- MODERN
BUTTER MAKING

# LIBRARY

MARTIN H. MEYER

 
Cornell University Library

odern butter making and dairy arithmeti
 

 

Pioneer Home,
 

 

 

 

University of Wisconsin Dairy School, Madison, Wisconsin.

My acquaintance with over 2000 dairy students in
the past 15 years has convinced me that the three
months instruction given each vear in the winter
dairy course of the University of Wisconsin is very
helpful to the dairy interests of the state. The but-
termakers and the cheesemakers find that an inquiry
into the reasons for certain operations in their work
helps not only to improve the quality of the products
they make, but that by using their minds as well as
their muscles the work becomes more interesting.

Even a short course in dairying gives many stu-
dents a start in the right direetion and they learn by
it to be methodical and systematic in their every day
work. They also learn that it is necessary to follow
the dairy press and dairy textbooks to keep up with
the progress that is made each year.

E. H. FARRINGTON.

Se a a

 

J
Improve Quality of Cream Through Constitution
and By-Laws of Creameries,

A very effective method of assisting in tne improv-
ing of the quality of eream deliv ered to creameries
is by incorporating into the constitution and by-laws
such regulations as may be deemed necessary for the
correcting | of irregularities in the quality, richness
and delivery of cream, :

= 1. Poor Cream. - Having’ ‘had losses on butter
which were directly: traceable to a few cans of poor
cream, the creamery operator is instructed to reject
all bad cream. All cream not first class, yet accept-
able is to be graded as ‘‘second’’ and for this is paid
five cents less per pound of butter fat than is paid
for first class cream.

II. Too Thin Cream. Any patron delivering
cream testing less than 25% butter fat will receive
five cents less per pound of butter fat than is paid
for first class cream testing as required. This rule
to go into effect after the patron has been given due
instruction and warning by the creamery operator.

Late Deliveries of Cream. The creamery operator
is instructed to reject cream from patrons who de-
liver cream later than the time stipulated in the by-
laws. If such cream is accepted it is to be paid for
at the rate of five cents less than ihe best price paid
per pound of butter fat.

Creameries adopting these or similar rules, have
found the system to be of great assistance in improv-
ing the quality of the cream as well as the service
in general. Under this system patrons will ask for
instruction regarding the care of cream. They are
willing that the creamery operator shall be the
judge of their cream for they depend upon him to
give them the faney price that butter made from
good cream always commands...

THE AUTHOR.

 

Dairy School the. Best Medium.

Dairying is the highest and most specialized form
of agriculture. Its success’ requires men thoroughly
trained along broad and many-sided lines, and skill
full in the practical application of their knowledge.

The future progress of the dairy. industry must.
therefore, largely depend on ‘the number of thor-
oughly trained and competent. dairymen. Men sc
trained are scarce, their demand: far exceeds the
supply and their opportunities are as numerous as
the pebbles on the beach. :

The laying of a broad foundation for this life
work and the acquiring of this knowledge and train.
ing are accomplished most effectively and most
rapidly through the medium of our dairy schools.

The dairy school is the factory, the clearing house
and the distributory of dairy information, and it:
graduates are the pioneers of modern dairying, th«
exponents of real dairy progress and development

O. F. HUNZIKER.
‘TPOSOUUTTAT “NL YS MMLq AuoyUY YS ‘jooyss Kayeq ejosauurpy

 

 

 
The young man who chooses the occupation of a
creamery butter maker must, in order to succeed,
thoroly appreciate the necessity of acquiring a scien-
tifie knowledge of dairy subjects. The mechanical
knowledge necessary in order to operate the machin-
ery in a creamery is of minor importance, altho, of
course, very essential. This knowledge can be ac-
quired during the young man’s apprenticeship, pro-
viding he is under the tutelage of a good butter
maker and one who is not only willing but compe-
tent to impart information.

The reason why things should be done in a certain
way. or in other words, the scientific principles in-
volved in dairy manufacture can best be learned at
a Dairy School where these things are explained in
lectures and facilities are provided for demonstra-
tion work in the various steps of dairy manufacture.

Young men coming to the dairy school usually
have in mind solely the art of making butter or
cheese. They soon learn, however, that one who is
but familiar with this part of the work is only a
half-baked dairyman; that the cow, the feed and the
care of the herd are really the more important fac-
tors in the dairy industry. It broadens their views
and they look forward to the time when they can do
even better than making butter or cheese.

T. L. HAECKER.
Learn the Why and the Wherefore.

Dairy education is not a goal, it is not the end
sought; it is a tool to be used in attaining the desired
end, and just as some can not drive a nail without
marring the wood or even saw a board straight, so
some may never profit by education.

Education is training the eye io see, to read, and
the mind to think and draw right conclusions from
conflicting data and evidence. The seeker after
truth asks two men, each of whom have been suc-
cessful, ‘‘What is the proper thing to do under such
circumstances.’’ Their answers are diametrically
opposite. It is then only the man who can analyze
and figure out why seemingly opposite methods have
brought these men success; who can derive from
their answers that which will be of help in his con-
dition.

Again, cdueation is not only training, but it is
profiting by the experience of others; it is avoiding
the experimental period, the cutting and trying and
proving a truth that has already been proved and
demonstrated many times over. It accepts that
which is proved.

The ancients knew that to keev milk sweet it must
be cold. Science has shown us why, and the very
beginner in the business of dairying can learn what
temperature is necessary to secure the keeping of
milk, he can learn whether or not he has that tem-
perature and know that given that. temperature, the
milk received in the right condition will keep.
Edueation then is but the tool that enables him to
secure this information and profit by it immediately.
Our dairy schools seek to teach men what is so, why
it is so and how it may be profitably applied to every
day business. They seek to give that amount of
practice in the actual doing which clinches in the
mind of the student the why and the wherefore.
They can not make the dull man more bright or the
lazy man more aggressive. They may give added
incentive by contact with others, they can give him
additional tools for his work: His suecess in using
them depends on his own measure of ability and
energy. Few men who are worth education need go
long without it. The young man who expects to
rise to a position of responsibility and individual in-
dependence, who hopes to have his own business as
creameryman, dairyman or in any branch of the
great dairy industry can afford to add to his natural
endowment and to the practical experience which he
has been fortunate enough to acquire, the help which
comes with systematic training in high school and
college. Whether it be a few weeks, a few months,
a year, or a four years course need only be deter-
mined by personal. individual ec:rcumstances. Aim
at what you want, then get as near it as possible.

H. E. VAN NORMAN.
CARE AND CLEANLINESS IN THE PRODUC-
TION OF MILK.

 

 

 

 

Exterior of a Common Barn.

The official score of this barn is 48.4 per cent.
The milk produced in it took first prize at the Inter-
national Dairy Show in Milwaukee. Wis., 1912, with
a seore of 98.38%. It took first prize because the
cows were kept clean and their udders wiped before
milking. Also the milk was cooled immediately and
kept cool. is

On the other hand milk produced in a model barn
where details in eare and cleanliness were over-
looked seored only 73.5%.

Clean mill ean be produced on any farm, by any
one with ordinary intelligence, and with the most
simple and common arrangements if the detail work
is looked after at the meght time and in the right
way,

 
Success the Measure of Knowledge.

Knowledge plus practical experience plus deter-
mination to get results is the ammunition required
for fighting the battle which culminates in success.

Knowledge broadens our comprehension. It is the
eye through which we view our day’s labor and
wherewith our work is changed from drudgery to
pleasure.

‘‘Tenorance is the curse of God,
Knowledge the wing wherewith we fly to Heaven.’’

(Shakespeare. )
M. MORTENSEN.
MODERN BUTTER MAKING

AND

DAIRY ARITHMETIC

BY

MARTIN H. MEYER

Formerly Assistant in Dairying and Instructor in Practical
Butter Making at the University of Wisconsin,
Madison, Wisconsin.

Author of
A Treatise on Starters

and

Modern Dairy Guide
to
Greater Profits.

With Illustrations. Third Edition, Revised ‘$14,

Madison, Wisconsin.
Published by the Author.
1910.
Copyrighted 1910
By
MARTIN H. MEYER.
PREFACE.

 

Dairying in its various phases is undergoing
marked changes in the methods employed at dairy
farms, creameries and city milk supply establish-
ments. These rapid changes require a knowledge of
the latest and most approved methods for handling
the work incident to each phase of practical dairy-
ing. The demand for trained and well informed men
has created a desire for knowledge in this line of
work. In view of this fact, as well as requests which
came to me for information on subjects pertaining
to creamery butter-making, city milk supply and
calculating dividends I felt impelled to place this
little volume, containing the results of my twenty-
five years experience both on dairy farms and in
ereamery butter-making, as well as my experience
as instructor in dairying at the University of Wis-
consin, before the practical dairyman.

If I should succeed in helping only a small num-
ber of the dairymen of the country to better their ,
financial condition; if I should succeed in arousing
to some extent the interest of the dairying fraternity
with regard to the need of cleaner and purer milk,
as well as to the need of pasteurizing all milk and
cream (even for cheesemaking), I should feel amply
repaid for the time and labor spent in the produe-
tion of this volume.
References have been made to other writers on
similar subjects whenever it was thought necessary,
in order to impress the reader with the necessity of
studying the works of other students of dairying,
and comparing the different results obtained in this
line of work.

Thanks are due to Prof. E. H. Farrington, Madi-
son, Wisconsin, Prof. MI. Mortensen, Ames, Iowa,
Prof. O. F. Hunziker, Purdue, Indiana. Prof. T. L.
Haecker, St. Anthony Park, Minnesota, and Prof.
H. E. Van Norman, State College, Pennsylvania, for
furnishing half-tones of their dairy schools as well
as valuable contributions.

Great care has been taken in writing and reading
the manuscript of this volume, but it is possible that
errors have crept in, in spite of all precautions for
guarding against them.

Madison, Wisconsin.
September 1, 1910.
MARTIN H. MEYER.

¢:

Preface to Second Edition.

Some additions and changes have been made in
the second edition in order to keep pace with mod-
ern dairy advancement.

Fundamental principles as laid down in the first
edition have not been changed as they are the foun-
dation upon which rests modern dairy practice.

The latest ideas pertaining to good creamery prac-
tice have been added.

November 1, 1913.
MARTIN H. MEYER.
INTRODUCTION.

The aim of all of us, regardless of the kind of
work in which we are engaged, is to better our
financial and social position. In order to realize, at
least in part, our ambition, we must spend a large
part of the time not actively engaged in earning a
living, in study and research. By this I mean that
we should spend a few hours every day in reading
what other men, who are actively engaged in our
own line of work, are doing. We should spend some
time in studying out what course is best for carry-
ing out our plans, and for meeting competition.
Such a line of thought is necessary for reaping the
greatest pleasure and profit from our work.

Realizing the importance of modern methods in
dairying, and the necessity for their adoption by the
dairyman and creameryman, this little book has
been written.

The testing of milk and cream is treated in two
chapters. Chapter III in Book I treats this subject
in a general way, and Chapter V in Book II dis-
cusses it more fully. These two chapters should
be read jointly, in order that the reader may not
form wrong conclusions as to my point of view.

Recognizing a public sentiment which is in con-
formity with my views on the pasteurization of milk
and cream, one chapter divided into two parts has
been devoted to this subject. The reader is re-
2 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

quested to read the works of other men who have
made pasteurization a study, in connection with this
chapter.

Realizing the need of greater accuracy and train-
ing in calculating dividends at creameries as well
as performing other mathematical calculations, a
few chapters are devoted exclusively to this part
of creamery work. The intention is to present to
the reader the main principles of decimals and per-
centage, for, upon these are based all calculations
pertaining the dairying.

Decimal places are carried out only as far as was
deemed advisable for practical work.

A general table of contents is placed in the front
of the book and a paragraph index giving para-
graph numbers is placed before each chapter. Num-
bers found in the paragraphs are reference num-
bers.

This volume is to be considered only from a prac-
tical point of view, and in the subjects treated in
it, an effort has been made to handle them in a
manner suitable for the every day practical cream-
eryman.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.

BOOK I.

Chapter Page
I. Receiving Milk and Cream.................... 7
II. Strength of Sulphuric Acid.................0. 17
Ill. ‘Testing Milk and Cream...................00. 21
TVs. Acidity Wests caw wa eaid beduers odedeed dc cucdecavn ds 36
VY. Commercial Starters in Butier Making........ e6
Vio ‘Crean: Ripening: os os ue esos oe ase eases 70
VII. The Churning of Cream..............0.0 0000. 85
VIII. ‘The Handling of Butter After Churning....... 101
IX. Controlling Moisture in Butter................ 114
We Butter WAUMS osicc ya sus dns quae ee ain va ques Gina 134
XI. 'The Art of Butter Judging.................... 160
NIL (2) Pasteurization. :.5  s<eveoscaregcsangess 170

(b) Pasteurization of Milk and Cream for City
Supply seas Edits Btocae  ts pes es a easuae eae 3 182
XIII. Determination of Moisture in Butter.......... 199

BOOK II.
DAIRY ARITHMETIC.

lL; DeGinials: .«0 s 4 ss4ensredageevesaeeeraw eee 215
TT, “DWE OVERLAIN ois cease Melee ala a Sea werae mens BBE

Ill. Standardization of Milk and Cream and Butter
Hat” Valves) ace5siesc-g awakes a ees Ae ea 253
IV. Creamery Problems .......... 00. cece eee eee ee 273
V. Discussion of Cream Tests.......0 0.0.00. .0005 299
BOOK I.

 

MODERN BUTTER MAKING.
CHAPTER LI.

RECEIVING MILK OR CREAM.

We must not forget that there is a
direct relation between the quality of
milk and cream when received, and
the quality of butter made from it.
INDEX TO CHAPTER I.

Par, No. Page.
1. A change in the creamery system...........6.6- J
2. Proper intake necessary 2. .uc6.. eee cet ete ecas 10
3. Correct weighing essential .............-2.0005- 10
4. Proper and improper sampling of milk......... 10-11
5. Wow to sample frozen milk.............6.00 000 J1
6G. Care of composite milk samples.............+.-. 12
7. Preparing composite samples for testing......... 12
8. Receiving hand separator crean).............05. 1)

. Concerning composite cream sinmples............ 15-14
10. Concerning sainpling cases and tubes............ 14
11. ‘Cream transportation. «i. cssccieusucwgarws seas 15
12. Testing each patron’s cream while he waits...... 15

.18. Care of composite cream samples.......60.erenee 1G
MODERN BUTTER MAKING.
BOOK I.

CHAPTER I.
Receiving Milk or Cream.

The department of a creamery for receiving milk
or cream is usually termed the ‘‘intake.’’ This is
one of the most important departments of a cream-
ery and upon the suecessful handling of this depart-
ment largely depends the success of the creamery.

1. With the advent of the hand separator the in-
take has in a measure less influence on the patron,
but where each patron delivers his own milk or
cream. the intake exerts a powerful influence for
good upon the patrons. The personal influence which
the person in charge of this department exerts upon
the patrons in furthering the production of clean
milk or cream is by no means small. Also the tactful
intake man can often adjust matters satisfactorily
with a dissatisfied patron, he can often settle finan-
cial difficulties by a little careful explanation and in
many ways keep things running smoothly. Wherever
the patron delivers his milk or cream himself. the
right person in charge of the intake can become a
real educator among his patrons. A little advice now
and then relative to the production of clean milk is
usually well taken and gives good results. When
milk or cream is hauled or shipped, this personal

9
10 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

element influencing the patron is practically lost. At
the present time a large part of the milk and cream
received at ecreameries is not delivered by the patron
himself and for this reason traveling instructors are
not only desirable but absolutely necessary in order
to maintain and improve the quality of raw material.

2, Receiving milk. Creamerymen as a rule ar-
range the intake to suit their individual conditions
and surroundings. One thing which is very neces-
sary is to provide a good protection at the milk re-
ceiving place for the comfort of the milk hauler and
the weigher or intake man. Patrons of any cream-
ery will appreciate the kindness and thoughtfulness
of the creameryman in providing such a shelter,
especially during cold or rainy weather.

3. The weighing must be accurately done. The
scales should be inspected frequently as to their
accuracys Either under or over weight is very
detrimental to the success of any creamery. The
person who weighs the milk must learn what kind of
milk to reject and also how to reject it.

When rejecting poor milk or cream the intake
man should be polite but firm in manner. A little
judicious reasoning on his part may often avert
trouble and cause the patron to leave the creamery
satisfied.

4. Sampling milk. Correct sampling is one of the
most important factors affecting the results in
ereamery work. Sampling should be done immedi-
ately after the milk is all poured into the weighing
ean, but if for any reason this is impossible the milk
should be thoroughly mixed before taking the sam-
RECEIVING MILK OR CREAM. 11

ple. It is comparatively easy to correctly sample
clean, fresh, whole milk, but if milk is old, or has
been partly churned during transportation or is
partly frozen or sour or both, correct sampling is
difficult.

‘When milk is received in a condition which makes
testing difficult it is well to have a talk with the pa-
tron furnishing the milk in order to explain to him
how the true test may be affected by not having the
milk or cream in proper condition. Explain to him
that it is better to take no sample of milk not in
good condition and allow him the average test for
the day or days when no sample is taken.

5. Partly churned and frozen milk. Sampling
partly churned, sour or frozen milk is always attend-
ed with more or less failure in procuring a correct
average sample. Churned milk unless heated enough
to melt the churned butter fat cannot be sampled
correctly. The reason is that the particles of butter
fat float on the top of the milk and the granules are
of such various sizes that even if the milk is well
stirred before taking the sample, the granules will
vary so much in size that it is impossible to obtain a-
correct sample without heating the milk sufficiently
to melt the granules. In the case of frozen or partly
frozen milk the water freezes first.and forms crys-
tals from which the fat globules may have been ex-
eluded. Therefore the frozen part contains much
less fat than the liquid or semi-liquid portions of the
milk. When sampling is done at the weigh-can,
while the milk is partially frozen, the sample invari-
ably tests too high. To do justice to both the cream-
12 MODERN BUTTER MALING.

ery man and the patron, the milk must either be
thawed or no sample taken from it on that day.
When badly frozen milk is warmed to 115° F. to
allow the mixing of it for sampling, it should be
mixed thoroughly by pouring several times, and
the sample should be taken quickly. The necessity
of sampling milk quickly after it is warmed suffi-
ciently to melt the churned butter fat, is due to the
fact that in partly churned or frozen milk the fat
when warmed enough to melt it, will easily float on
top of the milk by reason of its lower specific
gravity.

6. Care of composite milk samples. Be sure to
put a preservative tablet in each sample jar before
putting the sample of milk into it. Composite sam-
ples should be mixed daily and also whenever a new
sample of milk is added, by giving the sample Jar
a few rotary motions. Thorough mixing is a great
aid toward getting good results at the time of test-
ing the milk. The sample jars should have tight
fitting covers and should be kept in a closed case
both in winter and summer. When sample jars are
left open, especially in the hot summer time, cream
adhering to the sides of the jars will form a tough
layer—a mixture composed mostly of cream and
casein—which will cause trouble in sampling for.
testing. (Farrington and Woll.*)

7. Preparing composite samples for testing. Place
the sample jars in water of a temperature of 115—
125° F. and allow them to remain in the water until
the milk is thoroughly warmed and the cream lique-

 

* Farrington and Woll. Testing Milk and Its Products. Chap. II,
p. 23, 1904.
RECEIVING MILK Of CRIEAM. 13

fied. Then mix thoroughly by pouring back and
forth a few times and quickly take a sample with
a perfectly graduated pipette. The composite sam-
ple should be warmed every time before sampling
for testing—in summer as well as in winter. The
impression that summer temperature is warm
enough for accurate sampling -of composite samples
for testing is erroneous. In my experience I have
found that much of the trouble with variations in
the test is due to neglecting to warm the composite
sample before taking a sample for testing. The ex-
tra time required in properly caring for milk sam-
ples is time well spent and the creamery man is re-
paid in the satisfaction given both to himself and
his patrons by the knowledge that the test is abso-
lutely correct.

8. Receiving hand separator cream. The manner
of receiving cream at factories varies greatly. This
is due to the various methods employed in caring
for the cream at the factory, and the manner of
transporting the cream, whether by railroad or team
transportation, or by the delivery by the individual
patrons themselves. Since circumstances and con-
ditions vary in each factory it is necessary for each
creameryman to study conditions existing in his
factory and make arrangements to suit his individu-
al case. But whatever arrangements are made for the
receiving of cream, they should be durable, sanitary
and convenient.

METHODS OF COMPOSITE SAMPLING.
9. Composite cream samples. The composite
sample method of testing cream for fat content is
14. MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

quite widely used at present and when properly
handled gives very good results. The fact that some
ereamerymen have not the proper facilities for car-
ing for the composite samples, as well as the fact
that some competitors test every day, has led to a
system in some creameries of testing the cream
every day as soon as it is received and sampled or
as soon as the sample case containing the samples
from a route has arrived at the factory. Testing
eream for fat content soon after it is received at the
factory and while it is still in a fresh condition, is
becoming quite common and is received with much
favor.

10. Sampling Case and Tubes. A suitable and
convenient sample case holding a sufficient number
of test tubes of any suitable size, as advertised in
creamery supply catalogues, may be obtained. The
hauler takes this case on the road and at the time
of weighing each patron’s cream he takes a well
mixed sample with a small dipper or graduated
tube, which delivers an aliquot part of the cream,
and puts in into the sample tube, which is provided
with a tight fitting cork. The cover of the case is
so closely fitted that when the cover is closed the
corks in the tubes cannot come out. This insures
a safe delivery of the samples. On arriving at the
factory these samples are placed in a tank of warm
water, if necessary, and when warmed and well
shaken they are poured into jars containing a pre-
servative. In this manner samples are added as
often as cream is gathered during a period of a
week, {wo wecks or a month, and is then tested.
RECEIVING MILK OR CREAM. 15

Some creamerymen test each sample soon after the
samples are brought to the factory and this system
is to be recommended. While the method of mak-
ing a composite test every week or two may give
good results in the hands of an expert, still there
are greater chances for errors than when cream is
tested at each delivery.

11. Where cream is shipped by rail and the test-
ing is done at the receiving station the cream buyer
frequently takes a duplicate sample, places it in
a screw-top jar and drops the jar into the can of
cream. The cream is then shipped to the central
station and upon its arrival there the cream is care-
fully poured into a strainer. The sample jars are
then taken from the strainer, sent to the testing de-
partment where they are tested and the results ob-
tained compared with the tests made at the receiy-
ing station. While this method may be a very satis-
factory one from the standpoint of accuracy, yet
considering it from the sanitary point of view, it
is not to be recommended. The samples of cream
should be sent by express and not put in the cream
can.

12. Testing each patron’s cream while he waits.
In many cases where cream is delivered at the fac-
tory by the patrons themselves, it is tested while
they wait. The cream can is washed and a check
for the value of the cream is given to the patron.
This method is employed in many factories in Min-
nesota and Iowa. In Wisconsin and Michigan the
system is not so prevalent. Where the system of
{esting at each delivery of cream can be employed
1G MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

without too much inconvenience it should be used.
It has been found that the most uniform results in
testing eream can be obtained by testing it when
fresh, without the addition of preservatives. The
longer a composite sample is held before testing, the
greater is the care required in its preparation for
testing.

13. Care of composite cream samples. A good
preservative should always be used. The sample
jars should be well shaken daily by a rotary motion,
and also whenever a new sample of cream is added.
The cover must be well fitted to the jar and the
jars should be kept in a cool. well enclosed compart-
ment. The evaporation of moisture from badly kept
samples is quite great and a little evaporation of
moisture raises the test considerably above the
actual fat content in the cream. The loss sustained
in this way by the creameryman handling a large
amount of cream is enormous. No matter how well
managed a creamery may be in other respects, the
creameryman cannot stand the loss incurred in this
manner—at least not for any considerable length of
time. Unless the greatest care is exercised in the
handling of composite cream samples, composite
sampling should not be employed. Cream samples
should not be held longer than two weeks; holding
them for only one week is better, but testing every
day is the best method.
CHAPTER IL.

THE STRENGTH OF SULPHURIC
ACID.

INDEX TO CHAPTER II.

Par. No. Page
14. Sulphuric acid, specific gravity................. 19
15. Regulating the strength of sulphuric acid....... 19-20

20

16. Filling vessels from the carboy.................
CHAPTER II.
The Strength of Sulphuric Acid.

14. Sulphuric acid should have a specific gravity
of 1.82—1.83 (Farrington and Woll*) or not below
1.815 nor above 1.839. The strength of sulphuric
acid is shown to some extent by the color of the
fat. When the temperature of both the milk and
the acid is 70° F., and the fat shows dark flakes or
is black, the sulphuric acid is too strong. When the
fat is very light colored the acid is too weak. When
it is found that the fat is blackened by too strong
acid, add less acid. If the fat is too light, add a
trifle more acid. By experience the operator will
soon learn Just chow much acid to add in order to
get a lear, well defined reading. Very few carboys
of a are exactly alike in strength; therefore a
few tests made from any one carboy ‘will indicate
the Strength of the acid and the amount necessary
can easily be measured out for each milk or cream
sample.

15. Regulating the strength of sulphuric acid. If
the acid is too strong it can be made of standard
strength by leaving the ¢arboy open, as the acid
weakens by being exposed to the air. Since it takes
quite a time for the average creamery to use a whole
earboy of sulphuric acid it is not deemed advisable
to standardize the whole carboy at one time, but
rather standardize one gallon at a time. When a
earboy of sulphuric acid is all standardized there is

 

* Farrington and Woll. Testing Milk and Its Products, 1904.
19
20 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

danger of it becoming too weak before all of it is
used. Some buttermakers prefer placing a small
quantity of water in an earthen jar and then pour-
ing acid into it until it is of the proper strength.
Great care must be used when water is used as a
diluent, because when sulphuric acid is mixed with
water great heat is produced. When the acid is
poured into water it boils and foams and some of
it may spatter over the sides of the jar and burn
the hands or clothing. Sulphuric acid should al-
ways be handled very carefully since a drop of it
on the clothing will burn a hole in it and on the
hands may burn the skin and make it sore. It is
well to have a weak solution of ammonia at hand,
which should be applied at once in case of an acci-
dent with sulphuric acid. Water may also be used
in place of the ammonia, if the latter is not at hand,
as it weakens the acid and thereby renders it less
destructive.

16. Filling vessels from the carboy. It is quite a
task to fill bottles or any vessel from carboys with-
out spilling acid or meeting with an accident. Some
creamerymen draw acid from carboys with a pi-
pette, not realizing that a slight accident might cost
them their lives, by getting sulphurie acid into the
throat. A convenient device is Burke’s Pneumatic
Acid Syphon, which can be ebtained from creamery
supply houses.
CHAPTER IIL

TESTING MILK AND CREAM.

A Dairy School is the proper place to
learn how to operate successfully the
Babcock Test.
Par.

3g.

40),

4,
42.

INDEX TO CHAPTER III.

No. Page.
Temperature of sulphuric acid and milk......, . 23
Measuring milk into the test pottle............. 25
The mixing of milk and acid.........-..-..404- 23
Apparatus used for measuring acid into test

DOCEEB:. sweet avnalsinm pia die os amet dea ad ace Mueuinal re ees ae 24
Whirling the bottles and adding hot water......24-26
Accuracy in testing cream a necessity... cc... 26
How often should cream be tested’............. 26
Composite cream SAaMpPleS ..... 6.6 cece eee re eee 26-27
Handling fresh cream samples........--00.0005 27
Weighing cream for testing............... a 27
Kind of cream seile to use...... eee eee eee sia ne 28
Temperature of cream and acid..........-..... 28
(a) Causes of defects in the test............... 28

(b) Causes of a cloudy and wavy fat column... 29
(c) Causes of black flakes and black fat column 29

Mixing cream and acid.............. 0.00 c eae 29-30
Whirling the bottles and adding hot water...... 0
How to get a clear reading.....................9068
Yemperature during first whirling.............. 3
Ilow to read milk tests........ cee eee eee BT
Tlow some creamerymen cead inilk tesis........ 2
Preparing samples for testing cream. ....... ee. a3
Care of cream samples... .. ccc ee eee eee eee a
Preparing samples for measuring into a_ test
DOCG? ato saie- Savoie eee ee one A, Saag Base Bo
Weighing cream info the test botile...... 2.0... 80-8
Makitte © PUI: WL. once nest deceased eves evaews B4
Suggestions on reading cream tests....00...... 54-35

Colored alcohol in veading cream tests.......... oo
CHAPTER III.
Testing Milk and Cream.

17. Temperature of sulphuric acid and milk. The
temperature of the acid and milk should be about
the same—preferably between 60°—70° F. When
the acid has a temperature of 65° F. and the tem-
perature of the milk is below 55° F., add a trifle
more acid; and when the milk is above 75° F., add
a trifle less acid. The reason for this is that the
acid produces a certain amount of heat in the milk,
which is necessary to produce a complete digestion
of casein in the milk, in order to liberate the fat.
Improper temperatures of either the acid or the
milk, or both, is a frequent cause of a cloudy, flaky
or charred fat column, and black or white specks in
both milk or cream tests.

18. Measuring milk into the test bottle. Use a
17.6 c.c. pipette; fill up to the mark on the stem
of the pipette. Place the point of the pipette in
the mouth of the test bottle, and hold both the pi-
pette and the test bottle in an inclined position.
This allows the milk to run down the inside of the
neck of the bottle, and avoids spilling the same.
When the milk is all out of the pipette, blow through
it gently in order that any drops adhering to the in-
side of it may drop into the bottle.

19. The mixing of milk and acid. Whatever acid
measure is used in measuring the acid into the test
bottle, the bottle must be held in an inclined posi-
tion, so that the acid may run down on the inside

23
24 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

of the neck of the bottle. After adding the acid,
the bottle should at once be given a rotary motion
to the right and to the left, until the milk and acid
are well mixed. The mixture should then have a
‘dark, but not a black color. If the color is too
light, add a trifle more acid; if too dark, use -less
acid the next time.

20. Apparatus used for measuring acid into test
bottles. It is not only necessary to use accurate ap-
paratus for measuring sulphuric acid into the test
bottles, but it is most desirable to have a reliable,
accurate and convenient contrivance, by which sul-
phuric acid can be safely and quickly added to the
milk or cream to be tested. Sulphuric acid is a
dangerous fluid to handle and great care should be
exercised when using it. For the successful hand-
ling and measuring of it into test bottles, various
acid bottles, tubes and dippers are now on the mar-
ket. Information regarding these may be had by
addressing any reliable creamery supply house.

The practice of using a pipette for measuring
acid into test bottles.should be condemned. While
one may not meet with an accident, there is always
danger of making a mistake unexpectedly and en-
dangering one’s life by forcing acid over the stem
of the pipette into the mouth and throat.

21. Whirling the bottles and adding hot water.
Be sure to have an cqual number of bottles directly
opposite each other in the tester, in order to have a
true balance. If this is not done the tester may
run unevenly and may spoil both the test and tester ;
or it may break the bottles.
TESTING MILK AND CREAM, 25

After adding the acid to the milk in the test bot-
tle and mixing the two thoroughly, the test bottles
should be placed in the tester and whirled for five
minutes at whatever speed is indicated in the di-
rections given for the use of the machine. If
through any unavoidable delay, the test bottles get
too cool before the testing can be done, the bottles
should be heated to about 140° F. before placing
them in the tester. If the samples are tested when
too cold, the extraction of fat is not perfect, and the
fat column is neither so clear nor so well defined
as when the bottles have the proper temperature.
This heating can be done, either by placing the bot-
tles in hot water or in the tester, with the steam
turned on until they are sufficiently heated. Then
they may be whirled. The first five minutes whirling
ean be done at a high temperature—as high as 200°
F. without interfering with the accuracy of the test ;
but the last three or four minutes whirling should
not be done at a high temperature—preferably 130°
F. When the testing is finished at too high a tem-
perature, the fat column contracts and sags a little
when the bottles are taken from the machine, and
this settling of the fat may cause a smeary and ill
defined meniscus, which interferes with the proper
reading of the fat column. If the reading is done
when the sample is too hot, the test will be too high.
At the end of the first five minutes whirling, add
hot soft water to fill the bottles up to the neck, and .
whirl again for two minutes. After the second
whirling, add sufficient hot water to fill the bottle
to about the 8th per cent mark. Soft water should
26 MODERN BUTTER MAKING,

be used, as this can be easily obtained by using con-
densed steam, or by boiling hard water.

THE TESTING OF CREAM.

22. Accuracy a necessity. In no phase of cream-
ery butter making is accuracy so necessary as in the
testing of eream. Creameries cannot be suecess-
fully operated unless cream samples are properly
prepared, accurately weighed into the test bottle,
carefully and properly whirled and the test correct-
ly read. The success and welfare of the creamery
and its patrons depends upon the proper perform-
ance of this work.

23. Frequency of testing cream. It is desirable
for several reasons that cream should be tested while
in good condition instead of allowing the sample to
get too cold. Composite samples should never under
any circumstanccs be more than four weeks old
when tested, and having samples even this old is not
to be recommended because evaporation of moisture
is bound to take place even when samples are kept
under the most favorable conditions. If testing
cream frequently did not give better results than
testing at long intervals the former would not mect
with such great favor with creamerymen as it does.
Cream should be tested at least three times every
month.

PREPARING CREAM SAMPLES FOR TESTING.

24. Composite cream samples. Sct the composite
cream sample jars into water of a temperature be-
tween 115—120° F. until well warmed. Then shake
TESTING MILK AND CREAM. 27

by a rotary motion several times or until the cream
is well suspended and the whole well mixed. Pour
from jar into a dipper or any convenient vessel and
back again into the jar, repeating this several times.
Then quickly take a sample and weigh the desired
number of grams into a cream test bottle and set to |
cool to reduce temperature for adding acid.

25. Fresh cream samples. As a rule fresh cream
samples need not be warmed before taking a sample
for testing. The warming of fresh cream samples
is necessary only when the samples have been in
transit or have stood for such a length of time as
to allow the butter fat to rise to the top and form
a heavy layer, or when the sample is too cold. The
creameryman ought to be able to judge by the con-
dition of the cream sample what treatment it should
receive,

26. Weighing cream for testing. Cream for test-
ing should be weighed, not measured. The reason
for this is that butter fat is lighter than milk serum
and the richer the cream the lighter it is. One quart
of cream testing 50 per cent butter fat is not so
heavy as one quart of cream testing 20 per cent but-
ter fat. When we measure out 18 grams of 50 per
cent cream we have less cream by weight than when
we measure out 18 grams of 20 per cent testing
eream. Even when the same pipette is used in
measuring cream of the same richness the test will
vary somewhat between sweet and sour cream, be-
cause the sour cream contains air bubbles and
gaseous fermentations, while the body of the sweet
eream is smooth and close. Weighing cream into
28 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

cream test bottles is the only reliable and correct
method. In weighing out cream tap the end of the
beam of the scale once or twice to determine when
enough cream is put into a bottle to give a true
balanee. <A few drops more or less of rich cream
will make quite a difference in the result obtained.

27. Kind of cream scale to use. There are a num-
ber of good scales on the market especially made
for weighing cream samples. Any high grade, sen-
sitive scale may be used. Do not weigh too many
bottles at a time, as this will render the scale less
sensitive. Good scales can be bought from any dealer
in creamery supplies.

28. Temperature of cream and acid. The acid
should be about the same temperature as the cream.
Regulate the quantity of acid according to the
strength and temperature of the acid and the tem-
perature of the cream. Very rich cream should
stand about five minutes after the addition of the
acid before being whirled. This is to give the acid
time to act upon the ingredients other than fat in
the cream. Should the fat column not be clear, let
the bottle get cold, then reheat and whirl again for
two or three minutes.

29. Causes of defects in the test.

(a) Causes of too light color of butter fat.

1. Milk too cold.

2. Acid too weak.

3. Not enough acid.

4. Acid too cold.

(b) Causes of a cloudy and wavy fat column.
TESTING MILK AND CREAM. 29

1. Not mixing acid and milk at once after acid
is added to milk.

2. Not having proper temperature during testing.

3. Too low speed of tester, combined with weak
acid,

4. Insufficient mixing and unclean acid.

(c) Causes of black flakes and black fat column.

1. Too strong acid.

2. Too much acid.

3. Too high temperature of milk or acid or both.

4. Not mixing acid and milk soon enough after
adding acid.

30. The mixing of cream and acid. The addition
of the acid to the cream, and the mixing of the
same, is carried. on in the same manner as outlined
for testing whole milk. When pouring the acid into
the cream test bottle, the bottle must be held in such
a way as to wash any cream adhering to the neck
of the bottle down into the bulb of the bottle. Im-
mediate mixing is absolutely necessary. If not
mixed immediately the acid may act upon part of
the cream and burn part of the butter fat, which
will appear in the fat column when the testing is
done in flocules or flakes resembling charred fat.
Delay in mixing also causes the acid to act unevenly
upon the casein and thereby may produce white
flakes, which usually appear at the bottom of the
fat column. In case delay in mixing the cream with
the acid does not produce either of those defects, it
may produce a mottled column of fat. This is evi-
dent in the lower portion of the fat column by the
appearance of a brownish or yellowish brown streak.
30 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

When the acid is added and well mixed with the
cream, and the mixture turns black very rapidly, it
is a sign that the acid is too strong. If, however,
the mixture is of a light yellow shade, or nearly
white, the chances are that the acid was either too
cool or too weak, or the quantity added was insuf-
ficient. When the samples are all mixed, they must
be placed in the tester at once, before they cool off
too much. In case they should cool too much, they
must be heated before being tested. If this is not
done, the fat column may show various colors, due
to the coolness of the butter fat before starting the
testing. The separation will then be incomplete,
which means that the reading of the test will be
too low, because the butter fat is not all extracted
or separated.

31. Whirling the bottles and adding hot water.
The whirling of the cream test bottles must be done
exactly as the whirling of the whole milk test bot-
tles. They should be whirled three times. If the
testing js done by an expert two whirlings may be
sufficient and may give good results, but with a be-
ginner two whirlings may not always be sufficient.
All things considered, three whirlings are better
than two, but there are creamerymen who whirl the
bottles only onee..

32. By adding hot water twice the reading will
be clear, the butter fat column bright, and the menis-
cus will be well defined. Some creamerymen advo-
cate the addition of a little hot water before the
first whirling.

In case a sample of cream produces a discolored
TESTING MILK AND CREAM. 31

or frothy fat colum, this can be remedied by allow-
ing the sample to cool, when through testing, until
the butter fat hardens. Then reheat, whirl for two
or three minutes and read at once. This will, as a
rule, produce a very clear reading. Since hard
water has a tendency to favor foam on the top of
the fat colum, soft water should be used; if this
cannat be had use condensed steam, or boil ordinary
water.

33, The temperature during the first whirling may
be as high as 200° F. and yet not necessarily inter-
fere with the correct result of the test, but if this
temperature were employed during the two last
whirlings, and the bottles read immediately after
the testing were completed, the reading would in-
variably be too high, and air bubbles might appear
in the fat column. Therefore, the temperature dur-
ing the two last whirlings ought not exceed. 140° F.

THE READING OF MILK AND CREAM TESTS.

34, Reading milk tests. According to Farrington,
milk tests should be read from the extreme bottom
line of the fat column to the extreme top of the
meniscus (see Fig. I, Book Il). The reading from
A to D represents the true fat content of the milk.
tested. C to D is the space the meniscus takes up,
which may be termed the per cent of meniscus. This
space usually represents .2 per cent on the reading
of the test, but not .2 per cent of the reading. Bab-
cock found that about .2 per cent fat adheres to the
inside of the test bottle and does not find its way
into the neck of the bottle with the other fat. The
32 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

hollowness in the top of the fat column (the menis-
cus) represents in the milk bottle about .2 per cent,
which is equal to the amount of fat which adheres
to the inside of the bottle. In order to have the
reading represent the total fat in the milk, the full
column of fat should be read. In ordinary creamery
practice, the meniscus of the milk tests is not usually
included in the reading. At the average creamery
the fat column is usually read from the bottom of
the fat column (a) to the bottom of the meniscus
(ec). See Fig. I, Chap. V of Dairy Arithmetic. It is
claimed by most creamerymen that this reading is
necessary in order to get sufficient overrun.

35. How some creamerymen read milk tests. It is
claimed by up-to-date creamerymen, who seem to be
close observers of their business transactions, that in
order to recover an amount of butter fat, plus me-
chanical losses and shrinkage, equal to the butter
fat bought in the cream, the whole meniscus must
not be included in the reading of either milk or
cream tests. Some claim that they have found that
in order to get the recently requested overrun, based
upon market returns of butter sold, either on milk
or cream, the whole meniscus in either case cannot
be included in the reading of the fat column. Also
that the reading should not be done at a lower tem-
perature than 110° F., nor higher than 130° F. At
a lower or higher temperature than those indicated
the fat column, it is claimed, is not in good condi-
tion for proper reading.
TESTING } MILK AND CREAM. 33

CONDENSED DIRECTIONS FOR TESTING MILK
AND CREAM.

36. Preparing samples for testing cream. Cream
should always be poured from one vessel into an-
other before taking a sample. Cream that is frozen
must be thawed out before it can be properly sam-
pled. The dipper sampler gives very good results,
but the sampling tube gives the most accurate re-
sults.

37. Keeping the samples. Sample jars must have
tight fitting covers and should be kept in a closed
compartment. For composite samples the preserva-
tive used should be thoroughly mixed with the milk
or cream. The mixing should always be done with
a rotary motion. Lack of attention to samples is a
frequent cause of abnormal variations in the test.
The samples should not freeze; they should be looked
after daily, and the samples taken should not be too
large. Large samples entail an unnecessary loss.

38. Preparing samples for measuring into a test
bottle. Samples should be heated to about 115° F.
and should be mixed until they are absolutely uni-
form and the cream is all well suspended. The high-
er the temperature of the cream sample, the more
liquid it is and the easier it is to take a uniform
sample. In case of a lumpy sample, shake vigorously
before taking the sample for testing. Samples which
have been partly churned or frozen should be very
thoroughly mixed, and then sampled as quickly as
possible.

39. Weighing cream into the test bottle. Use deli-
cate balances and keep them in perfect order. Be

 
34 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

sure to test the weights for accuracy before using
them. If possible never use less than nine grams of
cream for testing ; eighteen grams is even better than
nine. Never measure the cream, but always weigh
it, as this is the only correct and reliable method.
No other method should be tolerated. Be very care-
ful to weigh out the exact amount. because a few
drops too much or too little of rich cream means a
great loss to the creameryman or to the patron.

40. Making the test. If you use nine grams of
cream, use about six grams of water and then add
acid as for an eighteen gram sample. See that the
fat colum is always clear; if it is not, change the
quantity of acid and determine the exact quantity
by experience. Use soft, hot water for filling the
bottles. The first whirling may be done at a com-
paratively high temperature, but the two last whirl-
ings should always be done at a temperature of
about 125° to 140° F. The tester should run smooth-
ly and should be run neither above nor below speed.

41. Suggestions on reading cream tests. Hold the
bottle on a level with thé eye and then read from
the bottom of the fat column to nearly the bottom
of the upper meniscus: The reading should be done
at a temperature of about 130° F. If possible, when
nine gram samples are used, use a bottle on which
the reading is based on eighteen grams. Multiplying
the reading by two increases an error, if one has
been made. If bottles get cold before reading can
be done, place them in a hot water bath of a tem-
perature of 130° F. for fifteen minutes. The 30 per
cent, six inch, eighteen gram, and 30 per cent or
50 per cent nine inch cream test bottles are con-
TESTING MILK AND CREAM. 35

sidered most accurate. The use of the 50 per cent
six inch cream test bottle should be avoided. Buy
only first class bottles, as these are most accurate,
but all bottles should be tested for correctness of
calibration. Even bottles which are guaranteed cor-
rectly calibrated cannot always be depended upon
as accurate.

Note: For further information regarding the
reading of cream tests, comparison of cream test
bottles, and mathematical caleulations involved in
testing cream, consult Book II, Chapter V

42. Using colored alcohol for reading cream tests.
Butter fat has a specific gravity of about .90. Al
cohol has a specific gravity of about .816, and amyl
alcohol has a specific gravity of .8294. It is advis-
able to be sure to get the properly colored amyl
aleohol for this use.

The adding of the colored alcohol must be done
carefully, so that the fat and alcohol do not mix,
and so that the alcohol does not run down between
the fat column and the neck of the bottle.

Some of the colored lquids on the market seem
to mix very readily with the butter fat and those
which do this are likely to cause considerable
trouble. An experienced cream tester can read the
tests more quickly and accurately without the ad-
dition of the colored alcohol. With some of the
colored liquids now used, the upper line of the fat
column had an upward curve, which made the exact
reading more difficult than when no colored liquid
was used. Therefore, I wish to warn the inexperi-
enced operator against the use of a colored liquid
unless he is sure that it is reliable.
CHAPTER IV.

ACIDITY TESTS.
INDEX TO CHAPTER IV.

Par. No. Page.

Se Maus: ACIdity “TESt wien ae ee wea easa ew Mele ee as
+4. How to find per cent acidity................0.0.0. 39
45. Mann’s acidity test apparatus.................4. a
46. The Farrington alkaline tablet solution.......... 40
47. The standard alkaline acidity test apparatus.... 40
48. Farrington rapid method acidity test............ 41
49. How to prepare the solution.................... 41
50. How to operate the test.................0.00085 41
51. Necessary apparatuS ..........- ccc cece eee eee 41

52. Uniformity in expressing acidity in milk or cream 42
CHAPTER IV.
Acidity Tests.

43. Mann’s acidity test. The solution is prepared
by dissolving forty grams of caustic soda in water,
making a total volume of 1000 c.c. This makes the
normal solution. A tenth normal solution, which is
the strength generally used at present for testing
acidity, is made by dissolving four grams of caustic
soda in one quart of water. One c.c. of the tenth
normal solution contains .004 grams of soda and will
neutralize .009 grams of lactic acid. Mann, in his
directions for using this method, recommends the
use of a 50 cc. pipette for measuring the cream
or milk. A 50 ce, a 20 @c., or a 17.6 ¢.c. pipette
may be used. In using the different sizes of pipettes
factors may be used to simplify the process. These
factors are found by dividing .009 by the size in e.c.
of the pipette and multiplying the quotient by 100.
Factors for different sized pipettes are as follows:

(.009--50) x 100==.018 (009-20) « 100==.045
(.009-25) x 100.036 (.009--17.6) x 100==.051

How to use the factors: Use .018 with a 50 ee.
pipette; .036 with a 25 c.c. pipette; .045 with a 20.
¢.c, pipette; and .051 with a 17.6 cc. pipette.

To illustrate: Suppose a 50 ¢.c. pipette is used in
taking a sample of cream, and the solution used to
neutralize the acidity is 30 ¢.c., the factor is .018.

a8
ACIDITY TESTS. 39

The acidity in the cream would be 30X.018 or .54
per cent, or

30 .009

50
44. Suppose a 17.6 ¢.c. pipette is used, requiring
10 c.c. of solution to neutralize the acidity, the fac-
tor which is found as follows (.009~17.6) x100—
.051 and the acidity of the cream would be found by
multiplying the factor by 10, or .051X10—.51 per
cent.

<100—=.54 per cent.

17.6
Acidity of cream——————_X100=.51 per cent, or
10.009

Acidity of cream==.051X10=.51 per cent, or for
practical purposes the acidity may be found by di-
viding 10 ¢.c. by 2, giving the acidity of .50 per cent.
The factor which corresponds with each size of pi-
pette is to be multiplied by the number of c.c. of
solution used to neutralize each sample. The result
is the acidity in per cent. These calculations are
based upon a one-tenth normal solution. The figure
.009 is the number of c.c. of lactic acid neutralized
by one c.c. of the solution used. As a rule when
Mann’s acid test is used, a 50 ¢.c. pipette is used.
Those who are accustomed to the use of the 50 cc.
pipette usually give the number of c.c. of solution
used, from the burette, and not the per cent of acid-
ity in the milk or cream. Acidity should, however,
be expressed in per cent, as this is the only logical
and reasonable method of expressing it. If the so-
lution weakens from age before it is all used, a fresh
solution of standard strength should be procured,
40 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

45. Mann’s acidity test apparatus. 1 iron burette
stand, with cork lined clamp; 1, 50 ¢.c. burette, grad-
uated in tenths of a cubic centimeter; 1, 50 ¢.c. pi-
pette; 1, 50 ¢.c. beaker; 1 glass funnel; 1 glass stir-
ring rod; 1 pinch cock and rubber connections, with
glass tip; 1 gallon of one-tenth normal solution, and
1 4-02. bottle of phenolphtalien.

46. The Farrington alkaline tablet solution. The
Farrington tablet solution can be used in three
ways: First by dissolving five tablets in 85 c.c. of
soft water; second by dissolving five tablets in 97
c.c. of soft water, and third by dissolving one tablet
in one ounce of soft water. In using the first method
a 20 c.c. pipette is used. One c.c. of the solution
(five tablets to 85 c.c. of water) will neutralize .01
per cent acidity in the sample tested, and 20 c.c. of
the solution would neutralize .20 per cent acidity.
In using the second method (five tablets to 97 ce. .c.
of water) a 17.6 cc. pipette is used. The number
of c.c. of solution used represents, as in the first
method, the same amount of acidity neutralized;
thus, if 20 c. c. of solution have been used the acidity
is .20 per cent.

This method is a very desirable one as it needs no
mathematical calculation and a 17.6 ¢.c. pipette can
be found in every creamery. The tablets will keep
better than a solution; they can be procured by mail
from creamery supply houses and the solution is
very easily prepared. With Mann’s method the
solution is as a rule prepared by a chemist.
ACIDITY TESTS. 41

47. Farrington standard acidity test apparatus.
1 Babcock 17.6 ¢. ¢. pipette; 1 white cup; 2, 100 ¢. e.
graduated cylinders; 1 box of 1,000 tablets.

48. Farrington rapid method acidity test. This
method for determining acidity in milk or cream is
used mainly where quick results are desired and
when a great number of tests must be made in a
short time. For selecting milk for pasteurizing or
for testing milk quickly for city supply this test is
indispensable because it is convenient and accurate
and the solution is very easily prepared.

49. How the solution is prepared. Take one al-
kaline tablet and dissolve it in one ounce of soft
water and when dissolved use as needed. Do not
prepare more of the solution than is needed for a
day or two. When all is not used soon after pre-
paring pour it into a bottle and cork well or else
throw it away and prepare a fresh solution when
needed.

50. How to use the test. This test is based upon
the use of equal quantities of cream or milk and
solution. A measure of the same size as that used
for measuring the cream or milk must be used for
measuring the solution. One measure of the solu-
tion added to an equal measure of milk or cream
represents .10 per cent acidity and two measures
represents .20 per cent, and so on. Half per cents
can be obtained by a half measure of the solution.
Stop adding solution when a light pink shade ap-
pears. This applies to all the acidity tests men-
tioned.
42 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

51. The necessary apparatus. 1 white cup, a good
sized one preferred; 1 measure for measuring cream
and solution, any size preferred, may be 5 grams,
6 grams or 8 grams. This method can be used in
testing cream for acidity for butter making. Re-
sults are quite accurate when test is properly
handled.

52. Uniformity in expressing acidity in milk or
cream. Acidity in milk or cream should always be
expressed in per cent, and not by degrees, by cubic
centimeters or by the name of a certain acid test.
When we consider that there are several different
acid tests now in use by which the acidity in milk
or cream is determined, and that each test is based
upon different mathematical calculations, the neces-
sity for expressing the results on one basis is ob-
vious. The different quantities of solution used to
produce a given coloration, or to-neutralize a given
quantity of lactic acid, varies with each test. There-
fore, it seems that the results obtained by the use
of any one test can best be expressed in per cent.
Acidity expressed in per cent carries with it a defin-
ite quantitative meaning, while when the per cent
of acidity in milk or cream is expressed in cubic
centimeters, in degrees, or by the name of a certain
acid test, the meaning is not always clear and
definite.
CHAPTER V.

COMMERCIAL STARTERS IN
BUTTER MAKING.

Success in butter making rests primarily
upon the extent of our knowledge of the
fundamental principles involved in con-
trolling lactic acid fermentations.
INDEX TO CHAPTER V.

Par. No. Page.
538. Pure lactic acid cultureS........... cece ee eee eee 45
54. Methods change as we gain knowledge.......... 45
55. Commercial starters in buttermaking............ 46
56. Condensed directions for building up the starto-

line and starter from a pure culture of lactic

fermentia 4. sige cues anise aaw mane aan ae 47
57. Selection of milk for starter........ 0... ee eee eee 48
58. Preparing milk for the first propagation......... 49
59. Adding the lactic ferment cullure............... 49
60. Handling the second propagation............... 50
61. Handling the third propagation................. 50
62. Handling the startoline ..........- cesses ee eee 51
63. Startoline incubators ........... cee cece e eee 52
64. Handling the starter .......... cece eee eee 52
65. Temperatures and quantities ................... 53
66. Temperatures influence results ..............-. 53-55
67. Using starters every other day..............000. 55
68. Effect of too high acid starters................. 55
69. Vigor of starters and how controlled............ 56
WO: (Ripening ‘Starters. 2 e.cicwosace tones vaca seen tae 56
71. Starters a check on gassy fermentation......... 57
72. How gassy Crean) APpearS..... 6... eee ee eee eens 57
73. How gassy cream CDUINS......... 0... cece eee 57-58
74. Gassy fermentation kills flavor in butter....... . 58
75. Lactic acid ripened cream........... eesnia tna aeeh 58
76. Average acidity in starter..................0008 58
77. Regulating the quality of acid in both startoline

ANG! STALTEY so esevcsssess eusonue dS Ria: Samed weve ater 59
78. Regarding pink or brown starter....,.......... 60
79. Burnt flavor in starter due to wilk used..... ... 60
80. A starter scoring bDlank............ cece ee eee eee 61
81. Judging starters ............ 0. eee Ee Guaran Posie 61
82. Regarding glasSWATe ........ cece ee eee ee ee eee 62
83. Utensils which should not be nsed.............. 63
84. Gassy fermentation and flies...............0005 64
85. Starters in cream ripening...............eee eae 64-65

86. Raw or pasteurized cream........... 0. cece ee eee 65
87. Per cent of starter to be added to cream........ 66
88. Richness of cream and per cent of starter...... 66-67
89. ‘Temperature and time in ripening cream........ 68
90. A few things to remember regarding starters.... 68
CHAPTER V.
Commercial Starters in Butter Making.

53. Pure lactic acid cultures. In American as well
as in European butter making the pure lactic acid
culture has played an important part in the last
decade. It became known that lactic acid fermenta-
tion was the main factor in giving to butter the
characteristic flavor and aroma so pronounced in
butter made from well ripened cream. Pure lactic
acid bacteria, in sufficient numbers, have a tendency
toward retarding and destroying the growth of un-
desirable bacteria in cream. Authorities on dairy-
ing recognize the value of a pure lactic acid cul-
ture as a means of improving the poorer grades of
eream and insuring the production of more uni-
formly good butter. Since modern dairy education
demands a knowledge of the handling of pure cul-
tures, and of their use in butter making, it seems
advisable to emphasize the need of a pure culture in
creamery butter making.

54. Methods change as we gain knowledge. In
proportion as we gain knowledge of the use of a
pure lactic ferment culture in butter making do our
methods change and readjust themselves to changed
conditions. Where improper methods still prevail
financial returns are less and poor quality of butter
and cheese is not uncommon. Even with modern
methods of manufacture there are times when the
quality of butter and cheese is not as good as it
might be. This in a measure is due to the lack of

45
46 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

knowledge of a wonderful flavor-producing organ-
ism called the lactic acid germ. This little plant is
today looked upon as the greatest money making
organism of any affecting milk and its products. The
lactic acid germ is the most vigorous germ, under
normal temperatures with which the dairyman has
to deal ,and when properly cared for it is his best
friend and is used as a medium through which a
great many difficulties arising from abnormal fer-
mentation in milk or cream may be overcome. By
its careful use abnormal fermentations affecting the
quality of butter may readily be prevented and the
best flavor insured. It is known to butter makers
that by using a good pure culture of lactic ferment
in the manufacture of their product, the value has
been increased from one to two cents a pound; in
some cases as much as five cents.

55. Commercial starters in butter making. Butter
making today without a starter is like running ma-
chinery without oil. Whenever a prosperous cream-
eryman is found you are sure to find that a commer-
cial starter is used in the manufacture of his butter
because pure lactic acid enhances the keeping qual-
ity of butter.

Various methods of handling and souring cream
have been tried, but so far the best results have
been obtained by using a large quantity of a pure
starter, and ripening the cream to about .55 per cent
acidity. Lactic acid acts as a germicide on obnox-
jous germs and prevents the development of bad
flavors and taints present in cream or milk.
COMMERCIAL STARTERS IN BUTTER MAKING. 47

A good lactic ferment is a great purifier and
should be used by every butter maker. Gas or
yeast organisms have an injurious effect on the
aroma, flavor and body of butter.

As a further proof of the value of a pure lactic
acid culture in butter making I may mention that
at the Educational Scoring Exhibitions now carried
on in all dairy states the highest average scores are,
in every instance, received by exhibitors of butter
and cheese who use a pure culture.

56. Condensed directions for building up the Start-
oline and starter from a pure culture of lactic fer-
ment.

(a) Preparing the Startoline or mother starter.

1. First we inoculate a small quantity of pasteur-
ized milk with a pure culture of lactic ferment,
known in the market as lactic ferment culture. This
when coagulated makes the first propagation and is
called Startoline. Startoline is the small quantity
from which larger quantities are grown.

2. The next day when this milk is sour or suf-
ficiently ripened, a small quantity of it is added to
fresh pasteurized milk. This is the second propaga-
tion.

3. A third propagation is made in the same way,
by adding a little of the second propagation to pas-
teurized milk, a fourth in the same way, and so on
day after day until the starter shows signs of de-
terioration, when it becomes necessary to prepare a
new batch of Startoline with a fresh commercial
starter.
48 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

Jeoadivincedanaiiniecele macicicwnnil

(b) Preparing the starter.

While the propagation of Startoline is carried on
day after day for an indefinite time, as before indi-
eated, a sufficient quantity of it should be prepared
every day after the second or third propagation, not
only to perpetuate the Startoline itself, but also to
inoculate the starter milk. The starter when fully
ripened is used in the cream for butter making or
the milk for cheese making.

In earrying out the processes as outlined above
the first thing to be taken into consideration is:

57. The selection of milk. To obtain the best re-
sults it is necessary to use only the cleanest, sweet-
est and freshest milk, from a healthy herd and from
one having few strippers. Stripper milk being too
viscous and lacking fine flavor, is not as good for
starter making as fresher cow’s milk. Mixed milk
as it is generally delivered at the creamery or cheese
factory is unsatisfactory for making a first-class
starter. The best milk, either evening or morning
milk, should be used. An observant operator soon
learns which of his patrons brings the best milk
for starter making and this is the milk to use. Milk
having an old taste will impart the same to the start-
er. In fact defective milk will produce a defective
starter even though the best of care has been exer-
cised in the handling of it. An experienced butter
or cheese maker soon learns how to tell old or kept
over milk from new or fresh milk even though both
are cold. The new or morning milk always is soft
and velvety to the palate, while old milk is harsh
1o the palate and lacks fineness of flavor.
COMMERCIAL STARTURS IN BUTTER MAKING. 49

58. Preparing milk for the first propagation. (Per-
not.*)—The preparation of milk for the propagation
of a pure culture is very simple. Select two quarts
of good sweet whole milk or skim milk for this pur-
pose. (Hither may be used satisfactorily but sweet
whole milk gives the Startoline more of a smooth,
pleasing taste than skim milk does.) Set two vessels
each containing one quart of milk into water and
heat it to 170° F.—190° F. and hold at this tempera-
ture for about forty minutes. Cool quickly to 80°
F. and it is then ready for the addition of the pure
culture. For very large creameries use a large sized
bottle of pure culture and use one gallon of milk
divided into two jars of two quarts each. An excel-
lent method is to place the jars of selected milk in a
steam tight, wooden, tin-lined box the temperature
of which can be perfectly regulated and pasteuriza-
tion assured. Another method is to tie parchment
paper over the necks of the jars and then place the
jars on a shelf through which steam is conducted.
Turn a large tin pail over them, turn on the steam
and heat as mentioned above. Then cool by placing
the jars first in warm water (to avoid breaking
them) and then gradually running cold water
around them.

59. Adding the lactic ferment culture. When
the milk is prepared as previously directed get the
little bottle of pure culture, clean the sealing wax
carefully from the neck of the bottle and empty
one-half of the contents into each bottle of the pas-
teurized milk. Now close the jars or vessels con-

 

* Pernot, E. F. Bul. No. 83. Oregon, 1904.
50 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

taining the milk, being careful not to get any dust or
impurities into the milk. Shake the jars five or six
times at intervals of three or four minutes, then let
stand at a temperature of about 80° F. until nicely
coagulated. This is called the first generation and
each consecutive propagation is one generation.
Thirty consecutive propagations are thirty genera-
tions. Each souring is considered one germ life and
therefore we have one generation at every propaga-
tion. Whether the milk is pasteurized in the same
vessel in which the Startoline is to be grown or in
a separate vessel and the Startoline jars sterilized
before putting the milk into them, the milk should
always be in the jars before the culture is put into it.
After the culture has been added to the milk and it
has coagulated it is called ‘‘Startoline.’’ :

60. The second propagation. The milk used for
the second propagation is handled the same as the
milk used for the first inoculation of the pure cul-
ture, except that the temperature at which the milk
is set should be 75° F. or about five degrees lower
than the temperature used for the first propagation.
This temperature may vary slightly according to the
methods employed and to the skill of the person
handling the starter. Add about two tablespoon-
fuls of sour milk from the first propagation to each
quart of the milk for the second propagation and
use.about the same proportions for each succeeding
propagation.

61. The third propagation. Whenever it is neces-
sare to make more than two propagations of a pure
culture before it is used for inoculating the starter
COMMERCIAL STARTERS IN BUTTER MAKING. 51

milk to be used in butter or cheese making, set the
milk for the Startoline at about 70° F. If the second
propagation is used to inoculate the starter milk,
set the starter milk at about 72° F. in winter, al-
lowing a few degrees for the lowering of the temper-
ature. Set it at about 68° F.in summer. The subse-
quent propagations may be set at temperatures
ranging from 65° to 70° F., depending upon the
quantity of Startoline used and temperature of the
room.

62. Handling the Startoline. From the foregoing
we see that we obtain our Startoline by inoculating
pasteurized. milk with a pure lactic ferment culture
and allowing it to coagulate. For the perpetuation
of the Startoline the milk may be taken daily from
the can of milk pasteurized for the starter, or it
may be prepared as directed on page 49. Have
the pasteurized milk and the Startoline jars ready,
break up the coagulated Startoline by shaking
and add about two tablespoonfuls to each jar
filled nearly full with the pasteurized milk. Now
shake thoroughly and set at a temperature of 65°
F. to 70° F. Vary the quantity of Startoline added
to cach jar according to the conditions of the Starto-
line and to possible variations in temperature during
the ripening process. Jn ordinary room tempera-
ture (68° F.) when two tablespoonfuls of Startoline
are added to the milk it will coagulate in 12-18
hours. When the Startoline is in danger of getting
overripe before it can be used break it up thorough-
ly and pour out about one-half; then fill the jar
again with pasteurized milk, shake well and set
52 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

ina cool place. This will lower the acidity and give
the lactic acid germs a chance to multiply and re-
tain their vitality which is essential in growing
good Startoline.

63. Startoline incubators. There are various con-
trivances on the market made especially for the pur-
pose of handling the Startoline or ‘‘Mother Start-
er.’’ These may be obtained from any reliable cream-
ery supply house at a reasonable cost. They are so
made that a uniform temperature can be maintained
during the ripening of the Startoline. This uni-
formity of temperature is necessary for obtaining
good results. Where electricity can be had a very
uniform temperature is easily maintained by placing
one incandescent bulb in the interior of the ineuba-
tor and turning on the electricity. A common,
double-walled, tin-lined, wooden box can be used
‘ with success in this manner. In very cold weather if
there is danger of the room temperature dropping
too low, two bulbs may be used instead of one.

64. The handling of the starter. The care to be
exercised in selecting, heating and cooling milk for
the starter is not necessarily different from that to
be exercised in the handling of the milk for the Star-
toline. The can or cans used for making the starter
should be well tinned and all seams should be smooth
to allow it to be easily and thoroughly cleaned. Old
cans, especially when the tin is worn off or when
they are somewhat rusty, will impart a ‘‘tin can’’
flavor to the milk which will impair the usefulness
of the milk for starter making. The best starter
cans are those which produce a vigorous whirling
COMMERCIAL STARTERS IN BUTTER MAKING. 53

of the milk to prevent scorching while heating and
to facilitate rapid cooling. The per cent of Starto-
line necessary to be added to the starter milk de-
pends, first, on the temperature of the starter milk
when the Startoline is added; second, on the average
temperature at which the milk will be kept during
the ripening period; third, on the time allowed for
the starter to ripen before it is to be used; and
fourth, on the vigor and acidity of the Startoline
added.
65. Temperatures and quantities.

TABLE I.
Temperatures and Quantities.

 

Quan-| Quan. “ 2 Startoline added ex-

tity oflof Milk Range of Temperatures presaed:in
Milk. |approx. |" |---- --—- ——-— ~ és
lbs. | gal. | In Winter | InSummer | Lbs. | Per Ct, | Qts

 

 

 

100 12 | 68-70° F. | 62-67° F. 1-5 1-5+ | 4-23
200 24 | 68-73° F. | 63-67° F. 2-10 | 1-5 1-5
2CO 36 | 68-73° F. | 63-68° F. 8-15 | 1-5 13-74
400 48 | 68-71° PF. | 64-68° F. 420 | 15 2-10
500 60 | 68-70° F. | 65-68° F. 6-25 | 14-5 | 3-123
1060 | 120 | G8-70° F. | G8-70° F. | 15-40 | 144 |74-20
5660 | G00 | G8-70° F. | 68-70° F. | 100-500 | 2-108 [50-250

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

€6. Explanation of conditions. The larger the per
cent of Startoline added to the starter milk and the
higher the temperature at which it is kept, the short-
er is the period of time between the inoculation and
coagulation. The smaller the per cent of Startoline
added to the starter milk and the lower the tempera-
ture at which it is kept the longer will be the period
of time between inoculation and coagulation. It
will be noticed in Table I that the range of tempera-
tures given are not so great when large quantities
of starter milk are used as when smaller quantities
54 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

are used. This is due to the fact that the larger
the quantity of milk the less does it change in tem-
perature during the ripening period. Small quanti-
ties of milk naturally are more subjected to changes
in temperature. This is especially true in very cold
and very warm weather when temperatures go to
either extreme.

Being influenced by these conditions the average
temperature at which the starter ean be grown
may vary from 64° F. to 68° F. with practically the
same results. :

When the starter is at the point of coagulation at
a temperature higher than 64° F.—66° F. and is not
to be used at once, immediate cooling is.imperative,
since the starter is likely to become overripe and
whey off, a condition in which a starter is almost
unfit for usé, as its action is greatly impaired by this
condition and the effect it should produce is partly
or wholly destroyed. It is a good plan to see to it
that the starter coagulates at a temperature lower
than 64°F. if it is not to be used at once, since when
coagulation takes place at a comparatively low tem-
perature the texture of the starter is more likely to
be loose and silky. When in this condition it will
when poured have the appearance of nicely ripened
eream and will leave no streaks, nor will it show
specks or particles of curd. On the other hand
starters grown at too low temperature and for too
long a period of time before coagulation invariably °
develop sour, slightly bitter, rank or flat flavors,
thereby impairing their usefulness for perpetuation.
It is perhaps needless to say that the Startoline
COMMERCIAL STARTERS IN BUTTER MAKING. 55

should not be saved out from the starter. During
the hot season the starter should not be inoculated
in the morning for the next morning’s use unless
perfect control of temperature can be had, because
when it has developed quite a degree of acidity be-
fore cooling in the evening it is difficult to prevent
its becoming overripe before it is used next morn-
ing. When the starter milk is inoculated in the
evening with Startoline of good quality and proper
acidity the starter will as a rule be in good con-
dition in the morning. During cool weather, how-
ever, there is not much danger of the starter spoil-
ing when set in the morning, cooled a little before
evening and the ripening finished at a lower temper-
ature.

67. Using starters every other day. When the
starter is used only every other day it is always bet-
ter to renew the Startoline daily and reheat the
starter milk the second day than to hold over both
the starter and Startoline. By holding over the Star-
toline and starter the development of acid may be
too rapid and by producing an excess of acid the
quality of both the Startoline and starter is impaired
and may be spoiled altogether, or cheesy, curdy or
vinegar flavors produced.

68. Too high acid starters. It is a well known
fact that after the acidity in the Startoline or start-
er has developed to about .8 per cent the strength of
the acid present retards and finally prevents the pro-
duction of a good quality of lactic acid necessary
in butter or cheese making. After such a stage is
reached the quality of the acid undergoes changes.
ab MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

The first change noticeable is the change to a vine-
gar flavor, a little later it will show signs of whey-
ing off and then in many cases a digesting of the
curd begins. All these signs are indications of the
weakening of the lactic acid germ. Therefore great
care must be taken to prevent the development of
too high acid in the Startoline. It should not have
more than .7 per cent acid at any time and it is best
not to exceed .65 per cent in order to maintain a fine
quality of acid in both Startoline and starter. <A
high degree of lactic acid weakens the lactie acid
germ and in many eases kills it.

69. Vigor of starters. Starters seem to have
reached the maximum activity when they have de-
veloped about .60 per cent acidity. (Russell.*)
Creamerymen have noticed that starters are not
always of the same vigor, even when there seems to
be no special reason for any variation. When start-
ers are ripened too high the activity is lessened and
the starter is said to be “‘slow”’ or is ‘‘going off,’’
and a few successive high ripenings may spoil the
starter altogether. When the acidity has reached .70
or .80 per cent the starter is losing its vigor as well
as its fine flavor. Avoid too high acid in the starter
as well as too slow ripening. Both have a bad effect
upon the flavor and vigor of the starter.

70. Ripening starters. The degree of acidity to
which starters are ripened before being added to
eream varies according to reports from 100 of the
best creamerymen in the United States from .45 to
.80 per cent. This variation is due to different meth-

 

* Russell, H. L. Wis. B. M. Assn. Fifth Annual Report, p. 58.
COMMERCIAL STARTERS IN BUTTER MAKING. 57

ods of handling and ripening cream and different
methods of using the starter. The degree of acidity
also depends upon the kind of cream handled—that
is, whether it is whole milk or hand separator cream.

How gassy fermentation in cream affects the qual-
ity of butter.

71. Commercial starters a check on gassy fermen-
tation. That gassy fermentation in cream has a
detrimental effect on the aroma, flavor and body of
butter was clearly shown by results obtained from
experiments carried on while instructor in practical
buttermaking at the Wisconsin Dairy School. A
lot of cream was pasteurized, and divided into two
parts. One part was ripened with a pure lactic
acid culture, and the other lot was ripened with a
culture of gassy organisms prepared in the bacterio-
logical department of the School of Agriculture.
The lot of cream which was inoculated with the
gassy culture was held at ripening temperature for
about ten hours, and at the end of that time showed
a re-action of .55 per cent on the acid test. The cream
was held cold for several hours and then churned.
Everything incident to the ripening, cooling and
churning of the cream, and the washing and salting
of the butter was performed in the usual way.

72. Appearance of the gassy cream. The body
was slightly huffy and porous; the color rather
whiter than that of ordinary cream, and the flavor
was flat, oily and yeasty.

73. Churning of gassy cream. This cream did not
churn as ordinary cream does. The granules for
some reason did not solidify during churning as
58 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

they do in other cream. (Fleischmann*.) The
butter was washed and worked in the usual way,
and when examined at the conclusion of working,
was found to have a mushy, soft, oily body. The
flavor was oily, greasy, yeasty and slightly alcoholic.
The bouquet was altogether absent.

74, There is no other fermentation in cream more
destructive to the natural flavor, aroma and body
of butter than yeasty. or gassy fermentation. There-
fore it is necessary to use a pure lactic ferment cul-
ture—a real lactic acid producer—to check the
growth of undesirable fermentation in cream, and
produce fine flavored as well as fine textured butter.

Since the average consumer is willing to pay a
higher price for fine flavored butter than for the
poorer grades , it is the duty of the creameryman to
use a pure lactic ferment culture, in order to achieve
the best results.

75. Lactic acid ripened cream. This lot of cream
had a fine flavor and aroma, and a smooth body. It
churned in the normal way and the butter made
from it was very fine and clean.

76. Grouping one hundred creameries showing the
degree of acidity to which the starter was ripened.

TABLE IT.

Grouping One Hundred Creameries Showing the Dearce of
Acidity to Which the Starter Was Ripened.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Number of Creamerymen Total
using the same per cent

of Acidity ..........00.08- 5 5} 16 21} 22 22) 4; 5} 100
° is A’v’g
Per cent of Aciditv......{.45].50|.55|.60|.65}.70].75].80] 62

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

eee % Fleischmann, W. The Book of the Dairy. Chap. IV. p. 159, Par. 82,
COMMERCIAL STARTERS IN BUTTER MAKING. 59

The average of .62 per cent is about the proper
acidity which the starter should have for butter
making in the average creamery. Where hand sep-
arator cream is used the starter may be ripened to
a higher acid than where whole milk cream is used.
The greater the extent of undesirable fermentations
in cream the higher may the starter be ripened.
However, I should not advise ripening the starter
higher than .75 per cent.

77. Regulating the quality of acid in both Starto-
line and starter. When Startolinc, due to neglect
in handling, produces a low acidity and a sweet
flavor in the starter this can be remedied by ripen-
ing the Startoline to a higher degree of acidity for
several days. Also if the starter is not properly
handled and is slow in coagulating, its activity can
be increased by ripening the Startoline at a tem-
perature higher than usual and using a larger quan-
tity of Startoline. The slowest Startoline can be
made more active by a few days of this treatment.
If a starter is too acid in flavor it can be brought
back to a mild, pleasant flavor by ripening it to a
lower degree of acidity. This is especially notice-
able if the starter is cooled to about 56° F. soon
after it is set, before the acidity has developed much,
held at this temperature about 5-8 hours and then
warmed to about 75° F. in order to hasten coagula-
tion. On examination at the time of coagulation it
will be found that the acid is of a mild, pleasant
taste. When this method is used the starter must be
used at once, because the high temperature favors
60 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

eurdling and wheying off and the possible produc-
tion of alcoholic fermentations.

78. The pink or brown starter. Heating the starter
milk twice to about boiling point has a very detri-.
mental effect on the quality of both the milk sugar
and the lactic acid. There are more starters spoiled
by overheating the milk than many butter makers
imagine. The milk invariably takes on a brownish
color when overheated. This indicates that the milk
sugar has caramelized by reason of having been
scorched. By changing the condition of the sugar,
an inferior quality of lactic acid is produced. It
is only natural that when the milk sugar is scorched,
the starter will have a burnt flavor. This flavor
is also imparted to the butter by the use of such a
starter and it destroys the fine ‘‘bouquet’’ so desir-
able in butter. Such a starter is usually spoken of
as a pink or brown starter and as having a schorched
or burnt flavor.

79. Burnt flavor in starter due to milk used.
There is a peculiar flavor in the milk of some herds
during the fall, known as a burnt flavor. This
peculiarity usually manifests itself more frequently
during the corn cutting season than at any other
time of the year. This flavor seems to be due to the
excessive feeding of corn stalks, corn stubbles,
frozen grasses and half dead herbage. Dairymen
know that corn cutting knives and the knives of the
feed cutter become heavily coated with a gummy,
sweetish substance from the juices of the corn. This
smells a trifle tarry and the same odor ean be found
in the milk when it flows from the separator or when
COMMERCIAL STARTERS IN BUTTER MAKING. 61

heated in the starter can. I have known many in-
stances where this flavor was easily noticeable in
the starter and also in the butter made from such
milk.

80. A starter scoring blank.

 

Perfection

Points Remarks

 

Clean, slightly acid, reasonably pro-

Aroma 20 nounced, free from taints.

 

Clean, mild acid taste, free from curdy,

Flavor 50 cheesy and fermented flavors.

 

Before breaking up-—close, smooth, no
Body 30 gas bubbles; after breaking up—
smooth, creamy, silky.

 

Total 100

 

 

 

81. Judging starters. The same scale of points ap-
plies to the judging of the starter and of the Starto-
line. Also in nearly every case the defects found in
one will be found in the other. The Startoline should
sour in a reasonable length of time if so intended
by the person in charge of it. The body should be
smooth and firm when well coagulated and it should
be free from gas bubbles and whey. When shaken
up and poured it should resemble the consistency of
well ripened cream and should be smooth and free
from lumps and granulations. The aroma should be
62 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

of a clean, pure, acid nature, and be reasonably pro-
nounced. The flavor should be clean and without
cheesy or curdy taints. When broken up by shaking
and held at a low temperature it should not whey
off very soon. Wheying off readily, indicates the
weakening of the lactic acid organisms, and the ap-
pearance of flat, weak or dull flavors. When such
a condition arises a new culture must be set at once,
since the starter shows signs of ‘‘running out’’ and
may at any time fail to produce a good flavored acid.

~82. Use glassware. Whenever obtainable, glass-
ware should be used in growing the Startoline, be-
cause when glassware is cleaned and_ sterilized it
may be stoppered and left for a day or longer with-
out acquiring a bad odor. The only smell which
manifests itself upon opening a glass vessel which
has been closed for some time is a dead-air smell.
This is not the case with a tin vessel, for no matter
how. carefully cleaned and sterilized it may be, if it
is closed tightly for several hours a very offensive
odor is noticeable upon opening it. This odor some-
what resembles fermented milk or an old tin can.
Due to contamination from this source all tinware
used for growing the Startoline should be discarded
and replaced by glass vessels. A few glass, quart or
gallon jars with glass stoppers, in addition to the
utensils already at hand, are all that are needed for
handling the Startoline. Glass jars can very easily
be sterilized either by boiling them for five minutes
or by applying live steam to them by placing them
under a pail turned over a steam jet. Glassware
COMMERCIAL STARTERS IN BUTTER MAKING. 63

should be used in handling the Startoline whether
it be in a large or a small creamery. Where large
quantities of Startoline are required use several
gallon jars with glass stoppers.

83. Utensils which should not be used. China
ware should not be used because the glazed surface
eracks very easily and the vessel will absorb milk
which will create offensive odors and contaminate
the Startoline. Earthenware, such as crocks of any
type, should not be used as they are worse than
china ware. Either china or earthenware can be
used only for a short time, if necessary to use them
at all, and they must be thoroughly cleaned and
aerated before each time they are used.

High grade enameled ware is very good and may
be classed next to glassware for use in the handling
of Startoline. Alumium utensils are now being
used in some creameries and promise to be among
the best utensils for handling Startoline.

Utensils in the order of their usefulness:

1. Glass. 2. Enameled ware. 3. Aluminum ware.
4. High grade china. 5. Tinware. 6. Earthenware.

84. Keep flies from the milk. We need hardly
mention what a nuisance flies are around creameries
and cheese factories, for this is well known. In
order that we may more fully comprehend the im-
portance of keeping the flies from falling into the
milk or getting at the same for refreshment, we
wish to call attention to some experiments carried
on by Prof. F. C. Harrison of Ontario Agricultural
G4 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

College as given in Bulletin No. 41, in which he says:
‘‘Single flies were placed in test tubes containing
a measured quantity of sterilized water and well
shaken. This water on analysis was found to con-
tain large numbers of gas producing bacteria. Fre-
quently 50,000 bacteria were obtained from a single
fly and of these over 20,000 were gas producing.”’ Is
it any wonder that the Startoline or starter does
not always turn out as well as it should? I wish to
emphasize the fact that it is not the pure culture
that produces gas in starters, but the milk that was
used which may have been vontaminated by un-
cleanly handling, or by imperfect pasteurization.
Instances are known where the starter milk after
pasteurization and cooling to 80° F. has risen up and
crowded out of the starter can and the gassy curd
fell onto the floor beside the starter can. This was
due to gassy fermentation and these fermentations
are very destructive to the finer flavors in butter or
cheese. No high scoring butter can be made from
cream in which gassy fermentations are present in
any great degree.

85. Starters in cream ripening. It has been found
by both scientific men and practical dairymen that
natural ripening of cream favors the development
of undesirable flavors, unless the cream so ripened
was produced and handled under the best sanitary
conditions. Ideal sanitary conditions on dairy farms
and in creamcries do not as a rule now exist. There-
fore in order that cream may be more uniformly
ripened from day to day regardless of external con-
COMMERCIAL STARTERS IN BUTTER MAKING. 65

ditions and minor contaminations, a pure lactic fer-
ment culture has been found indispensable in the
controlling of undesirable fermentations in cream.

H. W. Conn, in Practical Dairy Bacteriology,
says: ‘‘The use of starters has frequently been
found valuable in avoiding undesirable taints and
tastes in butter. These unpleasant flavors which
in even the best creameries occur occasionally, can
frequently be checked or remedied by the use of a,
considerable quantity of a proper starter.’’ He also
says: ‘‘The acid which they (lactic acid bacteria)
develop seems to be injurious to other species and
these rapidly disappear as the lactic organisms in-
crease in numbers. As a rule, therefore, milk which
sours at about 70° F. will be found to contain nearly
a pure culture of a common lactic acid type. the
other organisms, that were so abundant ‘at the out-
set having disappeared.”’

86. Raw or pasteurized cream. Starters should
be used in both raw and pasteurized cream, but it
is only in pasteurized cream that the full benefit of
a starter is realized, because in this cream lactic
acid ean develop without the interferance of other
fermentations. In raw cream, as a rule, a great
variety of other fermentations thrive and therefore
the full benefit of the starter is not always realized.
Lactic acid develops faster in pasteurized than in
unpasteurized cream. The poorer the cream is in
quality the larger should be the quantity of starter
added to it.
66 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

87. Per cent of starter to be added to cream.
The per cent of starter necessary to be added to
cream depends upon: (1) the quality of the cream;
(2) the richness of the cream; (8) the kind of cream.
whether whole milk or hand separator cream; (4)
the temperature of the cream during ripening; (5)
how long the cream is to ripen until the necessary
acid has developed. In the order as mentioned
above: (1) when the cream is impure add more
- starter; (2) the richer the cream the larger the per
cent of starter should be added; (3) hand separator
cream as a rule needs more starter than whole milk
cream; (4) the higher the temperature of the cream
the smaller is the per cent of starter to be added,
and the lower the temperature of the cream the
larger is the per cent of starter to be used in order
that the cream may ripen in the allotted time; (5)
the longer the time allowed for the cream to ripen
the smaller is the per cent of starter necessary to
use and the shorter the ripening period the larger
must be the per cent of starter used.

88. Richness of cream and per cent of starter.
The following table shows the number of pounds of
starter that may be added to cream containing a
given per cent of butter fat and still have cream of
churnable richness:
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

COMMERCIAL STARTERS IN BUTTER MAKING. 67
TABLE III.
Per Cent of Starter Added to Cream.

Test of Different quantities of Test of Cream after
cream befure | starter added to every adding the starter
add. starter 100 lbs cream

Adding 100 Ibs. starter |Test after add. 8. 30%
60% Cream 6c 50 “ 4 “ec “ae “cc “cc 40%,
“a 40 “ce “ce 4é ee “ce oe 10%
Adding 100 Ibs. starter |Test after add. S. 25%
50% Cream “cc 50 ““ “a “ 73 ‘ “ 33%
“ 80 “ a“ “ce ce “ce “ce 388% +
Adding 75 lbs. starter /Test after add. 8S. 25%+
45% Cream “ 50 ree 6“ “cc “ “c “ 20%+
“ce on “ce “ “c oe ae be 86% +
Adding 75 lbs. starter |Test after add. 8S. 23%-+
40% Cream ss 50‘ fe ee At 6 26% +
“ 25 “ “ “ &  «& 3907
Adding 50 Ibs. starter |Test after add. 8. 23% -+
35% Cream io 40 eS » ts HE DES
+e 20 4c 4c “ ry ae “ 29% +
Adding 30 Ibs. starter |Test after add. 8. 23%-+
LO0% Cream “ec 25 oe “ce sc oc “ce “ce 24%
“ 20 “c +e “ce “cc oe oe 25%
Adding 20 Ibs. starter |Test after add. S. 21—%
25% Cream “ 15 “ “ oe “ “ “ 22%

 

 

283—%

 
68 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

89. Temperature and time in ripening cream.
The best temperature for ripening cream at the
average creamery is 67-69° F. in summer and 68-71°
F. in winter. Where a large per cent of starter is
used in cream lower temperatures may be used than
when small quantities of starter are added. Due to
these and other variations previously mentioned no
definite length of time can be given in which to
ripen cream. Considering the possible action of lac-
tic acid and other fermentations on butter fat dur-
ing the ripening period it seems that the shorter
the period consumed in ripening cream the better
is the quality of the butter. Try to adjust things
so as not to ripen cream for a longer period than
eight hours nor for a shorter period than three
hours.

90. A few things to remember. Remember that
the lactic acid germ is a tiny, delicate plant.

That heat may very easily destroy its life.

That cold does it no injury whatever.

That high acid weakens and finally kills it.

That a temperature between 65-75° F. is most
favorable for the production of a good quality of
acid.

Always use a thermometer when setting the
starter.

Never pasteurize without knowing the time and
temperature applied.

Never use old, acid or unclean milk.

Never use anything but glassware or enameled
ware for handling your Startoline.
COMMERCIAL STARTERS IN BUTTER MAKING. 69

Try to be a good judge of conditions as they arise.

Have a well tinned starter can. Copper is poison
to the good flavor of lactic acid, and retards its
development. Pay proper attention to the details
of the handling of the Startoline and a good quality
of lactic acid will be the result.

Do not think that the starter will take care of
itself.

Do not think that any kind of sweet milk is good
for making a first-class starter.
CHAPTER VI.

CREAM RIPENING.

By the ripening process is meant all the
treatment which the cream receives from
the time it is separated from the milk
until it is put into the churn.

—HENRY H. WING.
INDEX TO CHAPTER VI.

Par.No. Page.

91. The process of cream ripening....... Ec etamaeanae . 7
92. Amount of acidity necessary........... cece wees 72
93. Scientists believe in cream ripening............ . 2
94. Fundamental principles involved ..... Bickle tates .. 3
95. Physical condition of cream..............000% ee Me
96. Results sought for in cream ripening.......... .. ‘TA
97. Natural ripening of cream..... eicave ayers aie eaten . 4
98. Artificial ripening of cream.............. tvecawe 14:
99. Evil effects of high acid in cream........ scacuseeus .
100. Ripening temperature of cream............. tome 16)
101. Slow against fast ripening of cream...... tstueae 46
102. How to preserve the quality of lactic acid....... 7
108. Acidity in relation to the per cent of fat....... 9 EE
104. How high first class sweet cream may be ripened 78
105. How to find terms used in Table IV....... oeicer 1D
106. Relative acidity in relation to fat test.......... 79
107. Diagram showing degree of acidity..... eee ated -. 81
108. Reports from fifty-six creameries............... 81
109. Ripening mixed sweet and sour cream....... se BB
110. Using large or small starter in cream........ «oa 82
111. Ripening hand separator cream.........-.seeeee 83
112. Ripening pasteurized sweet cream............4. . 84
113. A new method in cream ripening.............. . &
CHAPTER VI.
Cream Ripening.

91. The process of cream ripening should receive
most careful consideration, as much depends upon
its being properly performed. The commercial value
of butter can be materially reduced by the improper
ripening of the cream from which it is made.

92. The amount of acidity necessary in cream at
the time of churning depends more upon the condi-
tion of the cream at the beginning of the ripening
process, than upon any other one factor. The de-
gree and quality of acidity at churning time deter-
mines to a great extent the flavor, body and grain
of the butter when manufactured. The amount of
starter to add to any cream depends upon the rich-
ness of the cream and the methods employed in
handling it. The higher the acidity and the longer
the cream has been held sour after a certain per cent
of acidity has been developed, the sooner will the
butter made from it lose its fine flavor.

93. Ever since the introduction of butter making,
even in its most primitive stage, the majority of
practical creamerymen and dairy scientists have
held the opinion that properly ripened cream pro-
duces butter of better keeping quality than does un-
ripened cream. It has also been found that soured
cream has a greater churnability than sweet cream,
due in part to the reduction of viscosity and possibly
to other changes of which we are wholly or partly

72
CREAM RIPENING. 13

uninformed as yet. Undesirable fermentations are
supposed to be retarded in cream and a process
of purification established by the development of
pure lactic acid’ fermentation in cream.

94. Fundamental principles involved. Cream ripen-
ing is a process of handling cream by which lactic
acid fermentation is allowed to develop to a degree
suitable to the American standard for sour cream
butter. This fermentation may be the result of the
natural ripening of cream or it may be brought
about by the introduction of a pure lactic acid
culture. The process called natural ripening of
cream is gradually giving place to the artificial
ripening of cream by means of the addition of a
pure lactic ferment culture. The principles involved
in the ripening of cream are the same now as they
ever were. There is a difference in the methods used
which is the result of study of the science and art
of practical butter-making.

95, The physical condition of cream is changed by
the process of ripening. Sweet cream is smooth,
thin, and of a velvety nature, unless very rich, while
soured or ripened cream of the same richness as
unripened cream, is much thicker and its flavor is
rather coarse. The casein in sweet cream cannot be
seen with the naked eye while in soured cream it is
coagulated into fine particles by the action of lactic
acid. During the souring process the color of the
eream changes from a more or less yellowish tint
to a whitish shade with a peculiar shiny or glossy
surface.
74 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

96. The results sought for in the ripening of cream
are: To develop a definite flavor in the butter fat
which is so much desired by the average American
consumer, to lessen the viscosity of the cream and
thereby increase its churnability and decrease losses
in the buttermilk, to purify the cream, retard ab-
normal fermentations and increase the keeping qual-
ity of the butter as well as to make possible the
manufacture of a more uniform quality of butter by
ripening the cream to the same degree of acidity
from day to day.

97. Natural ripening of cream. By natural
ripening of cream we understand that cream is
soured without the addition of sour milk, buttermilk
or any pure lactic acid culture. Since cream may
contain’a large number of different undesirable
germs which may develop off flavors and gain the
ascendency over the influence of lactic acid fermen-
tations the natural ripening of cream is not always
desirable. This is the reason that hand separator
cream is so variable in its flavor. If instead of
allowing it to sour naturally a good, pure, lactic
acid starter were added to the cream the flavor of
it would be much improved.

98. Artificial ripening of cream. It is only dur-
ing the last decade that artificial ripening of cream
has become general and the process is looked upon
by dairymen as being indispensable in the manu-
facture of first-class American creamery butter. The
only difference between natural and artificial cream
ripening is that in the latter a certain per cent of
soured milk or cream ripened with a pure lactic
CREAM RIPENING. 15

ferment culture is added to the sweet cream and
the cream allowed to sour at regular ripening tem-
perature. This system is considered much superior
to the natural ripening process and as a rule much
better results are obtained by its use. Undesirable
fermentations can be controlled and a more uniform
product can be obtained. Coarse flavors can be
partly eliminated and butter of finer and more deli-
cate flavor can be manufactured. Since agreeable
flavors in butter have a high commercial value it is
absolutely necessary that a controlling factor be
used every day in the year to insure a reasonably
fine, pure and delicate flavor in butter. This can
be accomplished in no better way than by the judi-
cious use of a pure lactic ferment culture in the
eream to be manufactured into butter.

99. Evil effect of high acid in cream. It is well
known that when a certain per cent of acid has de-
veloped in cream the lactic acid undergoes a per-
ceptible change easily recognized by taste or smell,
or by the appearance of the cream. Lactic acid in
whole or skimmed milk has reached its finest flavor
when it has developed about .65-.75 per cent acidity,
and in cream when about .55-.65 per cent acidity is
reached. High acid in cream seems to favor the de-
velopment of oily, sour, bitter, rancid, acid and
coarse flavors in butter. It also impairs its keeping
quality and reduces its market value besides de-
stroying the fine flavor and aroma belonging to
properly ripened good cream. Cream should be
ripened to a degree of acidity which conforms to the
methods in use for the handling of it, that is—the
76 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

kind of ripener used and the refrigerating or cool-
ing system employed. Whatever system is used the
cream should be handled in such a way as to guard
against too high acidity at the time of churning.

100. Ripening temperature of cream. The season
_of the year, the ripeners used, the per cent of starter
added and the skill of the operator determine to
‘some extent the temperature at which cream can
be ripened. Therefore the temperatures which are
used in ripening cream vary from 67° F. to 72° F.
in winter and from 64° F. to 69° F. in summer. If
cream were always of the same acidity, age, purity
and richness at the time of adding the starter, fewer
variations in ripening temperatures would be neces-
sary. Too high ripening temperatures have a ten-
dency to produce oily and weak-bodied butter, while
too low temperatures favor the development of old,
flat and bitter flavors.

101. Slow against fast ripening of cream. The
fundamental principle involved in the ripening of
cream is to develop a given per cent of acidity at a
temperature which will favor the production of a
fine quality of lactic acid. The temperature best
suited to this seems to be between 65° F. and 72° F.
Lactie acid will develop at a higher and also ata
lower temperature than that given above, but the
desired flavor is not produced at a much lower or
much higher temperature. As a general rule fast
ripening of cream is preferred for the reason that
quick ripening usually. favors the production of
finer and milder flavored acid. It also helps to pre-
vent the development of undesirable flavors in cream
CREAM RIPENING. G7

during the ripening period which is one of the most
eritical periods in the handling of cream. Quick
ripening of cream is as a rule associated with the
use of a large per cent of starter of high quality to-
gether with proper temperatures. On the other hand
slow ripening of cream whether intentional or other-
wise is associated with the employment of low tem-
peratures and the use of a small amount of starter
or a starter of poor quality. The result usually is
that cream ripened in this way will develop sour,
flat, slightly bitter and other undesirable flavors.
102. How to preserve the quality of lactic acid
in cream. When cream is ripe—that is when enough
acidity has developed, it should be cooled at once to
a temperature low enough to prevent the develop-
ment of acidity to any appreciable extent before
churning. By cooling cream when ripe to 50° F.
or lower the lactic acid can be preserved in good
condition for about fourteen hours. Cool cream low
enough to render the various fermentations inactive
and the quality of the lactic acid will be preserved.
103. Acidity in relation to the per cent of fat in
cream. Since the development of lactic acid takes
place only in the serum of cream and the per cent
of serum varies in relation to the variations in the
fat content, it seems but reasonable that the acidity
in cream ought to vary in relation to the per cent of
fat in cream. The lower the per cent of butter fat
in. cream the more serum it contains and the higher
the per cent of butter fat in cream the less serum it
contains. The per cent of serum in cream varies
inversely as the per cent of fat varies, and the lactic
78 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

acid necessary in cream is influenced by the varia-
tion of the per cent of fat and the per cent of serum
in the cream. The per cent of lactic acid to which
cream of varying richness should be ripened will be
found in table No. IV on page 80.

104, A first class sweet cream testing 30 per cent
fat may be ripened to .60 per cent acidity without
injuring the flavor, aroma or keeping quality of the
butter. But whenever cream is a day or two old
and has developed some acidity before arriving at
the factory the ripening must not be so high as with
good sweet cream. It has been found from practical
experience that it is much better to vary the acidity
in cream in relation to its fat content than to ripen
all cream alike. Due to the difference in the test of
various creams and to a slight change in the market
in demanding milder acid flavored butter, it was
found that a table which would serve as a guide
would be useful to the creamery operator. The rela-
tive acidity table on page 80 is a mathematical cal-
culation based upon practical experience and gives
the acidity of cream in relation to its fat content.
The working basis on which this table is based and
which is considered by practical creamery men as the
proper per cent of acidity in cream, is, that cream
testing 25 per cent butter fat be ripened to .60 per
cent acidity. This is taken as a standard and.is based
upon sweet cream ripened to .60 per cent and is not
based upon mixed cream of various ages and degrees
of acidity. The latter kind of cream should be
handled differently and we find in the column of
mixed cream the per cent of acidity to which such
CREAM RIPENING. 79

cream may be ripened. This difference in the per
cent of acidity is made because when part of a batch
of cream has been sour for some time before it is
mixed with sweet cream and the whole batch after
mixing is ripened to the same per cent of acidity to
which sweet cream may be ripened without injury,
the partly soured cream after being mixed with the
sweet cream will easily show the effects of over
ripening. This impairs the keeping quality of the
butter and for this reason less acidity in such cream
is recommended at the time of churning.

105. How to find terms used in table No. IV.
Per cent of butter fat in cream—By Babcock test.
Per cent of serum in cream—100 lbs. cream minus
fat test. Factor .008 in relative acidity table—per
cent acidity—(100—per cent fat)—.008 per cent of
acidity in one per cent of serum.

Relative acidity—(100—per cent fat in cream) xX
(.008100)—acidity.

Problem: Standard. Cream testing 25 per cent
butter fat ripened to .60 per cent acidity.

Formula: Acidity=.008 x (100-25--100)—.60 per
cent.

106. Table of relative acidity in cream in relation
to the per cent of butter fat, from 20 per cent to 40
per cent.

The following table will serve to give an idea of
the acidity to which cream of different richness
may be ripened in order that it may have the same
density or strength of acidity. However, cream may
be ripened a little higher or lower in acidity than
given in the table without materially injuring the
flavor or keeping quality of the butter. Therefore,
it must be understood that this table will not serve
as a hard and fast rule in the ripening of cream. No
80 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

one can lay down a rule for ripening cream which
answers all conditions. Every butter maker in his
own creamery and locality, must to some extent
solve these problems in connection with the handling
and ripening of cream for himself. Although this is
the case, a standard may be useful in order to enable
the butter maker to have better control of the situ-
ation. The ripening of cream to a higher or lower
per cent of acidity than that proposed in the stand-
ard is influenced by the condition, age, acidity of
cream before ripening, and the extent of abnormal
fermentations present in the cream.

TABLE IV.
Table of Relative Acidity in Cream in Relation to the Per
Cent of Butter Fat, From 20% to 40%.
Standard Cream Test 25%, Acidity .60%.

 

 

 

 

 

Per cent of Per cent of Per cent of Relative Relative
Butter fat in Serum in Acidity in 1% Acidity of Acidity of
Cream Cream of Serum Cream Mixed Cream
20% 80% 008 64% 60%
21% 19% 008 63% 59%
22% 78% .008 62% 58%
23% 17% -008 -61% 56%
24% 16% .008 60% 55%
25% 75% 008 60% 54%
26% T4% .008 59% 53%
27% 73% 008 58% 02%
28% 13% .008 57% 51%
29%. 1% .008 56% 50%
80% 70% .008 56% 49%
31% 69% .008 56% A8%
32% 68% .008 5A% AT%
383% 67% .008 53% 46%
84% 66% 008 52% A5%
85% 65% .008 52% ADM
36% 64% 008 51% 45%
37% 68% .008 50% 45%
38% 62% .008 49% 45%
39% . 61% -008 A8% 45%
40% 60% .008 48% 45%

 

 
CREAM RIPENING. 81

Prof. Spillman, of Washington State, Expt. Sta.,
in bulletin No. 24 says: ‘‘The acidity of cream when
ready to churn is usually between .50 per cent and
.70 per cent. If the acidity be lower than .50 per
cent the butter will lack flavor and there is liable to
be a great loss of fat in the buttermilk. If above .70
per cent the butter may have undesirable flavors.’’

107. Diagrams showing the different degree of
acidity to which cream having a high per cent of
fat and cream having a low per cent of fat may be
ripened.

 

 

 

 

“20% Fat 40% Fat
Acidity .64% Acidity .48%
Serum 80% Serum 60%

 

 

 

 

 

 

The above diagrams show to what acidity cream
should be ripened and more fully explains the value
of the preceding relative acidity table. Suppose both
lots of cream were ripened to .50 per cent acidity;
the cream containing 40 per cent fat would be ri-
pened about right, while the cream containing 20
per cent. fat would not have sufficient acidity. For
the production of the finest and fullest flavored but-
ter, cream should test about 25-30 per cent fat after
the starter has been added. Butter made from cream
testing above 33.per cent fat, very easily develops
oily, greasy and slightly flat flavors.

108. In visiting thousands of creameries in ten of
the foremost dairy states in the United States, I
82 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

have found that the average acidity to which whole
milk cream was ripened was about .55 to .64 per cent
and the acidity to which hand separator cream was
ripened was about .50 to .55 per cent. This agrees
with my own experience in practical creamery but-
ter making. Over-ripening is the cause of much of
the poor butter now on the market, and it should be
guarded against.

109. Ripening mixed sweet and sour cream. Bet-
ter results can be obtained by ripening mixed cream
faster than if it were all sweet. This can be accom-
plished by adding a heavy starter—not by raising
the ripening temperature in order to hasten the
ripening process. Mixed sweet and sour cream easily
develop coarse flavors and for this reason high
ripening or over-ripening must be guarded against.
Pasteurizing such cream lessens the danger of the
development of coarse flavors and when it is pas-
teurized the ripening process can be carried on in
about the same way as if it were all sweet cream.
Mixed cream especially when tainted is very much
improved by pasteurization and by frequent stirring
during ripening.

110. Using large or small starter in cream. When
all other conditions are right the larger the per
cent of starter added to cream the faster it will
ripen. The ripening temperature must be lower
than when a small starter is used and the cream
must be cooled before it has reached the desired
acidity in order to prevent its becoming over-ripe
and to guard against acid flavors and coarse aroma
in the butter. On the other hand the smaller the
CREAM RIPENING. 83

per cent of starter added the higher must be the
temperature of the cream and the slower will the
ripening process be. The longer it takes to ripen
cream the more danger there is of developing off fla-
vors and producing butter which is flat, slightly bit-
ter and coarse flavored. Adding a very heavy starter
(over 40 per cent) to cream has a tendeney to im-
part a starter flavor to the butter if the cream to
which it is added is ripened at normal ripening tem-
peratures and not cooled to a sufficiently low tem-
perature after ripening.

111. Ripening hand separator cream. Unpasteur-
ized hand separator cream. Gathered or hand sep-
arator cream must be handled differently after it
has reached the factory than the whole milk cream
is handled. It must be handled according to its qua!-
ity—that is, according to the per cent of acid and
the degree of abnormal fermentation it contains.
There are several different methods of handling this
cream in use at present. Some creamerymen advise
ripening and handling it in the same manner as
whole milk cream, while others prefer an entirely
different system. Some of the latter advocate not
warming it to ripening temperatures. They advise
cooling the cream to below ripening temperature
when received and holding at this temperature until
it is ready to be churned. The reason for not ripen-
ing such cream at normal temperatures is that the
average quality of hand separator cream has a high
degree of acidity and contains a variety of abnormal
fermentations at the time it is received at the fac-
tory. If it were heated to ripening’ temperatures
St MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

the abnormal fermentations present in it would im-
mediately increase and their development could not
be checked nor controlled even by the use of a pure
eulture starter. Therefore it is much more desirable
to add as much starter as the richness of the cream
will allow and keep the cream cold for three hours
or more before churning.

112. Ripening pasteurized sweet cream. Expe-
rience has taught us that the ripening of either pas-
teurized sweet hand separator cream or whole milk
cream should be handled differently than sour raw
cream, whether it is hand separator cream or whole
milk cream. Pasteurized sweet hand separator
cream should be ripened the same as sweet whole
milk cream (Page 78). After cream is pasteurized
it should be cooled at once to ripening temperature
—between 64° F. and 72° F. according to the season
of the year. The starter should then be added and
the cream stirred frequently until about .50 per cent
to .55 per cent acidity has developed. It should then
be cooled at once to a temperature low enough to
keep the lactic acid in the cream in perfect condition
until churning time.

113. A new method which has been tried with good
results with reasonably rich cream is to add a
very heavy starter (about 35 per cent or more), cool
the cream immediately to 52° F. or lower and hold
at that temperature for cight to fourteen hours be-
fore churning. This method of adding a heavy start-
er whenever the richness of the cream permits is
gaining in favor in some of the best creameries. It
not only seems to produce as fine butter as that made
by the other system but it lessens the labor incident
to cream ripening.
CHAPTER VIL.

THE CHURNING OF CREAM

Experience shows that oily butter is obtained
by too quick as well as too slow churning.

W. FLEISCHMANN.
INDEX TO CHAPTER VII.

Par. No. Page.
114. When butter is perfect in body.............2.6. 87
(15. Churnability of cream cic cscs cievec ee sax acawe es 87
116. Churning temperatures ....... 0.0... eee eee eee 88
117. Conditions affecting churning temperatures...... 88
118. Test of cream affecting churning temperatures... 8?
119. Quantity of cream in churn............06- satde en) OD)
120. Age of cream ............. IHG Res HEE eeawlee ae wee Ss 90
121. Temperature of churning room.............6.4. 92
122. Range of temperatures ......... 0. cee ee ce eee ee 93
123. Holding cream before churning..............04- 9+
124. Temperature and time ....... 0c eee ee eee 95
125. ACHIy OF CFO 2cauna vei ees eve reese ieee ans 95
126, Age sof “AGAIN: +0085 eauc daar a eee ee eS 95
127. Loss in buttermilk due to rich cream........... 95
128.) Quantity of cream in churn..................058. 96
129; Speed. :Of COG oss sue oc ews oe sowed iwareaaawe ee 97
130. Viscosity Of Creat .cagscswaneanerwesme vedaars ood 97
131. What to do with a difficult churning............ 98

132. Danger of too long churning....................
CHAPTER VII.
The Churning of Cream.

114. Whenever butter is found to be perfect in
body and grain, it can be depended upon that the
churning of the cream was properly performed.
Improper methods in the process of churning are
followed by faults in the body of the butter. The
manner of churning, as well as the shape and size
of the butter granules, affects the aroma and flavor
of the butter. Conditions in cream which, during
churning, interfere with the formation of perfect
granules of butter, must necessarily affect the gran-
ular structure and the grain of butter. The more
defined and ragged the butter granules are, the
greater is the volumn of aroma, and the more deli-
cate is the flavor.

115. Churnability of cream. In farm dairy prac-
tice the churnability of cream is affected by more
factors than is the churnability of cream in cream-
eries. This may be due in part to the fact that
cream churned on the farm is usually from one herd
of cows while the cream that is churned in a cream-
ery is from the milk of a number of different herds
all put together in one vat and mixed before it is
churned. By mixing the cream, the different batches
of cream lose their individual characteristics and
are made more uniform. The main factors which
seem to affect the churnability of cream are temper-
atures and ripeness of cream and seasons of the year.

87
88 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

116. Churning temperatures. The temperature
for churning which is indicated on dairy thermome-
ters seems to be the result of a custom based per-
haps on the practice prevailing in farm dairies
years ago, of using this temperature for churning.
The conditions and methods of handling cream may
have been such a few decades ago, as to warrant
the churning of cream at or near 62° F. At present
if one were to make a hard and fast rule for this
(which by the way is impossible) a temperature
of 56° F. would be more likely to be practicable in
the average creamery. Since the introduction of
modern dairy machinery and the increased circula-
tion of dairy literature, dairying in general has un-
dergone a complete change. In former times when
cream was raised by the gravity system and then
dipped off the milk, a comparatively large quantity
of milk wént in with the cream and consequently
such cream had to be churned at a comparatively
high temperature. Under such conditions 62° F.
was probably the proper churning temperature.
Why manufacturers of thermometers still continue
to indicate churning temperature as being 62° F. is
a mystery and it is undoubtedly misleading to the
novice in dairying.

117. The churning temperature of cream concerns
every butter maker and the failure to properly ad-
just the temperature according to the richness of
the cream, quantity of cream in the churn, age of
the cream, acidity of the cream, season of the year,
room temperature and the length of time the cream
has been held at a low temperature, ete., will not
THE CHURNING OF CREAM. 89

give the best results. Even if the churning tempera-
ture were not affected by so many different condi-
tions it would not be safe to lay down a hard and
fast rule regarding churning temperature. Condi-
tions in creameries and the ability of the individual
in charge of the handling of the cream play an im-
portant part in determining what this temperature
must be.

118. The butter fat content of cream is the main
factor in determining at what temperature cream
shall be churned. When cream is very rich, testing
perhaps 33 per cent butter fat, it must be churned at
a low temperature in order that good results may be
obtained. Such cream can be churned at a tempera-
ture as low as 43° F. in summer. Very thin cream,
testing perhaps 20 per cent, must be churned at a
rather high temperature, especially when the churn
is full or overloaded. There is a great difference in
the closeness of the fat globules in rich and in poor
eream. Being very much closer in rich cream they
come in closer contact when the cream is agitated
and strike each other more frequently during the
churning process than do the globules in thin cream.
There is so much serum mixed with the thin cream
that it is difficult for the fat globules to strike each
other hard enough to cause them to adhere to each
other and gather during the churning process. It
is therefore evident that the churning temperature
must be higher for thin cream than for cream which
is rich in butter fat.

119. The observant operator must have noticed
that the time required for churning in influenced by
90 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

the quantity of cream in the churn and that the
condition of the butter granules at the end of churn-
ing is influenced in the same way. For example, take
a churn having a capacity of 1,500 pounds when a
little over one half full. This quantity of cream
testing 30 per cent butter fat may churn exactly
right at a temperature of 55° F., while if we reduce
the quantity to 600 lbs. and maintain the same test
and temperature it will churn too quickly and may
cause a heavy loss in the buttermilk. Now, suppose
we take 600 pounds of cream testing 22 per cent but-
ter fat. We can churn this cream in the same churn
very nicely at a temperature of 56° F., but if we
had 1,500 pounds if this 22 per cent cream and
churned at a temperature of 56° F., the chances are
that it would take about two hours or more to churn
it; especially if the churning room were so cold that
the temperature of the cream would not be raised
during the churning process. These variations in
temperatures in relation to the quantity of cream
in the churn may be explained in the following
manner: When the quantity of cream in the churn
is small, a fat globule may strike or gather several
other globules at every revolution of the churn; but
when the churn is too full of cream, one fat globule
may strike or gather only one fat globule at each
revolution, due to less violent agitation. Therefore,
it can be easily seen that when the churn is full the
temperature must be higher than when it is only
one-half or one-fourth full.

120. The age of the cream has quite a marked in-
fluence on the churning temperature. As a rule, the
THE CHURNING OF CREAM. 91

older the cream, the more quickly it will churn.
Fresh cream, ripened only a little and held cold only
a short time before churning, seems to require a
longer time for churning than older cream does. .
The fact that there is such a difference in the time
required for the churning of old and fresh cream
may explain why it is that when old and fresh cream
are mixed and churned soon after mixing, the
eream will not churn as exhaustively as it should
The older the cream, the lower can the temperature
be, provided that it has not been held too long at
a low temperature previous to churning. However,
fresh cream can also be churned at a low tempera-
ture and in fact must be so churned, if it is to churn
exhaustively. The time required for churning will
be longer than that required for older cream. The
temperature at which cream has been held previous
to churning has a decided influence on the tempera-
ture at which it can be churned. When cream has
been held for only a few hours at a low temperature
it would not be well to churn it at a high tempera-
ture. But if cream has been held at a low tempera-
ture for a long time (twelve or fourteen hours) it
may be warmed to a higher temperature and still
ehurn well and produce firm-bodied butter; but if
this same cream were to be churned at a tempera-
ture three or four degrees lower than that at which
it has been held, it would require hours to churn it.
If cream is to be churned shortly after cooling—
that is, three or four hours—the temperature must
be very much lower than it would need to be if the
same cream were to be held for eight, ten or twelve
92 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

hours. It is well to remember that the longer cream
has been held at a low temperature the higher can
the churning temperature be; and the higher the
temperature at which the cream has been held pre-
vious to churning, the lower it should be cooled for
churning in order to produce firm-bodied butter.

121. The temperature of the churning room has a
decided influence on the temperature at which cream
should be churned. When the churning room is cold,
the cream may be put into the churn at a higher
temperature than when the room is warm. But if
the cream is a little high in temperature in relation
to the test and quantity, and the room is somewhat
warmer than the cream, the result from this churn-
ing will probably not be very satisfactory. The
most exhaustive churnings can generally be obtained
when the temperature of the churning room is as
low, or lower, than that of the cream to be churned,
provided that the temperature of the cream has
been properly adjusted before putting it into the
churn. In regulating the temperature of cream for
churning, the season of the year must always be
taken into consideration. In the spring the butter
fat is likely to be of a softer nature than in the
fall and winter. In fall and early winter the cream
is hkely to be more viscous and may require a little
higher temperature than during the spring and
summer months. The fat globules are somewhat
firmer during the winter months than they are in
spring and summer. This is probably due to some
extent, to the kind of food eaten by the cows during
THE CHURNING OF CREAM. 93

this season. The advanced stage of lactation in
cows has not such a marked influence on the churn-
ing temperature in creamery butter making as in
farm dairying.

The following table will serve to indicate the
approximate temperature at which cream of differ-
ent richness may safely be churned. As the seasons
of the year have some influcnee on the temperature
at which cream should be churned a division is made
in the table for the different seasons. The tempera-
tures must be regulated according to creamery con-
ditions and different methods employed by cream-
ery operators.

Seasons of the Year.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Cream Tests | po"ranr, | Deg Febr. | Deg:Fabr. | Deg. Fabr.
30% 48—53 48-54 50—55 51—55
28% 50—54 50—55 52—56 53-—56
26% 5255 52—5G 5357 54—57
24% 538—5T 53—5S 5457 55—57
22% B5—5S 55—59 56—60 56—60
20% 56—59 | 57-60 58—60 58—60
18% 5S—60 58—60 5S—62 58—62

 

 

122. Range of temperature at which cream of dif-
ferent richness may be churned:

These temperatures are influenced by various fac-
tors previously explained. That cream can be
churned as indicated in the table is due to the differ-
ent conditions which may and do exist in different
ereameries. The temperature indicated is the tem-
perature at which cream should be put into the
churn and not the temperature at the end of churn-
94 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

ing. The object of the table is to show the varia-
tions in temperatures and the lowest and highest
temperature at which cream can be churned and
still have the butter come in the condition which is
desired by creamerymen.

123. Holding cream before churning. It is gen-
erally understood among creamerymen that cream-
eries have individual characteristics as well as indi-
viduals have and that we cannot lay down a hard
and fast rule to be applied in every creamery.
Cream in each creamery must be handled according
to the conditions existing there, as well as according
to the ability and individuality of the operator.
While the method of holding the cream for three
hours after it is separated from milk or is delivered
and put into the vat is sufficient for good results at
one creamery, the same method may result in a fail-
ure at another creamery. In one creamery the
method of ripening cream at ordinary temperatures
may give excellent results, while the same method in
another creamery may give results exactly the re-
verse. The degree of acidity in cream must be va-
ried in different creameries in order to produce the
same results. In one creamery the cream may be
ripened to .65 per cent acidity and in another it may
be ripened to .50 per cent or .55 per cent acidity and
both produce about the same results. At one cream-
ery the cream may be held over night and churned
in the morning with good results, while at another
creamery it is necessary to churn the cream in three
or four hours after it is put into the vat. At one
creamery, cream of a certain test, acidity and age,
THE CHURNING OF CREAM. 95

can be churned very successfully at a temperature
of 56° F. while cream of the same kind may have
to be churned at 52° F. at another creamery if the
same results are to be obtained.

124, Temperature and time. The following are
the main factors which influence the time used in
churning and they are arranged according to their
relative influence:

Temperature of cream.

Richness of cream.

Fullness of the churn.

Time cream is held at a given temperature.
Season of the year.

Ripeness of the cream.

Speed of churn.

. Diameter of churn.

125. Acidity of cream. In a preceding chapter
it has been pointed out that the lactic acid has a
marked effect on the viscosity of cream. It seems to
have a tendency to render the cream less viscous,
or more liquid and thereby enables the fat globules
to more readily unite in the churning process.

DOr ESOS: TOL Ws OTIS:

126. Age of cream. Age also seems to have the
effect of destroying the viscosity and producing a
certain condition in the cream which makes it churn
more readily than when it is fresh even at the same
degree of acidity. Therefore it would seem that
age has a similar effect on the viscosity of cream as
lactic acid.

127. From table on page 93, it will be noticed
that the richer the cream, the lower must be the
96 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

temperature for churning. Cream testing 35 per
cent butter fat will as a rule churn in much less
time than cream having only 22 per cent butter fat.
The exhaustiveness of churning is also influenced
to some extent by the richness of the cream. Very
rich cream (33 to 36 per cent) when the churn is
over half full will very readily adhere to the sides
of the churn and will swing round as the churn re-
volves. Such cream will lose more butter fat in the
buttermilk than cream which is not so rich and
which through the whole process of churning pro-
duces a regular drop. It can readily be seen that a
regular and uniform drop of the cream in the churn
would have a tendency toward uniting the fat glo-
bules uniformly and the loss in butter fat would be
relatively less. It seems that when a regular drop
is not produced, the globules that are more easily
churnable unite in the granules and leave the small-
er ones to unite later in the churning process. If
these globules fail to unite there would be great loss
in the buttermilk. Sometimes when the cream is
too rich, part of it will adhere to the inside fixtures
of the churn and not readily drop off during churn-
ing and will not be churned nor gathered at all.
This is a source of considerable loss in the butter-
milk.

128. Quantity of cream in the churn. The quantity
of cream in the churn bears a definite relation to the
time it will take to churn. _As a rule the fuller the
churn the longer it will take to churn. It is not
advisable to fill the churn more than half full due
to the fact that there is not sufficient space in the
THE CHURNING OF CREAM. NT

churn for the cream to drop or create the necessary
concussion. Where the churn is too full and the
cream very rich the churn may become nearly full
during the churning process, due to the swelling of
the cream. This will increase the time of churning
and is likely to cause a heavy loss in the buttermilk.
The smaller the quantity in the churn the lower
should the temperature be and the fuller the churn
the higher should be the temperature. If one were
to divide the cream in the vat into two quantities
and take one part, equal to one-third of a churn full
and the other part equal to two-thirds of a churn
full and churn both at a temperature of 50° F. it
will be noticed that the difference in churning time
will be very marked and that the butter granules in
the two churnings will be very different in size and
shape.

129. Speed of churn. The churn must not be speed-
ed too high because it then has a tendency to carry
the cream around with it-and not produce a drop;
but on the other hand if the churn goes too slowly
the concussion would be so small that churning
would be impossible. The churns as they are now
put upon the market are as a rule well tested, and
it is therefore safe to follow the directions given
with them regarding the speed of the churn. In or-
der to determine just what speed gives best results
I may mention that it would be a good plan to care-
fully increase or decrease the speed of the churn and
watch results. The speed found to give most desira-
ble results can then be adopted.
98 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

130. Viscosity of cream. During the cold season
when it is suspected that viscosity in the cream has
been the cause of a difficult churning, the’ trouble
can to some extent be avoided in subsequent churn-
ings by adding a large per cent of starter and by
carefully watching the process of ripening the
cream. If the cream is ripened uniformly and to a
sufficient degree of acidity, and the temperature of
it adjusted according to the per cent of butter fat
it contains there will be little trouble with difficult
churning. In fact there is really no need of having
any trouble in churning.

131. When difficutly is experienced in churning
it can nearly always be traced to neglect on the part
of the operator to properly adjust one or more of
the various conditions affecting the uniting of the
fat globules during churning. However, in case one
has a difficult churning to deal with, caused for
instance by the cream having swelled to such an ex-
tent that there is little chance of making a churning
in a reasonable length of time, a good thing to do is
to add a little salt—about one per cent—and let
the churning proceed for about five or ten minutes.
If no difference in the consistency of the cream is
noticed at the end of this time, pour in about ten
per cent of water having a temperature of 95° F.
The water should be poured in quickly, distributing
it as uniformly as possible, and the churn started at
once in order not to allow the water to act on a small
quantity of the cream and fat globules and soften
enough of them to produce greasy butter. If this
treatment does not produce the desired effect on the
TUE CHURNING OF CREAM. )

cream the next best thing to do is to draw off
enough eream to allow a perfect drop of the cream
remaining in the churn.

132. Danger in too much churning. When the
butter comes in granules like shot and churning is
continued for some time after that stage is reached,
for the purpose of producing larger granules, there
is danger of the friction of the granules producing
salvy and greasy butter. When the butter comes
in fine granules and it is difficult to churn the gran-
ules to larger size it is well to stop the churning and
draw off enough of the buttermilk to produce a
greater density of butter fat. The granules of but-
ter drawn off with the buttermilk can be caught on
a fine sieve and returned to the churn. By draw-
ing off part of the buttermilk the fat globules come
closer together and will more readily unite into
larger granules when churning is continued. Cream
which churns in this way does not produce the finest
butter. Anything affecting the structure of butter
granules is likely to produce a greasy surface and
tends to destroy the fine aroma of the butter. When
butter granules are fine, round and hard and churn-
ing is continued for some length of time without
changing their shape or size, the surface of the gran-
ules is rubbed smooth by friction against each other.
This breaks the grain and produces greasy butter.
The body of the butter as already stated is greatly
affected by the granular structure of the butter
granules at the end of churning. The ideal condi-
tion of the butter granules, is to have them tome in
ragged or irregular bodies. The more irregular they
160 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

are the more perfect will be the body of the butter.
The salvy and greasy condition so often noticed in
butter on the market is due in a great measure to
the care of the cream and the manner of churning
and not entirely due, as some believe, to the methods
of handling the butter after churning.

Heavy losses of butter fat in the buttermilk may
be due to improper ripening of the cream, churning
at {oo high temperatures, too quick churning, too
long churning, churning mixed sour and_ swect
cream and in fact to anything which effects the
ideal conditions of the churning process.
CHAPTER VIII.

THE HANDLING OF BUTTER
AFTER CHURNING.
INDEX TO CHAPTER VIII.

Tar. No, Page.
133. Handling of butter after churning.............. 103
ie Woshive Wel 49:04 ne eves en dew eg ane pate eee ex 108
185. The effect of over Churning....... 0... cece eee ee 104
126. How to handle over churned butter............. 104
137. Add water quickly ........ Ac gear avatar aig aye yeee ayy 105
188. Quantity of wash water to be wsed.......... 0065 105
a.  WOTIETTE DUELOR © aco 2 acedsas don Algae sn as sucliel ecesd suse ounce daaterarte 106
140. Ilow to know when butter is worked enough.... 1€6
141. Conditions affecting working of butter.......... 106
142, TRACKS BUTE ied gia cases! pv etonrgiee aoe RA SA OS 107
143. Preparation of tubs and boxes for packing butter 107
14H. Printing butter for market.................006. 108
145. Losses when butter is sold in bulk.............. 108
146. Preparing butter printerS ..........cceee eee 108
147. Condition of butter for moulding..............- 109
148. Wrapping dutter .<cs¢sssexas rag cto ee cease een os 110
149. Brand on wrapper ......... cece eee eee ence eee 110
150. Treating butter tubs or boxes for mould—First
MICTHOR!: ce a gscig eres wns saairas whoa ede sw aes Warsgerass Be 111
SGC TWIG. .4s64s05 coy ee sede tke Cow eKkoe ee 111
PHI) MOO: as awidcin 65 wierks nae ee &Ralnds 4b lelgider eaters 111
151. Methods of applying paraffine........... 6... ee 112
152. Losses incurred between creamery and market... 118
CHAPTER VIII.
The Handling of Butter After Churning.

133. As has been stated in a previous chapter, the
more ragged the butter granules (provided the
cream is of good quality) the finer will be the flavor
and the better will be the body of the butter. The
finer the granules the more easily is the butter fat
affected by temperatures of wash water and the
manner of manipulation during washing. The larger
the granules are when the butter comes the less
quickly will temperatures affect their consistency.
Large, soft granules and warm wash water are
likely to result in mottled butter. Fine, firm gran-
ules and cold wash water will usually produce dry
butter. ,

134. Washing butter. The temperature of the wash
water may vary a few degrees in relation to the
temperature of the buttermilk and still give good
results. Fine butter granules when washed with cold
water will more easily remain separate than larger
granules will when washed with the same tempera-
ture of wash water. Washing fine butter granules
with cold water will chill and harden them and
make the proper working of the butter difficult. It
also prevents a perfect dissolving of the salt. We
may take it for granted that the finer the granules
the less time the butter should be subjected to the
same temperature of wash water as is used on gran-
ules which are much larger or coarser. The amount

103
104 MODERN BUTTER MAKING,

of washing that butter should receive depends en-
tirely upon the quality of the cream, the condition
of the butter when churned and the method of wash-
ing used.

135. When butter has come in lumps, that is,
when it has been overchurned, the wash water ought
not be very warm because using warm water on but-
ter in this condition softens the outside of the lumps
and encloses the buttermilk. This usually produces
a milky brine in the butter. If quite cold wash wa-
ter is used on large lumps it causes the outside of
the lumps to become firm and cold, thus favoring
the production of mottles, unless the water is left
long enough on the butter to produce a uniform
temperature throughout the entire mass. The quan-
lity of wash water necessary, the temperature to be
used and the amount of washing necessary for every
churning of butter are problems which the butter
maker must study out for himself. The finer the
granules, the more quickly will the temperature of
the wash water affect their consistency, and there-
for the wash water, whether warm or cold, must
not be left on the butter long, either to harden or
soften it.

136. In case butter is overchurned the following
procedure may assist the creamery operator in rid-
ding the butter of undue quantities of buttermilk
which is enclosed in the large lumps of butter. Add
as much water as cream churned, revolve the churn
a few times and draw off the water. Again add the
same quantity of water and work butter one revolu-
tion at a time, three or four times at intervals of
HANDLING OF BUTTER AFTER CHURNING. 105

five minutes. Draw off the water and drain; then
salt and work as usual. Be sure to observe how the
butter handles and if it is inclined to be soft (which
may mean an excess of moisture) work in the salt
at intervals, allowing the butter to stand a short
time between workings. |

137. Wash water should be put into the churn as
quickly as possible to avoid softening or hardening
part of the butter. Even when the temperature of
the wash water is the samc as the temperature of the
butter, the running in of the water and the washing
and draining of the butter should be quickly done.
Most of the fine flavor in butter is supposed to be
volatile and it is therefore necessary that the butter
should not be subjected to much washing nor allowed
to stand in the wash water for any considerable
length of time unless the butter contains bad flavors.

138. Quantity of wash water to be used. The larg-
er the quantity of wash water used the more readily
will the butter be freed of buttermilk, and the
smaller the quantity of wash water used the less
effect it has on removing the buttermilk. A small
quantity of wash water with butter of average con-
sistency has a tendency toward uniting the butter
fat more readily into large lumps. This is conduc-
ive to holding moisture in butter.

The amount of churning that is necessary in wash
water depends first, upon the condition of the but-
ter and the firmness of the granules, second, upon
the temperature of the butter fat, third, upon the
amount of water used, and fourth, upon the quality
of the butter.
106 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

139, Working butter. The American market pre-
fers a smooth, waxy butter, with some salt, and this
ean only be obtained by working the butter properly
with a sufficient amount of moisture and a proper
amount of salt. The softer the butter the less it
needs to be worked, and the firmer it is the more
working it needs in order to give it a smooth body
and to properly incorporate the salt. In working
butter, be guided mainly by the appearance of it
and not by the number of revolutions of the churn.

140. How to know when butter is worked enough.
Take a chunk of butter from the churn; cut it with
a wire, a string or a ladle. Notice that the cut sur-
face shows a close, smooth, even front. Then take
it with two ladles, cut nearly in two and then pull.
If the butter is worked enough it will adhere and
draw a little before breaking; but if not worked
enough it will break off and show a loose open edge
with drops of water of various sizes at the break.
In case of leaky butter the edge will be rather
ragged and open, due to pockets of water in the, but-
ter. As a general rule butter that is waxy, smooth
and close in body is worked enough.

141. When other conditions are right:

1. Soft butter needs less working than hard but-
ter.

2. A small quantity more than a large quantity.

3. Well churned butter less working than over-
churned butter.

4. Spring and summer butter less working than
fall and winter butter.

5. Butter from cream held over night more
ITANDLING OF BUTTER AFTER CHURNING. 107

working than butter from cream churned two or
three hours after cooling.

6. The lower cream is cooled and the longer it
is held at a low temperature the more the butter
must be worked.

142. Packing butter. Cleanliness in handling the
butter when packing, and neatness of the package,
play an important part in the success of a creamery.
A neat package is a good advertisement for a cream-
ery and is a true index to the character of the oper-
ator. Butter should be packed immediately after it
is worked enough to properly incorporate the salt
and before is hardens or ‘‘sets.’’ If butter is packed
after it has hardened, some of the moisture which
has collected in small drops is easily expressed;
while if it is packed while soft less moisture is lost.

143. When butter tubs are used place a small
quantity of butter in each tub and pack it down
well in order that the bottom of the tub will be per-
fectly filled. Then proceed to fill the tubs. When
boxes are used the corners should be well filled in
order to exclude the air, and the top should be cut
off smoothly. Boxes may be paraffined or parch-
ment lined or both depending upon the demands of
the commission house buying the butter. The top
may be covered with a paper square and a little salt
sprinkled on top. As a rule the top of the butter is
cut off smoothly, even with the top of the tub. If
a liner is used in the tub, turn the top of it, which
usually extends one-half to one inch above the top
of the tub, over onto the butter. Now place a cloth
circle on top of the butter, sprinkle a layer of salt
Jos MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

on it and on this place a parchment circle. The salt
may be put on the butter either dry or wet, as di-
rected by the dealer.

144, Printing butter for market. The demand for
block, printed, or moulded butter is increasing grad-
ually from year to year. This is probably due to
the fact that there is less loss connected with the
handling of it by the dealer than there is with jar or
tub butter and the customer feels that he is getting
a full pound and will have no loss by water leaking
out as is the case where butter is bought in a jar.

145. When butter is dished out from large pack-
ages losses may occur in several ways. There are
slight losses in weighing; a little water always leaks
out of the butter when it is cut and a little butter
always adheres to the packages and utensils used in
handling it. When creameries market their butter
in prints or blocks no shrinkage can be reported by
commission houses, nor can the creamery man
claim more butter than he actually markets. This
“iga very satisfactory way of marketing butter and

should be encouraged, provided the market is will-
ing to accept it.

146. Preparing butter printers. When butter is
moulded or printed direct from the churn the
printer used must be in the best possible condition
in order that it may deliver perfect prints. First
soak the printer with boiling water applied either
with a hose or dipper until the wood is soaked well,
then apply cold water in the same way until the
_printer is as cold or colder than the butter. The
‘trays used should be treated in the same way except
WANDLING OF BUTTER AFTER CHURNING. 109

that instead of applying the water with a hose or
dipper they may be soaked in a tank.

The printer should be as cold or colder than the
butter because when the butter is colder than the
printer, the outside of the butter is warmed and
becomes sticky. This causes it to adhere to the
printing machine. When the butter is warmer than
the printer it hardens on the sides touching the ma-
chine and in this way retains a perfect mould. Ma-
chines used for printing butter, whether table print-
ers or hand moulders, should not dry out much be-
tween the times that they are used, as much drying
of the wood causes warping and cracking and this
makes a perfect mould impossible. When a printer
has dried out much it requires the expenditure of
considerable time to soak sufficiently.

147. Condition of butter for moulding. Butter used
for moulding immediately from the churn should be
neither hard nor soft, but just firm. When butter
is a trifle soft place a picce of ice in the churn, close
the cover and allow it to stand for one or one and
one-half hours before moulding and it will then be
in proper condition for making good prints. When
butter is quite firm mould immediately after the
working is finished. If butter hardens too much
before printing losses are incurred through the ex-
pelling of water during packing.

When butter is moulded or printed directly from
the churn it is necessary that great care be taken to
have it of the proper firmness; therefore, the tem-
peratures during churning and working must be
carefully adjusted.
110 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

148. Wrapping butter. Whenever there is trouble
with mould on butter it is advisable to soak the
wrappers in salt brine before using. When paraf-
fine paper is first used and a parchment wrapper put
over this, the latter need not be soaked in brine.
Conditions at creameries under which wrappers are
kept would influence the treatment necessary for
them. If they are kept in a clean, dry place there is
little danger of their becoming infected with mould
germs to the extent that special treatment would be
necessary. They should be kept in a clean, dry,
well ventilated place.

149. Brand on wrapper. Unless a creamery is
making enough butter to establish a trade or outlct
of its own it is not advisable to carry one’s own
brand on the wrapper. In order to establish a ree-
ognized market for one creamery, it is necessary for
that creamery to manufacture practically all butter
of one grade. This is impossible under average
creamery conditions. ‘There are very few cream-
eries so situated as to be able to sell even a small
percentage of their butter under their own brand.
Generally speaking it is not advisable to try to sell
to commission houses under your own brand, but it
is better to sell your butter to them under their own
brand. Selling butter under the brand of some but-
ter house is advisable because such firms usually
have outlets for butter of various grades and sell
practically all butter by grade. Since these firms
receive butter from a large number of creameries,
which do not manufacture butter of one grade, it is
necessary for them to grade all butter.
HANDLING OF BUTTER AFTER CHURNING. 111

Treating Butter Tubs or Boxes for Mould.

150. Frequently great losses to creameries have
been incurred by the moulding of butter tubs and
boxes shortly after the shipments of butter have
reached the commission house. Instances are known
where the mould grew on both the liner and the tub
and penetrated into the outside parts of the butter.
In order to avoid the loss and inconvenience ocea-
sioned by the development of mould, paraffining as
a remedy was suggested and tried with very good
results. There are several other simple and inex-
pensive remedies which, when properly applied,
give very good results. For instance the following:

1. Tighten all hoops, scrub the tubs with a stiff
brush and hot water, turn over a steam jet and heat
quite hot. Now fill the tubs with clean well water
and soak until the tub and cover weigh eleven
pounds. When ready to pack the butter, sprinkle
salt with a sieve all over the inside of the tub. Have
the liners soaked in brine, line the tubs and again
sprinkle salt all over the liner and bottom circle.
The tub is now ready for packing the butter.

2. Another method is that of soaking the tubs
in a brine solution. Have a tank made of a size
large enough to hold the number of tubs required
for one day’s make in the flush of the season and
fill this tank with either a strong salt solution or a
formaldehyde solution. Place the tubs in this tank
and soak them until tub and cover together weigh
eleven pounds. When tubs are treated in this way
no salt need be sprinkled on either the tub or the
liner, but liners and circles should always be soaked
12 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

in brine for twelve hours before using as mould
spores may adhere to them and grow after the but-
ter is packed.

3. Paraffine properly applied is one of the great-
est safeguards against mould and is very easily
done with modern paraffining apparatus. Consider-
ing the benefits derived from its use as a means of
preventing mould, the cost of it per package is a
mere trifle. It excludes the air from the butter by
sealing all crevices and in this way increases the
keeping quality of the butter. It is claimed that
losses in moisture are Jess in paraffined than in un-
paraffined packages. If the soaking and handling
of the packages were always performed in the best
possible manner there would be less need of paraffin-
ing, but since this is not realized in the average
ereamery it is recommended that paraffining be gen-
erally employed as a safeguard against mould.

151. Methods of applying paraffine. The quickest
as well as the most reliable and economical method
of applying paraffine is with apparatus especially
devised for this purpose. The cost of paraffining
need not be more than one cent per 60 pound pack-
age of butter, whether it is a tub or a box. One
ounce of paraffine will thinly coat one 60 pound tub
and two ounces will give it a heavy coat. The cost
would depend somewhat upon the smoothness of the
package and the manner of applying the paraffinc.
One of the main factors influencing the cost of par-
affining is the temperature of the paraffine when ap-
plied. The hotter it is the less it will require. Sixty
pound butter tubs which have a standard tare of
HANDLING OF BUTTER AFTER CHURNING. 113

eleven pounds each, including cover, should always
be soaked until the tub and cover weigh eleven
pounds and then paraffined as usual. In this way
the creamery does not sustain any losses which are
due to the difference between the tare (11 pounds)
and the actual weight of the tub and cover.

152. Average shrinkage of butter. In addition to
information gathered from thousands of creameries
by personal visits, a large number of inquiries were
made by letter in regard to the average shrinkage
allowance or loss between churn weight and market
return weight. It was found to be 114 per cent of
the total butter churned. This is the average loss,
as the shrinkage given ranged from nothing to 4
per cent. Some claim that paraffining does not pre-
vent this loss, as a certain shrinkage must be al-
lowed in order that the dealer does not lose by short-
age in weight.

For further information regarding how losses af-
fect the overrun, see Book II., Dairy Arithmetic, p.
215.
CHAPTER IX.

CONTROLLING MOISTURE IN
BUTTER.

In the consistency of the butterfat lies
the seeret of controlling moisture in butter.
160.
161.
1€2.
163.
164.

165.
166.

167.

168.

169.

170.

171.

172.
173.

INDEX TO CHAPTER IX.

* NOL Page.
Education necessary oo... ccc cece eee eee 116
BrOgress. GVIGEME cs icccaiann au waste da areiaaaae dete set 116
Fundamental principles must be studied......... 117
Moisture can be controlled.......... 0... cee ee eee 117
Table V, Uniform moisture in finished butter.
Analysis of results, Table V......... 0... ee eee 118
Table VI, apparently same methods as in Table V 129
Explanation of Table VI.............. 00s eee 120
Not always the same results..............0006- 121
Table VII, a study of six churnings.

Table VIII, shrinkage in moisture.............. 22
Explanation of Tables VII and VIII............ 122
How the churn moisture test was made......... 124

A churning showing certain methods and effect... 125
With explanatory Table IX.

Description of methods employed............... 125

Causes affecting moisture control............... 126

(a) Hlow not to exceed the legal per cent of
moisture.

(b) Suggestions regarding expelling moisture.

Variations in moisture at different stages....... 12%

Table X. Methods used.

Per cent of moisture and firmness of butter...... 128

Table XI. Results of ten churnings.
Per cent of moisture in different parts of churn.. 130

Table XII. Result of moisture tests............ 130
How to take a composite sample of butter for
MOISCULE aca cmccws chew a sess ewer sere seamen 131
Samples taken from tubsS.............. 0c gee eee 131
An exceptional CASE 12... cee eee eee recess 132

Factors most necessary for controlling moisture.. 132
CHAPTER IX.
Controlling Moisture in Butter.

153. The desired or required per cent of moisture
in butter is very easily controlled when the funda-
mental principles involved in the retention, expul-
sion, and incorporation of moisture are understood
by the creameryman.

Butter can be manufactured with fairly uniform
moisture content, provided proper facilities for
handling the various processes are available. The
butter maker should so educate himself as to be
able to meet unusual conditions as they arise. He
should acquaint himself with all methods which af-
fect the variations of the composition of butter, es-
pecially with regard to increasing, retaining and ex-
pelling moisture.

154. Some undesirable methods employed in the
handling of cream and in the manufacture of butter
have been, to a great extent, eliminated in the last
few years by the enactment of suitable laws affect-
ing these methods. A great advancement toward
the employment of better and more uniform meth-
ods in the handling of cream and the manufacture
of butter is already manifest.

The maximum per cent of moisture allowed in
butter is 15.9 per cent, and this is fixed by federal
law. This has created a tendency toward the manu-
facture of butter of a more uniform composition,
which is very desirable, from an economic point of
view.

116
CONTROLLING MOISTURE IN BUTTER. 117

155. The great difference in the construction of
machinery used in the handling of cream and in
the manufacture of butter as well as the different
methods employed in different creameries is bound
to produce butter which varies greatly in the per
cent of moisture it contains. The following facts
are intended to assist the manufacturer of butter to
a better understanding of the fundamental prin-
ciples involved in the control of moisture.

In order to avoid trouble we ought to know what
methods are likely to get us into trouble. Realizing
the danger of the application of wrong methods as
well as the danger of the wrong application of
proper methods in-the manufacture of butter it be-
comes necessary to discuss various methods bearing
on the control of moisture in the manufacture of
butter.

156. Moisture can be controlled. By a close ap-
plication of the principles affecting the retention
and expulsion of moisture it is possible to control
moisture in butter uniformly and _ satisfactorily
from day to day. This can be done without employ-
ing any of the so-called ‘‘abnormal methods’’ in the
manufacture of butter.

117. Uniform moisture in finished butter when
cream varies in quantity and richness.

The results in the following table indicate that the
richness and quantity of cream used have appar-
ently no effect on the moisture content of the fin-
ished butter. By studying carefully the methods
used and applying the same at the proper time dur-
118 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

ing the manufacture of butter, conditions affecting
the moisture content can be controlled and the de-
sired per cent of moisture can be retained in the
butter. That the results in Table V., page 119, were
so uniform is due to carefully watching details con-
nected with the various operations during the whole
process. For instance, compare churning No. 1 with
churning No. 6. In No. 1 the quantity of cream is
much less than in No. 6; the cream test is low in No.
1 and high in No. 6; the temperature of the wash
water used is lower in No. 1 than in No. 6. The fore-
going factors are in favor of higher moisture in No.
6. To offset this, No. 1 had a higher cream temper-
aiure and received twenty revolutions in washing
against six revolutions in No. 6, which had a lower
cream temperature. Since the temperature of the
wash water was lower in No. 1 than in No. 6, No. 1
was churned more in a larger quantity of wash wa-
ter than No. 6. By drawing off the water sooner in
No. 6, it did not have time to affect the temperature
of the butter granules much even though the water
was warmer. Churning No. 6 was drained quite dry
while in No. 1 more water was left in the churn at
the time the salt was added and the butter worked.
By carefully studying these two churnings it will be
noticed that where one factor favored high moisture
another factor favored low moisture. In the uni-
form and relative: adjustment of those factors les
the seeret of properly handling churning processes
from day to day. Study churning No. 3. Factors
conducive to high moisture are: High eream test
and fairly high churning temperature. Factors con-
CONTROLLING MOISTURE IN BUTTER. 119

ducive to low moisture content are: Washing but-
ter in slow gear, fifteen revolutions (which has a
tendency toward making the granules firm), drain-
ing butter quite dry, and using low temperature
wash water.

Not only is such balancing of methods necessary
in order to get uniform results, but one must also
be able to judge by the condition of the butter fat
during the various stages, how long or how short
each period of handling must be. The operator must
also study conditions as they arise in order to know
the quantity and temperature of water to be used
with such changed conditions.

TABLE Y.

Uniform Moisture in Finished Butter When Cream Varics
in Quantity and Richness.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

No. of Churnings 1 2 3 4 5 6
Cream Pounds ..........- | 962] 1351] 1424] 1324] 1409] 1180
Cream Tests (averages) ..| 23.4/30.15|28.56| 23.4] 23.| 31.8
Cream ‘Temperatures °F..| 56] 54| 56] 54| 58] 54
Buttermilk « oF..| 58] 57] 57] BT] C8]
Wash Water “ oF..| Bal 55] 54] 54] 54] 57
Slow Gear in Wash Water|.....|.....|....-[  15].....[.....
Rev. Churned in Wash | | | | | |

Water 22 sue carwa vom s } 20] 40] 380] 15; 30] 6
Quantity of Butter to | | | | | |
 WATEE a icdeh ouacn esau } 14] 1-3] 1-3] 141...) 1-3
Rey. Incorporating Salt... 13] 13) 13, 13) 13] «12

 

 

 

Temperature of Butter °F| 56] 56) 56] 56] 57] 56
Moisture Averages %.....|15.—]15.80|15.00|15.00|15.00|15.17

 

 

 
120 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.
158 Apparently applying the same methods as
those used in table No. V.

TABLE VI.

Apparently Applying the Same Methods as Those Used in
Table No. V.

Temperatures all in Fahrenheit Degrees.

 

No. of Churnings| 1 2 3 4 5 6| 7 | 8 | 9
Cream pounds --- 460} 1000} 1296] 1189) 800] 1344] 1160} 1000) 1747
Cream tests % fat] 27|  36/ 29%] 25) 32! 2821 30) 35! 98

 

 

 

Cream temperature] 55°] 52°] 56°] 53°] 54°] 55°] 52°] 46°! 52°

 

Buttermilk temper-
tUre! solo sco oc 58°} 54°) 58°) 57°] 55°) 56°) 54°) 56°] 55°

 

Wash water tem-
perature -------- 5° 56° 56° 52° 56° 53° 52° 53° 55°

 

Quantity of butter
to water _.------ 1—3) 1—3}| 1-38) 1-3] 1—2) 1-2]-.._.-] 1-2] 1-2

 

Rev. churned in
WALT acncccncsns 30 60 24 30) 6 15 20 30 10

 

Rev. worked in
Water 2 nee-sess|sccee 10} 222 se] 9 10) 12 6 10)------

 

Temperature of
finished butter._| 58°] 56°} 59°] 656°] 656°] 54°] 52°] 54°] 56°

 

Average percent of!

 

molsture ~--.--- 18.33} 18.10) 18.75] 17.60} 17.1 | 17.12) 17. 16.53) 17.25
Dull |Dull
and jand |Soft |Very Very

Condition of but-|weak |weak {in dry |Fatr |Fair |dry
Bl cveweseesnneed body |body |body |body |body |body |body

S—Simplex. V—
Victor, 22-25-22 8. 8. Ve | Mil Ws 8. 8. sp Ve

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

159. The per cent of moisture in the finished but-
ter is very much greater as shown in the above table
than given in table No. V. The methods in table
No. VI. do not vary much from those used in table
No. V. The difference in results indicated in table
CONTROLLING MOISTURE IN BUTTER. 121

VI. is wholly due to the proper (table No. V.), or
improper (table No. VI.) application of methods
used. The body of butter is usually weak whenever
the moisture exceeds 1614 or 17 per cent and is de-
cidedly soft when it exceeds 19 per cent.

No rule which is applicable to all conditions alike,
can be formulated because conditions under which
butter is made, vary very much. Not only are
the results obtained affected by a variation of con-
ditions: under which butter is made, but different
butter makers judge conditions differently. Due to
this, no rule can be formulated which could be used
under all conditions. However, by having a perfect
system of cream standardization, by knowing the
exact quantity of cream used at each churning and
by a careful adjustment of. temperatures, very good
results can be obtained by following a definitely
outlined method.

160. Not always the same results. In order to de-
termine how much the per cent of moisture would
vary by employing the same methods, six churnings
were made from the same lot of cream. These
churnings were all made in the same churn and
within ten hours time. In the table below will be
found the result of these churnings:

Six churnings made from the same lot of cream.

After the butter had stood for four days in a
freezer, it was retested for moisture and the samples

were taken with an ordinary butter trier. The re-
sults obtained are given below.
122

MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

TABLE VII.
Nia Churnings Made lroin the Same Lot of Cream,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

No. of Churnings 1 2 | 3 4 5 6
tream Pounds ........... | 801] 801] 860[ 800] 3800] 300
Per Cent Butter Fat..... | 24.) Bao] 24.| 24.3) 24.| 24.2
Time Churned (in min- | joi | | |

utes) ........ veeeeesee] BH[ 29| BO] 27] 27] 80,
Temperature of Butter- | | | | | |

Hie ccghotanenmennces [ B2°) Ga] are) Brel Bre] 87°
Temperature of Wash | | | | | |

Wale nay dawsaey wae sa4 | 52°, 52°] 63°] 58°] 53°] 53°
Rev. Churned in Water...| 15] 15| 15/15] 15] 15
Rey. Worked in Water...| 10| 10; 10} 160] 106| 10
‘Temperature of Butter...] 56°] 55°; 56°| 56°) 56°) 56°

 

 

Churn Moisture Test %.. .|18.50|13.50| 12.90) 13.10] 14.25| 13.00

 

161.

Shrinkage in moisture.

TABLE VIII.
Shrinkage in Moisture.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

No. of Churnings 1 2 3 4 5 6
After Four Days.
Tested from Tub. Mois-
{NEES eocWae pesae ances 12.70 sia i 18.20) 18.75]12.50
| Gain
Shrinkage .. 0. ......08. 72\ 50
|

al

a) i] 50

 

 

162, The average shrinkage in five out of six tubs
The greatest variation in

is .54 per.cent per tub.
moisture in this lot is 1.35 per cent.

The quantity
CONTROLLING MOISTURE IN BUTTER. 123

of wash water used in cach churning was one-half
the volume of the cream churned. The butter was
first rinsed with water of the same temperature as
the water used for washing. In order to ascertain
what effect these quantities of wash water at the
temperatures mentioned had on the moisture con-
tent and on the quality of the butter, the butter
was worked ten revolutions in the water, in slow
gear. It can readily be seen that under such condi-
tions and temperatures the moisture content was
not high. As far as could be detected these churn-
ings had the same firmness of body and handled
about the same during the manufacturing process.
The foregoing trial would indicate that the moisture
in butter will vary somewhat, even though the but-
ter is made under the same conditions.

During a period of four days, between the churu
test and the tub test, the average moisture shrink-
age was .04 per cent. For some reason one tub did
not show any shrinkage, one showed .18 per cent
and four showed above .50 per cent shrinkage. The
cause of the high shrinkage on this butter may be
due in part to loss of moisture during the packing
of the butter and to sampling it from the tub witha
trier when quite cold, thus losing a little water by
drawing the plug. It is claimed by some creamery-
men that the churn moisture test can be 17 per cent
and the butter will not contain more than 16 per
cent of moisture when it reaches the market. I wish
to caution butter makers against putting faith in
such cleaims because well made butter does not al-
ways lose one per cent of moisture from the time it
124 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

is churned, packed and held at the creamery until
‘it reaches the market.

163. How the churn moisture test was made. After
the working of the butter was finished, a_ threc-
pound compact chunk was taken from the churn.
The sides were cut off until one pound was left, and
from this piece a cube weighing about ten or fifteen
grams was cut and placed in a Patrick aluminum
beaker or in a Wisconsin high pressure oven pan,
and heated until all moisture was expelled. By
using this method the duplicate samples compared
well, and seemed to prove the method an accurate
one and one which can well be used in creamery
practice for approximate results. A Disbrow churn
was used for these churnings. The sampling and re-
testing of the tub butter was done in the same man-
ner, exeept that a trier was used, and several plugs
taken from each tub. From each plug a few grams
were taken (enough to make 10 or 15 grams), placed
in the pan or eup, and heated until all the moisture
was expelled. Both these methods compared well
with standard methods.

The character of butter has much influence on the
results obtained and must always be taken into con-
sideration when comparing the results obtained and
checking up work done. A common cause of poor
and variable results in testing butter for moisture
is the use of improper methods, cither in taking
samples from the churn or from the tub, and in not
weighing the sample correctly before and after test-
ing. In order to get a representative sample from
the churn, larger quantities of butter than one or
CONTROLLING MOISTURE IN BUTTER. 125

two ounces must be taken, from which to make the
moisture determination. Let me warn butter mak-
ers against taking a little bit of butter from one
place in the churn, with a jackknife, ladle or the
fingers, for testing for moisture. Such a small piece
of butter taken at random does not, as a rule, repre-
sent the average moisture in a churning.

164. Bight churnings showing certain methods and
their effect on moisture. _

TABLE IX.

 

 

 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

No. of Churnings a{/2]/3]4)5]6]7)8

Cream pounds -. 1500} 1343] 1747| 1150] 1887} 1280) 1445] 1150
Cream tests %--------------------- 32.) 36.5) 23.) 30.) 25.6) 30.6) 27.) 30.
Oream temperature ° F_____----.-- 54°) 54°] 52°) 52°) 54°) 55°) 55°] 52°
Buttermilk temperature °F..__.--.| 55°) 56°} 55°] 54°] 56°] 57°] 56°) 55°
Wash water temperature ° F.-..-) 56°] 52°) 55°} 52°) 52°) 57°| 52°) 53°
Rev. churned in wash water_---.-- 6] 10) 10) 20) 25) 56} 25} 30
Rev. worked in water--------------| 10] 7] 8] 6] 3) 30} 5/__.
Rev. worked incorporating salt...| 12] 12} 12) 13) 14] 14) 12] 13
Temperature of butter ° F___------ 56°] 52°) 56°) 52°] 54°] 53°) 53°) 54°
Per cent moisture (averages)_-----|16.6 |17.65|17.25]17. |15.93)16.45]17. |17.

No. of moisture determinations... 13] 3} 2] 2 4 5} 64k 8

 

¢Victor churn was used.

165. Whether such methods as are given in the
above table can or cannot be employed to advantage
in creamery butter making is a question that can be
decided only by the butter maker himself. Results
obtained would depend absolutely upon his ability
to handle properly all processes involved in churn-
ing the cream and working the butter. In order to
understand any one method that may be employed
126 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

in creamery butter making, all sides must be well
studied and we must see into and understand what
conditions affeet an inerease or a decrease of mois-
ture in butter.

In every one of the churnings in table LX, except
No. 8, the butter was worked in water after being
washed. The quantity of water used in the first five
churnings was twice the amount of the butter
churned, In numbers 6, 7 and 8, the quantity of
water used was three times the amount of the butter
¢hurned. Working the butter in water has a ten-
deney to increase the moisture unless the butter is
quite firm. The rate at which moisture in butter is
increased by working the butter in water depends
more upon the condition of the butter fat than upon
the number of revolutions given in water. The solid-
ity of the butter fat determines the rate of increase
or decrease of moisture in butter during the wash-
ing and working processes. Under proper condi-
tions buttcr may be worked a little in water with-
out necessarily spoiling those qualities which enter
into the makeup of perfect butter.

166. Retaining and increasing moisture in butter.
Moisture may be increased and retained in the fol-
lowing ways:

I. By churning cream at a high temperature.

II. By overchurning.

JW. By churning very rich cream.

IV. By washing with warm water and churning
the butter into lumps in the wash water.
CONTROLLING MOISTURE IN BUTTER. 127

V. By working butter in water and leaving water
in the churn while incorporating salt.

VI. By overworking butter in water.

VII. By churning cream very soon or at once
after cooling.

Expelling Moisture.

A. How not to exceed the legal moisture limit.
Churn cream at low temperatures. Churn butter to
fine granules. Wash butter with cold water. Hold
butter in cold water for some time in order that
butter granules may become firm. Drain butter dry
before adding salt and working butter. Wash butter
at intervals, giving a few workings at a time. Main-
tain firm butter fat during the whole process of but-
ter manufacture, and low moisture is the result.

B. A few suggestions regarding expelling mois-
ture. This can be accomplished by letting the butter
stand in the churn until it has set, then start the
churn, set the workers in motion, and work as usual
until the moisture is sufficiently reduced. If the
churning room is so warm that the butter cannot
harden or become firm in the churn, put the butter
into soaked, unlined tubs and place in cooler until
set. Then work as stated above. Hardening butter
fat is the only means of expelling moisture and is
also the most effective way of preventing too high
moisture content.

167. Variations in moisture at different stages
during the churning and working processes.

It is interesting to note how the moisture content
changes during different stages of the manufactur-
128 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

ing process. In the experiments noted in the fore-
going table, the wash water was tempered to 54°
‘and 55° F., and the temperature of the cream was
about 52° F. when put into the churn. This table
seems to indicate that cold water has a tendency to

TABLE X.

 

| J 2 3
Per cent of Moisture

Butter Granules Mustard Seed Size| 17.95%|17 %|16 %

No. of Churnings

 

 

 

Butter Granules Rice Size......... | 16.40% |15.50% |15.77%
After Washing 36 Revolutions..... | 14.95% | 13.90% |13.95%
Finished Butter ...............05- | 16.75% | 15.30% | 15.30%

 

+ All average of six determinations.

 

| Per cent of Moisture

 

 

 

Butter Granules Rice Size......... | 14.20%|.....--)eeceeee
After Washing 10 Revolutions..... | 14.65% |... ee fe eeeeee
After Washing 20 Revolutions..... | 13.40%|....- ee fee eee

 

 

Working 6 Revolutions in Water...| 14.50%|.......|.......
Working 6 Rev. Incorporating Salt.| 15.78%|.......].....++

 

|
|
After Washing 30 Revolutions..... | 13.50% |......-|eeceeee
|
|

 

lower the moisture content of butter during wash-
ing under certain conditions, but the moisture can
be increased by allowing a little water to remain in
the churn during the incorporation of the salt.

168. Per cent of moisture and the firmness of
butter.

The cream used in the above churnings was of
such a temperature as to insure exhaustive churn-
CONTROLLING MOISTURE IN BUTTER. 129

ing. The wash water used ranged from 51° to 54°
F. After the butter had been washed it was salted,
and the working finished immediately without any
stop except about five minutes which was necessary

TABLE XI,

 

No. of Churnings | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

 

Not
Consistency of but- Very |very Me-
ter ---------------- Soft/Hard {hard |soft j|Soft|Softidium |Soft

 

Per cent of moisture
after washing ~-_]14.75/13.90)14.60] 15.15] 16. 14.75|13.75}14.66] 14.50/14.95

 

Change in moisture
during the incor-
poration of the

 

Salf sccesscanssee 16,—J15.30]16.50) 14.45) 13.50) 14.36]16.25)15.10) 15.30)16.75
Increase + De- typ oe | ae Se) ee ee | ee
crease — _______.} 1.35} 1.40] 1.90 70} 2.50 89) 2.50) 44 -80} 1.80

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

in order to obtain a fair sample of butter to be used
for moisture determinations. About ten or fifteen
pounds of water was left in the churn in all of the
above churnings to facilitate the dissolving of the
salt and to increase the moisture content of the but-
ter. The finished butter was all in a fine, waxy con-
dition, not slushy, salvy nor gritty. By carefully
watching conditions, the moisture in butter can be
increased as much as 2.35 per cent during the incor-
poration of the salt. In all of the above churnings,
the butter was worked only enough to properly in-
corporate the salt and avoid mottles. The results
shown in table XI. seem to indicate that the moist-
ure in butter is retained, increased or expelled ac-
cording to the firmness of the butter fat. This is
noticeable in churnings 4, 5, and 9.
130 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.
169. Per cent of moisture in different parts of
churn. Result of moisture tests.
TABLE XII.
Result of Moisture Tests.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

No. of Ohurnings 1 2 3 4 5 | 6 7 8 |Average
Moisture % gear end__---|15.30]15.2 |16.25]14.14]14.90]16.90]15.75/15.45| 15.47
Moisture % middle ~-]15.50]16.1 |16. |16.35]14.88/16.40]16.35]15.06| 15.38
Moisture % drain end-_--.|17.00|16.00|14.6 |16.76) 17.00|15.50 16.75/15.50) 16.19

 

 

 

 

Since the churns in most creameries are set in-
clined toward the drain end, the water collects at
that end of the churn during working of the butter,
therefore a great difference in the per cent of moist-
ture in the different parts of the churn is noticeable.
In fact, there is so much difference that, in order
to obtain an average moisture determination, a com-
posite sample composed of samples taken from dif-
ferent parts of the butter in the churn is necessary,
and from this sample the moisture determination
must be made. This difference in moisture in dif-
ferent parts of the churn is found to he greater in
churns in which the butter is worked into one long
column. The middle part of the column has the least
moisture, the butter ai the gear end has. slightly
more, and that at the drain end, the highest moist-
ture. The greater the incline of the ehurn, the
greater the moisture at the lower end. This varia-
tion in the per cent of moisture, is partly, if not
wholly, due to the division of water in the churn
during the time that the butter is worked. Through
the spreading of the workers while working, the
butter passes more quickly through the middle of
CONTROLLING MOISTURE IN BUTTER. 131

the rollers and strikes the sides of the churn before
the ends of the column strike it. This divides the
water in the churn and forces it to the ends, which
causes the butter to be drier in the middle of the
churn than at either end. This can be overcome, to:
some extent, by setting the churn level and hand-
ling the churning in such a way as to produce but-
ter of a rather soft consistency.

170. How to take a composite sample of butter
for moisture determination. Take a spatula, a com-
mon broad knife, or a cheese or butter trier, and a
common cup or beaker, and take about one-fourth
of an ounce of butter from different parts of the
churn, until two or three ounces have been obtained.
Place the samples in the cup or beaker and set the
latter into a water bath having a temperature of
about 98° F. Stir constantly until you have a
smooth, soft paste. This now constitutes your com-
posite sample and is to be used for moisture deter-
mination. From it take 10, 15 or 25 grams, or any
desired quantity. Weigh it accurately and place in
a cup or drying pan and follow the directions on
whatever moisture testing apparatus is used.

171. Samples taken from tubs. It is well to take
a very sinall quantity of butter from each tub while
it is still soft and fresh from the churn, to form the
composite sample to be used for testing the moisture
content. Prepare this sample as previously stated
and test as usual. The test made from the composite
tub sample will, as a rule, show a truer average, and
when this is compared with the test made from the
churn composite sample and does not check up quite
1s MODERN BUTTER MAKING,

closely, another test can at once be made and the
error located.

172. An exceptional case. A special churning was
made to determine what the results would be when
special precautions were taken in ripening the
cream, in churning, and in washing and working the
butter. To the surprise of those who examined the
butter when a week old, it was found that it con-
tained 18 per cent: of moisture and scored 9614
points. This score was the average of the scores
of three judges. Upon critical examination it was.
found that the body of the butter gave way more
easily under the trier, than butter having a lower
moisture content. It must be remembered that this
was as exceptional case, and that butter with 18 per
cent of moisture, as ordinarily made, would be quite
different. H. L. Puxley, in Modern Dairy Farm-
ing, Chapter XI., p. 107, 1906, says: ‘‘Even good
butter contains a large percentage of water, but this
should never be more than 15 per cent.”’

I wish to emphasize the fact that it is not so much
in the increase of one or two per cent of moisture,
that the main danger of producing poor butter lies.
It is the quality of the raw material which is usu-
ally at the bottom of most of our trouble with but-
ter faults.

173. Factors most necessary for controlling moist-
ure. Even though there are a great many condi-
tions which affect the per cent of moisture in butter,
there is no one factor which affects the moisture to
a greater extent than a properly educated man at
the churn. Next in importance, are the temper-
CONTROLLING MOISTURE IN BUTTER. 133

atures applied and the methods used. The kind of
machinery used also plays an important part in
affecting the methods used in regulating the moist-
ure content of butter. Such conditions as the sea-
son of the year, the sort of feed the cows are fed,
and the richness, age, and acidity of the cream, are
of minor importance and the effect of these condi-
tions on the moisture content of butter can very
easily be overcome by the operator with good judg-
ment.
CHAPTER X.

BUTTER FAULTS.

Jream laden with miscellaneous germs has
bad keeping qualities, and often a faulty taste
or odor. Most of the so-called faults of butter
arise, not from improper fecding of cows or
from improper milking or handling of butter,
but. from undesirable germs which infest. it.
KENELM WINSLOW.
INDEX TO CHAPTER X.

Par. No. Page.
Part I. Butter Faults as Affected by Conditions on

174.
175.
176.
177.
178.
179.
180.
181.

182.
183.
184.

185,

Dairy Farms.

Classification of butter faults..............00006 136
Quality of butter affected by farm conditions.... 186
low to davotd. bArny TANTS is 2.4 cecscsacesasceend 137
Care of tainted cream at creamery............0. 137
Source of COWY OdOL....... cece cee cece eee ee eee 188
Cause of musty flavor in milk or cream......... 1388
Cause of sweetish flavor in milk or cream....... 139
What may be done to improve cream having a
sweetish flavor ....... cece cece cece een eeees 140
Some causes of burnt flavors................066 140
Sources of high acid in cream............ eee eee 141
BUCO -MAVOPS. 15 esau Se audi tsare actigiwineuerdmaaruan Maney Gua eudiea 142

Care of milk and cream to avoid salvy butter.... 142

Part II. Butter Faults Due to Improper Handling of

186.
187.
188.
189.
190.
191.

J92;

Cream at the Creamery....... 0... cece eee eee 148
Regarding burnt flavors in butter............... 143
Burnt flavor due to starter, how prevented...... 144
Cause and prevention of acid flavors............ 145
Cause and prevention of coarse flavors.......... 146
Cause and prevention of unclean flavors........ 147
Cause and prevention of curdy flavors.......... 147
Cause and prevention of specks in butter........ 148

Part IIL. Butter Faults due to Faulty Workmanship.. 149

193.
194.
195.
196,

197.
198.
199.
200.
201.
202;

208,

Cause and prevention of leaky and slushy butter. 149

‘ause and prevention of gritty butter........... 151
Cause and prevention of mottled butter......... 151
Cause a.nd prevention of salvy and greasy butter. 152
(a) Pasteurization of cream ..... 6... cee eee 153
(b) Churning of Cream 2.86006. bee meee g.ae. 153
(c) Washing of butter ...... cc ce eee ee it
(d) Working of butler 2.0 0c sciesicsae ee nae ees 155
Cause and prevention of oily butter...... Pda 155

Cause and prevention of woody flavor in butter.. 157
Cause and prevention of lardy or tallowy butter. 157
Cause and prevention of fishy flavor in butter... 157
Cause and prevention of brittle butter........... 158
Cause and prevention of unclean finvor in butter. 159
Cause nnd prevention of coarse flavor in butter... 159
CHAPTER X.
Butter Faults.

174. Butter faults may be divided into three main
classes or divisions: J. Faults due to improper hand-
ling of milk or cream before it is delivered at the
factory. II. Faults due to improper handling of the
cream at the factory before churning. III. Faults
arising from improper butter manufacturing proc-
esses.

PART I.

175. Butter faults as affected by conditions on
dairy farms. The dairyman plays an important part
in the success or failure of the local creamery. It
is in a great measure in his power to make the pro-
duction of fine butter possible. By neglecting to
perform, in a proper manner, the detail part of the
work (Hunziker*) pertaining to the production of
clean milk (Winslow**) he throws a heavy burden
of responsibility upon the shoulders of the creamery
operator.

The insanitary conditions which still exist on
some dairy farms are inexcusable and would not
exist if the dairyman would only do as well as he
knows how. Some of the methods used are out of
harmony with modern knowledge and modern meth-
ods of dairying. Since the dairyman reads dairy
literature, the use of even a small percentage of the

 

» Hunziker, Otto F., Cornell Agr. Expt., Sta. Bul. No. 197, Dec. 1901.
** Winslow, Kenelm, Clean Milk, 1907.

186
BUTTER FAULTS. 137

knowledge thus gained would do away with slack

and old-time methods.

A few suggestions regarding the care and handling
cf milk and cream on the farm.

176. Barny taints. This peculiar taint (Rogers*)
so widely known and occurring so frequently during
the winter months, has its origin mainly in impuri-
ties arising from manure and dusty feed. It may,
and often does, come from impure stable air; from
dirty cows or dirty udders during milking; from
separating the milk in the stable and keeping it
there over night, and from filthy and insanitary
stables and barnyards.

These taints may be prevented by installing a per-
fect system of ventilation (King*); by keeping the
cows, the stable and the barnyard clean; by keeping
the separator clean (washing it after every time it
is used); by separating the milk in a clean room
separate from the barn and having the milk room
far enough away from all stable and barnyard
odors.

177. In case the milk has acquired such taints, the
ereameryman must find a partial remedy for it. This
taint can, in a measure, be overcome by skimming
a heavy cream and diluting it with about ten per
cent of clean, sweet morning milk. In addition to
this, add from twenty to thirty per cent of a ‘first
class starter. Now ripen the cream to about .50 per
cent acidity and cool at once to 48° F., and hold
at this temperature for about three hours before

 

* Rogers. L. A., W. S., Farmers, Bul. 348, 1909.
** King, F. H., The King System of Ventilation, Seventh Ann’l. Rent.,
1890.
138 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

churning. If the contaminated cream is hand-sep-
arator cream, pasteurize it if possible, then ripen
and cool the same as mentioned above. Pasteuriza-
tion always improves such eream and should always
be used if possible. Add to this cream as heavy a
starter as is possible without reducing the fat test
below 23 per cent. Cool below churning temperature
and hold at this temperature until ready to churn,
which will be any time after the lapse of about two
hours after cooling.

178. Cowy flavors. The cause of cowy flavors in
butter is not well understood. This peculiar taint
may be the combined result of several minor causes.
The general impression is that it is due to insuffi-
cient cooling and aerating of the milk before the
cover is put on the can. Milk should not be aerated
in impure air and should be cooled during the pro-
cess of aeration. When milk is put warm into cans,
the cover put on and the milk allowed to cool slowly,
the fine Havor of the milk is spoiled. This will af-
feet the flavor of butter, and for this reason the
creamery operator should insist upon his patrons
taking proper care of the milk. Care and cleanh-
ness, and having a good system of cooling and aerat-
ing the milk at the farm, may do away with this
odor in the milk. :

179. Musty flavor in milk and cream. This flavor
is due to the placing of milk in cans immediately
after milking (especially when the stable air is im-
pure), closing the vans and allowing the milk to cool
slowly without stirring or acrating. When milk has
received this dreatment and the weather is warm
BUTTER FAULTS. 139

when it is sent to the factory, the heat from the out-
side causes the development of a peculiar musty
flavor. The more slowly the milk cools, after having
been placed warm in the cans, the more pronounced
will be the musty flavor. This is especially notice-
able when milk is carried for some distance in an
open wagon.

The dairyman should cool the milk or cream well,
stirring and aerating it at the same time before plac-
ing the cover on the ean. If the air is exceptionally
cool and pure, leave the cover off, placing only a
fine-meshed sereen over the can during the time the
milk is held at the farm.

The creamery operator should use the same
method in separating the milk and handling the
cream as is indicated in the treatment of milk and
eream for barny flavors. Pasteurization of the
eream at the creamery is recommended, as this fla-
vor will pass off to a great extent during heating
and cooling.

180 Sweetish flavor. This flavor is very frequent-
ly found in milk or cream where various kinds of
silage are fed. The sweetish flavor is perhaps not
directly due to the feeding of such feeds but to the
contamination of the milk or eream by the odors
given off from the feed. Milk or cream kept in the
presence of odors from silage, especially soy bean
silage, will very soon become contaminated by those
odors. This sweetish flavor in milk or cream is very
hard to deal with. The odors seem to penetrate into
the butter fat itself and no amount of cooling, aer-
ating, re-separating and diluting with sweet milk’
140 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

or fine starter will entirely rid the cream of this
flavor.

When silage is fed on dairy farms, the King sys-
tem of ventilation is indispensable and scrupulous
cleanliness in all things pertaining to the handling
and feeding of silage is absolutely necessary in or-
der to avoid contamination of the milk or cream
from the odors coming from the feed. Under no
circumstances should the milk be separated in the
stable, nor should it be held in an atmosphere
tainted by silage odor for any length of time.

181. There is really no remedy for this flavor, but
the best thing for the creameryman to do is to sep-
arate a heavy cream, pasteurize it, and then treat it
according to directions for handling barny taints
(176) in milk. If this taint is found in hand sep-
arator cream, dilute it with water and re-separate it
if possible. If it cannot be re-separated, pasteurize
it at a temperature not lower than 195° F., and aer-
ate it well while cooling. Add a heavy starter and
stir frequently during the ripening process. Cool,
hold for two or three hours, and then churn at as
low a temperature as possible. Churn to very fine
granules, wash twice with a liberal quantity of cold
water, to which has been added one per cent of salt.
Then salt quite heavily, work and dispose of the
butter as soon as possible.

182. Burnt flavors. During the corn-cutting sea-
son, a peculiar, sweetish, scorched or burnt flavor is
often noticeable in milk and ercam. This seems to
be due to the overfeeding of cornstalks, all kinds
BUTTER FAULTS. 141

of corn refuse, frozen grasses, pumpking vines and
corn smut.

The creamery man may find it to his interest to
suggest to the dairyman that he be careful not to
allow his cows to gorge themselves with all kinds
of frozen herbage and refuse from the corn fields,
but rather allow the cows only a limited amount of
this feed each day.

These flavors cannot be altogether eliminated, but
can be modified and lessened in volume by (in the
ease of milk) skimming a heavy cream, diluting it
with good, sweet milk and adding a heavy starter.
Both the milk and the starter added to this cream
should be without this burnt flavor. Pasteurization
of cream which has this flavor does not materially
lessen it.

183. High acid, sour or vinegar flavors. These
flavors have a common cause and are usually the
result of allowing milk or cream to become too old
before delivering it at the factory. These flavors
are especially pronounecd when milk or cream is
kept at too high a temperature at the farm or dur-
ing transportation. The patron should cool the milk
or erecam immediately when fresh, to a reasonably
low temperature and hold it at this temperature un-
til delivered. He should deliver both milk and
eream frequently and avoid overheating during
transportation. Milk and cream should always be
kept in carefully cleaned utensils, in pure air and at
a low temperature. Pasteurization of such cream
will greatly improve the keeping quality of the but-
ter and lessen, to some extent, the high acid flavors.
142 MODERN BUTTER MAKING,

When the starter is added, cool and stir the ercam
frequently until ready to churn. Churn at the low-
est possible temperature, wash with cold water to
which 2 per cent of salt has been added, salt a trifle
heavily and market quickly.

184, Bitter flavors. These flavors may have their
origin in old, over-ripe cream and especially in
cream produced under very insanitary conditions.
It may also be caused by a germ producing bitter
fermentation. (Russell*.)

Cleanliness in handling milk and cream on the
farm is the way to prevent this flavor, but when it
is found in milk or cream, the creamery operator
will find the treatment previously outlined for vin-
egar (183) flavors, of value.

185. Salvy, cily and greasy butter. The following
are some conditions in hand separator cream previ-
ous to its delivery at the factory which may cause
salvy or ercasy butter. Very rich cream which has
been overheated during transportation, partly
churned eream and old cream, all produce this von-
dition in butter. Partly churned cream has usually
been subjected to violent agitation during trans-
portation and this condition invariably produces
salvy or greasy butter. Old cream as a rule has more
avid and is Jess viscous than fresh cream. It is
more easily churned during transportation. The
longer the ercain is in transit the worse is its condi-
lion upon arrival at the factory, especially if it is
not well protected against the heat of the sun.

 

* Russell, L. H., Outlines of Dairy Bacteriology, page 151, 1894.
BUTTER FAULTS. 145

‘Warm or newly separated cream should not be
added to cold cream, but should be cooled to about
the same temperature before mixing the two. When
warm cream is added to cold, its warmth is lkely
to arouse the activity of spores which will cause ab-
normal fermentations in the cream. Mixing warm
and cold cream in hauling cans, when ice is put
into the cans, is the source of weak bodied, soft and
greasy butter.

Cream haulers should have the cream cans well
protected from the heat and should have a floating
cream cover in every can. When the ordinary ship-
ping cans are used, they should be full, or nearly so,
in order to prevent unnecessary agitation of the
eream. This agitation is likely to partly churn the
cream and may cause losses in manufacturing the
cream into butter.

PART II.

Butter faults due to improper handling of cream at
the creamery.

186. Avoidable burnt flavor in butter. A number
of different ideas have been expressed as to the
cause of burnt flavor in butter. Some have attri-
buted this flavor to uneleanliness in the creamery,
others to overheating of the cream during pasteuriz-
ation, and still others have thought that it might be
caused by dirty iron pipes or rusty vats. It has
been noticed that in some instances the burnt flavor
was directly traceable to the starter and in other
cases to water which had collected in iron pipes and
which was not drained off after the work had been
14d MODERN BUTTER MAKING,

done in the ereamery. The water rusted in the
pipes and when the milk was received and run
through these pipes the rusty water mixed with the
milk and produced a rusty iron flavor in the butter.
Again this flavor has been traced to the starter; the
milk for the starter having been overheated and the
milk sugar scorched or caramelized. Milk under
such conditions changes in color to a brownish
shade. This peculiar scorched flavor in the milk
produces a burnt flavor in the butter. A number of
instanees have come under my observation, where
butter makers have heated the starter milk twice or
three times to boiling temperatures, caramelizing
the milk sugar and leaving a decided burnt flavor
on the milk. This burnt flavor did not leave the
starter during ripening and when added to the
eream imparted a burnt flavor to the butter. I be-
lieve that there are various ways in which a burnt
flavor may be produced in butter, but if the previ-
ously mentioned causes are taken into consideration
in creamery management, burnt flavors need not ap-
pear in butter. When cream is well cared for, the
ereamery in a good sanitary condition, the pipes
through which the milk and cream flow well
cleaned, and the cream and starter milk not over
heated at any stage, there will be little trouble with
burnt flavor, unless it comes from some outside
source,

187. Burnt flavor due to starter. When milk is
heated to a temperature of 212° F. for one or two
hours and re-heated to boiling temperature, a
change in the color of the milk is noticeable. It not
BUTTER FAULTS. 145

only undergoes a marked change in color, but usu-
ally a decided burnt flavor is produced when milk is
so treated. The milk sugar undergoes a change and
whenever the quality of the milk sugar is affected,
the quality of the lactic acid produced is likewise
affected.

This defect can be prevented by not heating the
starter milk to such high temperature as to affect
the character of the milk sugar. Heat the milk to
be used for a starter, once to a temperature of 180°
F. to 190° F. and hold at this temperature for forty
minutes. The finer qualities of milk for the pro-
duction of a fine, clean, acid starter are partially if
not wholly destroyed by overheating.

188. Acid flavor. This flavor is due to too high
ripening of the cream, and to holding the ripened
cream at too high a temperature before churning.
It is also produced by holding ripened cream too
long before churning. When cream is held over from
one day to-another there is danger of its developing
a sour, acid flavor even though the acidity in the
eream is low. Using an over-ripe starter may have
the same effect on the cream as over-ripening it.
Such acid flavors may be prevented by handling the
cream in such a way as to prevent the development

“of lactic acid above .65 per cent. When cream has
developed the desired degree of acidity it should
not be held at ripening temperature because such
temperature favors the development of other acids
not favorable for the production of fine flavored
butter. When lactic acid in cream has developed to
about .50 or .55 per cent acidity, it should be cooled
146 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

to about 50° F. unless it is to be churned at once.
The temperature of 50° F. practically stops the de-
velopment of lactie acid. However, when cream is
held over night acidity will develop very slowly and
by churning time the cream will have the necessary
acidity. The higher the acidity in cream the lower
should be the temperature to which it should be
cooled and the sooner should it be churned. If it
should happen that cream gets over-ripe, cool it im-
mediately and churn it two or three hours after
cooling. If it is impossible to churn so soon after
cooling, dilute the eream with clean, cold well wa-
ter, hold at a low temperature and churn as soon as
possible. Add a little salt to the cream and_ stop
churning when the stage of fine granules is reached.
Wash twice with cold water, to which has been ad-
ded 1 per cent of salt and have the churn in fast
gear while washing. Salt and work butter as usual.

189. Coarse flavor. (‘oarse flavor in butter may
be caused by faulty methods in the handling of the
cream or the starter, or both. It may also be the
result of using poor milk or cream. When sweet,
sour, musty, and unclean cream are mixed, a coarse
flavor is noticeable in the butter even though the
cream has been well cared for. Also when a varicty
of differently soured and flavored creams are mixed,
the result is usually a coarse flavor in the butter,
Improperly ripened cream may also cause a coarse
flavor in the butter made from it.

The creameryman should try to gct milk or cream
of a uniform acidity and quality, and should not
ripen the cream to too high acidity, nor hold it at,
BUTTER FAULTS. 147

a high temperature after ripening. It should be
stirred frequently during ripening and should be
cooled to 50° F. as soon as ripe. An over-ripe or
off-flavored starter should never be used.

190. Unclean flavers. These flavors are usually
the result of using unclean (Hunziker*) milk or
cream, for which the patron is to blame, and of in-
sanitary conditions at the creamery, for which the
ereameryman is to blame. Leaky vats, leaky
starter cans, unclean churns and dirty conducting
pipes are a frequent source of this trouble. Impure
water used for washing both creamery utensils and
butter has been known to cause this flavor in the
butter.

Unclean flavor in butter may be prevented by
stopping all leaks in vats, pipes, and starter cans
and by using only good, clean water for washing
utensils and butter. The creamery should be kept
in first class sanitary condition. If cream has this
flavor, it should be churned to fine granules, washed
twice with water to which has been added 1 per
cent of salt and salted a trifle heavily.

191. Curdy flavor. This is quite a common defect
in butter in hot weather and is usually due to a high
per cent of acidity in hand separator cream and the
effect of the intense heat on the cream during trans-
portation. Other causes of curdy flavors are: The
pasteurizing of sour cream at a high temperature
and the use of an over-ripe starter. Highly ripened
eream, if overchurned may also produce ecurdy fia-
vors, due to the enclosure of an excess of casein.

 

* Hunziker, Otto H., The Care and Handling of Milk, Bul. 203, 1902,
Ithaca, N. Y.
148 MODERN BUTTER MAKING,

To overcome such faults, pasteurize high acid
cream very carefully and dilute it with good, sweet
milk or a good heavy starter, after. the cream is
cooled for ripening. Do not ripen such cream high,
nor keep it long after it has been ripened before
churning it. Do not use over-ripe or curdy starters.
High acid cream should always be strained before
putting it into the heating compartment of the
pasteurizer as this will prevent undue curdling of
the casein. The addition of a little viscogen or lime
water will neutralize the acidity and the temper-
ature should be watched carefully during pasteur-
ization. After churning, a little salt added to the
wash water will aid materially in ridding the but-
ter of this flavor. If about 1% per cent of salt is
added ‘to the cream it will cause the butter to come
in well defined granules.

192. Specks in butter. There are a number of
faults in butter which the creamery operator can-
not prevent, but whenever specks appear in the but-
ter, we must give most of the blame to the man in
charge of the butter making. Specks are due’to the
incorporation of pieces of coagulated casein and can
be prevented by carefully attending to all details
pertaining to the handling and ripening of cream.
Over-ripe cream, when not well strained and which
has not been carefully pasteurized, may cause
specks in the butter. By the improper application
of heat, the casein coagulates into fine granules and
some of these granules find their way into the but-
ter. Cream should always be well stirred and
strained before churning.
BUTTER FAULTS. 149

Specks in butter can be prevented by not over-
ripening the cream and by frequently stirring the
cream during ripening. Cream should always be
strained into the churn through a fine sieve. If
cream is very sour and lumpy, it should be well
stirred and strained before pasteurizing and when
pasteurizing this kind of cream it should be heated
very quickly. Slow heating is likely to cause the
casein to curdle. This cream should be churned at
a low temperature to fine granules and 2 per cent
of salt and 10 per cent of water should be added as
soon as the butter ‘‘breaks.’’ It should then be
churned until the granules are well defined, and the
buttermilk drawn off in the usual way. Water
should then be run into the churn until it is half
fall, and drained off. This should be done several
times, until all casein is removed. In extreme cases
it may be necessary to float the butter by filling the
churn half full of water and allowing the casein to
sink. The butter should then be removed to tubs,
the water drawn off, the churn washed and the
butter put back into the churn and worked in the
usual way.

PART III.
Butter Faults Due to Faulty Workmanship.

193. Leaky or slushy butter. This condition in
butter may be caused by not cooling the cream suffi-
ciently before churning, or by churning it too soon
after it is cooled. It may also be caused by washing
the butter with too warm or too cold water. When
the wash water is either quite warm or quite cold
150 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

in relation to the butter, and is not left on the butter
long cnough to temper the butter fat to a uniform
consistency, it may cause the butter to be leaky or
slushy. A variation in the firmness of the butter
granules causes the harder partieles to rub on the
softer ones, and this friction injures the grain and
causes the moisture to appear in large drops loosely
held by the butter fat. Slushy butter is more likely
to appear in the spring than at any other time of
the year, because butter fat is naturally more soft in
the spring. The eream therefore needs to be cooled
to a lower temperature, in order to get the same
results, than it does at any other time of the year.
To prevent a leaky or slushy condition in butter,
the cream should be cooled to at least 50° F. in
spring and summer, and to 54° F. in fall and winter.
The cream should be held at this temperature for
not less then three hours before churning. Where
there is much trouble with soft and leaky butter, es-
pecially in the spring, the cream should be cooled to
48° F. and held at this temperature for some consid-
erable length of time—preferably over night—be-
fore churning. The butter should be washed with
water having a temperature of about 52° F. and the
working done in several operations. This has a
tendency to make the butter firmer during the in-
corporation of the salt. If the butter is too soft at
the end of churning it ean be hardened by allowing
it to stand in cold water for ten or fifteen minutes,
During this time, the churn should he given a few
revolutions in slow gear. The water should then be
drained off and the butter allowed to stand for an-
BUTTER FAULTS. 151

other fifteen minutes before salting and working it.
This is done to allow the coolness in the churn, and
the coolness of the outside particles of butter, to
penetrate uniformly through the whole mass of but-
ter. This prevents the moisture appearing in large
drops, tnevenly distributed through the butter.

194. Gritty butter. The main cause of gritty but-
ter is, too dry, too cold, or too much salt, in conneec-
tion with too cold or too dry butter fat. Other
causes are: Insufficient working, and draining too
dry before working. This condition may be pre-
vented by moistening the salt before putting it on
the butter, and by leaving enough water in the
churn to dissolve the salt, while it is being ineorpo-
rated. The wash water should be tempered in
order to give the butter the proper consistency for
retaining the salt and dissolving it. The butter
should not be allowed to stand long before salting
and working, as this will drain it too dry and cause
it to get hard. Ward, dry salt, which has not been
warmed nor moistened before adding it to the but-
ter is a frequent source of trouble. Cold salt is also
very frequently the cause of gritty butter.

195. Mottled butter. Next to poor flavor in but-
ter, mottles are most objectionable to the consumer,
since they affect the appearance, and often give the
impression that the butter is very bad, when, in
reality, its flavor may be good.

This defect may be caused by insufficient working
of the butter, by an uneven distribution of the salt,
by an excess of casein in the butter, and by sudden
changes of temperature of the butter, due to toa
12 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

cold or too warm wash water. Mottles are also —
caused by over churning, thus enclosing an excess
of buttermilk and making it difficult to uniformly
incorporate the salt. Too little washing, when the
butter is soft. favors mottles, because the buttermilk
is not sufficiently removed. Tard butter must be
worked more than soft butter, and a small quantity
more than’a large quantity. Butter should be of
uniform consistency or softness before the salt is
added. Hard, dry salt should not be put on butter;
it should always be moistened before adding it to
the butter. Draining the butter too dry, or letting
it stand until it sets or hardens in the churn, before
adding the salt, should always be guarded against.
The butter should not be overchurned, the workers
should be set properly and the butter should be
washed sufficiently. The butter should be in a soft.
rather than a hard condition when salted, and there
should be sufficient moisture in the churn.

196. Salvy and greasy butter. These faults in but-
ter are more common during warm weather than
during the colder seasons of the year, and are most
frequently met with during the hot, dry months.
This condition occurs more frequently in butter
made from hand separator cream than in butter
made from whole milk cream. This may be mainly
due to the difference in the care of both the milk
and the cream at the farm, before being delivered at
the factory; but it is sometimes due to the eare the
cream receives at the factory. When whole milk
cream butter is salvy or greasy it is quite certain
that the main cause of this condition is neglect on
BUTTER FAULTS. 153

the part of the butter maker to take proper care of
the cream before churning, and to properly adjust
the temperature of the ercam at the time of churn-
ing. If the temperature of the wash water is not in
proper relation to the temperature of the butter,
and if the working is performed without taking the
condition of the butter into consideration, a salvy
or greasy condition of the butter is likely to be the
result.

When butter is made from hand separator cream,
and upon examination is found to be salvy or
greasy, it is not always the fault of the butter
maker. Hand separator cream is often handled in
such a way before it is delivered at the factory, that
its condition is such as to render it impossible to
make any other than salvy butter from it. How-
ever, this condition in butter may be caused by im-
proper methods in performing the following opera-
tions at the creamery: (a) Pasteurization of cream,
(b) churning of cream, (¢) washing and (d) work-
ing of butter.

(A) Pasteurization. The pasteurization of very
rich cream is sometimes the cause of salvy or greasy
butter. This may be due to any or all of the follow-
ing: Heating the cream too slowly, heating it too
high and not cooling it quickly to 70° F. or lower,
after pasteurizing. Cream may be heated to 200°
F. without injuring the quality of the butter made
from it, provided that the heating and cooling are
done properly and quickly.

The poorer the cream is in butter fat, the higher
may be the temperature during pasteurization and
154 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

the longer may the heat be applied, before such
cream will produce salvy or greasy butter. Rich
cream, however, ought to be quickly heated and
quickly cooled.

(B) Churning of cream. The cream should be
churned at a temperature that will favor the forma-
tion of ragged and irregular butter granules. Any
other condition of the butter granules at the end of
churning, has a tendency to create an imperfect con-
dition in the body and grain of the butter. Churn-
ing too long favors salvy or greasy butter, due to
the continued friction of the granules during churn-
ing. When cream churns too quickly, due either to
high fat content or to high temperatures, the butter
is inclined to be weak in body. Churning cream at
reasonably low temperature is not the only means
of insuring firm bodied butter. The butter fat glob-
ules must be subjected to a certain amount of con-
cussion. This (according to scientists) solidifies the
fat globules. These globules are supposed to be iu
a liquid or semi-liquid state in the milk and cream,
even when subjected to a temperature nearly down
to the freezing point. Very rich cream is more like-
ly to produce salvy or greasy butter than is thin
cream. This seems to be due to the fact that very
rich cream thickens so much during churning that
the fat globules are not subjected to the necessary
amount of concussion and therefore the butter may
contain some semi-liquid fat globules.

(C) Washing the butter. Too cold wash water
may produce a salvy or greasy butter, by undue
chilling of only a part of the butter granules. This
BUTTER FAULTS. 155

creates an uneven consistency of the butter fat, and
during working. the firmer parts cause greasiness
by friction on the softer butter. Too warm water
also causes the butter to become greasy or smeary,
and no amount of care after the butter is in this
condition will bring it back to its normal state.
Churning butter in the wash water too long tends to
break the grain, and produees a soft, salvy butter.

(D) Working the butter, When butter is in a
soft condition when worked, the fat acquires a
greasy consistency. When butter is too hard,. it
requires such an amount of working, that the grain
is apt to be broken, giving the butter a salvy or
tallowy body. Another cause of this defect in but-
ter, and one usually met with in the small creamery,
is the practice of leaving the butter in the churn
some length of time before giving it its final work-
ing. The outside of the mass of butter becomes soft
in summer. and when the butter is worked, a greasy
bodied butter is the result.

197. Oily butter. This butter differs greatly from
salvy or greasy butter. When butter is spoken of
as being oily, the impression received is that of oil
mixed with butter. When butter of a perfect grain
melts in the mouth, it does not have the characteris-
tics of oily butter, although it is in one sense oil.
After butter is once melted, it appears oily and no
doubt, most of the oily flavor in butter is due to the
butter granules which have been churned during
the transportation of milk or cream,.being melted or
heated during the manufacturing processes. Butter
may, however, acquire an oilv flavor when over-
156 MODERN BUTTER MAKING,

heated during transportation. Very rich cream,
pasteurized and not cooled to a sufficiently low tem-
perature before churning, is likely to produce oily
butter. Conn, in Practical Dairy Bacteriology, Chap-
ter 9, page 219, says: ‘‘An organism capable of pro-
ducing an oily effect on the butter, which is very
common in Denmark, and produces considerable
loss, has been discovered and studied by Jensen. It
is an acid organism which curdles milk readily, but
when growing in cream develops peculiar charac-
teristics which give a strong, unpleasant taste. The
result upon butter is quite disastrous.’’

When very. rich cream (33 to 40 per cent) is
churned at a temperature which causes the butter
to come very quickly, the fat globules are not all
sufficiently solidified, and the butter is apt to have
a slightly oily flavor. This can be prevented by
cooling the cream low enough and holding it long
enough before churning. The richer the cream, the
longer it should be held cold before churning, and
the lower should the temperature be.

W. Fleischmann, Ph. D., in The Book of the Dairy,
says, on oily butter:

‘‘Churning very rich cream above 32 per cent but-
ter fat.

Very rich cream may easily cause oiliness in but-
ter from the following causes:

1. Not cooled low enough before churning even
though the cream is held over night.

2. By churning too fast and thereby not giving
the fat time enough to solidify during the act of
churning,
BUTTER FAULTS. 157

3. Pasteurized rich cream must be cooled lower
than unpasteurized cream of the same richness.’’

My practical work and observations in creamery
butter making agree with the findings of Dr.
Fleischmann. I have noticed repeatedly that when
cream testing above 33 per cent was churned. the
butter easily took on a greasy texture.

In paragraph 197 will be found an explanation
of conditions that may cause oily butter.

198. Woody flavor. This flavor may be imparted
to butter by a leaky vat (the water which sur-
rounds the vat leaking into the cream) or by a new
churn which has not been sufficiently washed and
soaked with hot water before being used. It may
also be caused by an old churn not being rinsed be-
fore the cream is put into it. A new churn should
be washed several times with hot water in which sal
soda has been dissolved. After each washing with
hot water, the churn should be cooled by washing it
with cold water. When buttermilk can be had, it
is a good plan to churn buttermilk in the new churn
for half an hour. Buttermilk or sour milk will ab-
sorb woody taints from the churn more quickly than
water will

199. Lardy or tallowy butter. Conditions which
produce lardy or tallowy butter are not definitely
known. These defects may appear at any season
of the year, but most frequently make their appear-
ance during cold weather. The reason for this may
be, the use of too cold wash water and washing the
butter too much, when cream has been churned at
a comparatively high temperature. Certain dry
158 MODERN BUTTER MAKING,

feeds may have a tendency toward producing this
defect in butter, but as yet it has not been definitely
determined just) what conditions are responsible
for it.

200. Fishy flavor. This very objectionable flavor
seems to appear most. frequently in butter made
from over-ripe, old and unclean milk or cream; ¢s-
pecially if it is delivered in old and dirty cans. In
one instance fishy flavor disappeared upon the im-
provement of sanitary conditions under which the
milk was produced and delivered, as well as the
conditions under which the butter was made. From
this it would scem that cleanliness has a great effect
on the extent of the appearance of this flavor. It is
the opinion of some people that salt favors the pro-
duction of fishy flavor in butter, but there seems to
be very little doubt that it is due to unclean milk or
cream, and the extent to which it may develop is in
proportion to the extent to which the milk or cream
is contaminated. It is possible that fishy flavor is
due to by-products of certain undesirable bacteria.
These by-produets, when combined with lactic acid
and salt, may produce this flavor. Tt has been noted
that dirty milk cans, especially when the iron is ex-
posed to the action of acid, have caused the appear-
auce of fishy flavor.

201. Brittle butter. This is not a common defect
in butter, and is known to appear more frequently
in some localities than in others. Excessive feeding
of beet Teaves has been known to produce a brittle
body in butter. Washing butter in very cold water
has a tendcuey to make it dry, with a slightly brittle
BUTTER FAULTS. 159

body. The use of very high temperatures in the
pasteurization of cream is also thought to have been
the cause of brittle butter. By carefully attending
to all the different processes in butter making, and
properly adjusting the temperatures used in pas-
teurizing, ripening and churning the cream, and
washing the butter, this kind of butter may be
avoided.

202. Unclean flavor. The expression ‘‘unclean”’ is
very commonly used in describing taints which are
hard to classify. Unelean flavor may be the result
of various causes, and may originate in contamina-
tion from impure air, impure water, insanitary uten-
sils used in the handling of the cream, or unclean
machines used in the manufacture of the butter.
Unclean flavor in butter simply means that at some
stage in the handling of the milk or cream, or in
the manufacture of the butter, insanitary conditions
existed. These conditions must be improved before
this flavor can be done away with. Instances are
common where this flavor is due to the water used
at the creamery. The butter is apparently good
when very. fresh, but soon after being placed on the
market, a disagreeable, unclean flavor develops.

203. Coarse flavor. A coarse (189) flavor in butter
is usually the result of high ripening of the cream,
and too little washing of the butter. High salting
seems to bring out the high acid flavor, and these
two (high acid and salt) combined with a leaky bod-
ied butter, produce a very coarse flavor, which is de-
cidedly objectionable to the palate. The use of an
over-ripe starter also has a tendency to produce
coarse flavored butter,
CHAPTER XI.

THE ART OF BUTTER JUDGING.

Flavor should be rich, pleasing, creamy
and should suggest nothing objectionable
to either the taste or smell.—

MATH MICHELS.
INDEX TO CHAPTER XI.

Par. No. Page.
204. A uniform standard ...... Spee usr sa sh apanerin eee aie eee S 162
205. Personal preference .........ece cece eee nee neee 162
206. Ability of judges 2.2.86 scsi scsaa esses ase ee sess 163
207. Aroma and flAVOY ..... cc cece eee ence eee ss avalaers 163
208. (Body of Butter 24.24 sees ees eae yaa de alee ac 164
209. Appearance of the drawn plug...............008 164
210. Regarding color of butter.............. 0.20008 165
211. Regarding specks in butter.................0008 165
212. Regarding salt in butter................... eee 165
218. Regarding briny and leaky butter............... 166
Bid. THE packase. sissrawecegnes cadets wee sven en awes 166
215. American standard for scoring butter........... 166
216. Relative scoring of butter..................00e- 166
217. <A table showing relative defects in butter....... 167
218. Classification of butter necessary for accurate
POlWity SCOTING sic e es isctess esas Pac e wes eee 168
219. The value of discussiing and comparing scores by

TU BOS? ih seid A atbeid wawenadic lausisnatenave lave svece aanapeiiies 169
CHAPTER XI.
The Art of Butter Judging.

204. Classifying butter has been customary ever
since butter was manufactured fer commercial pur-
poses. Since people have trained themselves to
pass judgment on butter in accordance with certain
standards of excellence, butter judging has become
both a science and an art.

Different markets in the United States demand
butter of about the same standards of perfection ex-
cept in color and salt. This is due to the demand
of some local markets. Since the variation in the
standards of the different American markets are
very slight, butter judges do not find it very difficult
to score butter satisfactorily in any state.

205. Personal preference. That individual tastes
vary and that standards of individual preference
are widely diverse are well known facts. Since
flavors affect the palates of some persons more than
others, no two persons, however acute their senses,
can always score the same butter alike; nor can one
judge always give the same butter exactly the same
score even though the scorings are not taken far
apart. Individual peculiarity is responsible for the
difference of opinion relative to certain defects in
the flavor and aroma of butter. Since some defects
in butter appear more pronounced to one person
than to another, a variation in the score of the same
butter by different judges is inevitable.

162
THE ART OF BUTTER JUDGING. 163

206. Butter judges born not made. The faculty of
judging butter accurately and uniformly is an art—
a gift of nature, though often perfected by training.
No amount of training will make an expert butter
judge unless nature has contributed her share of
those qualities necessary for the proper performance
of this art. In view of the difficulty of a judge giv-
ing the same decision on the same butter with no
small variation it is necessary if it can be so ar-
ranged to have more than one judge for scoring the
same lot of butter. This view is recognized by those
in charge of scoring exhibitions and more than one
judge is usually employed for such work.

207. Aroma and flaver. Aroma in butter is that
quality which is detected only by smell, while flavor
refers only to the taste of butter, although both
terms are not generally accepted in this light. The
quality of the aroma is not always a true indication
of the quality of the flavor, although to a great ex-
tent the flavor can be fairly well judged from the
quality of the aroma. Having determined the defects
found in the aroma, the judge must taste the butter
in order to determine the defects existing in the fla-
vor. The aroma and flavor are very closely related.
In the aroma are found characteristics due to bac-
terial fermentation and to chemical changes, while
in the flavor are found both mechanical and physical
characteristics as well as some of the defects found
in the aroma. Contamination, due to insanitary
handling of the cream, may manifest itself either in
the aroma or in the flavor or in both, depending
upon the nature of the contamination.
164 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

208. Body of butter. By carefully watching how
the trier passes into the tub and how it pulls from
it, the body of the butter can to a great extent be
determined. Then by gently pressing the plug with
the thumb and critically noting the appearance of
it, mechanical defects may be ascertained. When
butter is greasy, due perhaps to overchurning, over-
working or washing in warm water, and if the back
of the trier is greasy and the plug appears smeary,
as a rule, the flavor and aroma of this type of butter
are poor. A defect in body means a fault in the
aroma or flavor or both. Overworked, greasy, mushy
butter deserves to be severely criticized, as it is with-
in the power of the butter maker to prevent these
defects. Such defects are primary causes of devel-
oping staleness and rancidity in butter. The break-
ing of the grain in butter is usually accompanied by
a characteristic greasy flavor and a low, flat aroma.
The destruction of the grain in butter affects the
aroma and destroys the ‘‘bouquet’’ quality so much
sought.

209. Appearance of the drawn butter plug. The
plug from a first class piece of butter should havea
glossy, smooth, clean cut appearance and should be
beaded with minute drops of watcr. If the plug is
beaded with large drops of water which trickle
down and drop off when the plug is withdrawn the
butter is, as a rule, leaky and may be lacking in the
finer qualities of aroma and flavor. On the other
hand when the plug is greasy, dull and very dry in
appearance, the aroma and flavor may be of a disa-
greeable character and are likely to be of an oily
THE ART OF BUTTER JUDGING. 165

and greasy nature. The broken end of a plug of but-
ter should have a granular appearance, with small
drops of water glistening among the granules at the
break. When the plug of butter splits easily upon
being pressed between the finger and the trier, the
butter has not been sufficiently worked or else has
been worked at too low a temperature. Such but-
ter is inclined to be mottled. Mechanical defects of
this kind should be severly criticized and the cause
and remedy for such defects should accompany the
score.

210. Ccloring butter. Butter is colored as a rule
according to market demands. Some butter houses
as well as some consumers, demand a very deep
color, while others demand a very light colored but-
ter. Butter judges do not find fault with a very
slight variation from a normal shade, but they do
find fault with too great a variation from the normal
butter shade. All abnormal variations in the depth
of the color of the butter should be criticized.
Streakedness is one of the greatest faults of butter,
and a reduced score is always given when butter is
badly mottled. This fault has in many cases been
the cause of heavy financial losses to the creamery-
man because consumers object to mottled butter.

211. Specks in butter. Specks in butter are not
due to faults in the process of manufacturing the
butter, but are due to faulty cream ripening and to
improper straing of the cream. This fault is al-
ways severely criticized because of the nature of the
cause.

212, Salting. Grittiness in butter is a great defect;
butter judges and butter buyers do not like butter
166 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

which is gritty. Therefore in judging butter the de-
eree of grittiness has a great influence on the final
score. This effect can be easily remedied.

213. Briny and leaky butter is usually caused by
working the butter under abnormal conditions, and
they usually go together. The salt should always
be well dissolved and evenly distributed. Uniformity
in salting butter is very much liked by dealers, as
well as consumers.

“Excessive brine in butter partly destroys the fine
aroma, injures the flavor, lowers the seore and re-
duecs the commercial value of butter.

214. The package to be perfect, should be neat and
clean. The butter should be even with the top of the
package, and the liner should he turned onto the
butter about one inch. A cloth with a little salt
should be on top, and a parchment cirele should be
on top of this. Tacks uséd for tagging should not
penetrate into the butter, as they leave rusty spots
on it. The hoops should be all on the tub and the
tin cover fasteners should be properly attached

215. Butter scoring. American standard.

Flavor—45. Fairly pronounecd, sweet, clean, nut-
ty, aromatic and full of character.

Body—25. Waxy, grainy, firm, smooth, close and
glossy.

Color—15. Even, natural and neither too high
nor too low. ,

Salt—10. Medium, well dissolved and fairly briny.

Package—5. Neat, clean and full package.

Total 100 points.
THE ART OF BUTTER JUDGING. 167

216. Relative scoring of butter. On a scoring blank
we find that the number of points allowed on pack-
age is 5, while on flavor it is 45, or nine times the
value placed on package. If we score off one-half
point on package, we must score off about 4.5 points
on flavor, if the flavor shows the same degree of de-
fect as the package shows. If the body, which car-
ries 25 points as a perfect score, shows a defect suf-
ficient to reduce the score 2% points, we must, if the
flavor shows a defect which would take 1/10 off the
perfect score, take off 444 points on flavor. This con-
stitutes relative scoring and is the only way to score
butter. In scoring, we must bear in mind that when
the package is only very slightly defective, we
should not score off one point and at the same time
score off only four points for a very defective flavor.

I wish to bring out the basis of comparison upon
which the scoring of butter should be performed,
and trust that it may establish in the minds of
creamery operators a clearer conception of the prin-
ciples involved in scoring butter. Suppose that we
have a tub of butter where the flavor, body, color,
salt and package are all slightly defective. In order
to show more clearly how it should appear when
tabulated, the following table is prepared.

217. Relative score.

 

 

No. Points Full Score | Scored Off | Final Score
Flavor 45. 4M 40.5
Body 25. 21% 22.5
Color 15. 1.5 13.5
Salt 10. 1 9.
Package 5. ¥% 4.5

 

100. | 90.

 
168 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

Classification of butter necessary for accurate point
scoring.

218, During two years as one of the butter judges
appointed by the University of Wisconsin ‘Dairy
School to judge the butter at the monthly exhibi-
tions at that school, and also while instructor in
dairying at the same time, some ideas came to me
which might, perhaps, be used in the scoring of
butter to increase the value and accuracy of scoring
by ‘‘points.”’

Judges who are at all acute find it difficult to give
butter scoring 96 points, the proper score, when pre-
ceded by a package scoring 80 points; or on the
other hand when the first tub scored 95 points and
the one following scored 82 points. The butter
which was scored 82 after scoring the 95 point but-
ter, should perhaps have received a score of 83 or
84, but the contrast between the two tubs was so
great that the butter seemed really poorer than it
was. We must admit that we score to some extent
by comparison as well as by a definite standard.
Therefore it is plain that the greater the difference
in the quality of butter in the different packages,
the greater are the chances for inaccuracy in scor-
ing. It stands to reason that the smaller the varia-
tion in quality in the successive packages the more
uniform can the scoring be. If this were not so,
why should a ‘‘shake down”’ be considered neces-
sary for the placing of the final and rightful score
on a number of the highest scoring packages The
principle involved in the ‘‘shake down”’ is the same
THE ART OF BUTTER JUDGING. 169

as that in scoring by point—each class or grade by
itself. The greater the knowledge we gain in scor-
ing butter and the higher the grade of work we can
do, the nearer we approach the system of scoring by
points first being classified or graded. Or in other
words the ‘‘shake down”’ principle is carried
through the whole scoring of butter.

The value of discussing and comparing scores by
judges.

219. Depriving judges of the right to discuss and
compare scores after a number of tubs have been
judged, seems like proclaiming that people are in-
fallible in their judgments, and in their likes and
dishkes. It also means that butter judges can set
a certain standard of their own and carry this
through the process of scoring one hundred or five
hundred packages of butter without variations.

The discussing and comparing cf scores is neces-
sary if the work executed is to he of high class. It
sharpens the sense of proportion and relative analy-
sis of faults in butter. It gives confidence to the
judges in their future work, and acts as a guide and
a check on one’s own judgment. It curbs assertive-
ness, positiveness and conceit in one’s own decisions.
CHAPTER XII.

PASTEURIZATION.

Oh! There is a rich field indeed

for investigation,—

LOUIS PASTEUR.

PASTEURIZATION OF MILK AND
CREAM FOR CITY SUPPLY.

While the process (pasteurization) is not an
absolute protection against digestive troubles
it is to-day recognized as a useful means of
reducing them,—

Il. W. CONN.
 

INDEX TO CHAPTER XII.

. No. Page.
(A) Pasteurization of cream for buttermaking.. 173
Pasteurization conducive to better methods...... 174
Preparing cream for pasteurization............. 175
Mixing of sweet and sour cream.............008 175
The use of viscogen in pasteurization........... 176
Object of pasteurization ......... 0. cece eee eee 177
Heating and cooling the cream................. 177
Using intermittent pasteurizers ..............05 178
Some investigations .......... ccc ce eee ence eees 179
(a) Do you favor pasteurization of cream for

DUCbCL MAKE? eis s.5 spun sie duis ewan a6 omg. 8 he. dee 179

(b) Do you think that pasteurized cream will
produce better and longer keeping butter

than: Taryy Cream’? 3 sev see wav a wacneee ened 4 Gees 179
(c) Do you believe that hand separator cream
should be chtrned soon after delivery?..... 180
(d) What is the best temperature at which to
pasteurize Creann?. ..csececcece sect aweesae - 180
Tubercle bacilli in market butter............... 181
Importance of aeration of cream during pasteur-
IZAtION OF TIPENINE «2s s2<ccvedadcareeasdscass 182
Conditions on dairy farms not yet ideal........ 182
Physicians advise pasteurization................ 183
Pasteurization not intended to cover up faults.. 183
New methods opposed ......... ccc cece ee eee e eee 184
Market milk should be pasteurized............. 185
Bacteria in market milk...................0005 185
Bacteria before and after pasteurization......... 186

Results of continuous pasteurization of milk.... 186
Table XIV. and XV.
CUAPTER XII.

'. No. Page.
TDevelopment of bacteria in milk.............4.. 187
Care and cleanliness in handling milk........... 188
Clarification and separation ...........eee eee 189
The grading of milk.........c cece cee eee erees 189
Variation in test of cows’ milk............ ence 190
Table showing variation in test...... Bie Conca nae es 191
Variation in tests, as found by C. O. Jensen...... 192
Temperatures for pasteurization ............65.. 192
Temperatures recommended by Jensen = and

LPTMEIVORS Gch inediccera: ease tareiceate sie lei gp eqatee Meche Wei 193
Intermittent system of pasteurization........... 194
Advantages and disadvantages of intermittent

SV SLOG: tegisiahovslecs: stargate Ravwore-8 «anal osu Sasa. See 194
Regarding continuous pasteurizers ghar ialaa yatnte deggie 195
Regarding semi-continuous pasteurizers ......... 195
Cleaning pasteurizerS ....... 6. cece cee eee eens 196
Prejudice against pasteurized milk and cream... 196
Sources of bacteria in milk.................0.-- 197
Epidemics caused by raw milk.............0.005 197
CHAPTER XII.
Pasteurization.

220. (A) Pasteurization of cream for butter mak-
ing. Even though the commercial score were the
same in both pasteurized and unpasteurized butter
of a certain age we would still feel inclined to be-
lieve it a fact that the butter made from pasteurized
cream is essensially the better butter. Pasteuriza-
tion of cream does not add any flavor to the butter
made from it, but pasteurization has the faculty of
refining all flavors whether good or bad in cream,
and the process of heating and cooling drives off im-
pure odors. It also materially lessens obnoxious fer-
mentations and renders the cream safe from the evil
effects of disease producing organisms. Not only
this, but pasteurization (Slater*) also imparts keep-
ing qualities to milk and through this to the butter
made from it (Dean**). Trials have been made
comparing pasteurized and unpasteurized cream
butter made from the same lot of cream, both being
held at a temperature of 65° to 75° F. and it was
found that the pasteurized crear butter remained in
good condition twelve days longer than did the but-
ter made from unpasteurized cream.

Considering the pasteurization of cream for but-
ter making in its broadest sense, I am fully con-
vineed from results obtained by men engaged in pas-

 

* Slater, E. K. Wisconsin Buttermakers Association, Feb. 1904, Third
Annual aan: page 122.

** Dea . H. Modern Dairying. Kansas State Board of Agriculture;
Sept. 30, 7303 “Vol. 23.
173
174 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

teurization as well as from my own personal experi-
ence that pasteurization of cream for butter making
is correct in principle and sound in application un-
der present dairy conditions.

221. That pasteurization favors slack and insani-
tary methods in the handling of dairy products
(Rogers*) does not coincide with the methods em-
ployed in pasteurization plants nor docs it agree
with the fact that whcrever pasteurization is em-
ployed, more expert service is necessary and better
methods are invariably employed. The fact that
men of higher caliber are employed means the adop-
tion of better methods all along the line, from pro-
ducer to consumer. Practice dees not sustain the
contention that pasteurization favors slack methods,
because the poorer the quality of the raw material
the greater is the loss during the manufacturing
process. Pasteurization of cream for butter making
will not receive its due recognition until the funda-
mental principles involved in it are well understood
and the methods of application rccognized as worthy
of thought and study. So long as the belief exists
that all there is to the process of pasteurization is
the mere heating and cooling of the «ream without
taking into consideration the quality of the cream
handled, the kind of machine used and the time it is
to be heated, pasteurization will not be received
with much favor by creamerymen.

Since we cannot yet hope to have sweet, clean
cream produced and delivered to any ereamery
where we have third or fourth class dairymen to

 

* Roger: L. A. Bacteria of Pasteurized and Unpasteurized Milk Under
Laboratory Conc iGiie. U.S. Bulletin No, 54.
PASTEURIZATION. 175

deal with we must pasteurize the cream. If we had
first class dairymen and were positive that all the
cows were healthy, the help employed free from
communicable diseases and the water pure, we might
dispense with pasteurization altogether. However,
as we do not have this ideal condition at present it
is certainly safer to pasteurize all cream for butter
making.

222. Preparation of cream for pasteurization. All
cream whether sweet or sour must be thoroughly
mixed before being put into the pasteurizing ma-
chine. Unless the butter fat is evenly distributed
through the cream the result will not be satisfactory.
When eream is sour and lumpy when received it
should be strained through a wire strainer and after-
ward thoroughly stirred in order to break up all
clots and break up the coagulated casein into the
smallest possible particles. If this is not done the
clots of casein when heated will curdle and form
hard granules enclosing fat globules. Some of these
granules of casein and butter fat will go into the
buttermilk when the cream is churned, and some of
them go into the butter. These specks of casein in
the butter may cause the butter to decompose more
readily and may also be the cause of reduced price
obtained for butter. If an intermittent pasteurizer
is used in pasteurizing lumpy cream, the granules
of casein produce a sediment in the bottom of the
pasteurizer.

223. Mixing sweet and sour cream. When a cream-
ery receives a large quantity of both sweet and sour
cream, these should not be mixed unless it is neces-
176 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

sary to do so when cream is gathered. Whenever
possible cach should be pasteurized by itself, as
mixed cream burns onto the pastcurizer more easily
than either sweet or sour cream when pasteurized
by itself. Well ripened cream will not burn onto a
dise pasteurizer, and it will not so easily burn unto
any other pasteurizer as mixed cream will.

224, The use of viscogen in cream (Russell*) as a
means to reduce the acidity in order that cream may
be more successfully pasteurized is to be recom-
mended. Whenever state or federal laws allow the
use of viscogen it is well to use it, because it can be
successfully used in pasteurizing sour cream.

To prepare viscogen for restoring the consistency of
pasteurized cream.

Two and one-half parts by weight of a good qual-
ity of granulated sugar are dissolved in five parts of
water, and one part of quick lime gradually slaked
in three parts of water. The resulting milk should
be agitated at frequent intervals, and after two or
three hours allowed to settle until the clear liquid
can be drawn off. This clear liquid (viscogen) is
the part used and should be kept in well-stoppered
bottles, as it loses strength and becomes dark-col-
ored when exposed to air. The darkening in color,
however, does not impair its usefulness.

When cream is very sour and of poor flavor, more
viscogen may be used than with good cream, with-
out injuring the cream in any way. Use not more

 

* Russell, H. L. Bulletin No. 54, Wis. Expt. Sta,
PASTEURIZATION. 177

than .+ percent of visecogen in cream of good flavor
and high acid, and not more than 14 per cent of vis-
cogen in off flavored cream. Too much viscogen in
cream kills the aroma and flavor in the butter made
from it, and imparts a peculiar limy flavor to it.

225. Object of pasteurization. In pasteurizing we
aim to destroy all lactic acid producing bacteria and
as many other kinds of bacterial life, the thermal
death point of which comes within the range of the
heat applied. By destroying practically all abnormal
fermentations and disease producing germs the
cream is rendered comparatively free from germ life
and in this condition the cream 1s in the best possible
shape for controlling lactic acid fermentation and
producing a high grade of butter. (Conn.*)

226. Heating and cooling. When using a continu-
ous machine the cream may be heated to 190° F.
without injuring the flavor of the butter made from
it or increasing losses in the buttermilk. The poorer
the flavor of the cream the higher should be the tem-
perature used in pasteurizing unless this cream has
been heated in a separate tank to a temperature of
about 125° F. and thoroughly stirred for the purpose
of removing bad odors. After pasteurizing, the cool-
ing must be rapid and thorough. The cream should
be cooled to ripening temperature unless it is rich
enough to allow the addition of 30 per cent or 40 per
cent of starter. If this is possible the cream should
be cooled to below 53° F. and held at a low temper-
ature until churning time. When thin cream is pas-
teurized and is to be ripened, it should be cooled to

 

* Conn. H. W. Bacteria in Milk and its Products, 1903; Chapter 7,
pages 208, 213, 226, 228.
178 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

ripening temperature as it flows from the machine
and the starter added at once.

Suppose a continuous pasteurizer is to be used to
pasteurize very thin cream which is both off flavored
and of high acidity. In this case do not run the
machine at its full capacity but rcduce the inflow by
one-half. Raise the temperature to about 190° F.
and pasteurize as usual. Cool to below 55° F., add
as much starter as the richness of the cream will
allow, hold for three or four hours and then churn.
Be sure to add a good starter as this will absorb any
burnt flavors and produce a fine flavored butter.
(Larsen & Shepard.*) Again, let me emphasize the
fact that a large quantity of good starter is a power-
ful factor in ridding cream of bad odors and burnt
flavors. In order to get rid of burnt flavors ac-
quired by pasteurizing do not churn cream in one-
half or an hour after pasteurizing, but add a good
starter and allow it to do its work.

227. When intermittent pasteurizers are used the
cream should not as a rule have a very high acidity
if good results are to be obtained. When cream has
more than .4 per cent acidity the casein curdles very
easily and the enclosure of fat globules is inevitable.
The result will be a heavy loss in the buttermilk. The
success attained in the handling of sour cream in
either the continuous or intermittent pasteurizer
depends to a great extent upon the skill of the oper-
ator. The continuous pasteurizer is preferable for
handling hand separator cream or any cream which
has developed high acid.

* Larsen & Shepard. A pinay of South Dakota Butter with Sugges-
tions for Improvement, page 467.

 
PASTEURIZATION. 179

228. Investigations. Since data on pasteurization
of cream for butter making is limited, and in order
to prove or disprove certain opinions and the re-
sults of some investigations, letters of inquiry on
this subject were sent to some of the best creameries
in every dairy state in the union. The answers are
based on the results of practical work and we may
therefore accept, at least in part, the conclusions
reached by these practical men. Question one was:

(A) Do you favor pasteurization of cream for
butter making?

A very small percentage of the answers do not
favor pasteurization, but the statement is qualified
by another stating that if the cream were not of the
best quality, pasteurization would be desirable.
Ninety-four per cent are highly in favor of pasteuri-
zation and ten per cent of these claim that the mar-
ket ought to recognize pasteurized cream butter and
pay more for it. They may not, however, take into
consideration the fact that the increased stability of
their market is fully worth the cost of pasteurizing.
Most of the answers claim that good, pure, sweet
cream need not be pasteurized.

Question two:

(B) Do you think that pasteurized cream will
produce better and longer keeping butter than raw
cream?

Ninety-five per cent claim that pasteurization of
eream increases the keeping quality of the butter
made from it. Some few qualify their statements by
saying that the keeping quality of butter made from
pure, sweet cream is not increased by pasteurization.
180 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

Some place great stress upon the necessity of having
all processes connected with pasteurization properly
handled, since if this is not done pasteurization is
not of much value. Some state that their experience
during fifteen years of pasteurizing cream for butter
making shows that butter made from pasteurized
cream had superior keeping qualities.

Question three:

(C) Do you believe that hand separator cream
should be churned soon after its delivery?

Most of the answers received claim that when
cream is received in fairly good condition it should
be ripened to about .5 per cent acidity and held for
at least three hours (in most cases until next morn-
ing) before churning. In case of poor pasteurized
cream the adding of a heavy starter is advocated;
the cream to be cooled and held for about three
hours before churning. The churning of mixed sweet
and sour cream soon after it is poured together is
not favored, as it is claimed that losses in the but-
termilk are heavier than when such cream is held
for some time before churning. Due to the condi-
tion of the average hand separator cream about
thirty per cent of the answers state that it should be
pasteurized, quickly ripened and cooled as low as
the richness of the cream would permit for proper
churning. They advocate holding it for about three
hours before churning.

Question four:

(D) What is the best temperature at which to
pasteurize cream?

According to the answers to this question, the
general opinion is that the temperature at which to
PASTEURIZATION. 181

pasteurize cream depends mainly upon the condition
of the cream—that is, it depends upon the richness,
age, acidity and flavor of the cream. The kind of
pasteurizer used is given as anoiher important fac-
tor influencing the temperature at which to pasteur-
ize. The average temperature suggested is about
175° F. for continuous machines and about 150° F.
for intermittent machines. No definite temperature
can be recommended because in some localities the
cream must be handled differently than in others.

Tubercle bacilli in market butter.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE XIII.
No. in
which
tubercle
No. of | bacilli

Names of samples} was Per-
Investigators tested | found | centage Remarks
Brusaffero 9 1 1
Roth 20 2 10
Schuchardt 42 0 0
Obermueller 14 14 100 Obtained from one source.
Groeing WW 8 47
Petri. 102 33 32 From Berlin and Munchen.

 

{ 30 samples from Berlin.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Robinowitsch 80 0 0 (50 samples from Philadelphia.
Hormann and
Morgenroth 10 3 30
Robinowitsch 16 2 13.3 jObtained from 14 shops.
Korn 17 4 23 Obtained from 22 shops.
Ascher ~ 27 2 7 "
Weisenfeld 32 3 9
Hellstrau 12 1 8
Bonhoff 39 0 0
Marke 49 0 0
Augeszky 17 8 17

 

 
182 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

The above results were taken from Swithinbank
and Newman. Bacteriology of Milk, 1903.

Tt is remarked that perhaps not all bacilli found
in butter were tubercle bacilli. Still pasteurization
of cream would make butter safe.

229, Importance of aeration of cream during pas-
teurization or ripening.

The aeration of cream plays a very important part
in ridding it of bad odors and in facilitating the
production of fine flavors. The benefits derived from
proper aeration are underestimated by creamerymen
at the present time. The circulation of pure, fresh
air purifies both milk and cream; therefore aeration
must be done in pure air, or the cream will absorb
instead of giving off odors. Whenever the air is
purer than the milk or cream, good will be accom-
plished by aeration, especially during pasteurization
of either milk or cream to be used for butter making.

(B) Pasteurization of milk and cream for city
supply.

230. Experiences and opinions of different authori-
ties vary with regard to the benefits derived from
pasteurization of milk and cream for city supply.
Puxley in Modern Dairy Farming, chapter VIT.,
page 83, says:

“See that every preeaution is taken to keep the
milk absolutely pure as it comes from the cow;
eleanse every utensil employed in the handling of
milk thoroughly by scalding with steam or boiling
water; cool the milk to as near 40° as possible be-
fore it is dispatehed on its long journey by rail; see
PASTEURIZATION. 183

that it is delivered as quickly as possible on reach-
ing its destination; allow no preservatives to be in-
troduced at any time or in any quantities; and feed
young infants with milk at the natural temperature
and in small quantities at a time.’’

The average milk and cream consumer would
gladly drink raw milk or cream strictly pure, if he
were so situated as-to be able to afford it. When
milk and cream are produced under strictly cleanly
conditions, drawn from healthy cows by healthy
workers, the cost of production exceeds the price
which the average consumer can afford to pay.

231. When children are sick and milk and cream
are prescribed as a part or entire diet, and its source
as to cleanliness is questioned, the attending physi-
cian invariably insists that the milk or cream be
heated or pasteurized. (Doan and Price.*)

232. Pasteurization is not intended to cover up
faults in cream and milk and it will never be used
for this purpose by intelligent dairymen, nor is pas-
teurization merely a fad; if it had not filled a real
and long felt want, its use would have been discon-
tinued long ago. Instead of being discontinued it is
rapidly gaining in favor and will continue to be
employed until we have such well regulated dairies
and such good transportation facilities, as to render
it unnecessary and therefore unprofitable. Not until
we can procure clean, sweet milk, which is free from
disease producing germs, dare we dispense with pas-
teurization of both milk and cream. Pasteurization
imparts to market milk and cream a fine flavor, en-
hances its keeping qualities, and makes it safe for

 

* Doan and Price, Bulletin No. 77, Maryland Station, page 10, 1901.
184 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

infant feeding when condensed or evaporated milk
cannot be used.

Even if pasteurization of milk (Marshall* ) did
nothing more than to kill disease producing germs
(Fleischmann **) which may get into the milk or
cream, we would feel warranted in establishing a
system of pasteurization in all city milk plants.

233. Whenever anything new is introduced, it is
usually received with suspicion and disfavor, re-
gardless of its value to mankind. Instances are
known where the introduction of something new,
although of great value to mankind, was met with
unwarranted opposition. In some ways this tendency
of the public is commendable, because it acts as a
check upon the introduction of useless things de-
vised mainly for the purpose of deceiving the public.
Any method, system, procedure or device which
gains favor in spite of opposition must be fundamen-
tally right. Pasteurization occupies such a place at
present. It is gaining in favor among all classes of
people and is of great economic value to the dairy
industry today. Should the death of a person be the
direct result of the use of pasteurized milk, this
would be made known to all the world; but we all
know that very little is said regarding all the lives
that are saved by the use of pasteurized milk. It is
acknowledged that the mortality in children, espe-
cially those under the age of three years, has been
greatly reduced by the use of pasteurized milk and
eream. Some even claim (Marshall***) that infant

 

* Marshall, C. E. Bacteria and the Dairy. Bulletin Fo. 46, p. 48. Mich. 1907.
** Fleischman, W. The Book of the Dairy. Chapter VI, page 276. 1896.

*** Marshall, C. E. Killing the Tubercle Bacilli in Milk. Mich. Bulletin
172-173, page 321. 1899.
PASTEURIZATION. 185

mortality has been reduced by one-half where even
only part of the city milk has been pasteurized.

Ideal conditions on dairy farms under which sani-
tary milk and cream can be produced at a price
within reach of the working men have not yet been
attained and it seems doubtful that they ever will be.

234, That all milk used for city supply not classed
as certified or inspected is recommended to be pas-
teurized (Govt. Bul.*), is a step in the right direc-
tion and deserves the attention of all right minded
milk dealers and city officials. In the future we shall.
have more city officials who favor pasteurization as
a legitimate means by which the public will be sup-
plied with better and safer milk. Far-sighted busi-
nessmen recognize not only the commercial value of
pasteurization but also its value as a means of pre-
venting the spread of disease. Nathan Strauss says:
‘‘T consider pasteurization of the milk supply—and
the great majority of the scientifie world agrees
with me—one of the most. important weapons in
fighting the white plague.’’

235. Bacteria in market milk. In fifty-seven sam-
ples of Boston milk, Sedgwick and Batchelder found
from 30,000 to 4,220,000 bacteria per cubic centi-
meter. Hill and Slack on examining 2,394 samples,
nearly all taken as the milk arrived in the city,
found that 42 per cent of the milk contained less
than 100,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter; 29.75
per cent contained between 100,000 and 500,000;
12.75 per cent contained between 1,000,000 and
5,000,000; 9.75 per cent contained between 500,000
and 1,000,000; and 5 per cent contained above

 

* Government Circular 114, page 7. 1907.
186 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

5,000,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter. Some sam-
ples of milk taken in New York, at the time of its
arrival there, were found to contain 15,163,600 bac-
teria per cubic centimeter.
236. Bacteria before and after pasteurization.
That raw milk contains a large number of bacteria
will be seen from the following table (Rogers*) :

TABLE XIV.

Average Number of Bacteria per Cubic Centimeter in all
Samples Under Each Treatment.

 

Description and treat- Number of bacteria after the lapse of—
ment of sample. 0 hours | 6 hours | 12 hours | 24 hours | 48 hours | 72 hours | 96 hours

Raw milk kept at 20° C_-13,522,331}74,142,857| 247 651,250) 457,910,714|608,079, 166|568,718,500] -......_..
Poslegriced milk kept at

 

 

 

 

 

 

20” © cs scenquuneciadweneas 245) 426 6,028] 1,50] ,335/320,337,388}236,041,250/975,500,000
Raw milk kept at 10° C__117,640,428|31,457,833| 38,406,785|124,783,928) 254,678,542/308,041 666) 562,650,000
Pasteurized milk kept at ~

10} Gsetinceewscccsepensl 245 308 378 1,026 15,119] 2,462,492) 37,088,456

 

 

237. Results of continuous pasteurization of milk
at 140° to 160° F., or 60° to 63° centigrade. (Dean
and Harrison.**)

TABLE XV.
Thirteen Tests, Percentage of Bacteria Killed, 96.42.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Unpasteurized] Pasteurized
Tempera-

Pasteuriz- ture of Average No. | Average No.

Date ing tem- |milk before} Acidity of germs of germs
perature |pasteurizing per ¢. ce. per c.c.

April 10 146 54 -15 8,090,000 243,600
140 52 16 3,786,000 235,000

“16 142 54 18 3,705,000 243,500
May 1 144 58 15 8,736,000 557,000
“4 140 58 17 13,400,000 367,000
“ 112 140 61 19 14,510,000 837,000
“ 21 140 61 17 38,380,000 800,000
“ 27 140 58 7 16,250,000 667,000
“ 29) 140 60 17 17,000,000 650,000
June 3 140 60 17 15,670,000 720,000
“ 6 140 58 16 15,723,000 672,000
a 68 140 60 17 22,840,000 812,000
Aug. 5 140 51,900,000 1,400,000

 

 

 

Tables Nos. XV and XVI taken from Ontario Bulletin No. 117.

* Rogers, L. A. U.S. Bulletin No. 73. Page 28.
** Dean and Harrison, Ontario Bulletin, No. 117. Pages 11-12.

 
PASTEURIZATION. 187

Results of Continuous Pasteurization of Milk at
160—165° F. (71—74 c.)
TABLE XVI.
Twenty Tests, Percentage of Bacteria Killed, 99.95.

 

 

 

 

Unpasteurized| Pasteurized
Tempera-

Pasteuriz- ture of Average Averuge

Date ing tem- |milk before] Acidity germs germs
Perature |pasteurizing per c.c. per c.c.

Mar. 29 160 53 15 507,600 510
April 1 160 46 1G 1,402,100 8,950
164 52 15 288,000 610

“6 160 54 16 2,784,000 410
“8 160 53 15 7,040,000 9,025
“ 10 160 54 15 8,090,000 650
SENG 160 56 19 9,090,000 2,300
“* 19) 160 46 JA7 1,820,000 93,800
“29 165 60 21 25,100,000 11,420
May 1 160 58 15 8,736,000 1250
ee 15: 165 60 19 4,050,000 15,700

 

 

 

 

 

238. The growth of bacteria in milk.

The inerease of the bacteria in milk depends most-
ly upon the temperature at which it is kept during
the first few hours after it is drawn. According to
Grotenfelt’s ‘‘Modern Dairy Practice’’ we find that
Cropf and Eiserich in Munich found 60,000 to 100,-
000 bacteria per cubie centimeter in milk shortly
after it had been drawn. This sample was kept in a
cellar at a temperature of 12.5 degrees C. (56.5 de-
grees F.). After two hours the bacterial content was
four times as great as at first; after three hours it
was eight times as great; after five hours it was
twenty-six times as great, and after six hours it was
1,803 times at great. Another portion of this milk
was held at 35 degrees C. (95° I.) in an incubator
and the bacteria originally present multiplied twen-
ty-three times in two hours; 215 times in four hours;
803 times in five hours and 3,800 times in six hours.
The development of the bacteria in the milk kept in
ice during the same period of time was so slight as
188 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

to be almost imperceptible. This is a striking illus-
tration of the development of germs under different
temperatures. When we consider that one germ
often reproduces itself every twenty minutes it is
not surprising that milk or cream can become bad
so quickly.

239. Care and cleanliness. Jt is obvious that the
hacterial content of the milk is greatly affected by
various methods of handling and that there is a
close relationship between the bacterial content of
the milk and the different fermentations which man-
ifest themselves from time to time In our efforts to
insure a good-keeping article we are impressed with
the need of having the utmost care exercised in the
handling of milk before it is received at the factory
or central plant. But unfortunatcly we sometimes
fail to recognize or to remember that after the milk
arrives at the central plant it still needs to be care-
fully and intelligently handled. Not only should
milk be heated to a high enough temperature to de-
stroy undesirable germs, but the temperature should
be uniform, and must be maintained for a sufficient
length of time to insure the destruction of those
germs. It must also be borne in mind that the
temperature must not be so high as to impart a per-
manent cooked flavor to the product.

Tt is to be deplored that cleanliness, that all-im-
portant factor in the handling of milk, is so often
neglected at the factory or milk depot. When this
is the case all the care which has previously been
bestowed upon the milk is practically undone. Otto
F. Hunziker, of the Dairy Division of Cornell Uni-
versity, in a recent bulletin on ‘‘The Handling and
PASTEURIZATION. 189

Care of Milk,’’ says: ‘‘The greater attention paid to
scrupulous cleanliness in handling milk at all stages,
the shorter time that elapses between the drawing,
straining, and cooling of the milk, and the lower the
temperature to which it is cooled, the greater will
be its freedom from micro-organisms; the longer it
will. retain its normal condition; the more profitable
its production will be and the more wholesome will
it be for old and young.’’ In these few words we
find the secret of success in handling milk and
cream.

240. Clarification and separation. When a large
quantity of milk is handled at one plant for city
supply and shipped or hauled to the plant for a
considerable distance, it 1s of the utmost importance
if the milk is not very clean, that it be clarified.
By clarification I mean that the milk is to be sep-
arated and milk and cream run together again be-
fore it is used. This should be done whether the
milk it to be pasteurized or not. After clarification
it should be immediately cooled to as low a temper-
ature as possible unless it is to be pasteurized at
once. It has been ascertained that in the process of
separation a large number of tubercle bacilli and
Jactic germs are deposited in the separator slime.
Grotenfelt in his ‘‘Modern Dairy Practice’’ says:
‘‘T have verified in numerous trials that a large num-
ber of the bacteria present in milk were removed
from the cream and skim milk by the centrifugal
force and went into the separator slime.’’

241. The grading of milk. In order that a uniform
grade of milk be placed upon the market it is neces-
sary to select. by an acid test all milk that may indi-
190 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

cate an excess of .2 per cent acidity. This can very
easily be accomplished by using the ‘‘Rapid Meth-
od’’ (par. 48), devised by Prof. E. H. Farrington,
who is at the head of the University of Wisconsin
Dairy School. Anyone who is at all dextrous can
very rapidly select or grade milk as received at the
milk depot. The rapid method is simple, accurate
and inexpensive, and is used with great success at
the Wisconsin Dairy School.

Because the sweeter milk is selected for the mar-
ket it is possible that when a large percentage of the
milk shows more than .2 per cent acidity and is re-
jected, that the test of the milk sold may show a
rather low fat content. The reason of this is that
evening milk is usually richer in fat than morning
milk and it is usually the latter which shows more
than .2 per cent acidity. According to Richmond
(Richmond*) the composition of milk varies greatly
in fat content. He says: ‘‘The average fat content
of morning milk was 3.52 per cent and of evening
milk 3.96 per cent in 15,910 samples.”’

242, Variations in the test of individual cows and
herds, .

There is a difference in the average test of a herd
from year to year as well as in the test of individual
cows. The test of individual cows may vary con-
siderably from day to day as well as the total pro-
duction of fat per day. In order to make this vari-
ation more clear, the following table is given, which
shows the age of cows, the average per cent of fat
in milk and the range of variation in milk from indi-
vidual cows.

 

* Richmond, H. D. Analyst, page 30, 1905. No. 355, paragraphs 325-329.
PASTEURIZATION. 191

243. Table XVII, showing the variation in the test
of milk from individual cows. (Woll and Harris.*)
TABLE XVII.

Showing the Variation in the Test of Milk From Individual
Cows: (Woll and Harris*.)

 

 

 

 

 

 

Age of ave Per cent fat Fat per day
cow milk Average | Range Range

Y. M. Dz.
8—10—19 37 3.27 2.38 —4,2 2.847—3.426
9— 1—20 | 6 5.57 3.65—8.48 3.211—3.821
7—10—22 49 3.71 2.65—4.8 2.677—3.199
8— 1—19 15 3.92 3.18—4.98 2.495—2.864
8— 4-10 24 3.40 2.8 —4.08 2.422—3.087
6— 9—12 12 3.49 2.95—3.88 2.501—3.069
6— 9—12 20 3.33 2.8 —4.0 2.933—3.320
7— 1—25 1 4,29 3.35—5.0 2.422 —2.861
5—11—15 4 5.02 3.45—6.0 3.479 —4.045
5—11— 6 33 3.51 2.58.2 2.829—3.500
5— 7T—18 26 3.96 3.18—4.53 2.536—2.794
5—10—19 19 3.69 2.9 —5.5 3.020—3.347
5— 0—29 6 5.13 8.9 —6.45 2.969—3.447
5— 0--15 19 3.91 3.1 —5.2 2.891—3.172
6—10— 9 20 3.94 2.3 —6.45 2.422—4.045
6—11—28 26 3.58 1.6 —8.48 1.464—4.045
4— 4— 8 69 3.50 2.8 —4.85 2.034—2.691
4— 0— 4 13 3.83 3.18—4.53 2.271— 2.892
4— 2—28 17 3.80 2.7 —4.55 2.574—3.034
4— 0-29 | 4 3.38 2.7 —4.4 2.204—2.535
4— 2— 2 26 3.63 2.7 —4.85 2.094—3.034
4— 3—16 2 3.52 1.5 —6.15 1.225—3.034
38— 5— 1 29 3.387 2.4 —4.83 2.000—2.865
38— T— 4 11 3.92 3.0 —4.65 2.538—2.740
38— T—14 53 3.53 2.65—4..23 1.979—2.261
38—11—14 18 3.53 2.6 —4.53 2.579—3.137
8—11— 8 33 3.48 .[ 2.8 —4.3 1.983—2.331
38— 4—23 8 3.64 3.33—3.95 2.140—2.288
38— 3—18 7 3.72 3.3 —4.2 2.059—2.274
38— 1—28 17 3.56 2.9 —4.55 2.318—2.769
38— 2—28 19 3.64 2.6 —4.43 1.946—2.201
38— 4—28 4 3.80 2.6 —5.58 2.032—2.496
38— 2—21 15 3.44 2.8 —4.3 1.896—2.121
38— 0—19 6 4.02 38.0 —5.78 2.057—2.188

 

 

 

 

* Woll and Harris, Wisconsin Station. Bulletin No. 172. 1909.
192 MODERN BUTTER MAKING,

244, Variation in the per cent of fat in cow’s milk
during the entire period of lactation.
TABLE XVIII. *

Variation in the Per Cent of Fat in Cows’ ALlilk During the
Iintire Period of Lactation.

 

 

No. of| Range in No, of] ° Range in
Cow Per cent of fat Cow Per cent of fat
Lowest Highest | Lowest Highest
2.621% 4.698% 10 2.464% 6.00 %
2.160% 3.404% 11 2.741% 4.649%
j2 2.509% 5.505%

 

2.163% | 3.965% | 18 | 2.645% | 4.724%
2.543% | 3.900% | 14 | 2.097% | 4.173%
2.096% | 3.446% | 15 | 2.437% | 4.234%
2.257% | 2.837% | 16 | 2.326% | 4.637%
DG. | AAP |) AT |) ampasia E aaiabe
| 2.566% | 4.709% | 18 | 2.537% | 4.390%

 

 

SONATE H NH

 

245. A standard temperature for pasteurization.

The main question in pasteurization is: What is
the best temperature at which to pasteurize milk or
cream? Another important matier in connection
with this subject is the length of time the milk or
eream should be exposed to a given temperature in
order not to injure its quality, and yet destroy the
tuberele bacilli. When the tubercle bacilli are de-
stroyed we feel sure that all other harmful germs
are also destroyed. This can be accomplished in
either of two ways: First, by short exposure to a
temperature of 180° F. to 190° F. Second, by hold-
ing the milk or cream at a temperature of 140° F. to
160° F. for some length of time. I believe we are
safe in using the following temperature and time:

* Table XVIII was translated by Leonard Pearson, (C, O. Jensen Milk
Hygiene.)
PASTEURIZATION. 193

Temperature. Holdfor. Temperature. Hold for.

N40? Bee cuies 30 min. 160° F....... 10 min.
145° F....... 25 min. TROP SES cca lelarase 5 min.
150° Bers sonaas 20 min. 180° WH egea.4 2 min.
155° F....... 15 min. 190° Bisicnss 1 min.

The temperatures employed under commercial
conditions must necessarily be a little higher than
the temperatures used under laboratory conditions
and expert supervision. If we were to use labora-
tory temperature under commercial conditions the
results might not always be satisfactory.

246. Jensen and Platnner come to the conclusion
that in order to preserve the properties of raw milk,
which is especially desirable in infant feeding, the
“heating should not be continued for several hours
at 60° C. or 140° F. nor exceed for a single instant
70° C. or 158° F. The temperature should not exceed
that necessary for destroying pathogenic bacteria,
more particularly the tubercle bacillus for which
heating for 20 minutes at 60° C. or 140° F. is suffi-
cient,’’ as found by Smith; and 5 minutes at 65° C.
or 149° F. as found by Bang and Strebolt. These
authors (Jensen and Platnner*) also recommend the
home pasteurization of milk for infant feeding. It
would seem, however, that since the average house-
wife is not sufficiently educated along this line that
it would be safer for her to buy properly pasteurized
milk from some responsible city milk dealer. I be-
lieve that the pasteurization of milk can be more
efficiently performed by a high class city milk plant
than by the average housewife.

 

* Jensen and Platnner. American Agricultural Suisse, 6, 1905. No. 6,
pages 205-228, etc.
14 MODERN BUTTER MAKING,

247. Intermittent system of pasteurization.

‘When we speak of the intermittent system of pas-
teurizing, we mean that the milk or cream to be pas-
teurized is all placed in a machine or tank and all
heated at one time to the desired temperature and
held at this temperature for the required length of
time. When the milk has been held heated for a
sufficient length of time it is cooled, and then bottled
direct from the pasteurizer by a sanitary bottling
apparatus.

248. The disadvantage of this system is that where
a large quantity of milk or cream is to be handled,
the expense of handling it is greater than when the
continuous or semi-continuous pasteurizer is used.
The main cause of additional expense in using the
intermittent system of pasteurizing is that it re-
quires a greater length of time to pasteurize a large
quantity of milk as well as additional machinery,
where great quantities are handled. One great ad-
vantage that this system has over all others is that
perfect pasteurization is more easily accomplished.
The cream line, which the American people like to
see on milk, can more easily be retained when the
intermittent system of pasteurizing is used, because
the milk need not be heated above 150° F. in order
to destroy the tuberele bacillus.

In case milk is separated and the cream run into
a discontinuous pasteurizing apparatus, it should be
heated to about 130° F. and kept at this temperature
until all the cream is in the machine. It should then
all be heated to the desired temperature for pasteur-
PASTEURIZATION. 195

izing. This is necessary because cream fresh from
the separator sours very quickly unless it is cooled
to about 50° F. or heated to about 135° F. During
the heating of the cream as well as during the time
the milk or cream is held hot, it should be kept in
motion except for very short periods of time. We
know that the efficiency of work done depends pri-
marily upon the dgree, duration and uniformity of
heat applied. By the use of the intermittent system
of pasteurizing the milk or cream may acquire a
slightly cooked flavor even though it is heated to
only 140° F., but this will disappear within twenty-
four hours, especially if the milk or cream is cooled
rapidly.

249, Continuous pasteurizers. These pasteurizers
are very generally used in creameries for the pas-
teurization of cream for butter making on account
of the relatively high acid in the cream; and up to
the present time this type of pasteurizer is also used
to a great extent for the handling of milk for city
supply.

The advantage of this type of machine is that a
large amount of milk or cream ean be cheaply hand-
led. The cooling can be accomplished quickly, thus
retarding the development of any bacteria which
may have escaped destruction. Great care must be
exercised in applying proper temperatures and in
guarding against running the machine above its
tested capacity.

250. Semi-Continuous pasteurizers. It is only re-
cently that holding devices as an adjunct to continu-
ous pasteurizers have been put upon the market.
196 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

This holding apparatus serves a very necessary pur-
pose in increasing the efficiency of the machine. The
milk or cream can be pasteurized at lower temper-
atures and the same results obtained as with high
temperatures.

251. Cleaning pasteurizers. After pasteurizing, the
machine should be cooled by running water through
it and when sufficiently cooled, a solution made with
some good cleaning powder and water should be run
into the heating chamber to dissolve and loosen the
milk which may be cooked onto it. This should be
allowed to stand in the machine for some time, and
the machine should then be scrubbed with a stiff
brush. Be very careful about using sulphuric acid
on the pasteurizer, because if the solution is too
strong it will corrode the tin and cause it to wear
off in a short time. Strong lye will also take off the
tin and it should be very sparingly used.

Milk or cream will not easily burn onto the pas-
teurizer if the heating chamber is first filled, and
then slowly heated to the desired] temperature, or if
it is heated very slowly while the chamber is being
filled. Always guard against running the pasteur-
izer empty, with full steam pressure on.

252. Prejudice against pasteurized milk and cream.

Were it not for the fact that the average consumer
wants to see a well defined cream line on bottled
milk, pasteurization would be more generally prac-
ticed, This opposition has led te the construction of
machinery which will handle milk or cream with the
greatest efficiency at the lowest temperature. The
slightly eooked Havor which some pasteurized milk
PASTEURIZATION. 197

has, is not relished by consumers and more or less
objection has been raised to it. As soon as the con-
sumer learns that the keeping quality of the milk
and cream is increased by pasteurization, it will be-
come general.

253. Sources of bacteria in milk.

TABLE XX.

 

Element of Contamination.............. 000 ee eee ee Bacteria

(Fresh Milk .........cec eee eees 6,600 per ¢.c.

1, Infection v After passing through 6 vessels. 97,000 per ¢.c,

Milk from clean cows. 20,600 per c.c.

BSc cress
een Cleantiness { Milk from dirty cows.170,000 per c.c.

Peat .................... 2,000,000 per gramme
3. Litter + Good straw ............. 7,500,000 per gramme
| Bad straw ........0.000. 10,000,000 per gramme

4. Influence of litter in num- ( With peat litter. .3,500 per c.c.
ber of bacteria in milk.. ? With straw litter.7,330 per c.c.

5. Food. Dust of ( Oil cake ......... 457,500 per gramme

in the manger ? Bran ............. 1,361,900 per gramme

Milked)- 27 as aascsesad vetawires 5,600 per ¢.c.

MMAIUKEG: WEE acawetronianie na aeo ae 9,000 per ec.

- ts IGTESE, TUES arssscs sreenave cass aces 10,400 per c.e.

. Milk 2

Seer GeresP ABET sc ncascinty can 4 one s.ces Sterile.

Washed udder ................ 2,200 per cc.

Unwashed udder .............. 3,800 per ¢.c.

Bnameled vessels .............- 1,105 per ¢.c.

7. Vessels 3 Tin vesselS .......0.. cee cece 1,690 per ¢.e.

| Wooden vesselS .........0.00005 279,000 per c.c.

Sterilized pail ........ 1,300 per c¢.c.

8. Cleansing Vessels ue rinsed ........ 28,600 per c.c.

 

Table XX, C. O. Jensen, Milk Hygiene.

254, Epidemics caused by raw milk. If dairymen
and milk dealers really understood what cleanliness
in the production of milk means, and would employ
198 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

proper methods of pasteurization, epidemics which
are directly traceable to infected milk might be
averted. In Europe epidemics which were traced to
the consumption of infected milk occurred in Mae-
elesfield, Wimbledon, Yorktown, Camberly, Canter-
bury, Bristol, Clifton, London, Barrowford, Fallow-
field and Oxford. In America epidemics of this kind
occurred at Iowa State College, Norwood, Salem,
Adams, Elkton, Providence, Buffalo, Sommerville,
Springfield, Port Jarvis, ete.

We cannot cite an instance where pasteurization
has created any trouble of this nature, and nothing
can be shown to prove that pasteurization should
be dispensed with. From records now available we
find there is great discomfort to people, as well as
disease and death resulting from the consumption
of raw milk and its products. A great source of in-
fection of milk comes from the handling of it by
persons affected with contagious diseases.
CHAPTER XIIL

DETERMINATION OF MOISTURE
IN BUTTER

It (Wisconsin High Pressure Oven) has
proved to be well adapted to the purpose
for which it is intended, and the results
obtained by its use are accurate.

E. H. FARRINGTON.
258,
259.
260.
261.
262,
263.

INDEX TO CHAPTER XIII.

', No. Page.
Determinations of moisture in butter... ..... 201
NeGessary APPAVAtUS 2... cece eee tere nee 201
Making the test .......c ccs cc cre eer eeseecccraee 202
(a) Preparing sampleS ........ cece cece cece ence 202
(b) Making a churn teSt......... cece eee veer 202
(c) Making tub test .............. eee saiaivte Date 203
(d) Making print test ...... 0... cece cece eee eens 203
Methods in some creameries not up to standard.. 203
How to treat cupS and PansS...........eeeeeevas 204
Testing leaky or slushy butter.................. 205
Testing butter by Babcock test.................. 206
Number of grams of butter necessary .......... 210

Table XXI., comparing two methods of testing
butter for MOiStUre ...... ce eee cece ewes 212
CHAPTER XIII.
Determination of Moisture in Butter.

255. Some creamery operators have increased the
per cent of moisture in butter to such an extent that
the production of good bodied butter was impossi-
ble; and since they sold the excess of water at butter
prices it became necessary for the federal govern-
ment to put a stop to this practice by limiting the
per cent of moisture to 15.9 per cent.

It is due to this regulation that devices for testing
butter for moisture have come into use, and within
the last few years several different moisture tests
have been placed upon the market. Information re-
garding these tests, with directions for their use and
suggestions regarding the taking of samples, are
furnished free upon application to creamery supply
houses mentioned in the chapter on information in
the back of the book.

256. Necessary apparatus for determining moist-
ure in butter.

Apparatus necessary for testing moisture in but-
ter is as follows:

1. <A correct and sensitive scale.

2. A butter trier, spatula or knife.

3. Cups or pans according to the kind of moist-
ure testing apparatus used.

4. A moisture testing apparatus. Farrington
High Pressure, Ames or Gray’s.

5. A cup or wide mouthed jar for preparing com-
posite samples.

201
202 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

All that is needed in addition to the above is a
person who is very careful in handling all processes.
connected with the determining of moisture. The
results should come within 14 to 114 per cent of the
actual per cent of moisture in the butter.

257. Making the moisture test. /

(a). Preparing samples. When a churn test is
desired, take a butter trier and take a small sample
from each trierful taken from four or five different
places in the column of butter in the churn. Be sure
to take samples from both ends and the middle of
the column. When a knife or spatula is used, re-
move the surface of the butter, take a few grams,
place the sample in a cup or glass and add to it
other small samples taken from four or five places
in the butter column. This constitutes the composite
sample, from which ten or fifteen grams should be
taken, weighed and tested according to the direc-
tions for whatever moisture test is being used. Be-
fore taking a sample for testing from the composite
sample, place the cup containing the composite
sample in water of a temperature of 98° to 100° F.
and stir continually until the sample has reached a
soft, smooth consistency. When this stage is reached
remove the cup at once from the warm water, bal-
ance your scales carefully and weigh out ten or fif-
teen grams as desired.

(b) When making a churn test and the sample is
to be taken from the tubs or boxes just packed, take
a knife or spatula and take a small piece of butter
from each tub or box and proceed as indicated for
the handling of the composite churn sample,
TESTING FOR MOISTURE. 203

(c) When making a tub test when butter is three
or more days old and is hard, use a trier of a length
sufficient to pass through the entire length of the
tub or package. Pass the trier into the butter and
take a few grams of butter from four different
places on the trier and place in a cup or screw top
glass jar. If there are a number of tubs from the
same churning take samples from another tub or two
and procecd as before directed. The results should
check up within 44 to 144 per cent of the actual
moisture in the butter.

(d) When making a print butter test it is well
to take a trier and take a full length plug from a
print. From this take a small piece and repeat this
with several prints, or cut a print in two and take
a thin slice across it at the cut. Repeat this with
several prints and handle these samples as previ-
ously indicated.

258. Methods used in creameries for the determi-
nation of moisture in butter are not up to the de-
sired standard. In my travels among creameries as
well as through information gained by correspond-
ence regarding methods used in making moisture
determinations, I found that methods employed in
taking samples for making moisture determinations
as well as the handling of the different processes
connected with the testing were not what they
should be. As a rule the fault was not in not know-
ing how to take a fair average sample, but rather
in the lack of care and attention to the detail part
of the work. For instance:

1. Not balancing the scales properly.
204 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

2. Not accurately weighing the number of grams
of butter used for making the test; that is, having
it a trifle over or under weight.

3. Not drying the cups or pans in which the
butter was weighed.

4. Not accurately weighing the sample after the
moisture is all expelled. —

5. Weighing the sample when hot from the oven
or flame, or letting the sample stand too long cold
before weighing.

6. Not taking into consideration the fact that
when butter spatters over the beaker when direct
flame is used, that the results are greatly affected.

7. Using poor beakers, with a rough surface or
a handle soldered onto the side, allowing moisture
and dirt to adhere to it.

8. Not carefully solidifying liquefied samples of
butter before weighing out samples for testing.

9. Using old, heavy operating cream scales in-
stead of the Torsion Balance; No. 4,000 or No. 1,600.
or any high grade druggist scale.

10. Forgetting that when a little bit of butter is
taken from the surface of the butter column in the
churn, the result is usually too high, and hardly ever
represents the true per cent of moisture.

259. How to prepare the cups and pans used in
testing for moisture.

All cups, pans or utensils into which samples are
to be put for testing should be heated before the
samples are put into them. This is done to expel
any moisture which might adhere to these vessels.
If it is not done, and a little moisture adheres to cup
TESTING FOR MOISTURE. 205

or pan and is weighed with the sample of butter,
the result will show a higher per cent of moisture
than the butter actually contains. I have found that
by neglecting to dry the vessels into which the
samples are weighed, and by not having the plates
on the scale, on which the pans were placed, per-
fectly clean and dry, a difference of 2.5 per cent in
the actual per cent of moisture was the result. In
one creamery a rickety old scale was used and the
result was 8 per cent too low. That is, the result
obtained when the sample was not correctly weighed
was 12 per cent moisture. When the sample was
weighed on an accurate scale, the actual moisture
content was found to be 20 per cent. When the
scale is clean, accurate and well -alanced, the cups
or pans heated before the butter is weighed into
them, the sample accurately taken and correctly
weighed, the moisture all expelled, the sample again
accurately weighed and the mathematical caleula-
tions properly performed, the result will be very
close to the actual per cent of moisture in the butter.

260. Testing leaky or slushy butter for moisture.

It is very hard to test this kind of butter satisfac-
torily on account of the presence of much loose wa-
ter as well as considerable water being held in large
pockets throughout the butter. When sampling this
kind of butter it is well to take more samples from
different parts of the tub or churn than are taken
when well made butter is tested. When this kind
of butter is hard,_a great deal of water may drip off
of the trier and the sample may show results much
too low in the per cent of moisture. In such a case
206 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

it is safer to make two tests of the same lot of but-
ter, as the result of two tests is a truer indication
of the actual moisture present.

261. Testing butter for butter fat by the Babcock
test, and from results, computing the approximate
moisture content. Experience has taught that moist-
ure cannot be accurately computed by knowing the
approximate per cent of fat in butter. The per cent
of salt in butter varies too much for this to be a re-
liable test. It would be impossible to make an accu-
rate guess as to the per cent of salt in butter, and
to test for salt as well as for butter fat would take
more time than it would take to make a moisture
test. Even the use of the Babcock test for determin-
ing the per cent of butter fat in butter is not to be
recommended due to errors arising from various
sources. This is fully explained in the following by
Prof. E. H. Farrington, Hoard’s Dairyman, July 1,
1910:

‘‘Among the various factors which make these re-
sults uncertain are the following:

1. Taking a fair sample of butter.

2. Accurate weighing of the butter into the test
bottle.

3. The high per cent of fat in butter which makes
errors in reading the length of the fat column due to
changes in temperature much greeter than in milk.

4. The difficulties in getting the fat free from
water when it is measured in the neck of the test
bottles.

The effect of these various crrors of analysis is five
times as great on the fat as it is on the water deter-
TESTING FOR MOISTURE, 207

mination in butter when butter contains 80 per cent
fat and 16 per cent water, and the effect of these
errors is twenty times as great for butter testing as
it is for milk testing when the latter contains 4.0 per
cent fat.

The errors which may occur in weighing the
sample of butter for testing is multiplied by the
ratio between the weight taken and 100. If an
error of one-tenth gram is made in weighing 10
grams of butter, this one-tenth gram is one-tenth per
cent of 100, but it is 1 per cent of 10 grams; and 80
per cent of this 1 per cent falls on the butter fat,
while only 5 per cent of it would fall on a milk test-
ing 4 per cent fat.

The actual effect which an error of one-tenth gram
in weighing out the butter will have on the final re-
sults may be seen by the following illustration: If
instead of ten grams only 9.9 grams of butter are
weighed into a test bottle, after which the test is
completed and the reading of the fat in the neck of
the test bottle is found to be 45. This reading mul-
tiplied by 18 gives 810, which divided by 10 grams
of butter gives 81 per cent fat in the sample test. If,
however, an error of one-tenth gram is made in
weighing, and the product of 45x18 or 810 is divided
by 9.9 grams, then the result is 81.8 per cent fat.

The variation of one-tenth gram in weighing the
sample of butter into the test bottle has made an
error of .8 per cent fat in the final result.

If this same error of one-tenth gram is made in
weighing six, instead of ten grams of butter into a
test bottle, and the test of the butter is made in
208 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

cream test bottles reading to 30 or 40 per cent, the
effect of this small error is much greater. Suppose
the reading of fat from the six grams of butter is
28; this multiplied by 18 gives 504, which divided by
six (the weight of butter taken) gives 84 as the per
cent of fat in the sample tested. If, however, the
reading 28 multiplied by 18 or 504 is divided by 5.9
instead of six, then the result is 85.4.

This shows a difference of 1.4 per cent fat between
the result obtained when the weight of butter is
taken as six grams and when it is 5.9 grams.

Tf this same error of one-tenth gram is made in
weighing the butter for a water determination, the
effect of the error on the final result. will be much
less as is seen by the following figures: If ten grams
of butter are weighed for a water determination,
and the loss of weight by drying 3s 1.6 grams, then
this loss is 16 per cent of the ten grams of butter
weighed out. If an error of one-tenth gram was
made in weighing the butter then the loss, or 1.6
grams divided by 9.9 grams instead of ten grams of
butter gives a percentage of 16.1 per cent water in
the sample tested. In this case there is a difference
in the final result of only one-fortieth per cent
when an error of one-tenth gram was made in weigh-
ing the butter.

Butter makers in creameries do not often make
weighings closer than 1-10 grams on the seales they
use and many of these seales are not sufficiently sen-
sitive to weigh as fine as 1-10 gram. They will,
therefore, have difficulty in getting duplicate tests
of the same sample of butter to agree much closer
TESTING FOR MOISTURE. 209

than 1.0 per cent fat, simply because of the effect of
this one source of error which is introduced when
weighing the butter for testing.

Another point in testing butter for fat by the
Babcock test, that will have a great effect on the
final results, is the temperature of the fat column
when it is measured. The extent to which the fat
column will change with the increase or decrease in
temperature is shown by the following figures:

The expansion of fat by a change of 40 degrees
in temperature amounts to .07 per cent. fat in milk
testing 5 per cent fat; that is, if a milk testing 5
' per cent fat is read at 110° F. the reading will be
5.07 per cent fat when the temperature is raised to
140° F.

This same effect of expansion on the test of butter
containing 80 per cent fat will be 16 times more, or
.O7X16 equals 1.12 per cent fat, which will be the
difference in the reading of the butter fat test at
110° and 140° F. Or, if the fat test of a sample of
butter when read at 110 is 80 per cent fat, the same
sample read at 140° I’. will be 81.12 per cent fat.

All the other errors of manipulation in testing
butter by the Babcock test, such as determining the
point of reading the top and bottom of the fat col-
umn, loss of moisture and of the butter when it is
being weighed into the test bottles, and other me-
chanical losses, are at least five times as great for
a fat as for a water determination in butter, and 20
times as great for butter as for milk testing 4 per
cent fat.
210 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

The errors all come on the amount of the sub-
stance tested and 80 per cent of this error falls on
the fat, while only 16 per cent of it falls on the wa-
ter in butter and 4.0 per cent of the error would fall
on the fat in milk testing 4.0 per cent fat.

After understanding the full effect of all the errors
of analyses, as well as the difficulty of weighing but-
ter into test bottles, the necessity of using extreme
care in every manipulation and in keeping the scales
and glassware in a most sensitive and accurate con-
dition, one must not expect to use the Babcock test
for determining fat in butter with the same degree
of accuracy as it is used in milk and cream testing.
Duplicate results on the same sample of butter may
not agree within 1 per cent of each other and the
results obtained may easily be 2 per cent from the
actual fat contained in the sample tests. All these
variations and inaccuracies. being due to the errors
of analyses and the fact that the fat is such a large
percentage of the butter.

When fairly satisfactory results are obtained in
testing butter by the Babcock test it is probable that
the errors of one class have compensated for, or bal-
anced the errors of another class in the opposite di-
rection, but at the same time it is possible that all
the errors may be in the same direction and thus
increase the inaccuracies of the results.’’

262. Number of grams of butter to use for making
moisture determinations. By consulting the Dairy
Arithmetic it will be seen that the smaller the basis
upon which moisture determinations are based the
greater is the per cent of error, caused by an error.
TESTING FOR MOISTURE. 211

It is not wise to weigh less than five grams of butter
to be used for testing for moisture, and it is much
more safe to use ten or fifteen grams of butter for
this purpose. A slight error does not affect the re-
sult so much when fifteen grams are used as when
only five grams are used, supposing the same error
is made in each case. To illustrate:

I. A lot of butter is weighed, and is supposed to
weigh 850 lbs., but by some error in handling it
weighs only 848 lbs. The loss in pounds here is 2
or in per cent is 2~850==-.002353 «K 100=—=.2353— or
23+ per cent.

II. A lot of butter is weighed as 48 lbs. when
the actual weight is 50 lbs. Here an error of 2 lbs.
is made. Expressing the loss in per cent it will be
2-50 1004. per cent.

A loss of 2 lbs. on 850 lbs. is .23-+ per cent or .23
of one pound on every hundred pounds.

A loss of 2 lbs. on 50 Ibs. is 4. per cent, or 4. lbs.
on every hundred pounds. By losing 2 pounds on
every 50 lbs. the loss is 17.4. times as great as when
the loss is 2 lbs. on every 850 lbs. This can be found
by dividing the loss in per cent: 4.-+2353——.17x«
10017. or 850-5017.

This shows that when an error is made in weigh-
ing out only 2 grams the result obtained is increased
enormously, while the same error made when 10 or
15 grams are weighed out would be very small, and
in many cases not noticeable in the results.

The smaller the sample used for testing the
greater must be the care taken in its preparation
and handling, as well as in calculating the result.

 
212 MODERN BUTTER MAKING,

The chances for error as indicated above are consid-
ered from the standpoint of practical creamery op-
erations and not under expert laberatory conditions.

263. Table No. XXI shows how closely the results
obtained with the Wisconsin High Pressure Oven
agree with official methods. *

TABLE XXI.
Per Cent Water in Butter Samples Found by Using Both
the High Pressure Oven Iflethod and the
Official Chemists’ Method.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Per cent water in butter
Official chem- High-pressure
ists’ method oven-method
“Sample No. 1 ............- 13.05 13.1
13.20 13.1
Sample No. 2 ..........4. 2 18.71 19.0
18.92 19.1
Sample No. 3 ...........6. 20.89 21.0
20.90 21.0
Sample No. 4 .........4.6. 12.37 12.5
12.25 12.45
Sample No, 5 ...........6. 18.77 18.4
18.59 18.6

 

 

 

Table XXI.—Per cent water in butter samples

found by using both the high-pressure oven method
and the official chemists’ method.
' From these figures it appears that the results of
duplicate analyses by the method here described
agree as closely as do those obtained by the usual
official chemical method.

 

* Farrington, E.H. Bul. 154. Wis. Expt. Sta., 1907.
BOOK IL.

 

MODERN BUTTER MAKING.
CHAPTER I.

DAIRY ARITHMETIC.

A knowledge of the principles involved in
arithmetical calculations pertaining to dairy-
ing was never more needed than at present.
INDEX TO CHAPTER I.

PERCENTAGE AND DECIMALS.

Par. No.

1. Notation and numeration .......... cee eee e eee eee
2. Expressing the value of a decimal...............
3. Reading of decimals .......... cece eee eee ie Gye ‘
4. Principles of decimals ......... cece eee eee eee ee .
5. Multiplication of decimals .................0 000
6. Special rules for multiplication of decimals.......
7. Addition of decimals ......... Mee isae owas wea ae 3
8. Subtraction of decimals ....... 0... eee eee eee
9. Division of decimals ........ ccc ce eee cee ee eee
10. Examples for illustration ............... ae ya es
11. Reducing fractions to decimals................0.
12. Reducing decimals to common fractions..........
dss Pereentage «0% «ta oe ese danse aca Geese Bees ae es
14. Various ways of expressing per cent.............

227
228
229
CHAPTER I.
Decimals—Notation and Numeration.

1. <A decimal, or a decimal fraction, is a fraction
whose denominator is 10, 100, 1,000, ete.

2. The denominator is always 10 or a multiple
of 10, and is not expressed as in common fractions,
by writing it under the numerator, with a line be-

38. 83 3
tween them, as —, —-, ——. The denominator is

10 100 1000

always understood, the numerator consisting of the
figures on the right of the unit figure of the number.
In order to distinguish the unit figure, a period (.),
called the decimal point, is placed between the unit
figure and the next figure on the right. The decimal
point may be regarded in two ways: First, as indi-
eating that the number on the right is the numerator
of a fraction whose denominator is 10, 100, 1,000,
etce.; and, second, as a part of the Arabic system of
notation, each figure on the right being 10 times as
large as the next succeeding figure, and 10 times as
small as the next preceeding figure, serving merely
to point out the unit figure.

3. The reading of a decimal depends upon the
number of decimal places in it; i. e., upon the num-
ber of figures to the right of the unit figure.

The first figure to the right of the unit figure ex-
presses tenths.

The second figure to the right of the unit ex-

presses hundreths.
216
NOTATION AND NUMERATION. 217

The third figure to the right of the unit figure ex-
presses thousandths.

The fourth figure to the right of the unit expresses
ten-thousandths.

The fifth figure to the right of the unit expresses
hundred-thousandths.

The sixth figure to the right of the unit figure ex-
presses millionths.

2. Table No. 1. The value of a decimal expressed
in different ways.

 

3
3 — — i
10 3 tenths
0 Se tie
100 j
oe oo
003 = i 000° thousandths.
aes os 2 :
.0003 = i 0000772 ten-thousandths.
15 eS
.00003 = I 0000072 hundred-thousandths.
— ea
000003=—po0000 72 millionths.

The first figure to the right of the unit is called
the first decimal place; the second figure, the sec-
ond decimal place, ete. We see in the above that
the number of decimal places in a decimal equals
the number of ciphers to the right of the figure 1 in
the denominator of the equivalent fraction. This
fact kept in mind will be of much assistance in read-
ing and writing decimals.
218 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

Whatever may be written to the left of a decimal
point is a whole number. The decimal point affects
only the figures to its right.

When a whole number and decimal are written
together the expression is a mixed number. Thus,
8.12 and 17.25 are mixed numbers.

The relation of decimals and whole numbers to
each other is clearly shown by the following table:

3. Table No. II.

decimal point.

_ tenths.
en hundred-thousandths.

o millionths.
o hundred-millionths.

» ten-thousandths.
eo billionths.

= thousandths.
eo hundreds.

po tens.

units
ce thousandths.

~ ten-millionths.

o hundreds of thousands.
np hundredths.

co hundreds of millions.
o tens of millions
eon tens of thousands.

~ millions.

Whole numbers. Decimals.

The figures to the left of the decimal point repre-
sent whole numbers; those to the right are decimals
(fractions written in decimal form).

In both the decimals and whole numbers, the units
place is made the starting point of notation and
numeration. The decimals decrease an the scale of
ten to the right, and the whole numbers increase on
the scale of ten to the left. The first figure to the
left of units is tens, and the first figure to the right
of units is tenths. The second figure to the left of

oO
6
NOTATION AND NUMERATION. 219

units is hundreds, and the seconds figure to the right
is hundredths. The third figure to the left is
thousands, and the third to the right is thousandths,
and so on. The figures equally distant from units
place correspond in name, but the decimals have the
ending ths, which distinguishes them from whole
numbers. The following is the numeration of the
number in the above table: nine hundred eighty-
seven million, six hundred fifty-four thousand, three
hundred twenty-one, and twenty-three million, four
hundred fifty-six thousand, seven hundred eighty-
nine hundred-millonths.

The decimals increase to the lefi, on the scale of
ten, the same as whole numbers; for, beginning at,
say, 4 thousandths, in the table, the next figure to
the left is hundreths, which is ten times as great,
and the next tenths, or ten times the hundreths,
and so on through both decimals and whole num-
bers.

Principles of Decimals.
4. The value of a decimal is not changed by an-

nexing or rejecting a cipher to the right of the last
figure.
Explanation.

(a). The decimal .8 equals 8/10, which reduced,
equals 4/5.

(b). Adding one cipher we get .80, which equals
80/100, which reduced, equals 4/5.

(c). Consequently, if both .8 and .80 can be re-
duced to 4/5, they are equal and adding a cipher
has not changed the value.
220 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

Il. A decimal is divided by ten by inserting a
cipher between the decimal point (.) and the other
figures to the right.

Explanation.

(a). The decimal .8 equals the proper fraction
8/10, reduced (a) equals 4/5.

(b). Inserting one cipher we get .08, which equals
8/100, which equals (b) 4/50. Hence the fraction
(a) (.8) is changed 10 times in value by inserting
one cipher between the decimal point and 8 = .08.

JII. Similarly a decimal is multiplied-by 10 by
rejecting a cipher from the first place between the
decimal point (.) and the other figures to the right.

Explanation.

(a). The decimal .08 equals the proper fraction
8/100, which reduced equals 4/50.

(b). Rejecting the cipher .08 equals .8, equals
proper fraction 8/10, which reduced equals 4/5.

The latter by taking out the cipher multiplies the
decimal ten times.

5. Multiplication of Decimals. A general rule for
the multiplication of decimals.

Rule. Place the multipher under the multiplicand
and disregarding the position of the decimal point,
multiply as in whole numbers. In the product point
off as many decimal places as there are decimal
places in both the multiplier and multiplicand, pre-
fixing ciphers if necessary.
NOTATION AND NUMERATION. 221

6. Special rules for examples a, b, c and d.

Rule for example (a). In (a) there are two deci-
mal places in the multiplicand (the cipher does not
count) and only one in the multiplier; hence 2+-1—=
3 decimal places are to be pointed off in the product
(disregarding the cipher (0) to the right of last
figure not a cipher).

Rule for example (b). In (b) there is no decimal
place in the multiplicand, but four in the multiplier.
Therefore 4 decimal places are pointed off in the
product.

Explanation and Solution of Problems (a) and (b).

(a). Multiply .250 by .10
Multiplcand  .250
Multiplier 10

Product "025 Ans.

(b). Multiply 258. by .0008
Multiplicand 258.
Multiplier .0008

Product .2064 Ans.

e

Rule for example (c). In (c) there are 3 decimal
places in the multiplicand and none in the multi-
plier, therefore 3 decimal places are to be pointed
off in the product.

Rule for example (d). In (d) there are 3 decimal
places in the multiplicand and 2 in the multiplier.
Therefore 3-+-2—5 decimal places are to be pointed
off in the product.
222 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

(c). Multiply .928 by 18.
Multiplicand —.928

 

Multiplier 18.

7424

928
Product 16.704 Ans.

(d). Multiply 2.101 by 1.28
Multiplicand 2.101
Multipher 1,28

16808
4202
2101

Product 2.68928 Ans.

7. Addition of decimals.

Rule. Place the numbers to be added so that the
decimal points shall be directly under each other.
Add as in whole numbers and place the decimal
point in the sum directly under the decimal points
above.

Explanation and Solution.

Decimals.

125

.0004

.0101

9256
1.0611 Sum Ans.
Mixed Decimals.

100.25

18.105
1,000.240

189.178

1,307,773 Sum Ans.

 
NOTATION AND NUMERATION. 223

Whole Numbers.

284.
278.
1,001.
1,810.

3,373. Sum Ans.

8. Subtraction of decimals.

Rule. Place the subtrahend wader the minuend
so that the decimal points shall be in the vertical
column. Subtract as in whole numbers and place
the decimal point in ihe remainder directly under
the decimal points above.

(a).

(b).

(c).

(d).

Explanation and Solution.
Subtract .843 from 250.083
Minuend = 250.083
Subtrahend 843

Difference 249.240 Ans.

Find the difference between 8.262 and .925
Minuend 8.262

Subtrahend .925

Difference 7.337 Ans.
Subtract 2001. from 4282.
Minuend 4282.
Subtrahend 2001.

Difference 2281. Ans.

Subtract .9589 from 1.
Minuend 1.0000
Subtrahend .9589

 

Difference .0411 Ans.
Let MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

When there are more decimal places in the sub-
trahend than in the minuend place ciphers in the
minuend above them and subtract as before.

9. Division of decimals. Jn this process we do not
pay any attention to the decimal point until the
division is performed, but divide exactly as in whole
numbers. When divisor contains more decimal
places than the dividend annex ciphers to the divi-
dend until the number of decimal places in the divi-
dend equals the number of decimal places in the
divisor before dividing. Now subtract the number
of decimal places in the divisor from the number of
decimal places in the dividend and point off as many
places in the quotient as there are units in the re-
mainder, as shown in the solution of the following
examples:

10, Examples for illustration.

(a). Divide .840 by 30.

(1) (2) (8)
30.).840(.028 Ans.
60

240
240

(1) Divisor.
(2) Dividend.
(3) Quotient.

In this example it was necessary to prefix only
one cipher to 28 (or quotient), because there are
only 3 decimal places in the dividend and none in
the divisor.
NOTATION AND NUMERATION. 225

(b). Divide .00076 by 1.52

(1) (2) (3)
1.52) .000760).0005 Quotient Ans.
760

In this example one cipher was annexed to the
dividend (2) in order that 1.52 could be divided in-
to 76. Now we have 6 decimal places instead of.5

(2) (1)
in the dividend, leaving 6—2—4 decimal places to
be pointed off in the quotient.

(c). Divide 12.336 by .08
08) 12.336 (154.2
8
43
40

33
382

16
16

This example contains more decimal places in the
dividend than in the divisor, therefore one decimal
place is to be pointed off in the quotient,

(d). Divide 320. by .40.
.40)320.00(800. Ans.
320

00
226 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

When the decimal places in the divisor exceed
those in the dividend, annex as many ciphers to the
dividend as will equal the decimal places in the di-
visor, and divide as in whole numbers. The quotient
will be a whole number. In example d we added
2 ciphers to the dividend, giving the same number
of decimal places in both dividend and divisor.

(e). Divide .375 by .016

.015).875 (25, Ans.
30
75
75

When the number of decimal places are the same
in both dividend and divisor, as in example (e), the
quotient is a whole number.

(f). Divide 2666. by 141.

141.) 2666.000 (18.907-+-
141

1256
1128

1280
1269

1100
987

118
When, as in the above example, the division has
been carried on until all of the figures in the divi-
dend have been used, annex ciphers and point off
as many decimal places in the quotient as the deci-
mal places in the dividend exceed those in the di-

 
NOTATION AND NUMERATION. 227

visor. If there is a remainder add the plus sign
(++) after the last figure in the quotient to indicate
that it is not a complete result.
11. To reduce a fraction to a decimal.
(a). 2/5 equals what decimal?
5)2.0(.4.
2.0
(Proof: .4=4/10=2/5)
(b). What decimal is equivalent to 34?
8)3.000(.375
24
60
56
-40
40
(Proof: .875=375/000—=%, )
(c). What decimal equals 4/25?
25)4.00(.16
25
150
150
Proof: .16=16/100—=4/25)

Rule. Annex ciphers to the numerator (the num-
ber above the line) and divide by the denominator
(the number below the line) and point off in the
quotient as many decimal places as ciphers added.

12. To reduce a decimal to a common fraction.

(a). Reduce .525 to a common fraction.

525 25 5 5 5
=, -——1, Ans.
1,000 25 40 40 5

 
228 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

(b). Reduce .75 to a common fraction.
75 = 25

=, Ans.
100-25

(c). Reduce .375 to a common fraction.

375 25 15 15 5
=, —— = Ans,

1,000 95 40 40 5

Rule. Under the figures of the decimal, place one
(1) and annex as many ciphers at the right as there
are decimal places in the decimal. Reduce the re-
sulting fraction to its lowest terms by dividing both
numerator and denominator by a figure which will
divide each of them without a remainder.

 

 

Percentage.

13. There is no business in which a knowledge of
the fundamental principles of percentage is more
necessary than in dairying. In most of the opera-
tions incident to the carrying on of the various
phases of dairying, it is very convenient to know
how to use the decimal or percentage system. In-
stead of using the common fractions as 14, 4, 2/5 or
3/5, it is easier to use 50/100, 25/100, 40/100 and
60/100, or the decimals .50, .25, .40 and .60.

It is easier to compute with numbers having the
denominator of 10 or some power of 10, as 100,
1,000, ete., than it is to use the common fractions.

Percentage is a term applied to those arithmetical
operations in which the number or quantity to be
operated upon is supposed to be divided into 100
equal parts.
NOTATION AND NUMERATION. 229

Per cent means by the hundred. For instance: 5
per cent of a number means 5 hnundreths; that is,
5/100 or .05 of that number; 5 per cent of 240 is
240 5/100, or (240%5)+100=12; 25 per cent of
850 is 850 25/100, or (85025) +100=213.5.

When we say that the overrun of a certain cream-
ery is twenty per cent, we mean that for every 100
pounds of butter fat received, there was made 120
pounds of butter. If the creamery had received 800
pounds of butter fat and obtained an overrun of 20
per cent, the total butter made would be 800 20—
100=160-+-800=-960 pounds of butter.

Solution: 800X20=16,000; 16,0C0-——-100=160 lbs.
overrun; 800-+160=-960 lbs. of butter made.

The sign per cent is “% and is read per cent.
Thus, 8% is read eight per cent, 15144% is read fif-
teen and one-half per cent, ete.

When expressing the per cent of a number to be
used in calculations, it is necessary to express it
decimally instead of fractionally. Thus, instead of
expressing 5%, 20%, 30% as 5/100, 20/100, 30/100,
express them as .05, .20, .30, ete.

The following table will show how per cent can
be expressed :

14. Table No. III. Different ways of expressing
per cent.

Per cent. Decimal. Fraction.
1
1% OL —
100
5
o% .05

100
230

20%

15%

150%

Per cent

To

72Yo

VA%

16 2/3%

6214%

MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

.20

15

1.50

Decimal.

0025

005

015

16 2/3

625

20

100
15

100
150

100

Fraction.

Wy 1
100 400

Ww 1
a0
100 =. 200

w% 3
— or —
100 200
16 2/3
— or 1/6
100

621%

ee ee
100

The names of the different terms used in percent-

age are:

The base, the rate, or rate per cent, the

percentage, the amount and the difference.
Made 960 lbs. of butter from 800 Ibs.

Problem:
of butter fat.

of overrun is 20.
The amount is 960 lbs., total butter made.
The base is 800 lbs., total butter fat received.

The overrun is 160 lbs., the per cent
NOTATION AND NUMERATION. 231

The rate per cent is 160-—800 or 20 per cent.

The percentage is 800.20 or 160 lbs. overrun.

Percentage of overrun must not be confused with
per cent of overrun. Percentage is the result ob-
tained by multiplying the base (800 lbs.) by the
per cent (.20) of overrun.

The per cent of overrun is obtained by dividing
the percentage (160) by the base (800), the total
butter fat.
INDEX TO CHAPTER II.

THE OVERRUN.

Par. No. Page.

15. The overrun in butter making...........-...000. 233
16. Overrun influenced by market demands........... 202
Iv. Definition and explanations ........... 0.0 ce seas 234
(CA) OV ERLUE ysis dea acd Die pucaip carder hw uonalvenend ayen.g a0) Fea 234
(b) Per cent of OVEYTUN ..... cee ee eee eee eee eee 234
(c) Percentage of OVeETTUN ....... ec eee ee ees wees 234
18. Gause of OVerIUN, .icacisinecevewee sec res stevia es 234
19. Variation in overrun in whole milk creameries.... 235
20. Variations in overrun in hand separator cream
CVOCAMCTICS fo sirese ss ahativecassescs aceasta ece arate fs avttenmicceere ae 235
21. True and false overrun. ‘True overrun........... 285
22. Market or false OVeIrun............ cece eee eee oe. 236
23. Overrun based upon market returns............+. 237
24. Overrun based upon composition of butter...... .. 237
25. Wow to find the per cent of butter fat in butter... 238
26. Hand separator cream OVeYTUN............e eee eee 238
27. Comparison of true OVeITUN....... 2. cece ee eee eee 239
28. Market Overruty diccccccsnetyevedsseaa ss ines cas 239
29. Overrun based upon composition of butter. jonas 239
30. Comparison of various OVerruns.............+.00- 240
31. Overrun for a whole milk creamery.............. 241
32. Overrun for a hand separator cream creamery.... 242
33. Overrun on print butter......... 0. cee eee eee 243
384. Tow underreading milk tests affects the results in
butter Making 40 aga ae deo genag sens veedauia ses 244
35. Fixtension of Table No. VI......... Salalensee 38 aba wo. 245
36. TWlow overreading affects the overrun......... sees 245
37. Fffect of underreading cream tests........... wane 246
a8. Table Nos Xo snacccaveccavedavedexss aered owe var 247
39. Butter fat in milk plus one-sixth equals the amount
of butter made ............0.05- sreneadiicedorann dyerees 247
40. Effect of overreading cream testS..............06. 248
43. Continuation of Table XI ....... BSG Suhse sak mace cae . 249
42. Main factors affecting overrun..........-...00. .. 249
CHAPTER II.
The Overrun in Butter Making.

15. The overrun is to creamery butter making
what the water gauge is to a boiler and a steam
gauge to an engine. The amount of overrun a cream-
ery obtains is a true index to its method of manage-
ment. Upon the per cent of overrun obtained rests
the success or failure of any creamery. It is impor-
tant to know the per cent of overrun obtained as
well as to know whether the overrun is a true or a
false one. The creameryman shouid know whether
calculations are based upon the number of pounds
of butter fat received in milk or cream, and whether
the weight of butter from the churn, or the weight
taken from market returns constitutes the basis of
overrun.

16. The overrun. The amount of overrun is in-
fluenced by the composition of the butter made, and
varies according to the variation in the composition
of the butter. The maximum overrun which can be
obtained is governed by established standards of
moisture and butter fat, and is locally influenced by
the demands of commission houses for butter of a
certain composition. In order to be able to demand
a certain overrun from creameries, we must know
what kind of butter their market demands, as well
as what system of cream getting is practiced and
the method of calculation employed.

233
25-t MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

The efficiency of the working of a creamery can-
not be accurately judged by the per cent of overrun
obtained, unless intelligent inquiry has been made
as to-the basis on which the overrun is calculated.

17. Definitions and explanations. (a). The over-
run is the amount of butter made in excess of the
amount of butter fat bought, whether this is in milk
or cream. The amount of butter made in excess of
the butter fat is called overrun because more butter
is made than there is butter fat.

The term ‘‘yield’’ should not be used as meaning
overrun in butter making. This term is properly
applied in cheese making, meaning the amount of
cheese made, either per hundred pounds of milk or
per pounds of butter fat in one hundred pounds of
‘milk.

(b). The per cent of overrun. By the per cent of
overrun we mean the quantity of butter made in
excess of every hundred pounds of butter fat re-
ceived and made into butter. When the overrun is
eighteen per cent, it means that for every one hun-
dred pounds of butter fat, one hundred and eighteen
pounds of butter were made.

(c). Percentage of overrun By percentage of
overrun we mean the quantiy of butter made in
excess of any quantity of butter fat received and
made into butter.

18. Cause of overrun. The overrun is: due to the
incorporation of salt, casein, moisture and other
minor ingredients which enter into the composition
of milk and are retained by the butter in the process
of manufacture. The main factor affecting the
THE OVERRUN. 235

overrun is the variation in the per cent of salt and
moisture present in the butter.

19. Variations in overrun in whole milk cream-
eries. Where whole milk is received, the overrun
is influenced by errors in weighing, in sampling, in
caring for samples, in reading tests, as well as by
spilling milk, by inefficient separating, by not flush-
ing separator bowls, by leaky vats, by lack of at-
tention during pasteurizing, by improper ripening
of cream, by insufficient cooling before churning, by
churning at abnormal temperatures, by churning in
a leaky churn, and by employing improper methods
in washing, salting, working and handling the
butter.

20. Variations in overrun in hand separator cream
creameries. In a hand separator cream creamery
we find all of the above causes affecting the over-
run, except the loss sustained through mistakes in
the separating if milk. In addition to these we
have the spilling of cream during transit (it having
been weighed at the farm by hauler), the taking of
cream from cans on the way to creamery and fay-
oritism shown patrons by hauler taking the sample
of cream before the rinsings have been added and
the cream weighed and recorded.

21. True and false overrun. True overrun. The
only correct or true overrun is the overrun deter-
mined by basing calculations upon the total amount
of butter fat received and the amount of butter
made, according to its weight after being taken from
the churn, packed and weighed. Any losses oceur-
ring later, through the handling or holding of but-
236 MODERN BUYTER MAKING.

ter are termed either avoidable or unavoidable
losses, and do not affect the true overrun, In order
to fully explain the differenee between the true and
false overrun, one problem will be used as a basis
for comparison and will be used in cach case to show
the difference between the two.

Problem: Received in 20,000 lbs. of 4% milk, 800
lbs. of butter fat. From this 975 lbs. butter were
made, What is the true overrun expressed both in
per cent and pereentage Ans. Percentage of over-
run 175 lbs. Per cent of overrun 21.875 per cent.

In figuring the true overrun for both whole milk
and hand separator cream creamerics, 2 per cent
losses are allowed for whole milk creameries and 1
per cent losses are allowed for hand separator cream
creameries on the total butter fat received. Solution
for whole milk cereameries: Butter fat received =
800 Ibs.; butter made = 975 lbs. ; difference — 975—
800175 lbs.; per cent of overrun would be (175+
800) K100-=21.875%.

Percentage of overrun would be: 80021.875~—
100175 lbs. The true overrun is 21.8954.

22. Market overrun. (False overrun.) Overrun
calculations based upon any other basis than the
above standard are called ‘‘false,’’ as, for instance,
when the overrun is based upon the total fat re-
ceived and the market weight of butter sold. From
personal experience, as well as from reports received
from hundreds of creamerics, the losses sustained
in the handling of butter from the time it is taken
from the churn, are assumed to be about 1144 per
cent. When we include the loss of 2 per cent inci-
THE OVERRUN. 237

dent to the handling of the butter fat before and
during churning, the total loss would be about 344
per cent of the total butter fat received in whole
milk. In hand separator cream the loss is about 1
per cent less, except where a number of cream buy-
ing stations or wagon cream routes are connected
with the creamery. In this case the difference be-
tween the total butter fat bought of the patrons and
the butter fat actually recovered in the butter varies
from 2 to 5 per cent of the total butter fat bought.

23. Overrun based upon market returns. To il-
lustrate: Butter fat reeeived = 800 lbs.; butter
made = 975 lbs. Loss sustained = 114% of 975 or
12.1875 lbs. Market return weight == 975—12.1875
or 962.8125 lbs. Market overrun = 962.8125—800
or 162.8125 lbs. (162.8125~800) x 100=20.35+%.

True overrun: 21.875%.

Market overrun: 20.35%.

The difference — 21.875—20.35 or 1.525%.

Another false overrun frequently met with is the
overrun obtained when calculations are based upon
the composition of butter, no allowance being made
for losses sustained at the creamery after churning
or during transit.

24. Overrun based upon composition of butter.
To illustrate. Butter fat received: 800 lbs.; loss at
creamery 2% (8002)—100=16 lbs. looss.

Butter fat recovered in butter: (800—16) or 784
lbs. Butter made: 975 lbs.

Per cent of overrun: 975—784=-191 Ibs. the over-
run in lbs.; 191~+784=.2436 the overrun for each
238 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

pound of buiter fat; and for every 100 lbs. the over-
run is .24386100--24.36%.

Overrun based upon the composition of butter
24.36%.

Market. overrun (Par. 22-23) 20.35%.

True overrun (Par. 21) 21.875%.

Making 975 lbs. of butter from 784 lbs. of actually
recovered butter fat, we get the following composi-
tion: Fat 81.41 per cent, salt 2.70 per cent, casein
1 per cent and moisture 15.89 per cent, making up
the total of 100 per cent.

25. How to find the per cent of butter fat in but-
ter when the amount of butter made, butter fat re-
ceived, and losses at the creamery are known, as
per the given composition.

Butter made is 975 lbs.; butter fat received is
800 lbs.; loss at creamery is 2 per cent.

Butter fat = 800 lbs.; Loss == (800*2)+100—=
16 lbs.

Butter fat in butter is: 800—16 or 784 lbs.

Butter made: 975 lbs.

Per cent butter fat in butter =-(784—-975) « 100==
80.41+%. Ans.

The overrun on butter of such composition as
tabulated below is: 24.36 per cent, based upon the
composition of butter.

Fat 80.41 per cent, salt 2.70 per cent, casein 1 per
cent, water 15.89 per cent. Total 100 per cent.

26. Hand separator cream overrun. Assuming that
butter of the same composition is made as was
made in the foregoing in a whole milk creamery,
the loss at creamery being 1 per cent.
THE OVERRUN. 239

The true overrun: Butter fat received: 800 lbs.;
butter fat in butter made: 80.41%.

(800 1)-—-100=8 lbs. loss; 800—8—792 lbs. fat
made into buiter; (792+80.41) x100=984.94 Ibs.
butter made. Per cent overrun = 984.94—800—=
184.94; (184.4800) x 100—23.12% overrun.

27. Comparison of true overrun.

Whole milk cream overrun: 21.575%.

Hand separator cream overrun: 23.12%.

Difference between the two: 1.245%.

This means that for every 1 per cent of butter fat
saved at the creamery, there is an approximate in-
crease of 1.245 per cent on the overrun, when butter
is made in composition as above illustrated.

28. Market overrun. Hand separator cream.

Problem: Received 800 lbs. butter fat. Made
984.94 lbs. butter. Loss 114 per cent.

(984.94 1144.) +100=12.31 Ibs. loss.

Market return weight=—=984.94—12.31—972.63 lbs.

Per cent overrun-= 972.63-—800=172.63 ; (172.63
+800) X100==21.58%.

29. Overrun based upon composition of butter.

 

Composition.
Butter fat 80.41
Salt 2.70
Casein 1.00
Water 15.89
Total 100.00

Problem: Received 800 lbs. fat which made 984.94
lbs. butter; allowing 1% for mechanical losses.
240 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

Solution: (8001+100==8 Ibs. loss. 800—8=
792 lbs. butter fat in butter. Overrun=984.94—792
==192.94; (192.94--792) x 100=24.36%.

30. Comparison of various overruns.

Whole Milk Cream.
True overrun 21.875%
Market overrun 20.35 %
Composition of butter, overrun 24.36 %

Hand Separator Cream.
True overrun 23.12%
Market overrun 21.58%
Composition of butter, overrun 24.36%

The above overruns are based upon the same
amount of butter fat received in both milk and
cream, and made into butter having the same com-
position. It was assumed that the tests were prop-
erly read.

The composition of butter was: Fat 80.41 per
cent, salt 2.70 per cent, water 15.89 per cent, casein
1.00 per cent. For mechanical losses 2 per cent was
allowed on whole milk cream, and 1 per cent was
allowed on hand separator cream, on every 100 lbs.
of butter fat received. For losses during transit
1, per cent was allowed on whole milk and on hand
separator cream.

Since the overrun is influenced by such a variety
of conditions, and the calculations for determining
it are based upon both true and false standards, it
is not to be wondered at that our practical dairy-
men, as well as others interested in dairying, do not
more clearly understand this phase of the work. In
order 1o more clearly understand the results em-
THE OVERRUN. 241

bodied in monthly statements issued by creameries,
the creamery secretary and the butter maker should
acquaint themselves with the fundamental principles
involved, and the basis upon which the overrun is
determined. Not only should the butter maker and
creamery secretary know how to determine the over-
run intelligently, but instructors and inspectors, who
are supposed to instruct the dairymen, should under-
stand this important part of creamery work. De-
manding a given overrun, which is not in harmony
with honest work, may lead many creamery oper-
ators to under read the test of milk and cream.

31. Overrun for a whole milk creamery. In the
following, Table No. 4, is shown the overrun that
it is possible to get from 800 lbs. of butter fat when
butter made varies in fat content.

Variations in Overrun.
TABLE IV.
Variations in Overrun,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Per cent of fat in butter_._.__.._ 80.41] 81 82 83 84 85
Oreamery loss in per cent--__...-| 2 2 2 2 2 2
Creamery loss in poynds-_-----_-- 16 16 16 16 16 16
Number of Ibs. of butter fat_._| 784 784 784 784 784 784
Number Ibs. of butter made-_-__.] 975 967.9 | 956.09] 944.58) 933.33] 922.35
Per cent of market shrinkage__.| 14 4% my 1% ™% 1%
Pounds of market shrinkage._-_| 12.19) 12.09} 11.94) 11.8 | 11.67] 11.53
Market weight in pounds-_-------- 962.8 | 955.81] 944.05] 931.78] 922.38] 910.82
Per cent overrun on composition .

of butter __--... oeeeeerceiccas| 24,36] 23.46) 21.95] 20.48} 19.05] 17.64
Per cent of market overrun_.-_-.- 20.35{ 19.48} 18.00) 16.47) 16.29] 13.84
Per cent of true overrun--_..---- 21.87+|20.99—] 19.51} 18.07/16.75+4+) 16.29
Per cent of mojsture__._.----.---| 15.89} 15.30} 14.80] 13.80) 12.30] 11.30
Per cent of salt-......-.--------- 2.70] 2.70) 2.70) | 2.70| 2.70) 2.70

 

 

 

 

Per cent of casefn...___.--.-.----- 1 1 | 1 | 1 1 | 1

 
242 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

From the foregoing table it will be noticed that
when a creamery obtains an overrun of 17-18 per
cent, the butter must contain 82 per cent fat, 15 per
cent water, 2.5 per cent salt and 1 per cent casein.
Mechanical losses must not be more than 2.5 percent,
and shrinkage or allowance during transit must not
be more than 1 per cent of the butter manufactured.
As the moisture increases and fat decreases in but-
ter the overrun increases or decreases.

32. Overrun for a hand separator cream creamery.
The following table shows the various overruns that
a creamery can rightly obtain, using 800 lbs. of but-
ter fat as a basis, and making butter which varies
in the per cent of butter fat.

Various Overruns According to Per Cent Fat in
Butter.

TABLE V.
Various Overruns, According Per Cent Fat in Butter.

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Per cent of fat in butter__-- 80.41] 81 82 83 84 85
Per cent of creamery loss.-.--..- 1 1 1 1 1 1
Oe ee ieee ee ees | ae ta
Pounds of butter fat in butter_| 792 792 792 792 792 792
Pounds of butter made--_-----_- 984.94] 977.77| 965.85] 954.21] 942.85] $31.76
Per cent of market shrinkage.--| 14 | 1% | 1% | 1% | 1% | 1%
Pounds of market siridkage.cs- 12.81] 12.22) 12.07} 11,92} 11.78] 11.64
Market weight—pounds ..-...---| 972.63] 965.56] 953.78] 942.29] 931.07/ 920,12
rr ait aaa comermpenge oul 23.45 na 20.48] 19.05) 17.64
Per cent of market overrun_--.. 21.58] 20.69 19.22| 17.78} 16.38] 16.01
Per cent of true overrun_..---.-- 28.12] 22.22) 20.73} 19.27) 17.85] 16.47
Per cent of mofsture_._..__....-- 15.89} 15.30] 1480} 13.80) 12.80] 11.30
Per cent of salt..........-..--.--| 2.70} 2.70} 2.70 2.70] 2.70; 2.70

 

Per cent of casein...

 

1} af{af1 fa

 
THE OVERRUN. 243

When hand separator cream is delivered by pa-
trons themselves; when testing and weighing are
properly done, the overrun should come close to that
indicated in the above table. When cream is bought
through receiving stations the overrun is very often
less than indicated in the foregoing table.

33. In the foregoing tables is found the per cent
of overrun which can rightly be obtained under the
conditions presented. When butter is printed or
moulded direct from the churn, the weight of the
butter then constitutes the basis on which to deter-
mine both the true and the market overrun. In this
case there are no losses between the first weight and
the market weight. Unless butter so put up does
not have full weight, the overrun obtained when
butter is moulded or printed is a trifle less than that
obtained when butter is packed in tubs or boxes.
When butter is printed, we may, for practical pur-
poses, call the market weight the weight for the
true overrun, thus having the true and the market
overrun the same. In print butter there is no dif-
ference made between the creamery and the market
weight.

The overrun is increased or decreased according
as the per cent of salt is increased or decreased,
unless the moisture is decreased or increased ac-
cordingly. The amount of casein is usually about
the same, varying very slightly in butter made from
good, well ripened and properly churned cream. As
a rule the per cent of casein increases as the quality
of the cream changes from good to poor. It can be
244 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

increased considerably by mechanical methods, but
this practice should be discouraged, not only on the
erounds of honesty, but also for the reason that an
inerease of cascin is usually attended by a poorer
quality of butter. Casein should not be considered
a factor in controlling the composition of butter.

34. How under reading milk tests affects results
in buttermaking.

The following table shows how under-reading 4
per cent milk .1 to .5 per cent, when receiving 20,000
lbs. of milk, affeets the overrun.

TABLE VI.

The Following Table Shows How Underreading 4% Milk
1 to 5%, when receiving 20,000 lbs. of Milk

 

 

 

 

« affects the Overrun.
Per cent
20,000 Per cent of in-
bs. of | Butter fat Per of false | crease in
milk in milk Total cent of | Pounds | Per cent | overrun, | overrun,
received | according butter fat butter of of true due ta due to
to various in fatin | butter over- under- under
Tt tests tests butter butter | made run reading reading
4 %| 800 Ibs. | 784]bs. | 80 | 980 | 22.50 | ..... | ....-
3.9% | T80 Ibs. | 784 Ibs. | 80 | 980 | 22.50 | 25.64 3.14

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

3.8% | 760 Ibs. | 784 1bs. | 80 | 980 | 22.50 | 2894 | 6.44
3.7% | 740 Ibs. | 784 Ibs. | 80 | 980 | 22.50 | 32.44 | 9.94
3.6% | 720 Ibs. | 784 Ibs. | 80 | 980 | 22.50 | 36.11 | 13.60
3.5% | 700 lbs. | 784Ibs, | 80 | 980 | 22.50 |

40,00 | 17.50

 

From this table it will be seen that for every .1
per cent of under-reading of the milk test when but-
ter having 80 per cent butter fat is made, the over-
run is increased 3.14 per cent, or an increase of 24.5
pounds of butter on 800 pounds of butter fat.
THE OVERRUN.

35. Extension of Table VI.
TABLE VII.

 

Tocrease in butter lbs.

 

Increase per

Increase in

 

Increase in one
year when
40,000 pounds of

 

ene can ee ee aa ae Ia a
1%= 24.5lbs. | $6125 | $1,887.50 | $ 3,675.
2422 49. Ibs. | 12.25 | 3675. | 7,850.
8%= 73.5 lbs. | 1837+ | 5,511. | 11,022.
A= 98. Ibs, | 24.50 | 7,350. | 14,700.
O%o=122.5 Ibs. | 80.625 | 9,186. | 18,372.

 

If a person is not properly trained in reading
tests, or is not careful in making the tests, it can
easily be seen from the foregoing tables that great
losses can be caused, both to the patrons and share-
holders of a creamery. The lower the test of milk,
the greater is the difference in overrun for every .1
per cent of over or under-reading.

36. How over-reading affects the overrun.

TABLE VIII.
How Overreading Affects the Overrun.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Overread- | Butter fat in | Pounds of | Percent Per cent Per cent
ing test | 20,000 lbs. of butter of true of false of decrease
by .1¢ milk made overruD overrun in overrun
Correct | | | |
test

4 % | 800 Ibs. 980 22.50 cue ll wees
4.1% | 820 Ibs. 980 22.50 1951 | 2.99
4.2% | 840 lbs. 989 22.50 16.67— | 5.83
4.3% | 860 Ibs. 980 22.50 13.95+ | 8.55
4.4% | 880 Ibs. 980 22.50 11.360 | 11.14
4.5% | 900 lbs. 980 22.50 888 | 13.62

 

By reading the test ‘1 per cent tco low, on 4 per
cent milk the overrun is increased 3.14 per cent,
Table VI.; and by reading the test .1 per cent too
high on 4 per cent milk, the overrun is reduced 2.99
246 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

per ecut, Table No. VIII. This shows how easily
the overrun may be reduced by reading the test
while the test is too hot, and how easily it can be
increased by reading the test when it is too cold, or
by ineluding the full meniscus, or by not including
the meniscus in reading milk tests. Not only is the
overrun affected by the above mentioned conditions,
but not infrequently by deliberate over or under-
reading of milk or cream tests.

37. The effect of under-reading cream tests. Table
No. IX. Assuming that 800 Ibs. of butter fat is re-
ceived in 8,200 lbs. of cream testing 25 per cent.
Butter made contains 80 per cent butter fat and the
loss incident to its manufacture is 1 per cent.

TABLE IX.
The Iffect of Underreading Crean Tests.

 

o Per cent

3200 Ibs. Percent | increase
of No. of | Total | Percent of false of

cream | lbs. of | Ibs. of of No, of | Percent | overrun | overrun

butter butter butter | Ibs. of of due to per .5%

Test of| fatin fat in fatin | butter true reduced | reduced
cream | creain butter | butter made |overrun | reading | reading .

 

 

Correct |
test fs

25% 800 792 80 990. | 23.75. | gsees | a nees
24.5% T+ 792 80 990 23.75 | 26.27 2.52
24 % 768 792 80 990 | 23.75 | 28.90 515
23.5% 752 792 80 990 | 23.75 | 31.64 7.89
eh / 736 72 80 990 | 23.75 | 84.51 | 10.76
22.5% 720 792 80 990 | 23.75 | 87.50 | 13.75

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The above table shows that for every .5 per cent
reduction in reading 25 per cent cream, the overrun
is increased by about 2.7 per cent. The higher the
cream tests are, the less is the increase in overrun
due to reduced reading.
THE OVERRUN. 247
38. Table No. X., continuation of table No. IX.
Showing increase in lbs. and value at 25c per lb.

TABLE X.

Continuation of Above Tuble No. IX. Showing Increase in
lbs. and Value at 25 cents per 1b.

 

 

 

 

 

Butter lbs. in- Value when
Readings re- | crease due Value at Value during | 6400 lbs. is re-
duced from to reduced 25c per 1b, one year of |ceived daily for

.o% to 2.5% |reading daily daily 300 days one year
5% | 198 | $495 | $1,485. $ 2,970
1% | 3896 | 980 | 2,940. 5,880
1.5% | 59.4 | 1485 | 4,455. 8,910
2. % | 79.2 | 19.80 ! 5,940. 11,880
25% | 99 | 2475 | 7,425. 14,850

 

 

That great care should be exercised at cream buy-
ing stations is clearly shown in the foregoing tables.
The amount of butter fat bought should check up to
within 2 per cent of the amount found to be in the
cream when tested at the central station. When
cream is bought at a receiving station the overrun
is very likely to be from 2 per cent to 214 per cent,
or even 4 per cent less than when cream is delivered
directly to the creamery.

39. Butter fat in milk plus one-sixth equals the
amount of butter made.

The approximate amount of butter which can be
made from any given number of pounds of butter
fat is found by adding one-sixth of itself to the num-
ber of pounds of butter fat. This is true when but-
ter having about 8214 per cent butter fat is made.
This was agreed upon by the Association of Ameri-
ean Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations
at their ninth annual convention.
248 MODERN BUTTER MAKING,

The amount of butter which can be made from
any given amount of butter fat also depends largely
upon the skill of the operator and upon the compo-
sition of the butter made; therefore the results ob-
tained may be either higher or lower than results
given in the preceding pages.

The per cent of overrun is no true indication of
the composition of butter, nor is the composition
of butter a true indication of the per cent of over-
run.

40. The effect of overreading cream tests. Assum-
ing that 800 lbs. of butter fat are received in 3,200
lbs. of cream testing 25 per cent. Butter made con-
tains 80 per cent butter fat. Loss incident to manu-
facture is 1 per cent.

TABLE XI.
The Effect of Overreading Cream Tests.

 

 

3200 Ibs. Per cent Percent
of No, of Total | Per cent of false of
cream lbs. lbs. of of No. of | overrun, |Percent| reduc-

butter | butter butter Ibs. of | due to of tion of
Test of | fat in fatin | fat in | butter | over- true * | overrun

cream cream | butter butter made | reading joverrun| by 5%

 

Correct
test

25 % 800 792 80 990 | ..... | 23.75 | ....-
25.5% 816 792 80 990 | 21.32 | 23.75 | 2.43
26 % 832 792 80 990 | 18.97 | 23.75 | 4.78
26.5% 848 792 80 990 | 16.74 | 23.75 7.01
27 % 864 792 80 990 | 14.58 | 23.75 | 9.17
27.5% 880 792 80 990 | 12.50 | 23.75 | 11.25

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

In the foregoing table we find that for every .5 per
eent overreading the overrun is reduced about 2.43
per cent and grows slightly less for every .5 per cent
as the cream increases in richness of butter fat.
THE OVERRUN. 249

41. Continuation of table XI. showing a decrease
in overrun in pounds of butter made, and the
amount of loss at 25c per pound, when 3,200 Ibs. of
25 per cent cream is read too high as in the preced-
ing table.

 

 

 

TABLE XII.

Decrease in Ibs. of r Loss per year
butter per .5 per cent when 40,000 lbs.
overreadiug of cream Daily loss at Loss per year of milk are

tests daily 25c per lb. of 300 days received daily
5%= 20 Ibs. $ 5.00 $1,500 $ 3,000

1. %= 40 Ibs. 10.00 3,000 6,000

1.5%= 60 lbs. 15.00 | 4,500 9,000

2. %= 80 Ibs. 20.00 | 6,000 12,000

2.5%=100 Ibs. 25.00 | 7,500 15,000

 

 

 

The necessity of proper training for operating the
Babeock test is again emphasized by the results pre-
sented in the foregoing tables. When we consider
the foregoing chapter in its broadest sense it be-
comes evident that more and better training are ne-
cessary for the creamery operator, as well as better
laws pertaining to this phase of the dairy industry.
This is necessary for the protection of those who
wish to perform their work honestly amidst unscru-
pulous persons. Taking a Dairy School course is
undoubtedly the best way of gaining the knowledge
necessary for properly performing all the operations
necessary for the handling of the Babcock test.

42. Main factors affecting the overrun.

(a) Factors causing an increase in overrun:
1. Under-reading cream or milk tests.
2. Reading tests when too cold.

3. Not whirling test bottles long enough.
250

COA HD AE

10.
TA.
12.
13.

MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

. Short weight of test samples.

Reducing the per cent of fat in butter.
Increasing the per cent of moisture in butter.

. Increasing the per cent of casein in butter.
. Reducing losses to a minimum.

Giving short milk or cream weights.
Churning at high temperatures.
Working butter in wash water.
Washing butter with warm water.
Overworking butter in water when soft.

(b) Factors causing a decrease in overrun:

1.

10.

very
11

SHOranpwn

Overreading cream or milk tests.

Reading tests when sample is too hot.
Black specks and flocules in sample tested.
Overweight of test sample.

Too high per cent of fat in butter.

. Too dry butter.

. Decreasing the per cent of casein.

Spilling milk or cream or using a leaky churn.
Giving over weight in milk or cream.

Churning very cold cream and_ washing in
cold water.

Working hard butter at intervals instead of

continuously until done.

12.

salt.

13.

Draining butter too dry and adding cold, dry

Adding salt to cream or wash water,
alver VULLEI 1s maae.

1. Dropping small pieces of butter during pack-
ing.

2. Allowing butter to stick to churn, ladles and
printers.

3. Leaky butter, losing water during handling
and transit.

4, Repacking hardened butter.

5. Allowing butter to harden in churn before
packing.

6. Incorrect weighing of butter when packed.
INDEX TO CHAPTER III.

STANDARDIZATION OF MILK AND CREAM AND
BUTTER FAT VALUES.

Par. No. Page.
43, Correct stundardization oo... 0... cece eee eee a
44, EBxte@nt Of JOSS8eS) ou cee n ere ee ee ae eee 254
4D: TGOS8eS: OM. CTENIM. vias wey aie geste as Sasey ee Braud arerensperea se 255
46. Problems in standardization.............. 0.00005 257
47. When whole milk is used..... Fie duccdgs std eases MGeMo uta eee LOD
48. Standardizing whole milk ........... 0... ee eee ae 263
49. How to use viscogen as a thickening agent....... 265
50. <A few suggestions on the use of viscogen in com-
INERCIA CREAT so sb weeds bee scar heverdon Bue Geta ecmuaindoa 266
51. Butter fat values ...... 0... cee eee e eee 266
52. Problems with explanations ........... 00.0 cee eee 268
58. Comparative valueS 2.0... . ccc eee ec eee ee eeee 269
54. The value of butter fat in cream..............0.. 270
CHAPTER III.

Standardization of Milk and Cream and Butter Fat
Values.

(a) Standardization of milk and cream.

43. Correct standardization of milk and cream is
without doubt a very important factor in the suc-
cessful handling of these products. The butter fat—
the least variable constituent of milk—is the most
valuable, hence the necessity of knowing accurately
the per cent of butter fat contained in milk and
cream,

Many instances are known of milk being sold con-
taining much more butter fat than the price received
for it would warrant without sustaining losses. On
the other hand, without testing or standardizing
milk, it is sometimes sold containing less butter fat
than the legal standard. When the butter fat con-
tent is too low the consumer is the loser, and the sale
of such milk is illegal; when the butter fat content
is too high, the dealer is the loser.

Where the milk is bought for a certain considera-
tion per hundred pounds, or by the fat content,
based upon the Babcock test, and part of it is sold in
the form of cream, the necessity of knowing the ex-
act fat content is important. In many instances this
milk is run through a separator with the machine so
adjusted as to skim about the desired per cent of fat.
Even with the milk uniformly heated, the speed reg-
ular, and the same rate of inflow, a great variation
in the fat content of cream will be noticed. Even

258
254 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

when all conditions are exactly the same there is
always a Httle difference in the fat content of the
cream. With some kinds of separators this varia-
tion in fat content is not nearly so great as with
others, but the variation is always great enough to
make it impossible to go by guess work and thereby
ineur losses which might be avoided by a little math-
ematical calculation. When once the general milk
dealer becomes conscious of the fact that his com-
petitor, by adopting the Babcock test, a method of
standardization, and up-to-date dairy machinery
makes greater profits in his line of work, he will not
fail to learn and adopt methods which will put him
on the same basis as his neighbor. Where milk and
cream are bought only on the.butter fat basis, they
certainly must be sold on the same basis in order
to avoid losses to the dealer, or cheating the con-
sumers.

44, The extent to which losses may be incurred
by buying on the butter fat basis and selling by
weight or measure may readily be seen by the fol-
lowing: A milk and cream establishment receives
about 20,000 pounds of milk per day, testing 4.5 per
cent of butter fat. This milk, at an average price
of 20c per pound of butter fat, would cost $180,
figured as follows. 20,000 pounds of 4.5 per cent
100=-900 Ibs. of butter fat, which, at 20c, would be
$180. One-half of this 20,000 pounds of milk is sold
as milk. Under contract the milk should contain
3.8 per cent of butter fat; but when sold containing
4.5 per cent instead of 3.8 per cent the loss sustained
by the dealer would be 4.5 per cent—3.8 or .7 per
STANDARDIZATION OF CREAM. 255

cent, or 70 lbs. of butter fat. Seventy pounds of
butter fat at 20c a pound equals $14 loss each day
on 10,000 Ibs. of milk.

45. The other 10,000 lbs. of milk is separated and
sold in the form of cream at 20c a quart. The sepa-
rator is adjusted so as to skim cream testing 20 per
cent, but instead of skimming a 20 per cent cream,
it skims a cream which tests 22 per cent. The loss
in this case at 20e a quart would be as follows: The
total fat in the cream is 450 Ibs. 450-20 per cent
100=2,250 lbs. of 20 per cent cream. The number
of pounds of 22 per cent cream would be 450-22
100, or 2,045. The difference would be 2,250—2,045
or 205 lbs. of cream. This would equal about 96
quarts, which, at 20c a quart, amounts to $19.20.
The loss per day is—-on the milk $14, on the cream,
$19.20, making a total loss of $33.20. On 300 work-
ing days per year this would amount to a loss of
$9,960.

Suppose such a sized plant employs 15 men at an
average wage of $60 per month. These losses alone
would practically pay all but one of these men.

Before actually figuring it out the variation in the
fat content seems unimportant, but the above ecaleu-
lation shows that it amounts to rather a snug sum
inayear. And in 20 years it would amount to
$199,200—a handsome sum, indeed, and enough to
make even two partners feel comfortable and look
cheerfully toward coming old age.

This illustration bears out the statement that great
losses can be ineurred by buying milk on the basis
of the butter fat content and selling by weight or
256 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

measure without regard to the fat content. In order
to do justice to both the dealer and the consumer,
milk should be bought and sold on the basis of the
butter fat content. A butcher would not sell the
different cuts of meat for the same price, nor would
a miller sell fancy flour for the same price as the
poorer grades. But does the average milk dealer
ever think of selling milk and cream on an accurate
butter fat basis? Many consumers of milk and cream
do not know any difference between rich and poor
cream, and the expression ‘‘pure cream’’ usually
conveys the meaning of a rich, heavy cream with a
high per cent of butter fat.

I am personally acquainted with some dealers and
have a knowledge of their methods of handling milk
and cream. The milk is separated and the richness
of the cream regulated by the cream screw; the
cream at limes varies from 2 to 3 per cent of that
desired by the dealcr. From the methods generally
employed in handling milk and preparing it for the
market, it seems that a method by which milk and
eream can be easily and accurately made to test the

- desired per cent of butter fat is indispensable. This
is known as standardization. Standardization, as
applied to milk and cream, is a process by which
skim milk can be extracted from or added to milk
or cream, or whole milk or cream can be added to
milk or cream to raise or lower the per cent of but-
ter fat to the desired standard.

The following problems with rules and analyses
will show the methods which may be employed in
standardizing milk and cream:
STANDARDIZATION OF CREAM. 257

46. Problems in standardization of milk and cream.

1. When cream is too low in per cent of fat.

Rule I. Subtract the per cent of fat in the cream
to be raised to a higher per cent from the desired
per cent.

Rule II. Subtract the desired per cent of fat
from the per cent of fat in the cream to be used to
add to the cream; divide the first difference by the
second difference and multiply the quotient by the
number of pounds of thin cream to be raised to a
higher per cent of fat. The result is the number of
pounds of higher testing cream to be added to the
thin cream to be raised to a higher per cent of fat.
The total cream would be obtained by adding the
number of pounds of rich cream to the number of
pounds of thin cream.

Problem: 1,000 lbs. of 25 per cent testing cream
is to be raised to 40 per cent with cream testing 50
per cent butter fat. Find how many pounds of the
50 per cent cream must be added to the 25 per cent
cream to make it test 40 per cent.

Solution: 40 per cent—25 per cent—15 per cent.
15+10=1.5. 50 per cent—40 per cent—10 per cent.
1,000 1.5=1,500 Ibs., the number of pounds of 50
per cent cream to be added to 25 per cent cream to
raise it to 40 per cent.

One thousand pounds plus 1,500=2,500 pounds=
the whole amount of cream testing 40 per cent.

Proof: 1,000 lbs.X25 per cent—250 lbs. of butter
fat; 1,500 lbs. 50 per cent=750 Ibs. of butter fat;
750 plus 250=1,000 lbs., total butter fat; 2,500 lbs.
<40 per cent==1,000 lbs.
258 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

2. When cream is too high in per cent of fat.

Rule I. From the test of the rich cream subtract
the test of the desired cream.

Rule II. Subtract the test of the thin cream to be
added to dilute rich cream, from the desired test.
Divide the first difference by the second and multi-
ply the quotient by the number of pounds of rich
cream to be lowered, and the result will be the num-
ber of pounds of thin cream to be added to the rich
cream to reduce it to the desired test. The total
number of pounds of cream may be found by adding
the number of pounds of thin cream to the number
of pounds of rich cream.

Problem: 1,000 lbs. of 50 per cent testing cream
is to be diluted to 40 per cent with cream testing 25
per cent. How many pounds of 25 per cent must be
added to give the desired test?

Solution: 50 per cent—40 per cent—10 per cent.
10 per cent--15=.66666 plus. 40 per cent—25 per
cent—15 per cent. 1,000 .66666—666.66 plus
pounds. 666.66—the number of pounds of thin
cream to be added to reduce the heavy cream to 40
per cent. Total cream equals 1,000 Ibs. plus 666.66
pounds or 1,666.66-+ Ibs.

Proof: 1,000 Ibs.x50 per cent=500 lbs. of fat in
1,000 Ibs. of 50 per cent cream.

666.66 lbs. X25 per cent=166.66 lbs. of fat in
666.66 lbs. of 25 per cent cream.

500-++166.66==666.66, total pounds of fat in cream.

3. When a definite number of pounds of cream of
a certain richness is wanted and cream or milk of
less butter fat content is on hand, to find the ratio
STANDARDIZATION OF CREAM. 259

of number of pounds of the two kinds to mix to-
gether to reduce the richer cream to the butter fat
content desired:

Rule I. Subtract the per cent of fat in the cream
to be used to add to heavy cream to dilute it from
the desired test.

Rule II. Subtract the per cent of thin cream
from the test of the rich cream and divide the re-
_ mainder into the result obtained in the first subtrac-
tion. Multiply the quotient by 100 and the result
will be the per cent of the rich cream to be used in
standardizing the cream.

Problem. How many pounds each of 50 per cent
and 25 per cent cream must be mixed together to
produce 1,000 lbs. of cream testing 40 per cent.

Solution:

40 per cent—25 per cent=15 per cent.

15 per cent+25 per cent=—.6 per cent.

50 per cent—25 per cent==25 per cent.

.6X100—60 per cent, the per cent of 50 per cent
cream to be used for the standardization of cream.
1,000 Ibs. of 40 per cent is wanted. Sixty per cent
of 1,000 lbs. equals 600. lbs., the number of pounds
of 50 per cent cream necessary. 40 per cent of the
25 per cent crcam is to be added to the rich cream
to reduce the test to 40 per cent.

Proof: 1,000 lbs. of 40 per cent cream=400 lbs.
butter fat.

60 per cent of 1,000 Ibs.=600 Ibs. of 50 per cent
cream to be used.

40 per cent of 1,000 lbs.=400 lbs. of 25 per cent
cream to be used.
260 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

600 Ibs. of 50 per cent cream—800 lbs. butter fat.
400 Ibs. of 25 per cent cream=100 lbs. butter fat.
400 lbs. total butter fat.

4. To find the ratio of the number of pounds of
cream and skim-milk to be mixed to give a definite
quantity of a definite richness:

Rule I. Determine the quantity of fat in the de-
sired cream by multiplying the number of pounds of
cream wanted by the desired test and dividing the
results by 100.

Rule II. Divide the number of pounds of butter
fat by the test of the cream on land for use in
standardizing, and multiply the quotient by 100.
The result will give the number of pounds of cream
to be used. The difference between the amount of
eream desired and the amount of rich cream to be
used will be the amount of skim milk to be added
to the rich cream to produce the desired test.

Problem: 600 lbs. of 30 per cent cream is wanted.
Tlaving cream on hand testing 40 per cent, and skim-
milk, find how many pounds of each are needed to
produce 600 lbs. of 30 per cent cream.

Solution: 600 lbs.x30 per cent+100—180 lbs. w
butter fat in the quantity of cream desired.

180 lbs.+40 per cent 100450 lbs. of 40 per cent
cream to be used. 600 lbs.—450 Ibs==150 lbs. of
skim milk to be mixed with cream to reduce it to 30
per cent cream. 450 Ibs. plus 150 1bs.—600 lbs. of
cream testing 30 per cent.

Proof: Butter fat in cream desired is (60030)
100180 lbs. Butter fat in mixture of 40 per cent
eream and skim-milk is (450*40)—100-==180 Ibs.
STANDARDIZATION OF CREAM. 261

Butter fat in skim-milk none. The butter fat in the
desired cream and in the mixture are the same;
therefore calculations are correct. ;

In order to prove whether the calculations have
been correctly made, determine the fat in the two
mixtures, and the fat in the desired cream. If calcu-
lations have been correctly made, both results
should be the same.

5. Three different methods which may be used
to reduce the per cent of butter fat by adding skim-
milk.

(a) Rule I. Multiply the number of lbs. of cream
to be diluted by the per cent of butter fat contained
in the same, divide the product by 100. The quotient
should then be multiplied by 100 and divided by the
desired test. The difference between this result and
the original amount of cream is the quantity of skim-
milk to be added.

Problem: 1,000 lbs. of cream testing 30 per cent
butter fat is to be reduced to 25 per cent by adding
skim-milk. How many pounds of skim-milk must
be added?

Solution:

1,000 30

——_—=-300 lbs. butter fat in 1,000 lbs. 30 per

100
cent cream.

300 100
——_—_—1,200 lbs., total cream having the de-

sired per cent of butter fat.

1,200—1,000=-200 Ibs. of skim-milk to be added to
the original cream to reduce it to 25 per cent cream.
262 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

(b) Rule II. Multiply the difference between the
test of the original cream by the number of lbs. of
cream and divide the product by 100. Divide the
result by the desired test, multiply the quotient by
100 and the result will be the number of pounds of
skim-milk to be added to the cream to reduce the fat
to the desired per cent.

Problem: 1,000 Ibs. of cream testing 30 per cent
is to be reduced to 25 per cent by adding skim milk.
Tow many pounds of skim-milk must be added?

Solution:
380—25—5

1,000 5=5,000.
5,000-—-100—=50.
50-+25—2.

2100=lbs. of skim-milk to be added to 1,000 lbs.
of 30 per cent cream to reduce it to 25 per cent.

(c) Rule III. Multiply the number of pounds of
cream to be diluted by the per cent of butter fat in
the same and divide the product by the desired test.
Find the difference between the quotient and the
number of pounds of skim-milk to be added.

Problem: 1,000 lbs. of cream testing 30 per eent
is to be reduced to 25 per cent by adding skim-milk.
How many pounds of skim-milk must be added? ~-

Solution:

301,000
——1,200, total pounds of cream, having

 

25
the desired test.
1,200—1,000==200 Ibs. of skim-milk, to be added.
STANDARDIZATION OF CREAM. 263

47. When whole milk is used instead of skim-milk.

The following rule and problem will illustrate the
methods employed when whole milk is used instead
of skim-milk for diluting cream:

Rule III. Divide the difference between the test
of the original cream and the desired test, by the
difference between the desired test and the test of
the milk to be used, and multiply the quotient by
100..

Problem: 1,000 Ibs. of cream testing 30 per cent
is to be reduced to 25 per cent by the addition of
whole milk. How many pounds of milk testing 4
per cent must be added to give the desired test?

Solution:

380—25=5; 254-21; 5+21—.238 lbs. of 4%
milk to be added to every one lb. of 30% testing
eream. To 1,000 lbs. 30% cream must be added
.238X 1.000238 lbs. 4% testing milk.

48. Standardizing whole milk.

The principles involved in the foregoing problems
may also be applied in standardizing milk, except
eases where skim-milk or cream is to be extracted.
A few problems will be sufficient to show the meth-
ods which can be employed.

The following rule may be employed when the
milk is too low in per cent of butter fat and it is
necessary to determine how many pounds of skim-
milk must be extracted to produce the desired per
eent of butter fat in the milk.

(a) Rule: Divide the per cent of butter fat in the
milk by the per cent of butter fat desired; multiply
the quotient by the original amount of milk and the
264 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

result will be the number of pounds of milk testing
the desired per cent. The difference between this
result and the original amount of milk will be the
quantity of skim-milk to be extracted.

Problem: 2,000 lbs. of milk testing 3.5 per cent of
butter fat is to be made to test 4 per cent. How
many pounds of skim-milk must be extracted?

Solution:

3.5-+4=.875.

2,000 .875=1,750 lbs. of milk testing 4%.

2,000—1,750==250 lbs. of skimmilk to be extracted.

(b) When skim-milk is used to lower fat in milk.

When reducing the fat content in milk by adding
skim-milk, the following rule may be used:

Rule: Multiply the milk by its per cent of butter
fat, divide the product by the desired per cent of
butter fat, multiply the quotient by 100 and the pro-
duct will be the total amount of milk with the de-
sired test. The difference between the original
quantity and the total quantity will give the number
of pounds of skim-milk to be added to produce the
desired per cent of butter fat.

Problem: 5,000 lbs. of milk testing 4.5 per cent
is to be reduced to 3.8 per cent butter fat. How
many pounds of skim-milk must be added to reduce
the test to 3.8 per cent of butter fat?

Solution:
5,000 4.5==225 lbs. fat in milk.
225~3.8—59.21.

59.21 100=-5,921.
5,921—5,000—921 Ibs. of skim-milk to be added to
5,000 Ibs. of 4.5% milk to reduce the test to 3.8%.
STANDARDIZATION OF CREAM. 265

The following solution of this problem may also
be used: 4.5+3.85,000=5,921 Ilbs., the total
amount of milk testing 3.8 per cent butter fat.

5,921—5,000=-921, the whole amount of skim-milk
added to reduce the test to 3.8%.

These few problems will probably show that stand-
ardization is not too complicated to be made use of
in every cream and milk plant, where milk or cream
of different richness is mixed and in this manner
the per cent of butter fat is raised or lowered. Its
economical and commercial advantages can not be
questioned; and since we are legally and morally
bound not to take advantage of the public, its use
seems to be indispensable. The simplicity with
which the desired richness may be calculated is ob-
vious.

49. How to use viscogen as a thickening agent.

Where viscogen is employed as a thickening agent,
the following rule will help to simplify the work:

Rule: Multiply the amount of cream to be treated
with viscogen by two-thirds of the number of cubic
centimeters used to neutralize the acidity in one
pound of cream. The product divided by 950 cubic
centimeters (the number of ¢.c. in one quart) will
equal the number of quarts of viscogen to be added
to the cream to be treated.

Problem: If 6 cubic centimeters of viscogen will
neutralize the acidity in one pound of cream, how
many quarts of viscogen must be added to 800 lbs.
of cream?

Solution: Six c. c. of viscogen will neutralize
acidity in one pound of cream.
266 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

2/3 of 6 c. c=4 c. ce. the quantity of viscogen to
be added to one pound of cream.

800 lbs. X4==3,200, total number of cubic centime-
ters of viscogen to be added to 800 lbs. of cream.

3,200 lbs.+-950==3.3 plus, the number of quarts of
viscogen to be added to cream.

50. A few suggestions on the use of viscogen in
commercial cream.

The use of viscogen as a thickening agent has both
advantages and disadvantages. Great care should
be exercised in its use, which must always be regu-
lated according to the condition of the cream. When
too much is used, the cream has a disagreeable, dis-
gusting flavor and aroma, and when such cream gets
a little old, it is nothing short of rotten. There is
no other defect in cream, whatever its source, which
equals the rank flavor caused by too much viscogen.
In practice it is well to use only one half the quan-
tity necessary to neutralize the acidity of cream.
When cream is very sweet, having an acidity of .1
per cent, it is well to add only 1/3 of the quantity
necessary to neutralize the acidity of the cream.
The poorer the cream and the higher its acidity, the
greater is the quantity of visecogen which may be
added to it. When viscogen is properly used, it
serves a very good purpose and where its use is al-
lowed by law it is desirable to use it.

(b) Butter fat values.
51. Next to the values of standardization of milk

and cream for city supply is the process of ascer-
taining the relative value of butter fat in milk when
STANDARDIZATION OF. CREAM. 267

sold in the form of milk, cream and butter at retail
prices, as compared with the wholesale butter fat
value of milk.

In the following the cost of manufacture and the
expenses incident to selling the product will not be
considered, the aim being to point out the possible
value of butter fat as sold in different products.

Cream or milk is usually sold both by measure and
weight. The weight of cream varies according to its
fat content. Pure butter fat has a specific gravity
of .9 against 1, the specific gravity of water; conse-
quently the richer the cream the lighter it is, and
the thinner it is the heavier it is. Generally speak-
ing the cream usually put upon the market weighs
about 8.3 lbs. per gallon. Cream containing from
18 to 22 per cent butter fat weighs a little more than
this, while cream testing from 25 to 40 per cent
weighs a little less per gallon. Milk does not vary
in weight to any appreciable amount, therefore, no
difference in weight of milk of different richness is
made. /

The explanation of a few problems is necessary in
order to illustrate methods that may be used in de-
termining the approximate amount of butter which
can be made from a given quantity of milk and the
possible value of the butter fat when sold in the
form of butter, cream and milk; these problems to
be based upon an assumed retail price. Problems
are also necessary to show the amount of butter fat
in a quart or a gallon of cream of any richness and
the price of cream according to the price of butter
fat.
268 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

52. Problems with explanations.

I. Find the quantity of butter which may be made
from 5,000 lbs. of milk testing 4 per cent butter fat;
also find the value of butter when the selling price
is 22¢ a pound. §

Rule: Multiply the amount of milk by its test, in-
erease the product by 1/6 of itself and multiply the
sum by the price per pound.

Solution:

5,000 Ibs. .04==200 lbs. butter fat.

200 lbs.x1/6=33 1/3 Ibs. increase or overrun.

200 lbs.+33 1/3 lbs.=233 1/3 lbs. of butter made.

233 1/ Ibs. K 22c==$51.33, value of butter.

Problem II. Find the value of the butter fat in
5,000 Ibs. of 4 per cent milk when sold in the form
of cream at the following prices: 20% cream at 20e,
24% cream at 25¢e per quart and 30 per cent cream
at 35e per quart. The weight of cream per gallon
being as follows: 20% cream, about 8.4 lbs.; 24%
cream, 8.3 lbs; 30% cream, 8.3 lbs.

Rule: Multiply test of cream by the weight per
gallon and multiply the amount of milk by its test;
divide the latter by the former and multiply the
quotient by the price per gallon.

Solution (1). To find the value of milk when 20
per cent cream sells for 80c per gallon or 20c per
quart:

20% XK 8.4=168-+100—=1.68 Ibs. butter fat in 1 gal-
lon of cream.

5,000 .04—=200 Ibs. butter fat.

2001.68 100119 gallons of 20% cream.

11980 cents=$95.20, value of 5,000 lbs. of milk.
STANDARDIZATION OF CREAM. 269

Solution (2). To find the value of the milk when
24 per cent cream is sold for 25c per quart or $1 per
gallon.

24% X8.3=199.2.

5,000 lbs. x.04==200 Ibs. butter fat in milk.

199.2—100=1.99 plus Ibs. butter fat in 1 gallon of
eream.

200--1.99><100=100.5 gallons of 24% cream.

100.5 < $1.00==$100.50, value of 5,000 Ibs. of milk.

Solution (3). To find the value of the milk when
30 per cent cream is sold for 35c per quart or $1.40
per gallon.

380% K 8.3==249.

5,000 x .04==200 Ibs. butter fat in milk.

249—100—2.49 lbs. of fat in 1 gallon of cream.

200—100—80.4 gallons of 30% cream.

80.4 1.40=$112.56, value of 5,000 Ibs. of milk.

If 5,000 lbs. of 4% milk were sold in the form of
milk we find the values to be as follows:

5,000 Ibs. milk~8.5 lbs. (weight of 1 gallon)=
588.2 gallons.

588.220 cents=$117.64, value of milk.

53 Comparative values.

When sold as butter at 22c per lb., value....$ 51.33
When sold as 20% cream at 80c per gallon,

VAIUG + aia cutie eRe Bheee awed wawls 95.20
When sold as 24% cream at $1.00 per gallon,

Vale goistakey sia enidieu spine ese 100.50
When sold as 30% cream at $1.40 per gallon,

Wale tides ee lee ear oats 112.56
When sold as milk at 20e per gallon, value.. 117.64
270 MODERN BUTTER MAKING,

From the table it will readily be seen that milk
when sold in the form of milk has the highest market
value. However, we must also consider that in mar-
keting milk there are many expenses. There are
losses in selling, and when the bottling system is
used there is additional expense of this process,
together with the loss from breakage of bottles, ete.
The washing and sterilizing of the bottles is also an
item which must not be overlooked. When cream
is the main article sold in a city milk supply plant,
and some butter is made, the buttermilk and skim-
milk can in many cases be disposed of to great ad-
vantage. The skim-milk ean be made into cottage
cheese and the buttermilk sold cither plain or
creamed. There is sometimes quite a demand for
creamed buttermilk, especially during the summer
months.

64, To find the value cf a pound of butter fat when
cream sells at 25c per quart or $1 per gallon proceed
as follows: Multiply the test of the cream by the
weight per gallon and divide the product by 100.
Divide the price per gallon by this quotient and the
result will be the price of 1 lb. of butter fat. 24x
8.3==1.99 Ibs. fat in 1 gallon of 24% cream. $1.00
1.99==50¢, price per pound of butter fat.
INDEX TO CHAPTER IV.

PROBLEMS RELATING TO THE RECEIVING AND
: SEPARATING OF MILK.

Par. No. Page.

55. Find the amount of butter fat in milk........... 273
56. Find butter fat losses in skim milk.............. 274
57. Find per-cent of cream from milk................ 215
58. Find per cent of cream from milk when other fac-
TOUS OTE: NOW wancje tevin aaa tiwe an dee varhaents 275
59. Find amount of cream from milk................ 276
60. Find amount of cream when other factors are
ENOMUL 5 4. ss Wa S MES OME ee Ged draenei Bee 277
61. Find amount,of cream, butter fat losses 14%.... 278
62. Find skim milk lbs. from any quaantity of milk.. 279
63. Find approximate test of cream.............0..05 286
64. Find approximate average test of skim milk..... 281
65. Table of relative loss in skim milk............... 282
66.. Promiscuous problems ............. 0c cece eee eee 283
B. Problems Pertaining to Cream Ripening.
67. Find lbs. of starter to add to cream............. 285
68. WKnowing per cent of starter added, find Ibs....... 286
69. Find per cent of starter added to cream.......... 286
70. Find acidity of cream after adding starter....... 288
71. Find acidity of cream before diluting............ 289
72. Promiscuous problems ......... 0 cece e eee ee eee 290
73. Problems bearing on the manufacture of butter... 291
74. Find per cent of fat in buttermilk............... 292
75. Pounds of butter that can be made.............. 293
76. Find per cent of fat and moisture in butter...... 294
T¢. PYOMUISCUOUS PYODICNIS 2c c4 cake eee wend iaased aes 205
CHAPTER IV.

Problems Relating to the Receiving and Separating
of Milk.

55. To find the amount of butter fat in milk.

Problem: How many pounds of butter fat are
there in 30,000 pounds of milk testing 4 per cent?

Rule. Multiply the number of pounds of milk by
its test, and divide the result by 100. This will give
the number of pounds of butter fat in the milk.

Solution. 30,000. 4=120,000.: 120,000.+100—=
1,200. lbs.

Explanation: Every 100 Ibs. of milk contains 4
per cent, .04 or 4/100 of butter fat. When every
hundred pounds of milk contains four pounds of
butter fat, there will be as many pounds of butter
fat in 30,000 Ibs. of milk as 100 is contained in
(30,0004) or 1,200 lbs.

Problems for Practice.

(1.) How many pounds of butter fat in:
8,000 lbs. of milk testing 4 %?
Ans. 320. Ibs.
(2). 10,500 Ibs. of milk testing 3.5%?
Ans. 367.5 lbs.
(3). 18,750 lbs. of milk testing 3.9%?
Ans. 731.25 lbs.
(4). 50,000 Ibs. of milk testing 3.8% ?
Ans. 1,900: Ibs.
(5). 100,000 lbs. of milk testing 4.1%?
Ans. 4,100. Ibs.
2738
274 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

56. To find butter fat losses in skim milk.

Problem: How much butter fat is lost in 25,000
lbs. of skim milk testing .09 per cent?

Rule: Multiply the skim milk pounds by its test,
divide the result by 100 and point off as per rules
5 and 9.

Solution: 25,000 .09==2,250; 2,250--100=22.5
lbs. Ans.

Explanation: Every 100 lbs. of skim milk con-
tains .0009 or 9/10,000 or .09 per cent butter fat. If
every 100 lbs. skim milk contains .09 per cent but-
ter fat, then 25,000. lbs. will contain 25,000.09%
or 2,250.00. Dividing this by 100 gives the result,
22.50 Ibs.

Problems for Practice.
How many pounds of butter fat are lost in:
1. 7,500. Ibs. of skim milk testing .06% ?

Ans. 4.5 Ibs.
2. 10,500. Ibs. of skim milk testing .09% ?
Ans. 9.45 Ibs.

3. 25,780. lbs. of skim milk testing 15%?
Ans. 38.67 Ibs.
4. 30,000. lbs. of skim milk testing .03%?

Ans. 9. Ibs.

5. 30,000. lbs. of skim milk testing .09% ?
Ans. 27. _ Ibs.

6. 30,000. Ibs. of skim milk testing .1 %?
Ans. 30. lbs.

7. 30,000. Ibs. of skim milk testing .2 %?
Ans. 60. — Ibs.

8. 30,000. Ibs. of skim milk testing .3 %?
Ans. 90. — Ibs.

 

NOTE. — Losses of butter fat in buttermilk are determined the same
way as losses of butter fat in skim milk and come under the same rule.
CREAMERY PROBLEMS. 275

57. To find the per cent of cream from milk.

Problem: 5,000 lbs. of milk, delivered 800 Ibs. of
eream. Find the per cent of cream from milk.

Rule: Divide the total cream pounds by the total
milk pounds, multiply the quotient by 100; the re-
sult is the per cent of cream from milk.

Solution 800—5000=.16100=-16%. Ans.

or 800 100-—5000=16%. Ans.
or 800/5000 reduced = 4/25, expressed
decimally 4/25==.16 or 16%.

Explanation: When 5,000 lbs. milk give 800 lbs.
eream, 1 lb. of milk will give as many pounds as
5,000 is contained in 800 lbs. cream, which is .16;
100 Ibs. milk will give 100.16 or 16 lbs. or 16%.
Ans.

 

Problems for Practice.
What is the per cent of cream from:
1. 8,780 lbs. milk delivering 900 lbs. cream?
Ans. 10.25%.
2. 10,900 lbs. milk delivering 1,275 lbs. cream?
Ans. 11.69%.
. 20,785 Ibs. milk delivering 3,750:lbs. cream?
Ans. 13.23%.
. 35,000 lbs. milk delivering 7,000 lbs. cream?
Ans. 20. %. :
. 50,000 Ibs. milk delivering 9,500 Ibs. cream?
Ans. 19. %.
58. To find the per cent of cream from milk, when
the amount of skim milk and cream separated are
known.

oo

Hy

On
276 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

Problem: What is the per cent of cream from
milk when a separator delivers 10 lbs. of cream to
every 40 lbs. of skim milk?

Rule: Add the cream and skim milk separated at
one time, together; divide the cream pounds by the
sum, and multiply the quotient by 100. The result
will be the per cent of cream from milk.

Solution: 10+40=50; 10+50-=.% cream from
1 1b. milk.

Or 10+40=50; 10100+50—=20% cream from
100 Ibs. of milk.

For every 50 lbs. of milk we get 10 lbs. of cream
and we get as many pounds of cream for every
pound of milk as 50 is contained in 10, which is .2,
and from every 100 lbs. of milk we get 100.2 or
20 Ibs. or 20%.

Problems for Practice.

What is the per cent of cream from milk when a
separator delivers:
1. 10 lbs. of cream and 35 lbs. of skim milk?
Ans. 22+%.
2. 12 lbs. of cream and 60 lbs. of skim milk?
Ans. 16+%.
3. 15 Ibs. of cream and 75 lbs. of skim milk?
Ans. 17—%.
4, 20 Ibs. of cream and 88 lbs. of skim milk?
Ans. 18+%.
5. 24 Ibs. of cream and 95 lbs. of skim milk?
Ans. 20+%.
59. To find the amount of cream of any desired
test which milk of any richness can yield.
CREAMERY PROBLEMS. 277

Problem: How many pounds of 20 per cent test-
ing cream will 800 lbs. of 4 per cent milk yield?

Rule: Divide the milk test by the cream test and
multiply the quotient by 100. Multiply this result
by the number of pounds of milk; divide result by
100. The quotient is the number of pounds of
cream.

Solution: 4/20—.2; .2<100=20; or 4/20 100=
20% ; (800 20)+100—160 lbs. Ans.

Milk lbs. Milk test. Cream test.

or 800 + 4 —- :20—=160 cream
lbs. Ans.

 

Problems for Practice.

How much cream can be obtained from the fol-

lowing:
Milk Ibs. Milk test. Cream test.

1. = 255 4 % 20% Ans. 51. lbs.

2. 340 5 % 30% Ans. 56.6 lbs.

4. 3,250 3.5% 18% Ans. 631.9 lbs.

4, 10,550 3.8% 25% Ans. 1,603.6 lbs.

5. 20,670 4.2% 40% Ans. 2,170.3 lbs.

60. To find the amount of cream when the per cent
of cream from milk, and the milk pounds are known.

Problem: The per cent of cream from 35,000 lbs.
of 4 per cent milk is 22.5. Find the amount of cream.

Rule: Multiply the milk pounds by the per cent
of cream from milk and divide the result by 100.
The quotient will be the cream pounds.

Solution: 25,000><22.5—=787,500; 787,500—100—
7,875; or (35,000-—100) x 22.5=7,875 lbs. Ans.
278 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

Explanation: Every 100 lbs. of milk delivers 22.5
lbs. of cream. Therefore, there are as many times
22.5 Ibs. of cream delivered as 100 is contained in
35,000, which is 350; 350 22.5—7,875 lbs., the total
amount of cream.

Problems for Practice.

Find the amount of cream when the per cent of
cream from: /

1. 5,507 lbs. of milk is 10.5%? Ans. 578.23 lbs.
. 10,780 lbs. of milk is 12.77% Ans. 1,369.06 lbs.
. 15,872 lbs. of milk is 15.2%? Ans. 2,412.54 lbs,
. 20,975 lbs. of milk is 20.1%? Ans. 4,215.9 Ibs.
. 40,435 Ibs. of milk is 23.83%% Ans. 9,421.35 lbs.

61. To find the approximate amount of cream,
knowing the test of cream, and the amount and test
of the whole milk. Skim milk losses are 1144 per
cent of the total fat in the milk.

Problem: What is the amount of cream received
from 25,000 Ibs. of milk testing 4 per cent, the cream
testing 30 per cent and the butter milk losses being
1¥, per cent of the fat in the milk?

Rule: I. Multiply the amount of milk by its test,
and multiply this result by the per cent of loss.

II. From the total fat in the milk, subtract the
loss, and divide the remainder by the cream test,
multiply the quotient by 100 and the result will be
the amount. of cream.

25,000 4%==1,000 lbs.; 1,000 114 %=12.50 loss.

1,000—12.50=987.5;  (987.5+30) x 100==3,291.66
Ibs. cream. Ans.

oF WC DN
CREAMERY PROBLEMS. 279

Explanation: First find the amount of butter fat
in the milk and from that subtract loss, which is
12.5; this leaves 987.5 lbs. butter fat in the cream.
Each 100 lbs. of cream contains 30 lbs. butter fat,
and there will be as many 100 lbs. of cream as 30
is contained in 987.5, and the total cream will be
100 times this number, or 3,291.66 lbs. cream.

Problems for Practice.

Find the approximate amount of cream when
losses incident to separating are in each case 114 per
cent of the total fat in milk.

Milk lbs. Milk test. Cream test. Cream lbs. Ans.

1. 12,760 4% 25% 2,016

2. 17,590 3.9% 20% 3,387

3. 25,300 3.8% 18% 5,211

4. 50,000 4.1% 35% 5,784

5. 50,000 41% 50% 4,048

62. To find amount of skim milk from any quan-
tity of milk.

Problem: A creamery receives 24,000 Ibs. of
whole milk; 80 lbs. of skim milk out of every 100
lbs. of milk are returned to patrons. How much
skim milk does the creamery return to patrons?

Rule: Multiply milk pounds by per cent of skim
milk returned and divide result by 100. The quo-
tient is number of skim milk pounds.

Solution: 24,000 80-=1,920,000; 1,920,000-—100-=
19,200 Ibs. Ans.

Explanation: For every 100 lbs. of whole milk
delivered the patron gets 80 lbs. of skim milk. The
total skim milk will be (24,000 80)~100—19,200
Ibs.
280 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

Problems for Practice.

Find amount of skim milk returned to patrons
when:

Skim milk Pounds

Milk received returned returned
1. 10,000 Ibs. 80% 8,000 lbs.
2. 15,780 Ibs. 85% 13,413 Ibs.
3, 20,340 Ibs. 90% 18,306 lbs.
4, 50,590 lbs. 75% 37,942 lbs.
5. 50,590 Ibs. 80% 40,482 lbs.

63. To find the approximate test of cream, know-
ing the amount and test of milk, the pounds of
cream separated, and allowing 144 per cent me-
chanical loss on the total butter fat.

Problem: 45,000 lbs. of milk testing 4 per cent
gave 3,500 lbs. of cream. Find the test of cream.

Rule: Find the total butter fat in milk and mul-
tiply this by the per cent of loss. Subtract the loss
from the total butter fat and divide the remainder
by the number of pounds of cream. Multiply the
quotient by 100 and the result will be the test of the
cream.

Solution: 45,000*4%—+100—1,800; (1,800«114)
<100=22.5; 1,800—22.5=1,777.5; (1,777.5~3,500)
X100=50.6%. Ans.

Explanation: From the total butter fat in the
milk we subtract the loss. Then we divide the re-
maining butter fat by the total amount of cream.
This gives the butter fat in one pound of cream, and
100 lbs. of cream will test 100 times the butter fat
in one pound of cream, or 50.8 per cent.
CREAMERY PROBLEMS. 281

Problems for Practice.

Find the test of cream when:

Cream Cream test.
Separated. Milk lbs. Milk test. Ans.
1. 350 lbs. 4,000 4 % 45.1%
2. 1,500 lbs. 9,500 3.9% 24.3%
3. 2,800 lbs. 20,780 4% 29.3%
4. 5,550 Ibs. 45,000 3.8% 30.4%
5. 5,550 lbs. 45,000 3.9% 31.2%

64, To find the approximate average test of skim
milk, knowing the total butter fat in milk and in
cream separated, and knowing the number of
pounds of skim milk.

Problem Milk contained 2,540 lbs. butter fat,
and the cream contained 2,500. lbs. butter fat. There
were 56,108. lbs. skim milk. Find the test of skim
milk.

Rule Divide the difference in the amount of but-
ter fat in milk and cream by the skim milk pounds,
and multiply quotient by 100. The result is the
the test of the skim milk.

Solution: 2,540—2,500—40; (40+56,108) x100—=
071%. Ans.

Explanation: First find the difference, which is
40 lbs. Then by dividing this by the number of
pounds of skim milk, and multiplying by 100, we get
the test per hundred pounds or in per cent.
282 MODERN BUTTER MAISING.

Problems for Practice.
Find the test of skim milk in the following:

Fat in milk. Fat in cream. Lbs. skim milk. Ans.

1. 295. Ibs. 290. Ibs. 3,120. 16%
2. 900. Ibs. 892. Ibs. 17,460. 046%
3. 3,250. lbs. 3,225. Ibs. 39,812. 062%
4. 5,675. Ibs. 5,520. Ibs. 133,440. 11%
5. 5,675. Ibs. 5,440. Ibs. 133,440. 17%

65. Table showing relative loss in skim milk at
25c per lb. of butter fat. Average skim milk test
.05 to .03 per cent.

Table Shorting Relative Loss in Skimming at 25 cents per
lb. of Butter Fat.. Average Skim Milk Tests

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

05 to 3%.

Skim milk Ibs. Test Loss At 25c per
Daily % in Ibs. Ib. daily
10,000 | 05% S| $1.25
10,000 | 08% | 8. | 2.00
10,000 | 10% | 10. | 2.50
10,000 | 13% | 18. | 3.25
10,060 | 15% | bs | 3.75
10,000 | 18% | 18. | 4,50
10,000 | 20% | 2. | 5.00
10,000 | 23% [ 23. | 5.75
10,000 | 25% | 25. | 6.25
10,000 | 28% | 28, | 7.00
10,000 | 80% | 30. | 7.50

 

The above table should serve to bring out more
clearly the fact that in creamery work, not unlike
brokerage, it is the fractional parts which are very
CREAMERY PROBLEMS. 283

important and essential factors in making for the
success or failure of the business.

The same comparative losses occur in buttermilk,
therefore, it is just as important to churn so as to
reduce buttermilk fat losses to the minimum.

66. Promiscuous problems.

1. A creamery receives 2,480 Ibs. of milk testing
4.2 per cent. The skim milk is 80 per cent of the
whole and tests .1 per cent fat. What is the (a) per
cent of cream taken, and (b) the test of the cream?
Ans. (a) 20 per cent; (b) 22.6 per cent.

2. A creamery receives 30,000 lbs. of milk testing
3.7 per cent, of which 85 per cent is skim milk test-
ing .08 per cent. Find (a) the fat lost in skim milk,
(b) test of cream, (c) per cent of cream from milk,
(d) total weight of cream. Ans. (a) 20.4 lbs.; (b)
24.21 per cent; (c) 15 per cent; (d) 4,500 lbs.

3. Ata creamery 80 per cent of the milk is skim
milk, testing .05 per cent, and is returned to the
patrons. The total skim milk is 2,880 lbs. Find the
(a) total number of pounds of milk received, and
(b) the total fat lost in the skim milk. Ans. (a)
3,600 Ibs.; (b) 1.44 lbs.

4, Cream tests 20 per cent butter fat and the total
milk, which is 35,000 Ibs., tests 4 per cent. Find
(a) the per cent of cream taken from the milk, and
(b) the total weight of cream, allowing a loss of 1
per cent butter fat in skimming. Ans. (a) 19.8
per cent; (b) 6,930 lbs.

5. Cream tests 30 per cent, the total weight is
2,250 lbs.; 10 Ibs. of fat were lost in skimming. Find
(a) the per cent of loss in skimming on the total but-
284 MODERN BUTTER MAKING,

ter fat in milk, (b) the number of pounds of milk
which tests 4 per cent, and (c) the per cent of cream
from milk. Ans. (a) 1.5 per cent; (b) 17,125 lbs.;
(¢) 13.2—per eent.

6. A gathered cream plant receives 5,000 lbs. of.
cream daily, testing 32 per cent butter fat, and
makes 1,850 lbs. butter. To the eream is added 800
lbs. of skim milk starter. The buttermilk tests .2
per cent. Find (a) loss of fat in buttermilk,.(b) per
cent of buttermilk from cream, (c) per cent of loss
of butter fat on total fat in cream. Ans. (a) 7.9
lbs.; (b) 68+ per cent; (ce) .49 per cent.

7. What will be the (a) test of cream, (b) per
cent of cream from milk, and (c) test of skim milk
when 50,000 lbs. of 4 per cent milk are received and
the skim milk is 85 per cent of the whole; allowing
a loss of 20 Ibs. of butter fat in the skim milk. Ans.
(a) 26.4 per cent; (b) 15 per cent; (c) .047 per cent.

8. A ereamery in good running order loses 114
per cent of the total fat in milk. When separating
is carelessly done a creamery may lose 314 per cent
of the total fat in milk. When a creamery received
100,000 lbs. of milk per day testing 4 per cent and
the cream is 12 per cent of the milk, find (a) the
difference in the test of the cream, and (b) the dif-
ference in loss when butter fat sells at 30 cents per
pound.

Ans. (a) When loss is 314 per cent instead of 114
per cent, cream tests .67 per cent less.

Ans. (b) When loss is 34% per cent instead of 114
per cent, loss at 30¢ per Ib. is $24.00 per day.
CREAMERY PROBLEMS. 285

B. Problems Pertaining to Cream Ripening.

67. To find how many pounds of starter should
be added to cream of any richness to reduce it to
any desired per cent of butter fat, assuming that a
skim milk starter is used.

Problem: How many pounds of starter will it re-
quire to reduce 3,000 lbs. of 30 per cent cream to
25 per cent cream?

Rule. J. Multiply the cream pounds to be re-
duced by its test and divide the result by 100. The
result will be the total fat in the richer cream.

II. Divide the total butter fat by the desired test
of cream and multiply the quotient by 100. From
this result subtract the cream pounds to be diluted.
The difference will be the amount of starter to be
added.

Solution: 3,000*30+100—900. lbs. butter fat;
(90025) « 100=3,600—-3,000—=600 lbs. Ans.

Explanation: By subtracting 25 from 30, we get
5 which is 1/5 of the test of the desired cream. The
same relation exists between the amount of cream
to be diluted and the amount of starter necessary to
dilute it. Therefore, it must be increased by 1/5 of
itself, or 600 Ibs. of a skim milk starter.

Problems for Practice.
Find the amount of starter to be added to:
Cream lbs. Cream test. Reduced to. Ans.

1. 3,275 lbs. 30% 25% 675 lbs.
2. 4,560 lbs. 40% 30% 1,520 lbs.
3. 6,780 lbs. 50% 35% 2,905 lbs.
4. 10,500 lbs. 30% 25% 2,100 Ibs.
5. 10,500 lbs. 30% 20% 5,250 lbs.
286 MODERN BUTTER MAKING,

68. To find the number of pounds of starter to
be added to cream, when the per cent of starter is
known.

Problem: 20% of starter is to be added to 3,080
Ibs. of cream. Tow many pounds of starter will it
require :

Rule: Multiply the cream pounds by the per cent
of starter and divide the result by 100. The quotient
will be the number of pounds of starter required.

Solution: 3,08020=61,600; 61,600-—-100—616.
Ans.

Explanation: By adding 20 per.cent of starter we
add 20 lbs. to every hundred pounds of eream.
Therefore we must add as many times 20 lbs. as
there are hundreds in the amount of cream (3,080),
or 616 Ibs.

Problems for Practice.

How many pounds of starter are required when:

1. 10% of starter is to be added to 2,570 lbs.
cream. Answer, 257 lbs.

2. 15% of starter is to be added to 3,800 Ibs.
cream. Answer, 570 lbs.

3. 25% of starter is to be added to 4,800 lbs.
ercam. Answer, 1,200 Ibs.

4. 30% of starter is to be added to 5,780 lbs.
eream, Answer, 1,734 Ibs.

5. 50% of starter is to be added to 8,500 lbs.
cream. Answer, +,250 lbs.

69. To find the per cent of starter added when
any quantity of starter was added to any quantity
of cream.
CREAMERY PROBLEMS. 287

Problem: 670 lbs. starter were added to cream,
making a total of 3.200 Ibs. of cream. What per cent
of starter was added?

Rule: From the number of pounds of cream sub-
tract the number of pounds of starter, divide the
difference into the number of pounds of starter;
multiply the quotient by 100 and the result is the
per cent of starter.

Scluticn: 3,200-—670—2,530; (670~+-2,530) «100=
26.5%. Ans.

Explanation: When any amount of ‘starter has
been added to cream we first subtract the number
of pounds of starter from the total number of
pounds given. This gives the number of pounds of
eream before the starter was added. By dividing
the number of pounds of cream into the number of
pounds of starter and multiplying by 100 we get the
per cent of starter.

What is the per cent of starter when:

1. 1,600 lbs. of cream contain 300 lbs. of starter?
Ans. 23.07%.

2. 4,000 lbs. of cream contain 600 lbs. of starter?
Ans. 17.6%.

3. 4,500 lbs. of cream contain 800 lbs. of starter?
Ans. 21.6%.

4. 80,000 lbs. of cream contain 6,000 lbs. of
starter? Ans. 25%.

5. 30,000 lbs. of cream contain 7,600 lbs. of
starter? Ans. 33.4%.
288 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

70. Knowing the acidity of both cream and starter
find the acidity after starter is added to cream.

Problem: The acidity of the starter is .70%; the
acidity of the cream (100 lbs.) is .22%. 80% (or 30
lbs.) of starter is added to every 100 lbs. of cream.
Find acidity of cream after starter is added.

Rule: To the acidity in the cream add the acidity
in the per cent of starter (30 lbs.) to be added, and
divide the sum by 100 + the per cent to be added.
Multiply the quotient by 100 and the result will be
the acidity of cream after starter is added.

Solution: (7030)+-100=.21; .21-+ .22=—.48;
.43-130=.0033; .0033100—.33%. Ans.

Explanation: 100 lbs. cream tests .22% acidity.
100 Ibs. starter tests .70%. We add 30% or 30 lbs.

. of starter to each 100 lbs. of cream. We have .22%
acidity in each 100 lbs. cream. We have 30 lbs. of
starter at .70% acidity==.21 acidity. The total acidi-
ty is .43. The total cream and starter is 130 lbs.
and the total acidity of cream and starter is .48;
.48+130=.0033. .0033100=.33%, the acidity of
100 lbs. of cream after the starter is added.

Problems for Practice.

Find acidity of cream when the per cent of
starter to be added is:

Starter. Acidity. Cream Acidity. Ans.

1. 10% 65% 25% 286%
2. 15% 15% 20% 21 %
3. 20% 60% 23% 29 %
4, 25% 68% 20% 296%
5. 80% 10% 26% 361%
CREAMERY PROBLEMS. 289

71. To find acidity of cream when sweet milk or
water is used to reduce acidity.

Problem: What will be the acidity of cream hav-
ing .65% acidity, when (a) 12% of water is added;
(b) when 12% of milk with an acidity of .15% is
added?

Rule I. Divide the per cent of acidity in cream
to be diluted, by 100-++the per cent of water to be
added. Multiply the quotient by 100, and the result
will be the per cent of acidity after diluting.

Rule II. Multiply the per cent of milk to be ad-
ded by its acidity. To this add the acidity in per
cent in the cream to be diluted; divide the sum by
100-+the per cent of milk to be added and multiply
the quotient by 100. The result is the acidity of the
diluted cream.

Solution: (a) .65~—(100+12)=.0058; .0058100
=.58%. Ans. (b) .65+ (12.15)=.668; .668—112—
0059; .0059X100=.59%. Ans.

Explanation: It will be seen that when we add
12% we add 12 lbs. to each 100 lbs. of cream. This
makes 112 lbs. of cream. When the addition is
water, 112 lbs. of the cream contains .65% acid and
100 Ibs. of the cream will test as many per cent as
112 is contained in .65%. This quotient multiplied
by 100 equals .58%. When we add milk which has
some acidity, we must first find out how much acid-
ity is added to the cream. This we find by multiply-
ing the amount added by its test. We add the test
of acidity of the cream and the acidity in the milk,
290 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

which in this case is .018+.65, which equals .668.
This is the acidity of 112 Ibs. of diluted cream. To
find the per cent of acidity we divide .668 by 112
which gives us .0059. .0059*100=.59%. Ans.

Problems for Practice.

Find the per cent of acidity in cream when:

1. 10% water is added to cream having .75%
acid. Ans. (a) .68-+%, (b) .69%.

2. 15% water is added to cream having .80%
acid. Ans. (a) .695%, (b) .715%.

3. 20% water is added to cream having .75%
acid. Ans. (a) .625%, (b) .65%.

4. 10% water is added to cream having .65%
acid. Ans. (a) .59%, (b) .60%.

5. 15% water is added to cream having .65%
acid. Ans. (a) .56%, (b) .58%.

‘When milk with an acidity of .15% was used in-
stead of water in the above problems the answers
marked b show the result.

72. Promiscuous problems.

1. A ereamery receives daily 1,500 lbs. of cream
testing 38% butter fat. The test is to be reduced to
380% by adding a skim milk starter. (a) How many
pounds of starter must be added? (b) What per
cent of starter is added? Ans. (a) 400 lbs., (b)
26 2/3%.

2. The average test of 20,000 lbs. of hand sepa-
rator cream is 80%. After adding all the rinsings
the test is 2914%. The test for churning should be
CREAMERY PROBLEMS. 291

25%. Find (a) the amount of rinse water added;
(b) amount of starter required for reducing test to
25%. Ans. (a) 339 lbs.; (b) 3,661 Ibs.

38. The manager of a creamery notified the but-
ter maker that all cream should have not more than
-O% acidity at the time of churning. A lot of cream,
on arrival at the creamery had an average acidity
of .62% and tested 40% butter fat. Water was to be
used as a diluent. Find amount of water necessary
to reduce the acidity of (a) 2,200 lbs. of cream; (b)
2,000 Ibs. of cream to .5% acidity. Ans. (a) 528
lIbs.; (b) 480 Ibs.

4. 1,200 lbs. of 40% testing cream tested 25%
after the starter was added. Find (a) amount and
(b) per cent of starter. Ans. (a) 720 lbs.; (b) 60%.

5. A creamery receives 50,000 lbs. of 4% milk
and 20,000 lbs. of 35% cream. 2% of the fat in the
milk was lost in skimming. After mixing the cream
separated from milk with cream received the test
was 37% fat. Find amount of cream separated and
amount of starter necessary to reduce the test of
the cream to 32% fat. Ans. Separated cream, 4,216
lbs.; starter necessary, 8,000 lbs.

73. Problems bearing on the manufacture of but-
ter. To find the amount of butter fat lost in butter-
milk, when the number of pounds of cream and but-
ter are known.

Problem: 980 Ibs. of butter were made from 3,200
lbs. of cream; buttermilk tested .2 per cent. What
was the loss in butter fat?
292 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

Rule: From pounds of cream subtract pounds of
butter made; multiply remainder by buttermilk test
and divide product by 100. The quotient will be
pounds butter fat lost.

Sclution: 3,200—980=2,220 Ibs. buttermilk; (2,-
220 .20)+-100—4.44 lbs. butter fat lost.

Explanation: Aside from the water used for
rinsing cream utensils, the difference between the
amount of cream churned and butter made will give
the pounds of buttermilk, This multiplied by the
test and divided by 100 will equal pounds of butter
fat lost.

Problems for Practice.

Find pounds of butter fat lost.

Butter lbs. Creamlbs. B.M.test. — Ans.

1. 995 Ibs. 3,500 Ibs. 20% 5.+Ibs.
2. 2,550 lbs. 9,670 Ibs. 15% 10.6 lbs.
3. 8,700 lbs. 20,675 lbs. 10% 11.9 Ibs.
4, 9,250 lbs. 25,456 lbs. 05% 8.1 Ibs.

on

9,250 lbs. 25,456 lbs. 15% 24.2 Ibs.

74, To find the per cent of fat in buttermilk when
the pounds of cream, its test, the per cent of fat in
butter and the number of pounds of butter are
given.

Problem: 3,540 lbs. of 30% cream made 1,290 Ibs.
butter with a fat content of 82%. What is the test
of the buttermilk?

Rule I. Multiply the number of pounds of cream
by its test and from the result subtract the result
obtained by multiplying the pounds of butter by the
per cent of fat it contains.
CREAMERY PROBLEMS. 293

Rule II. Subtract the number of pounds of butter
from the number of pounds of cream and divide this
result into the difference between the fat in the
cream and the butter. Multiply the quotient by 100
and the result will be the test of buttermilk.

Solution: 3540 301,062; butter fat in cream.
1,290 82=1,057.8 butter fat in butter. 1,062—
1,057.8=4.2; 4.2+(3,540—1,290) x 100=.18%.

Explanation: First find the number of pounds of
butter fat in the cream and in the butter made from
it. These are 1,062 and 1,057.8 lbs. respectively.
Now subtract the total butter made, from the total
cream pounds, and the difference, which is 2,250 lbs.,
is the buttermilk. Now divide the fat loss—4.2 lbs.
by 2,250 (the buttermilk) and the result is the test
of the buttermilk, .18%. Ans.

75. To find the number of pounds of butter, with
a given per cent of fat, which can be made from a
given number of pounds of butter fat in cream, al-
lowing a loss of a certain per cent of fat in the but-
termilk.

Problem: How many pounds of butter, having
82.5% fat, can be made from 4,560 Ibs. of 32%
eream, the loss in buttermilk being .75% of the total
fat in cream?

Rule: Multiply cream pounds by the test of
eream; divide the result by 100. This gives total
eream fat. Multiply this by the per cent of loss;
divide result by 100. This gives loss of fat. Divide
the difference between loss and total fat in cream
by the per cent of fat in butter; multiply quotient
2 MODERN BUTLER MAKING.

by 100. Result is number of pounds of butter which
can be made.

Solution: (4,560 32)—~100-=1,459.2; (1,459.2«
.75)+100=10.94; 1,459.2—10.94=1,448.26; (1,448.-
26--82.5) x 100==1,755.4 lbs. Ans.

Problems for Practice.

Find the number of pounds of butter which can
be made, allowing a loss of .4 per cent of total fat
in cream.

Test of Fat in

Cream lbs. cream. butter. Butter lbs.

2,240 lbs. 30% 80% Ans. 836.65 lbs.
3,250 lbs. 25% 83% Ans. 976.7 lbs.
3,250 ]1bs. 25% 80% Ans.1011. Ibs.
5,600 lbs. 380% 82% Ans. 2040.5 Ibs.
5,600 lbs. 380% 81% Ans. 2065.7 lbs.

76. To find the approximate per cent of fat and
moisture in butter when the fat in cream and butter
are known; 314% being allowed for salt and casein.

Problem: Cream contains 800 lbs. of butter fat
and made 970 lbs. of butter. What is the approxi-
mate per cent of fat and of moisture in the butter?

Rule I. Divide the fat pounds by the butter
pounds; multiply the quotient by 100. The result
is the per cent of fat in the butter.

Rule II. To the per cent of fat in the butter add
344% ; subtract this sum from 100 ;the remainder is
the approximate per cent of moisture in the butter.

Solution: (800970) x 100—=82.47% fat in butter.
82.47-+.3.5==85.97 ; 100—85.97—=14.03% moisture.

Se eS
CREAMERY PROBLEMS. 295

Explanation: When 800 lbs. of fat are made into
970 lbs. of butter we have 800/970 of 100 Ibs. fat in
every 100 lbs. of butter. The moisture must equal
the difference between fat in butter plus 3144 and
100.

Problems for Practice.

Find the per cent of fat and moisture in butter in
the following:

Futinecream Butter. Fat in butter. Moisture.

1.  850lbs. 1,000Ibs. Ans.85. % 11.5 %
2. 1,500lbs. 1,850 lbs. Ans. 81.08% 15.42%
3. 2180]bs. 2,560 lbs. Ans. 85.15% 11.35%
4. 3,670 lbs. 4,500 Ibs. Ans. 81.55% 14.95%
5. 10,500 lbs. 12,500Ibs. Ans.84. % 12.5 %

77. Promiscuous problems.

1. A creamery receives 20,000 lbs. of 4% milk
daily ; losses in separating are 114% of the total fat;
losses in the buttermilk are 44% of the total fat.
How many pounds of butter with 80, 81, 82 or 83%
fat can be made from the milk? 80%—985 lbs., 81%
=972.7 lbs., 82%—=960.9 Ibs., 83%—949 lbs. Ans.

2. (a) The total milk received is 15,000 lbs. test-
ing 4%; from this milk was made 720 lbs. of butter
with 80% fat. Find the loss of butter fat in pounds
and in per cent.

(b) What is the test of the skim milk and butter-
milk when skim milk is 80% of the whole milk, and
the buttermilk is 75% of the cream? 2/3 of total
fat lost was lost in skim milk and 1/3 was lost in
buttermilk. Ans. to (a): Butter fat lost 24 Ibs.;
butter fat lost 4%. Ans. to (b): Skim milk test
13%; buttermilk test 35%,
tions, each shipping 5,000 Ibs. of 80% cream, accord-
ing to their test. When cream was tested at the
creamery it was found that three stations were 2%
short of total butter fat in their cream and two sta-
tions were 3% short. (a) What is average test of
cream at creamery? (b) How many pounds of but-
ter fat is Iost. Ans. (a) 29.28; (b) 180 lbs.

(b) Suppose the butter made from fat in above
cream contained 83% fat, (a) how many more
pounds of butter could be made from it if it con-
tained 81% fat; (b)- what would be the gain in
pounds of butter in one year of 300. days, (c) and
the value at 30¢ per pound? Ans. to (b): a—208
lbs., b—62,400 lbs., e—$18,720.
INDEX TO CHAPTER V.

DISCUSSING COMPARATIVE READING OF CREAM
TEST BOTTLES,

Par. No. Page.
78. Basis of comparison ......... 0. cece ee ee ences 299
79. Comparing the reading of 30% bottle............ 299
80. Comparing a 9 gram cream bottle................ 301
81. Comparing a 55%—18 gram bottle............... 302
82. Comparing a 50% G-inch cream bottle........... 304
83. Comparing a 30% cream bottle...............05- 305
St. TEFrots, NOW GaWSEQ, cece scesige oo isiee ewtiend gees eid 6 306
85. Comparative graduation of bottles............... 306
86. Reading of cream testS......... cee eee e eee eee 307
87. How to read cream teStS............ cee e eee eens 308
88. Most accurate cream bottles.............. 0.00 ee 309
CHAPTER V.

Discussing Comparative Reading of Cream Test
Bottles.

Note—For convenience in illustrating the per
cent on the graduation is numbered from top down,
instead of the usual way, from the bottom up.

78. Basis of comparison. Assuming that the read-
ing of the actual fat column of any cream test bottle
is .2 per cent lower than the actual per cent of fat
in cream, due to .2 per cent of fat remaining in the
bulb of the bottle; we will take the method of read-
ing the milk test bottle as a standard for compari-
son. The average creameryman reads the tests at
about 130° F. The meniscus is about .2 per cent on
the reading of the test, which is equal to the .2 per
cent of fat left in the bulb of the test bottle.

79. Comparing the Reading of 30 per cent, 9 in.
cream bottle with a milk test bottle. Fig. J. The
average depth of the meniscus of the 30 per cent 9
in. cream test bottle, Fig. II, is between .4—.5 per
cent. Reading this bottle to the extreme top of the
‘ fat column, the reading will be from .2 to .3 per
cent too high. The curvature of the bottom of the
fat column is greater than the curvature of the fat
column in the milk test bottle, Fig. I.

By reading the fat column in the cream test bot-
tle, Fig. II., from the extreme bottom to the extreme
top, the reading will be about .4 per cent too high.
According to the variation in the eveness of the bot-

299
300 MODERN BUTTER MAKING,

tom curve, ¢, the reading should be done from the
extreme bottom line, d, to almost the extreme bot-
tom of meniscus, b. Read from d to f.

 

 

 

 

pS

E 1D° = =

C a =
~ ES

=—4. i =

A = =
Cae Aol 07,

 

 

 

 

FIG]. FIGI.

NOTE.—Figs. II, III, IV, V and VI are part of neck of cream bottle
enlarged two times.

Jn reading from d to f, the upper part of the me-
niscus is cut off to allow the fat making up the sides
of the meniscus to fill up the hollowness below line f.
The .2 per cent of fat left in the bottle will displace
READING TEST BOTTLES. 301

the curvature at the bottom of the fat column—d, c.
The meniscus occupies .4 per cent on the reading.
This bottle, due to the small size of the meniscus, is
the best bottle for the inexperienced creameryman.
Even if the dividers should slip a little, the error
arising from this would not be great, because the
graduation is in .2 per cent, and 1 per cent on the
graduation takes up quite a space on the bottle. By
weighing out 9 grams into bottle shown in Fig. III.
an error made is increased by two, and when an
error is made in reading the test of the sample the
error made in weighing is multiplied by 4.

80. Comparing a. 9 gram Fig. IV., 50 per cent
cream test bottle with an 18 gram, 30 per cent cream
test bottle, Fig. II. The 30 per cent, 9 inch cream
bottle, Fig. II., is graduated into .2 per cent, while
the 50 per cent, 6 inch bottle, Fig. III., is graduated

    
 
 

°

  

mm

t 5y

lOZ
ric

into .5 per cent. The meniscus of the bottle, Fig.
III, is about 1.8 per cent. Reading this bottle from
the extreme bottom to the extreme top, the reading
is about 2 per cent too high, as compared with Fig.
II, the reading of which is about .3 per cent too high.
302 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

The difference here is due only to the difference in
the graduation of the bottle, the size of neck and
the grams used. It will be noticed that the space
between the markings on the bottle, Fig. III, are
about three times as close as the markings on bottle,
Fig. 11. This closeness of graduations increases er-
rors in reading, by three. The closer the markings
of spaces occupying 1 per cent on the reading, the
greater are the chances of errors arising through not
being able to get a perfectly correct reading. From
this analysis it seems that the bottle shown in Fig.
II. is the most difficult to read correctly. The safest
way to read this bottle is to read from the extreme
bottom, a, to the extreme top, ¢, of the fat column,
and subtract on the average about 2 per cent from
the reading. 1. per cent occupies 1/18 inch on the
50 per cent, 6 inch, 9 gram bottle, Fig. III, and 1.
per cent occupies 1/6 inch on the 30 per cent, 9 inch,
18 gram bottle.

81. Comparing a 55 per cent, 9 inch, Fig. IV., 18
gram cream test bottle with a 50 per cent, 6 inch,
Fig. III, and a 30 per cent, 9 inch, Fig. II, bottle.

Fig. 1V, 55 per cent, 9 inch, 18 gram cream test
bottle is graduated into 14 per cent divisions; each
division measuring in width 1/23 of an inch. Each
1/23 inch on the neck of the bottle means .5 per cent
fat. 1 per cent of fat occupies about 1/12 inch space.
In bottle shown in Fig. II, 1 per cent occupies 1/6 of
an inch space. The per cent spaces, on a 30 per cent,
9 inch cream bottle, Fig. II, are twice as wide as
those on the bottle shown in Fig. IV, and at the same
time represent the same per cent of fat. Any error
READING TEST BOTTLES. 303

made in using bottle shown in Fig. IV is twice as
great as the same error made when using bottle
shown in Fig. II. An error made in using bottle
shown in Fig. III is 1144 times as great as the
same error made in using bottle shown in Fig. IV.

 

 

 

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B C lo
DAS AA
.e

 

esa

 

rLibi bit N

 

 

10%

PIG.

These errors used for illustration may be due to
either over or under reading, caused by an over-
sight, slipping of the dividers, or any foreign sub-
stance which may have found its way unnoticed
into the fat column.

The meniscus in Fig. IV occupies about .8 per cent
on the reading and in extreme cases 1 per cent. In-
eluding the curvature at the bottom, the reading
between the extreme ends of the fat column, a-b, is
.8 per cent to 1 per cent too high. For practical
purposes, read from a to b and subtract nearly 1 per
cent. This will come nearer to the right reading than
304 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

reading from a to c or from e to d (and allowing for
the meniscus) due to difficulty in locating these
places on the graduation. The curvature of the bot-
tom of the column in cream tests is rounded enough
to allow forthe .2 per cent left’ in the test bottle.
Therefore all subtracting should be done from the
top—the space occupied by the meniscus.

82. Comparing a 50 per cent,.6 inch, 18 gram cream
test bottle with a 30 per cent (Fig. II.) a 50 per cent
(Fig. ITI.), and a 55 per cent (Fig. IV.) bottle.

  

FIGY.

Fig. V shows a 50 per cent cream bottle graduated
into 1 per cent. There are 16.3 per cent per inch in
the graduation. The graduated part of neck is
about 31/16 inch long. The diameter of the inside
of neck is 14 inch. This is too.wide for correct
reading, because the bottom of the fat column is not
always even. Sometimes the bottom of the fat, col-
umn curves upward, or is slightly hollow (e), or ir-
regular. Due to these unavoidable irregularities
this bottle should be used in the following manner
if it must be used: Read from the extreme bottom
READING TEST BOTTLES. 305

(a) of the fat column to the bottom of the meniscus
(b), or from (a) to half way between (b) and (d).
Do not add or subtract anything in practical work.
When the bottom of the fat column is smooth and
well defined, and the meniscus is clear and well de-
fined, half of the meniscus may be included in the
reading (b-d). That is, read from (a) to (d). When
the bottom of the fat column is irregular and the
meniscus not well defined, read from (a) nearly to
(d), between (b) and (d). Since the graduations
are divided into whole per cents and the neck is so
wide, the bottle is not at all desirable for accurate
work.

For convenience in illustrating, the Fig. V. shows
graduations in .5 per cent instead of 1 per cent, the
way the bottle is actually graduated. Since the
cream bottle in Fig. V. is only graduated into 1 per
cent, and 1 per cent on this bottle occupies only
about 1/16 of an inch, it is plain that a slight error
in reading this bottle would make a great difference
in the results.

83. Comparing a 30 per cent, 6 inch, 18 gram,
cream test bottle with bottles shown in Figs. IL,
III., IV., V. The 30 per cent, 6 inch, 18 gram bot-
tle, Fig. VI., is graduated in 44 per cent and 12 per
cent occupies a space of 1 inch. Therefore, .5 per
cent occupies 1/24 inch, which is about the same as
bottle in Fig, IV. This is a very good bottle, unless
cream tests more than 30 per cent when an 18 gram
sample must be used.

‘When the scales are sensitive and the sample well
mixed and correctly weighed, it may be advisable to
306 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

weigh less than 18 grams of cream for testing, but
for the average creameryman, it is not advisable to
weigh out less than 18 grams of cream.

84. Errors arise from weighing out 9 grams (as
the result must be multiplied by two) and errors are
further incurred by weighing cream on a scale not
sensitive enough, where a drop or two too much
would raise the test considerably. If 18 grams are
used any small error is not multiplied.

Cc
D

 

lO7

FIGVI.

The cream test bottle Fig. VI should be read either
from a to d or from e to c, or half way between d
and c. The part between b and ¢ is the meniscus and
occupies about .7 per cent space on the graduations.

85. Comparative length of the graduated part of
the neck of cream test bottles.

From the following table as well as from the fore-
going discussion it will be seen that the larger the
space occupied by 1 per cent on the test bottle, the
READING TEST BOTTLES. 307

less chance there is for errors. When 1 per cent on
the reading.of the test bottle takes up only 1/18 of
an inch, and 5 per cent takes up only 5/18 of an
inch, one ean readily understand that the chances
are greater than with a bottle on which 1 per cent
takes up about 1/6 of an inch on the reading of the
test bottle, or 5 per cent takes up about 5/6 of an
inch, or nearly one inch.

TABLE NIII.

Comparative Length of the Graduated Part of the Neck
of Cream Test Bottles,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figures II Ill IV Vv VI.
Grams basis- on which
bottles are graduated.....| 18 9 18 18 18
Per cent cream bottle........ 300% | 50% 55% 50% 30%
Size of bottle... ee 9 in 6 in 9 in 6 in 6 in
Length of graduation........ 51lgin | 2%in |] 4134,in | 344g, in | 244in
Graduated 06.0.0... cess -29% -5% 5% 1% 56
Number of per cent per inch] 57,9 | 18% | 11.44% | 16.306 | 129%

 

Inside diameter of neck......] %oin | 234 in| 25¢4 in 4 in 1349 in
8 6 7

 

 

 

 

 

 

Space meniscus occupies %..} .8B—.4 |144-1.8] .7—1. | 1.—1.6 | .5—.7

 

86. Reading of cream tests.

We must not forget that in practical work there
must be a method for reading tests, which can be
quickly as well as accurately performed. In Bulletin

_No. 58, U. S. Department of Agriculture, we find a
short rule to be used to assist in reading cream tests
accurately. It-is as follows: ‘‘Read the test from
the extreme top to bottom of fat column; deduct
from this reading four-fifths of the depth of the
meniscus and add .2 per cent to the results.’’ This
308 MODERN BUTTER MAKING.

rule is short, but the computations necessary may
prove too much for the ordinary creamery operator.
Since we know that the fat column in all cream test
bottles is curved downward at the bottom, enough
to cause a hollow on each side of about .1 per cent,
we can safely say that the .2 per cent of fat sup-
posed to remain in the bulb of the bottle will be suf-
ficient to fill this space. The fat column in bottle
Fig. IL, 80 per cent, 9 inch cream bottle, is practi-
cally straight at the bottom and therefore this
would not apply to this particular bottle. Knowing
about how much the meniscus of each cream test
bottle occupies, and how much more easily the read-
ing of the test from the extreme bottom to the ex-
treme top of the fat column can be done, why not
read cream tests in the following manner:

Rule. Read any cream test from the extreme
bottom to the extreme top of the meniscus, and sub-
tract from this reading nearly the whole per cent
of the meniscus.

87. Illustrating how to read cream tests.

The above readings correspond very closely with
reading taken from a tod in Fig. VI, a to d in Fig.
V,ato f in Fig. III, a to c in Fig. IV, andd to f in
Fig. IT. Inaccurate sampling and weighing of cream
samples, as well as incorrect whirling of bottles and
reading tests at improper temperatures, are the
cause of as much inaccuracy in testing as may arise
from the use of improper cream test bottles. It is,
however, very important in testing cream, to have
bottles, the graduations of which are not placed
READING TEST BOTTLES. 309

closer than 10 to 12, per cent spaces, per inch of
graduation. The bottles that are graduated to carry
6 to 8, per cent spaces, per inch are much to be pre-
ferred.

Illustrating How to Read Cream Tests.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Cream | Full nee ae ae Corrected

bottle Size Reading Finnieets Reading
30% | Qin. | 30% | 3% | 29.7
80% | Gin. | 80% | 5% | 29.5

9 gram | |
50% | Gin. | 380% | 15% | 28.5
55% | 9in. | 30% | 1% | 29.2
d0% | Gin. | 380% | 1.2% | 28.7 |

 

88. The most accurate cream test bottles now
generally used are the 30 per cent, 18 gram, 6 inch,
3% inch neck diameter; the 30 per cent, 18 gram, 9
inch, and the 50-55 per cent, 9 inch, 18 gram cream
test bottle.

The reason why the reading of tests made from
the same lot of cream with differently graduated
cream test bottles is not always the same is mainly
due to inaccurate graduation of the bottle, irregu-
larity in the surface of the top and bottom of the
fat column and the inability to determine the proper
points on the graduation from which to read the
tests. Were the fat column clear, with straight top
and bottom line, the reading could be accurately
done with any cream test bottle.
 

 

CHR. HANSEN’S

Danish Dairy Preparations
INCLUDE

Danish Rennet Extract
Danish Cheese Color
Danish Butter Color
Lactic Ferment Culture

All well known to Butter and Cheese
Makers throughout the World and for sale
generally by dealers in Dairy Supplies.

 

For Cheese Making on the Farm, use

Chr. Hansen’s Rennet Tablets and
Cheese Color Tablets

Highly concentrated and handy to
send by mail. For sale by Druggists.

 

Dairymen making ICE CREAM will do well to
try our VANILLA and other FLAVORING EX-
TRACTS as well as our JUNKET COLORS. The
Junket Process for Ice Cream saves expense and
makes a most delicious product,

 

CHR. HANSEN’S LABORATORY
LITTLE FALLS, N. Y.

 

 
 

 

Postal Dairy Library.

HIS form of Extension Library was estab-

blished at the Dairy School at Madison,

Wis., in response to frequent request for
loans of bulletins, books, etc.

The Library consists of over 1,000 different
articles, nearly all relating to dairying and
kindred subjects which were gathered from
all parts of the United States and Canada.
Most of them are in the shape of bulletins
and circulars from the various Experiment
Stations. Many addresses given before But-
termaker’s, Cheesemaker’s and Dairymen’s
conventions are also included in this collection.
These bulletins, circulars, etc., are loaned
upon request for a period of three weeks.
The Library gets its name from the fact that
it makes use of the Postal Service in trans-
porting the publications.

A catalog has been prepared in which all
of this material has been classified so that a
patron can readily find such publications as
he desires. This catalog also gives full direc-
tions how the service of the Library may be
obtained, and is mailed free of charge to
persons requesting the same.

Buttermakers, cheesemakers, dairymen,
teachers, etc., are earnestly requested to make
full use of this new form of extension work.

Postal Dairy Library
Madison, Wis.

 

 
 

 

D. H. BURRELL & COMPANY

LITTLE FALLS, N. Y.

 

Manufacturers of the Most Complete and Up-to-date Line
of Specialties for the Handling of Milk in Any Quantity,
and for the Manufacture of Butter and Cheese.

The “SIMPLEX” Line of Dairy Specialties

Link Blade Cream Separators.
Combined Churns and Butter Workers.
Cream Ripeners.
Internal Tube System of Pasteurizing and Cooling Milk.
Sanitary Tubular Coolers.
‘Facile’? Babcock Milk Testers.
“B. & W.”’ Double Surface Milk Heaters,
and Check Pumps.
“Lapham” Brand Seamless Cheese Bandage.
Cheese Presses. Cheese Vats, Etc.

 

 

 

Cir. Hansen's Gelebrated Danish Dairy Preparations.

We are also Manufacturers of the Burrell-Lawrence-
Kennedy Milking Machines, and will gladly send copy
of catalogue telling of the advantages of machine milking,
and information regarding the production of certified milk.

D. H. BURRELL & COMPANY

LITTLE FALLS, N. Y.

 

 

 
 

 

The Wizard Will Do It All

 

The Wizard Agitator is a pasteurizer, a cooler,
an emulsifier, a ripener.

In it the cream can be pasteurized, aerated, cooled,
the starter emulsified in, the mixture ripened and the
butterfat hardened to the proper degree for exhaustive
churning and perfect body.

And no one machine or combination of machines
will do the work, or any part of it, better.

The secret? It is constructed on the right principle
— that of the spiral disc coil.

As an emulsifier, this coil agitates and mixes the
cream without churning it, which is not possible with
other coils. The Wizard is the only emulsifying ripener.

As a pasteurizer, the coil heats or cools the cream
quickly, and the temperature is the same in all parts of
the vat. The pasteurization is thorough.

Complete information and prices will be given on
request.

The C. P. Line is Complete

We furnish complete equipment and supplies for
Creameries, Cheese Factories, Farm Dairies, Produce
Dealers, Ice Cream Makers. Ice Making and Refriger-
ating Machinery in all capacities and for every purpose.
Catalogs free.

The Creamery Package Mfg. Company
. Chicago, Ill., U. S. A.

Albany, N. Y. Philadelphia, Pa. Minneapolis. Minn. Toledo, O.
Kansas City, Mo. Waterloo, Ia. Omaha, Neb.

 

 
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