Hi Hi Hu i ‘ oo Ht an aatranciata ccs aidearaies eee HH Pen Tae i Hh im | mn or : —— oe : ——— ee eee : —" = @ oF 737 i 2y New Pork State Cullege of Agriculture At Gornell University Dthaca, N. GB. Library Cornell University Library Practical poultry production, Sqdaud-adavanvss 4O dnoud AzZOO Vv PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION BY HARRY M. LAMON SENIOR POULTRYMAN, BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND JOS. WM. KINGHORNE JUNIOR POULTRYMAN, BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE es iT PAIN pees 1922 COPYRIGHTED, 1920-1922 WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY All Rights Reserved W-3 DEDICATED TO THE BOYS AND GIRLS AND MEN AND WOMEN WHO ARE DESIROUS OF SECURING DEFINITE INFORMATION THAT WILL HELP THEM TO SOLVE THEIR POULTRY PROBLEMS PREFACE Many books have been written on general poultry keep- ing and the various branches of that industry. It seems, however, that no attempt has been made to present the fundamental principles and essentials in a manner and within a compass that will make a book both adequate and prac- tical for student and poultry keeper alike. It will be the effort of the authors to present the basic principles and practices of poultry keeping in such a way as to awaken interest, educate and develop purpose to under- take further work. It is natural and necessary, therefore, that some detail should be omitted. For example, some of the finer points of breeding, such as Mendel’s Law, and elaborate points of judging are thought to be too extended and subordinate to the main object to be included. While special chapters have been provided wherein such subjects as feeds, construction of equipment, etc., are dis- cussed at length, it has been found advisable to treat special phases of these subjects under other chapter heads so as to clarify and complete the subject at hand. Thus, for example, while studying about chicks the student will find a complete discussion of the management, feeding, etc., of chicks without referring to other chapters. A clearer un- derstanding of the subject can be obtained when treated this way, than if taken up at different times. The general order of the chapters has been arranged with the thought that they will somewhat approximate the se- quence of events both in the time of their occurrence in actual practice and classroom study. It is believed that the subject of poultry keeping as herein presented will not only awaken interest among the boys and girls of graded and high schools, but that the brief and well illustrated nature of this work will suit it fer farm- 5 6 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION ers’ short courses, movable schools, for special subject mat- ter instruction to teachers, agricultural and home demon- stration agents, and for any other courses or purpose where a general understanding of the subject is desired rather than specialization. ; As ocular impression is an important educative factor, the various phases of poultry production have been elabo- rately illustrated. Under ‘Breeds and Varieties,” for ex- ample, photographs are shown of the more popular breeds of each of the more important classes, so that the reader may have a graphic and complete idea of the appearance of the fowls, their class, and their economic usefulness. In like manner other phases of poultry keeping are illus- trated and discussed. Acknowledgment and appreciation are hereby extended the following men of the Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. 8. Department of Agricul- ture, who through their helpful suggestions have aided in furthering this work: Alfred R. Lee, Rob R. Slocum, D. Lincoln Orr, D. M. Green, George W. Hackett and Jos. P. Quinn. The authors further desire to acknowledge their appreci- ation to the officials of the U. 8. Department of Agriculture for permission to publish this book. Credit is hereby given the U. 8. Department of Agriculture for the illustra- tions contained herein, the use of which makes possible a clearer understanding of the fundamentals of poultry culture. That a better understanding of the subject may be ob- tained, thereby affording the industry a continued and sub- stantial growth in more efficient ways, is the desire and hope of the authors. Harry M. Lamon Jos. Wm. Kinghorne Washington, D. C. Chapter CONTENTS PROLACE: >PD>P>SDPP PPP? P>>>> “6. olo Figure 95.—Different combina- tions for toe marking. Each pair represents a right foot and a left. 96 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION constructed to provide sufficient ventilation and be rain-proof, so that the hen and chicks and the floor of the coop will be kept dry in inclement weather. The coop should also be con- structed to enable it to be easily cleaned and sprayed. Figure 96.—The band fastened in the The style of construction wing of the chick. of the coop matters but little so long as it is practical, comfortable and embodying the above features. The coop which is illustrated in the following figures has given good results. The coop should not be nailed to the floor, but is left entirely free, so that it can be lifted completely off to facili- tate cleaning. The sides of the coop sit over the edge of the floor in order that it can be kept tight and dry. The door of the coop is covered with a half inch wire netting and slides in back of the 3 slats in front in order to close the coop. To open the coop so that the chicks can come out, the door is pushed back of the boarded part in front. The holes covered with wire at both ends of the coopgive addi- tional ventilation. These ventilators may be eliminated v a mi a Wre nettyr Ong 4g mest z ile Center sd I) seine oor i} Gprered with Bwre vertieg | My a “4+ —— = i 2eo—_— FROWT GROSS SECTIOIY Figure 97.—The working plan of a box-shaped brood coop that can be easily constructed. NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL BROODING 97 in sections of the country that have extremely cool weather in the early spring. The center slat in the front is removable, sliding into a small wire staple at the top and dropping into a square hole at the bottom. The slats are made of strips one inch square. The long narrow door at the top in the front of the coop is kept open for ventilation except in cool weather or on cool nights. This opening as well as the ventilators mentioned above should be covered with a 4 in. mesh wire netting. Confine the mother hen. The mother hen should be confined to the brood coop until the chicks are weaned, the Figure 98.—New lumber need not necessarily be used in the construction of such coops for they can easily be made from dry-goods boxes or other available material. chicks being allowed free range after they are a few days old. Hens that are allowed unlimited range and have to forage for feed for themselves and chicks often take them through wet grass where the chicks may get chilled and die or become lost. Then, too, most of the feed the chicks secure when the mother hen is not confined goes to keep up heat of the body and to produce energy. The feed consumed by those that are with the hen that is confined to the coop produces 98 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION more rapid growth, as the chicks do not have so much forced exercise. In most broods there are sometimes one or two chicks that are not as strong as the others, so that, when the hen is confined, the weaker chicks can always find shelter and warmth under her and in a few Figure 99.—Do not allow the mother hen days may develop into to range with the chicks. strong healthy chicks. Even when the mother hen is confined, the chickens frequently have to be caught and put into their coops during sudden storms, as they are apt to huddle in some place out of the way where they are liable to become chilled or drowned. Hens are usually left with the young chicks as long as they will brood them, which time is usually about 10 or 12 weeks. ARTIFICIAL BROODING Artificial brooding of chicks consists in sup- plying artificially the heat that is furnished by the hen under natural conditions. As mention- ed in the previous chap- ter, the temperature of the hen is about 106° F., Figure 100.—Confine the mother hen to the brood coop until the chicks are weaned, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL BROODING 99 but, as hens seldom sit closely on the chicks they do not receive this degree of heat. Hens naturally adapt their methods of brooding to conditions, such as outside temperature, size of the chicks, and conditions of the weather. In the suc- cessful operation of an artificial brooder these conditions must be met as closely as possible to secure the best results. The brooder should be so constructed as to supply the proper temperature, be readily adapted to meet changes in weather conditions, easy to clean, and well ventilated. Before the chicks are moved from the incubator to the brooder, it should have been in operation for a day or two at the proper temperature before re- ceiving the chicks. After placing them in the brooder, they can be given feed and water as described in the next chapter. It is well to mention at this time that great care should be tak- en. when moving chicks "Ets Step tut mn be fede us andened from the incubator to Whe net in use. the brooder, as they may become chilled. They should be moved in a cloth-lined and covered basket or box. . Hovers, brooders, and brooding systems. There is per- haps a wider difference of opinion as to the value of various brooding systems than any other part of poultry equipment. We may thus infer that no system is ideal for all conditions, but that satisfactory results depend to a great extent upon individual handling and care. As previously mentioned, many failures in brooding are due to weak chicks which can 100 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION usually be traced to faulty incubation or lack of health and vigor in the breeding stock. Brooding systems are classi- fied according to their capacity as follows: Individual brood- ers or hovers holding from 25 to 100 chickens; coal and oil stove brooders with a capacity varying from 200.to 1,500 chicks and hot water pipe systems, the capacity of which is unlimited. When possible, the beginner should thoroughly inves- tigate brooding equipment such as is used by successful poultrymen or farmers in his community and which has been in operation for some time. Thus one can decide which system or kind of brooder is best for individual use. Individual hovers and brooders. Small individual hov- Figure 102,—Artificial brooding of chickens, showing the arrangement of kerosene heated outdoor brooders. Chickens which have access to a shaded range such as is here shown develop and thrive better in warm weather than those not having shade. ers and brooders are heated by hot air or hot water with kerosene oil, and sometimes gasoline is used as the source of heat. Usually these small individual brooders are divided into two compartments of equal size. The hover is located in one compartment, which is artificially heated. In the other compartment, which is known as the cool, or exer- cising, room the chicks become accustomed to a cooler tem- perature before going out of doors. These two compart- ments are separated by a solid wooden partition, with the NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL BROODING 101 exception of a small door through which the chicks pass from one room to the other. The small brooder of 50-chick capacity is gradually being replaced by larger brooder stoves of from 250 to 500- chick capacity. Hovers are used either in continuous brooder houses or small colony houses. Outdoor brooders are used with satisfactory results under most weather conditions. Often the capacity of brooders and hovers is overestimated and experience has shown that from half to two thirds of the chicks esti- mated for the brooder or hover will usually do much better. Until one has had consid- erable experience, it is best not to brood over 250 chicks in one flock. When a lamp is used as the Figure 103.—A_ coal-heated colony stove brooder source of heat for house, 12x14 feet with a capacity of 500 chicks. the brooder, care should be taken to keep the wick and burner perfectly clean or else trouble will result. A new wick for the brooder lamp after each second lot of chicks are brooded is a good investment. Brooder lamps and stoves should be in- spected several times a day to see if they are in working order. The brooder lamp should not be filled too full of oil, as the heat of the lamp when lighted will expand the oil in the bowl and may. cause it to overflow and catch fire. Brooder stoves. Brooder stoves and separate individual hovers heated by coal, distillate oil and kerosene are coming 102 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION into general use. Such brooder stoves have a capacity varying from 200 to 1,500 chicks. These individual brooders are used in colony houses and frequently, when the chicks are weaned, the houses are used as growing quarters. Such a plan requires a smaller invest- ment than the long hot-water-heated brooder house and likewise allows one to rear the chicks on range to good advan- tage. Brooder stoves of both oil and coal type are usually operated in houses that are from 12 x 14 feet to 14 x 20 Figure 104.—A_ continuous hot-water-heated brooder house. Hot-water brooders are suitable for large poultry farms where most of the chickens are raised during the winter and early spring in large numbers. feet and are also occasionally used in long continuous brooder houses, similar to the one shown in Figure 104. It is advisable to have the colony brooder house wherein oil or coal-burning brooder stoves are used of an oblong shape rather than square. That is, the floor dimensions should be 12 x 14 feet rather than 12 x 12 feet. With a house so built it is possible by placing the stove back a NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL BROODING 103 little from the center of the floor to provide additional space in the front part of the house, where the temperature will be cooler. : Most of the oil brooders are equipped with a regulator that controls automatically the flow of oil that is fed from the tank. Such a system requires a minimum of care and at the same time supplies sufficient heat to keep the chicks from crowding. Coal-heated brooders are operated by self-feeding coal stoves. Hot-water-pipe brooders. This system is used in long Figure 105.—Exterior view of a continuous hot-water-heated brooder house. continuous brooder houses which are heated with hot-water pipes, coal being used for fuel almost exclusively. This method of brooding is being used with good results, and, when employed, the labor of brooding a large number of chicks is less than where small individual hovers or brood- ers are operated. Fireless brooders. Fireless brooders are used in a small way with good results and can be either purchased or built. 104 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Such brooders can usually be built at less cost than to buy them, as their construction is very simple. In this system of brooding the body heat of the chickens is the source of warmth. These brooders are equipped with adjustable covers composed of strips of cloth or feathers, which act on much the same principle as the feathers of the hen. The position of the cover should be regulated according to the weather and the number of chicks in the brooder. In cold weather the cover should sag so as to be near the backs of the newly hatched chicks, while in warmer weather or with older chicks the cover israised orremoved depending on conditions. Usually from 12 to 40 chicks are placed in a fireless brooder, 25 being the average number. The use of fireless brooders is Figure 106.—An pose conairaotes! fireless recommended only ina mild climate. In cold weather they should be operated in a heated room or building. Care must be given to keep the brooder clean by frequently changing the litter. Likewise the chicks must be watched carefully to see that they are comfort- able and do not sweat. When first placed in the brooders the chicks may have to be put under the hover several times until they learn where to get. warm. Correct temperature for brooding. The correct tem- perature for the brooder or hover depends upon several conditions such as the position of the thermometer, style of the hover, age of the chicks, and the weather. In all NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL BROODING 105 cases aim to keep the chicks comfortable. When too cold, it will be noticed that they will crowd together and try to get near the center of the hover. When it is found in the morning that the droppings are well scattered under the hover, it is an indication that the chicks have had sufficient heat. When the chicks are comfortable, they will distribute themselves evenly at night. Too much heat will cause them to sweat and frequently results in their death. It is impractical to state for each style of brooder at what temperature it should be kept to raise young chicks. In most cases it should be run at from 90° to 100° F., when the chicks are first put in and at an average of from 93° to 95° F., for the first ten days, the temperature being grad- ually reduced to about 85° F., for the following 10 days and then lowered to 70° to 75° F., for as long as artificial heat is needed. In warmer weather and as the chicks grow larger the lamps may be used only at night and later only on cold nights. Care should be taken to prevent the chicks from becoming chilled or overheated, as either chilling or overheating . weakens them and may cause considerable trouble. From 14 an inch to 2 inches of sand and cut clover or chaff litter should be spread over the entire floor of the brooder. Management. Hovers and brooders must be cleaned fre- quently, as cleanliness is very essential, if chicks are to be raised successfully. When first put into the brooder, they should be confined under or around the hover by placing a cloth or wire frame 10 to 24 inches from the outside of the hover proper. This practice does not apply to the small indoor colony brooders. This guard should be moved gradually further away from the hover and removed entirely when the chicks are 3 or 4 days old, or after they havelearned to return to the hover. When weather conditions are favorable, the chicks should be allowed to run on the ground, 106 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION as they will do much better than when kept continuously indoors. Weak and crippled chicks should be killed as soon as noticed, because they rarely if ever develop into desirable stock. Brooders and brooder houses should be disinfected at least once a year and more frequently should disease occur in the flock. Care of purchased day-old chicks. Whenever day-old chicks are purchased, provide a brooder of sufficient capac- ity for the number bought and have it in working order and regulated when the chicks arrive. Should the brooder not be ready, take the chicks from the shipping box into a warm room, feed and return them to the box, and repeat at inter- vals of about 5 hours until the brooder is ready. It some- times happens that delay in the delivery of a brooder places one at a disadvantage as to what to do with the chicks. In such cases a fireless brooder may be constructed tempo- rarily, such as is described on page 104. After the chicks have been placed in their brooder and made comfortable, they should be managed as described in the foregoing pages. QUESTIONS 1, Discuss the advantages of natural as compared with artificial brooding. 2. Discuss the care of a sitting hen at the time of hatching. 3. Describe the method of treating lice on chickens. 4. Discuss the points to be kept in mind as concerning the care and location of the brood coop. 5. Describe the method of wing banding chicks. 6. What are the essential features to be kept in mind in the construction of a practical, comfortable brood coop? 7. Why should the mother hen be confined until the chicks are weaned? 8. What principles are necessary for the successful brooding of chicks by artificial methods? 9. Describe three systems of brooding chicks artificially. 10. Describe the construction of a fireless brooder. 11. At what temperature should a brooder be operated during the first twenty days? 12. When day-old chicks are purchased, what steps should be taken before they arrive? NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL BROODING 107 SUGGESTIONS 1. In an effort to learn all that you possibly can about artificial brooding investigate the various systems of brooding chicks in your community and determine, if possible, in each case the reasons for suc- cess and causes of failure in brooding. 2. After looking into the matter, which in your opinion is the most popular form of brooding chicks in your community, that is, by natural methods or artificial? 3. Should you have a flock of fowls, endeavor to put into prac- tice a system of wing banding as described on page 95, keeping a rec- ord of these numbers, including time of hatching and any other in- formation that will be of value to you in the future. 4. Insofar as you can, make a working drawing of a good practical brood coop for hen and chicks, embodying such features as are out- lined in this chapter. After your plan is completed, construct one coop or several such coops from your plan out of dry goods boxes or other available lumber. 5. If you are not entirely convinced as to the importance of confining the mother hen until the chicks are weaned, carry on a little experiment to prove this to your own satisfaction. Such a test should be made with two broods of chicks, both of which are hatched about the same time. With one brood of chicks confine the mother hen through- out the weaning period, being sure that the hen and chicks are provided with sufficient feed and water. The hen with the second brood of chicks should not be confined except during the night and should be allowed to run with the chicks at will. At the end of 8 weeks, weigh the chicks in both lots and compare them for size, weight, and develop- ment. Which lot has the greatest number of chicks living at the end of this period? Do you not think it would be advisable to impress upon your poultry friends and other poultrymen and farmers in your community the importance of confining the mother hen until the chicks are weaned? : 6. Do you not think it would be interesting to construct a small fireless brooder such as is shown in Figure 106? Such a brooder might come in handy in case a mother hen should die or in any other emergency REFERENCES Natural and Artificial Brooding of Chickens, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, Farmers’ Bulletin 624, by Harry M. Lamon. CHAPTER VI FEEDING AND CARE OF CHICKS AND GROW- ING STOCK Tn addition to having the chicks hatched early, it is most important to keep the chicks growing, so that they will reach maturity and start laying before cold weather. Con- sidering this fact, it is well, therefore, to keep in mind the factors that are essential for the prop- er growth and develop- ment of the young stock. FEEDING AND CARE OF YOUNG CHICKS The first feed. It is advised that the chicks should not be fed until they are 36 to 48 hours old. The yolk of the egg Figure 107.—The yolk of the egg just before which is absorbed just be- it is absorbed by the chick. fore the chick is hatched furnishes all the nourishment required during this time. It is very necessary that the yolk of the egg be thoroughly digested before the first feed is given. Many beginners, not understanding this fact, and who are anxious to feed the young chicks, give them feed before they are ready for it. Such practice frequently results in bowel trouble and very often in the death of the chick. It is this provision of nature for the first food of the chick that makes it possible to ship newly hatched chicks considerable distances without feed or water. At the start it is advisable to feed five 108 FEEDING AND CARE OF CHICKS 109 times a day, dividing the day into equal periods, and alter- nating a mash or soft feed with a grain or scratch feed. A most practical method of feeding young chicks is that of keeping before them a pan or dish of sour milk for them to drink together with a pan or box of bran. This should be given them as their first feed and kept before them at all times in addition to the method of feeding suggested below. For the first feed in the morning and the feed at noon scat- ter in the litter or in a shallow trough as much johnnycake broken into small bits as the chickens will eat up in a short time. For the last feed in the evening they should be given as much as they want. It should be kept in mind, however, that more harm can be done by overfeeding young chicks than by underfeeding. Johnnnycake may be made as follows: Corn meal — 5 pounds Eggs (infertile) 6 pounds Baking soda 2 tablespoonfuls Mix with milk to a stiff batter and bake well. Note:—When infertile eggs are not available, use a double quan- tity of baking soda and add one half pound of sifted beef scrap. The following may be used in the place of johnnycake where there is a considerable number of chicks to be fed and where the infertile eggs are available: 3 parts of dry bread crumbs and 1 part of hard-boiled infertile eggs mixed thoroughly together. Rolled oats may be used in the place of bread crumbs. The scratch feed to be fed after the first morning and noon feeds should consist of the following: Finely cracked corn 5 pounds Finely cracked wheat 3 pounds Pinhead oat meal, hulled or rolled oats 2 pounds. This mixture, when available, makes an ideal ration. In the absence of corn, cracked Kaffir corn, rolled or hulled barley may be substituted. As a substitute for this grain ration, a reliable brand of commercial chick grain may be fed. After the chicks are 10 days old, discontinue feeding 110 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION the johnnycake or its substitute and feed a growing mash of which the following is a good example: 2 parts by weight of corn meal 2 parts by weight of middlings 1 part by weight of oat meal 2 parts by weight of wheat bran ¥% part by weight of sifted beef scrap, When the chicks are 8 to 10 weeks old, add 1 part of ground oats and increase the meat scrap to 1 part. This mash, when fed dry, should be placed in a hopper and left before the chicks continuously. When it is fed wet, add only enough milk or water so as to make the feed crumbly, but in no sense too moist or sloppy. Whether or not it is desirable to purchase prepared chick grains or mashes, depends upon the cost of such feeds when purchased as compared with the cost and labor of mixing such feeds at home. Many successful poultry raisers find it economical and practical to feed ready-mixed commer- cial chick feeds, while still others prefer to purchase the feed ingredients and mix such feeds themselves. When pur- chasing commercial chick feeds, buy those that contain grains of good quality but only a small quantity of grit. Those raising chicks in a limited way will find it more economical to feed commercial chick feeds. As soon as the chicks will eat whole wheat, cracked corn, and other grains, the small chick grain can be eliminated. (See page 112.) Green feed. Any tender green stuff may be fed with good results to young chicks. When a regular supply is desired, it is usually most convenient to use sprouted oats. (See page 204.) The necessity for green feed is of especial importance where the chicks are confined to small yards. The most desirable place to raise chicks successfully is on a good range where no extra green feed is required. Other feeds. In addition to the above feeds, the chicks’ growth can be hastened and they can be kept in good con- FEEDING OF GROWING STOCK 111 dition when given sour milk to drink. Oyster shell, small grit, and finely ground charcoal should be kept before them constantly. Water. Little chicks should be supplied constantly with fresh water in either shallow pans or small drinking foun- tains. Such vessels should be frequently cleaned. FEEDING OF GROWING STOCK Proper feeding and care of growing stock during the spring and summer is of great importance. The chicks Figure 108.—Frame covered with wire netting to protect feed of young chicks from the older fowls. It will be noted that there is an open space five inches high around the lower edge of the frame to permit the chicks to walk under to get their feed. may be hatched from strong, vigorous stock and carefully brooded; but, unless they receive the proper attention dur- ing the warm months, their growth will be retarded. In other words, the principal idea is to so feed and care for them that they will be kept steadily growing and mature into healthy well developed fowls. The six essentials for proper growth are (1) proper houses; (2) feed and water; (3) free range; (4) shade; (5) cleanliness —freedom from lice and mites; (6) good management. 112 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Figure 109.—Dry-mash hopper for the growing stock. The food requirements for the growing chicks may be divided as follows: grain feed, dry mash, sour milk, green feed, and water. Grain feed. In addition to such feed as chicks on free range are likely to find, the following mixture should either be scattered on the ground near their house or during rainy weather inside their house in the morning and evening. A satisfactory ration is as follows: 6 parts by weight of cracked corn 2 parts by weight of wheat 2 parts by weight of hulled oats When available Kaffir corn or rolled or hulled barley may be substituted for hulled oats. In_ localities where hulled oats, Kaffir corn or rolled barley can not be obtained Figure 110.—Showing construction of the dry-mash hopper. FEEDING OF GROWING STOCK 118 or is too high in price, a mixture of cracked corn and wheat may be fed until the-chicks are old enough to eat whole oats at which time an equal part of whole oats may be added to the corn and wheat mixture. Dry mash. In addition to the above feed, a dry mash should be fed in a hopper to which the chicks will always have access. Because growing stock is on range more than inside of the house, it is usually advisable to have the hop- pers located out of doors. During continued rainy weather, however, when the birds are indoors, a supply should be available in the house. The same dry mash as given on page 110 may be con- tinued as_ their dry-mash feed during the grow- ing period. As in the case of the young chicks, the growing stock as well should have access to the charcoal, grit, and oyster shell. : Figure 111.—In addition to promoting growth, the Sour milk. If feeding of sour milk tends to keep the chickens in good condition. a continuous supply of buttermilk or sour skim milk can be readily ob- tained, it may be fed separately in a pan provided for the purpose and the beef scrap in the dry mash reduced one half. When whole milk is available, it should be allowed to become sour before feeding. Green feed. Whenever possible, the growing chicks should be allowed free range, so that they may obtain as much natural green feed as they need. Green feed is an excellent tonic for chicks and, when it can not be obtained PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION 114 ‘esnoy AUOjOo Zuimoi# jwoyovsd poyonsysuod Ayisva ue JO} sutjg—' SIT ens an pley & 626i, weded /joyF 9 (load QHs 200 0 22 BLIME CellyyOHYS 9tt — (L00f @ SaaS) (OU PAYYLLY 220) {YL Le ,2/ & |,exe Sly oF a eo EXE |SEYPIY"US ww 24 @ |exe sy 197 ao Z oxe SUNY AMNSCHM | (f92L SFOHT | P25 Peg £3 LON TOTAALOLY SO THE ad ass pxXe a= fr sont — "OV FVUASLIFTD NALS AYLTIIOS LNFNNATNOD LY FS) M SNGHHAWHD YQS FEN QMMOLS ANOTOD SO Dive ' woe — Few: CARE OF GROWING STOCK 115 on range, such feed as sprouted oats, cut clover, alfalfa, mangel beets or cabbage should be fed daily. Water. The importance of clean fresh water can not be overestimated. In very hot weather, fresh water should be furnished twice daily. Whenever possible the pan of water should be placed in the shade to keep cool. The water pan should be cleaned each day before fresh water is added. CARE OF GROWING STOCK Housing. Growing chicks should be provided with a house that will give them a place to stay in bad weather and Figure 113.—Growing colony house built from the aboye plans. The wire run- way is removed after 5 or 6 days when the chicks learn where to return when given free range. at nights. No definite style of house is reeommended, but one should be built that will provide the chicks with ample ventilation without draughts, dryness, plenty of sunshine, and so arranged that it can be easily and frequently cleaned. The lumber from piano and dry-goods boxes can often be used in building such a house, and, when covered with ordi- nary roofing paper so as to keep out the rain, will make desir- able quarters. It is recommended that such houses be 116 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION built on the colony plan so they can be moved from place to place, thus providing fresh ground for the chicks to range over. A type of growing house such as has been used suc- cessfully will be found in Figure 115. In placing the chicks in their growing house for the first time it is best to confine them for several days, erecting a temporary yard so that they will know where to return after allowed free range. Care should be taken not to crowd the chicks by placing too many in any one house. As the chicks increase in size they should be thinned out and placed in other houses, so as to avoid crowding. Colony brooders can be used for the growing stock after there is no longer Figure 114.—Chicks on free range obtain considerable food such as worms, bugs, etc., that helps considerably to reduce the cost of feeding. need for artificial heat. In such cases, however, it is usually advisable to provide additional growing quarters to prevent crowding. Free range. Plenty of free range should be provided, if the chicks are to make rapid, vigorous growth. Confin- ing the chicks to a limited range not only increases the ten- dency to disease and slowness of growth, but tendsto increase the cost of feeding. Shade. Plenty of shade should be provided for grow- ing chicks in order that they may thrive and grow in hot weather. Chicks allowed to range in an orchard will not only find CARE OF GROWING STOCK 117 ample shade and green feed, but will benefit the trees as well as themselves by destroying insects and worms. When an orchard or woodlot can not be used for this purpose, the growing of corn or sunflowers will help to provide the neces- sary shade. Artificial protection against the sun’s rays may be obtained by supporting frames covered with burlap a few feet above the ground. Cleanliness. Every effort should be made to keep the Figure Aiome sed ieaen by growing plants or trees is much cooler than that afforded by buildings or other artificial means. coops or house clean and sanitary. Disease most frequently starts in unclean quarters. The house should be cleaned at least, once a week and twice a Week, if the weather has been such that the birds have been confined to the house during the greater part of the time. Clean sand and straw litter should be scattered over the floor of the houses so as to assist in keeping them clean. When the chicks are confined to a limited range, the ground should be spaded up or plowed at frequent intervals, so as to provide fresh ground in which 118 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION they may scratch. Chicks should be examined frequently to see if they are infested with lice or mites. When these are found, every effort should be made to exterminate them by following the methods suggested in Chapter X. General management. As soon as the chicks develop sufficiently so that the cockerels want to mate with the pullets, they should be separated from the pullets in order to assist the proper growth of both pullets and cockerels. As soon as the cockerels are of sufficient size, those not intended to be kept for breeders the following year should be marketed (See Chapter XVI) or caponized. When chicks become 2 or 3 months old, it is often advisable to teach them to roost; for, when they are allowed to remain on the floor, it is difficult to keep them clean and to keep them from crowding. Such roosts should be from 3 to 4 inches wide, as this width tends to eliminate the danger of forming crooked breastbones, which are the result of chicks’ roost- ing on narrow roosts. The chicks can usually be induced to roost by placing the perches near the floor. If it is found that only a few of them take to roosting, the others can be made to roost, if placed on the roosts after dark for a few nights in succession. In the late summer and early fall the pullets that mature and begin to lay should be removed from the growing houses to their permanent winter quarters. When possible, this change should be made before they begin to lay, so as not to disturb them. When the stock has been wing-banded, it is well to note at this time the numbers of those pullets that started laying first. Other things being equal, these pullets may make desirable breeders the follow- ing spring. QUESTIONS 1. Why is it so necessary that the chicks should not be fed until they are 36 or 48 hours old? 2. Discuss the method of feeding chicks up until they are 10 days old. CARE OF GROWING STOCK 119 3. Describe a good growing mash for the chicks after they are 10 days old. 4. What are the points to be kept in mind when commercial chick feeds are purchased? es What are the six essentials for the proper growth of growing stock? 6. Describe a good grain ration for the growing stock. ; 7. Of what value are free range and shade for the growing chick- ens? 8. What practice should be followed in order to insure cleanli- ness and freedom from disease of the growing stock? 9. At what time should the cockerels be separated from the pullets? 10. What should be done when the pullets start laying? SUGGESTIONS 1. A demonstration that will be of value to any group of people or community interested in poultry is that of actually mixing desir- able feeds for chicks and growing stock. In order to arrange for such a demonstration before a poultry club or an association, a talk should be given by some one that is acquainted with the subject of feeding the young stock, calling attention to the facts as stated in this chapter. Such a talk can be supplemented with the actual mixing together of the various feeds as outlined herein. 2. Should there be a poultry farm located in the community, a visit should be made with the idea of determining the methods em- toyed in the management of the growing stock. Observations should ie made to see how closely such management conforms with the six essentials for proper growth. In making such an observation partic- ular attention should be given to the kind of houses used for the young stock, how they are fed and watered, the kind of feed that is used, what provisions are made for free range and shade, and the methods of management employed. 3. In order to become entirely familiar with this phase of poul- try keeping, a visit should likewise be made to a general farm where several hundred fowls are kept. .Observation and a comparison should be made of the methods employed on this farm as contrasted with the methods used on the poultry farm and those given in this chapter. REFERENCES “Natural and Artificial Brooding of Chickens” by Harry M. Lamon, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 624. CHAPTER VII PRESERVED EGGS During the spring and early summer, when eggs are abundant and reasonable in price, attention should be given to preserving them for winter use. It frequently happens that farmers and poultrymen as well as those having small flocks dispose of all their eggs in the spring when they are plentiful and cheap in price without preserving a supply for fall and winter use. When such practice is followed, it becomes necessary during the season of low production to use for home consumption fresh eggs which at that time bring a much higher price on the market than eggs produced in the spring. When a supply of preserved eggs is available for use in the fall and winter, these can be used at home and practically all the fresh eggs sold. Fresh eggs properly pre- served may be kept from eight to ten months in excellent condition and used with good results. TIME AND KIND Time to preserve. Eggs produced during the hot weather ordinarily do not possess the keeping qualities of those pro- duced in the spring, unless they are handled under the most favorable conditions. Again eggs are more plentiful in April and May than they are in July and August. It has been found that eggs laid in April, May and early June keep bet- ter than those laid later in the season. It is recommended, therefore, that only eggs produced at this season be pre- served. Kind to preserve. Careful attention should be given to the condition of eggs preserved, as one or two dirty-shelled eggs or bad eggs may spoil the entire lot. It is also import- ant to see that no cracked eggs are preserved. If satisfac- 120 PRESERVED EGGS 121 tory results are to be obtained, the eggs should be fresh and clean. It is highly desirable also to preserve only infertile eggs, that is, eggs produced by a flock wherein there is no male bird. When possible, it will be advisable to purchase eggs for preservation direct from a farmer or poultryman who can insure their freshness and also the fact that they are infertile. Eggs purchased from the stores or on the market may not be 80 desirable for this purpose, owing to the frequency with which they are handled, the range conditions under which they are kept, and their con- dition. Germ de- velopment or blood rings will not be found in infertile eggs and conse- quently they pos- BESS better keeping Figure 116.—Cockerels that have been separated qualities. See page Pip patne pallets: 280 in regard to infertile eggs. Eggs that float when placed in the solution are not fresh and, therefore, can not be preserved. When the shell of the egg is only slightly soiled, a cloth dampened with vinegar may be used to remove such stains. When soiled eggs are put into the jar they are apt to spoil and washing removes a protective coating which helps to prevent spoiling. When eggs are purchased, or, if there is any doubt as to their freshness, they should be candled as described on page 86, in order to determine their true condition before preserving them. 122 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION METHODS Water glass method. One of the most satisfactory methods for preserving eggs is by the use of sodium silicate, or, as it is commonly called, water glass. The present price of sodium silicate is from twenty-five to thirty cents a quart and at this price eggs may be preserved at a cost of approxi- mately three cents a dozen. On account of the low cost of preserving eggs it is not desirable to use water glass solution a second time, as itS keeping quality deteriorates with age. Use one quart of sodium silicate to nine quarts of water boiled and cooled. Place in a five-gallon crock or jar. This will be sufficient to preserve fifteen dozen eggs and will be a guide as to the quantity needed for a larger amount of eggs. First, select a five-gallon crock or galvanized can and clean it thoroughly, scald it, and allow it to dry. Figure 117.—A desirable and undesir- Second, heat about 10 to 12 ce aa showa ‘on the right should quarts of water to the boiling nels Bueverwee. point and allow it to cool. Third, when cool, measure out 9 quarts of water, place it in the crock, and add 1 quart of sodium silicate, or water glass, stirring the mixture thoroughly. Fourth, the eggs can now be placed in the solution, being very careful to allow at least 2 inches of the solution to cover the top layer of the eggs. Fifth, place the crock containing the preserved eggs in a cool dry place well covered to prevent evaporation. Two or three sheets of waxed paper covered over and tied around the top of the crock will answer this purpose. Should only a few dozen eggs be available at any one time for preserving, additional eggs can be added at later periods until the crock PRESERVED EGGS 123 is nearly full, being sure at all times, however, to have at least 2 inches of the solution covering the top layer of eggs. When it is found that the solution is evaporating, additional solution should be added. Limewater method. Whenever water glass can not be obtained, the following method may be used in its stead. Many regard this method entirely satisfactory, although instances are known where eggs so preserved have tasted slightly of lime, a probable result of the fact that the eggs FRESERVING ECGS WATER GLASS IIETHOD CaN ii COMMERCIAL WATER EGGS WATER GLASS BO/LEQOANO COOLED (N DILUTED WATER GLASS Figure 118. have thin shells. Slake 2 pounds of unslaked lime with a little water and add 5 gallons of water that has previously been boiled and allowed to cool. The mixture should be allowed to stand until the lime settles and the liquid is clear. Place clean fresh eggs in a clean earthenware jar and dip out the clear lime water, pouring it into the vessel until the eggs are covered. This quantity of solution will be sufficient to preserve from 25 to 30 dozens of eggs. At least 2 inches of the solution should cover the top layer of eggs. Some pre- fer to add a pound of salt with the lime water mixture, but for good results it is not necessary to do so. 124 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION DISPOSITION Using preserved eggs. Fresh clean eggs properly pre- served by either of these methods can be used satisfactorily for all purposes in cooking and for the table. Eggs pre- served in the summer should be used first, as their keeping qualities are not so good as those preserved in the spring. Before boiling @| preserved eggs, a small hole should | be made in the large end of the egg with a pin, to allow the air in the egg to escape, when heated, so as to prevent cracking the shell. (See Figure 120.) In preserved eggs the yolk or white does not possess the firmness that characterizes the fresh eggs. This Figure 119.—The glass jar shown in this cut illustrates Condition is more clearly the eggs in solution. brought about by the fact that the tissues of the egg are weakened by age. This condition, however, does not detract in any way from the food value of the egg. At times difficulty is experienced in attempting to poach preserved eggs, especially those which have been preserved for over six months, because the yolk has a tendency to mix with the white. This tendency is not found to such a great extent when perfectly fresh clean eggs are properly preserved. PRESERVED EGGS 125 Selling preserved eggs. Or- dinarily the methods of preserv- ing eggs as described herein are intended primarily for home use and should not be construed as a method that can take the place of keeping eggs in cold storage. Should it so happen that it is desired to sell pre- served eggs, it should be thor- oughly understood by the party 2 Figure 120.—Punching a hole in the purchasing them that they are — egg with a pin before boiling. preserved, no attempt being made to represent them as fresh eggs. In several states it is against the law to mis- represent a preserved product as a fresh article. QUESTIONS 1. What is the economic importance of preserving eggs for home use? 2. At what time of the year should eggs be preserved? Why? 3. Describe in detail the kind of eggs to preserve. 4. When eggs are only slightly soiled how can such stains be removed? 5. Why is it so important that only fresh, clean, and infertile eggs be preserved? 6. Describe in detail the method of preserving eggs by the water glass method. 7. Describe in detail the method of preserving eggs by the use of lime. 8. When boiling preserved eggs why is it essential to punch a hole in the large end of the egg? 9. How do the yolk and white of a preserved egg differ from a fresh egg? 10. What measures should be adopted when selling preserved eggs? SUGGESTIONS 1. The preserving of eggs for home use is of great economic value and its practice is spreading rapidly. There are still many, however, who are not acquainted with the value and simplicity of the methods described herein. It is suggested that those interested in poultry and poultry products should endeavor to interest others and especially housewives as to these methods of preserving eggs. 126 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION 2. There is hardly a demonstration that can be more effectively carried out or that creates more interest than that of preserving eggs by the water glass-method. In carrying on the demonstration the method should be explained as discussed herein and the actual opera- tion take place, following the five steps as outlined. An interesting additional feature for such a demonstration is that of showing how an old egg in which considerable evaporation has taken place can not be preserved. In order to prove this point, fill a quart fruit jar about three fourths full of the water glass solution. Place in this solution an egg that has quite a large air cell. It will be noted that the egg will settle to the bottom of the jar and then slowly rise to the top and float on the surface. This action can be easily observed and is most effective in showing. that an old egg can not be preserved. 3. Should you or your club desire to encourage the home preser- vation of eggs, you no doubt can obtain considerable co-operation from the local druggists or grocers, who, having sodium silicate for sale, will gladly arrange for a window display showing the method of pre- serving eggs. REFERENCES “Preserving Eggs,’ U.S. Department of Agriculture Farmers’ Bulletin No. 1109 by J. W. Kinghorne. CHAPTER VIII POULTRY HOUSES AND APPLIANCES Supplying poultry with a suitable environment is one of the essential features of poultry management. There was a time when the trees of the orchard and the wagon shed afforded practically the only means of shelter for the farm flock. But that period is passing, for those who keep poultry appreciate that, in order to secure desirable results, the fowls must be comfortably housed. From the extreme just cited we find, on the other hand, poultry houses that have been constructed along most elaborate lines and the expense of building has been so great in many cases that it was impos- sible for the fowls to produce such returns as : would pay a reasonable |f interest on the money invested. Itcan be seen, . Figure 121.— An inadequate farm poultry therefore, that there is a house. This building does not provide the essentials of a suitable house for fowls. happy medium and that a house in order to be comfortable and practical need not be expensive or elaborate. The essential features of a suitable poultry house are: (1) Economy in construction. (2) Convenience from the standpoint of both the fowls and the attendant. (3) An abundance of sunlight. (4) Freedom from moisture. (5) Ventilation without drafts. (6) Sufficient space for the fowls. (7) Protection from excessive heat and cold. (8) Proof against rats and mice. (9) Sanitation. 127 128 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION HOUSING Kind of house to build. As with other phases of poul- try keeping, the question is often asked ‘‘What is the best style of house?” In a general: way the answer may be given that the most satisfactory style or plan of a house should embody the above mentioned essentials, taking into consider- ation the part of the country where the house will be located. With a few modifications a house embodying these essen- tials will give satisfactory results in Maine as well as in Figure 122.—A practical easily constructed colony house that will accommodate a flock of 25 fowls. California. The house in the South or the Southwest, however, may be built more open, that is, with a more open front and at a less expense than one suitable for a colder climate. Colony house and continuous house. The housing of fowls consists of two systems, each differing considerably from the other. The first system is called the colony plan, or extensive system. POULTRY HOUSES AND APPLIANCES 129 The houses used in this plan consist of small buildings, usually built so that they can be moved from place to place on the farm, and so placed as to eliminate the necessity of fences, thereby giving the flock free range. The advan- tages of the colony system are: (1) The fowls so housed are usually on free range. (2) The fact that the fowls are on range enables them to pick up considerable feed during the summer months. (3) The expense of fences is eliminated. Figure 123.—Colony house built out of piano boxes and covered with roofing panera houses are practical, easy to construct, and cost but little to build. (4) The danger of spreading disease throughout the flock is reduced to a minimum, owing to the fact that the flock is divided into small units. The disadvantages of the colony plan are as follows: (1) The extra labor in caring for the fowls in stormy weather and the difficulty in feeding and caring for the fowls at such a time. Colony houses can, however, be drawn together at some central point on the farm for the winter, thereby cutting down the amount of labor in caring for the fowls. 130 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION (2) The cost of construction of such houses is greater than the continuous house plan in that each colony house must necessarily be a complete house in itself, and (3) More ground is necessary than when the continuous house sys- tem is used, as the houses would have to be scattered if the various flocks are kept separate. The second plan, known as the continuous house sys- tem, is, as its name implies, a long continuous house under one roof which may or may not be separated into pens. Figure 124.—A good example of a long continuous poultry house. When such a house is used for the layers separate yards are not necessary. While continuous houses usually consist of but one story, two-story houses are occasionally found. In this style of construction the upper story is either a duplicate of the lower one in its interior arrangement or the upper floor is used principally for roosting quarters and the lower floor as a scratching shed. The advantages of the continuous house system are: (1) The cost of construction of such a house is less per bird capacity than the colony plan. (2) The cost of labor in attending to and feeding the fowls is less than with the first system. (3) The convenience in caring for the fowls POULTRY HOUSES AND APPLIANCES 131 in one house is greater. (4) A greater number of birds can be housed on a smaller area of land in this system, when fences are used to keep them confined, than with the colony house system. The disadvantages of this system are: (1) The added cost for fences, if the fowls are to be confined within a given area. (2) The added cost of feed due to the fact that the fowls, if yarded, have to be supplied with practically all the feed required. (3) The danger of spreading disease through- out the entire flock is greater than when the flock is divided Figure 125.—A semi-monitor continuous poultry house suitable for a small farm flock, in sections where the winters are severe. It will be noticed that this house has a concrete foundation. into smaller units. (4) The possibility of the yards’ becom- ing polluted through continued usage. For the general farm the colony house system is usually recommended in that the houses may be moved about from place to place, thereby giving the fowls free range and other natural advantages. The continuous house system is usually found on com- mercial poultry farms or on general farms with large flocks. 132 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Figure 126.—A_ small open front house suitable for a small flock in the suburbs or on the farm. This house has a wooden floor and is built on posts. In rainy weather the open- ing beneath the house provides additional scratching space for the hens. LOCATION AND CONSTRUC- TION OF HOUSE Location. The ideal lo- cation for a poultry house ison agradualslope facing the south or southeast, so that there will bea natural drainage away from the building. As a matter of fact, however, fowls can be raised successfully on any well-drained soil. A dry porous soil such as a sand or gravelly loam is prefer- able to a clay soil, as the former drains more rapidly and can be kept in a more sanitary condition. Time to build. The most desirable time to build the poultry house is during the spring or early summer. When the house is constructed of new lumber, suffi- cient time will elapse before cool weather to allow “i 7 ee be a is ie : Figure 127,—A complete open front house suitable for the South where the winters are mild. POULTRY HOUSES AND APPLIANCES 133 Figure 128.—Type of house suitable for a hot climate. Note the openings in the front, sides, and back to provide ample ventilation. the house to thoroughly dry out. This fact should be kept in mind when the floor and foundation of the house are constructed of concrete. Building materials. The most satisfactory, practical, and economical material to use in the construction of the house proper, exclusive of the foundation and floor, is lum- Figure 129.—Rear view of houses shown in Figure 128. 134 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION ber. Hollow tile, brick, cement, and even stone, are occa- sionally used in building poultry houses, but in most instances such material not only proves to be too costly but likewise is not as satisfactory 4s lumber. The most common fault found in houses built of hollow tile, brick, and cement is that they retain the dampness, which is detrimental to the health of fowls. In the extreme northern sections of the country, where the thermometer registers as low as 40° below zero during the winter months, houses properly constructed of lumber have given mostsatisfactory results. (See page 142.) Even in such parts of the country where, owing to the scar- city of timber, other building materials can be purchased as cheaply as lumber, it is advisable to use lumber. Size and dimensions of the house. The size of the poul- try house will depend on the number of fowls to be kept. The amount of floor space per bird is dependent somewhat on the system of housing used. When colony houses are used in a mild climate and hens have free range throughout most of the year, 2 to 3 square feet per bird should be allowed. With such a system and in sections where the birds are confined to the house during most of the winter months at least 4 to 5 square feet per bird should be provided. From 3 to 5 square feet per bird should also be allowed in a continuous house, depending on the number of fowls. Small houses should provide more space per bird than large houses. In larger houses there is a greater area in which the birds can exercise. The house should not be so deep that the sunlight will not reach the rear portion of the building at some time during the day. As to the height, a low house is more easily kept warm in the win- ter than one with a high roof. The roof, however, should not be so low as to make it inconvenient for the attendant. Foundation and floors. When a permanent continu- ous house is built, the most satisfactory foundation is con- POULTRY HOUSES AND APPLIANCES 135 Figure 130.—Laying « concrete floor in a continuous house. crete. Such a foundation should be built deep enough not to be affected by frost, to hold the buildings substantially, and of sufficient height above the ground level to prevent the entrance of water. An average height of 8 to 12 inches above the level of the ground should be sufficient to in- sure a dry floor. When a concrete foundation is used, the floor of the house should likewise be made of concrete. Figure 131,—Part of the concrete floor completed. Such a floor is permanent and easily kept clean. 136 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Such a floor is easily kept clean, practically makes the house rat-proof, and, if properly constructed, can be kept dry. In laying the foundation of a concrete floor, broken stone or gravel should be first laid as a foundation and from 21% to 3 inches of concrete placed on top. Before finishing the top surface of the floor, a layer of tar paper such as is used for building that is lapped and cemented with tar at the seams should be placed on top of the rough concrete to help keep the floor dry and warm. The top layer of cement is then put on top of the paper. When concrete is not used for the foundation, the building may be erected on brick piers or posts. A board floor is mostly used with such a foundation and in cold climates should be laid double, with building paper between the boards. An earth floor gives good results, if it can be kept dry. It should be 3 to 6 inches higher than the level of the ground outside. An objection to such a floor is the difficulty in keeping it clean. As a sanitary measure remove from 8 to 4 inches of the top soil each year and replace it with fresh clean soil. In the colony house the floor and foundation are usually constructed of lumber, the foundation timbers being con- structed in the form of skids so that the house can be easily moved from place to place. The framework of the building. The framework of the house should be constructed of lumber of sufficient size and dimensions to make it secure, depending upon the size and construction of the building. With small continuous houses or colony houses most of the frame can be constructed of 2 x 4 inchlumber. In larger buildings, especially of the continuous house type, the uprights can be made of 2x 4 inch scantlings and the rafters and floor joists of 2 x 4 or 2x6 inch lumber when the depth of the house and the span of the roof are over 16 feet deep. The sills can be made of 2 x 4 inch timber POULTRY HOUSES AND APPLIANCES 137 Figure 132.—The method of erecting the uprights of the framework of a con- tinuous house. when laid on a cement wall and 4 x 4 inch when the foun- dation is of brick piers or posts. Floor joists, of course, are necessary only in houses having a wooden floor. When constructing colony houses, especial- ly those that are to be moved from place to place, the frame- work should be well braced to prevent the houses from rack- ing when moved. The runners, or skids, of the colony Figure 133.—Close up showing uprights in position and the framework of the roof completed. The second story section of this house will be used as a feed room and for supplies. 138 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Figure 134.—Showing the method of placing the rafters for a two-thirds pitch roof. The crosspieces and uprights in the middle as shown in the picture are but temporary braces and will be removed. house, depending upon its size, are usually built of 3 x 4 or 4 x 6 cr 6 x 6 inch lumber. The roof. There are six different styles of roof as shown in Figure 135. Dy maces Figure 135.—Types of roofs for poultry houses. (a) Shed roof or single-pitch ype. (b) Combination or two-thirds pitch. (ce) Gable or double pitch. (d) Monitor. (e) Semi-monitor. (f) A-shaped. POULTRY HOUSES AND APPLIANCES 139 Of these various styles the shed roof, or single-pitch, (Figure 135) is the easiest to construct. A roof of this type provides sufficient height in front to allow the sun’s rays to reach the rear of the house, provided it is not too deep, and likewise all the rain water drains to the rear of the house. A good grade of roofing paper properly put on will be a lasting and satisfactory material for this purpose. These facts should determine the type of roof to build. The roof should have sufficient pitch to allow the water to drain quickly. Figure 136.—After the framework of the building is completed the sheathing is nailed to the rafters prior to putting on the roofing. The shed, or single-pitch, roof is most satisfactory for houses up to 16 feet deep. The combination, or two-thirds, pitch roof and the semi- monitor roof are best adapted for buildings over 16 and up to 24 feet deep. The former style of roof reduces the amount of surplus air space and makes a neater appearance than the single-pitch, or shed-roof, type. The monitor and gable roof are usually used for build- ings that are more than 20 feet deep and houses that have a central alley, especially brooder houses. The gable roof 140 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION OLD STILE HEN HOUSE SHED VPRO RIGHT — PAF LATO x Se EN. FROW] HEN SIOUSE SYED BOYLED OPIN FRAT POULTRY VETTE MAME DAVE UVIERYOR OF SHITE HOKSE G2OO SUIMLIGCYT CONEY TIONS, 4 ONMBLE PODSIE PROUT RS Figure 137,—Remodeling the poultry house out of old lumber at small expense. is mostly used for two-story buildings and incubator cellars. The A-shaped roof is sometimes used for colony and growing houses, although not so extensively as the single- pitch, or shed, roof. The two-thirds pitch and double-pitch styles of roof are POULTRY HOUSES AND APPLIANCES 141 particularly suited to houses in cold climates where the gables may be filled with straw, which absorbs the moisture and assists in keeping the houses dry and warm. The front of the house. Too many glass windows in the front of the house usually increase the temperature during the day; but, as glass radiates heat very quickly, the house will become cold at night. In sections of the country x { VENTALATOR® FS Qer 44L00R + Be et eo ee eg oil 4LOO0RP FLAN Poultey wire on outsize, 2 p70). (aisle on mood Pistia, hinged a0? insist, oor, jZooe bee ss hie gt ace H-- —-i ot. — FRONT ELEVATION ENO LLLEVKATION Figure 138.—Plans for an easily constructed practical back-yard poultry house that will accommodate about 20 fowls. where the climate is unusually cold in the winter a third of the open space in the front of the house should consist of windows, the balance of the openings to be covered with un- bleached muslin or burlap, which keeps out the wind but permits a slow circulation of air without draft. In sections of the country having a more temperate climate glass windows can be entirely eliminated and two thirds of the front of the house left open and covered with muslin 142 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION or burlap in eold weather. (See Figure 126.) In the South more open space may be given to the front of the house and a curtain provided where necessary for cool nights. (See Figure 128.) The front of the house should be high enough so that the opening or windows will permit the sun to shine well back into the house during the winter. The walls of the house may consist of one or two thick- nesses of boards, depending upon the climate. In an ex- tremely cold section the rear wall of the house may be built of either two thicknesses of boards covered on the inside with building or roofing paper, or built with double walls with a dead air space between, the inside wall being covered with roofing paper. In sections of moderate cli- mate one thickness of boards will suffice and, when built of unmatched lumber, the cracks should be covered with narrow strips to prevent drafts. Partitions. In long continuous houses, Figure 139.—The framework of a colony whether they are divided house shown in Figure 122. Note how = the framework is braced to prevent JQto pens or not, there racking when the house is moved. should be a solid parti- tion from the back of the house to the front part of the dropping board and extending to the ceiling at intervals of from 20 to 30 feet. (See Figure 144.) This arrangement eliminates the possibility of drafts’ affecting the birds at night while on the roost. When the house is divided into pens, the lower 3 feet of the partition should be solid to pre- vent the males in the different pens from fighting and the other part composed of wire netting. Solid partitions should be built across the entire house at a distance of every 143 POULTRY HOUSES AND APPLIANCES FPRPOWT PLE ATION 3s SCALE OF FEET ogee wie Tvl eral aad 120% taaKerial COVE Ed vedrlig paper. ‘onshs € ravters. 2x}, S. FB 1 °F PAF 5 4x6), WF 2) 4 no VOOR Nolo: Sills Fen Sia b brace Figure 140,—Floor plan and front elevation showing the construction of a colony house as shown in Figure 122. 144 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION 40 to 50 feet, depending on the length of the building, in order to prevent drafts. Such partitions closer than this will interfere with the circulation of the air, especially in hot weather. INTERIOR ARRANGEMENTS The interior fixtures should in most instances be built so that they can be readily removed and cleaned, and be also inex- pensive and simple in construction. Roosts. The roosts are placed in the rear SPREE of the building and _ all Figuyown'in Tigue 122, This howe bess the roosts should be on capri, Of 2a. Dene the same level, so that the birds will not crowd and fight to get on the high- est roost at night. The roosts should be from 5 to 8 inches above the drop- ping board and so constructed that they can 4 be lifted up in\ one section to --£| : q s aan facilitate clean- in (See Figure 147.) Satisfac- tory roosts can be made from 2 x2 or 2 x 4 inch scantlings with the upper edge U pein Lh . Fi 142.—End elevati f col bi ho slightly rounded igure n een ae lony house shown Wire nefieg ——* 145 POULTRY HOUSES AND APPLIANCES TTT NT 11) | PLL [8 Lys | 7 Pre oer — LST SCALE OF- FEET~ oO f Be a SS Figure 143.—Floor plan and front elevation of a continuous house as shown in Figure 124. Each pen of this house is 18 x 18 feet square, having a capacity of 80 to 100 hens. F PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION 146 S board Dp bron; 14 6 nN re « 1 1 1 CLeth foor fe Sens secre, QMis vOf pawtAlBs [BINSb2LL LOG LP of £2 Legend yy CL gPAP n SRL ONE fC POAT tl fe 29 fyOOYs LES Rif. [ROS ALO SJIOT ff DOYMBLTY SOf i Gm VOLLPLPISIY YL) LOOT IA YOM JOR AD f r (3.0 BYCYIS Gywe Goby) aleMpiey BYOOP GAYPOG Uh 69 OOL2 40102 Of todbd binfoas pa1edaiy PHEYMIP AA Uy GAL EIU f 0 WEE O. FE FOYT 10f PLM YS2U 2 f0 hf boos PARTI Io Mose: A// Parhfians lhe This exces every other ore witch 1g PUBL Taf 21M YE RU Gh 40 fd b5°-00€ % SOWPY tte PD 1Of BULIY, E41 40 fBY BiILUTY ObF ee 8 1008 S820 1Of SAS yoy poe? SLAG x Q0ZE = ecg SCALE § SOY OT Q you as binwoy poyygy| NS S t 0982 f00! 10f qnivwie pantyds bay poigg , (GLE VOL s 7 ea ge | exe (SOGY 8 O91) 8 aa PR | GAY) PVA ES = g woe | (a ge [exe YG 4 Se) 1099 | er | 99 |'9%2 wig Gly 4 —— = a aL | jt ag | pxXZ SOL Oy —— ’ i eininsannprecneeecenanton Liem oeek C22 a OF | FFT | FLYSA/ NW SY, 296] 12 | be lngoge| FHA voee | er oe | oxo WS * ee % Geer WhBRF 2 PSOE FF veo e-6 > Figure 144.—Partition and cross-section of laying house as shown in Figure 124. POL NS! FSIS DAC? 0 BOS THYSALELY SO THE POULTRY HOUSES AND APPLIANCES 147 Figure 145.—Showing the front of a continuous house partially completed. and placed about 15 inches apart. Allow from 10 to 15 inches of roost space for each bird according to their size. Dropping board. The dropping board should be from 21% to 3 feet above the floor and extending back to the rear wall. The front edge of the dropping board should extend about 10 inches out from the first roost. Nests. The nests may be placed under the dropping board or on the side wall, as shown in Figure 148. The nests should be 15 inches square and 12 inches high, with a Figure 146.—The continuous house completed. 148 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Figure 147.—A good interior arrangement of a long laying house, showing roosts, dropping boards, nests underneath and wire coop at end for confining broody hens. One section of the roost is shown elevated to facilitate cleaning the dropping boards. The nests allow the hen to enter from the rear, the front being opened to permit cleaning the nests and gathering the eggs. Note ventilators in the back of house and the abundance of sunlight which insures a dry house and healthy fowls. Figure 148.—Interior view of colony house as shown in Figure 122, with trap nests placed at the end of the building. A ventilator such as is sho in the rear of the house should be provided and kept open in hot weather: POULTRY HOUSES AND APPLIANCES 149 Figure 149.—Trap nests arranged under the dropping board and showing the hen about to enter an open nest. Hens have already entered the nests that are closed. 4 inch strip at the bottom of the entrance to keep in the nest material. Provide one nest for every 4 to 5 hens. When the nests are placed under the dropping board, the opening should be from the rear, as hens prefer a dark place in which to lay. A door in the front of the nest should be provided to enable the attendant to collect the eggs and clean the nests. (See Figure 147.) Trap nests. A trap nest is so arranged that after a hen enters it she is con- fined until released by the attendant. Such nests are essential in any careful sys- tematic breeding work such as pedigree breeding or the breeding of exhibition poultry. On account of the amount of extra labor necessary in attending to trap nests they are not en- | tirely practical for the SE commercial poultryman CROSS-SECTION or farmer. The advan- Mure 150.—Working plans of « trep nest EEE LLL EE 150 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION tages of trapnesting the layers are as follows:—(1) To tame the birds, thereby tending toward increased egg pro- duction. (2) To furnish definite knowledge concerning the traits and habits of individuals. (3) To furnish the only satisfactory basis for systematic breeding. (4) To eliminate the non-productive hens. Dust boxes. Fowls clean themselves of insects by wal- lowing in the soil. In addition to this method of keeping themselves clean from insects other measures should be employed to keep down these pests by cleaning the houses thoroughly at intervals and spraying as described in Chapter X. Provision should be made | for a dust box in houses hav- ing concrete or board floors, F | especially in continuous houses | and where the birds are yarded. © | A box 4x4 feet square and one foot high built in the corner of Figure 151.—A simple nest built out the house will be found large Oh is ORG: Coats enough for a flock of from 50 to 75 hens. Fine, light, dry dust or sandy loam is excel- lent material for this purpose. When possible, wood ashes should be mixed with the soil. Broody coops. A broody coop should be provided and used to break up broody hens. Such a coop can be con- structed on the inside of the house, as shown in Figure 147. In the spring and summer months it is advisable to place the broody coop outside, as shown in Figure 152. When out in the open there is more to attract the hen’s attention and it is cooler than when placed inside of the house. These conditions tend to break up broodiness. Drinking fountains. As will be brought out in the chapter on feeding, the importance of providing plenty of fresh, clean water for the fowls can not be overestimated. POULTRY HOUSES AND APPLIANCES 151 To provide this a receptacle large enough to hold a day’s supply of water should be placed on a platform or shelf elevated about a foot from the floor to prevent the scratch- ing material or litter from getting into the water. (See Figure 153.) Water pans or drinking vessels should be carefully cleaned each day before fresh water is added. VENTILATION The keynote of proper ventilation is fresh air without drafts. A cloth or burlap curtain over the opening in Figure 152.—A broody coop hung on the back of the house. the front of the house that can be closed on cold nights and in stormy weather is one of the most successful:methods for ventilating. In mild weather such glass windows as are in the front of the house should be opened or removed so as to provide plenty of ventilation. In extremely hot weather provision should be made in the rear of the house for an opening to allow a complete circulation of air, so that the building will not be too warm 152 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION for the birds. In the winter such an opening should be sealed tight to prevent drafts. There is, however, less chance of a bird’s catching cold in a cold, dry house than in a warm, damp one. Proper ventilation will prevent the accumulation of dampness. YARDS AND FENCES Yards. In most instances yards are of course unneces- sary when the colony houses system is used. Yards are never advisable except when it is absolutely necessary to keep the birds confined to a limited area. When it is necessary to so confine ©|| the birds, double yards ‘| should be provided, one in the front and one in the rear of the house. With this arrangement the birds may be alternated from one to the other. With such a system and Figaee {acheter pongniseed gaetee, with proper management getting into the water. a@ green crop can always be available for the fowls throughout most of the year, by growing such a crop in one yard while the fowls have access to the other yard. (See page 203.) When yards can be constructed on only one side of the house, they should be on the south side. If it is desired to keep the yard in- permanent sod, at least 100 square feet of yard space should be allowed for each fowl. When green feed such as sprouted oats, mangel beets, etc., are supplied and the yards used principally for exercise, provide at least 35 square feet for each fowl. Fences. Two-inch wire mesh is probably the cheapest and one of the most suitable materials for fencing fowls. POULTRY HOUSES AND APPLIANCES 153 When such wire is used it will be found to last longer by nailing the bottom edge of it to a four-inch board ex- tending from post to post. The top of the fencing may be kept rigid by fastening it to a heavy wire stretched at the tops of the posts. Where two or more yards are adjoining, the fences should be boarded at the bottom to a height of 3 feet to prevent the male birds from fighting between the fences (See Figure 124.), or an extra strip of wire fencing Figure 154.—A ventilator as shown here or in Figure 148 should be opened in warm weather. 3 feet wide can be attached on the other side of the post for this purpose in the place of boards. The height of the fence is governed by the variety of fowls kept. The smaller breeds, such as the Leghorns, need a fence from 6 to 8 feet high in order to keep them con- fined. A 6-foot fence can be used where Leghorns are raised, provided the flight feathers of one wing of the fowl are clipped. For the heavier breeds a 5-foot fence will be found satisfactory. Where the general-purpose breeds, such as 164 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION the Barred Plymouth Rock and Wyandotte, are kept, it is sometimes advisable to clip one wing of each bird in order to prevent their flying over the fence, when it is only 5 feet in height. Clipping the wing. In many instances it will be found necessary to clip the wings of the birds to prevent their flying over the fence, especially in the case of Leghorns and other breeds of this type. In no instance should both Figure 155.—Clipping the flight feathers ante tihetomlbecippet "of the wing. By clipping the feath- ers of but one wing the fowl’s balance is lost when it attempts to fly, due to the fact that one wing is shorter than the other. Hold the fowl with the wing spread as shown in Figure 156.—The flight feathers Figure 157.—Wing folded after feathers clipped. have been clipped. POULTRY HOUSES AND APPLIANCES 155 Figure 155 and with a sharp pair of scissors clip the flight feathers only. With these feathers cut, the wing will then have the appearance as shown in Figure 156. Fur- thermore, the clipping of the flight feathers is hardly ap- parent when the wing is folded in its natural position, as Figure 158.—The corner posts of the shown in Figure 157. fence should be well braced. Gates. In all cases at least one gate should be provided for each yard and, where several yards adjoin, a gate should be made between each yard and the one next to it. When the yard is of considerable size, a double gate should be provided, so as to admit a wagon to remove the litter from the house or a team of horses in the event it is desired to plow the yard. PAINT AND WHITEWASH It is always advisable either to paint or whitewash the poultry buildings not only from the standpoint of appearance, Figure 159.—The gate should be well made and hung on strong hinges in order for it to be serviceable. 156 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION but likewise to protect the lumber. Suitable ready mixed paints can be purchased and will in most cases answer the purpose. Whitewash is the most inexpensive finish that can be applied and can be used either for the exterior or inter- ior of the house. Satisfactory weather-proof whitewash for the outside of the building can be made as follows: 1. Slake 1 bushel of quick lime in 12 gallons of hot water. 2. Dissolve 2 pounds of common salt and 1 pound of Figure 160.—When colony houses are only temporarily placed in a field or lot and a gate is not close by, a stile as shown can be erected. Ordinarily the fowls will not attempt to fly out from the top step of the stile. sulphate of zinc in 2 gallons of boiling water. When mixed, pour this into the slaked lime. Stir well and add 2 gallons of skim milk. QUESTIONS 1. What are the nine essential factors for a suitable poultry house? 2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a colony house system? 3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a continuous house system? 4. Describe an ideal location for the poultry house. 5. What factors should be considered in planning the size and dimensions of the house? POULTRY HOUSES AND APPLIANCES 157 6. Describe three styles of floors for the poultry house and the merits of each style. 7. Discuss the factors to be considered when erecting the frame- work of the house. 8. Name the six styles of poultry house roofs. Which is the most easily constructed? 9. Describe three methods of constructing the front of the house. What kind of openings would you provide for a house in your section of the country? 10. Describe the method of building the walls of the house. ‘ 11. Discuss the construction of partitions in a long, continuous ouse. 12. Where should the roosts be placed? 13. Describe the position and purpose of the dropping board? 14. Describe the size of a suitable nest and the number that should be provided for a flock of 50 hens. 15. What are trap nests and when should they be used? 16. Discuss the value of a dust box for the hens. 17. Where should the water pan be placed in the house? Why? 18. What is the keynote of proper ventilation for the poultry house? How can proper ventilation be provided? 19. When should yards be used and how should they be con- structed? 20. Describe a satisfactory method of building fences. 21. Describe the correct method of clipping the wing. 22. What factors should be considered when constructing gates? 23. Discuss the advantages of painting or whitewashing the poultry buildings. SUGGESTIONS 1. As noted in this chapter, a poultry house should consist of various essential features in order to make it practical and convenient. As will also be noted, no one type or style of poultry house is recom- mended, or, in other words, there is no best type of poultry house suit- able for all conditions and circumstances. With this fact in mind, draw the plans for a poultry house built on either the colony or contin- uous house plan, incorporating the essentials as given. In planning such a house the climate in the section of the country in which you are located should be kept in mind. 2. After you have perfected your plans for such a house, show it to several of your friends who are familiar with the construction of poultry houses for their suggestions and criticism. After you are con- vinced that these plans are satisfactory, if you are contemplating build- ing a house, it is suggested that the house he built following such plans. If you already have a poultry house and are not entirely sat- isfied with its arrangement, why not remodel it, embracing some of the suggestions as given in this chapter. Figure 137 on page 140 will show you what.can be done in this connection. 4. In order to become familiar with the kinds of houses and sys- tems of housing in your community, make a survey, the object of which should be to obtain a list of the various kinds of poultry houses in your 158 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION section. Such a trip as this will also enable you to observe the satis- factory and unsatisfactory features in other poultrymen’s or farmers’ poultry houses. 5. If your house has an earth floor, why not consider removing this floor and in its stead build a concrete floor, which will be more permanent and more easily kept clean. 6. Does your poultry house or the majority of those in your com- munity have too much glass in the front? If such is the case, why not consider removing or suggesting to others that some of the glass be removed and the openings covered with curtains in cold weather? 7. Does your house contain sufficient roosting space, nests, and other interior arrangements as mentioned herein? If not, such im- provement as can be made will, no doubt, prove to be most desirable. 8. Before the arrival of winter be sure that all cracks in the rear and sides of the house are tightly sealed in order to prevent drafts. Before warm weather comes also make sure that the house is sufficiently ventilated to keep the building from becoming too hot during the sum- mer. REFERENCES Poultry House Construction,U. S. Department of Agriculture Farmers’ Bulletin 574, by Alfred R. Lee. A Simple Trap Nest for Poultry, U. 8. Department of Agriculture Farmers’ Bulletin 682, by Alfred R. Lee. Poultry Management, U. 8. Department of Agriculture Farmers’ Bulletin 287, by George A. Bell. CHAPTER IX COMMON DISEASES AND TREATMENT The prevention of poultry diseases and infection is largely a matter of management. The most successful poultrymen endeavor to manage their flocks in a way to prevent disease rather than to be continually doctoring. While it is found possible to prevent diseases to a great extent by keeping the fowls as well as the houses and sur- roundings clean and sanitary, in many flocks, nevertheless, fowls from time to time come in contact with some disease or disorder that interferes with their growth or production. In most instances it is not practical to attempt to cure one or two sick fowls; for, even though they are apparently cured, their value as producers or breeders will be lessened. Again, the disease may reappear and endanger other fowls. Every effort should be made to prevent disease from be- coming prevalent throughout the flock; for, unless a known cure is possible and the flock can be treated as a whole, it may become necessary to kill off a large number of the fowls. GENERAL PREVENTION Other than by keeping the poultry house, drinking foun- tains, hoppers, and surroundings clean and sanitary the healthy fowls in the flock may be prevented from getting diseases by immediately removing those that show signs of infection. The contagious or infectious diseases like roup, canker, chicken pox, cholera, etc., are caused by germs, which not only develop rapidly within a fowl so affected, but are subject to spread among the rest of the flock. The drinking fountain is most frequently the means of spreading disease and thus endangering other birds. In less severe forms of disease, as, for example, roup, canker, chicken pox, it is possible to prevent the contamination of the whole 159 160 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION flock by adding to the drinking water an antiseptic that has the power to kill such germs as may be present. In such instances it is well to give the flock an antisep- tic, such as potassium permanganate in the drinking water, as described under roup, and to spray and clean the house and buildings thoroughly with a 5% solution of crude carbolic acid or some coal-tar product in water. Usually the fowl that is not well can be told by the fact that it is Figure 161.—Doctoring a sick hen. not as active as the others, stands around in an out-of- the-way place, and shows little disposition to eat. Such a fowl should be immediately removed from the flock and, if seriously sick, should be killed and the carcass burned or deeply buried. COMMON DISEASES, SYMPTOMS AND TREATMENT Roup. Roup is a highly contagious disease, spreading from one bird to another rapidly. The disease is quite com- mon in the fall, especially in poorly ventilated damp houses. Late-hatched and poorly developed stock is usually very COMMON DISEASES AND TREATMENT 161 susceptible to roup, especially if all conditions such as proper ‘housing, etc., are not favorable. The prevention in this case would, of course, be to hatch early, so as to have the stock well grown by fall. Likewise undersized or poorly developed birds should be culled from the flock sometime during the summer, as described in Chapter XIII. Symptoms. The first symptoms of roup are watery and swollen eyes, loss of appetite, and a thin watery discharge from the nostrils. It will sometimes be noticed that a fowl so affected will stand around with its head under the wing most of the time. On examining the plu- mage under the wing it will be found discolored or dirty. There is us- ually a rather offensive odor accompanying roup, which, when once detect- ed, can always be recog- nized when roup is pres- ent. As the disease de- velops, the discharge be- comes thick and inter- feres with the bird’s breathing. In severe cases the bird’s head becomes inflamed and the eye badly swollen, so that it protrudes. Treatment. Remove the sick birds to a warm, dry, well-ventilated room that is free from drafts. Syringe the nostrils by means of a medicine dropper with a solution of one teaspoonful of common salt in a quart of water. The eyes may be bathed gently with the same solution. Grease around the nostrils and eyes with pure or carbolated vaseline. After cleaning the nostrils and eyes with the salt- water solution birds may be individually treated by syring- Figure 162.—A fowl with roup. 162 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION ing the nostrils with either of the following solutions by means of a medicine dropper (Figure 161) or by immersing the head of the bird in a basin containing the mixture and holding it there for a few seconds, care being taken not to hold the bird long enough to cause suffocation. Suitable remedies for such treatment are boric acid 1 oz., water 1 quart, or potassium permanganate 1 dram, water 1 pint; or boric acid 114 02z., borax 4% oz., and 1 quart water. Hydro- gen peroxide used in the proportion of 1 oz. to 3 ozs. of water is sometimes effective. As a general treatment and preventive, dissolve in one gallon of drinking water as much potassium permanganate as will remain on the surface of a dime. The flock should be given no other drinking water than that containing the potassium permanganate. It is good practice to use potassium permanganate in the drink- ing water as a preventive as soon as cool weather begins in the fall. Canker. This disease is somewhat akin to roup and is also known as diphtheretic roup. Symptoms. This disease is characterized by cheese- like patches that form on the membrane of the mouth, throat, and tongue. Treatment. Sprinkle a little sulphur or chlorate of potash in the mouth and throat of the bird. Another effective treatment consists of washing the sore patches with a mixture of equal parts of hydrogen peroxide and water. Cholera. This is probably one of the worst diseases that affects poultry, for it spreads rapidly and in most instances the cure is unsatisfactory. Fortunately, however, this disease is very rare and is frequently mistaken for other troubles that are less serious. Symptoms. The usual symptoms of cholera are as follows: The fowl is troubled with diarrhea, the droppings become watery and yellow or green in color, the fowl is COMMON DISEASES AND TREATMENT 163 depressed, the feathers ruffled, and the comb is usually either very pale or very dark. Fowls so infected usually have a great thirst but poor appetite. Fortunately many so-called cases of cholera are simply diarrhea. Fowls having cholera usually die within 36 hours. Treatment. The most satisfactory method of combating this disease is to kill and burn all fowls that are really affected. Clean and spray all water fountains and the houses thor- oughly with a 10% solution of carbolic acid and water, or one of the coal-tar products, such as creolin, creosote, etc., and water. The droppings should be buried deep, burned, or sprayed with the above solution. The drinking water may be made antiseptic by adding as much potas- sium permanganate as will remain on the surface of a dime to each gallon of water. This serves to prevent the spread of the infection through water and is also a means of adminis- tering a general preventive to the flock as a whole. Recent experiments at the *Rhode Island Experiment Station show that attempts to immunize fowls against chol- era infection by inoculation have not proven entirely satisfac- tory. Such inoculations, however, produce an increased resistance against infection but not complete immunization. Tuberculosis. Tuberculosis of poultry is a highly con- tagious disease that usually affects the liver, spleen, and in- testines. Symptoms. From the outward appearance the symp- toms of this disease are usually not noticeable until it has reached an advanced stage of development. The fowls grad- ually lose weight, their combs turn pale, and, as the disease comtinues, the birds become listless and seem to be affected with diarrhea. Not infrequently the disease affects their joints, either by creating a swelling or by causing the fowl to become lame. (See Figure 163.) *Rhode Island Experiment Station Bulletin 179 by Dr. Philip Hadley. 164 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Figure 163._ A fowl infected with tuber- culosis. (Courtesy of Dr, W. W. Dimock, Ames, Iowa.) Treatment. Thereisreally no satisfactory treatment for this trouble. When the disease is discovered in a wide-spread form, that is, throughout most of the birds, they should be im- mediately killed and burned or buried, and the house and yards thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. As an ex- tra precaution all the litter and droppings from the house should likewise be burned. Under ordinary circum- stances it is not advisable to retain any of the fowls that have been exposed to this infection, as it is highly probable that sooner or later the disease will manifest Heel 3 in them. Limberneck. This dis- ease, so-called, is really a condition or symptom of several diseases. Symptoms. It is char- acterized by the fact that the fowl’s neck becomes paralyzed and limber so that the head can not be held erect and is twisted to one side. The cause is usually a form of food poisonmg as the result of the bird’s feeding on de- composed animal flesh. Treatment. Two tea- spoonfuls of castor oil giv- Figure 164.—Liver and intestines of a tuber- cular fowl shdwing tubercles in wall of intes- tines and tubercular lesions on the liver. (Courtesy of Dr. W. W. Dimock, Ames, Ia.) COMMON DISEASES AND TREATMENT 165 en to the fowls will some- times effect a cure. In all cases an effort should be made to find the cause of the disease, which is usually a dead animal or fowl that is decomposed and is being eaten by the birds. The carcasses of birds that Figure 165.—A bad case of limberneck. die as the result of limberneck should be deeply buried or burned when found. Chicken pox, or sore head. This is a very contagious disease that occurs in practically all classes of poultry, par- ticularly in the South. Symptoms. It may be told by the formation of yellow patches or nodules that appear at the base of the beak, on the face, comb, and wattles. In severe cases these patches or nodules increase in number to the extent that the bird has difficulty in opening its eyes and beak. Treatment. Cover the sore patches with carbolated vaseline, which will cause the crust to soften and drop off. The tissue beneath the crust or scab should then be painted with tincture of iodine. As an additional remedy add 5 pounds of powdered sul- phur to 100 pounds of dry mash, placing this mixture before the birds . affected. The general sug- gestions as already given concerning spraying the house and coops with a disinfectant applies equal- Figure 166.—A young chick with sore head. lyas well to thisinfection. 166 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION White comb, or favus. This is a very contagious disease, spreading quickly from one bird to another. Symptoms. The general symptoms of this disease are white or grayish spots that form on the comb, wattles, ear lobes, and other parts of the body. Treatment. Birds so affected should immediately be removed from the flock. When the disease affects only the bare parts of the head and face it can sometimes be cured ' by applying iodine. An- other effective remedy is that of applying ointment composed of 1 part of powdered sulphur mixed with 9 parts of carbo- lated vaseline. In ap- plying this the affected parts should be merely greased and not rubbed, as rubbing tends to spread the disease. Re- peated applications should be made every three daysuntil the affec- tion disappears. If the feathered portions of the Figure tir Wile Tenner cockerel with body are affected, it is ; : better to kill the fowl, as it usually requires considerable time to effect a cure. Blackhead. The most troublesome and infectious dis- ease that affects turkeys is blackhead, an affection of the intestines and liver. It is noticeable that, whenever the climate and range conditions are such as to permit turkeys to forage for the greater part of their feed, cases of blackhead are infrequent. Again, blackhead rarely occurs in flocks COMMON DISEASES AND TREATMENT 167 possessing good constitutional vigor and vitality and which are properly managed. Symptoms. The comb and skin of the head and neck turn very dark purple. Treatment. No successful cure for this disease has been found; but free range and care not to overfeed are very im- portant factors in keeping the flock free from this disease. Frozen comb. Frozen or frost-bitten combs frequently occur in cold weather, especially with birds hay- ing large single combs. Fowls having lopped sin- gle combs or rose combs are not so susceptible, principally due to the comb’s being closer to the head. Symptoms. The points or parts of a comb that have been frozen will turn black soon after thecomb thaws out. Unless time- "2{,. comb of this mate bird have boos ly treatment is applied, ete the frozen parts will shrivel and drop off. Treatment. Applying snow or cold water to frozen combs before they thaw out will frequently save them. After being thawed by this method, vaseline should be applied to the frozen parts at least once a day for several days. Diarrhea in hens. Diarrhea, while not a serious afflic- tion, should be checked as soon as possible, as it causes quite a strain on the fowl and interferes with production. Symptoms. Diarrhea can readily be recognized by the extreme watery condition of the droppings and the 168 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION frequency of operation. It is usually caused by a change in the quality or quantity of feed, excessive green or meat feed, and very hot weather. Treatment. One of the best cures is to deprive the fowl of all green or meat feeds and wet mash and feed a dry mash and grain feed. A teaspoonful of castor oil or sweet oil with 5 drops of oil of turpentine added will frequently check the trouble. White diarrhea in chicks. This is probably the most dreaded of chick diseases, it being very contagious and fatal in its results. Figure 169.—Chickens with white diarrheg, Symptoms. It can easily be told by the fact that the chicks tend to droop their wings, are sleepy in appearance, show little or no desire to eat, assume almost a ball shape, and the whitish brown droppings adhering to the vent and fluff cause them to become ‘pasted up.” Prevention. The development of this disease can be prevented to a great extent by selecting strong vigorous breeding stock and putting into practice proper methods of brooding and management of the chicks. For instance, it is seldom that this disease will manifest itself if the chicks are properly brooded and every effort is made to keep them from becoming chilled or too warm or overfed. Once the vitality of the chicks is lowered, it is difficult for them to COMMON DISEASES AND TREATMENT 169 resist this disease or other diseases. As a general means of preventing this trouble, care should be taken to see that purchased eggs used for hatching are from flocks that are free from it. It has been found that chicks which have white diarrhea but which have recovered from its effects become carriers of this disease. On reaching maturity the disease becomes centralized in the ovary or egg-producing organs and thus — the disease is transmitted by the hen through the egg to the chick hatched from the egg. When it is apparent that the disease is present. in the flock of hens, it can be eliminated by what is known as the agglutination test. This method has been perfected by the Connecticut Agricultural Experi- ment Station. The manner of carrying on this test is as follows: *A blood sample is taken from the hen and a numbered band placed on the bird, a corresponding number being placed on the sample. A bacteriological test is then made of this blood sample by a bacteriologist in an effort to find out whether the hen is a carrier of this dis- ease or not. Many agricultural colleges are now in a position to carry on such tests. ‘The test is practically accurate, though in some cases depending on the stage to which the disease has advanced, the test may not locate an infected bird, but if the test is carried on through several generations the disease can be eliminated.” ‘The birds to be tested should have laid practically a year before the test- ing takes place; for, if tested sooner than this, they may not react to the test, because the disease will not have pro- gressed sufficiently. Those birds which show that they are carriers of the disease should be eliminated from the breed- ing pen and eggs for hatching should be saved only from those which do not react to this test.” Treatment. Chickens that have reached the advanced *New Hampshire College Extension Circular 44 by A. W. Richardson. 170 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION stages of this disease should be removed, killed and burned. Ten grains of potassium permanganate or as much as will remain on the surface of a dime should be added to each gallon of drinking water and kept before the chicks until they are at least 4 weeks old. Intestinal worms. Many chickens are infected with one or more kinds of intestinal worms. It is only, however, when the growing conditions are not favorable, as when the brood- ers or growing houses are very crowded, that this trouble manifests itself. The worms so infecting chickens are us- ually from 34 of an inch to 41% inches in length. Symptoms. When worms are present, the bird becomes thin and listless, the comb loses its color, turning purple, and the eyes have a staring look. In general, the bird appears unhealthy. Often intestinal worms prove their presence by being found in the droppings. Prevention. As a general prevention transfer the birds to a range to which fowls have not had access previously. The old range should be well plowed and sown in some crop before allowing the birds to return. Treatment. The following remedy has proven effective in treating chickens for this trouble. On the basis of 100 birds to be treated, soak 1 pound of finely chopped tobacco stems in water for 2 hours. Mix this liquid with half of the usual amount of mash feed that is usually fed for the day. All feed should be withheld from the fowls so treated for 24 hours previous to the treatment. Two or three hours after feeding this mash mix one fourth of the usual dry mash that is fed during the day with water in which 11 ozs. of epsom salts has been dissolved. It should be remembered that this treatment and the amounts given are on the basis of 100 birds. This treatment, as described, should be repeated 10 days later. Gapes. This trouble is due to the presence of small COMMON DISEASES AND TREATMENT A71 worms that have attached themselves to the inside of the chicken’s windpipe. Symptoms. The characteristic symptom is the frequent gaping of the bird in its effort to expel the worms. Treatment. As the gape-worms are usually found on the ground that has been used for some time as a range for poultry, the best remedy is to move the chickens to a newrange. The ground so in- fected should be thoroughly limed and plowed, and not used for young chicks for at least two seasons. As an individual treatment the worms can often-times be removed by in- serting a looped horsehair down the windpipe of the chick. After so in- serting it, turn it two or three times. When withdrawn it will usually bring out several of the worms. Make sure that the hair is injected in the windpipe and not down the | bird’s throat. The worms so re- | moved should be shaken from the | — hair into a receptacle and scalded ee — orburned. Frequently such worms Fifty 4707 The windpipe of can be removed by adding 15 grains —-&*P*" worms attached of salicylic acid to each quart of drinking water. Crop bound. This disorder is caused by the crop’s becoming overloaded with feed to such an extent that the muscular walls become partially paralyzed and thus unable to work off the accumulated food. Symptoms. The trouble can be discovered by the fact that the crop is hard, firm, and protrudes noticeably. Again, birds so affected will be frequently noticed trying to move FE 172 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION the crop from side to side in an effort to cause additional action or movement, so as to expel the contents. Treatment. Ordinarily this trouble can be overcome by pouring half an ounce of melted lard or sweet oil down the throat and working the crop with the hand so as to allow the oil or lard to mix with the feed. The food will then usually pass away in a few hours. Feather pulling. This habit, most frequently acquired during the molt- ing period orin thespring, is noticeable in that the fowls pick their own feathers and eat them, or the feathers of the oth- er fowls. Treatment. When it is noticed that birds have contracted this habit, they should be given ad- Figure 171—A result of feather pulling, ditional exercise by scattering their grain in deep litter. Likewise plenty of exereise by giving them increased range, if possible, to- gether with the addition of plenty of green feed and animal feed such as meat scrap, fish scrap or milk, will help to overcome this trouble. A piece of salt pork hung in the house where the fowls can pick at it will frequently counter- act the trouble. When this habit is limited to a few birds, they should be removed from the flock. Toe picking. This trouble may likewise be called a habit and is usually found in young chickens that are closely confined. COMMON DISEASES AND TREATMENT 173 Treatment. An additional quantity of meat scrap mixed with the dry mash, green feed and range will frequently overcome this trouble. The brooder should also be slightly darkened when this habit is present. Egg eating. This habit, when once contracted by a fowl is difficult to correct. It is usually caused by the hen’s stepping on athin-shelled egg and breaking it, af- ter which it is eaten. Treatment. Provide plenty of oyster shells as a preventive to insure the production of eggs with normal shells, which are less easily broken. Darkening the nest tends to discourage the habit. Increasing the amount of beef scrap in the mash also tends to break it. Free range also helps to overcome this unnatural habit. Rheumatism. Fortu- nately this affliction is not commonly found in fowls. Symptoms. The disease is usually characterized by lame- ness or stiffness of the joints and is usually caused by con- tinued exposure to cold or dampness. Treatment. The most effective treatment for this dis- ease is to see that the houses are well ventilated and dry. Fowls so affected will usually respond to treatment when kept dry and warm and when supplied with a good ration supplemented with green feed. Scaly leg. This diseased condition is most frequently Figure 172.—A fowl afflicted with rheumatism. 174 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION found among older fowls and is caused by small mites that burrow under the scales of the shanks and the feet, and there multiply in number. Symptoms. The disease is easily recognized by the enlarged condition and rough appearance of the feet and legs. Treatment. Wash the bird’s legs well with soap and warm water, remov- ing all the loose scales. Rub well with a mixture Figure 172.—A male bird affected with scalyleg, Of equal parts of kero- sene and linseed oil. Vase- line may be substituted for the linseed oil. Pure kerosene applied to the fowl’s legs and feet has likewise been found to be ‘an effective remedy. When kerosene is applied care should be taken that none of the kerosene comes in contact with the feathers or skin of the fowl. Bumble foot. Bumble foot is caused by bruises formed on the bottom of the feet, usually caused by the fowl’s jumping from high roosts to the hard floor. Figure 174.—A case of bumble foot. COMMON DISEASES AND TREATMENT 175 Symptoms. In this condition the fowl is likely to walk with seeming difficulty or limp. Treatment. To remove the cause lower the roosts or provide plenty of litter on the floor. When the foot is badly swollen, a small cut should be made with a clean sharp knife and the pus removed. Wash the wound out with equal parts of hydrogen peroxide and water. Grease with vaseline and bandage with a strip of cloth. QUESTIONS 1. What general preventives should be practiced in order to prevent poultry diseases? Describe the symptoms for roup, together with an effective treatment. Why is it so necessary to remove fowls that are af- fected with such a disease as cholera, chicken pox, favus, roup, etc., from the flock? 3. Describe the method of treating chicken pox. 4. What prevention and treatment should be practiced for white diarrhea in chickens? 5. Describe a method for treating chickens with gapes. 6. How can feather pulling be overcome in a flock? 7. Describe the method of treating fowls for scaly leg. 8. What is usually the cause of rheumatism in poultry? 9. Describe the cause and treatment for bumble foot. 10. Describe the method of preparing a good internal antiseptic that may be used in the drinking water to prevent such contagious diseases as roup, white diarrhea, and cholera. SUGGESTIONS 1. Form the habit of carefully observing the growing stock as well as the producers at all times and remove immediately all birds that appear to be listless or not inclined to be as active as the rest of the flock. This practice is very important and can not be emphasized too greatly. ; Keep in mind at all times that it is ordinarily not practical to attempt to treat individual fowls that are sick. Such fowls, even though they recover, ordinarily do not produce such results as will pay for their feed, and under no circumstances should they be used in the breeding pen. 3. Should a disease or infection break out in your flock or those of your neighbor’s and you are unable to determine the nature or cause of it, send a fowl or two so affected to your state college of agriculture for diagnosis. REFERENCES Diseases of Poultry, by Pearl, Surface, Curtiss. Important Poultry Diseases, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers’ Bulletin 957, by D. E. Salmon. CHAPTER X POULTRY PESTS The presence of mites and lice on poultry has a very marked effect on the number of chickens raised and the number of eggs produced by the laying hens. Thousands of chickens die every spring and summer as the result of lice and in most cases such a loss could have been prevented. It is a familiar sight, that of the hen wallowing in a hole of dust, scratching, and fluttering her feathers in an effort to get rid of these insect pests. It is possible and thor- oughly practical to keep the poultry flock reasonably free from lice and mites. Such a practice should be the aim of every one who is endeavoring to establish a successful flock of poultry. MITES Chicken mites, or, as they are sometimes called, “gray,” or “red,” mites are very small and gray in color. After they have been on the fowl, however, and filled themselves with blood they become reddish in appearance. Hence they are sometimes called “‘red’’ mites and at other times, when they are hungry, again “gray’’ mites. In the daytime mites usually stay in the cracks of the hen houses and under the roosts, where they lay their eggs. At night, when the fowls go to roost, the mites come out of their hiding places, attach themselves to the fowls and feed by sucking blood from the birds. This annoyance causes the fowls to become very uncomfortable and consequently they do not thrive as they should. Remedy. Knowing the habits and hiding places of mites, an effort should be made to get rid of them. The chicken house, nests, and dropping board should be thor- oughly cleaned and sprayed. Especial attention should 176 POULTRY PESTS 177 be given to spraying the under side of the dropping boards and roosts, especially where the roost joins the support (See Figure 176.), as these are favorite hiding places for mites. The poultry house that is kept clean and has plenty of sunlight and ventilation is usually free from mites. A very good way to erad- icate this pest is to spray the inside Figure 175. emale chicken i 7 mite after feeding. Great- of the house or to whitewash it. ly enlarged. Whitewash. An effective whitewash that has been used for this purpose is made as follows: Slake half a peck of lime and dilute it with 20 gallons of water. Add 1 pound of salt previously dissolved in water. To this mixture add 2 quarts of crude carbolic acid or 1 gallon of stock dip and apply with a spray pump or brush. A good spray. Another very effective method that can be used to kill mites is to spray the roosts, nests, and all cracks or crevices with kerosene, crude oil, or some wood preservative manufactured from coal tar, such as creolin, creosote, etc. If possible, the spraying should be done with crude oil or wood preservative rather than _ kerosene, inasmuch as it is neces- sary, when kerosene is used, to continue to spray every 10 days or 2 weeks throughout the warm weather, once the mites have gotten started. The effect of crude oil "MEOH for spraying the inside of the bewse, OF & coal-tar product is 178 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION much more lasting. The time to use either of these methods is early in the spring before the mites have a chance to increase in number and annoy the fowls. Should mites ap- pear later in the summer, the spray- ing should be repeated. LICE The common chicken louse is larger than a mite and is pale yellow Figure 177A large common 12 COlor. It differs from the mite hen louse. Greatlyenlarged. also in that it spends most of its time on the body of the fowl, although sometimes it is found in the nests. The louse lays its eggs at the base of the fluffy feathers on the fowl, especially around the vent. From 6 to 10 days are required for these eggs to hatch. Lice do not suck the blood from the fowls as do the mites, but annoy the birds by feeding on scales and secretions of the skin, and parts of the feathers. Remedy. Owing to the fact that lice spend the greater part of their time on the fowls the most effective treatment is that which is applied directly to the birds. The cleanliness of the Figure 178.—Dusting fowls by hand is espec- * ially recommended for sitting hens and fowls hen house is equally as that are very much infested with lice. POULTRY PESTS 179 important, however, if lice are to be gotten rid of entirely. The two most practical methods of fighting lice are dusting and using a paste or an ointment. Dusting. Dusting can be done in two ways: 1. Providing a good dust box as described on page 150, containing a mixture of road dust and wood ashes, and allowing the hens to dust themselves. 2. Applying dust directly to the fowls. When applying the dust or lice powder di- rectly it should be work- ed well into the feathers with the hand, especially around the vent and under the wings. Fowls dusted in this manner should be treatedasecond time in about a week or ten days. A good home- made lice powder can be made as follows: Mix 11% pints of gasoline and half a pint of crude car- bolic acid. Stir this mixture thoroughly into 4 quarts of plaster of Paris and land plaster. Allow it to dry and apply as suggested above It has recently been found that sodium fluoride is very effective in getting rid of lice on fowls. Sodium fluoride comes in powdered form and can be purchased at most drug stores. Inasmuch as a little of this powder goes a long way in accomplishing results, a pound is sufficient to treat a large number of fowls. The method of applying sodium fluoride is by taking a small pinch between the fingers and placing Figure tr Bephane sodium fluoride to a owl. 180 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION it down near the base of the feathers, below the vent, at the base of the tail, under the wings, around the breast, and in the back of the neck. Care should be taken not to inhale the sodium fluoride powder, as it irritates the nose and throat. A damp handkerchief tied over the nose and mouth can be used by those applying the powder. Ointment. One of the most effective ointments used to destroy lice on fowls is commerical blue ointment or mercurial ointment. When the latter is used it should be thoroughly mixed with an equal part of vaseline or lard. Commercial blue ointment may be used un- diluted. When using either of these apply a small portion (a piece about the size of a pea) with the fingers around the vent of the fowl, but not on the body or under the wings. Care should also be taken to see that none of the ointment gets into the vent, as it is injurious. HEAD LICE ON CHICKS Very frequently chicks that are hatched by Figure 180A ® hen that is infested with lice likewise become head louse infested and frequently die when they are not greatly enlarg- ed, such as is properly treated. —o ‘Remedy. Head lice may be prevented or exterminated by one or more of the following methods. Ointment. As a treatment for lice on chickens a small portion of lard or vaseline should be applied to the top of the head, under the wings, and around the vent. As pre- viously suggested in the chapter on brooding, care should be taken not to get too much grease on the chickens, as it may prove fatal. Dusting. As a preventive it is suggested that steps be taken to keep the chickens free from lice by dusting the mother hen thoroughly before the chicks are hatched and at intervals of a week or ten days after the chicks are hatched. POULTRY PESTS 181 The use of sodium fluoride as described herein will be found most effective for sitting hens. Sprays. Either of the sprays previously mentioned on page 177 or the whitewash recommended to prevent the spread of lice will also help to keep down lice when applied to the poultry house. “STICK-TIGHT” FLEAS In many of the southern states fowls and chicks are often infested with what are commonly called “stick-tight” fleas. They are so named owing to their habit of sticking to one place-on a fowl instead of moving about as lice do. Usually they are found in groups or clusters on the comb, wattles, and around the eyes. Chicks, when infested with this species of flea, often die very quickly. Hens, however, being stronger, will usually stop laying, but not infrequently die when infested for any length of time. The most common breeding places figure 181, — Stick-tight flea. of these fleas, as of mites, are in “duit female. (Much enlarged.) the cracks and crevices of the brood coops and poultry houses and also in dry matter and vegetable refuse. Remedy. The most satisfactory method of exterminat- ing these pests is to clean and spray the house and equip- ment thoroughly in addition to treating the birds. Spray. The same spray recommended under the head of mites may be used effectively. Ointment. To treat the birds individually, grease the comb and wattles with a preparation of 1 part of kerosene and 3 parts of lard, care being taken not to get too much of the mixture on the body or in their eyes. It is well also, when stick-tight fleas are prevalent, to spray the yards and 182 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION runs, especially an earth floor in the poultry house or the ground beneath the poultry house, when the floor is raised above the ground, with a solution of salt and water. This keeps the ground moist and prevents the fleas from breeding. POULTRY TICKS, OR BLUE BUGS These insect pests are likewise common in some of the southwestern and southern states and are extremely harm- ful to poultry and pigeons. The habits of these insects are much the same as those of red, or gray mites, as the adult insect feeds on the body of the birds at night and during we the day hides in the cracks and crevices of the house. The eggs of the blue bug are laid in the cracks and crevi- ces of the poultry house and after hatching the young bugs crawl out and Figure 182.—Blue Bug. (Greatly enlarged.) attach themselves to the fowl where they remain until they become full of blood. They then drop off and develop to adult size, after which they attack the fowls only at night, spending the day in the cracks and other hiding places about the house. ‘Blue bugs” are about the size of a bed bug and are much more harmful and more difficult to kill than either lice or mites. Remedy. Various means may be employed in the extermination of this pest. Change of quarters. When the poultry house or coops become infested, move the birds to other quarters for a week or ten days. During this period the young bugs on the birds become filled with blood and fall off. The fowls should then be returned to their former house. POULTRY PESTS 183 Spray. Meantime the poultry house should be thoroughly cleaned by removing all nests, nesting material, roosts and other interior fixtures and spraying thoroughly with crude petroleum, kerosene, or one of the coal-tar products. Scalding. Equipment, such as brood coops and _ship- ping crates, when infested, can be treated by scalding thor- oughly with boiling water. When there is every indica- tion that the blue bugs have been eradicated, the birds may be returned to the house. CHIGGERS (RED BUGS OR HARVEST MITES) Chiggers are found and are quite trouble- some in the southern and likewise the central western states. The chigger, or red bug, before it develops to the adult stage, is microscopic in size, red in color, and has six legs. After developing, or reaching the adult size, they become larger and visible to the eye, although still very small in size. * ee ae Chiggers breed in tall grass and are partic- OYE ea, ee ularly abundant in low marshy land. Ae) They attack the fowls and the chicks while they are on range, biting and penetrating the skin, usually under the wings, on the breast and neck, causing annoyance and itching. Soon after the chiggers penetrate the skin, an abscess is formed and becomes inflamed. The presence of these mites, especially on chickens, results in the birds’ becoming weak, with little disposition to eat, and they finally die from hunger. Remedy. The remedy is either one of prevention or application. Keep the grass down. The most satisfactory method of exterminating chiggers is by keeping the grass cut or grazed short on ground where the fowls range. Ointment. To treat the birds individually, apply 184 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION sulphur ointment or a mixture of 1 part of kerosene to 3 parts of melted lard to portions of the skin of the fowl where the chiggers have entered. When pus has formed in the sore, remove the scab and wash it with a 4% solu- tion of carbolic acid and water. QUESTIONS 1. Why should every measure be taken to keep the fowls and chicks free from insect pests? - 2. Describe the appearance of chicken mites, both before and after they have fed from the body of the fowl. What are the habits of the chicken mite? 8. Describe two effective remedies to eradicate chicken mites. 4. How does the common chicken louse differ from the chicken mite, both in appearance and habits? : 5. Describe a good homemade louse powder. How should this be applied? 6. Describe a method of treating individual birds with sodium fluoride. With blue ointment. 7. Describe an effective treatment for head lice on chickens. 8. Describe the habits and treatment of stick-tight fleas. 9. What measures should be taken to exterminate blue bugs from the poultry houses and buildings? 10. Where are chiggers, or red bugs, found, and how can they be prevented? SUGGESTIONS 1. As discussed in the chapter on incubation, one of the most effective ways to prevent the loss of chickens as the result of lice and mites is by hatching early in the spring, so that the chickens will grow to be of good size before the warm weather, when the lice and mites are so troublesome. As a matter of good management, endeavor to put into prac- tice the suggestions as contained in this chapter, in order to extermi- nate such insect pests as may be troubling your flock. 8. Should you be a member of a poultry club or an association, endeavor to interest the members as to the importance of eliminating lice and mites from the flock. Such an effort on your part may result in the saving of hundreds of birds. 4. Impress upon your acquaintances and members of your poul- try club the reason and advantages of spraying for lice and mites in the early spring before these insects have a chance to increase in number. 5. Should you find any of the insect pests mentioned herein troub- ling your flock, try each of the remedies mentioned under each insect pest, and see which is the most satisfactory. Do you not think it would be a good idea to acquaint your friends and club members with the results of your experience in this connection? REFERENCES Mites and Lice on Poultry, U. S. Department of Agriculture Farmers’ Bulletin 801, by F. C. Bishop and H. P. Wood. CHAPTER XI CAPONS AND CAPONIZING What is a capon? The word capon is the name applied to the unsexed male chicken and caponizing is the process of unsexing by the removal of the testicles. A true capon is quite different from a cock or cockerel both in his dispo- sition and appearance. In disposition he is quiet and docile, shows no disposition to fight, is easy to confine, and seldom if ever crows. The comb and wattles develop little or not at all, making the head appear small and feminine. The purpose of caponizing. Cockerels are caponized for two reasons, first, to secure an increased growth and a bet- ter quality of flesh, and, second, to secure a higher price that is paid for capons as compared with cockerels and cocks. The flesh of a cockerel as it matures becomes tough and stringy, while the flesh of the capon retains the softness and tenderness of young birds and is, therefore, more desirable Figure 184.—A Buff Orpington cock. Figure 185.—A Buff Orpington capon. 185 186 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION as a table fowl. For this reason the price received for capons is usually greater than that received for cocks. The capon continues to grow longer than a cockerel and fat- tens more readily, consequently reaching a larger size. The advisability of caponizing. The production of capons for market is a specialized branch of the poultry industry. The center of this industry will be found principally in the East in the states of Massachusetts, New Jersey, and eastern Pennsylvania, where capons are produced for the markets of the larger eastern cities. ‘Soft roasters’’ which have been for years produced in large numbers on the south shore of Massachusetts are in most instances capons, the males being caponized so they will attain an increased size and have a superior quality of flesh. The advisability of caponizing surplus cockerels rather than to sell them as broilers depends largely upon local market conditions. That is, the local or near-by markets should show a demand for capons and the price paid should be such as to make the venture profitable. In any event it is more profitable to caponize the cockerels than to keep them without caponizing and allow them to develop into cocks, as these bring a lower price than any class of market poultry. If, therefore, condi- tions are not favorable for the production of capons, the sur- plus cockerels should be marketed as broilers. When possible, a few cockerels should be caponized for home use in the win- ter. It is not generally advisable to raise capons on a limited range or where they have to be fed all that they require to eat. As the object of caponizing is to produce flesh, the capon’s appetite and desire for feed is greater than that of other fowls. It is, therefore, advisable that they be given plenty of range, when possible, so that they can for- age for part of their feed and thereby help to reduce the cost of production. Other conditions being favorable, the general farm is an ideal place for the production of capons. CAPONS AND CAPONIZING 187 Most suitable breeds for capons. Owing to the fact that large capons bring the best prices, it does not pay to caponize males of the smaller breeds, such as the Leghorn. Breeds with yellow legs and skin, such as the Plymouth Rock, Cornish, Brahma, Langshan, and Wyandotte, as in other classes of table poultry, are the most desirable for this purpose. Of these the Light Brahma and Barred Plymouth Rock and other American breeds are most generally used. Time to caponize. Cockerels should be caponized when they weigh from 114 to 3 pounds, or when they are from 2 to 4 months old. The general-purpose breeds can be caponized when a pound and a half in weight or when 2 months old, while cockerels of the meat breeds should be about 3 or 4months old or about 3 pounds in weight. Ordinaril y Figure 186.—Barred Plymouth Rock cockerel of cockerels should suitable size to caponize. not be caponized when larger or older than just stated, as there is considerable danger in losing the birds by pricking the arteries which lie near the testicles and thereby causing them to bleed to death. Capons are in the greatest demand beginning with the Thanksgiving season and until the end of March. Considering this fact and remembering that it takes about ten months to pro- duce a well-finished capon, it will be evident that it is important to hatch early in the spring in order to have cockerels of suitable size to caponize in June and July. Preliminary requirements. Cockerels that are to be 188 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION caponized must be confined and deprived of all feed and water for 24 to 36 hours prior to the operation, in order that the intestines will be empty and enable the operator to locate and remove the testicles easily. Depriving the cockerels of water before the operation lessens the blood flow when the incision is made. Caponizing instruments. To perform this operation successfully, a set of special caponizing instruments is nec- Figure 187—Members of a poultry club caponizing a cockerel. essary and can be bought from practically any poultry sup- ply house. The necessary instruments are a sharp-pointed knife to make the incision, (Figure 188c), a spreader, used to spread the ribs apart (Figure 188d and e), a sharp-pointed hook to tear the membrane beneath the skin (Figure 188h), and the testicle remover of which there are six different types, (Figure 188 a, b, i,k, 1, and m). Of these instruments either CAPONS AND CAPONIZING 189 i, 1, or m are the most practical. A probe such as shown (Figure 188g) may likewise be used to push the intestines aside as well as a small pair of tweezers (Figure 188f) which may be used in removing any foreign matter from the body. The operation. The instruments, together with a pan Figure 188.—Instruments used in caponizing. of water and a sponge, should be placed on a box adjacent to a barrel or table where the operation is to be performed. The bird is then placed on its side on the head of a barrel or on a table of convenient height and held stretched out 190 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Figure 189.—Method of holding the cockerel in position for the operation. by means of a cord passed under both wings and another cord around both legs, each being weighted down with weights sufficient to hold the bird in place comfortably. The operation should be performed out of doors, pref- erably in the sunlight or else artificial light may be used by reflecting it into the body cavity, so that the testicle can be seen and removed. Moisten and remove the feathers around and over the last two ribs which can be felt just in front of the thigh. Before making the cut, pull the skin down toward the thigh. While holding the skin in this position make the Figure 190.—Feathers removed to make ready for the incision. CAPONS AND CAPONIZING 191 ribs. Figure 193.—The spreader in place and the merabrane being torn with 2 sharp pointed hock, 192 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUUTION Ea Figure 194.—The spreader in place. One testicle can be seen lying between the jaws of the spreader. incision between the last two ribs. Then when the operation is over and the bird is released, the skin slips back over the wound and closes it. (See Figure 196.) Insert the spreader (Figure 1881 or d) and enlarge the cut so as to allow the introduction of the testicle remover (Fig- ure 188i, 1 or m) but do not cut too close to the backbone, as to do so might cause considerable bleeding. After the incision is made and the spreader inserted, a thin membrane will be observed covering the intestines. Figure 195.—Removing the testiole. CAPONS AND CAPONIZING 193 This must be torn with a sharp pointed hook (Figure 188h). The intestines will now be seen and, when pushed aside with the probe, (Figure 188g) two small cream-colored or sometimes dark-colored testicles will be observed, one on each side and close to the backbone. These should now be removed with the testicle remover and, if possible, the lower one should be removed first. Those not experienced in caponizing often find it difficult to locate the lower testicle. When such is the case the upper Figure 196.—After the spreader is removed and the weights taken off the wings, it will be noticed that the skin slips back over the incision so as to close it. one can be removed, the bird turned over and the other testicle removed by repeating the operation on the other side of the fowl. Practice, however, should make this second operation unnecessary. Care must be taken when removing the testicle so as not to break or rupture the arteries which lie close to them. Should they be cut, the bird will bleed to death within a few minutes. Such birds that may be killed during the operation are suitable for eating and are not, therefore, a loss. Observe closely and be sure that the entire testicle is removed. If even a small portion is left, the bird will not develop into a true capon but will lock like a cockerel 294 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION instead and can not be sold at capon prices. Such a bird is known as a “slip.”” In order to become perfectly familiar with the location of the testicles and the procedure as de- scribed herein, it is advisable for the beginner to practice this operation on a dead cockerel or one that is intended to be killed. Thus the place to make the incision, the loca- tion of the testicles, etce., can be definitely learned and con- fidence secured. While the operation is not a difficult one, practice is necessary to enable one to caponize quickly. Even expert caponizers make mistakes and some birds will be lost, but this loss should not be more than two or three per cent of the number operated on. Care after the operation. Caponizing apparently does not inconvenience or hurt the birds at all. From appear- ances it would seem that the first step in the operation, namely the removal of the feathers, is the most painful and this can be lessened to a great extent by soaking the feathers over the ribs with water before they are removed. After the capons are released from the operating table they should be confined to a yard or pen by themselves where they can be kept quiet for several days. Remove all roosts from their house for the first two weeks after the operation, as the less jumping or flying they do, the sooner the wound will heal. Capons may be fed as usual, but, if preferred, a wet mash composed of equal parts of corn meal, bran, mid- dlings, and 10% beef scrap can be given for a day or two after the operation. During the first week or ten days the capons should be carefully observed to see whether or not “wind puffs” have formed. This condition is caused by air gathering under and puffing out the skin near the wound. To relieve this trouble make a small cut in the skin with the point of a knife and press out the air. Feeding capons. In addition to such feeding as the birds pick up on range, they should be fed a grain ration, CAPONS AND CAPONIZING 195 such as is fed the rest of the flock each morning and evening until about two weeks before it is desired to market them. They should then be given a fattening ration, as discussed on page 293. During the process of fattening they can be fed either in a small pen or by confining them in feeding coops or crates. Figure 197.—Capons dressed for market. ° Killing and dressing. In killing capons, the method as described on page 297 should be followed. Capons should always be dry-picked. Do not, however, pick the feathers off the neck and head, the tail feathers, those at the base of the tail, the feathers of the last two joints of the wing, and those on the lower part of the leg. These feathers, together with the true capon head, are the characteristic signs by which the capon is known. 196 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Cutting off the head in killing the capon or picking the feathers clean is likely to result in not securing capon prices for the fowls. After picking, the capons should be hung in a cool place until all the animal heat is out of the body before being shipped. QUESTIONS 1. What is a capon? 2. Why is a capon a more desirable table fowl than an uncapon- ized male bird? 3. What conditions should be the governing factors when produc- ing capons on a large scale? 4. What are the best breeds to caponize? 5. When is the most desirable time to caponize cockerels? Of what importance is early hatching as concerning the production of capons? 6. Why is it so necessary to deprive cockerels of feed and water for at least twenty-four hours before the operation? 7. Name the essential instruments necessary for caponizing. 8. Describe in detail the method of caponizing. 9. What care and provision should be made for the birds after they have been caponized? What are wind puffs and how can they be relieved? r 10. Describe the method of dry-picking a capon. SUGGESTIONS 1. The idea should not be obtained that the art of caponizing is a difficult one, for such is not the case. Many instances are known where boys and girls of fourteen years of age have become quite expert in carrying on this operation. It is, therefore, recommended that mem- bers of boys’ and girls’ poultry clubs should become proficient in carry- ing on this operation through actual practice, following the plan as described herein. IXnowledge of the necessary steps, confidence, and oe are the three factors necessary to make the operation success- ful. 2. During June or July carry on a caponizing demonstration. Such a demonstration held in connection with a farmers’ meeting or in a gathering of people interested in poultry always attracts attention and creates interest. 3. Farmers, poultrymen, and often those having smaller flocks should endeavor to caponize at least a few cockerels each year, if for no other pupose than to have them for home consumption. 4. Inquiry should be made at your local market and near-by markets as to the demands for capons. Should a desirable market exist, other conditions being equal, it will be found that the production Ys Pappas will be the source of additional revenue from the poultry ock. CAPONS AND CAPONIZING 197 5. An interesting comparison canbe made by weighing a capon and a cockerel, both of which were hatched at the same time, both being of the same breed and variety and in so far as possible both being raised under practically the same conditions. In such cases where the capon does not greatly exceed the cockerel in weight, the superior meat qualities of the capon will more than overbalance the value of the capon as compared with the cockerel. REFERENCES “Capons and Caponizing,” Rob R. Slocum, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, Farmers’ Bulletin, No. 849. Note:—Caponizing instruments are manufactured and may be se- cured from either of the following: 8. K. Burdin, 120 Stibbard Ave., Toronto, Canada; Geo. Beuoy, Cedar Vale, Kansas; Geo. P. Pilling & Son Co., Arch & 23rd Sts., Philadelphia, Pa, CHAPTER XII FEEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION The contents and suggestions given in the preceding chapters have a direct bearing on the object for which most fowls are kept, namely, the profitable production of eggs. The features that are so essential for such production are as follows: (1) Standard-bred poultry increases production and improves quality. (2) Select healthy vigorous breed- ers so as to produce strong chickens. (3) Hatch early. Early hatched pullets produce fall and winter eggs. (4) Feed and manage the growing stock properly, so that they will mature before winter. (5) Cull the flock and thereby eliminate unprofitable producers. (6) Provide a suitable and comfortable house for the layers. (7) Provide suitable raw material, that is, feed, so as to make profitable egg pro- duction possible. VALUE OF PROPER FEEDING When feeding hens for egg production two facts should be kept in mind, namely, that the feed consumed first goes to keep up the body requirements and to furnish heat to the body, and, second, to supply the material that makes the egg. It is only after the body requirements of the hen have been satisfied that the surplus feed is available for the production of eggs. When given certain feeds, hens will thrive and keep in good health; but, in order to produce eggs, well balanced, palatable feeds are necessary to fulfill these requirements. DEVELOPMENT OF THE EGG Before discussing the principles and practices of feeding, it will be well to first obtain an idea as to how the egg is formed. By referring to the top of Figure 199 the ovary is shown 198 FEEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION 199 as containing round follicles, each one of which is the first stage in the development of the egg, and are called the ova, or yolks. The ovum, or yolk, develops in about two weeks, during which time it is enclosed in a sack composed of mem- brane. While so enclosed the yolk receives by means of the blood the material that composes it. At the end of two weeks, when the yolk reaches its full development, the membraneous sack is broken and the yolk enters the funnel- shaped opening of the oviduct, which will be noted in the center of Figure 199. As soon as the yolk enters, the white of the egg, or albumen, is secreted as the yolk proceeds through the oviduct. After a sufficient amount of the albu- Bran fash aineral matter, PAW MATEPIAL DREZILZP FOWL WHEAT GRAY FINISHED PRODUCE Figure 198.—Chart showing how the elements of the feed go to meet the body requirements and to produce the finished product. men, or white, is secreted to surround the yolk of the egg the secretion of the membranes and shell begins. This will be noted at the lower end of the oviduct canal. This process is completed by the time the egg leaves the uterus, or shell gland, whereupon it passes out through the vent. POULTRY FEEDS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS Poultry should have that kind and variety of food which would be natural in the environment of fowls on range. It may be supplemented or modified, however, by such feeds or methods of feeding as experiment and experience may have found productive and profitable. Grain feeds. The principal feeds fed to poultry consist 2€ 200 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION -OVARY CONTAINING SMALL AND LARGER FOLLICLES FOLLICLES OF VARIOUS SIZES Vi j H EMPTY FOLLICLE STIGMATA OVUM IN” WVIDUCT Le FUNNEL OF OVIDUCE- ( WHERE DENSE BLS | JL BUMEN IS | SECRETED x GERMINAL bIsC-- UTERUS (SHELL- GLAND) RECTUM - REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF THE HEN — Figure 199.—The egg-producing organs of the hen, (After Duval) FEEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION 201 of corn, wheat, oats, and barley. Kaffir corn and buckwheat are also used, but these are not so generally available or so widely grown as corn, wheat, oats, and barley and usually cost more. Corn and wheat are the two best grains and are similar in value as poultry feeds. On account of the hulls and higher fiber content oats and barley are not as satisfactory as corn or wheat. Rye is not fed to any great extent and does not seem to be relished by fowls. Slightly damaged grains or wheat screenings sometimes can be pur- chased at a reduced price to an advantage, their value de- pending entirely upon their quality, condition, and cost. Ordinarily only sound grains in good condition should be fed to poultry and moldy grains or by-products should never be used. Mash feeds. The most common mill feeds and by- products fed in mash form are corn meal, wheat bran, wheat middlings, and beef scrap. Corn chop, corn and cob meal, gluten meal, ground oats, and low grade wheat flour may also be added or substituted to advantage. A mash composed of several of these by-products together with meat scrap should be fed in addition to the scratch grains as discussed on page 213. It should be remembered that a highly complicated mash consisting of a large variety of ground grains is not necessary to secure satisfactory results, for such results can be secured from a more simple mash containing 3 or 4 grain by-products together with meat scrap. Commercial feeds. Quite a variety of commercial mixtures both of scratch grains and of ground grains are prepared for poultry. The value of such commercial feed depends upon its composition and the quality of the grain used in its preparation. When grains can not be grown or when only a comparatively small number of fowls are kept, it is usually better to purchase commercial mixed 202 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION feeds. The average farmer is usually in a position to feed home-grown grains, supplemented with purchased mill feeds and meat scrap or commercial ready-mixed mash feeds. The methods of feeding as practiced by successful poul- trymen vary to the extent that some purchase their feeds and mix them, while others depend entirely on commercial mixed feed. Meat feed. Meat scrap or some other animal feed rich in protein is of most importance in the mash and should not NATURE PROVIDES: SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION: = POULTRYMEN FEED: WORMS 4NO BUGS NITROGENOUS MATERIAL EGGS, MEAT (GREEN BONE OR PROTEIN. OR BEEF SCRAP), 41LK OP COTTAGE CHEESE SEEDS WON - NITROGENOUS WHEAT, OATS, CORN, BARLEY, ETC GREENS FRESH ano DRIED. LETTUCE, CABBAGE, KALE, TANGLES, ALFALFA, CLOVER, ETC GRIT MINERAL MATTER GRIT NO OYSTER SHELL WATER WATER WATER Figure 200.—Classification of poultry feeds. be omitted, if a profitable egg production is to be secured. Either fish meal or fish scrap can be used to replace the meat scrap in the mash and compares favorably in results obtained with a good grade of meat scrap containing the same per cent of protein. Skim milk or buttermilk, either sweet or sour, may be used for replacing part or all of the meat scrap. It may be used either in mixing the mash, if a wet mash is fed, or it can be kept before the fowls to drink. The vegetable protein feeds are not a satisfactory sub- stitute for the meat or animal protein feeds. In sections, however, where they can be obtained cheaply they may be used to replace from one fourth to one half of the meat scrap. FEEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION 203 Of the high vegetable protein feeds cotton-seed meal has given good results, followed by peanut meal, soy-bean meal, and velvet-bean meal, named in the order of their value. Not over one tenth of the mash should consist of cotton- seed meal, as the use of a larger amount than this is likely to affect the egg yield considerably and may affect the qual- ity of the eggs. Green feeds. Green feeds are a necessary part of the hen’s rations and should be supplied to her when confined in small yards and also during the winter, when no green feed is available. Free range or large yards kept in grass will fur- nish ideal green feed. Where smaller yards have tobe used, Figure 201.—Green feed can be grown in yards of they should be ae size by pOwinE ee oa: or oe in - 2x4 171 7 fe Tame, covering the frame wit. small mesh wire, divided, if pos and surrounding it with a portable fence to keep | s the fowls away until the grain is of sufficient size. sible, into two pe fence ean then Ee fours allowing phe e owls to eat the green feed. e wire over the parts, as discus- top of the frame keeps the fowls away from the roots of the plants. sed in the chap- ter on poultry houses, and used alternately, planting the vacant yard several times a year with a quick-growing green crop, such as rape, oats, wheat, rye or barley. In this way green feed is supplied and also helps to keep the ground sweet and clean. Other green feeds that can be fed especially in winter are sprouted oats, alfalfa meal, chopped alfalfa, and clover hay, cabbages, and mangel beets. Cabbages are fed 204 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION by suspending them by means of a cord hung up in the poul- try house while the beets are usually split and stuck on a nail on the side wall near the floor. When oats are used for sprouting, they should be of a good grade. Soak them over night in warm water and then spread out 14 to 1 inch thick on trays having perforated bottoms. Water the oats thoroughly each day and turn the trays around, so as to bring each side near the light, in order to en- courage an even growth. Stir the oats each day until the sprouts begin to form. Artificial heat should be sup- plied in cool weather usually by means of a kerosene lamp. Sprouted oats can be fed any time after the sprouts are well started, which Figure 202.—Oat sprouting cabinet. In cool weather usually takes eat is supplied by a kerosene lamp. from 5 to 7 days. Clean and spray the trays occasionally with a disinfectant to prevent the growth of mold. Oyster shell, grit, and charcoal. Oyster shell, grit, and charcoal should be kept in a hopper before the hens con- stantly. These materials are not expensive and are quite necessary as a part of the ration. Oyster shell supplies lime for bone and egexhell construction, grit is necessary FEEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION 205 for grinding the food, and charcoal tends to absorb gases and poisons. Ordinarily a hen will eat 2 pounds of oyster shell and 1 pound of grit a year. Water. The body of a hen is said to contain about 55% water, while the average per cent of water in an egg is 65.5%. Thus it will be seen that water is most essential and a plen- tiful supply of clean fresh water should always be available. Fifty laying hens will require about 4 to 8 quarts of water daily. Condiments and egg tonics. The object of so-called egg tonics, or condiments, is to increase the palatability of the ration and stimulate the fowls’ appetite, with the result Figure 203.—Oats in the process of sprouting. that they eat more feed and produce more eggs. Ordinarily fowls that are properly fed and managed do not require a condiment or tonic to produce satisfactory results. Some poultrymen, however, resort to a condiment to stimulate production especially when the fowls are in poor condition. An example of such a tonic may be made as follows: Mix equal parts of capsicum, ground cloves, allspice and ginger. This mixture is fed in the proportion of one teaspoonful to each quart of mash twice weekly. 206 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION COMPOSITION OF THE FEEDS It is necessary not only to have the right kind of feeds but that they should be fed at proper intervals and in amounts proportioned to the nutritive and productive requirements of the fowl. In order to feed intelligently, therefore, we must know, first, the composition of feeds. Feeds and feeding stuffs contain three elements in varying amounts that are essential in the feeding of poultry. They are protein, or nitrogenous material, nitrogen-free extract, or carbohydrates, and fat, together with wafer and ash. Protein is that part of the food that makes flesh, bone and Figure 204.—When feeding sprouted oats allow one square inch per hen daily. muscle and serves to replace waste material and promote growth. Protein also is the principal ingredient in the white of the egg. It is the element that is apt to be deficient in feeding stuffs and the commercial value of feed depends largely on the amount of protein it contains. Carbohydrates, or nitrogen-free extract, is that part of the feed that goes to make fat, generate heat, and exert energy. The fat content in feeds performs practically the same functions as the carbohydrates. Ash is the mineral material contained in feeds and is largely used in making bone, eggshells, ete., and is just as essential as water or protein. Knowing the FEEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION 207 composition of feeds and the part that they play in maintain- ing the fowl as well as to produce the product, the question now arises: ‘‘How can these essentials be combined in such a proportion that they will supply the necessary re- quirements?” The question is answered and explained in the balanced ration. BALANCED RATIONS By balanced ration is meant the combination of feeds in such proper proportions as will furnish the necessary amount of nutrients (protein, nitrogen-free ex- tract, and fat) to produce, in the case of poultry, a satisfactory egg production, to fulfill the body re- quirements, and that can be fed economically. In preparing a ration it is necessary to obtain what is called a nutritive ratio, that is, to obtain the ratio which exists be- tween the amount of the protein in a given feed stuff and the amount of the carbohydrates and fat. The nutritive ratio. A practical i i Figure 205——Homemade hop- ration for the production of eggs or oe re Nar 1 ] compartments. Such a hop- should include a scratch mixture of ee i each of the constituents of grains and a mash composed of oe i 2 = a similar hopper containing palatable grain by-products con eM ometicls any te taining some animal feed and suf- used for charcoal, grit, and ‘ oyster shell. ficient bulk. In general terms the most satisfactory nutritive ratio for poultry should be 1 part of protein to 414 or 5 parts of nitrogen-free extract and fat. When computing the nutritive ratio, the fat is changed to terms of nitrogen-free extract, which is done 208 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION by multiplying the fat by 244. (Fat has 214 times as much heat value as nitrogen-free extract.) Up to this time sufficient experiments have not been carried on in feeding poultry to determine the amount of various feeds that are actually digested by poultry, as has been done with cattle. The total composition of feed stuffs, therefore, will be used in computing the nutritive ratio rather than the percentage of digestible nutrients. The nutritive ratio, as will be given below, will not include the fiber content, as very little fiber is digested by poultry. The composition of the various poultry feeds is shown in Table II. How to determine the nutritive ratio. The following Figure 206.—Various styles of drinking fountains. will illustrate how a nutritive ratio is determined. Ration No. 3 as found on page 212 will be selected for this purpose, as it consists of but four ingredients, and the simplicity of its make-up will enable one to see how a nutritive ratio is computed more quickly perhaps than a complicated ration. Referring to Table II will be found the number of pounds or per cent of the several feed constituents in 100 lbs. of each of the feeds listed. In order to get the number of pounds or per cent of these constituents in 2 lbs. of cracked corn, the per cent of protein, nitrogen-free extract, and fat as given in Table II for cracked corn is divided by 100 to get the amount in 1 lb., which is then multiplied by 2 Ibs. This same procedure is followed out in each of the other 3 in- FEEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION 209 Table II. Composition of Poultry Feed Stuffs. = 1 Oo a3 be a ef | Feed Stuff Se | 8 | See Silt) sg ies Ay Ae Per | Per | Per | Per | Per | Per cent | cent | cent| cent | cent} cent COLD hs 52 snare ies oes ees wes 10.9] 1.5]105] 2.1)69.6] 5.4 KOGk COrses ts siteoe banca cae ees 12.8] 2.1] 91] 26)69.8] 3.6 Barleyeic cee cacncnad acne eran ds 10.9] 24/124] 2.7|69.8] 1.8 OAS ic 5 aeavess sr5,8:8, ansd od eons, wana 11.0} 30/118] 9.5159.7] 5.0 IRVOuA eh iweaed Gueaee ames eacins 11.6] 1.9]10.6] 1.7] 72.5] 1.7 Wheatirec ssa ied canes a 10.56) 1.8]11.9] 18/719] 21 Ritetss tskge ni eatscner Meiaee kee ee 12.4 Al 7.4 .2 | 79.2 A Buckwheat.............00.0000- 12.6] 2.0] 10.0] 8.7] 64.5] 2.2 Sunflower seed (whole).......... 8.6] 2.6 | 15.3 | 29.2 | 21.4 | 21.2 Soy bean! sa since cscs nee ved sae as 8.7] 5.4 | 36.3 | 3.9 | 27.7 | 18.0 COW DER ec iiiacc mene titer cs awe 11.9] 3.4] 23.5] 3.8]55.7] 1.7 Canada field peal............... 15.0] 2.4] 23.7) 7.9 | 50.2 8 PGES, hess hash g nee Rio Rae wee 13.4] 2.4|224] 641526] 3.0 Egyptian corn................-- 12.6] 19] 9.9) 1.9|69.7] 3.9 Hempseed.............----.055 8.0] 2.0 | 10.0 | 14.0 | 45.0 | 21.0 Corn meal................005- 15.0] 14] 9.2] 1.9].68.7] 3.8 Barley meal................... 11.9] 26/105) 6.5 ]|66.3 | 2.2 Soy-bean meal!................. 10.2} 5.0] 35.9] 3.4] 28.0] 17.5 Gluten meal!................... 8.6 .6 | 30.0 | 2.6] 49.2] 88 Gluten feed!...........,.0..00.. 8.1] 1.3 ]23.2] 64) 54.7] 6.3 Brewers’ grains!................ 8.0} 3.4] 24.1] 13.0 | 44.8] 6.7 Wheat bran.................0-. 11.9] 5.8/]15.4] 9.0] 53.9] 4.0 Wheat middlings................} 12.1] 3.3] 15.6] 4.6] 60.4] 4.0 Wheat shorts................00. 11.8} 4.5 /14.9] 7.4]56.8] 4.5 Wheat screenings............... 11.6) 2.9])12.5] 4.9]65.1] 3.0 Cottonseed meal!............... 8.2] 7.2| 42.3} 5.6 | 23.6 | 13.1 Linseed meal, old process!........ 9.2] 5.7| 32.9] 8.9]35.4] 7.7 Linseed meal, new process!....... 9.9} 5.6) 35.9] 88 | 36.8] 3.0 Peanut meal!.................-. 10.7} 4.9) 47.6} 5.1] 23.7] 8.0 Skim milk, cream raised by sep- ALACOE cc oo aes eRe edie deed 90.6 ih Bees New sels 5.2 3 Buttermilk?.................0.. 91.0 SEN BHO! Wh gnats 4.8 5 Animal meal?.................-. Bs] BOI BOA essen ales cees 10.7 Meat scrap?..............-00--. 7.9117.4)49.7].....J..... 18.5 Meat meal?..............-20--- 623: | wan 48.4 ].....J..... 12.9 Fresh bone?.................0-. 34.3 | 22.8 | 20.6 ]..... 1.9 | 20.5 Dried alfalfa hay............... 8.1] 8.8 | 14.6 | 28.9 | 37.4] 2.1 Mangel beets................... 90.9| 11] 1.4 9| 5.5 2 a (?) Contains a high proportion of vegetable protein. high proportion of animal protein. (?) Contains 210 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION gredients. The following table will show the per cent of protein, nitrogen-free extract, and fat in each of the ingre- dients in ration No. 3. Figure 207.—A_ balanced ration. 1. Wheat. 2. Cracked corn. 3 Oats. These constitute the grain feeds. 4. Cornmeal. 5. Beefscrap. 6. Mid- dlings. 7. Bran. These constitute the mash feed. 8. Grit. 9. Char- coal. 10. Oyster shell. 11. Water. These should be left before the fowls constantly. Table III. Composition of Ingredients of a Balanced Ration. . Nitrogen- Feed Protein free Catach Fat Per cent Per cent Per cent 2 Ibs. cracked corn........... 210 1.392 .108 LD: O88 cersewncnmea Mewes 118 597 .050 3 Ibs. cornmeal .............. 276 2.061 114 1 lb. meat meal............. A497 185 Ota seman eotesg eae’ 1.101 4.050 457 As will be noted, this ration contains 1.101 pounds of protein, 4.05 pounds of nitrogen-free extract, and .457 of a pound of fat. To determine the nutritive ratio of this ration the total amount of fat, .457 of a pound, is multiplied by 214 (fat having 214 times the heat value of nitrogen-free extract), which gives 1.028 lbs. This amount is then added to the total amount of nitrogen-free extract, 4.05, making a total of 5.078 lbs. This total is then divided by the total amount of protein, which is 1.101, which gives a nutritive ratio of 1: 4.6 for the ration. The formula for computing FEEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION 211 the nutritive ratio, using the totals from the above table, may be represented as follows: Table IV. Formula for Determining the Nutritive Ratio. Total fat. Heat equivalent. Total Nitrogen-Free Second factor Extract. of nutritive ratio. 457 x 24% + 4.05 = 46 1.101 Total protein EGG LAYING RATION There is no best ration for all conditions, as many grains can be fed interchangeably, depending on their availability, jaz EGGS pl gee ge Figure 208.—The amount of feed consumed by a Rhode Island Red and eggs produced. composition and price. As in the case of mash feeds the more simple grain mixtures, composed of home grown grains, will prove more profitable and produce eggs at less cost than complicated mixtures composed of eight or ten grains. All the following rations have been used with satis- factory results at the Government Experimental Farm at Beltsville, Md. In making a selection one should choose the ration most suitable to local conditions, and one that is most economical. Feeds not given in these rations may 212 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION be substituted on the basis of their comparative analysis, as shown in Table II, provided the meat scrap or animal pro- tein feeds are not entirely replaced by cotton-seed meal or other of the vegetable protein feeds. The change from one feed to another should be made gradually, as sudden changes may decrease the egg production considerably. Ration No. 1 Mash / Scratch Mixture 16 pounds corn meal 8 pounds cracked corn 614 pounds meat scrap 8 pounds wheat 1 pound bran 8 pounds oats 1 pound middlings Ration No. 2 2 pounds barley, or corn, meal 2 pounds cracked corn 1 pound bran 1 pound oats 1 pound middlings 1 pound wheat or barley 1 pound meat or fish scrap Ration No. 3 (Wheatless Ration) 3 pounds corn meal 2 pounds cracked corn 1 pound meat scrap 1 pound oats Ration No. 4 9 pounds corn meal 10 pounds cracked corn 5 pounds middlings 5 pounds wheat 4 pounds bran 5 pounds oats 2 pounds cotton-seed or gluten meal 5 pounds barley 2 pounds meat scrap 2 per cent bone meal Ration No. 5 1 pound corn meal 2 pounds cracked corn 1 pound bran 1 pound wheat 34 pound meat scrap 1 pound oats 1 pound middlings 1 pound barley 1 pound ground oats Ration No. 6 3 pounds corn meal 2 pounds cracked corn 1 pound bran | 1 pound wheat 1 pound middlings 1 pound oats 4 pound meat scrap Feed with table scraps or cooked vegetables. FEEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION 213 Ration No. 5 is especially suited for pullets or hens inclined to get too fat, such as the Plymouth Rocks, Orping- tons, and Wyandottes. Corn meal when fed with the meat scrap, is very fattening; consequently these two feeds are cut down in ration No. 5. Ration No. 6 should be fed with table scraps or vege- tables at the rate of 5 pounds of table scraps daily to 30 hens. METHODS OF FEEDING / The scratch, or grain, mixture when fed indoors should Figure 209.—Hens scratching in the litter for their grain. Such exercise keeps the hens in good condition. Note the two hens to the left in the rear eating mash from the dry mash hopper. be fed twice daily, in a litter of from 3 to 5 inches deep on the floor of the poultry house. Feed about one third of the amount of the grain feed in the morning and two thirds in the afternoon, the morning feed consisting of as much as the hens will eat within half an hour, the night feed being enough to fully satisfy them. Feed the mash either dry or as a moist feed in addition to the scratch grains, an effort being made to feed about equal amounts of each. To feed the mash dry is the more 214 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION common method and it should be kept in a hopper! before the fowls constantly. The wet or moist mash should in no sense be sloppy and when properly fed gives very good results. It should be fed only once a day, preferably in the morning, or at noon, and only as much should be given as the fowls will eat up clean in about half an hour. A moist mash provides a satis- factory way to use up table scraps and cooked vegetables. Figure 210.—Two styles of easily constructed homemade feed hoppers. The hopper on the left is very simple and does not waste feed. Exercise. When hens tend to become too fat, they should be made to exercise more by working harder for their feed, which should be fed in a deep litter. When such is the case reduce the amount of scratch grains and likewise the amount of meat scrap in the mash. At times it becomes necessary to close up the dry mash hopper until noon in order to make the hens work harder for their scratch grains. FEEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION 215 The same feeds or combinations of feeds may be fed through- out the year. During the molting period do not try to force the molt prematurely by special methods of feeding. QUANTITY OF GRAIN TO FEED Judgment must be used in deciding how much grain to feed as the amount eaten varies with different flocks and at different seasons of the year. For instance fowls will eat, more in the spring when laying heavily than in the sum- mer and fall, when production has dropped off. It is advis- able to feed approximately at the rate of one quart of scratch grains and an equal amount of mash (14% quarts) daily to 18 hens of the general-pur- pose breeds or to 16 hens of the smaller, or egg, breeds. Hens of the general-purpose breeds having free range or large yards containing green feed will eat about 75 pounds of feed in a year, while the hens of the egg breeds such as the Figure 211.—Working plans for a dry Leghorns, will eat about See 55 pounds in addition to the green feed consumed. Relation of the amount of feed to egg production. Concerning the amount of feed consumed at different seasons of the year and the correlation of feed consumption with egg production, the following results from the first Texas National Egg Laying Contest are cited:* During *Report of the First Texas National Egg Laying Contest, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station. Bulletin 246 by F. W. Kazmier. 216 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION the months of February, March, April, and May the birds entered in the contest consumed the greatest amount of feed and also produced the greatest amount of eggs. “In June, July, August, September, and October the birds consumed the smallest amount of feed and also produced the least num- ber of eggs. From this it may be safely concluded that dur- ing the period of heaviest feed consumption there is also the greatest egg production.” Experiments. It is interesting to note the results of three years’ experimental work on feeding for egg production at the Government Poultry Farm, Beltsville, Maryland. This report stated that ‘the amount of feed consumed varies considerably throughout the year, being greatest just pre- ceding the period of highest egg production, but it does not vary absolutely with production either during one year or when one year is compared with another.” Referring again to the results of the Texas Egg Laying Contest it states that “the feed consumption averaged 514 pounds for every dozen eggs produced” and that it cost an average price of 22 cents for feed alone (not counting labor and other production costs) to produce a dozen eggs. Further, that on an average it took 314 pounds of feed to produce a pound of eggs and that “the birds in the contest produced 3% times their own live weight in eggs.” The results of the feeding work at the Government Poultry Farm} showed in this connection that the average feed consumption for each dozen eggs produced was 61% pounds. ‘This increased amount as compared to the average of 51 pounds for each dozen of eggs at the Texas Contest is due most likely to the fact that the feeding experiments as conducted at the Government Farm covered a longer period and involved a larger number of birds of the general- t'‘Feed Cost of Egg Production.”” U. 8. Dept. of Agriculture, Bulletin 561 by Harry M. Lamon and Alfred R. Lee. FEEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION 217 purpose class than was included in the Texas Contest where the majority of the birds were Leghorns. Further, it is brought out as the result of the feeding work at the Government Poultry Farm that the value of eggs or selling price for the year was greatest in November, while the feed cost to produce a dozen of eggs was greatest in December, owing to the low production at that time. Eggs are produced at the lowest cost during the period of greatest production, which is in the spring, and at the highest cost in the season of lowest production, which is the fall and early winter. This high cost of egg production in the fall and winter increases materially as the fowls become older. ARTIFICIAL LIGHTS Within the past several years the practice known as artificial lighting of poultry houses has come into use. The object of this system is to obtain a greater egg production during the fall and winter months when eggs are high in price, the sole idea being to produce by means of artificial lights a longer working day for the hen. In the fall and winter the period of daylight is comparatively short as contrasted with the spring and summer days. Consequently by the use of lights the short days are made longer, thereby per- mitting the hens to eat more feed with which to produce more eggs. This practice is ordinarily carried on with the layers rather than with birds that are intended for breeders. Some poultrymen who have tried artificial lights, how- ever, on their breeding stock, do not report any detrimental results. Another advantage of artificial lighting is that by providing a longer working day, late-hatched and slow- developing pullets are given an opportunity to mature more rapidly, and thereby come into egg production sooner than when artificial lights are not provided. Again, when lights 218 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION are used hens will complete their molt sooner than they would otherwise. The period of artificial lighting. The period during which artificial lights are used in the poultry house ranges from the 1st of September or October to the 1st of March or April, these being the months during which the days are shortest. The three methods that have been used as con- cerning the period or time of the day during which lights have been turned on are as follows: 1. The lights are turned on an hour or two before day- Figure 212.—The interior of a poultry house illuminated with electric lights. light in the morning and again in the evening before it gets dark, so as to make a twelve-hour day for the hens. 2. The lights being turned on only in the evening before it gets dark and remain on so as to give the hens the same number of hours as mentioned above. 3. To turn the lights on in the morning only, usually about 4:30 a. m., and turn them off as soon as it becomes sufficiently light in the house for the hens to see. When this plan is used the lights are not turned on in the evening. Considering all these plans, the latter seems to be the FEEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION 219 most desirable. When the lights are used in the evening it is necessary to provide some way to dim the lights before turning them out completely so that the hens can see their way to the roosts. When the lights are used only in the morning, such a system is not necessary. Kinds of lights to use. The various means of illumi- nating the poultry house are by the use of electric lights, gasoline lamps or kerosene lamps. The former is by far the most satisfactory method and less dangerous from the standpoint of fire than the other two methods. Aside from the element of safety, the electric lights can be so arranged that they can be turned on automatically early in the morn- ing by means of an alarm clock. By this arrangement the alarm will go off at a given time and the alarm key in turn- ing will automatically make a contact so as to turn the lights on. When gasoline or kerosene lamps are used, it is necessary to light them at such a time as it is desired to have light. When electric lights are used, it is usually planned to provide one light of from 40 to 80 watts for each 100 hens. One gasoline lamp will usually be sufficient for the same number of fowls. When kerosene lamps are used, a reflector should be provided for each lamp and four such lamps should be arranged for each 100 hens. In other words, sufficient light should be provided to enable the hens to see sufficiently to eat. Methods of feeding. Methods of feeding fowls in illum- inated pens differ little from those suggested in this chapter. Some poultrymen, however, prefer to feed scratch grain three times a day at morning, noon, and night instead of twice daily, believing that the extra grain feed is necessary to keep up the body requirements during the winter months when artificial lights are used. Another plan is that of scattering some grains in the litter after the fowls have gone to roost, so they will have it to eat in the morning. 220 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION QUESTIONS 1. Name some of the features that are essential for profitable egg production. 2. What two facts should be kept in mind when feeding for egg production? 3. Describe the development of the egg. 4. What are the most common grain feeds fed to poultry? 5. Mention some of the more common grain by-products usu- ally found in mash feeds. 6. What facts should be kept in mind when purchasing com- mercial feeds? 7. Discuss the importance of meat food in the ration. 8. Mention several kinds of green feeds that can be fed. 9. Describe the method of sprouting oats. 10. Discuss the necessity of feeding charcoal, grit, and oyster 11. Why is water so essential to hens? 12. What are the three important elements found in feeds? What part do they play in maintaining the body and producing the product? 13. What is a balanced ration? 14. What is the nutritive ratio? 15. How is the nutritive ratio determined? 16. Mention at least three of the rations recommended in this chapter for egg production. 17. How and when should a grain mixture be fed? 18. Discuss two ways of feeding a mash mixture. 19. How should hens be fed that show a tendency to become too fat? What ration would you feed to such hens? 20. About how much feed would you give daily to a pen of fowls consisting of 25 hens and 1 male bird of the general-purpose breed? 21. What is the object and purpose of artificially lighting poul- try houses? 22. What are the advantages of artificial lighting? 23. During what time of the year are lights used? Why? 24. What three plans are used as concerning the time lights are turned on? What are the three methods of lighting? 25. How should fowls in illuminated houses be fed? SUGGESTIONS 1, As the principal purpose for which most fowls are kept is for the production of eggs, endeavor to so manage your flock as to secure a good egg yield. If fowls are to be kept, make them profitable. The real pleasure in poultry after all is in the profit. 2. By following the suggestions as given on pages 208 to 211 determine the nutritive ration of Rations Nos. i, 2, and 4. After determining the quantity of feeds that you are now using for your flock, figure out what the nutritive ratio will be. Does this conform a the nutritive ratio as recommended for laying hens as given on page 3. Does your method of feeding differ materially from that de- scribed on page 213? If you are not securing as good an egg yield FEEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION 221 as you think you might expect, why not change your method and see if there is an improvement? 4. Secure several samples of commercial grain feeds from various dealers and examine them carefully as to the quality and number of different grains contained. 5. Remember that the animal protein contained in bugs and worms that the fowls get in the spring and summer must be provided in some form by feeding a meat feed in the winter, in order to secure eggs. 6. A feed mixing demonstration carried on before a group of people interested in poultry will be of great value and lead to an inter- esting discussion as to the principles and practice of feeding. 7. Would it not be possible for you to try artificial lights in your poultry house and thus secure an increased egg production in the all and winter months? REFERENCES Feeds and Feeding, by Henry and Morrison. Feed Cost of Egg Production, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, De- partment Bulletin 561, by Harry M. Lamon and Alfred R. Lee. Feeding Hens for Egg Production, U. 8. Department of Agriculture Farmers’ Bulletin 1067, by Harry M. Lamon and Alfred R. Lee. Principles and Practice of Poultry Culture, by John H. Robinson. CHAPTER XIII CULLING THE FLOCK One of the greatest achievements that has been accom- plished in poultry keeping of recent years is that of being able to determine by certain characteristics the egg-pro- ducing ability of a hen. No one phase of poultry practice has been of more economic value to the industry than this, for now practically anyone with a little practice and knowl- edge of the characteristics peculiar to the good and poor pro- ducer can cull out unprofitable fowls and thus place the flock on a true business basis. Object of culling. One of the principal reasons for cul- ling is that it insures that the feed will be consumed by the better-producing hens, thereby increasing the profit. Again such practice makes it possible to save the hens that are best suited for breeders both on account of their egg-pro- ducing ability and their superior strength and vitality. These qualities are very essential to layers, if they are to stand up under the strain of heavy production. If the flock is to be put on a paying basis, the poor pro- ducers should be eliminated in order that eggs may be pro- duced profitably and efficiently. Another advantage of removing the poor producers is that of creating more room for those that remain and a better chance to produce desir- able results. Culling the growing stock. Culling should by no means be confined to the layers; for in the young stock as well cer- tain individuals will be found that it would not pay to keep. Young birds that are stunted in growth, unhealthy, or those that do not possess the qualities that go to make up strong, healthy fowls should be removed from the flock and disposed of. Such birds will never pay for the feed and care used in 222 CULLING THE FLOCK 223 Bh ek een Bch inne aes GES hd EE ee trying to raise them. When looking over the growing stock, there will be found certain cockerels that are larger in size and more vigorous than others. On locating such birds they should be leg banded or marked so that they may be retained Figure 214.—This Single-Combed White Leghorn hen, a poor producer, laid but 80 eggs in a year. Such hens should be culled as unprofitable. 224 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION as breeders, other conditions being favorable, such as color, type, etc. When to cull. Culling, generally speaking, should be a continuous process throughout the year. It should include the elimination not only of hens that are non-productive but Figure 215.—A Barred Plymouth Rock Figure 216.—An extremely poor Barred cockerel well grown and developed— Plymouth Rock cockerel. Such birds as the kind to keep. these should be culledfrom the flock and marketed. likewise those that are sick, that are thin or emaciated, as well as those that show poor vitality. At some one time, however, the whole flock should be given a careful and systematic culling. Each hen should be handled and gone over carefully with the object of picking out and retaining the better producers and culling the poor producers. At such a time it is also advisable to pick out from the better producers such hens as will be needed for breeders the fol- lowing spring. These fowls should be leg banded or other- CULLING THE FLOCK 225 wise marked so that eggs from them will be saved for hatch- ing. The hens culled as poor producers should be marketed as soon as possible, so as to realize an immediate saving on the feed consumed. The best time to cull is during the lat- ter part of August or the first part of September. It is comparatively easy at this time of the year to form a fairly close estimate of the relative value of a hen as to its ability to produce eggs and likewise to cull out the poor producers. Hens that show indications of laying at this time have as a rule been the better producers for the year. The fact should be kept in mind also that hens that have been good layers during their first laying year are usually the ones that will be the better producers in the second and third years. Hens ‘showing positive indications of having been good producers throughout the year should be retained for the next year regardless of their age. Relatively few hens, however, will prove to be profitable producers beyond their second laying year, if they are of the heavier breeds, such as the Plymouth Rock or Wyandotte, or beyond their third laying year, if they are of the lighter breeds, such as the Leghorn. When possi- ble, preliminary culling during July is desirable also in order to eliminate hens which have started to molt and have stopped laying for reasons mentioned under ‘‘Molt.” Method of culling. There are several points which re- quire special attention in selecting the good layers. (See Culling Chart in the Appendix.) It is a comparatively easy matter to cull when the different characteristics or several of them agree as indicating good production or poor production. Experience, however, will show that there is not always an agreement of indications. When such char- acteristics do not agree, one’s judgment must be used in deciding which should be given the greatest weight. The following are the principal points to be considered: Sickness and lack of vigor. Sick fowls can ordinarily ba 226 Figure 217.—A Barred Plymouth Rock hen in full molt. PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION distinguished in that they are usually lifeless, inactive and have a tendency to stay on the roost all or part of the day. Likewise they show but little desire to eat and their comb is usually very pale or of a dark or bluish color. Fowls with long toe nails, a snaky or crow head, and dull sunken eyes can safely be culled as possessing but lit- tle vigor or constitutional. strength. Molt. Molting is the proc- ess of shedding the old feath- ers and the growing of new feathers to take their place. This condition or process is one of the most valuable and easily applied tests as an index of production. cease laying completely or practicallysoduring the molt, as but few hens can grow feathers and produce eggs at the same time. It will be observed that hens of the general-purpose breeds lay more or less during the molt. This condition is less fre- quently found in the lighter breeds, such as the Leghorn. The best producers continue laying well into the fall, be- fore molting. The poor pro- ducers usually molt early in Most hens Figure 218.—A Barred Plymouth Rock hen that has not molted. CULLING THE FLOCK 227 the summer, and complete their molt before the better pro- ducers begin. Early molters molt slowly while this process is more rapid with the better producers, or late molters. In considering these facts, therefore, save the hens that have not started to molt by the last of August or are just beginning to molt in September. Some hens molt as late as December. Discard those that have finished molting or are well into the molt by the end of August. The hens that molt last, provid- ed they are otherwise de- sirable, are the ones that should be saved for the breeding pen. The hen that has not molted can be told by the fact that the plumage is soiled, worn, or broken, which indications are es- pecially evident in the tail Figure 219.—A Barred Plymouth Rock feathers. Those that have hen that has completed the molt. molted or are in the process of molting show clean, fresh plumage or are growing new feathers. Culling out the early molters just as soon as they begin to molt is one of the easiest ways to eliminate the poor layers. Shank color. The degree of leg or shank color in those breeds or varieties having yellow legs should likewise be considered in culling the flock. In such birds it will be noticed that the color of the shank fades out as the laying season advances and the rapidity and degree of the fading of color depends to a great extent on the heaviness of laying. As the color leaves the legs it fades from the scales on the front of the shanks first, and later from those on the rear. 228 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Other factors that affect the color of the shanks are the nature of the soil and the extent of grass on the range or yard to which the flocks have access. For instance, some kinds of soil tend to bleach the color out of the shanks and it has also been noticed that fowls on grass range do not lose this color as rapidly as those in bare yards. Hens that show bright or medium-colored shanks are most usually poor layers. Occasionally, however, poor layers may show pale or white shanks. This is especially true with a sick hen or one in poor condition. In breeds where the shanks show a horn color as well as yellow, as in the case of the Rhode Island Reds, the horn color must not be confused with yel- low. In such cases the absence of yellow color will be noted on the rear and sides of the shanks. The correct color of the shanks for the standard breeds will be found on pages 348, 349. Condition of shank. Another characteristic which may be found in some high producers is the flexibility of the skin on the rear of the shanks. As laying progresses the skin becomes loose and pliable and a groove or depression forms on the sides of the shanks. ‘This condition is not apparent to such an extent on poor or fair layers. Beak color. In such breeds as have yellow beaks prac- tically the same principle applies as in the case of the yellow shanks. The beak color, however, is lost from the beak more quickly than from the shanks, as the hen starts laying, and is likewise regained more quickly when she stops lay- ing. The lower half of the beak fades out faster than the upper half. The lower half of the beak may be used as a gaide in this connection in individuals where the upper beak is horn color or black. Vent color. In breeds having a yellow skin the yellow color immediately surrounding the vent is quickly lost. when laying begins and is likewise regained quickly when the bird CULLING THE FLOCK 229 stops laying. White or pinkish vent color usually indicates that the hen is laying, while a yellow vent indicates that the hen is not laying. The condition of the vent other than color should likewise be considered. That is, when a hen is laying, the vent is large, expanded, and moist, and when not laying it is comparatively small and dry. Comb. The comb of a hen that is laying or about to lay is large, feels waxy to the touch and is bright red in color, Figure 220.—The head of a good and of a poor producer. Note how the comb and wattles of the poor producer on the left are small and shrunken in size. Likewise note the listless appearance of the eye of the poor producer. The good producer on the right has a fairly large and well developed comb and wattles and a bright, keen eye. When not laying, the comb is small, shrunken, pale or dull in color, comparatively hard and covered with whitish scales. As previously mentioned a dark or bluish colorin the comb usually indicates that the hen is sick. The changes in the wattles and ear lobes are quite similar to those of the comb, but not quite so marked. When considering the size of the comb of the fowl the difference in the size of the combs of the various breeds should likewise be considered. Pelvic and keel bones. The pelvic bones can be felt as points on each side of the vent. As the hens stop lay- ing there is a tendency for them to take on fat and this condition is noticeable on these bones. 230 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Again, when a hen is not laying, these bones feel thick and rigid. When she is laying, these bones are comparatively thin and flexible. A most valuable indication as to whether a hen is laying or not is the spread or distance between these pelvic bones. When laying, the distance between them is greater than when not laying. This distance, or spread, can be measured by determining how many fingers can be placed between the bones. When the spread measures two fingers or less, it is very Figure 221.—These fowls have been killed and dressed in order to show the poe of the two pelvic bones and of the keel or breast bone. The lack dots on either side of the vent in each case show the location of the pelvic bones. The black dots immediately above these in each case show the location of the keel bone. The distance between the pelvic bones and the pelvic bones and the keel bone of the bird on the left being greater indicates that she is the better producer. The closeness of these bones as shown on the bird on the right indicates that sheis the poorer producer. probable that the hen is not laying, while if the spread is greater she is probably in laying condition. When measuring this spread, the difference in the size of hens of different breeds and the corresponding difference in the spread should be kept in mind. It is natural to suppose that a laying hen is a good eater and, therefore, her intestines are more distended and require more room than when she is not lay- ing and not eating so much. It is equally true that when CULLING THE FLOCK 231 laying the ovary and oviduct are of greater size and require more room. To provide this extra room the distance in- creases from the end of the | ‘keel, or breast bone, to the pel- , vic bones with a consequent increase in the size of the ab- domen. In the smaller breeds, such as the Leghorn, a spread of three or more fingers indicates ; that the hen is in a laying Tae 222.—This hen has capicailct condition. In the larger breeds ee Apuete isis sor we Done such as the Plymouth Rock, a laying condition, hen that is in laying condition should have a spread of four or more fingers. A spread of less than this indicates that the hen is not in a laying condition. Flexibility of abdomen. In a good producer the abdo- men is soft and flexible, owing to its increased size, together 3, with the fact that there is less tendency at this time to ac- cumulate fat. (Figure 224.) As laying ceases the abdo- men becomes smaller, contrac- ted and feels harder and less flexible. When culling the flock, the fact should be kept in mind that it is safer to de- pend upon the agreement of a combination of several of the : eae characteristics as mentioned tiene thea a tke herein rather than to select by any one point alone. vic bones, whichindicates good capac- ity and, therefore, good production, 232 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION The kind to cull. Hens possessing the following char- acteristics or a combination of such characteristics should be culled as poor producers: Those that are sick, weak, lacking vigor, inactive, poor eaters, as well as those that have molted or started to molt early, those with small, dry, puckered vents, with small shriveled, hard, dull colored combs, with thick rigid pelvic bones, with pelvic bones that are close togeth- er, small spread between pelvic bones and rear end of keel, and small hard abdo- men. In yellow- skinned _ breeds poor producers also should show yellow or medi- um yellow shanks, yellow beaks and vent. See pages 348, 349, for the color of the skin, ear Figure 224.—The hen on the left has a full, flexible, ex- lobes,and shanks panded abdomen, indicating that she is Jaying. The hen of the standard on the right shows a hard contracted abdomen, indicat- ing that she is not laying. breeds. The kind to save. Such hens that are healthy, strong, vigorous, alert, active, and good eaters should be saved as good producers, that is, those that have not molted or are just’ beginning to molt by September, having large, moist vents, with large, bright red combs, thin flexible pelvic bones well spread apart, a wide spread between the pelvic bones and rear end of keel, and a large, soft, pliable abdomen. CULLING THE FLOCK 233 Laying hens of yellow-skinned breeds should show pale or white shanks and pale or white beaks and vents. QUESTIONS 1. What two purposes does culling the flock accomplish? 2. What points should be observed when culling young stock? 3. Why should continuous culling be carried on in a general way throughout the year? 4. What is the best time of the year when systematic culling of the layers should be practiced? 5. What are the characteristics usually associated with fowls that lack vigor and are sick? 6. Other things being equal, what hens should be retained as good producers, those that molt in July? Those that molt in August? Those that molt during the latter part of September? 7. What effect has egg production on the color of fowls having yellow legs and beak? 8. Describe the appearance and color of the vent in a good and of a poor producer. 9. What is the appearance of the comb and ear lobes in a good and in a poor producer? 10. Where are the pelvic bones located? 11. What should be the distance between the pelvic bones in a good and ina poor producer? What governs the distance of the keel bone from the pelvic bones of a hen? 13. What should be the distance between the keel and pelvic bones in a good and in a poor producer of the smaller breeds, such as the Leghorn, and of the larger breeds, such as the Plymouth Rock? 14, What is the condition of the abdomen when a hen is laying? When not laying? SUGGESTIONS 1. Culling the flock is of great importance. Cull systematically at least once a year. 2. Retain the non-producers that have been culled for a week or ten days before sending them to market. These birds should be kept in a separate place from the good producers and careful observation should te made as to the number of eggs they produce, comparing the number produced by the culls with those produced by the hens selected as profitable layers. If this culling is done properly, the eggs laid by the poor producers will be but few as compared with those laid by the hens selected as good layers. 3. Try to interest others in culling. A demonstration with per- sons interested will be most beneficial. 4. Remember that the hen that lays is the hen that pays, and the way to determine the hen that lays is to practice systematic culling. Instead of your keeping hens, let the hens keep you. REFERENCES “Culling the Poultry Flock,” U. S. Department of Agriculture, Circu- lar No. 31. CHAPTER XIV TURKEYS, DUCKS, GEESE, GUINEA FOWLS AND PIGEONS TURKEYS Turkeys are ordinarily raised on general farms rather than on an extensive commercial scale. Years ago New England was famous for its turkeys; but, as the country developed, the number produced grew less until at the pres- ent time but comparatively few are found throughout that section. The majority of turkeys are now grown in the mid- dle and southwestern states. Plenty of range is the most essential factor for the successful production of turkeys. This, together with the fact that turkeys do best in a semidry climate, is one of the reasons why Texas ranks first as a turkey-producing state. VARIETIES All our varieties of domestic turkeys are descended from wild turkeys which are natives of and are found in North America. The six varieties of domestic turkeys as recoge nized by the American Standard of Perfection are as fol- lows: Bronze, White Holland, Bourbon Red, Black, Nar- ragansett, and Slate. Bronze. This is by far the most popular and widely known variety and in appearance resembles the wild turkey. In color it is a rich brilliant copperish bronze against a back- ground of black and brown. The tail coverts and main tail feathers have clear white tips. As will be noted from the standard weights, the Bronze is the largest of the several varieties, the standard weights being as follows: Adult cock 36 lbs., yearling cock 33 lbs., cockerel 25 Ibs., hen 20 Ibs., pullet 16 lbs. White Holland. As the name would indicate, the plum- 234 TURKEYS, DUCKS, GEESE, GUINEA FOWLS 235 Figure 225.—Wild turkey male. age of this variety is pure white with the exception of the beard, which is black. The standard weights are: Adult cock 28 Ibs., yearling cock 24 lbs., cockerel 20 Ibs., hen 18 Ibs., pullet 14 Ibs. Bourbon Red. This variety is of a deep brownish-red color, with white wings and tail. The standard weights are: Adult cock 30 lbs., yearling cock 25 lbs., cockerel 20 Ibs., hen 18 Ibs., pullet 12 lbs. Black. The plumage color of this variety is of a lus- 236 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION el SRN x Figure 226.—Bronze turkey hen. trous glossy black throughout. The standard weights are: Adult cock 27 lbs., yearling cock 22 lbs., cockerel 18 lbs., hen 18 lbs., pullet 12 Ibs. Narragansett. The color of the Narragansett is a steel gray against a black background. The standard weights are: Adult cock 30 lbs., yearling cock 25 lbs., cockerel 20 Ibs., hen 18 lbs., pullet 12 lbs. Slate. The plumage of this variety is of a slaty or ashy blue color more or less dotted with black. The standard weights are: Adult cock 27 lIbs., yearling cock 22 lbs., cockerel 18 lbs., hen 18 lbs., pullet 12 lbs. TURKEYS, DUCKS, GEESE, GUINEA FOWLS 237 Figure 227,.—White Holland turkey male. MANAGEMENT The production of turkeys is a profitable side line for those so situated that they can give plenty of range to the flock. Experience shows that turkeys do not thrive well on limited range or in confinement. Thus free range is of importance from the standpoint of health, vigor, and, 238 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Figure 228.—Flock of Bronze turkeys on range. growth. Given free range they will readily pick up such food as grasshoppers, insects, green food and waste grains thereby reducing the cost of production. Breeding. One of the most important factors in order to obtain success in turkey production is the proper selec- Figure 229.—Turkey eggs. The one on the left was laid by a pullet, the one on the right by a hen, TURKEYS, DUCKS, GEESE, GUINEA FOWLS 239 tion of breeding stock. The breeders should be selected for vigor, size, shape, strong bone, early maturity, and color of plumage as given in the American Standard of Perfection. Ordinarily 15 turkey hens can be mated to a vigorous tom, or male bird. Turkey hens usually lay about 18 eggs in their first litter. The period of incubation for turkey eggs is 28 days. When it is not desired to have the hens incubate Figure 230.—Turkey hen and brood. the eggs, they can be broken up as soon as they become broody and made to lay a second and frequently a third litter. Turkey eggs can be incubated either artificially or by natural means. Mortality. Young turkeys, or poults, are hard to raise unless all conditions are favorable. The high death rate among poults is usually due to one or more of the follow ing causes: Exposure to dampness or cold, improper feed ing, close confinement, lice and weakness in the parent stock. DUCKS The production of ducks is carried on both as a farm side 240 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION line on general farms and as an intensive business on a large commercial scale. While ducks are seen in many farm flocks scattered throughout the country, they are found in larger numbers on the general farms of the cen- tral western states. The large commercial duck Figure 231.—Coop forturkey hen whilesitting. farmsarefound principal- ly in the East near large cities and especially on Long Island. BREEDS In all there are eleven breeds of ducks recognized by the American Standard of Perfection, these being divided accord- ing to their economic usefulness into three classes, namely, the meat, egg, and ornamental classes. Most of these breeds with the exception of the Muscovy are said to have originated from the Mallard, or common wild duck. THE MEAT CLASS Pekin. The Pekin duck is one of the most popular breeds both on general farms and on commercial duck farms. Figure 232.—Driving turkeys to market, 241 TURKEYS, DUCKS, GEESE, GUINEA FOWLS “pussy suoT uo Wivy yonp [ew1semuUi0s ssivJ—'¢e¢ez INDI 242 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION It is most extensively found on commercial duck farms that make a specialty of producing “green” ducks, that is, ducklings which are grown rapidly and marketed when from 8 to 12 weeks old and weigh from 414 to 6 pounds apiece. The White Pekin is the only variety of this breed, it having a yellow skin, and white or creamy-white plumage. Figure 234.—Pekin drake and duck. The standard weights for Pekin ducks are: Adult drake 9 lbs., young drake 8 lbs., adult duck 8 lbs., young duck 7 lbs. Aylesbury. This breed which is likewise white in color is quite similar to the Pekin, the standard weights of both of these breeds being identical. This breed, which is a native of England, is quite popular in that country as a producer of duck meat. Muscovy. The Muscovy is found more on general farms than on commercial duck farms, owing to the fact that they are not so well suited to highly intensive conditions or to TURKEYS, DUCKS, GEESE, GUINEA FOWLS 243 the production of market ducks, owing to the variation in size between the male and female. The two varieties of the Muscovy duck are the White and Colored. The White variety is pure white throughout all sections of its plumage. In the colored variety the breast, body, and back are blue- black in color, broken with some white. The wing coverts are similar in color, while the tail is black. The standard weights of this breed are: Adult drake 10 lbs., young drake 8 Ibs., adult duck 7 lbs., young duck 6 lbs. Hales; Figure 235.—Colored Muscovy drake. Figure 236.—Cayuga duck. Rouen. In shape and type this breed is quite similar to the Pekin and has the same standard weights. There is but one variety of this breed, it being colored. The plumage of the male and of the female varies with differ- ent colored markings. Cayuga. This breed likewise resembles the Pekin in shape. It is not quite so desirable as the Pekin as a market duck, owing to the dark plumage. The plumage is greenish black in all sections of the body. The standard weights are: Adult drake 8 lbs., young drake 7 lbs., adult duck 7 Ibs., young duck 6 lbs. Buff. The plumage of this breed, of which there is one 244 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION variety is an even shade of rich fawn buff with the excep- tion of the head and the upper part of the neck in the drake which are of a seal-brown color. The standard weights are one pound lighter in each class than in the Pekin. Swedish. The Swedish duck, or, as it is sometimes called, the Blue Swedish, is quite similar to the Pekin in type, but smaller. The plumage of the Blue Swedish is a steel blue in all sections except that it has a white bib on the neck Figure 237.—Fawn and White Figure 238.—Blue Swedish drake. Runner drake. and the two main flight feathers are pure white. The standard weights are: Adult drake 8 lbs., young drake 61% lIbs., adult duck 7 lbs., young duck 51% Ibs. THE EGG CLASS Indian Runner. There is but one standard variety in- cluded in this class, that being the Indian Runner, or, as it is sometimes called, the Runner Duck. While this breed is noted for its high egg production, at the same time, having a yellow skin, it makes good broilers when weighing from TURKEYS, DUCKS, GEESE, GUINEA FOWLS 245 214 to 3 lbs. apiece when about 6 weeks of age. There are three varieties of the Indian Runner duck: the White, Fawn and White, and Penciled, the Fawn and White variety being probably the most popular of the three. As will be noted from the standard weights, this breed of ducks is considerably smaller than those of the meat class, the weights being: Adult drake 414 Ibs., young drake 4 lbs., adult duck 4 lbs., young duck 31% lbs. THE ORNAMENTAL CLASS This class includes the following standard varieties: The Call, Crested White, and East India ducks. Each of these is raised primarily for ornamental purposes, the Call being more common in this country than the other two. MANAGEMENT The production of ducks will be found practical and profitable both from the standpoint of eggs and meat, when a profitable market can be found. Duck eggs can be hatched successfully by either natural or artificial methods. The period of incubation for duck eggs is 28 days, with the excep- tion of the Muscovy ducks, which is from 35 to 37 days. Matings are usually made in the proportion of one drake to 5 or 6 ducks. GEESE Geese can be raised successfully in practically any part of this country and are found on many general farms. They are more frequently found, however, on the general farms in the South and in the Middle West. Geese are primarily raised as a meat food. The one factor that is against their wider use as a table fowl is the fact that they are too large for the average family. BREEDS There are six breeds of geese recognized by the Amer- ican Standard of Perfection, namely, the Toulouse, Emden, Chinese, African, Wild, or Canadian, and Egyptian. 246 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION The Toulouse. This is the largest of the standard breeds of geese, the standard weights being: Adult gander 26 lbs., young gander 20 lbs., adult goose 20 lbs., young goose 16 lbs. The color of the plumage is dark gray on black, gradually shading to a light gray, edged with white on the breast and to white on the abdomen. The Toulouse is a com- paratively good layer, producing from 20 to 35 eggs a year, grows rapidly, and makes a good market fowl. The Emden. The plumage of this breed is pure white. It is slightly smaller than the Toulouse, the standard weights be- ing: Adult gander 20 Ibs., young gan- der 18 lbs., adult goose 18 lbs., young Figure 239.—Toulouse goose. goose 16 lbs. Asa table fowl this breed is quite similar to the Toulouse. When picked, however, it makes a better appearance than the Toulouse, owing to the fact that it has white pin feathers. This breed grows rapidly and matures early. Chinese. There are two varieties of Chinese geese, the Brown and the White. The Brown is of a grayish brown color, somewhat lighter on the under side of the body, with a brown head and dark brown or black knob on top of the head and a black bill. The White Chinese goose TURKEYS, DUCKS, GEESE, GUINEA FOWLS 247 has pure white plumage with an orange colored bill and knob. Both of these varieties ane desirable market fowls, being prolific layers and rapid growers. The standard weights are: Adult gander 12 lbs., young gander 10 lbs., adult goose 10 lbs., young goose 8 lbs. __ African. The plumage is dark gray on the wings and back and gray or light gray on the neck, breast, and under side of body. The head is dark gray or black. It isin the same market classas the previous- ly mentioned breeds. The standard weights are the same as for the Emden except that those of the young gander and young goose are 16 and 14 pounds respectively. Wild, or Cana- dian. The Canadian geese are not kept Figure 240.—Emden goose. to any great extent in captivity. When raised under domes- tic conditions, however, the young geese are usually sold to hunters to use as decoys. The body plumage is gray or dark gray in color, the breast being light gray and the lower part of the body white from the wings to the tail. The standard weights are: Adult gander 12 lbs., young gander 10 lbs., adult goose 10 lbs., young goose 8 lbs. The Egyptian. This breed is kept primarily for orna- 248 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION mental purposes. It resembles the Canadian goose in shape, stands higher, and weighs 2 pounds less in each class. The plumage on the back and body is gray and black with the lower part of the body a pale buff or yellow color, penciled with black. The breast is chestnut and gray and the tail is black. The wings are of a glossy black with white shoulders. MANAGEMENT Geese can be raised in small numbers suc- cessfully and at a profit on many farms, espe- cially on low rough pasture land having a supply of water. Geese need a house only dur- ing cold or stormy weather during which time an open shed should be provided. The period of incuba- tion of goose eggs varies from 28 to 30 days. Ordinarily goose eggs are set under hens so that the geese will con- tinue laying eggs for a longer period. Geese that become broody can usually be broken up by confining them in a slat-bottomed coop for from 2 to 4 days. During this time water can be provided, but no feed should be given. One gander is usually mated to 1 or 2 geese. Figure 241.—White Chinese goose. GUINEAS Guineas are becoming quite popular as a table fowl and especially as a substitute for partridges, quail, and pheasants. TURKEYS, DUCKS, GEESE, GUINEA FOWLS 249 Many hotels and restaurants in large cities are eager to secure young guineas to be served at banquets and dinners as a special delicacy. They are usually raised in small flocks on general farms and need a large range for best results. VARIETIES There are three va- rieties of domesticated guinea fowl, namely, Pearl, White, and Lav- ender, of which the Pearl is the most pop- ular. The Pearl. The Pearl guinea has pur- plish gray plumage regularly dotted or marked with white. In addition to its value as a table fowl the feathers of this variety are frequently used for ornamental purposes. The White. The White guinea fowl is pure white in color and the skin is somewhat lighter than that of the Pearl variety. The Lavender. This variety is quite uncommon and resembles in color markings the Pearl variety except that the plumage is of a light gray or lavender, regularly dotted with white dots. Guineas have not yet been recognized by the American Standard of Perfection. No standard weights, therefore, are given. On an average, both the male and female weigh from 3 to 4 pounds at maturity. Figure 242.—African gander. 250 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT Guinea fowls have a tendency to mate in pairs. One male, however, may be mated successfully with 3 or 4 females. Guinea hens usually begin to lay in April or May and will produce from 20 to 30 eggs before becoming broody. If not allowed to sit, they will continue to lay throughout the summer, pro- ducing from 40 to 60 eggs. Ordinarily hens are used to hatch and rear guinea chickens. The period of incu- bation is from 26 to 28 days. Guinea hens and turkey hens, however, may be employed suc-. cessfully. Guineas are usually mar- keted late in the summer when they Figure 243.—Wild, or Canadian, goose. weigh from 1 to 114 pounds when about 214 months of age. PIGEONS Pigeons may be successfully raised and are usually found in practically all sections of the United States, both on farms and in cities. Aside from being raised as pets or for flying purposes, the real economic value of pigeons is for the production of squabs. Squab raising is usually conducted as @ special business or as a side line on a small scale in towns, cities and on general farms. An intimate knowledge TURKEYS, DUCKS, GEESE, GUINEA FOWLS 251 of the business and con- siderable experience is necessary to insure the greatest success in squab production on a com- mercial scale. BREEDS Among the varieties of pigeons kept for the production of squabs are the Runts, White Kings, Carneaux, Homers, Mal- tese, Mondaines and Figure 244.—Pearl Guinea. Hungarians. The White Kings and Carneaux are regarded by many as the better varieties, as they are good breeders and produce a popular-sized squab demanded by most mar- kets. Homers are good breeders, though small; but a Runt- Homer cross makes a very good squab-producing pigeon. Runts. Contrary to their name, Runts are the largest of all varieties of pigeons. The weights range as follows: Old Figure 245.—White Guinea. cocks 28 to 48 ozs., old hens 28 to 40 ozs., young cocks 23 to 40ozs., young hens from 22 to 36 ozs. There are seven distinct varieties — White, Blue, Black, Yellow, Red, Sil- ver,and Dun. They are bred extensively especial- ly on the Pacific Coast. White Kings. This breed comes in but one color, white, as the name 252 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION indicates. The standard weights range as follows: Old cocks 22 to 24 ozs., old hens 20 to 22 ozs., young cocks 20 to 22 ozs., young hens 18 to 20 ozs. They are fast breeders of white-meated squabs and are becoming very popular among large commercial squab breeders. Carneaux. Carneaux are also a very popular squab pigeon. Like the White Kings they are fast breeders of Figure 246.—Showing the relative size and shape of a Guinea egg on the left - ommrared with a hen’s egg on the right. The color of a Guinea egg is ull buff. popular-sized squabs that dress off nice for market purposes. Their standard weights are: Old cocks 22 to 25 ozs., old hens 20 o2zs., young cocks 20 to 23 ozs., young hens 18 ozs. They come in three colors—Red, Yellow, and Splashed, the latter color usually being a mixture of red and white. Homers. The Homing pigeon derives its name from the fact that, when carried away and released, it will usually return to its home. This trait has led to considerable sport in training such birds to fly long distances. In the recent World War, Homing pigeons played a most important part TURKEYS, DUCKS, GEESE, GUINEA FOWLS 253 in carrying messages from the Front where other means of communication failed. The Homer is a good breeder; but, ow- ing to its small size, is not as profitable as a squab - producing varie- ty. It comesin a variety of colors, including blue, black, silver and a mix- ture of these colors. Maltese. Maltese pigeons at one time were bred quite extensively for squab purposes, but Figure 247.—White King. the standard requirements call for long legs and long necks. Breeders find, therefore, that they are not as profitable for squab breeding as the White Kings and Carneaux. Mondaines. The Mondaine pigeon is one of the later creations. It is smaller than the Runts, but larger than Kings or Carneaux. They have a rather long, slender body, but some breeders claim that they are good squab pro- ducers. They come in white and blue barred. Their standard weights are: Old cocks 27 ozs., old hens 24 ozs., young cocks 24 ozs., young hens 22 ozs. Hungarians. Hun- garians are a species of the hen pigeon family. Figure 248 —White Runt. They are very similar to 254 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Figure 249.—Maltese pigeon. Figure 250.—Hungarian. the Maltese in type, having rather long legs and long necks, and carry a handsome plumage of black and white and yellow and white. They are not generally kept for squab breeding purposes, but are regarded as very good breeders. MANAGEMENT Pigeons always mate in pairs and usually remain so throughout life, unless one of the birds dies or becomes permanently injured. A mating can be broken up and other birds mated if desired. Pigeons are usually mated at from 4 to 8 months of age. The hen pigeon usually lays two eggs in 3 days before she starts to sit. It is not Figure 251.—Homer pigeon, Figure 252.—Carneau pigeon. TURKEYS, DUCKS, GEESE, GUINEA FOWLS 255 Figure 253—A well arranged pigeon fly. Figure 254.—A pair of White King squabs 4 weeks old. 256 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Figure 255.—Interior arrangement of a pigeon loft showing nests, nest pans and roosts on the right. advisable to place an extra egg or eggs in the nest, as a pair of pigeons can raise only two good squabs at a time. The period of incubation is about 17 days. Squabs are fed by their parents until they are from 314% to 44% weeks of age. QUESTIONS 1. What are the six varieties of domestic turkeys as recognized by the American Standard of Perfection? _2. Which is the most popular variety of turkeys? Describe this variety. 3. Under what conditions should turkeys be grown? 4. What are some of the important factors that should be con- sidered when breeding turkeys? es What is the main cause of mortality among young turkeys, or oults : 6. In what three classes are the breeds of ducks divided? 7. Describe the Pekin duck. What are ‘green’ ducks? 8. What are the two varieties of the Muscovy duck? 9. Name the three varieties of the Indian Runner duck. TURKEYS, DUCKS, GEESE, GUINEA FOWLS 257 10. What is the principal value of Indian Runner ducks? 11. Name the three varieties of ducks included in the orna- mental class. 12. What is the period of incubation for duck eggs? 13. Name the six standard breeds of geese. 14. Describe the Toulouse goose. How does this variety corre- spond in weight to the other five standard varieties? 15. Discuss the value of guineas as table fowls. 16. Discuss the management of guineas. 17. For what purpose are pigeons usually kept? 18. Describe the two more popular varieties of pigeons and their value as_producers of squabs. 19. Discuss the management of pigeons. SUGGESTIONS 1. In order to familiarize yourself with the extent to which the several kinds of poultry mentioned in this chapter are grown in your community, make a survey, listing the various flocks of turkeys, ducks, geese, etc., found in your nighborhood, together with the varie- ties grown. 2. Assuming that you were going to raise turkeys, what facts would you first consider as concerning the location, nearness to mar- kets, and variety selected? Compare your conclusions in this respect with the possibility of producing ducks, geese, guineas, and squabs. After considering each of these subjects thoroughly, which do you feel will be the most profitable? 3. Should you be interested particularly in any one of these sub- jects, that is, as pertaining to the production of turkeys, or ducks, or geese, etc., inquire of your state agricultural college or the U. S. De- partment of Agriculture for additional information on these phases of poultry keeping. REFERENCES Turkey Basing, U. 8. Department of Agriculture Farmers’ Bulletin 791, by A. S. Weiant. Duck e reee U.S. Fearne of Agriculture Farmers’ Bulletin 679, Ifre eee U.S. ae of Agriculture Farmers’ Bulletin 767, by Harry M. Lamon and Alfred R. Lee. The Guinea Fowl, U. S. Department of Agriculture Farmers’ Bulletin 828, by A. S. Weiant. Squab Raising, U. S. Department of Agriculture Farmers’ Bulletin 684, by Alfred R. Lee. CHAPTER XV PREPARING BIRDS FOR EXHIBITION OBJECT AND VALUE OF EXHIBITING POULTRY Since the first exclusive poultry exhibit ,was held in Boston in 1849 poultry shows as a class have played a most important part in the development of the industry. A poultry show properly conducted is the final court in deter- mining the merits of a fowl, and in determining the ability of a breeder to produce standard-bred stock. Then, too, “Poultry shows or exhibitions play a most important part in improving the various breeds and varieties. Not only do they serve to foster competition, and create rivalry, thereby increasing interest in breeding, but they also make it possible to compare results. In this way the individual breeders have an opportunity to see what other breeders have accomplished, and to observe where their birds are strong or weak in comparison. Thus they learn where they must seek to improve, if they expect to work their way to the top or if they expect to stay there, when once they have arrived.” * In addition to these advantages the exhibition of fowls provides additional features which should not be overlooked. The best individuals in each class or variety are awarded premiums and ribbons, designating their place as prize winners. While the money prizes in most instances are not of great amounts, at the same time the honor and distinc- tion of winning can not be measured in terms of dollars and cents. The advertising value of such winners is of great importance, and plays a significant part in the affairs of one who produces and has for sale breeding stock and eggs for hatching. *The Mating and Breeding of Poultry by Harry M. Lamon and Rob R. Slocum, published by Orange Judd & Company. 258 PREPARING BIRDS FOR EXHIBITION 259 KINDS OF POULTRY SHOWS Poultry shows may be classified according to their scope and importance, as follows: (1) Community exhibits which consist of school poultry shows and fowls from back- yard flocks. (2) County fair poultry exhibits. (3) State fair exhibits. (4) Poultry association shows usually held in towns and cities by the state and local poultry associa- Figure 256.—Poultry shows play a most important part in the development of the industry. tions. (5) Shows of the larger poultry associations which are usually of national or international importance. For the beginner just starting with standard-bred poul- try it is usually advisable to exhibit first at the local shows and, as his experience as a breeder develops, exhibits can be made at the county and state fairs, and finally at the larger shows. PREPARING BIRDS FOR THE SHOW Selecting the birds. The actual selection of the birds to be shown and the conditions that will determine selection 260 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION practically start soon after the chickens are hatched and continues up until the time the birds are sent to the show. In other words, unless chickens are properly managed and grown so that they will mature into typical representatives of their breed, they will not make a creditable showing. Most frequently chickens from special matings are hatched at such a time that they will be grown and in the pink of condition for a certain show. Again such stock is frequently grown in a separate place from the rest of the flock in order to insure the best of care and attention. Such practice is, Figure 257.—An egg exhibit is always an interesting attraction at a poultry show. of course, principally that of specialized poultry breeders, but these facts should be kept in mind by those who hope to attain the highest success in their efforts. Preliminary selection. The actual preliminary selection of the birds to be shown should take place by observing the fowls as they appear on the range or in the yard at least a month or two before sending them to the show. Atten- tion will then be directed to certain individuals that are out- standing in their appearance, fowls that possess good type and color, and other characteristics that go to make likely candidates. Such birds should be examined carefully in detail for under color and surface color, as well as for defects and desirable points, as called for in the American Standard of Perfection. PREPARING BIRDS FOR EXHIBITION 261 When making the preliminary selection each bird should be carefully examined for such defects as would disqualify it and, therefore, eliminate the possibility of winning a prize. When a defect of such a nature as would be considered a disqualification is discovered by the poultry judge, the fowl is no longer considered as eligible for a place among the winners. Figure 258.—Examining the head, face, and wattles of the fow] for defects and disqualifications. General disqualifications. Some of the general disqual- ifications as given in the American Standard of Perfection that should be carefully guarded against and which are found in some of the more common breeds are as follows: Comb. A lopped comb in all males or females excepting the females of the egg, or Mediterranean and Continental, classes and Dorkings, (See Figure 61, No. 2.) is a disqualifi- cation. The same is true with split combs, side sprigs. (See Figure 61, No. 4.) Rose combs that are abnormal in 262 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION size or lopsided (See Figure 61, No. 3.), and the absence of the spike in rose-comb breeds excepting some of the Ban- tams. A comb foreign to the breed, as, for instance, a rose comb on a Plymouth Rock is also a disqualification. Face. White on the face of cockerels and pullets of the Mediterranean class, excepting White Faced Black Spanish, is a disqualification. Figure 259.—Examining the under color of « fowl to detect defects. Back. A deformed or crooked back commonly known as roach back disqualifies. Wings. Clipped flight feathers or secondary feathers of the wing are a disqualification. Tail. A decided squirrel tail or wry tail (Figure 62) is a disqualification as is also the absence of the main tail feathers. Shanks and feet. Disqualifications that should be looked for here are the absence of feathers on the outer sides of the shanks of the Brahmas, Cochins and Langshans; the PREPARING BIRDS FOR EXHIBITION 263 presence of feathers or down on the shanks, feet and toes of all breeds that should have unfeathered shanks and toes. Shanks and feet of a color that is foreign to the breed con- cerned disqualifies; likewise, the presence of more or fewer than four toes on breeds having four toes and more or fewer than five toes on breeds so characterized. Figure 260.—Examining the wings. Weight. A fowl that weighs less than two pounds below the standard weight for the breed, excepting turkeys and bantams, is a disqualification. Any attempt to deceive the judge by faking, that is, to remove or change a disqualifying feature in any manner will disqualify the fowl. For additional information on the disqualifications of turkeys, ducks, geese and bantams and disqualifications peculiar to the individual breeds refer to the American Stan- dard of Perfection. 264 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION The fact should be realized that no fowl is perfect, no matter how well bred, and that in selecting birds for the show it is a matter of picking those with the fewest defects and the most desirable points, the latter of course being in the majority. The standard requirements as given in the American Standard of Perfection for the breed and Figure 261.—Examining the feet and shanks for stubs and down. variety concerned as well as the disqualifications should be kept constantly in mind. These points, together with health, vigor, general appearance, and bearing of the bird should be the deciding factors in selecting the birds that are to be conditioned for the show. Conditioning birds. Conditioning and training as de- scribed herein do not in any sense infer misrepresentation nor should such practices usually known as faking be tol- PREPARING BIRDS FOR EXHIBITION 265 erated. There is no question, however, that a bird should be clean when shown and that a clean fowl with proper train- ing will make a better appearance and impression than one equally as good otherwise but having soiled plumage or one that is easily frightened. Some fowls do not respond to training or conditioning as readily as others. It is well, therefore, to have an extra fowl or two in training before the final selection is made. If possible, the birds selected should be removed from the rest of the flock and the males and females separated. Homemade or purchased exhibition coops should be provided and each fowl kept in the coop for [fj cary Elotaceiomne a portion of each day. Exhibition coops such as shown in Figure 263 can be ||, purchased from most poultry supply houses. Fowls so con- fined will become accustomed Se, to the coop and the handling =“ of them daily will have the effect of making them tame. "81gp suitable for tramine and son, In removing and returning ditioning exhibition fowls. the fowls to and from the coops, move quietly and handle the birds gently so as not to frighten them unnecessarily. When handling the birds, hold them as shown in Figures 258, 259, 260, 261, and examine the plumage so that they will become accustomed to such movements when being handled by the judge. Fowls intended for exhibition should not be closely con- fined to the coop for too great a period, as long continuous cooping may cause the bird to lose its appetite and result in a subsequent loss in weight. An effective plan is to allow the birds range every other day and confine them to the coop every other day alternately. This plan should be ry Tees fo + 4 8 — 2 <2 2 o, ros peetetete. TRS 525 2° 90° ¢\~J x zoo" 266 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION continued up to within a few days before sending them to the show. They should then be confined to their coops for the final training and conditioning. But little difficulty will be experienced in posing birds after they have become accustomed to being handled by smoothing their wattles as previously described. The ability of a fowl to pose well is of great value and helps to make a favorable impression when being judged. Figure 263.—It is advisable to frequently stroke or gently rub the wattles of the bird with the fingers, as they seem to be very fond of this attention, which, when they are properly handled otherwise, will accomplish much in making them tame. Washing birds. White varieties and those having con- siderable white plumage such as the Columbian Plymouth Rocks, Light Brahmas, etc., and occasionally the Buff varie- ties should be washed, in order to show to a good advantage when exhibiting. Such fowls as Rhode Island Reds, the Partridge varieties, and those having dark-colored plumage need not be washed unless their feathers are considerably PREPARING BIRDS FOR EXHIBITION 267 soiled. The head parts, however, and the shanks of all varieties should be properly cleaned, as described herein. The process of washing fowls is not a difficult one, and fowls that have been properly trained do not seem to object. It is suggested that those not experienced in washing fowls should first practice on a few before washing those that are to be shown. The most desirable place to wash the fowls is in a room where the temperature is about 70 or 80 degrees Figure 264.—In addition to handling the birds frequently an attempt should be made to get them to pose. and one that is free from draft. When possible, the wash- ing should be done in the morning, so that the birds will have sufficient time to dry off completely before evening. Be- fore beginning the operation, place the exhibition coops a short distance from the stove or radiator, so the fowls will dry readily after being washed. Place clean shavings in the coop and cover the top, back, and sides of the coop with cloth or paper to prevent a draft, leaving the front of 268 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION the coop open. Provide three, or better still, four tubs arranged on a bench or platform of convenient height. The water in the first tub is used for the actual washing. The second and third tubs of water are used to remove all the soap, while the water in the fourth tub may have added a slight amount of blueing, such as is used in washing clothes. The practice of adding blueing is not as widespread as it used to be on account of the danger of coloring the plumage. Each tub should contain sufficient water to cover the body Figure 265.—Washing the fowl. and neck feathers of the bird when immersed. Clean rain water should be used, if it is possible to obtain it, as hard water or water that contains mineral deposits such as iron will not produce satisfactory results. Pure white soap, such as Ivory or Castile soap, should be used. The water in the first two tubs should be heated to a temperature that will be comfortable to the hand, while the water in the third tub should be slightly cooler and in the fourth tub cooler still. Prior to washing the birds, soap the water well in the first tub, so as to have plenty of suds. PREPARING BIRDS FOR EXHIBITION 269 Before washing the plumage, clean the face, comb, wat- tles, legs, and feet by scrubbing these parts with a small nail brush and plenty of lather. With the left hand grasp the fowl by the legs, holding the right hand over the back to prevent the wings from flapping, and immerse the bird in the first tub. In doing so be sure to see that the water has penetrated all sections of the plumage until thoroughly soaked to the skin. This is most important. Apply the soap by work- Figure 266.—Rinsing the soap from the feathers. ing a good lather through all portions of the feathers with the fingers, rubbing the lather with the feathers instead of against them until the bird is clean. A small sponge will help consid- erably in applying the lather and in cleaning the main tail and wing feathers. If these feathers are very dirty, a small nail brush may be used for this purpose. Remove as much of the soap as possible from the bird in the first tub and the rest in the second and third tubs. It is very important that all the soap be removed completely, as any trace of it will cause the feathers to appear streaked and matted to- gether when dry. When rinsing the feathers in the second 270 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION and third tubs, raise and lower the fowl slowly several times in the water so that all portions of the plumage may be reached. The use of a sponge will likewise assist in removing the soap. After four or five fowls have been washed, change the water in all the tubs before washing additional birds. When blueing is used in the last tub, immerse the fowl com- pletely with the exception of the head and repeat the opera- tion of allowing the water to come in contact with all sections of the plumage. Drying the birds. On removing the fowl from the tub, and before placing it in the clean coop before the stove or radiator to dry, remove the surplus water from the feathers by blotting the surface feathers with a Turkish towel. Should the fowl seem cold and shiver when placed in the coop, move it closer to the source of heat for a short period. Do not place the coop too close to the stove, however, for, if the feathers dry too quickly they are apt to curl. If, on the other hand, the bird seems too warm, remove the coop a little from the stove. After the feathers are dry, increase the space between the coop and the stove until the tem- perature around the coop is about 70°. Keep the birds in the room at this temperature for at least 12 hours before shipping them. Cleaning the head, feet, and shanks. After the fowl is thoroughly dry, examine the shanks and feet to see that no dirt remains under or around the scales. Such particles of dirt can be easily removed with a tooth pick. At this time it is also well to moisten a small cloth with a very little sweet or olive oil or vaseline and rub it on the shanks, wat- tles, ear lobes, face, and comb. It will tend to bring out the true color of these parts considerably. It is advisable to repeat this operation after the birds reach the show, as a final dressing up. Be careful not to apply too much oil or vaseline, as it may later soil the plumage. PREPARING BIRDS FOR EXHIBITION 271 PREPARING GEESE, DUCKS, TURKEYS AND PIGEONS FOR EXHIBITION Geese and ducks. The preparation of geese and ducks for exhibition does not involve as much detail work as in the case of fowls (referring to chickens). The preliminary preparation of geese and ducks for exhibition should be followed along the same lines as previously described for poultry, that is individuals should be selected that conform as closely as possible to the standard requirements for the breed, care being taken not to select those which possess any serious defects or any disqualifications. As to the actual preparation for exhibition, ducks and geese are practically self-prepared. For a period of at least a week or ten days before shipping the birds to the show those intended for exhibition should have access to a grass range and also, if possible, running water. The grass range will keep them in good condition and by having access to a stream of run- ning water they will keep clean themselves. All breeds of geese with the exception of the Chinese should be fed a grain mixture twice daily, consisting of 1 part corn and 2 parts oats for a period of at least 10 days before exhibiting, to bring them up to standard weight. Oats alone should be fed to Chinese geese, as they are apt to put on too much weight when fed corn. This method of feeding corn and oats likewise applies to all the breeds of ducks, the exception as to the feeding of oats alone apply- ing to the smaller breeds of ducks, as for instance the Indian Runner. When catching geese and ducks that are to be crated for shipment, care should be taken in handling them, as the method employed in this case differs from that used in catching chickens.’ Grasp the goose firmly with the hand around the neck so as to control its head and prevent its biting. Grasp the body of the goose under the other arm, 272 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION holding the bird securely. In this position the goose can be easily carried. Do not let go of the neck of the goose until the bird is in the shipping coop or otherwise released. The same method is used in catching and carrying ducks, although one does not have to be cautious as in the case of geese to prevent biting. Both ducks and geese can be carried short distances by the neck alone without injury. Under no circumstances should either ducks or geese be caught or carried by the legs as they are apt to break very easily. Turkeys. As in the case of ducks and geese no great, amount of preparation for exhibition is required for turkeys other than keeping them up to standard weight by feeding as described under ‘Marketing of Turkeys” on page 294. In addition to this the head, feet, and shanks of exhibition turkeys should be washed in the same manner as described for chickens on page 266. When washing these parts it is well for one person to hold the bird while another does the washing. This prevents the possibility of the bird’s flutter- ing or struggling and thus injuring the feathers. To catch a turkey grasp it firmly over the shoulders, being careful not to injure the feathers. Next, encircle the body of the turkey with one arm, holding it securely under the arm and with the other hand hold the legs. As turkeys are easily excited, they should be handled carefully. Pigeons. To prepare pigeons for exhibition it is neces- sary to provide a pan containing about four inches of water. This will enable the birds to bathe and thus keep themselves clean. The American Poultry Association does not provide a standard for pigeons. Such standards can be secured from the different pigeon associations. In every case pig- eons should be selected that conform to the standard for the breed and variety concerned. Pigeons are usually caught with a catching net or bag fastened by means of a PREPARING BIRDS FOR EXHIBITION 273 metal ring about 18 inches in diameter at the end of a pole, the length of which is governed by the size of the loft. SHIPPING THE BIRDS Under no conditions should a makeshift coop or poorly constructed one be used for shipping the fowls. A desirable fowl may be rendered unfit for show, if shipped in a coop that is too small. Coops for this purpose may be purchased for a reasonable amount. A homemade shipping coop can easily be con- structed by following the plans given in Figure 268. The following dimen- sions should be used in constructing this coop: For 1 bird, 12 inches wide, 18 inches long, 25 inches high. For 2 birds, 12 inches wide, 24 inches long, 25 inches high. For Figure, 207; Repdy:mede shipping, gon 3 birds, 18 inches wide, seh. Laseer seed coops may be purchased 24 inches long, 25 inches high. For exhibition pen of 4 females and a male, 24 inches wide, 24 inches long, and 25 inches high. In order to keep the fowl from becoming soiled during the trip, a piece of muslin should be tacked on the inside of the top under the slats, care being taken not to use cloth that is too heavy or thick, so as to cut off ventilation. A small amount of clean hay or straw that is free from dust, or dry shavings should be placed in the bottom of the coop. A cup or can may be provided for feed. Cans for this pur- pose should be nailed securely about half way between the top and bottom in a corner of the coop. Feed is not nec- 274 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION essary in the coop when fowls are shipped only short dis- tances or when they will not be confined to the coop over 24 hours. When feed is provided, whole grain, such as corn and wheat, are most satisfactory. Water when placed in the shipping coop is liable to spill out and soil the plumage. A mangel tied in the coop which the fowl can pick at will supply sufficient moisture. A tag or card plainly marked showing the destination of the shipment as well as the return address can be tacked or pasted on the outside where 2 it can be plainly seen. In fastening a coop it should be made secure, so that it will not come open in transit. Some provision should be made so that the coop can be readily opened on arrival at the show room. Frequently it is found necessary to dam- age the coop considerably be- fore it can be opened, often rendering it practically unfit Figure 268—A homemade coop for i ‘ ee eee for use in returning the fowls. SHOW RULES AND REGULATIONS In order to acquaint those who have never exhibited poultry with the more important rules governing poultry shows and exhibits the following are cited: 1. In judging poultry only fowls of the same breed and variety compete. That is, for instance, White Plymouth Rocks do not compete against Barred Plymouth Rocks. This holds true in every other breed and variety, except where prizes are offered for the best bird or birds, all varities competing. 2. The units of classification in judging are as follows: PREPARING BIRDS FOR EXHIBITION 275 cocks, cockerels, hens, pullets, young pens, and old pens. By this is meant that cockerels do not usually compete against cocks, hens against pullets, or young pens against old pens. a a Ss fy = & 2 |e Doz. Val |Set’g Val.|Lbs. Val. |No. Val. Total | In the second column under ‘‘Item” place the kind and amount of the article purchased. For example, should beef scrap be purchased on the first day of January, indicate the amount and nature of the item as, for instance, 100 lbs. of beef scrap. Then, on the same line, under the heading of “Feed,” place the cost of this beef scrap. The same principle holds true 324 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION with all items purchased. The last column on the debit side should contain the total amount expended on each day for all items, which, when added together at the end of the month, should give the total amount expended during that period. The total line at the bottom of this form will indi- cate the amount spent during the month for feed, for equip- YEARLY FEED RECORD , Z Oyster shell ee Whole grain |Ground grain} Meat food ei tales chs Pp a P aE Gal ia esr green stuff. ase 2 ; a ; Cost S ‘os S os Lbs. Cost Total ment, etc., which, when added together, should agree with the total amount spent. On the credit side of this sheet indicate, as will be noted, the various receipts for each day, totaling the daily receipts at the extreme right-hand side of this form. Likewise at the bottom of the form total the amount of money received BUSINESS MANAGEMENT 325 for market eggs, eggs for hatching, etc., as well as the quan- tity sold during that period. The totals as obtained at the bottom of the debit and credit side of this monthly state- ment should be carried over to the yearly record which is shown on page 324, The yearly feed record is not regarded as absolutely necessary, for the information may be secured from each of the monthly statement sheets. If a feed record is desired separate from the information given in the monthly state- _ment, however, this form may be used, enabling one to tell at a glance the time, quantity, and cost of feeds purchased and used. Such information may be of considerable value when laying in a supply of feed for the year. In the event that feed is not purchased and in its stead home-grown feed is used, measure out a quantity at a time and place it where it will not be used for any purpose other than for the fowls, charging this feed to yourself at current prices. When this amount of feed is used, repeat the operation. In this way a more accurate record of feed costs can be kept. The yearly egg record provides a space for each day in the month wherein the number of eggs produced may be recorded. At the end of the month the monthly column should be totaled to determine the number of eggs produced during that time. At the end of the year the number of eggs produced during each of the 12 months may be added to secure the yearly egg record. The average num- ber of eggs per hen each month may be obtained by adding the number of hens in the flock at the beginning of the month to the number of hens in the flock at the end of the month and dividing this total by 2, which will give approximately the average number of hens during the month. The average production per hen is the total number of eggs divided by the average number of hens. 326 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION YEARLY EGG RECORD Day of |Jan. |[Feb.|Mar |Apr.|May|June|July|Aug.|Sept/Oct. |Nov|Dec. Av. No. of hens Av. No. of eggs BUSINESS MANAGEMENT 327 YEARLY SUMMARY Dr. (Money spent Cr. (Money received) ~_ £3) Year 19— Month Cost of equipmen Cost of hatching eg; or breeding stock Breeding poultry Labor Market poultry Miscellaneous Hatching eggs Total Cost of feed Miscellaneous Total < | Market eggs v | = Set. Val|Lb. Val.|No.Val. Jan. Feb. March April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total Explanation. This record should be filled in at the end of each month so that at the end of the year or at the end of any given number of months the total receipts and ex- penditures can be determined by adding the total amounts spent and received. This record is practically self-explan- atory and is quite similar to the monthly statement. 328 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION YEARLY INVENTORY INVENTORY JANUARY I. Value, $........ ; No. of pullets........ , Value, $........ ; No. of Cockerels........ » Valley Siccsaeacs ; Total value of stock, $........ Equipment: Value of poultry houses, $......... ; Value of Feed hoppers; $......... Value of drinking vessels, $.......... ; Value of brood coops, $........ ; Value of poultry fences, $........ ; No. of incubators........ § MEK Gaiam ica ced kod baa eA malad : Value, $2025.55 ; No. of brooders........ © Mak@ ss. cceniccncae abe ; Value, $........ ; Value of grain on hand, $................ : Total value of equipment, $............... Explanation. The inventory should be taken in order to determine the value of stock and equipment on hand and to assist in making up a yearly balance sheet, which follows. It should contain a summary and total both of the number and value of all fowls and such equipment as one may pos- sess. Ordinarily, unless improvements are made on equip- ment such as poultry houses, hoppers, etc., 10% of the value of the equipment should be deducted from the total value for depreciation. Judgment should be used in each case when buildings are repaired or when new equipment has been purchased. In some cases repaired buildings or build- ings that have been painted are of greater value than they were formerly, so that this fact should be taken into con- sideration when making an inventory. The time to take the inventory need not necessarily be January 1. Some other time may be chosen, if found more desirable, to meet individual needs and conditions. Many poultrymen regard October 1 or November 1 more suitable as representing the beginning of the poultry year, and consequently take their inventory at that time. \\ not later than BUSINESS MANAGEMENT 329 YEARLY BALANCE SHEET Dr, Cr. | Bal. Value of inventory Jan. 1, 1920........} $500.00 ]...........,....... Interest at 6 per cent on capital in- vested, as represented by value of inventory ADOVE seis gaa Khon geen s 30:00 |ieaace aes aes alle voune se Expenditures during 1920.. gaeeee| 250,00 leweitvswa sy alleaueds Value of inventory Jan. 1, 1921....... 000000... $600.00. .}....... Receipts during 1920................)...00.--. $500.00..}....... DOtalerwsnncecwy cee eauec ic $780.00 | $1,100.00. .]....... Balanee sii a csainee Wes oa alee saa he oe tee ae $320.00 Explanation. As will be seen, this form is used to deter- mine the total profit or loss, as the case may be, for the year. The years 1920 and 1921, together with the amounts as shown on this form have been used by way of illustration to indicate the proper column wherein such amounts should be placed, in order to secure the yearly balance. It will be readily seen that by keeping an account by the use of the preceding forms that this yearly balance sheet can be summarized and totaled with but little effort and will enable one to obtain a true statement as to the financial standing of the business. January 1 has been indicated as the date of the inven- tory. Should any other date, such as October 1 or November 1, be used as the beginning of the poultry year, the yearly balance and the inventory should be made at that time. When the returns from the flock are included in the income tax statement, such returns must be made o and a half months after the close of the year. Ifa period of 12 months, ending October 31, for instance, is regarded as the end of the poultry year, the ‘income tax statement must be filed not later than the - following January 15. 330 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION POULTRY CLUB RECORD Names comsiese ane yeta denies tees Ager us) de sana ed ces eet ae tana Name of clbisss ecsucseees nak ess AMMreSS ties sc23 5 Sees ess noes Breed and variety of fowls......... 0... c cence eee eee ne ee eees No. of eggs set.......... 000 eee No. of chicks hatched......... No. of chicks raised....No. of males.... No. of females........... No. fowls sold for market................... Va liieige: ocis sic ye rears'y No. fowls used at home.................... Walle ims2yaeeeesaes Breedeérss0ld..icccccaseers eae se eas ose we oe 4S Wallis vase So 2a Doz. of eggs used at home.................. Value.............. Doz. f €g98: S0ld..252 protease eetacsenaecaes Valu@s. cc5ou ges aan’: Settings sold) vest ngagieemn ncaa ces aay Vali@cy ena ree dan euie's Nalue ‘of fowls: on handweuscer ees exe v en BRoG 4 SE bee HR See RES canes Value of prizes: WONiascase sae sce ner eee dioes ced een ven awelee ae we Total amount of money received............... Cost: of eggs for hatching s2cccc.0 4 and Sagacca ana aGlasaiweags Ges Cost of breeding stock bought.............00.. 0... c cece cence ees Cost: of equipmenty:.icsse1or soot ed seyae caw see oie kick ada nee aone's SOS GOL ER Geeu ane Baie Bite ts: Face SAAS enn Seda Os lees bAsnaaiePs Sonics Valué-of labor at 15ecan hOUn. 24 ones ae nae gee cad Ge eee edwin’ Total amount of money spent.................0. ROU aati ec cash wines BU ys ntnt cate te Explanation. This form has been designed for boys and girls who are members of poultry clubs. As will be noted, this blank is quite simple and, when properly filled out, will present a brief and complete record of the year’s work. When desired, this form can be supplemented with some of the forms given previously in this chapter. BUSINESS MANAGEMENT 331 ADVERTISING Many of the most successful poultrymen have built up their business as the result of consistent advertising in some form or another. There is no question that advertising, when properly planned and carried on, is of considerable value and a good investment. When planning to adver- tise such products as are for sale, these facts should be con- sidered. The advertisement should be attractive, so as to catch the eye, should be brief and to the point, stating facts in simple language, and should in no way misrepresent the products offered for sale. The fact should also be kept in mind that the advertisement should be so placed as to be seen by persons that are interested or desirous of purchas- ing that which is for sale. What and when to advertise. Ordinarily the only prod- ucts offered for sale by those keeping poultry are breeding stock, eggs for hatching, and day-old chicks. It is advis- able to advertise such stock just preceding and during the period of greatest demand, which is usually during the late fall, winter, and early spring. In the fall some poultrymen endeavor to dispose of surplus cockerels that are suitable for breeding purposes. A special advertisement stating this fact might prove profitable and enable one to secure better prices for desirable cockerels as breeders than when sold as broilers earlier in the season. It is not usual to advertise table fowls or eggs for consumption, as such products can ordinarily be disposed of through the regular commercial channels at satisfactory prices, and, therefore, nothing is gained by advertising, unless it is desired to build up a special retail trade. Again, many poultrymen and farmers make a practice of advertising table fowls and eggs as well as breeding stock and eggs for hatching on a neat attractive bulletin board so placed that it can be seen by those passing on the public road in front of their farms. 832 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Methods of advertising. Persistent or continuous adver- tising even in a small way is usually a better investment and will bring greater results than advertising at stated periods. This practice, however, would depend upon the quantity of stock for sale, as it would not be advisable to advertise a product and then be compelled to tell those in- quiring that such product was not available. A well man- aged poultry plant of sufficient size will usually have breed- ing stock for sale at practically any time throughout the year. Many poultrymen and farmers fail to realize the advantages of advertising in their local papers. Such a medium offers satisfactory results at rates that are usually most reasonable. Larger poultry plants and those making a specialty of high grade standard-bred poultry and exhibi- tion stock will usually find it to their advantage to advertise in farm papers and poultry magazines. In these instances also it will usually be found that the rates asked for adver- tising space are quite reasonable. Whenever possible, adver- tisements should be illustrated with a neat cut or photo- graph of one or two fowls preferably those from your own flock. A well designed trade-mark or trade name will also add to the attractiveness of the advertisement. Many such periodicals have classified columns where small adver- tisements may be placed by those not desiring to invest in a larger display advertisement. Advertisements should be placed in papers of good circulation, so as to reach a large number of people. Answering inquiries. On receiving inquiries as the result of your advertisement, make every effort to answer them all as promptly as may be possible. Make the replies brief and to the point, but at the same time courteous, stating the quality and kind of stock you have for sale and the price asked. It is needless to say that printed stationery is more business-like and creates a better impression than BUSINESS MANAGEMENT 333 plain stationery. Likewise typewritten letters make a bet- ter impression than those written in longhand. A: record should be kept of all inquiries and a second and third fol- low-up letter written within a reasonable length of time, if you do not hear again from the party making the inquiry. In your reply do not appear unduly persistent, but state such facts as will stimulate confidence on the part of the purchaser. In such letters inquire if the party received your first letter and if there is any additional information that you can furnish him. Likewise inquiry might be made as to the reason, if any, why the order was not placed with you, as it is your desire to please prospective purchasers. When advertising in two or more papers, a record should be kept, if possible, as to the number of inquiries received from the advertisement in each paper. This will assist you in determining which paper is the best advertising medi- um for your purposes. Key each advertisement. Making shipments. As soon as an order is received, acknowledge it and thank the purchaser for it, notifying the party as to the date that the shipment will be made, so that some idea may be obtained as to the time of arrival. When shipping live birds, make every effort to so plan the shipment that it will not be held in the express office over Sunday. For instance, shipment should not be made on Saturday, if there is any possibility of its arriving at its destination on Sunday, and consequently being held in the express office until Mon- day morning. QUESTIONS 1. Of what importance and value is the keeping of accounts and records? 2 What is the value of keeping a monthly statement sheet for each month in the year, showing the amount of money spent and the amount received. 3. For what purpose primarily should the feed record form as given herein be used? 4. How can one determine the average egg production per hen during the month? 334 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Of what value is the yearly inventory record? What are the essentials of good advertising? ‘How and when should poultry products be advertised? Discuss the methods of advertising. How can advertisements be made attractive? What facts should be kept in mind when answering inquiries? SUGGESTIONS. 1. It is a recognized fact that practically every successful busi- ness endeavors to keep a record of all of its transactions. This same principle as brought out in this chapter should apply to the poultry business. With this idea in mind, resolve to keep such records of your flock as will enable you to determine whether or not it is paying. 2. Keeping records and accounts is largely a matter of habit, and when once cultivated and the true value realized, it is a hard one to break. Usually the most successful poultrymen are the ones that keep definite information and records as to their receipts and expendi- tures. 3. Members of boys’ and girls’ poultry clubs are particularly urged to keep records and accounts of their poultry work. Besides the advantages mentioned herein, the keeping of such records will enable them to put into practice many of the principles and facts learned in mathematics. 4. Assuming that you had some breeding stock and eggs for hatching for sale, prepare an attractive advertisement stating these facts and such additional information as you believe will assist in sell- ing your products. 5. Try advertising in your local papers, should you have any sur- plus stock for sale. The advertising manager of such papers will be only too glad to assist you in preparing advertisements. Vary some part of your name or address, so as to furnish a key to the advertise- ments that brought inquiries. REFERENCES A Simple System of Poultry Accounting, by Rob R. Slocum, Bureau of Animal Industry Circular No. 176, U. 8. Department of Agri- culture. Farm Management, Andrew Boss. Farm Management, George E, Warren. SOONG HN APPENDIX APPENDIX 357 LIST OF STATE AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTIONS Alabama Polytechnic Institute and the Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, Ala. Arizona State College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment, Station, Tuscon, Arizona. Arkansas State College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station, Fayetteville, Ark. California State College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station, of the University of California, Berkeley, California. Poultry Experiment Plant, Davis, Cal. Colorado State College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station, Fort Collins, Colo. Connecticut Agricultural College and the Storrs Agricultural Exper- iment Station, Storrs, Conn. Delaware College and Agricultural Experiment Station, Newark, Del. Florida State College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Florida, Gainesville, Fla. Georgia State College of Agriculture, Athens, Ga. Georgia Experi- ment Station, Experiment, Ga. Idaho College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho. Illinois College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion of the University of Illinois, Urbana, II. Indiana-Purdue University (School of Agriculture, the Agricultural Experiment Station), La Fayette, Ind. Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts and the Agri- cultural Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa. Kansas State Agricultural College and the Agricultural Experiment Station, Manhattan, Kansas. Kentucky College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky. Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College and the State Experiment Station, Baton Rouge, La. Maine College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Maine, Orono, Maine. Maryland State College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station, College Park, Md. Massachusetts Agricultural College and the Agricultural Experi- ment Station, Amherst, Mass. Michigan Agricultural College and the Agricultural Experiment Station, East Lansing, Mich. Minnesota State School of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experi- ment Station, University Farm, St. Paul, Minn. Mississippi Agricultural and Mechanical College and Agricultural Experiment Station, Agricultural College, Miss. Missouri College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. State Poultry Experiment Station, Mountain Grove, Mo. Montana State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts and the Agricultural Experiment Station, Bozeman, Montana. 338 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Nebraska College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr. | Nevada College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Ixperiment Station of the University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada. New Hampshire College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts and the Agricultural Experiment Station, Durham, N. H. New Jersey State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts and the Agricultural Experiment Station of Rutgers College, New Bruns- wick, N. J. New Mexico College of Agriculture and Mechanics Arts and the Agricultural Experiment Station, State College, N. M. New York State College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Exper- iment Station of Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. North Carolina State College of Agriculture and Engineering and the Agricultural Experiment Station, West Raleigh, N. C. : North Dakota Agricultural College and the Agricultural Experiment Station, Agricultural College, N. D. . Ohio College of Agriculture, Columbus, Ohio. Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Wooster, Ohio. Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College and the Agricultural Experiment Station, Stillwater, Okla. Oregon Agricultural College: and the Agricultural Experiment Station, Corvallis, Ore. Pennsylvania School of Agriculture and Agricultural Experiment Station of the Pennsylvania State College, State College, Pa. Rhode Island State College and the Agricultural Experiment Station, Kingston, R. I. South Carolina-Clemson Agricultural College, and the Agricultural Experiment Station, Clemson College, 8. C South Dakota State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts and the Agricultural Experiment Station, Brookings, 8. D. Teanessee College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn. Texas Agricultural and Mechanical College and the Agricultural Experiment Station, College Station, Texas. Utah College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station, Logan, Utah. Vermont College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment _ Station of the University of Vermont, Burlington, Vt. Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College and Polytechnic Insti- tute! and the Agricultural Experiment Station, Blacksburg, Va. Washington State College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experi- ment Station, Pullman, Washington. West Virginia College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment _ Station _of West Virginia University, Morgantown, W. Va. Wisconsin College of Agricultrue and the Agricultural Experiment Station_of the University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Wyoming College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment _ Station of the University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyo. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Indus- try, Washington, D. C., Experimental Station, Beltsville, Md. APPENDIX 339 OUTLINE FOR A COMPOSITION ON “POULTRY MAN- AGEMENT” To Be Written by First-Year Poultry Club Members. Introduction: What is the best way to start in the poultry business? Discussion: (a) Name the three leading classes of poultry: (b) Name three breeds of each of the three classes. (c) Which in your opinion is the best breed for the farm? Why? Housing: (a) What are the two systems used? (b) Which is the best system for the farm? Why? (c) Where and how should the house be located? (d) When should yards be used? Feeding: ‘ (a) How soon would you feed little chicks after they are hatched? Why? What should you feed them? (b) What would you feed them after they are weaned? (ec) What would you feed the laying hens? Management: (a) Explain why the mother hen should be kept up in a coop while the chicks are small. : (b) Tell how and why the brood coops and houses should be cleaned often. Marketing: ; (a) Tell how eggs should be marketed, so as to get the highest prices. (b) What is an infertile egg? Tell how it is produced. (c) Does the infertile egg keep longer than the fertile egg? Conclusion: Why should girls and boys be active members of Poultry Clubs? OUTLINE FOR A COMPOSITION ON ‘“‘MY EXPERIENCES WITH POULTRY” To Be Written by Second-Year Poultry Club Members Introduction: ; How I started in the poultry business. Discussion: ; (a) “The breed which I selected and why I selected it.” (b) Tell how the eggs were set, and how you managed and fed the sitting hen during the period of incubation. (c) Tell how the chicks were managed and fed during the brood- ing period. Housing: 3 a (a) If you have built a house, tell about the kind, where it is located, with reference to the direction which it faces, and the cost and time required to build it, if possible. 340 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION (b) In case an old poultry house was remodeled for your chickens, describe the alterations you have made. (c) In either instance, give a little drawing of the house, show- ing the floor plan and front view. Feeding: (a) Give a general discussion of the way you feed and the grains the chickens have been fed since they were weaned. (b) Tell how often you give the chickens water. General management: (a) Tell how often you clean the house, and any other thing which may be of interest concerning the methods which you use. Conclusion: (a) Give an account of how the poultry-club work has benefited you. (b) State what benefit, if any, you have received from the poultry- club work, and tell why the boys and girls of your state should join the poultry clubs. OUTLINE FOR A COMPOSITION ON ‘“‘MARKETING AND EX- HIBITING POULTRY AND EGGS” To Be Written by Third-Year Poultry Club Members Subject ‘‘A’’: “How I marketed my poultry products.” Discussion: What the markets require in order to grade an egg as a first. Infertile eggs for market: (a) Give a general discussion of infertile eggs. Gathering eggs: (a) Tell about the attention you give to the hens’ nests. | (b) How often you gather your eggs in summer and in winter. (c) How and where you store your eggs. Grading and packing eggs: (a) Tell how many grades of eggs you get from your flock and how you grade them. (b) Tell how you pack them for shipment. (c) Why should eggs for market not be washed? Marketing eggs: (a) Tell how and where you sold your eggs, how you found a cus- tomer, and how often you market them. (b) Give the largest and the smallest price per dozen that you received for eggs for table use. Marketing live and dressed poultry: (a) Give a general discussion of the manner in which you marketed your surplus cockerels and old hens, and tell the results obtained. Subject ‘‘B”’: “Exhibiting poultry.” (a) Tell what you think of the advantages of exhibiting poultry APPENDIX 341 and eggs, and give a history of your experience as an ex- hibitor at the poultry shows. (b) Tell what the poultry shows taught you. OUTLINE FOR A COMPOSITION ON “HISTORY OF MY POUL- TRY CLUB WORK” To Be Written by Fourth-Year Poultry Club Members Discussion: (a) Tell how you joined the Poultry Club and the object of the Poultry-Club Work. History: (a) Tell what breed you selected and why you selected this breed. Tell how many eggs you set and give an outline of your first year’s work. (b) Tell what improvements you made in the handling of the poultry at home after you joined the Poultry Club, and what results you obtained (housing, feeding, etc.) and how the home poultry flock has been improved. (c) Tell what problems you came in contact with and how you met them. (d) Tell what the Poultry Club has done for you in interest, in- struction, and money value. (e) Give an account of any interesting experiences you may have had in your Poultry Club work, such as trips, fairs, etc. Note: Use drawings and photographs, if possible, to illustrate this composition. SCORE CARD FOR BREEDING STOCK SUITABLE FOR THE PRODUCTION OF TABLE FOWLS This card is designed as a guide in selecting breeding stock of a type especially suited for producing desirable table fowls. It is ar- ranged in the form of a score card so that it can be used, if desired, for the scoring of such fowls when exhibited in competition. In applying this scale of points, due consideration must be given to breed char- acteristics. Other points being equal, preference must be given to those birds most nearly approaching the standard weights for each breed, as given in the American Standard of Perfection. Other points being equal, preference should be given to those birds showing greatest indication of standard breeding. In judging the excellence of the fowls, it will be found helpful, if not actually necessary, to handle them and not depend upon observation alone. Weights. niu aiid dod aa Aen aes SO xictiiannons ceed Saige ae Rishi DilOR sia ga'secinicn’ ha Sans Ge ay gg Entry No.............+- Band No..... Class........ Breed ............. Variety.......... (Continued on next page) 342 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION c Perfect | Score SCALE OF POINTS Grave. lowed Disqualifications.— Decidedly crooked breasts, crook- ed backs, or wry tails. Health and Vigor...........--.0 0s eee ee eee eee 15‘ cae ass The bird must be free from disease or from any indication of having been affected with dis- ease. It must also show strong constitution and great, vigor as indicated by bright red comb and wattles, and by full, prominent bright eyes, by general alertness, and by bright, lustrous plum- age.* Males should be decidedly masculine. Avoid females showing masculine appearance. Head, 5. Shape of Head. vise sacieon seed gncsay ed sas Should be short, deep, and broad. Face, comb, and wattles..................2.. Should be bright red.* (Dark red approach- ing black indicates poor condition.) Wattles medium size. Comb small to medium, firmly set on head. Avoid lopped combs in those breeds where they are supposed to be upright. Large, full, bright. (Sunken or dull eye denotes lack of vigor and poor vitality.) Beale: sss sank puck aoe cod saevs caves ae haere ices Medium short and stout in proportion to the body. Strong, medium size, neatly folded, and held firmly in place. (Avoid breeding from slipped or twisted winged birds.) Body, 60. GmneraL SHape.—Body should show good length, breadth, and depth, and be well fleshed throughout. Breadth of Body............. 20000000 cece Should be broad at shoulders, breadth ex- tending downward well back to hips. Depth. of Bodysc say i vewseaderecagecnee iene Should be deep from shoulder to front of keel and extending well back. 20 *Allowance should be made for fowls in molt. (See Chapter XIII.) APPENDIX 343 _. Back of good length, broad throughout, and fairly level on top, from side to side, throughout its entire length and ending in a broad full tail. ISLOASt is feat sed cae Sa AS BENS ala phate ames BO ie Yasue Deep, broad, full, corresponding with breadth of shoulders. Keel or breast bone should be long, straight, and well fleshed. Thinness and texture of skin..................... Pilg ties as Skin should be thin and smooth; free from roughness or scaliness. Legs, 10. Medium length and set well apart. (Knock-kneed individuals are undesirable.) Thighs and second joints.................... Br Oana vanes Short, thick, and heavily fleshed. Shanks xe sitesi ves ae nase ey ae Hee SB) lwice-oo se Short, strong STO OCS oes oaisvaeoh- cacus desicepisnond Gang ao wneh aoe a ae 1 [kiies Strong, straight, short, well spread. ————— TOTAL ga ecieinieh MRM D 4G oe Be AR OR a 100) fawsecae Score Card used by the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. 8. Depart- ment of Agriculture. OFFICIAL SCORE CARD FOR EGGS (Copyright 1915 by the American Poultry Association.) EXE IBIPOR 1% satin: sawn baw A4 BO4 AAO Meee a Aeabonee MAUR ee ADDRESS wisdats cine Get Rao ee Se GE SSE ae hak canon g CASS iiss oes e ned ene ley ameashangs ENTRY NOs pacr aids puatannas COLOR vas: as sees ae care WEIGHT........... OLie ssa 3 tiene day cay SCORE CARD FOR emer soy AND FOR COMMERCIAL When judging an exhibit of eggs, the scores of the eggs forming each individual entry are to be added together; the total then being divided by the number of eggs comprising the entry; and the average so obtained shall be the score of the entry. DISQUALIFICATIONS Exhibition Egg: Cracked shell; extremely dirty or stained shell; foreign shell-color; pronounced irregularity of shape; sign of incuba- tion; decay, rot, mold, or mustiness; blood-rings; foreign odor; or any condition that renders it unfit for food. Commercial Egg: Sign of incubation or germ growth; decay, rot, mold, or mustiness; blood-ring; or any condition that renders it unfit for food. 344 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION DIVISIONS AND SCORE OF A PER-| Points| Score Rémarke FECT EGG scored | of entry Size or weight (including uniformity)....... 15 Cleanliness.............. eee eee 15 Shape (including uniformity)............ 5 Shell color (including uniformity)....... 5 Shell texture.......00.. 0000002. e ee eee 5 Fullness (as indicated by air-cell)........ 15 Quality and firmness of yolk............ 20 Quality and firmness of white ........... 20 Total value. cis ccs casds yess 100 JUDGE. ceevsig es sles esas Ge o2e% OE oa 4 RM Eee AG Fe KEE ENG BEE EERE SECRETARY.....cicicvseeioseweese areas esaw ee ered ined sare SUPPLEMENTARY SCORE CARD FOR CASE LOTS (For Values in detail see Score ie io es and for Commer- cial Eggs. CLASS jo. saceciscen4 oxeecaaereen eB NTRY NOsesecescas wees ded COLOR is sveveckess 3 4. WEIGHT 423 os dees asus OZ anaseeingees wee CASE-LOT SCORE CARD When judging eggs in Case Lots the same values are allotted as in smaller lots, as shown on Score Card for Exhibition and for Com- mercial Eggs; but in order to lessen the detail a number of the items have been added together to meet the requirements of Graders and Inspectors of Commercial Eggs. DIVISIONS AND SCORE OF A Points | Score of R es PERFECT EGG scored | entry omar Size or weight (including uniformity)...... TB 6 Ne aehed weal eked ences Exterior condition (Cleanliness, shape, color and texture of shell)............. BO!) Wstscvolidia| ccd dene Contents (fullness, yolk, white).......... DOs © Vewkerinte ys dal late was acces Total value............] 100 UBS cide ee nyod ec Wis BAG a nok ERS Rese ME LOY BE ee He ee SS SECRETARY 554 cnsce ceed nce ness, cable dua 8 cup bmn ued eee ga aoe aro oes a Notice:—The score cards as given herein for exhibition and com- mercial eggs as well as for eggs in case lots are copyrighted by the American Poultry Association. Permission for their publication has been granted by this Association. Copies of these score cards may be obtained from the Secretary of the erican Poultry Association. APPENDIX 345 EXPLANATION OF SCALE OF POINTS Each entry should consist of one dozen eggs. Size or Weight.—One dozen eggs should weigh from 24 to 26 ounces. Deduct one point for each ounce under 24 ounces and one half point for each ounce over 26 ounces, except Langshan, Brahma and Minorca eggs, in which case an entry should weigh from 26 to 28 ounces, and the same deductions as mentioned above made for under or over weight. Exceptionally large eggs are undesirable for shipment especially if they project too high in the filler and thus are liable to be broken. All eggs within the dozen should be uniform in size and weight. Cleanliness.—Each egg should be clean, free from dirt or blood stains. Under no circumstances should eggs be washed, as this removes the natural bloom from the egg and will cause it to spoil more quickly than when it is unwashed. Deduct one point for each soiled egg and each egg that shows signs of being washed. Shape:—There should be a uniformity in the shape of each of the eggs in the entry. An idea as to the correct shape of the egg will be found in Figure 67, page 69. Eggs from different breeds vary somewhat in shape, some being slightly longer and others more round. These pointy should be considered in forming an ideal as to the correct shape or the entry being judged. Deduct one third of a point for each egg which varies from the average shape of the eggs in the entry. Shell Color:—Uniformity of color and the presence of the natural bloom or luster of each egg is very important. White eggs should be pure white and brown eggs should be the same shade of brown through- out; other points being equal, preference should be given to dark brown eggs over light brown. White eggs of a tinted or creamy color is a defect. Deduct one third of a point for each egg that is off color. Shell Texture:—The shell should be uniformly smooth and free from corrugations or wrinkles, pebbling or rough places, spots and cracks. Eggs with thin shells are undesirable. Cut one third of a point for each thin-shelled egg or egg possessing any of the above defects in shell texture. Fullness:—The fullness of an egg is determined by the size of the air cell, which is one of the indications of a fresh egg. When held before a candle, see Figure 84, page 86, with the large end of the egg up, the air cell in a fresh egg should be about the size of a ten-cent piece or about one eighth of an inch in depth. Deduct three points for each egg having air cell larger than that of a fresh egg. £3 Quality and Firmness of Yolk:—In determining the condition of the yolk and white it is necessary to candle each egg, see Figure 85, page 87, For a description of the various grades of eggs as concern- ing quality see page 284. When held before the candle the egg should appear opaque, the yolk free from dark color and scarcely visible. Cut three points for each egg containing a dark colored yolk. Eggs showing germ development, decay, rot, mold or blood rings disquali- fies the entire entry. . Quality and Firmness of White:—When candled the white should appear thick. Deduct three points for each egg wherein the white appears watery. Any egg showing any indication of decomposition or incubation as mentioned above disqualifies the entire entry. 346 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION SCALE OF POINTS FOR JUDGING BREEDS OF THE AMERI- CAN, MEDITERRANEAN, AND ASIATIC CLASSES BXBIBITLO Riz ses «.ecacicn gaunt ier i P26 RONESTSS ENTRY NO........ GLASS pas gasaadsacnces BREED) oo. os sas VARIED Yas seses ses Cock, Cockerel, Hen or Pullet.............-. BAND NO.......... ee Hen Asiatic | Score Class | Class Class |Allowed SIS ISIS (Sls Symmetry: os desawaresieecnenss 4 4 AO) caceaee Weights ci ccvce mea ess dee acest: 4 4 Bes it ategsc GonditiOnc.ncnes coecsenea cee ers 4 4 Be Neeaae oy ‘Combis gue e4 neo e gant nteie ey 8 10 8 |rawnaes Head one Suey Shedasien ened eee Oo 2°] 2) 2] 42 | 2 eulers Beale cin sae aie omnee oe B22 PB Be Basile es Byes sia conehee cose weed praet 2)/2})2|2)2 | 2)...|... Wattles and earlobes........ 2/2)4/6/2|2]...]... INGcki cosas BAU a nme iaeaces 4/6)3|5]4(|(6)...[... Wines sav seconde rena hires 4/6)4|6]4|6)...]... Bac sanact ent nste tuaneineocentts 5|5|515)6|4]...].-- Pail cz nant eee) eee ak ee eg BRR 51 5)5 1) 4/5] 5)...]... Bredatiiss cain delnineswesonunees 5|5/4]/4/6]4]...[... Body and fluff................0-. 5] 3/3 [2)5|3]...1... Legs and toes...........-..0.005- 8 [8 242) 8 | Bi jeeslens Perfect score......... 100 | 100 100 APPENDIX 347 Explanation—This consolidated score card for exhibition stock was compiled from the American Standard of Perfection, permission being granted by the American Poultry Association. Any further information as to the scale of points for breeds in other classes, as well as definition and description of the points given above, refer to the American Standard of Perfection. The breeds that can be judged from this combined scale of points are asfollows: American Class, all standard var- ieties of Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Javas, Dominiques, Rhode Island Reds and Buckeyes; Mediterranean Class, all varieties of Leghorn, Minorcas, Spanish, Blue Andalusian and Anconas; Asiatic Class, all varieties of Brahamas, Cochins, and Langshans. The Average Weight and Volume of Poultry Feeds. One qt. One lb. KINDS OF FEED weighs measures (pounds) (quarts) Barley teal 3233 sissies dd doe save and a wawa see a aus 1L1.....7.0.9 Barley; Whole. cuca acs gil sano e sh Galyaeh eoteae ante Lbeccmses 0.7 IBONE MEAG sci keiele asce Boe shies aie rknecera cen ope oehea 2.0) eset 20.0 Brewer's dried grains............. 0.00002 eeeeeee OB crass 1.7 BG@h SCPAD iceman eaciria abil one aici arn tls ne el AME p< LB. ecg 12008 Corn-and-cob meal..........0.0.000 000.000 c cece 14.......0.7 Corn-and-oat feed..... 0.000000 eee OF scenes LA Corn: brani sai ¢ 4G ss sates Hey ty Aes Ban's Bee es Ob .acvens20 Corn Meal veo wesc uy eee 54 Shak aoee ja edowd Loe scene (OF Corny WHOLE 3:5: sss ae kie sow Wisk bs BS a Bias doa L7.......0.6 Cottonseed meal..........000.0000. 000 cee eee Te De cians oe 0.7 Distiller’s dried grains..................00 02.00. 0.5-0.7... .1.0-1.4 Gem Gib Meal: ane 7 axamanes Wennes Wien aeA elas aOR 14 nce Od Gluten teed s 2... acs ec chews aanwataes awa da carn eiee L3.cscan 008 Gluten: Meal ss coc cascades car ake endeh eee Ge ee Wize 0.6 Hominy” meal sac02.¢.0:2 60s) gan aioe ¥ ave ach |e noma EN Delinc nase 0.9 Linseed meal, new process.................000055 Oe seater 1.1 Linseed meal, old process............00..00000005 11.......0.9 Malt sproutsicnsitssicsai tes teees saunes nam tees & O68. eaees bel Mixed feed (bran and middlings)................. OGe cote ys 1.7 Oat feed (variable mixture)..............0...045. 0.8.......1.8 Ost MANS ee.s cenorsiae ava cued ange od auhe aaniine 1B. OT OAS; CTOUNG access eaiece Sacha od Me ade RARER RAGS 0.7.......14 Oats, whOlé):cc.s.s ews sue neces wis ciemae nes Sas aka 1.0.......1.0 Rye feed (bran and middlings)................... VB cass 0.8 Rye meal. soca nancy; pa be ee eee see cae en lee TAR ianasayetse 0.7 Rye; whole: sc: cies os desta ea ses ey yee ee eden BY LG aig: giateniess 0.6 Soy-beam meal ioc .escee sca oe oa bee cea ae EEES EWR S LB ieiskes hits 0.8 Wheat braris.. 2 os ncnanibantae gurl ov eoke sanweher ste 0.5... .-2.0 Wheat) Grounds osc. gied aes Wine adiacahinledduate sondsons i eee ee 0.6 Wheat middlings (flour).................0000005- TD tec Ses 0.8 Wheat middlings................00 ce eee eee 0.8.......1.8 Wheat, whole. ccsaescncmeet ee ace ae tenes yeas LQ occ nOd 348 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION A Guide for the Selection of Good Producing Hens and the Culling of Poor Producers Laying—Therefore Keep. Not Laying—Therefore Cull. HEALTH. Good health. Good or fair condi- tion of flesh. Active. Alert. MOLT. Not molting or just beginning to molt by the last of September or in October. COMB. Waxy, full of blood, red in color. EYE. Prominent, bright, full of life. PELVIC BONES.* Thin, flexible, spread apart’ more than the width of two fingers. SIZE OF ABDOMEN. Spread of three or more fingers in the smaller breeds and four or more in the larger breeds from pelvic bones to end of keel. Length of keel should also be considered. A hen with a long keel may have greater capacity than one with a short keel but greater apread, between pelvic bones and end of keel. HEALTH. Poor health, poor or thin condition of flesh, overfat, broken down behind, listless, dumpy. MOLT. Molted or beginning to molt early in August. COMB. Shrunken, paler or duller red in color, comparatively hard, covered with whitish scales. EYE. Sunken, dull, listless in appearance’ PELVIC BONES. Thicker, less flexible, spread apart two fingers or less. SIZE OF ABDOMEN. Spread of less than three fingers in the smaller breeds and less than four in the larger breeds, FLEXIBILITY OF ABDOMEN. Soft, flexible. APPEARANCE OF VENT. Large, expanded, moist. FLEXIBILITY OF ABDOMEN. Smaller, harder, less flexible. APPEARANCE OF VENT. Comparatively small, puckered. hard, dry SHANK COLOR. (Applies only to yellow-shanked breeds.) Pale yellow or white. Broody hens or those just recovered from broodiness may have yellow shanks, but should be kept if they have not begun to molt. A flock on good grass range will retain yellow shank color to a greater extent than those in bare yards. SHANK COLOR. (Applies only to yellow-shanked breeds.) Deep or medium yellow. BEAK COLOR. (Applies only to yellow-beaked breeds.) Pale or white. VENT COLOR. ica only to yellow-skinned breeds.) White or pink. BEAK COLOR. (Applies only to yellow-beaked breeds) Yellow or partly yellow. VENT COLOR. (Applies only to yellow-skinned breeds.) Yellow. *Pelvic bones are the two bones which can be felt as points on each side of the vent. Form A. H. 260 issued by Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D. 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JO syUVYS pue Uys ‘eqoyT req JO z0ojog pue quiog yo ody, * *A1yNOg JO spsv1g piepuris 7 ‘psnpoig sz3qi JO JOjoD Zuymoyg sfqey 350 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION FARM POULTRY SURVEY IN RIN eae ce cae Dac er rad ein naan scenes mie Po Ae AGATE SS bn ten UR Lie hd ER be AG ee oer ge ee WAC ata eee ds Aa ee ee a eee oe eee, Character of farm: PME ae a Oe sed wc UOT carnal OPIS. PANS CMs ot na rotreansn vg eee ence reepaoneyeets ean ott hy tock Kep bis wxco nce sseemceees eh eee ice Os ates Poultry accommodations: Houses: INUMDET re OCHO 25 ac clse dcarpe estn Te O oo Nests: TSO CA ULOM Hades. eesti os eee asi Sah eee Runs: S120. oo coe eects INORG es cs a ecoron e ES eoe s, Poultry kept: Breed. And -varietyic. 0.525 dea, Ue ee, Number: VA BIS Lys tay tt sete ba lan Sool et oat, oe PCa OS xs coreae een 2ST Approximate ages. APPENDIX 351 Incubation: Is natural or artificial incubation practiced? Brooding: Is natural or artificial brooding practiced? Egg production: Method of feeding... Rations. Gathering eggs: Frequency. By whom In what Marketing: Where kept for marketing? How long kept? How marketed? Distance from market? If standard-bred poultry is kept, do you sell eggs for hatching? Note to the Teacher: Have the members of the poultry class or club use this form in making a survey of the farms in the community when they start their poultry work and again at the end of the year. This will enable you to note such changes or improvements as have been made during this time. INDEX Abdomen, condition of, 231. Acid phosphate, 301. Action and appearance, 55 Advertising — methods of, 332, value of oultry shows, 258. bea beta when to advertise, kes, geese, 247. Agglutination test, 169. Age of breeding stock, 62. Agricultural Colleges and Ex- periment Stations, 17, 337. Air cell of egg, 67, 86, 345. Albumen of egg, 68, 199. Alfalfa, 115, 291. : meal, 203. American breeds: purpose class. American Standard of Perfec- tion, 32, 263, 347. Ancona— characteristics of, 31. standard weights of, 31. Andalusian, Blue, 32. Animal protein feeds, 202, 212. Appearance and action, 55. . Appliances, 144. Artificial and natural incuba- tion, 67. brooding, 98. incubation, 78. lights, 217. methods of feeding with, 219. period of, 218. Asiatic breeds: Ash, 206. Atavism, or reversion, 46. Aylesbury duck, 242. Back of breeders, 57. Back, disqualifications of, 262. Back-yard flocks, 11, 19. Balance sheet—yearly, 329. Balanced ration—how determin- ed, 207. See General- See Meat class. 353 Banding: See Wing banding. Bantams—Game, 39, 40. value of, 41. varieties of, 41. Barley, 201, 203, 212. meal, 212. rolled or hulled, 109, 112. Beak— color as influencing produc- tion, 228. shape of, 56. Beef scrap: See Meat scrap. Black turkey, 235. Blackhead, 166. Blastoderm, 68, 86. Blood ring, 87, 121, 286, 343. Bloom of egg, 69. Blue Andalusian— characteristics of, 32. standard weights of, 33. Blue bugs, 182. Blue ointment, 180. reas water for washing birds, 68. Board floors, 136. Body of breeders, 57. Bone meal, 212. Borax, 162. Boric acid, 162. Bourbon Red turkey, 235. Brahma— as capons, 187. standard weights of, 34. varieties of, 34. oo 109, 110, 201, 212, 291, 95 Bread for chicks, 109. Breast, of breeders, 57. Breastbone: See keel bone. Breed — definition of, 23. selecting the, 23, 315. Breeder, the poultry, 20, 44. Breeders— age of, 62, 354 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Breeders, (continued) defects in, 59. feeding the, 64. management of, 62. range for, 62. selecting the, 55. Breeding— and mating, 45, 60. cross, 50. essentials of, 54. importance of, 44. in, 48 line, 48. out, 48. pen, demonstration on select- ing, 66. principles and practices of, 45. purpose of, 59 stock, age of, 62. turkeys, 238. Breeds and varieties— egg, 30. for natural incubation, 75. Game and Game Bantam, 39. general-purpose, 26. meat, 33. miscellaneous, 41 origin and classification, 22. suitable for capons, 187 Brick construction, 134, Broilers— fattening, 291. market classification of, 290. marketing of, 290. Bronze turkey, 234. Brood coop— care of, 93. construction of, 95, 96. litter for, 94. Brooder— capacity of, 100, 101. coal-burning, 102. colony, 102. continuous, 103. fireless, 103, 104. hot-air, 100. hot-water, 100. hot-water-pipe, 102, 103. house, proper size of, 102. individual, 100. kerosene-heated, 100. kinds of, 100. Brooder, (continued) litter for, 94, 105. location of, 94. management of, 105. requirements of, 99. stoves, 101. Brooding and hatching— artificial, 92, 98. correct temperature for, 104. importance of, 92. natural, 92. record, 321. Broody coops, 150 Broody hens, 69. breaking up, 150. indications of, 75. Brown-shelled eggs— breeds that lay, 26, 349. example of correlation, 47: testing, 86. Buckwheat, 201, Buff duck, 243. Build, time to, 132. Building materials, 133. Buildings: See Houses. Bumble foot, 174. Business management, 320. Buttermilk: See Milk. By-products, 201. Cabbage, 115, 203. Campine- characteristics of, 33. standard weights of, 33. varieties of, 33. Canadian, or wild, geese, 247. Candling eggs, 86, 285. Canker, 162. Capacity of brooder, 100. of incubators, 79. Capon— care of after operation, 19+. center of industry, 186. fattening, 293. feeding, 194. killing and dressing, 195. killing of during operation, 193. marketing of, 293. production of, 186. Caponizing— advisahility of, 186. INDEX 355 Caponizing, (continued) care after, 194 demonstration, 196. instruments, 188. operation, 189, suitable breeds for, 187. time for, 187. Carbohydrates, 206. Carbolated vaseline, 161, 165. Carbolic acid, 160, 163,177, 184. Carneau pigeons, 252. “Case count” plan of marketing eggs, 287. Case-lot score card, 344. Castor oil, 164, 168. Cayuga duck, 2438. Cement construction, 134, 136. Chalazae, 68. Charcoal, 65, 111, 113, 205. Chicken pox, 165. Chicks— brooding, 92, 98. day-old, purchasing, 106. feeding, 108. first feed of, 108. management of, 118. toe-punching, 95. Chiggers, 183. Chinese geese, 246. Chlorate of potash, 162. Cholera, 162. Class, definition of, 22. Classification of poultry, 22 Cleanliness of growing quarters, 117. of eggs, 283, 345. Clipping the wing, 154. Clover hay, 203. cut, 115, 291. Clubs: See Community Breed- ing Clubs. See Junior Clubs. Coal-burning brooders, 102. Coal-tar products, 89, 160, 163, 177. Cochin— description of, 38. standard weights of, 38. varieties of, 38. Cockerel, definition of, 275. Cockerel mating, 61. Cockerels, separating of, 118. Cock, definition of, 275. Cock-fighting, 14. Cold storage, 15. Colony house— advantages of, 129. disadvantages of, 129. floor of, 136. for growing stock, 114, 115. framework of, 136, 143. plan of, 142. Color— of beak, 228. breeders, 55. comb, 56, 229. ear lobe, 349. face, 56. shanks, 227, 349, skin, 59, 349. vent, 228. Comb— as concerning production, 229. disqualifications of, 261. frozen, 63, 167. of capon, 185. of breeders, 56. white, 166. Combs— defective, 56, 58. types of, 51, 53, 54, 349. cone chick grain, 109, feeds, 201. poultry farms, 16. poultrymen, 44. Community breeding clubs— advantages of, 315. development of, 317 exhibits, 317 meetings of, 316. organization of, 316. selecting community breed, 315. Composition of poultry feeds; 206, 209. on “History of my Poultry Club Work,” 340. on “Marketing and Exhibit- ing,” 340. on “My Experiences with Poultry,” 339. on ‘Poultry Management,” 339. 356 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Concrete floor, 135. foundation, 134. Condiments, 205. Conditioning birds, 264. Constitution and by-laws of Junior Clubs, 308. Construction— cost of 130 economy of, 127, 130. of houses, 132. Containers for Parcel Post. mar- keting, 288. Continental Class, 30. Continuous house plan— advantages of, 130. disadvantages of, 131. framework of, 136. plan of, 145, 146. Cooling eggs, 84. Cooping exhibition fowls, 265. Copulation, 61. Corn, 109, 112, 201, 294. and cob meal, 201. chop, 201. cracked, 109, 112, 212, 292. Kaffir, 109, 112, 201. meal, 109,110, 112, 201, 212, 291, 293, 295. silage, 296. Cornish— as capons, 187. description of, 38. standard weights of, 39. varieties of, 39. Correlation, 47. Cost of producing eggs, 216. Cottonseed meal, 208, 212. Cracks (eggs), 286. Crating eggs, 287. Creolin, 163, 177. Creosote, 163, 177. Crested breeds, 349. head, 51, 58, 55. Crop bound, 171. Crossbreeding, 50. Crossing—out, 48. Crowding chicks, 116. Crow-head, 56. Crude oil, 177. petroleum, 183. Culling— chart, 348. Culling, (continued) demonstration, 233. growing stock, 222. hens, 225, 292. kind to cull, 232. method of, 225. object of, 222. time to cull, 224. Curing of feathers, 302. Dampness in poultry houses, 132, 134. Day-old chicks, care of, 106. Dead germ, 87, 88. Defects in breeders, 59. Defective combs, 56, 58. Demonstration— caponizing, 196. contests, 312. culling, 233. egg grading, 304. feed mixing, 119, 221. preserving eggs, 126. selecting the breeders, 66. testing eggs, 91. Department of Agriculture, Fed- eral, 16. ha as symptom of cholera, 162. as symptom of tuberculosis, 163. in hens, 167. white in chicks, 168. Dimensions of houses, 134. Diseases and treatment, 159. possibilities of spreading, 159. Disinfecting and storing incu- bators, 89. Disqualifications for commercial eggs, 348. for exhibition eggs, 343. for poultry, 261. Domestication of fowls, 14. Double mating, 60. Double-pitched roof, 140. Drafts, prevention of, 142, 151, 267. Drawing the fowl, 298. Dressing capons, 195. Dressing: See Dry-picking. Drinking fountains, 150. as oe of spreading disease, Dropping board, 147. Dry-picking, 297. Drying washed birds, 270. Ducks— Aylesbury, 242. Buff, 243. Cayuga, 248. Egg class of, 244. eggs, 69. feeding for exhibition, 271. feeding for market, 295. Indian Runner, 244. management of, 245. marketing of, 295. meat class, 240. Muscovy, 242. Ornamental class, 245. Pekin, 240. preparing for exhibition, 271. Rouen, 243. Swedish, 244. Dust boxes, 150. Dusting for lice, 93, 179, 180. sitting hen, 77. Ear lobe, color of, 349. Education, poultry, 16. Egvo— albumen of, 68. breeds, 30. development of, 198. eating, 173. laying rations, 211. membranes, 67 - nest, 76, 281. producing organs, 199, 231. record, 325. study of, 67. tonics, 205. turning cabinet, 69, 70. yolk of, 68, 108, 345. anormal, 70. and poultry, value of, 11. blood ring of, 286. bloom of, 69. breeding for, 59. candling of, 86. cleaning, 69, 121. cooling in incubator, 84. cost of producing, 216. cracked, 286. crate for, 287, culling hens for, 222. INDEX 357 Eggs— oer, 87, 88. dirty, 286. duck, 69. essentials for production of, 198 exhibits of, 277. “extras,” 284. feeding for, 211, 215. fertile, 68, 87, 88. fresh, 69. gathering, 69, 282. grading, 282. heated, 285. high production of, 26, 30. incubation of, 67. infertile, 87, 88, 280. kind to preserve, 120. ‘Jeaker,” 286. market ‘erades of, 283. marketing, 280, 287. mixing of during incubation, 69. packing, 70, 287, 289. preserving, 120. production, feeding for, 211. ots,” 286. score card for, 348, 344. shape of, 345 shell color, 345. shell texture, 345. shrunken, 285. selected for incubation, 68. size of, 345. small, 285. soiled, 69. “special,’’ 283. “spots,” 286. storing, 282. thin-shelled, 70. testing, 86. tester, 87. turning of in incubation, 84. uniformity of, 282. variation in production of, 216. watery, 286. waeee ‘of, 283, 284, 285, 345. Egyptian geese, 247. Electric incubator, 79. lights, 219. Emden geese, 246. 358 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION English breeds: See General- purpose and Meat classes. Epsom salts, 170. Exhibition— breed for, 59. coops, 265. first poultry, 258. object and value of, 258. preparing birds for, 258. selecting birds for, 260. shipping coop for, fowls, 273. Exhibits, of community breed- ing clubs, 317. junior clubs, 311. Experimental stations, 337. “Extras” (Referring to eggs) 284. Eyes of breeders, 57. Face, disqualifications of, 262. Faking, 263. Fancier, 44. Fat, 206, 207. Fattening battery, 294. broilers, 291. capons, 293. ducks, 295. geese, 296. hens, 292. rations, 291, 293, 294, 295. turkeys, 294. Favus, or white comb, 166. Feather pulling, 172. Feathered shanks, 34, 51, 52, 263, 349. Feathers, curing of, 302. drying of washed birds, 270. market grades and prices, 302. market value of, 302. Fecundity, 48. Feed and water for growing stock, 111. cost of, 131. cost of, for eggs, 216. for sitting hen, 78. mixing demonstrations, 119, 221. quantity of grain to, 213, 215. record—yearly, 324. Feeding— breeders, 64. capons, 194, 293. chickens, 108. Feeding, (continued) . condiments and egg tonics, 205. exhibition birds, 274. experiments, 216. for egg production, 198. forced, 64. growing stock, 108, 111. methods of, for eggs, 211, 213. methods of, for chicks, 108. on range, 215. stuffs, composition of, 209. value of, for eggs, 198. Feeds and by-products— classification of, 202. commercial, 201. composition of, 206, 209. for fattening: See fattening rations. grain, 199, 212. green, 64, 110, 113, 203. mash, 201. meat, 202. quality of, 201. quantity consumed, 213, 214, 215, 216. weight and volume of, 347 Feet— cleaning of, 267, 270. disqualifications of, 262. Fences, 152. Fertile eggs, 68, 87. Fertilizer, value of poultry man- ure, 301. Fiber, 208. Fireless brooder, 103. Fish scrap, 202, 212. Fleas—‘‘Stick-tight,” 181. Flock, culling, 222. breeding of, 61. Floors— board, 136, 137. concrete, 136. earth, 136. kind of, 136. space of, 134. Foundations and floors, 134, 135, 136. concrete, 135, 136. ¥ramework of building, 136. French class, 42. T'rozen comb, 63, 167. INDEX 359 Gable-roof house, 139. Gage and Game Bantam class, 9, varieties of, 40. Gapes, 170. Gates, 155. Geese— African, 247. Chinese, 246. Egyptian, 247. Emden, 246. feeding for weight, 271 management of, 248. ‘marketing of, 296. method of catching and carry- ing, 271. preparing for exhibition, 271. Toulouse, 246. Wild, or Canadian, 247. General-purpose class— breeds of, 26. characteristics of, 26. feeds consumed by, 215 Germ, dead, 86, 87. spot, 68, 86. Glass windows, 141. Gluten meal, 201, 212. Grading eggs, 282. “Grading up,” 49, 50. Grain feed for growing stock, 112. for layers, 212, 213. growing of, 201. quantity of to feed, 213, 215. “Green ducks,” 242, 295. Green feed— for breeders, 64. for chickens, 110. for ducks, 295. for growing stock, 113. for layers, 203. growing of in yards, 152, 203. Grit, 64, 111, 113, 204. Growing stock— eare of, 115. culling, 222. Growth of chickens, 73. Guineas— Lavender, 249. management of, 250. marketing of, 296. Pearl, 249. Guineas, (continued) White, 249. Hamburg class, 42. Hatch— early, 73. experiments on, 91. length of, 71. proportion of sex in, 71. time of year to, 73, 74. Hatching and brooding record, 321. Head— cleaning of, 270. crow, 56. disqualifications of, 261. in selecting breeders, 56. lice on chickens, 93, 180. Health and vigor, 54. Heated eggs, 285. Hens— brooding chickens with, 92. confining mother hen, 97. culling, 225, 292. definition of, 275. fattening, 293. marketing, 292. time of year to market, 292. Heredity, 45. Hollow tile construction, 134. Homer pigeons, 252. Hopper, feeding dry mash, 110, 113, 214. Houses and appliances— colony, 116, 128. construction of, 132. continuous, 128. essentials of, 127. foundation and floors, 134, 135, 136. framework of, 136. front of, 141. interior of, 144. kind to build, 128. location of, 132. monitor, 139. roof of, 138, 139. size and dimensions of, 134. systems of, 128. time to build, 132. two-story, 130 walls of, 142. Housing growing stock, 115. 360 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Hovers— capacity of, 100, 101. individual, ’100. Hungarian pigeons, 253. Hydrogen peroxide, 162, 175. Identifying chickens, 95. Inbreeding, 48. Income tax return, 329. Incubation— artificial, 78. natural, '67, 7A, periods of, 71. progress of, 67. temperature of, 83. Incubator— capacity of, 79. care of at hatching, 88. cellar, 80, 81. disinfecting and storing, 88. electric, 79. hatched chickens brooded by hens, 93. hot-air, 79. hot-water, 79. mammoth, 79. operation of, 81, 82. place to operate, 80. selecting, 79. types of, 78. Indian Runner ducks, 244. Infertile eggs, 87 for market, 280. Inquiries answered, 332. Interior fixtures, 144. Intestinal worms, 170. Inventory—yearly, 328. Iodine, tincture of, 165, 166. Johnnycake, 109. Jungle fowl, 22. Junior clubs— advantages of, 305. constitution and by-laws of, 308. exhibits, 311. meetings of, 311. object of organizing, 305. organization of, 306. plans for starting work, 308. record, 330. tules for, 307. Kaffir corn, 109, 112, 201. Keel bone, 2 Kerosene oil, at74, 177, 183. Killing— capons, 195. methods of, 297. squabs, 296. Labor, 130. . Lamp, care of in incubator, 84. Land plaster, 301. Langshan— as capons, 187. description of, 34. standard weights of, 34. varieties of, 34. Lavender guinea, 249. Layers, characteristics of, 232. “Leakers” (eggs), 286. Leghorn— as capon, 187. characteristics of, 31. standard weights of, 31. varieties of, 30, 31. Leg banding, 95, 223. Legs and toes of breeders, 58. disqualifications of, 262. Lice, 150, 178. and mites on breeders, 63. head, on chickens, 93, 180. Lights— artificial, 217. effect on egg production, 217, kind of to use, 219. Limberneck, 164. Lime, 301. ae for preserving eggs, 1 Line breeding, 48. Linseed oil, 174. Litter, 117, 301. feeding in, 213, 214. for brooders, 94. Location of houses, 132. “Loss off” plan of marketing eggs, 287. Louse powder, 179. Lumber as building material, 133, 134. _ Maltese pigeons, 253. Mammoth incubator, 79. Management— business, 320. INDEX 361 Management, (continued) of breeders, 63. of growing stock, 118. of sitting hen, 77. Mangel beets, 115, 203. Manure— amount per bird per year, 300. analysis of, 301. fertilizer value of, 301. value of, 300. Mae classification for broilers, 90. for grades of eggs, 283. Marketing— case count method of, 287. co-operative, 317. ducks, 295. frequency of, 287. geese, 296 guineas, 296. importance of, 278. ‘Joss off”? methods of, 287. methods of, 278, 287. of broilers, 290. of capons, 293. of eggs, 280, 287. of hens, 292. of table fowls, 290. of turkeys, 294, 295. of squahbs, 296. Mash— dry, for growing stock, 113. feeding, 213. feeds, 201. for fattening, 291, 293, 295. for growing chicks, 110. hopper, 110, 113, 214. wet, 110, 214. Mate, time to, 61. Mating and breeding, 45. Matings— double, 60. flock or mass, 61. kinds of, 60. single, 60. size of, 62. stud, 61. Meat breeds of ducks, 240. Meat class— breeds of, 33. characteristics of, 34. Meat scrap, 110, 201, 202, 212, 291. for breeders, 64. importance of, 202. Mediterranean class, 30. Meetings of community breed- ing clubs, 316. junior clubs, 311. Membrane of egg, 67. Mercurial ointment, 180. Middlings, 110, 201, 212, 291, 293, 295. Mill feeds, 201. Milk butter, 291, 293. skim, 202, 291, 293. sour, for chickens, 109, 111, 113 whole, 113. Minorca— character’ stics of, 32. standard weights of, 32. varieties of, 31. Miscellaneous class, 41. varieties of, 42. Mites, 176. Harvest, 183. Moisture during incubation, 85. type of incubator, 78. Molt as influencing production, 74, 226. feeding during the, 215. Mondaine pigeons, 253. Mongrels, breeding from, 50. vs. standard-bred fowls, 25. Monthly statement sheet, 322. Muscovy duck, 242. Mutations, or sports, 46. Narragansett turkey, 236. Neck of breeders, 57. Nest eggs, 76. Nests— for sitting hens, 76. material for, 76. proper number of, 149, 281. trap, 149. Nitrogen-free extract, 206, 207. Nitrogenous material, 206. Nomenclature of the fowl, 51, 52. Non-moisture type incubator, 8. 362 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Non-producers, culling, 222. Non-sitters, 30. Nutritive ratio, 207. formula for, 211. how to determine, 208. Oats— as green feed, 203. ground, 201, 212, 291. hulled, 109, 112. neal, 109, 110. pinhead, 109, rolled, 109. sprouted, 110, 115, 203, 204, 291 Organization of clubs, 305, 306, 316 of poultry associations, 276. Origin of domestic fowls, 22. Ornamental breeds of ducks, 245. class of fowls, 42. Orpington— characteristics of, 29. standard weight of, 29. varieties of, 29. Out-breeding, 48. Out-crossing, 48. Oviduct, 199, 231. Ovary, 199, 231. Oyster shell, 64, 111, 113, 204. Packing— dressed fowls, 299. eggs, 287, 289. hatching eggs for shipment, 70. squabs for market, 297. Painting houses, 155. Parcel post— -containers, for use by, 288. marketing eggs by, 287. packing for shipment, 289, shipments, weight of, 289. Partitions in the house, 142, 146. Peanut meal, 203. Pearl guinea, 249. Pekin duck, 240. Pelvic bones, spread of, 229, 230. Permanganate of potash: See Potassium permanganate. ~ Picking ducks, 295. Pigeons— Carneau, 252. Pigeons, (continued) Homer, 252. Hungarian, 253. Maltese, 253. management of, 254. marketing of, 296. method of catching, 272. Mondaine, 253. age for exhibition, 272. Runt, 251. squab breeds, 251. White King, 251. Pinhead oat meal, 109. Plumage— condition of, 55. washing of, 266. Plymouth Rock— as a capon, 187. standard weights of, 27. varieties of, 27. Polish class, 42. Posing birds, 266. Potash salts, 301. Potassium chlorate: See Chlorate of potash, Potassium permanganate, 160, 162, 163, 170. Poultry and eggs— back-yard, 11, 19. breeders, 20. club record, 330. clubs, 305. development of industry, 14. distribution of inU.S., 12,13. farmers, commer eal, 16. industry, development of, 14. ing ust, size and extent of, keeping on the farm, 15. sections, intensive, 17. shows, 16, 259. standard- bred, 25; value of, 11. Premiums for exhibition fowls, 258, 275. Preparing birds for exhibition, 258, 259. Prepotency, 48. Preserved eggs— keeping qualities of, 120. selling, 125. using, 124, INDEX 863 530 Preserving eggs— demonstration of, 126. methods of, 122. necessity of, 120. time for, 120. Prevention of poultry diseases, 159. Principles of breeding, 45. Prizes awarded for junior club work, 313. for exhibition fowls, 275. Progression, 47. Proportion of males to females, 62 Protein, 206, 207. Pullet, definition of, 275. Pullet mating, 61. Pullets as breeders, 62, 118. Quality of feed, 110, 201. Quantity of feed consumed, 216. of feed for chickens, 109. of grain to feed, 213, 215. of mash to feed, 213, 215. Range— as affecting feed consumed, 215 for breeding stock, 63. growing stock, 94, 116. Rape, 203. Rations— balanced, 207. egg-laying, 212. fattening, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296. for chickens, 109, 110. for growing stock, 112, 113. Records— balance, yearly, 329. egg, yearly, 325. feed, yearly, 324. hatching and brooding, 321. inventory, yearly, 328. monthly statement, 322. poultry club, 330. summary, yearly, 327. Red bugs, or chiggers, 183. Regression, 47. Reversion, or atavism, 46. Rheumatism, 173. Rhode Island Reds— standard weights of, 29. varieties of, 29. Roasters, peal 290. soft, 186 Rolled barley, 109, 112. oats, 109. Roof and roofing material, 139. types of, 1388, 139. Roofing paper, 115, 1389, 142. Roost, teaching chickens to, 118 Roosts, 144. Rose Comb breeds, 349. “Rots” (eggs), 286. Rouen duck, 243. Roup, 160. Ee and regulations for shows for junior clubs, 307. Runt pigeons, 251. Rye, as green feed, 2038. Salicylic acid, 171. Salt spray for fleas, 182. Scalding to pick, 298. Scale of points— for eggs, 343, 344. for exhibition fowls, 346. for table fowls, 341. Scaly leg, 173. Score card— for different classes, 346. for eggs, 343, 344. for table fowls, 341. Scraps—table, 213. Scratch feed— for chickens, 109. for growing stock, 112. for layers, 212. Selecting birds for the show, 259, 260. the breed, 23. the community breed, 315. Selection of the breeders, 55. Setting a hen, 75. management of, 77. Sex, predetermining, 73. proportion of, secured, 71. Shade for chicks, 116. Shank— color as influencing produc- tion, 227. condition of in layers, 228. Shanks— cleaning of, 267, 270. 364 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Shanks, (continued) color of, 349. disqualifications of, 262. effect of soil on, 228. Shed-roof houses, 139. Shell— color, 345. description, 67. gland, 199. oyster, 204. texture, 345. ; Shipping coops for exhibition fowls, 273. for live poultry, 299. Shows— kinds of, 259. organization for holding, 276. poultry, 16, 259. preparing birds for, 258. rules and regulations, 274. Sick fowls as breeders, 55, 63. Sickness and lack of vigor, 225. Side sprigs, example of prepo- tency, 48. Single comb breeds, 349. Single mating, 60. Size— of breeders, 55. of eggs, 345. of house, 134. of matings, 62. Skin, color of, 59, 349. Skim milk: See Milk. Slate turkeys, 236. “Slip,” 194. Soap for washing fowls, 268. Sodium fluoride, 179. Sodium silicate, or water glass, 122 Soft roasters, 186. Soil desirable for fowls, 132. effect of on shank color, 22s. Soiled eggs, 69. Sore head: See chicken pox. Soy-bean meal, 203. “Specials” (Referring to eggs), 283. Sports, or mutations, 46. “Spots” (Referring to eggs), 286. : Spraying for fleas, 181. for mites, 177. Sprouted oats, 110, 115, 203, 291. method for, 204. Squabs, 251, 256, 296. Standard-bred, definition of, 25. poultry, 20. vs. mongrels, 25. Standard weights of breeders, 55. “Stick-tight” fleas, 181. Storing eggs, 282. Strain, definition of, 23. ere examples of reversion, 4 Stud mating, 61. Sulphur, 162, 165. ointment, 166, 184. Summary, yearly record, 327. Survey of farm poultry, 250. Sweet oil, 270. Swedish duck, 244. Table fowls, 26, 33, 60. score card for judging, 341. Table scraps, 212, 214. Tails— defective, 57, 59. disqualifications of, 262. of breeders, 57. Temperature— correct for brooding, 104. for storing hatching eggs, 69. normal of the hen, 75. of incubation, 83. Testing eggs, 78, 86. Testicles removed, 193. Thermometer, 81. Thermostat, 81. Ticks, or blue bugs, 182. Tinted-shelled eggs, 349. Tobacco stems, 170. Toe—5th, 53, 55. picking, 172. Toe punching chicks, 94, 95. Toes and legs of breeders, 58. Tonics—egg, 205. Toulouse geese, 246. Transportation facilities, 14. Trap nests, 149. Tuberculosis, 163. Turning eggs, 84. rack for, 69. INDEX 365 Turkeys— Black, 235. breeding of, 238. Bronze, 234. Bourbon Red, 235. management of, 237. marketing of, 295. method of catching and hold- ing, 272. mortality and disease of, 239. Narragansett, 236. preparing for exhibition, 272. Slate, 236. White Holland, 234. Turpentine, oil of, 168. Uniformity of eggs, 282. Uterus, or shell gland, 199. Variation, 46. Varieties and breeds, 22. Variety, definition of, 23. Vaseline, 161, 165, 167. Vegetable protein feeds, 202, 212. Vegetables, cooked, 212, 214. Velvet-bean meal, 203. Vent color as influencing pro- duction, 228. condition of, in hens, 229. Ventilation, 151 during incubation, 81, 85. Vigor and health, 54. lack of, 225. Volume and weight of feeds, 347. Walls, 142. Washing birds, 266. Water— for chickens, 111, 115. for layers, 205. for the breeding pen, 64. ‘for washing birds, 268. fountains, 150. glass, 122. in feeds, 206. lime for preserving eggs, 123. percentage of in eggs, 205. percentage of in fowls, 205. Watery eggs, 286. Weight— disqualifying, of breeders, 55, 263. of eggs, 345. of parcel post shipments, 289. Weights and volume of feeds, 347. Wheat— as green feed, 203. bran, 109, 110, 201, 212, 291, 295. flour, 201, 295. sae 110, 201, 212, 291, screenings, 201. White Comb, or favus, 166. White diarrhea, 168. White guinea, 249. White Holland turkey, 234. White King pigeons, 251. White of egg—quality of, 345. White-shelled eggs—breeds that lay, 30, 349. testing, 86. Whitewash, 155, 177. Wild, or Canadian, geese, 247. Windows, 141. “Wind puffs’, 194. Wing clipping, 154. disqualifications of, 262. Wing banding chickens, 95. Wings, defective, 57. of breeders, 57. Worms, gape, 170. intestinal, 170. Wry tail, 58, 59. Wyandotte— as capons, 187. characteristics of, 27. standard weights of, 27. varieties of, 27. Yards and fences, 152. Yearly balance sheet, 329. egg record, 325. feed record, 324. inventory, 328. summary record, 327. Yolk of egg, 68, 199. absorption of, 108. quality of, 345, SPECIAL BOOKS SPECIAL fr PURPOSES N ADDITION TO OUR OWN PUBLI- CATIONS WE CARRY AN EXTENSIVE STOCK OF THE BEST BOOKS ON ALL SPECIAL PHASES OF THE POULTRY INDUSTRY, ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, GENERAL FARM CROPS, VEGETABLE GARDENING, FRUIT RAISING, SOILS AND THEIR MAN- AGEMENT, FARM BUSINESS, ETC. 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