhibited at the late “‘ European” International Potato Exhi-
bition. Appliances and Materials for the Destruction of
Insect Pests. Galvanised Wire Seed Guards and Garden
Bordering. Garden Pottery and Glassware, Bee-hives and
Appliances, and other articles too numerous to mention.

SPECIALITY IN BEE PASTURAGE.—“ Erica
ARBOREA,” or Tree Heath, a hardy, white, very floriferous
evergreen shrub, 6 to 10 feet high in this climate, and can be
cut or pruned to any form or purpose, as hedges, etc. This
sweet-scented ornamental winter and spring flowering plant,
at least fully equal to its congener—the heather of the British
Isles—literally swarms with bees every fine half-hour in its
season, and is invaluable to bee-keepers, coming at a season
when flowers are scarce, and generally producing but little
bee-feed. Safe balled plants are being produced in quantity
at low rates—at present, 12 to 18 in. high, including package
and shipment, 5s. per doz., 27s. 6d. per 100, £10 per 1,000,
for cash on receipt of order.

Nursery and Seed Catalogue forwarded free with pleasure
on receipt of address. In connection with Auckland Telephone
system—Telephone, No. 209. Busses pass the Nursery fre-
quently during the day, starting from the Greyhound Hotel,
Queen Street, Auckland. The Nursery and Seed Warehouse
are within 15 minutes’ walk of either Newmarket or Remuera

Railway Stations.
POSTAL ADDRESS—

C. T. WREN, Remuera, Auckland, N.Z.

Telegraph Address—‘‘ NEWMARKET.”
ADVERTISEMENTS,

ITALIAN BEE CO.

<0

 

Bee Farm at Parramatta, near Sydney,
In charge of W. ABRAM, Manager.

Office, 312 George Street, Sydney.
S. MACDONNELL, Honorary Secretary.

=” =<$ =

R. W ABRAM, Manager of this Company, served his time
M under the late Dathe, the celebrated German naturalist, and,
till his death lately, the greatest living authority on bee
culture. Before leaving his mother country, Mr. Abram secured a
number of splendid Italian queens which took prizes at various
exhibitions in Europe. In addition, the Company, through Messrs.
Newman, of Chicago (publishers of the American Bee Journal) had
several colonies of specially selected Italian bees sent from America.
Under the skilled care of Mr. Abram, the Company has established
the finest strains of Italians. No hybrids nor black bees are kept.
All queens are carefully tested in every case for their worker progeny,
and, when time allows, for their queen progeny.

 

Price Lists of Bees, Hives, Queens, etc., posted
on application to the Manager or the under-
signed, at above addresses.

§, MACDONNELL, Hon. Sec.
ADVERTISEMENTS.

TT. ROO'T,

ml MEDINA, OHIO,

MANUFACTURER OF AND DEALER IN

Apiarian Implements and Supplies

AND JOBBER IN
HOUSEHOLD CONVENIENCES.

 

i

A 40-PAGE PRICE LIST FREE ON APPLICATION,

Our Customers now number about 200,000, and goods are shipped to all
parts of the world. To keep pace with late improvements and new inven-
tions, our price list is kept constantly standing in type, and new editions are
printed in the busy season, frequently as often as once a month. Our
ABC OF BEE CULTURE, a book of 318 pages and 162 illustrations, is also
kept standing in type in the same way. Our journal, GLEANINGS IN BEE
CULTURE, gives reports semi-monthly of the state of bee culture in almos
all regions of the globe where civilization extends.

EE-KEEPER’S GUIDE
i =

MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

13,000 Sold since 1876.

The fourteenth thousand just out. Tenth thousand sold in just four
months; 2,000 sold the past year. More than 50 pages and more than 50 costly
illustrations were added in the eighth addition. It has been thoroughly
revised, and contains the very latest in respect to Bee-keeping. Price by
mail, $1.25- Liberal discount: made to dealers and to clubs.

 

A. J. COOK,
AUTHOR & PUBLISHER
AGRICULTURAL ‘COLLEGE, MICH., U.S.
ADVERTISEMENTS.

 

BRANSTON & FORSTER

AUCKLAND.

 

MAKERS OF

6-Comb Honey Extractors, &c.

+e

First Prize and specially commended at

Wellington Exhibition.
ADVERTISEMENTS.

 

BESSErrErs
din!

AVOUUIOUCUTEUAAUAUSAUUEATE UCAS EET

MASaeeN=:

 

A Monthly Magazine devoted exclusively to the interests of
bee-keepers. You cannot do without it, because the
articles it contains are written by the most ex-
perienced bee-keepers in the country.

Subscription Price, 5s. per year.

POSTAGE PREPAID,

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a
ADDRESS—

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16 THOMAS STREET, NEW YORK, U.S.A.
ADVERTISEMENTS.

 

THE NEW

an-4200R6 tutta

BEGINNERS.

—————_—_——

The best book printed in the English language for beginners
in bee-keeping, because written in a plain, simple
style, and because every fact relating to bee-
culture and honey producing is fully
described.

PRICE - FOUR SHILLINGS.

POSTAGE, 2d.

KING, ASPINWALL & CO.

16 Thomas Street, New York, U.S.A.
ADVERTISEMENTS.

GEO. M°CAUL

WELLESLEY STREET EAST,

GALVANIZED IRON WORKS

COLONIAL OVEN MANUFACTORY.

 

 

LUMBERS, Builders, Contractors, and Storekeepers are
informed that GEO. McCAUL, of Thames, has taken

over the business lately carried on by J. L. KEAN, and being
a direct importer and purchaser for cash, is prepared to supply

all business material at lowest rates.

AWARDED THREE FIRST PRIZES
FOR

Colonial Nvens, Corrugated Tanks, Lead-headed Nails
and Washers, Spouting, and Lead-edge Ridging.

 

GEO. MCCAUL,
MANUFACTURER & IMPORTER

Wellesley Street East, Auckland,

AND

BROWN AND DAVY STREETS, THAMES.
ADVERTISEMENTS.

DALY & PERRETT,
WOODSIDE APIARY, HAUTAPU,

WAIKATO, N.Z., HAVE ON SALE :—

HONEY (retail and in bulk), in 2lb., 5lb., 10lb., 25lb., and 64lb. tins’
also, 14 lb. glass pails with screw tops.

 

 

ITALIAN QUEENS
SELECT TESTED (for queen rearing) .. £100
PURELY MATED (not specially selected) , a 017 6

YOUNG QUEENS from pure mother and laying, but with no
guarantee as to purity of mating és si 050
Either of the above in three-frame nucleus, ten shillings extra. Safe
arrival guaranteed to any address in New Zealand. .B.—Orders for

Queens will be filled in rotation as soon as may be possible after
receipt, but it is, of course, not at all times possible to fill them
immediately.

COMB
FOUNDATION

 

Made on the Given press, either wired or plain. Customers can have
their ‘own wax made up, or we will give best market price for all
clean beeswax sent to us, or send cash on receipt.

Also, Bingham Honey Knives. Jones’ Glass Pails, with screw tops,
holding .1Ibs. Jones's Bee Entrance Guards, for excluding drones
Alley’s Drone Excluder, queen and drone trap combined, Wire Cloth
for making Queen Cages and other Apiarian requisites.

 

FOR PRICES, ETC., APPLY AS ABOVE.
ADVERTISEMENTS,

YATES’ RELIABLE SEEDS

 

Yates’ Choice Garden
speeg jeunynowdy pue

 

May be procured from his Warehouse, 46 Victoria Street, or from his Agents.
throughout New Zealand.

Vegetable Seeds, 6d. per packet. Flower Seeds, ordinary, 3d. per packet.
Flower Seeds, extra choice, 6d. to 2s. Gd. per packet.

Yates’ Seeds are carefully saved from the BesT and purest Stocks only, and their

growing powers are all thoroughly tested, They are now generally acknowledged to be

the best and most reliable seeds ever offered in the colonies, his largely increasing
business and numerous testimonials being ample proof of this.

USE THEM AND A GOOD GARDEN IS ASSURED.

IMPORTANT,—We guarantee none genuine without name and address on packet.
A. Y. nas always alarge stock of Agricultural Seeds on hand, including Grasses,
Glovers, Turnip and other Root Seeds. These are all of the finest quality. Samples
and prices post free on application,

ARTHUR YATES, Seedsman,
46 VICTORIA ST., AUCKLAND, N.Z.

HEAD ESTABLISHMENT:
16 & 18 OLD MILLGATE, & 97 Shudehill, MANCHESTER, ENGLAND. Estab, 1826.

YATES’ GARDEN ANNUAL FREE ON APPLICATION.
ADVERTISEMENTS.

TO POULTRY KEEPERS.

THE BEST BOOK

On the subject for the Colonies is

OUR DOMESTIC BIRDS

A practical Poultry Book for England and New Zealand by
ALFRED SAUNDERS, an Englishman, many years resident
in New Zealand.

PRICE 6s., or Post Free in N.Z. for 6s. |Od. in Stamps,
from

N. G. LENNOX,
BOOKSELLER, AUCKLAND.

THE NURSERY,

NEWMAREET, AUCKLAND

C. S. MDONALD

Has for sale, a choice and comprehensive general Nursery Stock,
which includes first-class varieties of Fruit and Ornamental Trees,
Flowering Shrubs, etc., etc.

 

 

Descriptive Catalogues will be published in April, 1886, and will be-
forwarded post free on application.

Opposite Railway Workshops,
NEWMARKET.
ADVERTISEMENTS.

ODLUM & SMITH,

COPPERSMITHS, GASFITTERS,

CSE & SHIP PLUMBERS

TIN, ZINC, & IRON-PLATE WORKERS,

  

LICENSED WATERWORKS PLUMBERS.

SPECIALTY.

Hee

   

Having imported Machinery for making
all kinds of HONEY and JAM TINS, we
are prepared to supply these
articles at the LOWEST
PRICE in any
quantity.

TOOK FIRST PRIZE AT THE EXHIBITION FOR HONEY TINS.

NEAR THE DOCK,

LOWER ALBERT STREET,

AUCKLAND.
ADVERTISEMENTS.

 

POTTIE’S

HORSE & CATTLE MEDICINES

POTTIE’S REMEDIES.—To Squatters, Breeders, Contractors
Farmers, Farriers, and others,

These Medicines have the Largest Sale of any in New South Wales
Victoria, and Queensland, and have been proved very rapid and safe in
Curing all known Diseases. Books on Treatment forwarded Post Free on
application to the Agents.

LIST OF REMEDIES.

 

 

Human ) Lily Hair Oil Hoof Ointment
Use §$ Highland Oil Ms Litzart Ointment
Glencairn Oil ot Healing Ointment
Black Oils Oo Tumour Ointment

Physic Balls n Gall and Shoulder Salve
Embrocation ht Condition Powders
Green Healing Lotion ° Worm Powders
Black Healing Lotion a Urine Powders
Mange Liniment © Mange Powders
Sweating Blister = Stomach Powders
White Oils 2 Gripe Mixture
Cooling Oils o. Cough Drink
Golden Blister s Fever Drink
Worm Balls eo Blood Tonic

Fly Blister -

SOLE AGENTS FOR

AUCKLAND, GISBORNE, NAPIER, NEW PLYMOUTH, & WANGANUI,

HARRY H. HAYR & CO.,

HIGH STREET, AUCKLAND.

TELEPHONE No. 285.
ADVERTISEMENTS.

 

PUBLISHED MONTHLY.) (PUBLISHED MONTHLY.
TH

New ZEALAND FARMER

BEE AND POULTRY JOURNAL

IS THE ONLY

lllustrated Farmer's & Country Settler's Journal

PUBLISHED IN THE COLONY.

The following are extracts from a few unsolicited testimonals to the
practical worth of THz Farmer :—

“Thank you most heartily for the mass of useful and interesting informa-
tion the NEw ZmALAND FARMER offers to me with regard to nearly every-
thing in connection with the farming interests of this flourishing colony of
ours. . . I feelin duty bound to acknowledge freely and unsolicited the
great delight and benefit I have derived from the study of this genuine
farmers’ friend,—ERNEST ENGSTER, Kaikoura Island.”

“T think it calculated to do much good, and it should be liberally patronized
by the farmers and eves interested in the development of our resources.—
J. CHURCH, Secretary North Otago Agricultural and Pastoral Association.”

“ Without exception the best journal of its class that I have seen in these
colonies.—PHILIP PERRY, Manager Apple Farm Co., Auckland.”

ROBERT A. WIGHT, of the Thames, a farmer of 35 years’ practical experience
in these colonies, writes :—‘‘I am convinced that THE FARMER is a most useful
journal, and contains just the information and advice required by farmers.”

I. Hopkins, Manager Matamata Apiary, writes :—‘‘ Really a first-clas8
journal-—the best of the kind, I think, in Australasia.”

Constant READER, ae from Maungatawhiri, says :—‘‘ What I like
about some of your writers is that they go so into every detail, and give their
reasons so plainly, that the merest beginner can follow them. Iam sure it is
well worth the money.”

_ Mr. A. MOLINEUX, proprietor of “Garden and Field,” an Australian rural
journal, writes :—“‘ THz NEw ZEALAND FARMER is a credit to agricultura:
journalism, and I can honestly say, without the slightest attempt to flatter,
that it is the best colonial journal of the kind that I have ever had the

pleasure to read.”

INCLUDING POSTAGE.

SINGLE COPIES ONE SHILLING.

Printed and Published by H. BRETT,
Shortland and Fort Streets, Auckland.

ANNUAL
SUBSCRIPTION

ANNUAL
SUBSCRIPTION

 

 
ADVERTISEMENTS.

The Huckland Star

1S THE MOST WIDELY CIRCULATED PAPER IN NEW ZEALAND.

 

OVER 10,600 DAILY.

The audit for the last six months of 1885, just completed, shows that the
circulation is still steadily increasing, and the nightly issue—the number
actually published in the town and céuntry, after deducting returns—
reaches the extraordinary total of 10,600 copies daily, certified to by
Messrs. JOHN MILNE and J. WaymouTn, Public Accountants of the
highest repute.

‘Brett's Fuckland F#lmanac

PROVINCIAL HANDBOOK,

Published annually, is a complete Compendium of Statistical and Descrip-
tive Information about New Zealand.

PRICE ONE SHILLING.
Published at the Star Office, Shortland Street, Auckland.

Star Steam Printing

 

 

LITHOGRAPHING WORKS, SHORTLAND & FORT STS.

Every description of General, Mercantile, and Colour Printing and Lithography.
Orders executed at a few hours’ notice.

Proprietors of the only Bill Hoardings in Auckland, City and Suburbs.

Brett's Colonists’ Guide

AND
CYCLOPADIA OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE,

Being a Compendium of information by Practical Colonists upon Farming, Horti-

culture, and all subjects of interest to New Zealand Colonists; edited by Thomson

W. Leys. The above work, which contains 830 pages, is profusely illustrated with

engravings. Lt is the largest book ever published in Australasia, is handsomely

bound in cloth, and published at an exceedingly low price for a Cyclopedia of this
description, viz., 20s.

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY H. BRETT, SHORTLAND ST., AUCKLAND.

 
ADVERTISEMENTS.

ATAUATA APIARY

WAIKATO, AUCKLAND, N.Z.

 

 

J. C. FIRTH, Proprietor.
l HOPKINS, Manager.

 

Italian Bees, Queens, and Comb

Foundation. Price List Free.

 

H. H. HAYR & CO.,

AUCKLAND AGENTS,

High Street, or P.O. Box 186.
AUCKLAND, N.Z.
PRINTED BY H. BRETT, EVENING STAR OFFICE.
SHORTLAND AND FORT STREETS,
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