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SENATE. { DOCUMENT
No. 189.

 

 

SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

LETTER

FROM

THE SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR,

TRANSMITTING,

IN RESPONSE TO RESOLUTION OF THE SHNATE OF FEBRUARY
28, 1898, LETTER PROM THE DIRECTOR OF THE GEOLOGICAL
SURVEY TRANSMITTING REPORT OF SURVEYS MADE UNDER
HIS DIRECTION, AND ACCOMPANYING PAPERS IN RELATION TO
THE FOREST RESERVES, SINCE JUNE 4, 1897.

Marcu 15, 1898.—Referred to the Committee on Public Lands and ordered to be
printed.

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR.
Washington, March 15, 1898.

Sir: I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of resolution of
the Senate dated February 28, 1898, as follows:

Resolved, That the Secretary of the Interior be directed to furnish for the use of
the Senate all information relating to the surveys of public lands since June 4, 1897,
th: have been designated as forest reserves under Executive proclamation, together
‘with the amount of land surveyed in each of said reservations under authority of the
act of Congress approved June 4, 1897, entitled ‘‘An act making appropriations for
sundry civil expenses of the Government for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1898, and
for other purposes.”

In response thereto I transmit herewith a letter from the Director of
the Geological Survey, dated the 14th instant, transmitting a report of
the surveys made under his direction; also a report made by Special
Forestry Agent Gifford Pinchot, and a special report upon sheep graz-
ing in the Cascade forest reserve of Oregon, prepared by Mr. F. V. Co-
ville, botanist of the Department of Agriculture. These reports contain
a summary of all the information that has been obtained in relation. to

het! d

the forest reserves since June 4, 1897. * “ye
BOE Sey ee ope

Very respectfully,
C, N. Buiss, Secretary.
The PRESIDENT OF THE SENATE.
Missing Page
REPORT ON THE SURVEY AND EXAMINATION OF
FOREST RESERVES (MARCH), 1898.

The Senate resolution adopted February 28, 1898, calling on the
Secretary of the Interior for a report on the survey of the forest reserves
by the Geological Survey, is as follows:

Resolved, That the Secretary of the Interior be directed to furnish for the use of
the Senate all information relating to the surveys of public lands since June 4, 1897,
that have been designated as forest reserves under Executive proclamation, together
with the amount of land surveyed in each of said reservations under authority of the
act of Congress approved June 4, 1897, entitled ‘An act making appropriations for
sundry civil expenses of the Government for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1898,
and for other purposes.”

In response to a similar resolution of date December 15, 1897, a report
was made to the Senate on December 22, 1897. This report was, with
slight exception, as full and complete as it is possible to make a report
at present, so far as regards surveys and subdivision. The present
report is, therefore, in these respects, largely a copy of the former report.
As to the examinations of the forests and matters relating thereto, a
digest of the reports of the special forestry agents is furnished. Since
the former report was submitted, some surveying has been done upon
the reserves in southern California, a statement of which has been added.

‘The act making provision for the survey of the forest reserves,
approved June 4, 1897, is in the following words, to wit:

For the survey of the public lands that have been or may hereafter be designated
as forest reserves by Executive proclamation, under section twenty-four of the act
of Congress approved March third, eighteen hundred and ninety-one, entitled ‘An
act to repeal timber-culture laws, and for other purposes,” and including public
lands adjacent thereto, which may be designated for survey by the Secretary of the
Interior, one hundred and fifty thousand dollars, to be immediately available: Pro-
vided, That to remove any doubt which may exist pertaining to the authority of the
President thereunto, the President of the United States is hereby authorized and
empowered to revoke, modify, or suspend any and all such Executive orders and
proclamations, or any part thereof, from time to time as he shall deem best for the
public interests: Provided, That the Executive orders and proclamations dated
February twenty-second, eighteen hundred and ninety-seven, setting apart and
reserving certain lands in the States of Wyoming, Utah, Montana, Washington,
Idaho, and South Dakota as forest reservations, be, and they are hereby, suspended,
and the lands embraced therein restored to the public domain the same as though
said orders and proclamations had not been issued: Provided further, That lands
embraced in such reservations not otherwise disposed of before March first, eighteen
hundred and ninety-eight, shall again become subject to the operations of said
orders and proclamations as now existing or hereafter modified by the President,

The surveys herein provided for shall be made under the supervision of the Direc-
tor of the Geological Survey, by such person or persons as may be employed by or
under him for that purpose, and shall be executed under instructions issued by the
Secretary of the Interior, and if subdivision surveys shall be found to be necessary,
they shall be executed under the rectangular system, as now provided by law. The
plats and field notes prepared shall be approved and certified to by the Director of
the Geological Survey, and two copies of the field notes shall be returned, one for the
files in the United States surveyor-general’s office of the State in which the reserve

3
4 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

oF

is situated, the other in the General Land Office; and twenty Jie fiona

copies of the plats shall be returned, one copy for the tiles in the United States

surveyor-general’s office of the State in which the reserve is situated; the original
lat and the other copies shall be filed in the General Land Office, and shall have the
acsimile signature of the Director of the Survey attached.

Such surveys, field notes, and plats thus returned shall have the same legal force
and effect as heretofore given the surveys, field notes, and plats returned through
the surveyors-general; and such surveys, which include subdivision surveys under
the rectangular system, shall be approved by the Commissioner of the General Land
Office as in other cases, and properly certified copies thereof shall be filed in the
respective land offices of the districts in which such lands are situated, as in other
cases. All laws inconsistent with the provisions hereof are hereby declared inopera-
tive as respects such survey: Provided, however, That a copy of every topographic
map and other maps showing the distributions of the forests, together with such
field notes as may be taken relating thereto, shall be certified thereto by the Direc-
tor of the Survey and filed in the General Land Office. (30 Stat. L., p. 34.)

In conformity with the terms of the statute, a plan of operations was
submitted to the Secretary of the Interior on June 7, 1897, and received

his approval on June 8. (See Appendix A of this report.)
ORGANIZATION OF THE SURVEY.

The surveying parties were at once organized and placed in charge
of the chiefs of the Rocky Mountain and Pacific sections of topography,
Mr. E. M. Douglas and Mr. R. U. Goode, both of whom have had many
years’ experience in the rugged and heavily timbered regions of the
West and Northwest. To each were assigned certain reserves. The
examination of the distribution and character of the forests and
woodlands, the amount of damage inflicted on them by forest fires,
the amount of dead timber, the extent of timber already cut, and the
effects of pasturage upon the forests, was placed in charge of Mr.
Henry Gannett, whose long experience, first with the Hayden Survey
of the Territories, and since 1879 with the Geological Survey, in the
forest-covered area of the West, particularly qualified him for this
important work. A copy of his instructions is submitted herewith as
Appendix B, and a copy of the instructions to topograpbers in regard
to the mapping of the wooded areas as Appendix C. -~

CHARACTER OF THE LANDS UNDER SURVEY.

Outside of the Black Hills and Big Horn reserves comparatively
little was known of the physical characteristics of the areas included
within the several forest reserves. In considering the problem of the
best method to secure such information, it became at once apparent that
a reliable map was essential, in order to supply a proper base upon
which to delimit the distribution of the forested lands and also to indi-
cate the possibilities of utilizing the water supply.

The forest reserves which it was proposed to survey are, with the
exception of the Black Hills reserve, situated in high, mountainous
regions, the altitudes ranging from 5,000 to 13,000 feet. They are all
at a considerable distance from railroads and in most cases are without
many settlers. Roads and trails are very few, and in many localities
entirely absent. The rugged character of the mountains and the
density of the timber make travel off the lines of the roads and
trails often impossible, except on foot. Because of the high altitude
and the northern latitude, storms are frequent and snows fallin nearly
every locality under survey early in September, thus delaying the
work or causing its entire stoppage after a very short field season.
The surveys were prosecuted with the utmost difficulty. In many
cution was greatly impeded. These obstacles have retarded the work
‘in the forest reserves very materially and have made it more costly than
was anticipated. The relative cost of the work done thus far is further
increased by the expense attending the purchase of new instruments
and field material, this item alone amounting to nearly one-fifth of the
total expenditure.

The surveys were placed in the immediate charge of men who were
thoroughly familiar with the duties required of them, and I am of
opinion that the best possible results have been obtained that could be
secured under existing conditions. The parties began operations in
the field at various dates between the 1st of July and 1st of Novem-
ber, and remained at work in the northwest as long as weather con-
ditions permitted.

EXAMINATION OF THE FORESTS ON THE RESERVES.

Of the appropriation of $150,000 for the survey and examination of
forest reserves, the sum of $16,000 was allotted for examining into the
condition and distribution of the forests upon the reserves and adja-
cent timber lands and other economic matters connected therewith.
Of this amount the sum of $11,256 had been expended up to March 1.

The examination of the forests has been made by men specially
qualified in work of this character. They were selected solely on the
score of their ability in this kind of work, without the slightest regard
for political affiliations or local representation, it being understood that
the desire of Congress was solely to gain full, exact, and reliable infor-
mation regarding the timber resources of these reserves.

The information which these men, known as special field assistants,
were instructed to obtain may be summarized as follows: The amount,
species, age, size, and distribution of the timber, these facts being repre-
sented as largely as possible upon maps; the extent of timber cutting;
the prevalence, extent, and amount of damage by fire; the extent and
character of the undergrowth; the character of the soil and the humus;
the amount and character of settlement within the reserve; the extent
and location of arable land within its limits; the extent and value of
mineral lands; the demand for timber; the means and facilities for
logging operations, and the effect upon the forests of the pasturage of
sheep and cattle within them, particularly the former.

PROGRESS AND RESULTS OF SURVEYS AND EXAMINATIONS.

Following is a particularized report of the progress of the surveys
and examinations and the results that have been accomplished thus far
in the field, the reserves being taken up separately in their order from
east to west.

BLACK HILLS FOREST RESERVE.

The following are the limits, as described in the Executive order,
establishing the reserve:

Beginning at the northwest corner of township one (1) south, range seven (7)
east, Black "Hills meridian, South Dakota; thence westerly along the Black Hills
6 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

base line to the southwest corner of township one (1) north, range six (6) east;
thence northerly along the range line between ranves five (5) and six (6) east to the
northwest corner of township two ,\2) north, range six (6) east; thence westerly
along the unsurveyed township line between townships two (2) and three (3) north
to the point of intersection with the boundary line between the tates of South
Dakota and Wyoming; thence southerly along said State bonndary line to the point
of intersection by the township line between townships six (6) and seven (7) south,
Black Hills base line: thence easterly along said township line to the southwest
curner of township six (6) south, range four (4) east: thence northerly along the
range line to the northwest corner of said township; thence easterly along the
township line between townships five (5) and six (6) south to the southwest corner
of township five (5) south, range six (6) east; thence northerly along the range line
to the northwest corner of said township; thence easterly along the tirst (1s: ) stand-
ard paralle] south to the southwest corner of township four (4) south. range seven
(7) east; thence northerly along the range line between ranves six (6) and seven (7)
east to the northwest corner of township one (1) south, range seven (7) east, the
place of beginning.

Survey.—It was known in advance that considerable section-sub-
division work would be necessary in this area, and that there were
some township lines to run, but the exact localities of the work could
not be known until a field examination had been made.

A leveling party, consisting of four men, was organized and com-
menced work on the 18th of June, and disbanded December 11; and
a second leveling party, consisting of three men, commenced work on
the 12th of July and disbanded on December +. A topographic party.
consisting of eight men, commenced work on July 14 and disbanded
December 5. Owing to the fact that the necessary instruments for land-
surveying work could not be obtained until August, although ordered
in June, sectionizing parties could not be started as early as desired.
One sectionizing party, consisting of nine men, was organized August
10, a second of nine men commenced work on the 30th of August, and
a third of nine men on October 17. The total number of miles of stand-
ard and township lines run to December 4, the close of the season’s
work, by the three parties, is 109 miles of township, 405 miles of sub-
division lines, and 21 miles of retracements of old surveys, being por-
tions of 14 townships. There remain to be subdivided portions of 16
townships.

Judging. by statements made by parties living in the Black Hills
and from Mr. Douglas's own experience while working in that locality
late in November, the latter had good reason to suppose that field
work could be prosecuted to advantage until late in December. He
therefore planned to increase the Black Hills parties in October and
November by adding to them such parties as would be forced to dis-
continue work in other reserves on account of storms and snow. This
plan of increasing the parties was carried out, and in October one tri-
angulation party of four men and two topographic parties of three men
each were added. Another topograpbic party of three men was added
in November. Satisfactory progress was made until the latter part of
November, when frequent and severe storms and cold weather inter-
vened to greatly delay the work. The expense being so great and the
results so small in comparison, it was decided early in December to
order the field work stopped. The outline of the timber areas was
obtained and depicted by sketches on the old maps of that section of
the country.

Up to the close of the work an entirely new and accurate survey was
being carried forward. including the running of level lines, the plac-
ing of bench marks, as required by law, the accurate sketching of the
topography, and the careful outlining ou the map of all timber areas,
distinguishing between burned or dead and living timber, the work
being executed by a total force of 57 men.
SURVEYS OF FOREsT RESERVES. (

The total amount of topography mapped comprises an area of 1,164
square miles, being about two-thirds of the entire area. This required
the survey of 1,311 miles of roads. The triangulation of the whole area
is completed. Twelve new stations have been located. There have
been run 484 miles of spirit-level lines, and 141 bench marks have been
established, being about four-fifths of the whole number required.

Cost of topography, including leveling and triangulation, *o close of
season. *11,756. There has been a total of 535 miles of section and
township lines run, which includes 21 miles of retracements of old sur-
veys, at a cost of £5,350. the total cost of the work being =17.106. The
land-survey work cost, approximately, <1) per linear mile, which includes
the cost of new instruments and ontfits. thus making the rate slightly
less than would have been allowed under land-office regulations.

Examination of forests—Mr. H. %. Graves was employed as special

 

field assistant in this region. He commenced work early in July and ,

concluded in the latter part of November, having examined the entire
region of the hills. including much land outside the limits of the reserve.
Topographic maps of this region, made on a seale of 1:125,000, by the
Survey. are used for the representation of much of the data obtained.

The area of the reserve. which lies entirely in South Dakota, is
estimated at 967.650 acres, or about 1,500 square miles. It ineludes
practically all the forests ot the hills to the east. but on the north and
northwest there are large areas of forest which are not included. On
the other nand, in the southwester part there are large tracts of open
country which are included in the reserve.

The Black Hills are situated between the Bellefourel.¢ and the South
Fork of Cheyenne River, between the forty-third and forty-fifth par-
allels of latitude and between the one hundred and third and one bun-
dred and fifth meridians. They are an isolated group of 1ountains,
whose general trend is north northwest and south southeast. and are
about 120 miles long by 40 miles in width. The form of the uplift is
elliptical. From the central portion the stratified beds have been, in
part, removed, expo-ing the underlying granites in the eastern half,
while the western halt is still covered by Carboniferous limestones.
The granite portion is somewhat rugged, althongh the relief is on a
small scale. The Carboniferous portion has an undulating surface.

Entirely surrounding this central portion is an elliptic-shaped valley
of varying breadth, known as the “Race Track.” This inturn is inclosed
by a rim of ridges, or hogbacks, ranging in elevation from 200 to 800
feet above the plains. The mean altitude of the plains at the hase of
the hills is about 3,000 to 5.500 feet above sea level. and the average

elevation of the hills above them is about 2,000 feet. The highest point:

is Harney Peak, in the granite portion of the hills, which has an altitude’
of 7.215 feet above sea level. In the northwestern portion of the hills
are several isolated peaks of voleanic rock which have broken through
the overlying strata, and, owing to their greater hardness. they have
remained while the softer strata have been worn away.

The exterior outlines oi the main body of forest are, for the most
part, sharply drawn. In general the forest terminates abruptly at the
inside of the Race Track, or the broad valley lying between the main
portion of the hills and the hogbacks which encircle them. In certain
cases where these hogbacks are higher than elsewhere they also are
clothed with forests. Thus the Elk Mountain Range. the Pisgah Hills,
the Inyankara Range. and Bear Lodge Mountains are covered with
timber. In the southern portion of the hills the outline of the timber
is more irregular than elsewhere and has been pushed back within the
hills by forest fires.
8 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

In general the timber is dense, but the forest is broken in many
places by parks and mountain prairies, and enormous tracts have been
denuded by recent forest fires. The entire area within the exterior
limits of timber is about 2,600 square miles. Of this 2,000 square
miles are covered with forest, the rest being either parks or prairies or
covered with a scattered growth of young timber.

The amount of merchantable timber within the Black Hills is esti-
mated at 1,440,000,000 feet B. M. Besides this, it is estimated that the
hills contain 13,150,000 cords of firewood, poles, ties, etc.

The only tree in the Black Hills of commercial importance is the
yellow pine. The other species are so small, occur in such limited
numbers, or have so few uses that they are of little or no economic
importance. By far the greater portion cf the hills is covered with a
pure forest of yellow pine.

The forest, as it is found to-day, does not :epresent at all what the
yellow pine is capable of producing in thisregion. The forestis irregu-
lar and broken and is composed in many places of defective and scrubby
trees. There are trees of every age and class, and there are large areas
where there are no trees at all. For a pure pine forest the yield in
merchantable timber is extremely small. In some places it will yield
15,000 to 20,000 feet per acre, but such localities are small in area. In
general a district which will yield 5,000 feet per acre over the whole
area is very good, and the average yield of the forested regions is prob-
ably not over 4,000 feet. For this condition forest fires are directly
responsible, and the present aspect of the forest is the result of long
abuse and the struggle of the forest to reestablish itself. The broken
condition of the forest, the large proportion of defective trees, the many
wind breaks, the prairies, parks, and bald ridges, are due to the destruc-
tive forest fires which have swept the hills periodically for years and
probably for centuries.

The natural forest of yellow pine is dense and composed of trees of
about the same age. It often comes up in bodies, the trees of which,
over considerable areas, have the same age, and the irregular condi-
tions now found are due entirely to external influences. The original
forest, uninfluenced by fire or windfall, is found in but few places in
the Black Hills. Such localities are distinguished on the map as those
of the heaviest growth. They are found on rich soil and in protected
situations. The trees average about 20 inches in diameter, with a maxi-
mum of 3 feet. This timber reaches a height of from 80 to 100 feet, and
the stems are straight and clear of limbs for from 30 to 50 feet.

There is a large amount of young growth scattered throughout the
original forest, and in the northern part of the hills the timber is com-
posed almost entirely of second growth, i. e., of thrifty growing trees
not yet large enough for lumber.

Although the plains surrounding the Black Hills are within the arid
region, having a rainfall of less than 20 inches annually, the Black
Hills, by virtue of their greater altitude and broken character, enjoy a
greater rainfall, giving them a subhumid climate. In some years there
is sufficient rainfall for the maturing of crops, and in others there is
drought, consequently the practice in regard to irrigation is by no
means uniform. Some farmers prefer to irrigate, and thus insure their
crops, while others take the chances on the rainfall. In some localities
the soil is more moist than in others and irrigation is unnecessary in
the majority of seasons, while in other and drier localities the reverse
is the case. Hence it is difficult to say whether the criterion of agri-
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 9

cultural land should be the ability to irrigate it. It therefore seems
best to point out the areas of open valley country within the reserve.
These open valleys are scattered all over the reserve, intersecting bodies
of timber in narrow strips, but nowhere appearing in large bodies except
in the southern part of the reserve, where there is an area, comprising
several townships of open country, containing but little timber, and.
that in small groves and patches.

The reserve is traversed by a brauch of the Chicago, Burlington and
Quincy Railroad, and on this road there are several towns of consider-
able size, including Custer, Hill City, Rochford, and other places. The
ranches upon the reserve are estimated to number 450 to 460. Most
of these have beer taken up as placer claims. These ranches contain,
on an average, from 30 to 40 acres of plow land each. The chief prod-
ucts are oats, hay, and vegetables,

Such open country as was above described, where not available for
farming, furnishes excellent pasturage. The largest extent of this is
the great area in the southern part of the hills mentioned above. Itis
estimated that there are about 5,000 head of stock ranging through the
timbered part of the hills, including the small bunches of cattle and
horses owned by the ranchmen. There are no sheep pastured within
the hills. It is stated that pasturing of cattle and horses does no harm
to the forests.

Mining is the most important industry iu the hills, and in the north-
ern portion, north of the reserve, probably not less than two-thirds of
the population are supported directly or indirectly by the mines. The
principal mining center is the vicinity of Lead and Deadwood,
where the Homestake mine is located. There are a number of other
sinall minivg towns in the neighborhood, and throughout this portion
of the hills are scattered mining cainps whose inhabitants are pros-
pecting and are developing discoveries. The most important mineral
belt in the ceutra! hills is at Keystone, where the Holy Terror and Key-
stone mines, employing a large number of men, are located, and through-
out the eastern portion of the Black Hills are scattered small mines
and discovery pits. They are said to be valuable, but are not being
operated beyond the performance of the work required by law to hold
the claims.

As stated above, the hills have been frequently and greatly devas-
tated by fires. To the prevalence of the latter is doubtless due the
existence of the open, parklike areas in the forest, as well as the poor
quality of much of the timber and the young growth which covers great
areas.

The vast majority of fires are doubtless the result of carelessness on
the part of camping parties. Incendiary fires are not common. Some
fires are set by sparks from railway trains and some by lightning.
Many fires have been set by the burning of brush after clearing, though
these are not as common as formerly. In the early days, before the
occupation of the region by whites, doubtless fires were set intention-
ally by Indians to drive game or to improve the pasturage.

There are forty-two small mills in operation in the South Dakota
portion of the Black Hills. These are small, portable mills, capable of
cutting, as a rule, about 8,000 or 10,000 feet of lumber each per day
when in full operation. Very few of them, however, are run to their
full capacity. The total annual output of lumber is estimated at
20,000,000 feet, besides the amount cut for firewood. Most of this is cut
for mine timbering in the Homestake and other mines, but no small
proportion of it is exported from the State.
10 SURVEYS OF: FOREST RESERVES.

BIG HORN FOREST RESERVE.

The following are the limits, as described in the Executive order
establishing the reserve: :

Beginning at the southeast corner of township forty-eight (48) north, range eighty-
four (84) west, sixth (sth) principal meridian, Wyoming; thence northerly along the
range line to the northeast corner of said township; thence westerly along the twelfth
(12th) standard parallel north, to the southeast corner of township forty-nine (49)
north, range eighty-four (84) west; thence northerly along the range line to the north-
east corner of section thirteen (13), township fifty (50) north, range eighty-four (84)
west; thence westerly along the section line to the northeast corner of section seven-
teen (17), saidtownship; thence northerly along the section line to the southeast
corner of section twenty-nine (29), township fifty-one (51) north, range eighty-four
(84) west; thence easterly along the section line to the southeast corner of section
twenty-six (26), said township; thence northerly along the section line to the north-
east corner of section two (2), township fifty-two (52) north, range eighty-four (84)
west; thence westerly along the thirteenth (13th) standard pavallel north to the
southeast corner of section thirty-tive (35), township fifty-three (53) north, range
eighty-four (84) west; thence northerly along the section line to the northeast corner
of section fourteen (14), said township; thence westerly along the section line t6 the
northeast corner of section fourteen (14), township fifty-three (53) north, range eighty-
tive (85) west; thence northerly along the section line to the northeast corner of sec-
tion (2), said township; thence westerly along the township line to the northeast
corner of section two (2), township fifty-three (53) north, range eighty-six (86) west;
thence northerly along the section line to the northeast corner of section two (2),
township fifty-four (54) north, range eighty-six (86) west; thence westerly along the
township line to the southeast corner of township fifty-five (55) north, range eighty-
seven (87) west; thence northerly along the range line to the northeast corner of said
township; thence westerly along the township line to the northwest corner of said
township; thence southerly along the range line to the southwest corner of said town-
ship; thence westerly along the township line to the northwest corner of township
fifty-four (54) north, range eighty-eight (88) west; thence northerly along the range
line between ranges eighty-eight (88) and eighty-nine (89) west to the northwest
corner of township fifty-six (56) north, range eighty-eight (88) west; thence westerly
along the fourteenth (14th) standard parallel north to the southwest corner of town-
ship fifty-seven (57) north, range eighty-eight (88) west; thence northerly along the
range line between ranges eighty-eight (88) and eighty-nine (89) west to the point of
intersection with the boundary line between the States of Wyoming and Montana;
thence westerly along said State boundary line to the point for the unsurveyed range
line between ranges ninety-two (92) and ninety-three (93) west; thence southerly
along said unsurveyed range line to the fourteenth (14th) standard parallel north;
thence easterly along said standard parallel to the northeast corner of township fifty-
six (56) north, range ninety-three (93) west; thence southerly along the range line
between ranges ninety-two (92) and ninety three (93) west to the northwest corner
of township fifty-four (54) north, range ninety-two (92) west; thence easterly along
the township line to the northeast corner of said township; thence southerly along
the range line to the southeast corner of said township; thence easterly along the
township line to the northeast corner of township fifty-three (53) north, range
ninety-one (91) west; thence southerly along the range line to the southeast corner
of said township; thence easterly along the thirteenth (13th) standard parallel
north to the northwest corner of township fifty-two (52) north, range eighty-eight
(88) west; thence southerly along the range line between ranges eighty-eight (88)
and eighty-nine (89) west to the southwest corner of township fifty-one (51) north,
range eighty-eight (88) west; thence easterly along the township line to the south-
east corner of said township; thence’southerly wlong the range line between ranges
eighty-seven (87) and eighty-eight (88) west to the southwest corner of township
forty-nino (49) north, range eighty-seven (87) west; thence easterly along the twelfth
(12th) standard parallel north to the northwest corner of township forty-eight (48)
north, range eighty-seven (87) west; thence southerly along the range line to the
southwest corner of said township; thence easterly along the township line between
townships forty-seven (47) and forty-eight (48) north to the southeast corner of
township forty-eight (48) north, range eighty-four (84) west, the place of beginning.

Survey.—T wo topographic parties of four men each, two leveling par-
ties of three men each, and one triangulation party of four men were
outfitted for work in this reserve. To the triangulation party was also
assigned the duty of connecting the triangulation with that to be exe-
cuted for the Teton Reserve, both depending on a base line and astro-
nomic position previously measured near Sheridan, Wyo.
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. ll

The triangulation party commenced field work July 5, and first
secured control for topographic work over that part of the reserve in
the vicinity of Cloud Peak. This necessitated the selection and occu-
pation of ten stations. Positions of these were computed at once and
furnished to the topographic party to which had been assigned the duty
of mapping the area. The further work of the triangulation party in
the vicinity of the Yellowstone and the Teton timber and forest reserves
consisted in the selection and location of twelve stations. The field work
of this party ended on November 10,

One leveling party was outfitted and commenced work at Sheridan,
Wyo., on June 26, and terminated field work on November 6. A second
leveling party commenced work early in July, and was disbanded on
the same date as the other party. The total length of level lines for
these two parties is 330 miles. Their work also included the establish-
ment of 80 permanent bench marks.

One topographic party commenced a survey of the Cloud Peak area
on the 12th of August and continued in the field until November 2.
During this period an area of 4:'0 miles was surveyed, including a care-
ful location of the outlines of all timber areas. The second party com-
menced field work on July 8 and was disbanded on September 5, on
account of illness in the immediate family of the chief of party. During
this period of activity an area of 245 syuare miles was mapped and the
outlines of timber were carefully sketched.

The total cost of the work in the Bighorn area, including that of the
triangulation party, which also did work for the Teton Reserve, is

$8,952.
_Heinination of forests.—Mr. F. kX. Town was employed as special field
ssistant for the examination of this area. He commenced work about
the middle of July and ended at the close of September.

The limits of the reserve conform, in a general way, to the outlines of
the Bighorn range, although not closely. In some places they inclose
small areas of the plains upon the east and west, while in others con-
siderable mountain and forest areas are excluded. The range, however,
extends far to the south of the southern limit of the reserve. The area
is 1,198,080 acres, or 1,870 square miles.

The Bighorn range has the form of an ellipse, the axis of which is
somewhat curved, trending, in the southern part, nearly north and
south, and in the northern part to the northwestward. The breadth
ranges from 30 to 50 miles and the length is between 75 and 100
miles. Upon the east are the plains and upon the west the Bighorn
basin. Structurally the range consists of a great anticlinal fold, broad,
flat, and rising steeply upon the flanks. The country upon either side
has an elevation of 4,000 to 5,000 feet above sea level, while the
summit of the range has an altitude, for the most part, of 7,500 to
9,000 feet. In general the summit of the range is a plateau whose
surface is undulating and hilly and presents comparatively little relief,
but here and there rise granite summits to altitudes exceeding 10,000
feet, and about the middle of the plateau there rises abruptly a range
of mountains 3,000 to 4,000 feet above its surface, or 12,000 to 13,000
feet above the sea, the highest summit of this range being Cloud Peak,
with an altitude of 13,100 feet.

While the entire area of the Bighorn Mountains, with the exception
of a small region above timber line, is, judging from its climate and
other indications, capable of producing forests, still the general aspect
of the reserve is that of a lightly timbered region. It contains no large
or valuable timber. It is only in a very few localities that any timber
12 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

suitable for the sawmill is to be found, and a large proportional area,
probably quite one-half, consists of open parks. Nearly all of the tim-
bered region has been burned over, and much of it has been repeatedly
subjected to devastation from fires. In the park areas it is evident
that the timber has been driven out completely by fire. Of the tim-
bered region a large part is covered with young growth, ranging from
ten to fifty years of age, while the ground is strewed with dead trees,
the victims of fires, and these dead trees also are young and small,
Fires have prevailed so frequently and universally over this region
that it is only in limited localities that mature forests exist.

The destruction of the forests dates back mainly to the time of the
occupancy of this region by Indians, and the fires were doubtless set
by them for the purpose of driving out game or improving the pas-
turage. Since the occupancy of this region by whites fires have been
few and small.

Almost all the timber of this reserve consists of lodge-pole pine,
Pinus murrayana. This is generally distributed over the reserve at all
altitudes, from the level of the plains to timber line. It is an inferior
wood for lumber purposes.

Other species of coniferous trees, Pinus flexilis, Picea engelmanni, and
Pseudotsuga taxifolia, are found, but they are sparsely distributed.

One of the best bodies of timber in the mountains is located in town-
ship 55 north, range 88 west, which was left out of the reserve, probably
because a portion of its area had passed into private hands. The town-
ship north of this also contains considerable timber. South of the line
of the reserve township 47 north, in.ranges S84 to 87, inclusive, is fairly
well timbered; indeed, quite as fully as the region lying adjacent within
the reserve.

It is estimated that upon the entire reserve there are only 106,000
acres upon which the timber is of sufficient size to be considered mer-
chantable, and of this about 22,000 acres have been cut over for railroad
ties, leaving, approximately, 84,000 acres not cut over. Upon this area
it is estimated that there are at present 210,000,000 feet B. M. of stand-
ing timber. This statement summarizes the condition of things upon
the reserve. Its entire area is capable of producing timber, but of this
area only 7 per cent contains merchantable timber at present.

There were, during the summer of 1897, six sawmills using timber
from the reserve. These mills cut 1,700,000 feet B. M. per year. In
recent years about 1,750,000 railroad ties have been cut from townships
55 and 56 north, in range 88 west. This represents about 56,000,000
feet B. M. The above figures represent the extent of timber cutting
within these mountains, with the exception of the small amount cut by
settlers for their improvements and for firewood.

Roads across and through these mountains are few in number. There
are very few settlers and improvements in these mountains.

The Bighorn Mountains are used very extensively as a summer range
for sheep. It is estimated that during last summer 450,000 sheep were
pastured upon them. At present their range is confined to the parks,
the adjoining timbered areas being untouched by them. Therefore at
pre one there is no question concerning any injury to the forests by
them,

There has been some prospecting for minerals in these mountains for
several years, but few discoveries have been made which have shown
sufficient promise to induce regular work. Some mining has been done
upon Bald Mountain, near Cloud Peak, near Black Mountain, on Tongue
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 13

River, and on Wolf Creek. On the whole, however, the mining indus-
try in the Bighorn Mountains is at present a trifling matter.

There is no arable land within the limits of the reserve. Although
there is an abundance of open country and of water for irrigation, the
altitude is so great and consequently the climate is so severe that the
cultivation of any but the hardiest crops is impracticable.

TETON FOREST RESERVE.

The fullowing are the limits, as described in the Executive order
establishing the reserve:

Beginning at the southeast corner of township forty-three (43) north, range one
hundred and ten (110) west, sixth (6th) principal meridian, Wyoming; thence north-
erly along the surveyed and unsurveyed range line between ranges one hundred and
nine (109) and one hundred and ten (110) west, to the point of ‘intersection with the
south boundary of the Yellowstone National Park Timber Land Reserve as established
by proclamation of September tenth, eighteen hundred and ninety-one; thence west-
erly along said boundary to its intersection with the boundary line between the
States of Wyoming and Idaho; thence southerly along said State boundary line to
the point for the unsurveyed township line between townships forty-two (42) and
forty-three (43) north; thence easterly along the unsurveyed and surveyed township
line between townships forty-two (42) and forty-three (43) north, to the southeast
corner of township férty-three (43) north, range one hundred and ten (110) west, the
place of beginning.

Survey.—As a portion of the area included in this reserve was known
to be settled, and as initial geodetic positions and level elevations were
available, the work planned was to secure additional triangulation con-
trol, to commence the leveling, and to begin the preliminary work for
mapping the eastern part of the reserve. The necessary outfit for two
parties of five men each was procured at Idaho Falls, Idaho, this being
the nearest available outfitting point. Field work was commenced
July 18, and stopped on October 18.

The total sum expended to date is $4,867.

The practical results accomplished are the location of eight triangu-
lation stations within the reserve, the running of 154 miles of accurate
spirit level lines, the establishment of 13 level bench marks, the sur-
vey of 173 miles of road, and the careful location of 60 land survey
corners. The work is now in such condition that topographic surveys
can be commenced, when the weather permits, without any additional
office or field work. .

Examination of forests.—This work was assigned to Dr, T. 8. Bran-
degee, who was employed as special field assistant for this purpose.
He commenced work about the 1st of July and concluded about the
end of September.

Topography.—The principal relief features are simple. Traversing
the reserve from north to south, near its western boundary, is the Teton
Range. This has an average breadth of 12 to 15 miles, and is extremely
rugged, rising in the highest summit, the Grand Teton, to an altitude
of 13,870 feet, while the average altitude of the range is probably not
far from 12,000 feet. On the west the mountains descend quite steeply
to Teton Basin, across the eastern upper edge of which runs the west
boundary of the reserve at an altitude of 6,500 to 7,000 feet. On the
east the Teton Range descends by cliffs and extremely steep slopes to
the valley known as Jackson Hole. This is a broad expanse, extend-
ing from the north boundary of the reserve in a direction a little west
14 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

of south to the southern boundary. Its breadth ranges from 10 to 12
miles, and its altitude within the reserve from 6,500 to 7,000 feet. It is
drained by Snake River, which traverses it from north to south, receiv-
ing the waters of several large branches from the east, including Buf-
falo and Grosventre rivers. There are several lakes in the valley, the
largest of which is Jackson Lake, near the north boundary of the
reserve, through which flows Snake River. The surface of the valley
is, in the main, a gravelly bench land, quite level, and producing a
scanty growth of sagebrush interspersed with grass. The bottom land
of the river is broad and inclosed between low blufis. It is covered
with a dense growth of cottonwoods, willows, and other brush.

The country east of Jackson Hole consists of high, massive mountain
spurs, descending from a high plateau, 11,000 to 12,000 feet, whose crest
lies east of the reserve. In this plateau head Pacific Creek, Bufialo
River, aud the Gros Ventre, which flow westward, through narrow
valleys, to the Snake.

Forests —TYhe broad, rugged summit of the Teton Range is without
forests, partly because of its great altitude and partly because of its
extremely rugged character. The small portion of the Teton Basin
which is within the reserve, and most of the area of Jackson Hole,
together with the lower portions of the narrow valleys of Buffalo and
Gros Ventre rivers, are also naturally treeless. The,remaining portion
of the reserve is covered, but more or less sparsely, with timber growth.
In few localities is the timber such as could properly be called dense,
and the trees are nowhere large. Over most of this area the timber is
scattered in small groves, interspersed among open, park-like areas.
Four-fifths of the timber consists of lodgepole pine (Pinus murrayana),
the remainder of Engelmann spruce, Douglas fir, juniper, and aspen.
The trees are small and of little service for any purpose other than fire-
wood, fencing, and such uses. Thus, although the entire area in which
timber is found is well adapted in climate and soil to timber growth,
still the amount of timber contained upon it at present is trifling. All
indications point to fire as the cause for this condition of things. It is
evident that, in times past, this region has been devastated by fire so
frequently that forest growth has been well nigh prevented. The proof
of this is seen in the existence everywhere of dead and charred stumps
of trees and fallen logs, and in the fact that over great areas young
timber is starting.-

Upon the whole reserve it is estimated that there are not over 22,000
acres of merchantable timber—that is, of size suitable for saw logs—and
that they contain not over 75,000,000 feet, B. M., of lumber. These areas
are scattered widely over the reserve.

Agricultural lands—As stated above, the west boundary includes a
small area of the upper part of Teton Basin. This is a triangular tract,
widest at the north, where it may be 6 miles in width, and diminishing
southward to a point, Nearly all of township 45 north, range 115, is
within this area; also the west half of township 44 north, range 118;
and the western tiers of sections in township 43, range 118, are included
within it. Although elevated and cold, and therefore capable of pro-
ducing only the hardiest crops, this land is susceptible of irrigation
and cultivation.

Jackson Hole comprises a large amount of agricultural land. It lies
easy for irrigation, and the supply of water is ample for the entire area.
The altitude, however, is great, and the consequent severity of the
climate will prevent the production of anything except the hardiest
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 15

vegetables and grains. Its value as agricultural land is not, therefore,
great. The area included in this valley is as follows:

In range 113 west, the three western tiers of sections of township 46
north, and the south half of township 45 north.

In range 114 west, the north half of townships 46, 45, and 44,

In range 115 west, the west half of townships 46, 45, 44, and 43.

In range 116 west, the two eastern tiers of sections of township 44,
and the east half of township 43.

The above tracts comprise all the land within the reserve which can
be classed as agricultural.

Settlement.—There are within the reserve 40 ranches, of which 19
are in the Teton Basin at the west foot of the Teton Range, the remain-
ing 21 being in Jackson Hole. They are, for the most part, only hay
ranches. On each of them are kept a few head of cattle, which range
in summer and are fed wild hay in the winter. No attempt, so far as
known, has been made to cultivate crops in either locality. The stock
kept in Jackson Hole are few in number, and their range thus far has
been limited to the valley. There are no sheep ranged within the
reserve.

Two sawmills are in operation cutting timber within it. Both are
small, and are located at the west base of the Teton Range, one upon
the creek flowing west of Teton Pass, the other upon Darby Creek.

Settlements in the neighborhood of this reserve being extremely
sparse, there is scarcely any demand for lumber, and none may be
anticipated in the immediate future.

The only means of communication are by wagon road and trails.
The only wagon road of importance within the region is that which,
coming from the west, crosses the Teton Range at Teton Pass, and
descending to Jackson Hole follows up Snake River into Yellowstone
Park, with a branch leading over the divide at Grassy Lakes and down
Falls River.

LEWIS AND CLARK FOREST RESERVE.

The following are the limits, as described in the Executive order
establishing the reserve:

Beginning at the point on the south boundary of the Blackfeet Indian Reservation
where said boundary line is intersected by the range line between ranges eight (8)
and (9) west, principal meridian, Montana; thence southwesterly along the south
boundary to the southwest corner of said reservation and northwesterly along
the west boundary thereof, as defined and described in the act of Congress approved
June tenth, eighteen hundred and ninety-six, entitled ‘‘An act making appropri-
ations for current and contingent expenses of the Indian Department and fulfilling
treaty stipulations with various Indian tribes for the fiscal year ending June thirti-
eth, eighteen hundred and ninety-seven, and for other purposes,” to the point where
the unsurveyed range line between ranges twelve (12) and thirteen (13) west will
intersect said boundary line; thence southerly along said unsurveyed range line to
the point for the northeast corner of township twenty-nine (29) north, range thir-
teen (13) west; thence westerly along the unsurveyed township line to the point
for the northwest corner of said township; thence southerly along the unsurveyed
range line to the point for the southwest corner of section eighteen (18), said
township; thence westerly along the unsurveyed section line to the point for
the northwest corner of section nineteen (19), township twenty-nine (29) north,
range fourteen (14) west; thence southerly along the wnsurveyed range line to
the point for the southwest corner of said township twenty-nine (29) north, range
fourteen (14) west; thence westerly along the unsurveyed seventh (7th) standard
parallel north, to the point for the southeast corner of township twenty-nine
(29) north, range seventeen (17) west; thence northerly along the unsurveyed
range line to the point for the northeast corner of said township; thence westerly
16 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

along the unsurveyed township line to the point for the northwest corner of
section three (3), said township; thence northerly along the unsurveyed section
line to the point for the northeast corner of section four \4), township thirty (30)
north. range seventeen (17) west; thence westerly along the unsurveyed township
line to the point for the northwest corner of section three (3), township thirty (30)
north, range nineteen (19) west: thence southerly along the unsurveyed and sur-
veyed section line, subject to the proper offset on the seventh (7th) standard parallel
north, to the southeast corner of section twenty-one (21), township twenty-eight (7s)
north. range nineteen (19) west: thence easterly along the unsurveyed section line
to the point for the southeast corner of section twenty-four ,24:. said township:
thence sontherly along the unsurveyed and surveyed range line to the southeast
corner of township twenty-seven 27' north. range nineteen (19) west: thence
easterly along the surveyed and unsurveyed township line to the point for the
northwest corner of section three ,3\. township twenty-six (26) north. range
eighteen 1> west: thence southerly along the nnsurveyed section line to the
point for the southwest corner of section thirty-four (351°. said township: thence
westerly along the ansurveyed and surveyed township line to its intersection with
the east shore of Flathead Lake: thence southerly along the shore of said lake to
the north boundary of the Flathead Indian Reservation: thence easterly along the
north boundary to the northeast corner of said reservation and southerly along the
east boundary thereof to the point where said boundary-line will] le intersected by
the unsurvered fourth (4th) standard parallel north: thence easterly along said
unsurveyed parallel to the point for the southeast corner of township seventeen (17°
north, range seven (7) west: thence northerly along the ansurveyed range line to
the point for the northeast corner of said township: thence westerly along the
unsurvered township line to the point for the northwest corner of said township:
thence northerly along the unsurveyed range line to the point for the northeast cor-
ner of township eighteen .15) north, range eight > west: thence westerly along
the unsurveyed township line to the paint for the southeast corner of township nine-
teen (19) north. range nine (9) west: thence northerly along the unsurveyed and sur-
veyed range line between ranges eight ,S: and nine (9) west. subject to the proper
offsets on the ofth Sth), sixth .6th),and seventh (ith) standard parallels north, to
the point of intersection with the south boundary of the Blackfeet Indian Reserva-
tion, the place of beginning.

FLATHEAD FOREST RESERVE.

The following are the limits. as described in the Executive order
establishing the reserve:

Beginning at the southwest corner of township thirty-three :33) north. ranve
twenty-five (25) west, principal meridian, Montana: thence easterly along the sur-
veyed and unsurveyed eighth th standard parallel north, to the northeast corner
of township thirty-two 32 north. ranve twenty-two (22) west: thence southerly
along the range line between ranges twenty-one (21) and twenty-two (22) west, To
the southeast corner of section thirteen (15 of said township thirty-two ,32) north.
range twenty-two (22) west; thence easterly along the unsurveyed section line to the
point for the southeast corner of section thirteen (15. township thirty-two (32) north.
rangeeighteen 1> west; thence southerly along the unsurveyed range line between
ranges seventeen ,17 and eighteen (1° west. to the northwest corner of township
thirty-one (31) north, range seventeen (17) west: thence casterly along the township
line between townships thirty-one (31) and thirty-two (32: north. to the northwest
corner of section two (2), township thirty-one $1) north, range seventeen (17) west:
thence along ihe section lines southerly to the southwest corner of section twenty-
three 23), and easterly to the northeast corner of section twenty-five .25\. said town-
ship: thence southerly along the range line between ranges sixteen (16) and seven-
Teen (17) west. to the southeast corner of said township thirty-one (31) north, range
seventeen (17) west: thence easterly along the unsurveyed tewnship line between
townships thirty (30) and thirty-one (31) north, to the point for the southeast
corner of township thirty-one (31) north. range sixteen (16) west: thence southerly
along the unsurveyed range line between ranges fifteen ,15) and sixteen (16) west,
to the point tor the southwest corner of township thirty (30) north, range fifteen
15) west: thence easterly alongs the unsurveyed township line between townshins
twenty-nine (29) and thirty (30) north. to the point for the southeast comer of said
township thirty (30) north: thence northerly along the unsurveyed range line
between ranges fourteen (14) and tifteen (15) west, to the point for the southeast
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. LG

eorner of section thirteen (13), said township thirty (30) north, range fifteen (15)
west; thence along the unsurveyed section lines, easterly to the point for the
southeast corner of section sixteen (14:, and northerly to the point for the north-
east corner of section four (4), township thirty (30) north, range fourteen (14) west;
thence easterly along the unsurveyed township line between townships thirty (30)
and thirty-one (31) north, to the point for the southeast corner of town-hip thirty-
one (31), range fourteen (14) west; thence northerly along the unsurveyed range
line between ranges thirteen (13) and fourteen (11) west, to the point where it will
intersect the west boundary of the Blackfeet Indian Reservation, as said boundary
is defined and described in the act of Congress approved June tenth, cighteen hun-
dred and ninety-six, entitled, ‘An act making appropriations for current and con-
tingent expenses of the Indian Department and fulfilling treaty stipulations with
various Indian tribes for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth. eighteen hundred and
ninety-seven, and for other purpo-es;” thence northwesterly along the boundary of
said Indian re~-rvation to its point of intersection with the international boundary
line between the State of Montana and the British possessions: thence westerly along
said international boundary line to the point for the unsurveyed range line between
ranges twenty-five (25) and twenty-six (26) west: thence ~outherly along the unsur-
veyed range line between ranges twenty-five (25; and twenty-six (26) west to the
ninth (9th) standard parallel north; thence easterly along suid parallel tv the north-
east corner of township thirty-six (36) uorth, range twenty-six (26) west: thence
southerly along the range line between ranyves twenty-five ‘25) and twenty-six (26)
west, to the southwe-t corner of township thirty-three (33) north, range twenty-tive
(25) west, the place of beginning.

Surveys.—Both of these reserves embrace a practically unsettled
country, where there are very few roads or trails, and of which no accu-
rate maps have ever been made. Therefore the first work planned was
the carrying forward of triangulation to cover the whole area, to serve
as a basis for topographic maps and for tie points for land surveys to
be carried on another season. Two parties of four men each were out-
fitted for work to commence at a base line to be measured near Helena,
and to use the Coast and Geodetic Survey astronoinic station at Helena,
this being the nearest astronomic station. Field work was actually
commenced on the 10th of July, and was continued by the Flathead
party until September 28. when, because of numerous storms and deep
snow, it was decided that further work for the season was impracti-
eable. The Lewis and Clark party remained in the field until Novem-
ber 10. During this time eight triangulation stations were selected
and marked, and signals erected outside of the forest reserve. In
addition to these, eight stations within the reserve were selected and
occupied, and five additional points for stations selected. Five other
prominent points for control of topographic mapping were also located
within the reserve. When the office computations for this work are
completed ample control will be farnished for commencing topographic
and other surveys. The Flathead party was engaged the greater part
of the season in assisting the Lewis and Clark party, for until the
positions in the latter reserve were carried northward no base would
be furnished for the Flathead Reserve. The only practical results
accomplished in the Flathead Reserve are the reconnoissance for trian-
gulation and the selecting and monumenting of four stations.

The total amount expended for these two reserves to date is 34,685,

Enough is now known of these two reserves to plan future work
intelligently and to at once commence topographic and land surveys.

Examination of forests.—No examinations of the forest conditions of
the Lewis and Clark and Flathead reserves were made, owing mainly
to the fact that no adequate maps of the areas were available for the
representation of such data.

S. Doc. 189 2

 
18 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.
UINTA FOREST RESERVE.

The following are the limits, as described in the Executive order
establishing the reserve:

Beginning at the northwest corner of township one (1) south, range seven (7) east,
Salt Lake meridian, Utah; thence easterly along the base line to the southeast
corner of township one (1) north, range eight (8) east; thence northerly along the range
line to the northeast corner of said township; thence easterly along the township
line between townships one (1) and two (2) north to the southeast corner of town-
ship two (2) north, range thirteen (13) east; thence northerly along the range line
to the northeast corner of said township; thence easterly along the surveyed and
unsurveyed township line between townships two (2) and three north to its point of
intersection with the Green River; thence in a southeasterly direction along the
middle of the chauunel of said river to the point for the unsurveyed range line between
ranges twenty-two (22) and twenty-three (23) east; thence southerly along the un-
surveyed and surveyed range line between said ranges to the point for the southeast
corner of township two (2) south, range twenty-two (22) east; thence westerly along
the unsurveyed and surveyed township line between townships two (2) and three (3)
south to the northwest corner of township three (3) south, range nineteen (19) east;
thence southerly along the west boundary of said township to its intersection with
the east boundary of the Uinta Indian Reservation; thence northwesterly along said
Indian reservation boundary to the northeast corner of said reservation; thence
southwesterly along the north boundary of said Indian reservation to the interses-
tion therewith by the range line between ranges six (6) and seven (7) east; thence
northerly along said range line, surveyed and unsurveyed, to the northwest corner
of township one (1) south, range seven (7) east, the place of beginning.

Surveys.—lt was planned to carry triangulation for this reserve from
the Coast and Geodetic Survey transcontinental stations in the vicinity
of Salt Lake, and to run level Jines from Evanston, Wyo., into the
reserve, and to commence at an early date the subdividing of town-
ships where found needful. After a preliminary examination of the
country it was deemed impracticable and, for the present, unnecessary
to commence subdivisional surveys.

One triangulation party of four men and one leveling party of three
men were outfitted at Salt Lake and Evanston. The triangulation party
found it necessary to occupy nine stations outside of the reserve in
order to secure positions and distances. The stations actually located
within the reserve are two in number. Only 57 miles of spirit level
lines were run, the greater part of which were outside of the reserve.
The weather in this locality was even worse than that encountered in
the other reserves.

The total amount expended for this reserve to December 1 is $3,506.

EHzamination of forests.—The examination of the forest conditions of
the Uinta Reserve was included in the plans at the outset of the sea-
son, with the intention that Dr. T. 8. Brandegee should make such
examination upon the completion of his work in the Teton Reserve.
At the time this latter was finished, however, the season was so far
advanced that it was decided to be unwise to begin the work, since the
region consists of high mountains, ranging in altitude from 10,000 to
13,000 feet, This work was, therefore, postponed until the spring of 1898.

BITTERROOT FOREST RESERVE,

The following are the limits, as described in the Executive order
establishing the reserve:
Beginning at the northeast corner of township thirty-six (36) north, range five (5)

east, Boise meridian, Idaho; thence southerly along the surveyed and unsurveyed.
range line between ranges five (5) and six (6) east, to the point of intersection with
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 19

the Salmon River; thence in an easterly direction along the middle of the channel
of said river to the point of intersection for the unsurveyed range line between
ranges eighteen (18) and nineteen (19) east; thence northerly along said unsurveyed
range line to the point of intersection with the boandary line between the States of
Idaho and Montana; thence in an easterly direction along said State boundary line
to the point for the unsurveyed range line between ranges nineteen (19) and twenty
(20) west, principal meridian, Montana; thence northerly along said range line to the
base line; thence westerly along said base line to the southeast corner of township
one (1) north, range twenty (20) west; thence northerly along the range line to the
northeast corner of said township; thence westerly along the surveyed and unsur-
veyed township line between townships one (1) and (2) north, to the point for the
southeast corner of township two (2) north, range twenty-two (22) west; thence
northerly alony the unsurveyed range line between ranges twenty-one (21) and
twenty-two (22) west, allowing for the proper offsets on the first (1st) and second
(2nd) standard parallels north, to the point for the northeast corner ot township ten (10)
north, range twenty-two (22) west; thence westerly along the unsurveyed township
line between townships ten (10) and eleven (11) north, to the point of intersection
with the boundary line between the States of Montana and Idaho; thence along said
State boundary line to the point for the unsurveyed township line between town-
ships thirty-eight (38) and thirty-nine (39) north, Idaho; thence westerly along said
township line to the point for the northwest corner of township thirty-eight (38)
north, range ten (10) east; thence southerly along the unsurveyed range line between
ranges nine (9) and ten (10) east, to the point for the southwest corner of township
thirty-seven (37) north, range ten (10) east; thence westerly along the unsurveyed
seventh (7th) standard parallel north, to the northeast corner of township thirty-six
(36) north, range five (5) east, the place of beginning.

Surveys.—Probably there is no other portion of the country, exclu-
sive of Alaska, about which there is so little known as of the territory
included in the Bitterroot Forest Reserve. It was therefore necessary
to commence ab initio, as nothing whatever was available from a topo-
graphic standpoint. The first step was to determine an astronomic
position, measure a base line, and expand a system of triangulation
which would serve to furnish starting points for the topographic map-
ping. A location for the astronomic station was selected in the town
of Hamilton, Mont., and the latitude and longitude of a masonry pier
built at this point were determined. The latitude was obtained by
observations on 60 pairs of stars, and the longitude by time observa-
tions and telegraphic exchange of clock signals with Washington Uni-
versity, at St. Louis. Mo., on five nights. A permanent meridian mark
was also set one-half mile south of the astronomic pier. A base line
was twice measured with a 300-foot tape under a constant tension of 20
pounds, several hundred thermometric readings of the temperature of
the tape being obtained during the process of measurement. The total
length of this line was 5.7 miles, and the difference between the two
measurements, after all corrections had been applied, was about 1 inch.
Triangulation was expanded from the base line over an area of about
6,500 square miles, 1,000 miles being covered so that no further work is
necessary, and the remaining 5,500 being covered in a manner sufficient
to provide a basis for a reconnaissance map, including the whole area
of the Bitterroot Forest Reserve.

Topographic work was prosecuted by two separate parties, one being
engaged in preparing a detailed map of the territory included in and
adjacent to the Bitterroot Valley, and the other party being detailed to
secure data for the reconnaissance map above referred to. About 600
square miles were included in the detailed survey, and the remaining
portion of the reserve was mapped by the reconnaissance survey. On
the maps resulting from each of these surveys will be shown, with con-
siderable detail, the extent and variety of the forest areas, and also
those areas that have been denuded by forest fires, as well as those
which are naturally bare of timber. There was also obtained informa-
20 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

tion for defining the mineral areas and the areas that are suitable for
agricultural purposes.

The boundaries of this reserve are defined in part by the lines of the
public-land system, none of which have been surveyed. For the pur-
pose of locating these boundaries, and also for establishing a basis
from which other township and section lines could be projected, a spe-
cial party was organized. The Montana base line was extended west-
ward for a distance of 12 miles, and from this were projected northward
and southward lines aggregating about 50 miles. This work was prose-
cuted with the greatest difficulty, owing to the rugged and precipitous
nature of the territory traversed. The line crossed, at right angles, the
spurs making down from the summit of the Bitterroot Range, which are
3,000 or 4,000 feet above the beds of the intervening streams.

In addition, numerous level lines were run throughout the Bitterroot
Valley and as far up the tributary drainage as it was practicable to
carry lines of spirit levels, and in other localities careful elevations
were obtained by vertical angulation.

In the prosecution of the surveys in the Bitterroot reserve there
were five parties engaged, employing a varying force of about 35 men,
and the sum of $12,606 was expended. This expenditure included the
purchase of 9 horses and mules, 3 wagons, and other camp material,
such as tents, cooking utensils, ete.

It is believed that the information obtained in this reserve is sufficient
to answer satisfactorily any question that may arise.

Forest examinations.—The area of this reserve is 6,480 square miles,
or 4,147,200 acres, of which 3,456,000 are in Idaho, and 691,200 are in
Montana.

A portion only of this reserve was examined in detail, consisting
of the Montana part of the reserve, together with a small area upon
Magruder Fork of Clearwater River.

Topography.—The State line between Montana and Idaho follows the
crest of the Bitterroot Range, a broad and rugged mass of mountains,
rising to altitudes of 6,000 feet in the passes, and to 10,000 feet on the
highest peaks. The descent on the east is short and abrupt to the val-
ley ot Bitterroot River. Upon the west the spurs are long, and the
streams flowing westward into the Clearwater flow, in the main, in deep
canyons.

The east boundary of the reserve, as at present established, crosses,
during the most of its course, the mountain spurs and gorges just above
the Bitterroot Valley, but near the south end of the valley the reserve
is extended eastward so as to include the drainage area of the South
and West forks of the Bitterroot. Here the stream is divided up into
several branches, these being in narrow valleys, separated by spurs of
considerable height.

Upon the west side of the divide in Idaho the country, so far as
examined, consists of an alternation of high mountain spurs and deep,
narrow gorges.

Forests. At great altitudes and upon the sides and summits of the
rocky spurs the forests are scanty and poor. It is only in the lower
country, especially in the upper valleys of the branches of the Bitter-
root, in the canyons of its tributaries farther north, and on the lower
slopes of the mountains, that forests of economic value are found.
There may, accordingly, be distinguished two zones of forest distribu-
tion, depending upon altitude. The lower of these may be distinguished
as the yellow-pine zone, the upper as that of the alpine fir. The areas
occupied by these two zones constitute, respectively, 26 per cent and
74 per cent of the Montana portion of the reserve.
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 21

The timber in the yellow-pine zone consists mainly of Douglas fir
and yellow pine, in the proportion of 60 per cent and 30 per cent, the
remainder being of other and less valuable species. In the subalpine
zone nine-tenths of the timber consists of lodge pole pine, which is of
little commercial value. The heaviest and most valuable stands of
timber are found upon the upper waters of Bitterroot River, in the
southeastern part of the reserve.

The total amount of merchantable timber in the Montana portion of
the reserve is estimated at 554,500,000 feet B. M., including in this only
that which is suitable for saw purposes. This consisted entirely of
yellow pine and Douglas fir. No estimate has been made of the
amount of lodge pole pine, as this is of little value for lumber purposes,
as it is situated in inaccessible localities.

Outside the reserve, on the bench lands in the Bitterroot Valley adjoin-
ing the reserve, is a large amount of timber, estimated at 467,000,000
feet, or an amount nearly equal to that included within the Montana
portion of the reserve.

Upon the Idaho side of the divide there was examined an area of
about 650 square miles. Similar zones of timber were recognized here—
the subalpine zone, which comprised about 400 square miles, and the
yellow-pine zone, comprising about 250 square miles. The subalpine
zone is here as worthless for timber as upon the Montana side, the only
timber suitable for the sawmill being in the yellow-pine zone. The
estimated stand of timber within this area is 450,000,000 feet B. M., of
which far the greater part consists of yellow pine, with a considerable
quantity of Douglas fir and about 72,000,000 feet of cedar. This cedar
is found in dense groves in the bottoms of canyons, where a partial
damming of the stream has produced marshy conditions. The density
of its growth may be understood by the statement that in the areas
occupied by it its stand is, on an average, 40,000 feet B. M. to the acre.

Agricultural lands.—There are no agricultural lands within the region
examined on the Idaho side, and on the Montana side such areas are
of trifling extent. They are situated in the valleys of South Fork,
Little South Fork, West Fork, and Little West Fork, and are indicated
onthe map. Altogether they are estimated to comprise about 1,500
acres.

Grazing.—The hillsides of the upper portion of the Bitterroot Val-
ley are utilized to some extent for grazing. No sheep are pastured
there, only cattle and horses, and no appreciable damage appears to
be done by this grazing.

Mining.—There is no mining within that part of the reserve examined,
except in the southeastern portion. In the valley of the South Fork
many claims have been taken up upon Slate, Overwhich, Hughes, and
Coal creeks, and some mining is being done, but upon a limited scale.

Timber cutting.—The cutting of timber upon the reserve may be
grouped under three heads: (1) the cutting by squatters to improve
their holdings, (2) cutting by pretended squatters for the market, and
(3) cutting under timber permits. The first of these is of little moment;
the third is by far the greatest. Altogether there have been logged
within the Montana portion of the reserve an area estimated at 6,500
acres. In some cases the timber has been entirely removed, and in
others it has been only partially done, the timber being floated down
Bitterroot River to the mills.

There are several mills in the Bitterroot Valley, the largest and most
important of which is that of the Bitterroot Development Company,
which supplies lumber to the Anaconda mine and to the general market.
22 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

The merchantable timber in the Montana portion of the reserve is
comparatively easy of access and can all be readily logged. At the
present rate of cutting the standing timber will, in a few years, be
exhausted.

Forest fires.—Fires upon the Montana side of the reserve have prob-
ably been as extensive as elsewhere in the West, but have done far less
damage to the merchantable timber, owing to the fact that yellow
pine and Douglas fir offer greater resistance to fires than do trees of
other species. Probably not more than 5 per cent of the forests of
these species have been destroyed. Higher up, in the subalpine zone,
however, fires have been more disastrous, and it is estimated that fully
80 per cent of the wooded portion of this zone has been visited by fires
within the last twenty-five or thirty years. While the destruction of
merchantable timber by these fires has been slight, their effect upon
the stream flow has, in all probability, been serious. The streams flow-
ing eastward from the Bitterroot Mountains into Bitterroot River have
very short, straight courses and an extremely steep descent. The
clearing of the forests from their headwaters can not fail to change their
regimen in such wise as to produce disastrous floods at one time of the
year and low water during the remainder, thus inflicting double injury
upon the agricultural interests in the valley.

The above description of the forest conditions of the eastern portion
of the Bitterroot Reserve is derived from a report made by Mr. Leiberg,
who devoted the last half of the season to its examination.

PRIEST RIVER FOREST RESERVE.

The following are the limits, as described in the Executive order estab-
lishing the reserve:

Bounded on the east by the summit of the ridges dividing the waters tributary to
the Kootenai River and Priest Lake and River; on the west by the summit of the
ridges dividing the waters tributary to the Pend d’Oreille River or Clarkes Fork of
the Columbia River and Priest Lake and River; on the north by the international
boundary line between the States of Idaho and Washington and the British posses-
sions, connecting the east and west boundaries above described; on the south by the
township line between townships fifty six (56) and fifty-seven (57) north of the base
line, Idaho, projectéd to connect the east and west boundaries above described.

Surveys.—No surveys of any kind, except a small amount of land
subdivision, had been made in this area. It was therefore decided to
extend the township lines, to establish lines of level, and to arrange
for triangulation, so that detailed mapping could follow during the
next field season.

The thirteenth standard parallel north of the Boise meridian was
extended westward from the existing termination, which was 3 miles
west of the Boise meridian, to the State line between Idaho and Wash-
ington, a distance of about 27 miles, and a connection was made with
one of the mileposts of the latter line. From this standard parallel a
guide meridian was projected northward from a point 24 miles west of
the Boise meridian to the location of the international boundary, as well
as could be determined, there being no surface mark to indicate the
exact location. In addition, information was secured to prepare a
reconnaissance map of the entire reserve, and level lines were carried
from Priest River station to Priest Lake, and from the northern end of
Priest Lake to the Upper Lake, the connection between the stages of
water at the lower and upper extremity of Priest Lake being deter-
mined by a series of synchronous observations. Priest Lake was care-
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 23

fully triangulated and meander lines were run along the shore line of
the lake connecting the triangulation stations, so that data were
obtained sufficient to prepare a map of the lake. The triangulation
points here, as elsewhere, were permanently marked by copper bolts
set in the solid rock, so that they will remain recoverable for an
indefinite length of time.

A varying force of about twenty-five men was employed in this locality,
and the sum of $6,992. was expended. This expenditure included the
purchase of seventeen mules and a camp outfit of tents and other articles.

Examination of forests.—For the examination of this reserve and a
portion of the Bitterroot Reserve, Mr. John B. Leiberg was transferred
temporarily from the Department of Agriculture, in which he has for
several years been employed in similar work. Mr. Leiberg commenced
work upon the Priest River Reserve July 1, and finished the examina-
tion of that reserve in August.

The reserve comprises the drainage basin of Priest Lake and River,
together with certain small bodies of land in the southern part, drained
directly to Clarke Fork. It lies mainly in the State of Idaho, a small
portion of its area being comprised in northeastern Washington. Its
area in Idaho is estimated at 552,960 acres, and that in Washington
92,160; a total of 645,120 acres, or a little over 1,000 square miles.

Topography.—It is mainly a mountainous region, the level tracts
forming probably not more than 12 or 14 per cent of the whole. In
elevation it ranges from 2,000 to 8,000 feet. The reserve is composed
mainly of the opposing slopes of two mountain ranges, one upon each
side of the valley which incloses Priest Lake and River, and the summits
of which form the east and west limits of the reserve. These two
ranges converge nearly to a point at the north boundary of the reserve.
The east range is an extension northwestward of the Cabinet Range;
the western will be called here Pend Oreille Range. Of the two the
Cabinet Range is the higher, its summit having an average altitude of
about 6,000 feet, with peaks rising to 8,000, and is extremely rugged.
The Pend Oreille Range is much less rugged than its neighbor and is
less elevated, rarely rising above 6,000 teet. Priest Lake, which occu-
pies a portion of the valley between the two ranges, is composed of two
parts. The upper portion is about 2 miles long and a mile wide. The
lower portion is the main lake. It has a length of about 18 miles and
is from one-half a mile to 5 miles in width. It is drained southward
by Priest River to Clarke Fork.

Forests —The Priest River Reserve is essentially a forest.covered
region. There are but few tracts within its boundaries that do not now, or
did not a few years ago, support a dense, magnificent forest. The only
areas destitute of forests from natural causes are marshes and the
rocky crests and slides in the mountains. These, together with the
water surface of the lakes and streams, are estimated to aggregate
about 30,000 acres, which is only 8 per cent of the entire area.

The forests of this reserve may be grouped, for descriptive purposes,
in three zones, depending upon altitude, distinguished as (1) subalpine:
fir, (2) the white pine, and (3) the yellow pine. The first of these com-
prises the area lying above an altitude of about 4,800 feet. The trees.
found within it are almost exclusively the subalpine fir and the white-
bark pine, mainly the former. Neither of these species is of importance
to the lumbermen, largely because of the inaccessibility of its habitat.

The white-pine zone is the predominant one. It is found mainly
between altitudes of 2,400 to 4,800 feet above sea level, altitudes which
24 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

comprise about four-fifths of the forested portion of the reserve. The
chief species found in this portion of the reserve are Western white pine
and tamarack, although there are several other species of commercial
importance mingled with them, such as cedar, Engelmann spruce, west-
ern hemlock, and white fir. The heaviest growth occurs on the level
areas bordering the principal streams and is most abundant in the
western half of the reserve. This zone is far the most important of
those above mentioned, from a coramercial standpoint, containing much
the largest quantity of commercial timber and being generally easy of
access.

The yellow pine zone lies below that of the white pine, but the line
of demarcation is not always easy to establish, the two zones merging
into one another by insensible degrees. The principal species within
this zone are the yellow pine, Douglas fir, and white fir, nearly three-
fourths of the timber consisting of Douglas fir. The first two of these
species are of commercial value.

The amount of merchantable timber at present contained in the
reserve is estimated at 4,833,600,000 feet B. M., including that suitable
for saw timber, railway ties, and telegraph poles. The amount avail-
able for each of these several purposes is estimated as follows:

aw WIM YET oe. ore erie, ors vig ecient aise Seseietenqeic Sbinw sislear eee eweeibwan 1, 903, 600, 000
ReailT Oa ties Avene soe Sa ceee- deciccewense dees ume cee kee eee eS 2, 720, 000, 000
Telegraph: Poles ceii/s 2x2 cece gun ice coe ween Hoe es ua ce beet eoe sees 210, 000, 000

The forests have suffered greatly from fires at various times in the
past, as is indicated by the fact that the forest is of widely differing age
in different parts. The reserve contains bodies of timber of all ages,
ranging from 250 and 300 years down to young saplings of a few years
of age only, and the ground under the young trees is thickly strewn
with fallen logs, charred and partially rotten, the remains of the fires.

It is estimated that if the reserve had remained untouched by recent
fires it would contain at present 16,250,000,000 feet B. M. of timber
instead of less than 5,000,000,000, which it contains at present. More
than 11,000,000,000 feet of timber has been destroyed by fire within the
past thirty-five years, without doing good to anyone.

Cutting.—But little cutting has been done upon the reserve. Most
of that consisted of tie timber and piling used in the construction of the
Great Northern Railway. During the past summer parties were cut-
ting Western white pine iu small quantities and shipping it out. Aside
from this the only cousumption of timber upon the reserve has been by
settlers for their improvements and for fuel.

The only means available at the present time for transporting lumber
out of the reserve is by driving down Priest River to the Great Northern
Railway.

Arable lands.—The arable lands are found entirely in the Clarke Fork
Valley and in that of Priest Lake and River, the whole aggregating
about 10,000 acres. They consist of high ground covered with sedges
or grass, marshes which can be reclaimed, grass land subject to over-
flow, and cleared land on the benches adjacent to streams. The bulk
of them are situated on the western side of the valley of Priest Lake
and River, where the rock formation is softer and the valleys are con-
sequently broader and more level. The greater portion of these tracts
are held by settlers.

Many squatters’ claims have been located in the white pine forest,
ostensibly for agricultural purposes, but less than five acres have been
cleared altogether from the living white pine forest.
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 25

 

Mineral claims.—Many claims have been located within the reserve,
but none have been as yet sufficiently developed to show profitable
deposits,

WASHINGTON FOREST RESERVE.

The following are the limits, as described in the Executive order
establishing the reserve:

Beginning at the point for the southwest corner of township twenty-nine (29)
north, range eight (8) east, Willamette meridian, Washington; thence northerly
along the unsurveyed range line between ranges seven (7) and eight (8) east, to the
point for the northwest corner of township thirty-two (32) north, range eight (8)
east; thence easterly along the unsurveyed eighth (8th) standard parallel north to
the point for the southwest corner of township thirty-three (33) north, range twelve
(12) east; thence northerly along the uusurveyed range line between ranges eleven
(11) and twelve (12) east to the point for the northwest corner of township thirty-
six (36) north, range twelve (12) east; thence westerly along the unsurveyed vinth
(9th) standard parallel north to the point for the southwest corner of township
thirty-seven (37) north, range seven (7) east; thence northerly along the unsurveyed
range line between ranges six (6) and seven (7) east to its point of intersection with
the international boundary line between the State of Washington and the British
Possessions; thence easterly along said international boundary line to the point for
the unsurveyed range line between ranges twenty-two (22) and twenty-three (23)
east; thence southerly along said unsurveyed range line, subject to the proper east-
erly or westerly offsets on the ninth (9th) and eighth (8th) standard parallels north,
to the point for the southeast corner of township twenty-nine (29) north, range
twenty-two (22) east; thence westerly along the unsurveyed and surveyed seventh
(7th) standard parallel north to the point for the southwest corner of township
twenty-nine (29) north, range eight (8) east, the place of beginning.

Surveys.—Three separate and independent parties were organized in
this reserve—one in the eastern portion of the reserve, in the vicinity
of Lake Chelan; the second in the territory west of the summit of the
Cascade Range, operating from Monte Cristo, and a third at Ellens-
burg, for the purpose of extending reconnaissance triangulation over

“the entire reserve. As in the other reserves mentioned, few or no data
were available from which to start surveys.

In the section east of the summit of the Cascade Range it was there-
fore hecessary to measure a base line in the vicinity of Lake Chelan
and to expand therefrom a system of triangulation, which system was
ultimately connected with the Ellensburg base by the observations of
the party referred to above as the triangulation party. Depending on
this triangulation, detailed mapping was commenced in the basin of
Lake Chelan and about 400 square miles were mapped, including a
careful survey of the shore line of the greater portion of the lake and
the topography of the adjoining mountains. Level lines were carried
from a bench mark previously established by the Army Engineer Corps
at Chelan Falls, on the Columbia River, to the lower end of Lake Che-
lan. A connection between the lower and the upper end of the lake
was established by synchronous water height observations, and from
the head of the lake the levels were continued to the summit of the
Cascade Mountains at Cascade Pass. Connections were obtained with
the existing land surveys, so that land lines may be projected in their
proper location over any portion of the territory surveyed. Careful
observations for defining the extent and variety of the timbered areas
were made and the necessary data were secured for the segregation of
such lands as proved to be more valuable for agricultural than for
timber purposes

No triangulation existed in the area west of the summit of the Cas-
26 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

cade Mountains on which topographic work could be based; therefore
the triangulation party was directed to extend as quickly as possible the
triangulation resting on the Elleusburg base, so as to reach the area
proposed for topographic survey. Operations in the vicinity of Monte
Cristo were prosecuted under the greatest difficulties on account of the
alternation of smoke and stormy weather, and it was found neces-
sary to discontinue work entirely about the 1st of November, as the
snow in the mountains made work practically impossible. During
the season topographic surveys were extended over an area of about
50U square miles, and level lines were run over the existing roads and
practicable trails. In addition, various other elevations were deter-
mined by vertical angles and permanently marked, so as to meet the
requirements of the law providing that at least one bench mark shall
be established in each township. Information was also secured relative
to the segregation of mineral lands.

The triangulation party succeeded in extending a reconnoissance
survey from the Ellensburg base northward, so as to cover the territory
surveyed by the two parties above mentioned. These observations
were not finally completed, as the party was forced to discontinue work
early in November on account of the unusually heavy snows, which
absolutely prohibited the party from making the ascent of the moun-
tain summits used as triangulation stations.

An average force of about 30 men was employed at various times in
this reserve, and the sum of $13,465 was expended, including the pur-
chase of about 20 animals and various articles of camp equipment.

Examination of forests.—This being much the largest of all the areas
to be examined, and by far the most important from an economic
standpoint, much fuller provision was made for its examination than in
the case of the other reserves. For the examination of the portion of
this reserve lying east of the divide of the Cascade Range two men,
Messrs. W. G. Steel and M. W. Gorman, were employed. They com-
menced work about the middle of August and completed it in the latter
part of November. For the western portion Mr. H. B. Ayres was
employed, and to its examination he devoted four and a half months—
from the middle of July to the end of November.

Topography.—This reserve is composed almost entirely of high
mountain ranges, intersected by deep valleys. It is traversed by the
crest of the Cascade Range, which, entering the reserve from British
Columbia, near longitude 120° 45’, trends in a generally. southwesterly
direction across the reserve, although making several great turns to
the south and west in its course. This crest and the mountains in its
neighborhood are extremely rugged, rising to altitudes exceeding
10,000 feet, and contain many glaciers. Eastward and westward from
the crest the mountains diminish in altitude.

West of the divide the reserve is drained westward to Puget Sound,
mainly by Skagit and Stilaguamish rivers and their branches. East
of the divide the Methow and Stehekin rivers drain it to Columbia

iver.

The rainfall is heavy upon the western slope of the range. Upon
the eastern side it is decidedly less, so that irrigation is commonly
required for the production of crops. The streams are numerous and
bold. The rainfall is, however, less than it has been in past time, as is
evidenced by the fact that every canyon and gorge leading out of the
mountains has been, until recently, the bed of a glacier, whose remains
still exist, occupying the mountain valleys.

Forests. Almost the entire area of the reserve is naturally a forested
region, with the exception of a few small tracts, which are above tim-
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 27

ber line or which are composed of rocky mountain slopes, upon which
there is not sufficient soil for trees to obtain footing, and with the
exception of the valley of Methow River in the east. The natural
forest growth differs greatly in density in different parts. Itis densest
in the lower valleys on the west side, and diminishes in density as the
summit of the range is approached. The east side of the mountains is
much less densely forested than the west side, and the forests diminish
as the elevation becomes less upon the east side. This arrangement,
however, of the forests has been interfered with greatly by forest fires,
which have denuded large areas entirely and have reduced the density
in other places. The results of these fires have been more disastrous
on the east side than upon the west side, owing to its generally drier
conditions.

The commonest tree upon the reserve is the western hemlock, Tsuga
mertensiana. Far the greater part of the timber on the reserve consists
of this species.

Another common tree is the Sitka spruce, Picea sitchensis, which is
found along streams up to an altitude of 2,000 feet.

Douglas fir, Pseudotsuga tauvifolia, is found in the bench lands of the
valleys and the lower mountain slopes.

Cedar, Thuja plicata, which is found, mixed with Douglas fir and
hemlock, in the bottom lands and on mountain slopes.

Mountain cedar, Cupressus nootkatensis, which is found on mountain
slopes above 2,000 feet.

Engelmann spruce, Picea engelmanni, is found at high altitudes, is
small and difficult of access.

White fir, Abies grandis, is found on moist land and northern slopes
up to 5,000 feet.

Abies amabilisis found on moistland and northern slopes up 104,000 feet.

Alpine fir, Abies lasiocarpa, is found on the higher slopes and summits,

White pine, Pinus monticolo, is found sparingly at medium altitudes
on bench lands and lower mountain slopes.

Yellow pine, Pinus ponderosa, is found in the drier parts of the upper
Skagit Valley and generally in the lower portions of the eastern part
of the reserve.

The lodgepole pine, Pinus contorta, is found sparingly in dry bench
lands and generally in the drier eastern portions of the reserve.

White-bark pine, Pinus albicaulis, is sparsely distributed at high
altitudes.

Alpine larch, Larix lyallii, is not uncommon along the summit of
Cascade Range from Cascade Pass northward.

The principal among these ‘species, for lumber purposes, are the
hemlock, spruce, Douglas fir, cedar, and yellow pine.

The total amount of standing timber upon this reserve is estimated
to be not far from 20,000,000,000 feet, B. M., two-thirds of which is hem-
lock, the remainder being distributed among the other species.

Agricultural land.—The tracts of land within the limits of the reserve
which are suitable for agriculture are numerous, but individually small
in area. On the west side of the divide, where the rainfall is abundant
and irrigation is not necessary for the cultivation of crops, all the flat
valley land, not at too great elevation, is of value for this purpose.
Such lands are as follows:

A strip along each fork of the Stilaguamish, 3 miles in breadth.

The valley of Sauk River, below the south fork of the north fork, 3
miles in width.

In the valley of Suiattle River, for a distance of 12 miles within the
reserve, with an average breadth of 1 mile.
28 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

The valley of Cascade River, for a distance of 6 miles within the west
boundary of the reserve, by half a mile in width. ;

The valley of Skagit River, from Ruby Creek to Goodells, with an
average breadth of 2 miles.

The valley of Baker River, from Baker Lake to the boundary of the
reserve, with an average breadth of 4 miles, and above Baker Lake,
with a breadth of 1 mile.

The valley of North Fork of Nooksack River, below Ruby Creek,
with a width of 1 mile.

The total area of these tracts is estimated at 230 square miles.
Upon the east side of the divide the agricultural lands generally
require irrigation, and are therefore limited, not only by their location
and surface, but by the amount of water available. They are as fol-
lows: A few tracts in the Methow Valley and along Twisp River, a few
trifling patches on the shores of Lake Chelan, and a narrow strip in
the valley of Stehekin River. Altogether, the area of the arable land
in this part of the reserve is trifling and has already been filed upon
or is held by squatters.

Grazing.—There is very little pasturing of stock within the reserve,
and none whatever of sheep. The western portion of the reserve
affords but little pasturage, owing to the density of the forest. The
eastern portion, on the other hand, affords much excellent summer
grazing in the high mountain valleys and slopes, butit is little utilized
as yet.

Means of communication.—These are extremely scanty. The Everett
and Monte Cristo Railway, which connected the mines at Monte Cristo
with Everett, upon Puget Sound, some 60 miles, ran for half its dis-
tance within the lines of the reserve. This, however, has been com-
pletely washed out recently, and is, we understand, not to be rebuilt.
There are wagon roads from Barlow Pass to Goat Lake, from the mouth
of White Chuck River down Sauk River and along Cascade River, all
on the west side of the reserve. These form about 30 miles of wagon
roads within the reserve on this side. Upon the east side there is a
road for a short distance up the valley of Methow River.

There are numerous trails, passable for pack horses, connecting dif-
ferent portions of the reserve. The principal one of these, which con-
nects the valley of Methow River with Marblemount, at the junction of
Cascade and Skagit rivers, by way of the Twist, Bridge Creek, Stehekin
River, and Cascade Pass, is now being improved at the expense of the
State, and may be developed into a wagon road.

Mining.—There is considerable mining, consisting mainly of develop-
ment work, going on within the reservé. At Monte Cristo and Silver-
ton are developed producing mines, which were worked actively until
the recent destruction by flood of the Everett and Monte Cristo Railway.
These two mining camps contained several hundred inhabitants each.
The destruction of the road has, however, entailed a cessation of activity.
Mineral discoveries have been made at other points along this road and
in its neighborhood.

Many discoveries have been made in the Ruby Creek mining district,
on the upper waters of Skagit River, in the Methow district, on the
upper waters of the Methow, and in the mountains west of the upper
end of Lake Chelan, but, owing to the lack of transportation, little has
been done beyond development work.

Settlements.—Upon the west side the mining towns of Monte Cristo
and Silverton have already been mentioned. Besides these there is
some little settlement in the valley of the Stilaguamish below Silverton.
Upon the Sauk, within the reserve, there are a few ranches. Upon
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 29

Cascade River are three or four ranches, and there is some settlement
in the Ruby Creek district depending upon the mines. Upon the east
side there are a number of ranches in the Methow valley, including the
little town of Winthrop and the mining village of Camp Gilbert. Upon
Lake Chelan there are a few ranches and the hotel at the head of the
lake. A few miners are located upon Railroad and Company creeks,
west of the upper portion of the lake.

Timber cutting.—There is no timber cutting within the reserve,
excepting a trifling amount for the local needs of the settlers and mines.
There is at present very little demand for its timber, the general market
being supplied by the forests farther west.

The facilities for getting timber out of the reserve are very poor. With
the exception of the trifling amount of wagon roads the only routes
would be by the streams, and these are extremely rapid and rocky.
Much work would be required upon them to make them suitable for
driving logs.

FOREST RESERVES IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA.

Surveys.—After the parties engaged in the Northwest were forced to
discontinue work they were transferred to southern California and work
was begun in the San Gabriel Timber Land Reserve and in the San
Jacinto Reserve. /

In the former the survey will prove especially important, as the city
of Los Angeles is now considering the question of water supply, which
will largely depend upon the preservation of the forested areas in the
mountains over which the reservation extends. The area to be sur-
veyed includes the entire drainage basin of the Los Angeles River, and
will afford valuable and indispensable information to the engineers
engaged in the solution of the question of the water supply for Los
Angeles. In order to provide control for this work the existing tri-
angulation in the Los Angeles valley was extended northward. One
hundred square miles of detailed topography have been completed.

Work has been commenced in the San Jacinto Reserve and will be
prosecuted throughout the spring months by topographic, triangula-
tion, and level parties. There are a number of artesian wells in this
locality, and the water supply of a large section of the country devoted
to fruit raising, for the success of which constant irrigation is essential,
is directly dependent upon the preservation of the trees and shrubbery
in the mountains included in the reserve. : .

About $9,000 have been so far expended in this locality, and ther
is at present a force of twenty men engaged.

On the 1st of January a'party commenced work in the San Bernar-
dino forest reserve, and up to March 1 had succeeded in covering an
area of about 200 square miles.

Examination of forests—About the middle of February Mr. J. B.
Leiberg was ordered to this region for the purpose of making an exami-
nation of the San Jacinto, San Bernardino, and San Gabriel reserves,
upon which work he is at present engaged.

Summary.—In the accompanying tabular statistical summary are
given the figures relating to the surveys thus far executed in the forest
reserves.

Of the results of the examination of the forests it may be briefly
stated that in the area examined, which is approximately 15,000 square
miles, the statistics of the several species of standing timber and the
amounts of each, with the areal distribution, have been collected.
30 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

MISCELLANEOUS DATA CONCERNING FORESTS ON RESERVES.

Mr. Leiberg, after completing his reports upon the Priest River and
Bitterroot reserves, prepared a report upon the timber lands of northern
Idaho, a region of which he has made a prolonged study and with which
he is familiar.

There is in existence, scattered about in the hands of many persons,
but uncollected and unpublished, a vast amount of information con-
cerning our forests. Nearly all the subdivided forest lands of the West
have been examined. All the lands comprised in the heavy timber belt
of the Northwest (Washington, Oregon, and California), except those
which have not yet been subdivided by the General Land Office, have
been examined with reference to their timber, and much of them
repeatedly, by timber cruisers in the employ of the States (for making
selections), railroads, and lumber companies. These cruisings have
never, so far as learned, been compiled. These statistics are being col-
lected. Altogether there have thus far been ascertained the timber
supply and its distribution over some 6,000,000 acres, and similar sta-
tistics concerning some 10,000,000 or 12,000,000 acres more are now
being compiled. These statistics will furnish, for the first time, clear,
definite information concerning the amount, character, and distribution
of the merchantable timber of the West, and will enable public and
private holders of timber land to manage their holdings with economy
and profit.

Survey of forest reserves, statistical summary.

 

 

 

 

Black | _Big 4 Lewis | Fiat.
Hi Uinta. Teton. and
Hills. Horn. Clark. head.
Base lines measured. TD licens.
Triangulation stations located 3 12 22 11 8 23 4
qoene eon hicsoniemesis eacysumceisis square miles. . 2, 500 5, 000 3, 500 2, 000 4, 500 1, 200
Detailed topography, including sketching
of timber lines----..-..-. square miles. .

Level lines .......--..-- aya seins hasconienet Aches;
Permanent bench marks. -

Traverse lines. .-.-.-------.-----0-

Land surveys: *

 

  
   

 

 

 

 

Standard ....-.--------- linear miles...
Township.....-..-----s0s2222eeee do....
SOCHON oc jocccsicsitessmmencinetaccinn, do....
Average number of menemployed........ 40 ofS ik 10 4 4
Total cost to Dec. 1.......-.-------------- $17, 106 $8, 952 $3, 506 $4, 867 $3,272 | $1,413
Bitter- | Priest | Wash- San San San
e toot. | River.| ington. | Gabriel. | Jacinto. Bernar- | Total

 

Astronomic stations determined .
Base lines measured....------.---
Triangulation stations located -..
Triangulation ..... square miles...
Detailed topography, including
sketching of timber lines,

 

 

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

square miles ...----.-----+-++-+
Reconnaissance topography, 4,351
square miles ......-------.----- 7, 500
Level lines. ...-.-----.---- miles... 1601
Permanent bench marks ......... "401
Traverse lines ..-......--- miles... 3, 520
Land surveys:
Standard ...---- linear miles.. 93
Township.. 141
Section..--. 405
Meander... 69
Streams gauged ll
Average numberofmen e 3 “193
Total cost to Mar. 1...--.--------- $81, 219
Amountiallotted:....cceseee cece sens ene cece meaner ws wee NRE Reece wissnmemwicmimaiemedinmaisic $126, 000

Balance available for office work in completing field notes and for continuing surveys in
TNS SPTID Gis o:seaicinncwninaisivieininisisiasisenininwicinielainaivinsivieisiseveinaeuiaiacielets aaereiawiawulcane esac os 44, 781
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES, 31

APPENDIX A. VY Bey

PLAN FOR THE SURVEY OF THE FOREST RESERVES.

All surveys to be confined to the forest reserves that are suspended by Congres-
sional action until March 1, 189%, with the exception of surveys during the winter
months on the San Jacinto or San Bernardino reserves, California.

The surveys of the reserves may be divided inio: First, topographic and subdi-
visional surveys; second, forestry surveys.

Method of making the topographicand subdivisional surveys.—The topographic surveys
will be made in the same manner as the other topographic surveys of the United
States Geological Survey. The base for the topographic work will be triangulation
and spirit-level lines, except in the higher and more rugged mountain portions,
where there are no roads or trails. In such areas the best practicable methods are
to be employed to secure elevations and distances. ‘The subdivisional surveys to be
made in the same manner as in the survey of the Indian Territory. The land subdi-
vision surveys are not to be extended over the higher and more rugged mountains,
the classification of areas there to depend upon the natural features, as shown by
the topographic map. .

The purposes of these surveys are: (a) The preparing of topographic maps upon
the scale of 2 miles to the inch, with contour intervals of 100 feet, to serve as base
maps for the representation of forestry details, agricultural and mineral lands, etc. ;
(b) the establishment of bench marks indicating elevation above sea level; (c¢) the
subdivision of the reserves by running township lines (unless this has heretofore
been done by the General Land Office), for the purpose of designating tracts of
land; (d) the demarcation, by means of section lines, of tracts which are more valu-
able for agriculture and minerals than for their timber, it being understood that the
land subdivision surveys shall be limited to township exteriors, except in cases
where more than the area of one-fourth of a township is taken up by agricultural
or mineral lands or by settlements, in which latter event the townships shall be sub-
divided into sections over such portions as include agricultural or mineral lands or
settlements. While the ultimate decision regarding the status of such lands rests
with the Secretary of the Interior, tentative decisions, for the purpose of deciding
whether or not such tracts should be surveyed, shall be made by the chief of party;
(e) the mapping by the topographer in charge of each party of the outline of all
wooded and forest areas.

Out of the appropriation of $150,000, made for the survey of the forest reserves,
$128,000 will be allotted to the topographic and subdivisional surveys, and the fol-
lowing work will be undertaken under the charge of Mr. E. M. Douglas, chief of
the Rocky Mountain section of topography :

BLACK HILLS, SOUTH DAKOTA.

It is proposed to run such additional township lines as may be necessary to com-
plete the township surveys over the whole area, and to subdivide such townships as
may be found to include agricultural or mineral lands, Also to completely revise
the maps of this timber reserve, to run such level lines, and set such corner posts as
may be needed to comply with the existing law. Amount allotted, $14,000.

BIG HORN RESERVE, WYOMING.

It is proposed to continue the township surveys of this area and to extend trian-
gulation as needed for topographic surveys, to continue the topographic surveys of
the whole area, and to run such level lines and set such corner posts as are required.
Amount allotted, $14,300.

TETON RESERVE, WYOMING.

This, like the Big Horn Reserve, is mainly an area of high mountains in which
snow falls in October. It is proposed to extend triangulation from the vicinity of
Hart Mountain (Sheridan Base) southwestward across the reserve east of the Park,
and over the whole of the Teton Reserve. Also, to resurvey all valley areas and, if
the existing maps of mountain areas are found to be defective, to correct or resurvey
them; and to run level lines and add bench marks, as required by law. Amoun
allotted, $10,000. :

UINTA RESERVE, UTAH.

It is proposed to extend triangulation from the Coast Survey base over this whole
area. It is also proposed to do such exterior work as can be done by one party dur-
ing the season, which it is thought will include about two-thirds of this reserve.

fee ee
32 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

Also, it is proposed to run level lines and set the bench marks needed for commence-
ment of topographic surveys next season. Amount allotted, $9,700.

LEWIS AND CLARK AND FLATHEAD RESERVES, MONTANA,

It is proposed to measure a base line at Helena, connecting with the astronomical
station at that place, and to extend triangulation northwestward over the Lewis
and Clark and Flathead reserves. Amount allotted, $11,000.

For convenience of supervision, Mr. R. U. Goode, chief of the Pacific Section of
Topography, will take charge of the survey of the following areas:

BITTERROOT RESERVE.

Practically no survey work has yet been done in this reserve. It is proposed to
locate an initial point astronomically, measure a base line and extend triangulation
into it. Itis further proposed to commence topographic work, including leveling,
and to run township lines and segregate agricultural areas, and to complete the
survey of the eastern portion of the reserve this season. All these classes of work
will be continued as far as the season will permit. Amount allotted, $21,000.

PRIEST RIVER RESERVE.

As no surveys of any kind have been made in this area, it will be necessary to
extend township lines over it and to accompany these lines with lines of level. It
will not be possible the present season to extend triangulation over it or to com-
mence topographic mapping. Amount allotted, $12,000.

WASHINGTON RESERVE.

This is a very heavily forested area, the survey of which will be costly and slow.
It is proposed to start with the known mineral and agricultural areas, and, as far as
possible, provide 4 basis for the subsequent survey of other portions of the reserve.
The work of running township lines within the reserve will be commenced and car-
ried as far as the season will permit, and to carry triangulation forward from the
Ellensburg base. Amount allotted, $26,000.

SAN JACINTO OR SAN BERNARDINO RESERVE, CALIFORNIA.

It is proposed to have the surveyors who are driven from the northern reserves by
cold weather and snow proceed to this reserve and survey as much of it as possible,
owing to its great value to the irrigation interests of southern California. Amount
allotted, $10,000.

ae FORESTRY SURVEY.

cf

This work will be in charge of Mr. Henry Gannett, geographer. For the examina-
tion of the forests a number of experts will be employed, and to each will be
assigned an area consisting of a single reserve, or more than one in the case of small
reserves. It will be the duty of these experts, with the aid of the topographic
maps, to study the distribution of forests and woodland, the size and density of the
timber, and the distribution of the leading economic species; in short, to obtain an
estimate of the economic value of the forests. They should, moreover, examine and
report upon the ravages of forest fires and the amount of damage inflicted by them,
the amount of dead timber, the extent to which forests are pastured, and the effect
of this upon the forests, and the extent of the timber already cut.

One such expert will be assigned to an examination of the forests of the Black
Hills, a preliminary map of which has been prepared by the Geological Survey.

A second will be assigned to the Big Horn Reserve, a part of which has already
been surveyed by the Geological Survey, while the survey of the remainder will
probably be completed during the coming year.

A third will be assigned to the Teton, Wyoming, Reserve, and the Uinta, Utah,
Reserve, maps of which, believed to be approximately adequate for a reconnoissance
survey, have been prepared by the Hayden, Powell, and King surveys,

‘A fourth expert will be assigned to the Priest River Reserve and the eastern por-
tion of the Bitter Root Reserve. By accompanying thesurveyor engaged in running
township lines, it is believed that he will be able to report upon these areas. 7

If the funds will allow, it is also proposed to employ one or two additional experts
for the purpose of making a reconnoissance survey of the Washington Reserve.

The surveyors and forestry experts will not be limited in the scope of their work
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 33

by the present lines of the reserves, but will be instructed to extend their examina-
tions to adjoining public lands.

Amount allotted for the forest survey, $16,000. The balance of the appropriation
of $150,000 to be used to defray office expenses and serve as a contingent fund.

Résumé.
Topographic and subdivisional surveys.......--...-.-2. 22-20 eee e ee eee eee $126, 000
I OTOS Us VAS UU V.O ¥rarseaicec ccrateteececl radii choy aicarseteeee ogee ce smpspels cepts cere rere el 16, 000
OM Coane Contingent xc <winocdegeeaneeermenyncmace-aieew ameleein osiere oeieiera 8, 000

150, 000

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, June 8, 1897.

The foregoing plan for the survey of the forest reserves for which provision is
made in the sundry civil act approved June 4, 1897, is hereby approved.

C. N. Buiss, Secretary.

APPENDIX B.

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR,
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY,
Washington, D. C., June 14, 1897.

Sir: You are hereby assigued to the charge of an examination of the forests and
woodland of the forest reserves and adjacent wooded regions. The allotment for
this work will be $14,000.

You are authorized to employ assistants, who must be experts in the examination
of forests, as hereafter set forth, at salaries not exceeding $125 per month and
expenses. As topographic surveys will be in progress in each of the reserves to be
examined, such experts may make their headquarters in the camps of the surveying
parties, but should be prepared to make short trips independently, in order to insure
freedom in their work.

The topographers will outline all wooded areas upon the topographic maps. It
will be the duty of the forestry experts to classify and map the areas occupied by
timber suitable for the sawmill and for inferior uses, such as mining, railroad ties,
and firewood. They will map also the distribution of the leading species of timber
of economic value individually. They will make note, furthermore, of the size and
density of the distribution of the valuable timber, and of the character and density
of the undergrowth. They will map the area from which the timber has been
destroyed, whether from burning, cutting, or other means, the extent to which the
forests have been culled, and the species culled, the main purpose being to obtain an
estimate of the value and character of the timler upon the reserves and adjacent
regions. These experts should also make inquiries and be prepared to report upon
the extent and character of the demand for timber, the means of getting it out,
including the character of the streams, roads, railroads, etc.

Of the Black Hills, of South Dakota, a map has been prepared by the United
States Geological Survey. For the examination of this area you will employ one
such expert, and owing to the character of the country and the importance of the
interests dependent upon it, great care should be exercised in his selection.

Of the Big Horn Reserve, in Wyoming, a small portion only has been mapped, but
the remainder will be mapped during the coming year. For the examination of this
reserve you will employ one expert, who will use this map and tracings of the plane-
table sheets of the remaining area as fast as they are prepared.

The Teton Reserve has been mapped by the Hayden Survey, and the Uinta Reserve
by the Powell and King Surveys. For the examination of these reserves you will
employ one expert, who will use these maps for the purpose.

The Priest River Reserve has beeu in part subdivided into townships, and the
remainder will be subdivided similarly during the current season. For the cxam-
ination of this reserve you will employ one expert, who will use the plats of the
township exteriors for the purpose, thus defining areas by townships.

Work will be commenced upon the Bitter Root Reserve upon its eastern side,
extending westward into it. For the examination of this reserve you will employ
one expert, who will accompany the surveying party, using tracings of their plane-
table sheets for his examinations.

In the Washington Reserve work will be commenced upon the east and west sides.
One expert will be employed and accompany the surveying party, working upon the
east side, using copies of the plane-table sheets as prepared;-a second expert will

S. Doe. 189: 3

 
34 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

be employed upon the west side of this reserve, and the same expert may make
examinations in the Cascade Range to the southward, touching the question of the
efiect of sheep husbandry upon the forests. : .

You are authorized to make such journeys as may be necessary in carrying out
these instructions, either by rail or by other mode of public or private conveyance,
and to authorize the persons employed by you to make similar journeys.

Iam, yours, with respect,
Cuas. D. WaLcorTt, Director.

Mr. Henry GANNETT,

Geographer, United States Geological Surrey.

APPENDIX C.

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR,
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, June 15, 1897.

INSTRUCTIONS RELATIVE TO MAPPING WOODED AREAS,

(1) Topographers will map on their field sheets the outlines of all wooded areas
with as great detail and accuracy as they locate other topographic features.

(2) In the prosecution of plane-table triangulation angles of wooded areas, promi-
nent trees and other features in the boundaries of woodland should be located, to
aid in sketching. Traversemen should locate similar points.

(3) In topographic sketching the topographer should, with the aid of the control
points furnished by his topographic base, as well as those above mentioned, sketch
the outlines of all wooded areas, using a symbol which will not conflict with those
employed in representing other features.

(4) The topographer must use his judgment in distinguishing the limits of wooded
areas. It is impossible to give rules applicable to all cases, but it is not intended, on
the one hand, to limit these areas to large merchantable timber, nor, on the other
hand, to include brush or scattered trees.

(5) The topographer should make notes of the characteristics of these wooded
areas—that is, whether they are composed mainly of coniiers or of broad-leaved
trees. He should distinguish between cedar, pifion, and quaking aspens on the one
hand, and pine, spruce, and firs on the other, as well as between chaparral, mesquite,
and large timber.

(6) Burned areas should be noted.

(7) In the office the topographer will draw, on a photograph of the topographic
atlas sheet, the outlines of all wooded areas, noting in the body of the map or on the
margin such distinctions in the character of the trees as have been above referred to.
REPORT ON EXAMINATION OF THE FOREST RESERVES.!

By GirForRD PINCHOT.

I. BOUNDARIES.
AREA.

The forest reserves established under the act of March 3, 1891,
consist almost entirely of mountainous lands valuable for the produc-
tion of timber, but for the most part incapable of making any other
contribution to the national wealth. Their capacity for the sustained
production of wood is, however, vast, and of itself forms an imperative
reason for their protection. Their estimated area is 38,944,640 acres,
or 60,851 square miles, of which more than one-half has been suspended
until March 1, 1898, so that the reserves at present fairly protected
against loss by sale or entry embrace less than 19,000,000 acres. It
will, however, be necessary in this report to deal with all the reserves
as being equally subject to administration by the Government, without
reference to the suspension of some of them.

The estimate of area given above is based upon the total number of
acres included within the boundaries of the reserves. It disregards
the acquired rights of settlers and miners, the grants of school lands,
and the very considerable area covered by the land grants of various
rail and wagon roads. A sufficiently reliable estimate of the loss to the
reserves from settlement and mining claims is not available at this time;
nor will it probably be reached in the near future, since, under the law,
rights acquired to lands within the reserves may be exchanged for simi-
lar rights to unreserved lands without limit as to time. Sections 16 and
36 have been granted as school lands in every township throughout
the reserves, but title does not pass until after the lands are surveyed.
Where these lands are disposed of by the Government before survey
lieu lands must be selected elsewhere tu make their loss good. Where
the lands have been surveyed it is believed that the right of exchange,
mentioned above as applicable to individuals, should enable the States
also to trausfer their claims from lands within the reserves to lands
without them. An approximation to the area of railroad lands within
the boundaries prepared for this report by the General Land Office
indicates that the loss from this source may be in the neighborhood of
4,000,000 acres, Accurate figures are out of reach on account of unde-

 

! This report is divided into three parts, of which the tirst deals with boundaries
and general policy, the second with administration, and the third with 18 of the
forest reserves, in alphabetical order. The English names of trees have been made
to conform, With some important exceptions, to the list contained in Bulletin 14 of
the Division of Forestry, Department of Agriculture. The Latin names, a list of
which will be found at the end, are taken from the same document without change.

35
36 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES,

cided litigation, and because the railroad grants do not give title to
mineral lands within either primary or indemnity limits. The propor-
tion of mineral lands in the odd-numbered sections within these limits
is not yet known.

Among other cases, that of the Priest River Reserve may be cited in
illustration. By far the larger part of it is covered by the land grant
of the Northern Pacific Railroad, within which the ownership of the
United States is restricted to even-numbered sections in every town-
ship and to the odd-numbered sections which may be found to be
mineral. It will be distinctly to the advantage of the Government and
will immensely simplify the task of administration if some equitable
arrangement can be made by which, through exchange, the Government
holdings can be consolidated. Odd-numbered sections within a reserve
might in this way be exchanged for the same or a different area of even-
numbered sections elyewhere not reserved, so as to give the Govern-
ment full and undivided control of its holdings and prevent the moun-
tain forests, so far as possible, from passing to other hands. In some
cases it might be necessary to exchange lands already reserved for odd-
numbered sections within reserve boundaries; but this course should be
avoided whenever possible, even at very considerable cost. Partial
ownership within the boundaries fixed by proclamation would thus be
exchanged for full ownership within the same or smaller limits. The
loss to someof the reserves will be very considerable unless the exchange
of unreserved for reserved lands can be effected, and the definite adop-
tion of this policy is strongly urged. It would serve the profit of the
railroads as well as that of the Government, since by means of it they
could secure solid blocks of land in grazing and agricultural regions,
and thus greatly increase the sale and rental values of pasture and
other lands within their grants. A little more or a little less than one-
half of the reserves will be affected by the policy adopted according to
the issue of suits now pending.

FIRE.

By far the greater part of the reserves is covered with growing trees;
but they contain also considerable areas which have been more or less
completely stripped of live timber by older or more recent fires. In
many regions pow covered with trees the forest itself affords unmistak-
able evidence that the land was once cleared by fire; and, in general, it
is more than probable that most of the forests throughout the United
States have been burned and have grown again repeatedly during the
course of geologic time. There is no cause to doubt, but on the con-
trary conclusive reason to believe, that this process of rehabilitation
will be repeated once more on the forest lands which are at present
devastated. Indeed, some of the successive steps in the return of
burned areas to fertility may be observed wherever the fires have
cleared lands once covered with the growth of trees. Such lands will
resume their former character as productive forests as soon as the
increasing fires can be checked. They are essentially forest lands, and
as such belong with entire propriety to the reserves.

With the progress of settlement and the extension of surveys the
useless waste of timber by fire has steadily grown. At present it is
the one paramount danger, both to the growing forests, whose exist-
ence it threatens, and to the burned forest lands, whose return to value
it may indefinitely postpone. In comparison with the damage from
fire, the loss to the national timber lands from the ax is almost insig-
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 37

nificant. Except for the fact that under the present system cutting
is followed by fire with almost mathematical certainty, the injury from
this source would have been far less important than it is. Nor should
the fact be overlooked that a very large part of the timber cut has
been used in the development of the country, while the loss from forest
ae is wholly without compensation. The fires have done no one any
good.

The time required for the rehabilitation of burned lands may be long
when computed from the standpoint of the individual, but it can not
be fairly measured in that way. The lite of the nation is here con-
cerned, and it must furnish the point of view from which alone the
periods of time involved in forestry can be justly estimated. Like the
growth of a nation, the growth of its forests is continuously produc-
tive, but it can not be adequately governed with an eye single to the
immediate present.

THE FLOW OF STREAMS.

In addition to the clear necessity for protecting the reserves for the
sake of their present and future productive value, great interests, de-
pendent upon the flow of streams, demand the conservation of their
mountain forests. Such forests have a double function with relation to
water supply. They tend, on the one hand, to maintain the flow of
water in the streams during the period when it is most needed for irri-
gation and most apt to fail. On the other hand, no other agency is so
powerful for the prevention of destructive floods in regions liable to
the enormous damage which they often cause. This tunction of the
mountain forests in the northern portion of the Pacific slope has hith-
erto been overlooked, and criticisms of certain of the reserves have
been based on the statement that there is already too much water in
the streams whose head waters they embrace. No better reason for the
existence of these reserves could have been adduced.

MINERAL LANDS.

Beside lands valuable for forest purposes alone, certain of the reserves
contain considerable areas more or less rich in valuable minerals.
Under the present law and the regulations framed to give it effect,
mining within the reserves is at no disadvantage as compared with
mining on unreserved public lands. Prospecting is unrestricted, and
the development of mineral resources is on the same basis within and
without the reserves. Not only is this true, but there is in addition
strong evidence to show that mining interests are more fully protected
in the reserves than outside, and that the recognition of this fact has
made rapid progress among those most deeply interested. In those
cases, however, where restricted areas support a comparatively dense
population occupied in mining, it would be wisest, from the point of
view of practical administration, to exclude them from the reserves,
although it does not appear that such communities would suffer in any
way did they remain within the boundaries.

AGRICULTURAL LANDS.

The lines of some of the reserves, as originally laid down, embrace
considerable areas of agricultural land. Although the total extent of
these areas will be very much reduced by the rectification of boundaries
now in preparation, no general readjustment of the lines will suffice to
38 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

exclude all agricultural land from the reserves. Instances are not
uncommon in which land of this character is so intermingled with the
forest that to attempt to exclude every parcel by name would involve
very great expense for surveys and a most unwieldy multiplicity of
detail. The great danger to the reserves which must result from long
delay in establishing their status pending the surveys forms a still
more serious objection to this plan. It is estimated that five years will
be required to complete these surveys at the present rate of expenditure.
Fortunately it appears to be as unnecessary to attempt to survey out
every 40-acre tract which might eventually be used for agricultural pur-
poses as it would be slow, dangerous, and costly. Itis true that the con-
tribution of agricultural lands to the national wealth is greater than that
of equal areas of forest, and the conclusion follows that it would be unwise
to hinder the development of any such lands which may lie within the
reserves. The presence of settlers in a reserve is not undesirable, pro-
vided suitable regulations are made and enforced, nor will the reserve
work any hardship to the settler. Protection against fire requires men,
who can not be had without long delay unless there are settlements near
at hand. No other forest is so safe as that which lies near a commu-
nity interested in its preservation. Two courses seem open, each of
which offers a solution of this question. The first is to offer to settlers
the possession of small bodies of agricultural land under license for a
term of years in consideration of assistance to be rendered in the pro-
tection of the reserves. Such licenses should be forfeited upon proof
of the commission of offenses against forest laws or regulations, and
renewal should be refused to license holders who have uot fulfilled their
obligations toward the forest. This plan has the great advantage of
controlling, to some exteut, the settlers within the reserves, and of
securing their cooperation. Ou the other hand it makes the settler’s
tenure of his land and improvements dependent, to some extent, upon
the arbitrary judgment of the forest officers, and it engages the Gov-
ernment in business as a landlord. The other plan, although intrinsic-
ally less effective, seems more feasible at the moment. It involves a
general provision like that outlined beiow. Whena proclamation of the
President is issued assigning new boundaries to auy reserve, it may be
made to include a paragraph exempting from its provisions any lands
which are more valuable for agriculture than for forest purposes, and
which shall be shown to be such to the satisfaction of the Secretary of
the Interior. A definition by the Secretary may then establish the
meaning of the term “agricultural lands,” and filings for homestead
entry may be required to include both a special affidavit to the non-
forest character of the lands, and a certificate from the resident forest
officer to the effect that the lands in question fall within the Secretary’s
definition. A more explicit reference to this matter will be found on
page 47, where its relation to existing laws is briefly noted.

PASTURAGE,

The character of the forest in certain portions of the reserves fits it
to furnish pasturage to large numbers of domestic animals during cer-
tain periods of its growth. Injury from grazing will be slight, or alto-
gether wanting, provided horses, cattie, and sheep are excluded from
those portions in which the immediate reproduction of the forest is
desired. Grazing does little harm to old trees. To young growth it
is usually fatal. Sheep, in particular, are so dangerous that their exclu-
sion is a prime condition of the successful reproduction of the forest.
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 39

Treading down the young seedlings where they do not browse upon
them, they reduce what might have been a vigorous young forest to the
condition of scattered clumps of young trees, many of them crooked
and unhealthy from wounds received in early youth from the sharp
hoofs. Cattle and horses are dangerous to young growth chietly because
they browse upon it. In forest regions they rarely gather into bands
large enough to trample out the young trees over any considerable
areas, whereas the densely packed bands of sheep, whose feet pulverize
the soil and uncover the roots of the seedlings over which they pass,
necessarily inflict the most serious damage. Nevertheless, it is the
regulation of pasturage within the reserves, not its prohibition, that is
required if all their resources are to be rightly developed (see page 48).
That such regulation is easy, and the complete exclusion of domestic
animals unnecessary, is abundantly proved by the ease of British
India, where upward of 3,000,000 head of domestic animals, chiefly
sheep and goats, are annually pastured with entire safety in the Gov-
ernment forests.

CONDITIONS OF SUCCESSFUL MANAGEMENT,

The success ot the procedure here proposed with refereiuce to agri-
eultural and grazing lands, as well as that of the whole plan of admin-
istration recommended in this report, depends altogether upon the
character and efficiency of the service which may be organized for the
management of the Government forests. Such provisions as those just
described are necessarily open to the possibility of many abuses. They
could be applied with safety only under the direction of a permanent
force selected with rigid care on the basis of fitness alone. From the
very nature of the task before it, the attempt to organize a forest service
on any other basis must, in the judgment of the writer, inevitably result
in mismanagement, failure, and very serious harm both to the cause of
forestry and to the forests themselves. This matter will be touched upon
more at length under the head of Administration.

PUBLIC OPINION.

Perhaps the most striking fact developed during my investigations
in the field season just closed is the profound change now taking place
in public opinion with regard to forest preservation in general and to
the reserves in particular. The outburst of public protest which fol-
lowed the establishment of thirteen reserves by President Cleveland
has spent its force, and a widespread recognition of the value of the
reserves to the communities about them is taking its place. The largest
factor in this change has been the diffusion of knowledge regarding the
rules and regulations issued by the Department for the government of
the reserves. These rules, framed to bring about the use of the réserves,
and liberal toa marked degree, are gradually becoming knowu. During
four months in the Northwest I have met but one man to whom a knowl-
edge of their provisions did not furnish suflicient reason for hearty
approval of the reservation policy. But great numbers of those most
interested are as yet incompletely informed, and a wider publication of
the forest policy of the Government, perhaps through the post-offices
situated in or near the reserves, would go very far to establish the good
opinion gradually forming in the public mind, and to secure the national
forests against future attacks from any source.
40 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

THE PUBLIC FOREST LANDS.

The National Irrigation Congress held at Lincoln, Nebr., September
30, 1897, passed unanimously a resolution advocating the withdrawal
from sale or entry of all lands now in possession of the Government
which are of more value for their timber than for agriculture or for
minerals. This representative body of Western men has expressed a
conclusion in which I fully concur. No good reason can be given for
the maiutenance of the present reserves which does not also demand
the withdrawal aud protection of all similar lands now held by the
Government. The present regulations, with the addition of the pro-
vision regarding agricultural lands already mentioned, would have the
effect to open all the resources of these lands to the fullest develop-
‘ment, and no good reason remains why the reservation policy should
not be extended to them also.

The conclusion embodied in the resolution of the irrigation congress
was emphatically reiterated on December 8, 1897, by the American
Forestry Association. It was strongly expressed by a committee of
the National Academy of Sciences; and it appears to be supported
with significant unanimity by the men most familiar with the Western
forests, and most interested in their preservation. The progress of
settlement has left in the ownership of the Government httle Western
forest land that is not mountain land as well. The welfare of the great
agricultural and mineral regions in the West are known to be indis-
solubly connected with the safety of these forests. The protection of
the mountain forests from fire is of the first and most inmediate im-
portance. Already certain mining sections are beginning to suffer
from lack of timber as the direct result of forest fires, and the develop-
ment of new mining centers will be seriously hampered, or even, in the
case of low grade ores, be rendered impossible by the lack of accessible
timber. ‘The Big Horn Mountains of Wyoming, although partly in-
cluded in a reserve, will furnish a typical illustration. This region is
believed by residents to contain mineral deposits of great value. These
deposits must be developed by the aid of local timber, or not at all, on
account of the steepness and isolation of the range and the difficulties
of transportation. During the past summer fires burned over about
70,600 acres, an area capable of yielding at one time, with entire safety
to the forest, an amount of timber sufficient to meet local needs, at the
present rate of consumption, for more than seventy years.

A powerful reason for assimilating all the Western public forests to
the reserves is found in the fact that no adequate provision exists by
which their timber can be made available for local needs. Means to this
end have been provided for the reserves, and it is believed that the
extension of thesé means to the unreserved forest lands would be wel-
comed throughout the West. Whether the withdrawal of the unre-
served forest lands could best be achieved by Congressional action, or
through proclamation by the President, is an open question. In the
latter case it might be necessary to reach the end in view by the con-
stitution of a number of new reserves, with boundaries subject to sub-
sequent revision, and any inclosed agricultural land open to entry as
heretofore described. Action in either direction should be preceded
and accompanied by the widest possible diffusion of the regulations
governing the reserves.
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 41

PRINCIPLES WHICH SHOULD GOVERN THE CHOICE OF BOUNDARIES,

1. All forest lands belonging to the United States, more valuable for
forest purposes than for agriculture, should be reserved and protected
from fire, and all their resources should be opened to development under
the regulations of the Departinent.

2, With suitable modifications, the reserves now existing should be
maintained.

3. Mining and forest protection are not incompatible, but under
proper management mutually helpful, and except in the case of densely
populated mining districts, mineral lands should not be excluded from
the reserves.

4, Forest lands denuded by fire or otherwise may be as suitably in-
cluded in a forest reserve as though covered with trees.

5. Considerable bodies of agricultural land should be excluded from
the reserves. Small areas within the boundaries should be subject to
location and entry for a definitely restricted number of years.

6. Railroad lands should be excluded from the reserves by exchange.

7. Open forests valuable for grazing should be used for that purpose,
under suitable regulations, without exclusion from the reserves.

iI. ADMINISTRATION.

The administration of forest lands differs from Government work in
other departments in several very important respects. In dealing with
the forest it has to do with a peculiarly delicate subject, of long life
and late maturity, aud of peculiar susceptibility to injury or destruction
from accidents and injudicious handling. Forests are subject to wide-
spreading calamities, such as forest fires, difficult to prevent, and, when
once under way, often passing wholly beyond the reach of human inter-
vention. The work of management in the field must be performed at
a distance from centers of Government activity, and under circum-
stances which render control and inspection both matters of consider-
able labor and difticulty. The importance of individual initiative and
devotion is therefore particularly marked. Finally, the duties which
forest management entail require for their performance a kind of
knowledge not widely distributed, and in general but moderately in
demand for other than Government work. These and other similar
facts lead naturally to the statement of the following three conditions,
which are essential to successful Government forest administration, and
which have been recognized as such in the organization ot every Gov-
ernment forest service with which I am acquainted. They are:

1. PERMANENCE OF TENURE OF FOREST LANDS,

The reforestation of burned areas; public acceptance and support of
Government ownership; the establishment of permanent boundaries;
and the possibility of successfully carrying out plans whose final com-

pletion often can not take place for more than a hundred years; all
these considerations demand that the lands in question should belong
to the Government permanently and without the possibility of dispute.

2. CONTINUITY AND STABILITY OF PLAN,

In the management of the forest, the long life of the trees which com-
pose it must be recognized in the treatment to which it is subjected.
Mistakes are peculiarly dangerous from the number of decades which
42 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

recovery from them may require. If irregularities are allowed to creep
into the management of Government forest lands they will inevitably
be followed by serious injury from overcutting. The temptation to
commit this fault is always great, and it can only be restrained by the
stability and high character of the management. Constant changes in
the treatment to which forest lands are subjected can not but result in
injury to the forests, laxity in the forest service, and a very serious loss
of prestige, and hence of support, in the public mind.

3. THE PERMANENT EMPLOYMENT OF TECHNICALLY TRAINED FOREST OFFICERS.

Stability in the management of forests is to be secured only by per-
manence in the personnel which has it in charge. Technical training,
indispensable to forest management, can be obtained only in men who
make forestry their profession. The demand for such knowledge in
this country outside of Government employment is at present so small
that young inen of adequate character and ability can not be expected
to undergo the necessary training without a reasonable expectation of
permanent work. This is but to say, in another form, that the neces-
sary grade of skill and quality of work can only be had from men who
expect to spend their lives in forestry. The peculiar responsibilities
involved, the residence of forest officers far from centers of population,
and the high standard of fidelity, honesty, and ability required tor this
work, demand as the essential of Government forest management, in this
country as in all others, the selection of technically trained men on the
basis of fitness alone, and their permanent employment during efficiency
and good behavior. The difficulty of getting rid of inefficient men is
not the least of the embarrassments which their presence may involve,
as has been abundantly shown in the experience of other goveriuments.
The temptation to over-cutting, already referred to, may be used as
an illustration. To cut freely may be safe or it may involve the ulti-
mate impoverishment or destruction of the forest. In either case it may
add greatly to the popularity of a forest officer, and perhaps to his
professional reputation as well, by affording supplies of timber and
results in money not otherwise to be obtained. Even thorough inspec-
tion may fail to discover the danger during the early stages of a forest
administration, when exact data regarding the forest are scarce or
lacking altogether. The only sufficient safeguard against this dauger,
and many others, is to be found in the creation of a professional esprit
de corps, and this is impossible without a professional training. The
important measures proposed in this report depend in every case for
their success in operation upon the establishment of a forest force on
the lines just described; and these measures are recommended with
aie proviso that they can be expected to succeed only on this con-

ition.

The question may be raised whether, during the earlier stages of
forest administration, when the refinements of forest management are
both undesirable and out of reach, the necessity for the employment
of technically trained men is as great as it is here made to appear.
The answer is to be found in the crucial importance of beginning right.
The traditions of any service necessarily determine its character to a
very large extent, and its future complexion must necessarily be tinged
by its beginnings. The confidence and good will of local populations
are an essential part of the working capital of a forest service, and at
no time can they be won or lost so easily as when the first impressions
are made. Further, the danger of mistakes that will seriously affect
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 43

the future value of government forests is most serious at the outset,
because accurate information upon which to base the working plans can
not be had. Jor these reasons, as well as for more general considera-
tions, it is of the first importance to start right.

FOREST SERVICE. |

In accordance with my instructions, I have to recommend the follow-
ing organization for a forest service to have charge of the reserves. It
is based upon an annual expenditure of $70,000, of which the salary
list is expected to consume somewhat more than one-half. The task
before such an organization will be altogether lacking in precedents in
this country, and the number of Americans sufficiently trained to occupy
the more responsible positions is small. It seems wise, therefore, to
begin on a comparatively restricted scale. I have to recommend that
the officers referred to in the following paragraphs be assigned to a
small number of reserves, as hereinafter specified (p. 46), since the
distribution of an inefficient force over large areas must necessarily
result in small profit to these areas, while forfeiting the valuable exam-
ple which a few reserves well managed may afford:

ADMINISTRATIVE FORCE.

One chief forester. ;

Duties.—General direction and supervision of thereserves. Since it
is not easy to foresee all contingencies, nor desirable to attempt to pro-
vide for them in advance, the chief forester should have very full
powers. He should be charged specitically with the direction and con-
trol of the reserves under the law and the general instructions of his
superior. He should review and approve all working plans (specific
schemes under which forests are managed); he should approve all per-
mits.for timber for more than $50 in value; he should make frequent
tours of inspection, and prepare an annual report; his headquarters
should be in Washington; and he should hold office during efficiency
and good behavior

Three clerks in the office of the chief forester.

Duties.—The usual ones of an office force.

One inspector of forests.

Duties.—To act as assistant to the chief forester as required, to replace
him at Washington during his tours of inspection, and to make frequent
inspections himself in the forest reserves.

EXECUTIVE FORCE.

Seven forest rangers.

Duties.—To take executive charge of the work in the field. They
should reside in or near the reserves, at points designated by the chief
forester, and should be responsible for the proper conduct of work in
the field. They should make frequent inspections of their charges; keep
the necessary sets of books; oversee the disbursements of all moneys
for bridges and other improvements, and account for the same; issue
permits for the use of timber up to the value of $50 stumpage ‘to one
man in one year; report to the chief forester; and assist him otherwise,
as he may direct.

Three clerks, one in the office of each of three of the seven forest
rangers.

Duties.—The usual clerical ones extended to include scaling and tak-
ing tallies.
44 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

PROTECTIVE FORCE.

Twenty forest guards.

Duties.—To act as protective officers and patrols within the reserves.
They should reside in or near the forest reserves. at points designated
by the chief forester in consultation with the forest rangers: should
see to it that the rules and regulations governing the reserves are
strictly observed: guard against injury from forest fires. and perform
such other duties as may be assigned to them.

One hundred and sixty fire watchers.

Duties—On condition of the yearly payment of 225 in the Black
Hills and £50 in the other reserves specified below (p. £6), these men
should bind themselves, under penalty of forfeiture of payment at the
end of the year, to repair with all practicable speed to every fire which
may occur within the limits assigned to them; to do their best to extin-
guish it, and, if necessary. to send immediate word to the, forest guard:
to report to the forest guard without delay all infractions of the forest
rules and regulations which may come to their notice: and to appear as
witnesses for the Government without further cost to the forest service
except for traveling expenses.

A word of explanation may be required regarding the fire watchers
here proposed. This plan will create a body of men pledged to fight
all fires which may arise, but with the strongest incentive to prevent
them from arising. The fewer fires the easier it will be fcr them to
earn their pay. It will secure a considerable number of residents in or
near each reserve who will become pecuniarily inter: sted in its exist-
ence and safety. Depredations will be liable to discovery by a larger
number of men than could otherwise be employed, each of whom will
be directly interested in the protection of the forest. Although the
anount of the pay in each case is small, ready money is so scarce among
small ranchers in the West that the inducement to earn even this sum
will be great. especially since the work involved may amount to’very
littlein any year. Even so the object of the Government will be fully
attained, for it is far better and cheaper to prevent the starting of tires
than to put them out after they have begun. The safety of the reserves
from fire and depredations must in the end depend largely upon the
good disposition of the people who live in or near them, and the appoint-
ment of fire watchers such as are here described would, it is believed.
bea considerable step in that direction.

Every forest officer, except the chief forester and the inspector,
should be required to provide his own residence in or near a reserve at
a point suitable and convenient for the discharge of his duties. and to
keep at his own expense two horses constautly available for forest work.
His own field equipment. with the exception of a uniform hat to be
furnished by the Department, should also be provided at his own
expeuse. No charge for food and lodging should be allowed when
traveling. A subsistence allowance in addition to actual and neces-
sary traveling expenses should be paid as follows:

Per day.
CNIGE POPES ER. wicca eee a tains diese cee es de mm emu atiunn se eaoneaeoste cas oar OU
WMS PECUOM. Ac nih- cc b acceler tie SSSA SUAS e see eis Baiieiaronye wel momen eut ees 3. 00
POrest TANGENS ..cccasintesd-sannes 26s cess seme eeteaigeneeeealinw cea sues 2. 00
Mores t Guard co 2.15. occa Asnecsee es ee eae rede kies oacueeecetneeecteses 1.00

A forest officer residing in a forest reserve should be allowed the use
of not more than 160 acres of agricultural land, if such land, suitably
placed, is available, together with free range for his own horses and
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESEKVES 4d

cattle to the number of 25 head in places where pasturage may safely
be permitted. Every forest officer using public land in this way should
be required to reside upon the Jand allotted to him.

In no case should a forest officer be allowed to be peeuniarily inter-
ested, in his own person or through another, in any matter connected
with the reserves, or with any one of them.

Cost.

Anaual salary list.

.

 

1 chief forester . baa patois tenet nes miei eer aavnes awl ore! sian eniladn a siahe (Acts, Cee ACO
1 forest inspector. - wavs wizie le mime siamese munnc nee arses ays its hc| nates |) UPON
7 forester rangers. at 2 SOMA Nis ete ee ew he eee ewe bogie. 12. 600
tr forest puards.at Si 20\eaeD aint aa ee tl eceacaslsa os yor wedeaeiass 14. 400
100 fireswatechers,.ats50 ea Ghee cd odes doc) duisicee eck oe ie secied 5. 000
60\ fire: Watchers. at £25 each .2c..2 4c. 23525, aio sae tee cecneweneeeen A300
A CNG Roe i jferescyacenap le Oslo wear te lead nde lc acia tia oe ete eEeeeues 1, 200
DCRR 52. bao c ou Gecko Gemnen accieretsrecs bein ne See aa dewek 1, 000
# Clerks, at:27( 20 Cachins oi cccosic2 sents side diem niece nee seen ooees. 2. 0
Ota 3 oe fecesd Soc aceec sacra se weaned cmidneene eweeicnad tee Hecesseeaimseee S44. 080

Miscellaneous expenses.

Traveling expenses and allowances._....-....-----.--------------- 210, 000
Trails, bridges, and cabins
Pire fond ic2cec-srcecwet esis

 

COMMUNICATIONS AND FIRES,

The construction of trails. bridges, and cabins for shelter in different
parts of the reserve should be one of the first duties assigned to the
forest guards during the season when fires are not dangerous. No
other expenditure can add so much to the satety of the reserves as that
for means of rapid and easy coumounication. To gain an hour in reach-
ing the scene of a fire may save hundreds or even thousands of dollars
in damage done and laborexpended. Cabins will be required, because
to visit the large area under his charge will require days, or sometimes
weeks, of travel on the part of each ranger or forest guard, and rough
shelter should be provided at scattered points to make such trips as
easy as possible. Every available means should be employed to enconar-
age the forest officers to travel widely and constantly through their
charges, and to provide shelters for the night is one of the best and least
expensive steps to that end.

Forest fires, while they are to be dreaded only in certain months of
any year, prevail to very different degrees in different years. It would
be most advisable, therefore, for that portion of the appropriation de-
voted to the fire fand, and to the contingent fund as well, to be contin-
uous. so that a season free from expensive fires may leave a balance at
the disposal of the forest service for use in succeeding and less favorable
years; and to this end the requisite clauses in the appropriation bill
should be verycarefullydrawn. Thefire fand itself is intended topermit
the employment of men, not already members of the forest service, to
meet emergencies caused by the prevalence of fires beyond the control
of the regular force. To put out even a slow-burning fire in the dense
46 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

forests of many of the reserves may often be a matter of a week’s work
for several men, on account of the enormous mass of fallen and decaying
wood on the ground. In view of the crucial importance of attacking
threatening fires with sufficient force and without delay, the fire fund
here recommended appears to be essential, and any surplus in the con-
tingent fund should be made available for the same purpose. It should
be noted, however, that great care will be required in the expenditure
of this money, and that the rates fixed for labor should be reasonably
small. Otherwise fires may be set for the purpose of creating a demand
for men to extinguish them.

DISTRIBUTION OF FORCE.

As has been said, it appears inadvisable to scatter a force of the size
recommended over the whole extent of the reserves, an area of more
than 60,000 square miles. On the contrary, I have to recommend the
concentration of the force upon those reserves where the danger from
fire and illegal cutting is most serious and where the demand and
opportunity for administration are largest. The reserves which these
considerations indicate are the Black Hills, Bitterroot, Washington,
Cascade, and the four reserves of southern California, the San Gabriel,
San Bernardino, San Jacinto, and Trabuco Canyon, which, for admin-
istrative purposes, may conveniently be treated as one. Supervision
should also be exercised by the officer in charge of the Bitterroot
Reserve over portions of the Flathead and Lewis and Clark. The total
area within the boundaries of these reserves is 12,250,000 acres, and
the cost of the administration here proposed would amount to about
5.6 mills per acre per annum. It does not seem wise to reduce this
amount still further by scattering the force over a larger area. The
following table exhibits the disposition provisionally recommended,
with the points of residence of the executive and protective officers.
Fuller experience will undoubtedly indicate considerable variations
from the detail here laid down. Much of the larger part of the time of
each officer should be spent in the field. So far as possible those points
are indicated from which various parts.of the reserves are most easily
accessible. The headquarters of the ‘chief forester and the forest
inspector would naturally be in Washington.

 

 

Rangers. | Guards. Fire watchers.
Black Hills .....-...-.- 1 at Deadwood, 1 at | 5 ator near Deadwood, Roch- | 60 at local points.
Custer. ford, Custer, Sheridan, Bear
; Gulch.
Bitterroot ..--.-..----- 1 at Missoula ..-....--. 4 at or near Hamilton, Darby, | 30 at local points.
; 4 | Ovando, Columbia Falls.
Washington ..-.-...-.. lat Hamilton......... 4 at or near Marblemount, | 25 at local points.
Atonte Cristo, Index, Stehe-
in.
Cascade .......--.----- lat Oregon City, lat | 5 at or near Summit Camp, De- | 20 at local points.
Roseburg. troit, Sisters, Big Means,
: . Fort Klamath. '
Southern California | 1 at San Bernardino ..| 2 at ornear Pasadena, Hemet..| 15 at local points.
reserves.

 

 

 

It will be noticed that the force recommended for the Black Hills is
much stronger in proportion to area than elsewhere. This is done
because this reserve offers by far the best opportunity for successful
forest management. There will be found more work to be done per
acre than in the other reserves recommended for occupation, and suc-
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. Aq

cess or failure here will necessarily be conspicuous and important. In
the Bitterroot Reserve only the eastern side of the mountains should
be occupied at present, since only here is cutting going on. The over-
sight of the lumbering region in the southern part of the Lewis and
Clark and a general supervision of the remainder of that reserve and of
the Flathead should be included in this charge. In the Washington
Reserve questions of protection are chietly important at present. In
the Cascade Reserve sheep and fire are important; cutting less so.
{n southern California, where the local population is thoroughly favor-
able to the reserves, tire must be the matter of chief concern.

AGRICULTURAL LAND.

The procedure recommended on page 38 for restoring small bodies of
agricultural land to the public domain is based on the use of a par-
agraph similar in effect to that next below in each proclamation of the
President defining the boundaries of a forest reserve:

Excepting from the force and effect uf these provisions all lands within the bounda-
ties hereinbefore described which are more valuable for, agriculture thin for forest
purposes, and which, prior to January 1, 1905, shall be shown to be such to the sat-
isfaction of the Secretary of the Interior, in accordance with rules and regulations
to be established by him for that purpose.

The law specifies that such lands may be restored to the public
domain after advertisement for sixty days. The advertisement of the
provisions just described would, it is believed, comply with the law in
this respect, and the lands excepted would be subject to the rules and
regulations governing the public domain as soon as the Secretary had
accepted and approved of their agricultural character. By such accept-
ance they would, in fact, be restored to the public domain in accord-
ance with the law. The regulations mentioned in the last paragraph
should provide:

1, Any 40-acre tract within a forest reserve, upon the application of
an actual or intended settler in accordance with existing laws and regu-
lations, accompanied by an atftidavit of the entryman to the uonforest
character of the land and by the affidavit of the resident forester that
the tract so selected is more valuable for agriculture than for forest
purposes, may, upon the approval of the Secretary of the Interior, and
not until then, be entered in the usual way.

2. To be “more valuable for agriculture than for forest purposes” a
40-acre tract must be capable of yielding agricultural crops, either with
or without irrigation, and it may have not to exceed one-half of its sur-
face covered in whole or in part with seedlings, young or old trees,
stumps, or stubs of merchantable kinds of trees, either living or dead.

3. The aftidavit of the forest officer must specify the number of acres
of seedlings, young or old trees, stumps, or stubs, and whether living
or dead, contained upon each 40-acre tract, and what crops, in his judg-
meut, may be raised upon it. It must contain a full legal description
of the tract, a statement of the watershed within which it is situated,
the date of the examination, and, in the case of an actual settler, a list
of improvements and a statement upon information and belief of the
time of residence of the present occupant. Should it be deemed wise
to put in force a system of licenses such as that briefly described on
page 38 special regulations drawn with great care would be required.

The regulations just indicated are drawn with special reference to
the Black Hills reserve, and should be modified to conform to the con-
ditions of any other reserve to which they may be applied.
4s SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

PASTURAGE.

The regulation of pasturage must be developed along lines which
will vary considerably from one reserve to another, or even within
smaller limits. As an example of a set of rules admirably adapted to
the region for which it is intended, I wish to quote that proposed for
the Cascade Range Reserve by Mr. Coville, Botanist of the Department
of Agriculture. who spent the field season just ended in an investigation
of sheep grazing in western Oregon. These regulations are here adduced
in illustration of the general direction which should be followed, not as
applicable to all the reserves. As Mr. Coville is careful to indicate,
their success must depend on the character of the forest officers by
whom they are apptied. They are as follows:

1. Exclude sheep from specified areas about Mount Hood and Crater
Lake.

2. Limit the sheep to be grazed in the reserve to a specified number,
based on the number customarily grazed there.

3. Issue five-year permits allowing an owner to graze on a specified
tract. limiting the number of sheep to be grazed on that tract. and give
the owner the exclusive grazing right.

4. Require as a condition of each permit that the owner use every
effort to prevent and to extinguish fires on his tract. and report in full
the cause. extent. and other circumstances connected with each fire.

5. Reserve the right to terminate a permit immediately if convinced
that the owner is not showing good faith in the protection of the
forests.

6. In the allotm nt of tracts secure the cooperation of the Wool-
growers’ Association of Crook, Sherman, and Wasco counties through
@ commission ot three stockmen. who shall receive written applications
for range, adjudicate them, and make recommendations. these recom-
mendations to be received by the forest officer and finally passed upon
by the Secretary of the Interior.

. Ask the county associations to bear the expense of the commission.
. Charge the cost of administration of the system to the owners in
the form of tees for the permits.

9. If the woolgrowers decline to accept and to cooperate in the pro-
posed system. exclude sheep absolutely from the reserve.

10. If after five years’ trial of the system forest tires continue
unchecked, exclude sheep thereafter from the reserve.

7
3

CUTTING.

The object of forest operations in any reserve should be to harvest
the largest amount of timber consistent with steady improvement in
the fertility and usefulness of the forest. The details of the work must
vary to meet the requirements of each individual case, but the first
step must always be the preparation of a careful plan to govern the
distribution of the cutting and the selection of the trees to fall.
Special regulations should then control the mechanical work of cutting
and transportation within the forest. so that the reproduction ot the
more valuable kinds of trees may be secured. Each tree has habits
and requirements of its own, and upon these depend the effects of cut-
ting on the reproduction of the species. A working plan prepared with
a knowledge of these peculiarities may insure the satety and prosperity
of a forest while yielding more timber than would be obtained under
another plan which would lead to its impoverishment and destruction,
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 49

because careless and unaware of sylvicultural results. An illustration
may be drawn from the forests of the southern Alleghenies. Certain
lumbering operations were undertaken there under the direction of a
professional forester, and were carried out by small contractors with but
slight differences from the usual way. The result has been a plentiful
reproduction of the yellow poplar, or tulip tree, over the whole area of
thecut. This is the first instance known to me in which this result has
been either sought or obtained. The yellow poplar, one of the most val-
uable timber trees of the region, has been uniformly believed by lamber-
men to be incapable of reproducing itself after cutting. Although the
trees removed were yellow poplars almost without exception, the pres-
ence of a far larger proporition of this species in the future is assured.

To harvest its product while securing the perpetuity and improve-
ment of the forest is the special work of the forester. The cost of bis
work, as compared with that of the ordinary destructive methods of
lumbering, shows an inerease usually so small as to be wholly out of
proportion to the value of the results obtained.

Lumbering operations in the reserves should nut be undertaken by
the Government. The fanction of the forest officers in this regard
should be restricted to the selection of the trees to be cut, their sale at
public auction, and the enforcement of rules governing their felling and
removal, and the disposition of the tops and other waste.

Since each part of each forest must be treated with special regard to
its character, it is difficult to formulate general rules. It may be said,
however, that all regulations and all work should aim at the following
results:

1. Safety from fire.

2. The reproduction of the forest.

3. Its improvement in composition and yield.

4. The satisfaction of local demand for forest products.

5. A fair return in money to the Government.

The application of these general principles to the reserves will lead
to widely different results in different forests. In some piaces great
bodies of burnt land or young timber will require nothing but pro-
tection from fire for yearstocome. Elsewhere old trees, long past their
prime, should be removed, while in very many localities the timber
needed for local use can be taken, under the direction of trained men,
with safety and advantage to the forest.

FOREST BRANDS.

In reserves where timber is sold it will be necessary to indicate unmis-
takably before the cutting what trees are to be cut, and afterwards to
ascertain that these trees, and these only, have been taken. Similarly,
trees to be cut under permit must be designated, and in many other
cases an official timber mark is imperatively demanded. Provision
should therefore be made for providing rangers and forest guards with
branding hatchets, the brand made by each of which should show, by
its general shape and particular figure, the executive charge and pro-
tective beat to which it belongs. Each brand should be registered in
the State where it is used, and a special regulation of the Secretary
should make the penal provisions of the act of June 4, 187, applicable
to the illegal manufacture, use, or possession of a Government branding
hatchet. No other regulation will do more to facilitate the practical
management of the forests in the reserves.

S. Doe. 189-—_4
50 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

SECONDARY DUTIES OF FOREST SERVICE,

The duties of the forest service described above, in addition to those
‘of protection and administration, should consist in opening lines of com-
munication through the reserves, and in preparing careful maps and
descriptions of the timber and of lines of transportation. A thorough
knowledge of the local markets should also be acquired. Methods and
tools for fighting fires have not yet been perfected, and as they must
vary with the differences of the forest in each reserve they should early
claim the attention of the forest officers.

THE WORK OF ORGANIZATION.

If effect is to be given to the recommendations contained in this
report it is of great importance that the officer charged with their
‘execution should be empowered to begin the work of organization with-
‘out delay. The selection of suitable subordinate officers will be a
matter of considerable time and difficulty, and they should have oppor-
‘tunity to become familiar with their routine duties before active tield
work begins. The system of pasturage proposed by Mr. Coville can not
be applied during the coming summer unless steps to that end are
taken this winter. Finally, specific administrative details, such as
regulations for the use and protection of the reserves under this plan,
and form for permits and reports, matters which can not properly find a
place in this report, will require painstaking consideration. Such
facts as these, taken together with the pressing necessity for the imme-
‘diate protection of the reserves and the enforcement of the law and the
regulations, make it plain that action can not long be delayed if note-
‘worthy progress iu the right treatment of the reserves is to be made
‘during the coming year. The fact of such progress, or its absence,
will weigh heavily with the Western people for or against the reserva-
‘tion policy. Timely and efficient action in Washington and in the field
during the next year will strengthen and solidify popular feeling in
eee of the reserves as powerfully as their absence will disappoint and
reduce it.

III. THE FOREST RESERVES IN DETAIL.

BIG HORN FOREST RESERVE.

SUMMARY.

‘Situation: Northern Wyoming. Acres.

Area within present lines ....... 00.2.2 .2 0-20 eee eee eee eee eens 1, 127, 680

‘ Per cent of

Adverse holdings not known. total area.
Area-0f forest: land acces secsce'ses seeps see Wee ¥enek slew es eundioccamaaers (?%) 95
Areamarked DY fiTGscs x e-<es sawenaes seg desea dcieisieacnc  eoneeaveuets (2) 90
Area badly burned )sscccs seve cx sen uind Se ye eet eet tcticekes ta geteicig (%) 70

Revised lines can not be drawn without further study and a map.

Force recommended: One ranger, 4 forest guards, 25 fire watchers, after other more
pressing reserves have been supplied with men.

Sources of information: Report of F. E. Towne, special field assistant, United States
Geological Survey; statement by Henry Gannett, geographer, United States Geo-
logical Survey; no personal examination.

A broad high plateau, with a central granite crest, partly covered with forests of
lodge-pole pine.
Fires have cleared about half of this reserve and are keeping it free from trees.

All the water flowing east is used for irrigation, and a considerable part of that
which flows west.
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 51

Mining is expected to develop extensively.

Agriculture is not possible within the reserve.

About450,000 sheep pasture within the reserve. Their grazing retards reproduction,
and should be regulated.

Adjacent settlements should be supplied with necessary timber and fuel from the
reserve.

The Big Horn Reserve is situated in northern Wyoming, and occu-
pies about two-thirds of the Big Horn Mountain Range, which has a
length from north to south of from 75 to 100 miles, and a breadth from
east to west of from 30 to 50 miles. The boundaries of the reserve
include an area of 1,127,680 acres, none of which is railroad land.

The Big Horn Range consists of a broad flat plateau rising abruptly
from the plains to an elevation of from 8,000 to 1,000 feet. Along the
center of the plateau is a granite crest which attains in Cloud Peak an
altitude of 13,100 feet. The climate is dry, with little rain during the
growing season. It is too severe for agriculture. Frosts occur during
every month in the year, and snow lies from November to June.

The forests of the range furnish a small amount of lumber to the
settlements east and west, and nearly two million railroad ties have
been cut.

THE FOREST.

The forest is distributed chiefly along ridges parallel to the central
backbone, and consists almost wholly of lodge pole pine, locally known
under various names. On the whole, the region is lightly forested,
while probably one-half of it bears at present no timber at all. About
84,000 acres are estimated to contain timber of merchantable size at
present, and the total stand of this area is believed to be 210,000,000
feet B. M. In other words, less than 10 per cent of the total area of
the reserve now contains merchantable timber. A half million acres,
it is estimated, are covered with young growth capable of yielding,
after from thirty to fifty years of protection from fire, a merchantable
crop. By assuming the very moderate yield of 2,000 feet per acre, this
young growth will produce, when mature, 1,000,000,000 feet of mer-
chantable timber. In addition it may be made to furnish, under proper
management, a regular annual product for an indefinite period. But
for the fires this vast resource would be available now.

The lodge-pole pine is distributed from the plaius to the timber line.
Here, as elsewhere, on account of its vigorous reproductive power, its
distribution is increased by the prevalence of fires. It reoccupies the
ground from which forests of other trees have been removed by fire. It
is capable of yielding an inferior quality of lumber, good fencing and
building material, and great quantities of railroad ties. The average
size of mature trees may be given roughly, as follows: Height, 70 feet;
diameter, 1 foot; length of clear trunk, 25 feet.

The spruce, while not present in great numbers on the reserve, is
widely distributed on both high and low elevations in moist places. It
is larger, on the average, than the lodge-pole pine.

FIRE.

” The larger part of the reserve south of Tongue River appears to have
been burnt over about twenty-five years ago, as is indicated by the
young growth which has sprung up since that time; and clear traces
of other older fires may also be discerned. The open grassy parks,
which are estimated to cover at least one-half of the reserve, are
directly due to fire. Repeated burnings finally overcome the reproduc-
52 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

tive power of the lodge-pole pine, grass takes possession of the soil,
and the subsequent return of the forest is very slow. Since the parks
are due to fire, it is true that by far the largest pait of the reserve
has been burnt over. Probably the whole area, in the past, has been
swept clear over and over again. During the past summer alone about
70,000 acres were devastated by fire. The stand of this area, if
untouched by fire, can not reasonably be estimated at less than 2,000
feet per acre. It is interesting to note that the total product of all the
mills drawing their timber from the reserve is less than 2,000,000 feet
per annum, while the 70,000 acres burnt over last summer would have
been capable of producing 140,000,000 feet, or seventy years’ supply, if
they had been permitted to grow uninjured by fire.

WATER.

The whole available flow of the streams which proceed from the east-
ern side of the Big Horn Range is utilized for irrigation in the town of
Sheridan and the tributary region, while a considerable amount is also
required in the Big Horn Basin to the west. The preservation of these
watersheds is intimately bound up with the prosperity of the regions to
which they give fertility and value.

MINING,

Mines in this reserve have not yet been extensively developed, but
expectations are large. Ifthey are even partially realized, as it seems
probable they will be, the preservation of timber for their use is essen-
tial. Mines can not be operated without timber, and the cost of trans-
porting it from other forest regions to the Big Horn would be altogether
prohibitory.

AGRICULTURE.

The elevated situation and the climate of this reserve make it totally
unfit for agriculture, nor has it received any development of this kind
whatever.

GRAZING.

The Big Horn Range was estimated to support last summer 3,000 head
of cattle and about 450,000 sheep. The figures for the latter are those
given by the State scab inspector. From 1} to 14 acres are required to
support a sheep in the Big Horn during the summer, and the number of
sheep corresponds closely with the estimate of 600,000 acres of pasturage
already given. Injury to growing trees of larger size from the pasturage
of sheep is not to be feared here more than elsewhere, nor are they known
to feed upon young seedlings of coniferous trees, except under stress of
starvation. On the other hand, they trample and destroy these young
seedlings under their feet in great numbers, so that the satistactory
reproduction of any forest region absolutely demands their exclusion.
To deny access to the reserve to the sheep who have been in the habit
of pasturing there would involve serious hardship to their owners, and
it appears to be unnecessary for the present. But when the time comes
for the reproduction of these forests it will be essential to exclude the
sheep from specified areas during the process, Regulations similar to
those recommended for the Cascade Reserve should be put in force here
as soon as trained men can be employed to enforce them.
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 53

FOREST FORCE.

One ranger with 4 forest guards and 25 fire watchers shuuld be
sufficient to afford a degree of protection similar to that provided,
under the plan already submitted, for those reserves which should first
be taken in hand.

FOREST MANAGEMENT.

The following ontline of treatment adapted to this reserve is offered
subject to the corrections which personal knowledge of it would
undoubtedly suggest. It is based altogether on the reports of others,
since I have not visited this reserve. Forest management in this
reserve requires first of all protection against fire. The inflammable
nature of the lodge pole pine, already alluded to in many places, makes
it specially important to take this matter in hand vigorously from the
start. Other sylvicultural operations are entirely subsidiary, and must
wait. Timber should be sold to supply adjacent demands, which may
be expected to increase largely in the future. Thesystem of clear cut-
ting in strips will probably best accomplish the desired result in this
reserve, where the reproduction of the forest is vigorous, and the soil
and climate are adapted to forest growth. Transportation must be
chiefly or wholly by flume or road. No attempt to use the streams for
driving purposes has hitherto succeeded on account of the steep slopes
between the upper plateau and the plains beneath. The sylvicultural
character of the lodge-pole pine is comparatively simple, and well
adapted to forest management, and little or no difficulty should be
experienced in securing a permanent and continuous yield from the
Big Horn Reserve.

BOUNDARIES.

This reserve includes at present very little land which does not
properly belong within it. Considerable extensions of its lines are
plainly indicated by the information available, but in the absence of
personal knowledge and a suitable map I am not prepared to recom-
mend new boundaries.

BITTERROOT FOREST RESERVE.

SUMMARY,

Situation: West-central Montana and east-central Idaho.

Acres.
Area within présent lineS. ssa oh swis ene teenseeeeks ae U Ne bee 4, 147, 280
Adverse holdings, railroad lands. ...........--.--.2-.2.22-22--------- 256, 360
Per cent of

total area.
Area:of forest. land wx. 222% <22aiircciccnds 5 pelsz eigen Semieisevaueessioess 22s (2) 95
Area marked, DY TG. ssc so teiecwrewieaeule esedesadecntecedl. ote alness se (2) 80
Area badly burned .cssiseciwsten cue icns swiee soso eg ian ues Mes temeecien (?) 50

Acres.
Area within proposed lines, approximately. -.....---.--..----.----.-++---- 4, 238, 160
Inclusions proposed, approximately .......--. 222-22. ------2- 02-222 90, 880

Force recommended: One ranger, 2 forest eu 20 tire watchers.
Sources of information: Report of Special Field Assistant J. B. Leiberg, United
States Geological Survey. Personal examination July 27 to August 19, 1896.

A rugged and broken mountain region with steep or precipitous slopes, admirably
adapted to the growth of forests.
54 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

Fire has destroyed, for the present, the productiveness of perhaps half of the
reserve.

Questions of water supply are important on the eastern slope.

Mining has attained some development, and is likely to increase.

Agriculture practically does not exist within the reserve.

Grazing is not important except in scattered localities on the western slope.

The commercial development of the eastern slope should be provided for at once.

The Bitterroot Forest Reserve includes the crest and slopes of the
continental divide in the southern portion of the Bitterroot Mountains
in west-central Montana and east-central Idaho. Its length from north |
to south is about 105 miles, its breadth from east to west about 85 miles,
and its boundary includes an area of 4,147,200 acres. From this total
there must be subtracted 256,360 acres of railroad land, besides an
unknown, but very small area of mining locations and a few agricul-
tural and timber claims. The continental divide separates the reserve
into two parts so distinct from each other that they demand separate
treatment.

EASTERN SLOPE.

The eastern slope of the Bitterroot Reserve embraces an exceedingly
broken mountain region descending abruptly to the level and fertile
Bitterroot Valley. It is traversed by nearly straight canyons of great
depth, usually with precipitous sides cut through the granite by gla-
ciers which have now disappeared. It is estimated to include about
80,000 acres. North of the West Fork of the Bitterroot River the
rock is granite. To the south the granite is replaced by quartzite and
felsitic rocks which contain almost the only known mineral deposits.
The climate is severe, but not conspicuously moist. Large amounts of
timber have been cut from the reserve, and from the timber lands adja-
cent by the Bitterroot Development Company (now the Anaconda
Copper Mining Company) chiefly for the use of their mines at Ana-
conda and Butte. At the time of my visit in July and August, 1896,
they were shipping daily, from their mill at Hamilton, one train of about
twenty-four cars loaded chiefly with mining timber.

As much of the area of the Bitterroot Valley as can be irrigated is
valuable agricultural land. Dams have been built on Mill Creek and
Big Creek, and others will probably follow on other tributaries.

THE FOREST, EASTERN SLOPE.

The forest is comparatively open, and more or less sharply separated
into two forest types. Of the first, the characteristic tree is the west-
ern yellow pine, which is said to cover about one-third of the area
occupied by this type, while the red fir covers most of the remaining
two-thirds. Higher up it is replaced by the high mountain lodge-pole
pine type of forest. About 90 per cent of this forest is occupied by the
tree from which it takes its name.

The yellow pine in the Bitterroot Valley reproduces itself with a
vigor and persistence not known in many portions of its habitat.
Young trees are common in the lower portions of the valley outside of
the reserve, and at lower elevations in the reserve itself. This tree
reaches average dimensions as follows: Height, 90 feet; diameter, 2
feet; length of clear trunk, 40 feet. It is chiefly used for lumber. It
is estimated that nearly 50 per cent of all the trees of this species are
here unsound, as the result of forest fires.
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 55

MIXED FOREST IN THE CLEARWATER BASIN.

East of the summit the Douglas fir (red fir) is a comparatively small
tree, with average dimensions as follows: Height, 60 feet; diameter, 1
foot; length of clear trunk, 10 feet. It is but little used for lumber.
Its reproduction after forest fires is good, but on the whole it is far less
useful than the yellow pine.

The lodge-pole pine has spread widely through the influence of fire.
Its reproduction is good, but the trees here, as elsewhere, are small.
Its dimensions may be given as follows: Height, 70 feet; diameter, 10
inches, length of clear trunk, 30 feet.

The lowland fir, so called because of its plentiful occurrence in the
lowlands of western Oregon and Washington, a tree here chiefly found
above the middle altitudes, has average dimensions as follows: Height,
90 feet; diameter, 2 feet; length of clear trunk, 15 feet.

FIRE, EASTERN SLOPE.

The destruction by fire ‘in the last forty years on the eastern slope
has been very serious indeed. More than half the lodge-pole pine on
the slopes facing the valley south of the main forks of the Bitterroot
has been killed. Itis estimated that 130,000,000 feet B. M. of Douglas
fir (red fir) has been destroyed, together with 5,500,000 of mixed Douglas
fir and yellow pine, and 2,500,000 of yellow pine standing alone. This
is the case in spite of the fact that yellow pine and Douglas fir are
particularly adapted to resist fire by their thick and corky bark.
Floods have begun to be felt on account of the destruction of the
lodge-pole pine at high altitudes, and still greater loss {rom this cause
is anticipated if the destruction is allowed to proceed. A commendable
sentiment against fires exists in the valley. Immediately after the
visit of the National Forest Commission in 1896, notices were pre-
pared by the Anaconda Copper Mining Company, offering a reward
for the detection of infractions of the laws protecting timber on the
public domain, and it was widely posted along trails and in the passes.

WATER, EASTERN SLOPE,

It has been noted that the destruction of parts of the forest has led
to floods in the Bitterroot Valley, and that water for irrigation is.
needed, since nearly every part of the valley which the water can be
made to reach will produce agricultural crops. The protection of the
forests for this purpose is distinctly necessary.

MINING, EASTERN SLOPE.

Mining has been prosecuted to any extent only south of the main
forks of the Bitterroot River. Several hundred mining claims exist
in that region, and 500 acres of coal lands have been discovered. The-
future development of these mineral resources is uncertain, but in any
case the protection of the timber supplies which that development will:
require is important. It has already been mentioned that great quan-
tities of timber have been cut from this valley for the use of the Ana,
conda Copper Mining Company. Provision should be made by which
the production of this timber may be continued under Government.
supervision, so as to reconcile the development of mines with the
preservation of forests. Hitherto the regulations prescribed in the
permits under which this timber has been cut have not, as a rule, been
observed.
56 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

AGRICULTURE, EASTERN SLOPE.

It has been ascertained that there are 1,495 acres of land, more or
less accurately described as agricultural, in the reserve, 82 acres of
which are under plow. Further development is not probable, since the
climate is so unfavorable that even potatoes make an uncertain crop.

GRAZING, EASTERN SLOPE,

A little grazing has been practiced at moderate elevations in the
open forest, and provision should be made to permit its continuance so
far as the home stock of actual settlers is concerned. Open grassy
stretches at high elevations should be protected against the grazing of
cattle and especially of sheep. No demand of this kind has as yet
been made upon them, and none should be encouraged or considered
when made.

WESTERN SLOPE.

The western portion of the reserve Jies on the long and gradual western
slope of the Bitterroot Mountains, from a little north of the well-known
Lolo trail to the Salmon River. It includes an exceedingly broken
mountainous country plentifully watered, with occasional stretches
‘dotted here and there by extensive meadows. The more precipitous
portions lie along the main divide and in a very steep and rugged region
about in the middle of the slope. Its canyons, cut by glaciers which
have disappeared, are frequently almost impassable. In places of less
‘abrupt but still very steep slopes it is exceedingly remarkable that the
soil does not wash. Frequently altogether without a covering of any
kind, it maintains itself upon sidehills with inclinations often of 45
degrees, without a sign of gullying. The absence of torrential rains
is probably a reason for this striking fact, and the nature of the rock
is another. The latter is granite, except in the southern part, and the
coarse and very porous soil which it produces is in general poor and
little adapted for anything but the growth of trees. Its climate, moist
in the upper portion and subalpine along parts of the western border,
furnishes rainfall enough for the prosperity of forests. At present this
region produces practically nothing except water for use beyond its own
borders.

THE FOREST, WESTERN SLOPE.

The forest over portions of this western part of the reserve is exceed-
ingly dense. It would be extremely rich throughout except for past
fires. lts most widely distributed tree is the Douglas fir (red fir), which
occurs in all but the loftiest situations. The most prolific areas of
its forest are covered by a dense growth of the western cedar, which in
places reaches a yield of more than 100,000 fect per acre B.M. Except
for old trees of this latter species, the trees which compose these forests
are usually sound. ;

The Douglas fir is very widely distributed throughout this region,
except at high altitudes. In mixture with the western yellow pine it
occupies dry southern and western slopes in the higher portions and
covers considerable areas lower down. Mixed with the lowland fir (white
fir), Englemani spruce, and lodge-pole pine on barren ridges, and again
with the spruce in wet situations at low altitudes, it shows its wonderful
capacity to meet the most various conditions in its surroundings. It
reaches here the following average measurements: Height, 100 feet;
diameter, 2 feet; length of clear trunk, 40 feet.
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 57

The yellow pine is very plentiful on the drier slopes, where it partially
occupies the ground, often in mixture with the Douglas fir. Its repro-
duction, on the whole, is rather slow. Toward the western line of the
reserve crescent-shaped bodies of young growth occur in such relation
to the old trees that they are believed to occupy the ground protected
from evaporation by the shade of the crown of the seed trees from which
they spring. The average dimensions of the yellow pine in this region
may be given as follows: Height, 80 feet; diameter, 20 inches; length
of clear trunk, 30 feet.

The lodge-pole pine forms extensive forests in the less broken and
lower regions about Elk City, and occupies with the alpine fir and
the limber pine the crests and slopes of the higher ridges. With a
variety in the color of its bark ranging from black to white through
various shades of red and orange, and a habit which changes from
the tall, spiry, slender treeof rich bottom lands to the stumpy, spread-
ing specimens of wind swept ridges, this tree reaches average meas-
urements for ripe trees, in middle situations, somewhat as follows:
Height, 90 feet; diameter, 1 foot; length of clear trunk, 30 feet. The
larger part of the lodge-pole pine now alive in this region is smaller
because it is not yet mature.

The western cedar occurs in dense forests of great richness on fertile
bottom lands along the streams, and to some extent also, especially in the
form of undergrowth, on the comparatively dry slopes of steep ridges.
Slow in growth, but with a fairly vigorous power of reproduction, this
tree promises to be one of the most useful in the future history of these
forests. Its average dimensious are as follows: Height, 125 feet;
diameter, 4 feet; length of clear trunk, 30 feet.

The lowland fir (white fir) is widely distributed over the moister por-
tions of this region, standing in bottom lands along the streams with
the spruce and cedar, and high on the ridges with the spruce and Douglas
fir. It has as yet comparatively little commercial value even in less
scantily peopled portions of its habitat, but it will eventually find its
proper place in the markets of the West. It is exceedingly sensitive to
fire in youth and middle age, but with its rapid growth and good powers
of reproduction it repairs more speedily than most of its associates the
damage from this source. Its average dimensions may be given as
follows: Height, 125 feet; diameter, 3 feet; length of clear trunk, 40
feet.

Englemann spruce occurs chiefly in moist land near streams and on
the high tops of ridges. Its reproduction is good. Occasionally it is
found in dénse bodies of fine trees, but in general its dimensions may
be given as follows: Height, 100 feet; diameter, 20 inches; length of
clear trunk, 20 feet.

FIRE, WESTERN SLOPE.

Few regions in the United States have suffered more severely than
the western half of the Bitterroot Mountains. Fires have been run-
ning over this portion of the reserve for centuries past, and their effects
are plainly visible in stretches of grass land denuded of trees but still
dotted with the rotting stubs of former occupants. So far as I am ac-
quainted with this region, brushy slopes cleaved of trees by fire occupy
at least as great an area as the existing forests, while in the southeast
and south central portions fires have determined the character of by far
the greater part of the whole area. The heavy mass of vegetable débris
on the ground, where the forest is dense, makes fires in these places
exceedingly hard to extinguish. In many cases to light a camp fire is
58 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

almost inevitably to set fire to the forest. Prospectors are undoubtedly
responsible for much of the damage from this cause, but the greater fires
date from before the period of their arrival, The Indian trails which
cross these regions are marked by widespread burns on either hand,
and the old date of the damage leaves no doubt as to where the respon-
sibility should lie. It is said that lightning is responsible for a few fires,
and there is good reason to believe that it is so.

MINING, WESTERN SLOPE.

Mining on the western slope of the Bitterroot Reserve is so far
wholly restricted to the prospecting stage, and few finds of importance
have been made, except near Elk City. Placer mining has been fol-
lowed in that vicinity to some extent, but most of the available ground
has been worked out and the region is being abandoned. Near Shoup,
a mining settlement of perbaps a dozen cabins on the Salmon River, a
little mining is carried on, but so far without conspicuous result. The
known mineral belt lies wholly to the south of the Nez Perce Pass.

AGRICULTURE, WESTERN SLOPE.

There are no agricultural possibilities of any consequences, and no
special provisions are required in this direction.

GRAZING, WESTERN SLOPE.

The grassy tracts near the summit of the divide in the southeastern
portion of the western slope would furnish pasture for considerable
numbers of domestic animals if they were more accessible. As it is,
the difficulty of reaching them and the urgent need for the reforesta-
tion of these denuded mountains make it unwise to encourage their use
for other than forest purposes. So far as I am informed no domestic
animals are at present pastured upon them. In the vicinity of Elk
City rich alluvial meadows of considerable extent have been occupied
by individuals or companies for stock raising, and provisions should be
made to continue their use in this direction.

FOREST MANAGE ENT.

A very careful study of the forests on the eastern slope of the Bitter-
root Reserve should be undertaken without delay. While the greater
part of the timber land available for the supply of the Anaconda Cop-
per Mining Company lies outside of the borders of the reserve, it is
evident that a demand upon the forests of the reserve will shortly be
made to supply deficiencies created by cutting elsewhere. Before that
time arrives a thorough knowledge of the sylvicultural conditions which
determine the reproduction of the yellow pine and Douglas fir should
be obtained, and a careful working plan should be drawn up to govern
the cutting of these trees. This matter is of very great importance.
Here and in the Black Hills Reserve great mining corporations come
directly in contact with forest reserves, and the adjustment between
them involves many delicate questions. It is strongly recommended
that a further study of the eastern slope of the Bitterroot Reserve be
undertaken without delay.

The timber cut on the western slope of the reserve, and not used in
its immediate neighborhood for the development of the region, must
find its only possible outlet to the west, where it will come into compe-
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 59

tition with the products of richer and more accessible forest regions.
In addition, many of the streams, the only possible means of transpor-
tation, are too rough to be easily driven. For the present, therefore,
the development of these forests in a commercial way is out of the
question. Provision is required for controlling the limited use made
of their timber by ranchers in the immediate neighborhood; but other-
wise, the task of forest management here resolves itself for the imme-
diate future into protection against fire, the construction of trails,
chiefly to that end, and the study and mapping of the forest.

FOREST FORCE.

It has already been recommended that one forest ranger be stationed
at Missoula and that he should exercise a limited supervision over the
Flathead and Lewis and Clark reserves, while devoting the greater
part of his attention to the eastern slope of the Bitterroot Reserve.
Forest guards under his direction should be stationed at or near Ovando
and Columbia Falls for the Flathead and Lewis and Clark and at
Hamilton and Darby for the Bitterroot. Twenty fire watchers should
be assigned to the eastern slope. For the present it is recommended
that no men be assigned to the western slope. In time guards should
be stationed at or near Elk City, Shoup, Indian Post-Office, on the Lolo.
trail, and other commanding points.

BOUNDARIES.

The present eastern boundary line of the reserve was intended to
inclose the whole of the precipitous mountain slopes which follow the
western edge of the Bitterroot Valley. The correction here recom-
mended is intended to bring this condition about. The available
information regarding the western slope is not sufficiently definite to
afford a basis for the recommendation of new boundaries for that part
of the reserve, if such are required. The eastern boundary proposed
is as follows:

Commencing at the intersection of the line between ranges 19 and 20:
west, principal meridian, Montana, with the State line between Mon-
tana and Idaho; thence northerly along said range line to the base
line; thence westerly along said base line to the southeast corner of
township 1 north, range 20 west; thence northerly along the surveyed
and unsurveyed range line to the northeast corner of said township;.
thence westerly along the surveyed and unsurveyed township line
between townships 1 and 2 north to the point for the southeast corner
of township 2 north, range 21 west; thence northerly along the sur-
veyed and unsurveyed range line to the point tor the southeast corner
of section 24 in township 2 north, range 21 west; thence westerly along
the surveyed and unsurveyed south section lines for sections 23 and 24
in said township to the point for the southeast corner of section 22 in
said township; thence northerly along the surveyed and unsurveyed
east lines of sections 22, 15, 10, and 3 in said township to the point for
the southeast corner of section 34 in township 3 north, range 21 west;
thence westerly along the surveyed and unsurveyed township line
between townships 2 and 3 north, range 21 west, to the point for the
southeast corner of section 32 in township 3 north, range 21 west;
thence northerly along the surveyed and unsurveyed east section lines
of sections 32, 29, 20, 17, 8, and 5 in townships 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 north,
range 21 west, to the point for the southeast corner of section 32 in
township 8 north, range 21 west; thence easterly along the surveyed
60 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

and unsurveyed township line between townships 7 and $ north. range
21 west, to the point for the southeast corner of section 33 in township
3 north, range 21 west: thence northerly along the survered and unsur-
vered east section lines of sections 33, 28, 21, 16, 9, and 4 in townships
8. 9. and 10 north, range 21 west. to the point for the northeast corner
of section + in township 10 north, range 21 west: thence westerly along
the surveyed and unsurveyed township line between townships 10 and
11 north, range 21 west. to the point for the northeast corner of town-
ship 10 north, range 22 west. at which point the line joins the one estab-
lished as the northern boundary of the Bitterroot Forest Reserve br
proclamation of February 22, 1897, with which line it is thenceforth
continuous.

BLACK HILLS FOREST RESERVE.

SUMMARY.
Situation: Western South Dakota. Actes.
Aréa-within present Mines: 322 2c cscs acted cae boone aan. AOETIBSO
Adverse holdings, very large but not known.
Exclusions proposed, approximate........-..--.----.-----2---- eee. 202,
Inclusions proposed, approximate -_........-.-.2.--2.--2------------ 535, O10
Area within proposed lines, approximate..._...........--..-.------------ 1, 299, 840
INCreNse;, APPLORIMALGC << 222s d See ee SESS nMoeeee Ss mae baseaeas 332, 160
Per cent of
Present lines: total area.
ATs Ol Torest Tangs: = 22552 ccale sence. cwiined hae domuneaee eoneecesasoseee (2) &
ATOR MALKEO Oy DLE. 2jsicc wis wincwnsae aes name d.acdhe.pisenraroeeaedee names (?) 85
Area badly DURN6G sc... emesicctissGiemicicscseiania Siw Sie -nicie/d Saciemis Smee aime (2) 25
Proposed lines:
Area of forest lan@s<:22%<c ne sdxvecesns seenee pusresciewnss eaass ences (2) 95
Areasmarked: Dy r@::e2cseneeseus cesses nad 25 caawen.c raat ee oenes (2) &
Ares. Dadly burned jes e's-cecceeucwes ieweedds aeeees cnew cee estees. se (2) 25

Force recommended: Two rangers, 5 forest guards. 60 fire watchers.

Sources of information: Report and statement of H. 8. Graves, Special Field Assistant,
United States Geological Survey. Personal examination, October 22 to November
4, 1897.

An undulating elevated region, well adapted to the growth of trees.

Fire has determined the condition of the forest over nearly the whole area.

The water supply for mining and irrigation is important.

Mining is the principal industry of the region, and means must be provided for its
continuance.

Agriculture is important, and agricultural land should be opened to entry.

Grazing is not largely practiced and does no harm to the forest. _

The immediate commercial development of these forests is imperative if the reserve
is to be maintained. Special attention is directed to the recommendation on page 42.

The Black Hills Forest Reserve occupies the southern portion of the
elevated region of the same name in the western part of South Dakota.
Its boundaries include an area of 967.680 acres. of which an unknown
but very considerable part has passed into private hands under patents
as lode or placer claims. The Black Hills themselves have a length
from north to south of 120 miles and a breadth from east to west of £0
miles. Since the lines of the reserve should be extended to cover nearly
the whole area of the Black Hills, both in South Dakota and in Wyo-
ee, the descriptions which here follow have been made to apply to the

atter.

The topography of the Black Hills consists essentially of a rim of
limestone rock surrounding an inner region of schists and slates, with
granite at the surface in the center. With the exception of the cliffs
and canyons of the limestone and a rugged area in the granite, the
outlines of the country are rounded. The soil is rich and the climate
SURVEY: OF FOREST RESERVES. 61

fairly adapted to agriculture. Tbe trade relations of the Black Hills
have so far depended almost entirely on mining and its related indus-
tries. Agriculture has been <sapported by a demand created by the
mines, and the extensive forest destruction which has taken place Las
had for the most part the same general cause.

THE FOREST.

The fores: of the Black Hills. except in the northwest portion. is
rather open. There is commonly some grass under the trees. The
principal and almost the only tree of commercial importance ‘s the
western yellow pine. In the caster part of the hills there is some
white spruce, and burned areas have been extensively oceupied by the
quaking aspen. The forest is broken and irregular, with a very large
per cent of u1.scund and misshaped trees. In some cases. as tke result
of fires, nearly every tree on a considerable tract is unsound. Fifty per
cent of defective tiinber is not uncommon. The amount of standing
timber per acre, almost throughout the forest. has been greatly reduced
by the long prevalence of forest fires. The dead standing timber
throughout the hills is estimated at from 3 to 4 per cent of the whole
forest.

The yellow pine here reaches averaze dimeusious as follows: Height.
70 feet: diameter. 15 inches; length of clear trunk, 35 teet. It occurs
in the Black Hills without regard to the character of the soil. In
nearly all cases the timber, reduced by successive fires, is by no means
up to the standard which the soil is capable of producing.

There are three classes of old trees which differ in development and character.
The first ci ++ is found on rich oil and in protected situations. The trees average
about 20 inch:s in diaz.«t-r and have a maximum size of 3 fect. This timber reaches
a height of 100, Lat is on the average not over *9 feet high, and the stems are straizht
and clear of limb: for 30 to 50 feet. ~uch timber is grown in crowded stands. For-
est of this character is found, in places. on the divide west of Spearfish Canyon, on
South Box Elder, at the head of Spring Creek, on -oldier, Cold Sz rings. and Sand
creeks, and elsewhere in small amounts. It has a yield of 4,000 to &,000 board feet
per acte, on an average.

The second class of original timber is that which covers the greater portion of -
the Black Hills. It has about the same development in diameter. but is not as tall
as class 1. It averages about 65 to 70 feet in height and has a clear length of 25 to
+ feet. The fore-t has not grown a: dense as that above described. This kind of
forest is found in :ituations more exposed to external dangers, and has teen more
subjeet to injury by forest fires than class 1. The forests abe-t Custer and Hill City
are representations of this clas: of timier.

The third elass of timber is found on ridges and steep slopes, and is both :-.aller
and shorter than the first two classe:. The average diameter ‘: about 14 to 17 inches
and the height not over 60 feet. (From the report of Mr. Grave-.)

Large areas of second growth occur throughout the Hills, with an
average density probably not far from seven-tenths of the normal, while
that of the original growth is usually five-tenths or less.

The average yield of the original forest is less than 4.00 feet per acre.
A earefal summary of the standing timber in the differeut watersheds
leads to the following result: Area of standing timber, 2.05 square
miles; area already cut, 405 ~quare miles; standing merchantable tim-
ber in board feet, 1,440, 000,000; fuel and small wood. 13. 120,000 cords.

Careful counting of annual rings by the special field assistant assigned
to this reserve, Mr. H. S. Graves. indicates that. in general, lumber
trees with an average diameter of 17 inches on the stump can not be
produced under one hundred and fifty years. nor miue timbers in less
than eighty or one hundred years. The greater part of the young
growth now standing in the Black Hills is of two ages—40 to 50 years
62 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

and 80 to 100 years old; and the time which must elapse before what
is now too small can be used in mines or for sawing is easily calculated.

Cutting began in the Black Hills about twenty years ago, and has
increased rapidly since the advent of the railroad. There are forty-two
sawmills in South Dakota and seven in Wyoming, within the bound-
aries of the hills. These mills are usually small, with a capacity of
from 8,000 to 10,000 feet per day, but their total output of sawed lum-
ber is not believed to exceed 20,000,000 feet perannum. The merchant-
able limit for saw logs is now about 14 inches on the stump, and 10
inches at the small end of the log. The trees will yield, on the aver-
age, one and one-half logs apiece. The cutting for these mills is waste-
ful in the extreme. Quantities of logs have been left on the ground to
rot, and on the average not over 50 per cent of each tree is taken. So
far as could be discovered none of the sawmill men attempt to follow
the regulations prescribed by the Department. This neglect is to some
extent forced upon them by the competition of other mill men, and it
has been invited by the fact that the interrupted and consequently
inefficient supervision of the General Land Office have been wholly
unable to secure compliance with the law. Sofar as known the Home-
stake Mining Company is the only concern which makes a definite
attempt to carry out the regulations of the Department concerning
cutting.

Considerable quantities of lumber have been illegally shipped out-
side the State, chiefly to Omaha, and other points in Nebraska. Great
numbers of young and growing trees, which would soon produce mine
timber or saw logs if protected, are being cut for fuel in the northern
hills, while not less than 30,000 cords per annum, wasted in lumbering
in the southern hills, lie rotting in the woods. Means should be taken
to bring together supply and demand. The high freight rate on cord
wood is one of the principal obstacles.

In addition to the 20,000,000 feet of lumber manufactured in the
Black Hills, the consumption of mining timber is estimated at 4,500,000
linear feet, of which the Homestake Company uses 1,750,000 feet. The
mining tintbers included in this statement are classified under two
general heads, 11-inch flats, which must show a thickness of 11 inches
when hewed flat on two sides, and 6-inch flats, of which the Homestake
Company uses about 1,000,000 linear feet. Smaller timbers, called 3-
inch flats, are extensively used in prospect holes, and to some degree in
the larger mines. Itis estimated that 25,000 cords of wood are used
for fuel in various mines throughout the hills.

The reproduction of the yellow pine in the Black Hills is unequaled
in my experience by the same tree in any other locality. It is most
successful on north slopes and moist ground, and where the soil is
exposed but not impoverished. Where a sufficient number of trees
are left in such conditions over comparatively small open patches, it is
as good as that of the lodge-pole pine, the tree of the United States
most prolific in young growth. On larger clearings, where seed trees
are scarce or wanting, reproduction is poor. The present method of
cutting is admirably calculated to bring this result about, for its ten-
dency is to remove all the old trees that are not unsound, and so hinder
the seeding up of the devastated areas. Itis often said that the forest
is reproducing itself on the cut-over lands. In its just sense this is not
correct. Seattered young trees of yellow pine are indeed coming up,
but they are full of limbs and stand far apart, and their product will
be coarse, knotty material, instead of the clear lumber and mine tim-
bers furnished by the original crop. Right methods of cutting, which
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 638

will secure the right kind of reproduction, are simple, and may easily
be introduced.

The yellow pine has many enemies, but stands wind well. Compara-
tively few trees are uprooted, except through the giving way of the
rocks encircled by their roots, while specimens broken off on account of
rot originating in fire scars are frequent. Damage by lightning is com-
mon throughout the hills, and serious injury is being done by insects.
Perhaps 3,000 acres of yellow pine have been killed in this way, usually
at rather high elevations in the limestone. An insignificant amount of
damage is being done by smoke in the vicinity of the mills around Dead-
wood. Such injury can not be prevented, nor is it of consequence.

FIRE,

Practically the whole area of the Black Hills bears more or less recent
marks of fire. An examination of the older trees allows the recoustruc-
tion of the history of forest fires during the last one hundred and fifty
years. The oldest tire of which record has thus been preserved passed
through the hills between 1730 and 1740. The next, a very extensive
one, occurred from 1790 to 1800. Indian tradition assigns to the year
1842 a very wide spread fire, from which dates the young growth now
about 50 years old in the northern hills and 40 years old in the south.
About twenty-five years ago a fire is said to have been started by
soldiers daring a campaign. In 1881 fire burned from Preacher Springs
to Deadwood. Of more recent fires, those of 1893 were the most severe.
It results from this long succession of fires that the forest exhibits its
real character but rarely. Almost throughout the hills the latter is
distorted by the effect of the burning, and only here and there does the
capacity of the yellow pine for the rapid production of timber in the
Black Hills make itself fully evident.

Among the causes of forest fires, lightning and malice are both uncom-
mon. There is no record that prospecting has caused any fires, unless
prospectors are grouped with campers, who are responsible for very
many. Railroads, the habit of burning brush, and the sawmills have
each been the source of severe burning. It is plain that no measures
short of the establishment of a permanent forest force will suffice to
check this evil.

Where the fires are not sufficiently severe to destroy the standing
timber their action often results in a fire scar at the base of the tree,
and in consequent unsoundness, which may at times affect 75 or even
100 per cent of the whole ‘growing stock. Another serious injury is
the destruction of young growth. The forest is thus kept open, with
the result of short trunks and poor timber in the trees which reach
merchantable size. Elsewhere the pine is replaced by aspen or white
birch or grass through the operation of repeated fires, to the action of
which the larger parks and openings throughout the hills are wholly due.

The Homestake Company has of late shown an admirable spirit with
relation to fires, and has spent considerable sums in attempting to
extinguish them, Elsewhere in the hills the desire to have fires checked
is very strong, but as a rule it does not lead to active measures on the
part of the inhabitants. Even when such measures are taken, in the
face of immediate danger to private property, they are apt to fail of
their full result through a tendency to abandon the scene of the fire as
soon as the latter is apparently, but not actually, extinguished. It is
true, however, that any attempt of the Government to cope with this
evil will meet with the hearty approval and support of the ranchers
64 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

and miners throughout the hills. One of the first steps taken toward
checking the fires should be the enforcement of the existing regulations
against leaving tops in the woods after lumbering.

The white spruce, the only lumber tree other than the yellow pine,
occurs chiefly in the northwestern hills above an altitude of 4,500 feet.
It reproduces itself in dense groups after fire, to injury from which it is
extremely sensitive. It reaches average dimensions as follows: Height,
75 feet; diameter, 15 inches; length of clear trunk, none. This tree is
estimated to occupy altogether about 15,000 acres.

Other trees are the aspen (conspicuous on many burns), the burr oak,
an elm, and a small ash.

WATER.

Irrigation is little practiced within the hills, but the water of Spear-
fish, Stockade, Beaver, and Sand creeks, among others, is taken out at
the edge of the hills for this purpose. Within the hills the chief indus-
trial use of water is for milling, and for this purpose it is already
scarce.

For a reason not yet thoroughly established, the past few seasons
have shown a progressive drought in this region, so that considerable
numbers of ranches, especially in the southwestern portion of the hills,
have been abandoned for lack of water. This result is locally attrib-
uted to the destruction of the forests, but the data necessary to a
conclusion are not yet at hand.

MINING.

Mining is the chief industry of the Black Hills, upon which the pros-
perity of the whole community may be said to depend. It is largely
concentrated near the cities of Lead and Deadwood, in the northern
part of the hills; near Keystone, in the central hills, and it exists in
many localities scattered throughout the eastern portion. There has
been little mineral development in the west and south. Without min-
ing few of the industries of the Black Hills would survive, except illegal
cutting of timber for export from the State; and it is manifest that
whatever measures of forest management may be undertaken must pro-
vide for a continuance of mining.

AGRICUL1IURE.

In the schist and slate regions agricultural lands oceur only near
streams, except where the contours of the country are extremely mild.
The soil is very productive. In the limestone region the higher ground
is more particularly adapted for agricultural use, especially about the
head waters of streams. There is some good land still bearing trees,
but, as a rule, the agricultural land throughout the hills is open. The
products are hay, oats, and vegetables, with some corn and wheat.
There is a good market, chiefly in the mining communities, to which
the products of the Black Hills ranches are essential. There are, alto-
gether, from 450 to 460 of such ranches, located for the most part on
placer claims of 20 acres each. A ranch of 160 acres thus consists of
eight placer claims, taken up by eight men, and deeded over, by previous
agreement, to one of the number. The procedure recommended on
page 47, in Part II, of this report for allowing agricultural lands to be
entered is of the first necessity in this reserve. In the case of land
already settled upon, title should be given to the present occupant by
means of the usual precedence accorded after surveys in view of actual
occupancy.
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 65
GRAZING.

Considerable areas of grazing land exist, especially in the southern
hills. It is estimated that 5,000 head of cattle and horses are pastured,
ewith little or no injury to the forest. Practically all grazing land is the
result of fire; and the process by which a forest is converted into open
prairie is visible in its various stages almost throughout the hills.
Unless grazing should Jead to the setting of fires for the purpose of
improving or extending range or pasture land, the pasturage of cattle
and horses should be allowed under suitable restrictions. Sheep should
be rigorously excluded.

FOREST FORCE

It has already been recommended, on page 46 of Part II of this report,
that 1 forest ranger be stationed at Deadwood and another at Custer,
with 5 forest guards at Deadwood, Rochford, Custer, Sheridan, and Bear
Gulch. Sixty fire watchers at local points complete the force recom-
mended. ;

The Black Hills afford a better opportunity than any other forest
reserve for the immediate application of forest management. Mining
assures a constant demand for timber. Hither this demand must be
met, and that without delay, or the reserve will be reduced in area to
an extent which may force its abandonment. To illustrate: Very large
blocks of mineral lode claims are being located in the best timbered
portions of the hills. These claims are fraudulent, and are made solely
for the sake of thetimber. These facts are perfectly well known through-
out the hills, and it is generally asserted, and with great particularity,
that these fraudulent claims are being located for or by the Homestake
Company, aud this contention is supported by the fact that no other
party is in position to lumber most of them advantageously. The
Homestake has already surveyed a railroad line tu one body of these
claims in the northeast portion of the hills. The evident intention is
to cut off the timber and then abandon the claims; but if a decision of
the Commissioner of the General Land Office forbidding the use of tim-
ter except in connection with the particular claim upon which it is cut
should be enforced, these claims will be patented, and the great areas
they cover will be lost to the reserve. There is but one way out, and
that lies in the line of immediate action.

I am informed that the unexpended balance of the appropriation
under which the special forest agents and supervisors are appointed
will be sufficient to continue the present force during the remainder of
this fiscal year. I recommend that in place of the supervision, neces-
sarily desultory and ineffectual, now exercised by a few men over the
great area of'the reserves in Washington, Oregon, California, and
Arizona, a forest service composed exclusively of trained men be organ-
ized at ouce to take charge of the Black Hills Reserve. The advantages
of this course are evident and undeniable. An actual example of
forest management will be afforded. The beginning of the sale of
Government timber will be made. Public opinion in one of the reserves
where it was most strongly antagonistic will be secured to the reserva-
tion policy, and an opportunity will be provided to test the advantages
of scientific and conservative forestry. It is confidently believed that
the whole expense of the force recommended for the Black Hills may
be paid, almost from the beginning, by the sale of timber. This recom-
mendation is made only with the distinct proviso that trained men
of active habits, familiar not only with Western conditions, but with

S. Doc. 189-——5
66 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

forestry as well, are contemplated in making it. The transfer of the
present force of special agents and supervisors would altogether fail to
meet these conditions. It is not believed that Government forest man-
agement in the Black Hills under such a transfer could be anything
but a failure. 2

FOREST MANAGEMENT,

The immediate advantages offered by the Black Hills for the inau-
guration of Government forest management are many and important.
There is a good market for products of all grades. The reproduction
of the forests is admirable under good conditions. The various age
classes of trees are all present, which is the first condition for a con-
tinuous yield. Transportation by rail is well developed, and there are
good roads in plenty as compared with other reserves, and public opin-
ion throughout the hills is strongly in favor of the protection and man-
agement of the forests by the Government. Sawmill men, for example,
assert that they would prefer to pay a stumpage rate of $1 per 1,000
feet,in place of the present rate of 25 cents from mineral claims and
nothing at all from Government land, for the sake of security against
prosecution and definite possession of the timber. It not infrequently
happens at present that timber is cut by sawmill men merely to get it
away from others, even when they do not need it themselves.

The system of management recommended rests on these principal
conditions:

1. A definite working plan must be prepared, approved, and adhered to.

2, No trees may be selected for cutting except in accordance with
this plan. ~

ee No trees may be cut except when designated for cutting by a forest
officer.

Other essential conditions of good management are provided by law.

The silvicultural system adopted should be a form of cutting on
restricted areas, combined with improvement cutting, and should be
based on a stump diameter of not less than 12 inches. Under such a
system properly enforced, the local demand for lumber, mine timber,
and supplies for settlers may be met with safety to the forest, and an
assured yield in the future will replace the present distant but not
doubtful prospect of an approaching scarcity of timber.

Reference is made to the admirable and exhaustive report of Mr.
Graves for further particulars concerning the forests of the Black Hills
and their management.

PUBLIC SENTIMENT.

Public sentiment throughout the Black Hills is ready to welcome
active steps by the Government looking to the prevention of fire and
for the sale of timber in larger amounts than are provided for by the
rights accorded to settlers and miners under the law. Similar opinions
were freely expressed at length and in detail by men in control of some
of the largest mining plants in the Hills. The conclusion is plain.
Failure on the part of the Government to take advantage of this favor-
able state of the public mind will mean the loss of an unparalleled
opportunity, and, very probably, the ultimate loss of the reserve as well.
The necessary appropriation is now available, suitable men can be
found, and there does not appear to be any reason why the hope and
expectation of intelligent men throughout the Black Hills should not
be met without delay.
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 67

BOUNDARIES.

I have to recommend the extension of this reserve to include the
whole wooded area of the Black Hills. If the recommendations previ-
ously made in this report are adopted, any objections to an extension of
the boundaries may easily be overcome by the wide distribution of brief
notices stating the rights and privileges of settlers, miners, and others
in the reserve. These notices should be in every post office, both here
and in the whole region affected by the reservation policy.

The area within the proposed lines is stated in the summary. These
lines are as follows:

Beginning at the southeast corner of township 1 north, range 6 east,
Black Hills meridian; thence north 4 miles to the northeast corner of
section 13 of said towuship; thence west 1 mile tothe northwest corner
of said section; thence north 2 miles to the northeast corner of section

‘2, township 1 north, range 6 east; thence east 1 mile along the town-
ship line to the northeast corner of section 3 of said township: thence
north 3 miles to the northeast corner of section 22 of township 2 north,
range 6 east: thence west 2 miles to the southeast corner of section 17
of said township; thence north 1 mile to the northeast corner of said
section; thence west 1 mile to the northwest corner of said section;
thence north 3 milex to the northeast corner of section 31, township 3
north, range 6 east: thence east 4 miles to the northeast corner of sec-
tion 35 of said township; thence north 2 miles to the northeast corner
of section 23 of said township; thence west 1 mile to the northwest corner
of said section; thence north 1 mile to the northea-t corner of section
15 of said township: thence west 1 mije to the northwest corner of
said section; thence north 1 mile to the northeast corner of section 9
of said township; thence west 1 mile to the northwest corner of said
section; thence north 4 miles to the northeast corner of section 20,
township 4 north. range 6 east: thence west 1 mile to the northwest
corner of said section; thence north 2 miles to the northeast corner of
section 7 of said township; thence west 1 mile to the northwest corner
of said section; thence north 2 miles to the northeast corner of sec-
tion 36, township 5 north, range 5 east; thence west 1 mile to the north-
west corner of said section; thence north 1 mile to the northeast corner
of section 26 of said township: thence west 2 miles to the southeast
corner of section 21 of said township: thence north 1 mile to the north-
east corner of said section; thence west 3 miles to the southeast corner
of section 13, township 5 north, range + east; thence north 1 mile to
the uortheast corner of said section; thence west 1 mile to the north-
west corner of said section; thence north 2 miles to the northeast cor-
ner of section 2 of said township: thence west 3 miles to the northwest
corner of section 4 of said township: thence south 1 mile to the south-
west corner of said section; thence west 3 miles to the southeast corner
of section 2, township 5 north, range 3 ea~t; thence west 6 miles to the
southeast corner of section 35, township 6 north, range 2 east: thence
north 2 miles to the northeast corner of section 26 of said township;
thence west 5 miles to the southeast corner of section 24. township 6
north, range 1 east; thence north 1 mile to the northeast corner of said
section; thence west 6 miles to the northeast corner of section 24, town-
ship 6 north, range 1 west: thence south 1 mile to the southeast corner
of said section; thence west 6 miles to the northwest corner of section
30 of said township; thence south 4 miles to the northeast corner of
section 13, township 5 north, range 2 west; thence west 1 mile to the
northwest corner of said section; thence south 6 miles to the northeast
corner of section 14, township 4 north, range 2 west: thence west 1 mile
68 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

to the northwest corner of said section; thence south 1 mile to the
southwest corner of said section; thence west 5 miles to the northwest
corner of section 24, township 4 north, range 3 west; thence south 3
miles to the southwest corner of section 36 of said township; thence
east 2 miles to the northeast corner of section 6, township 3 north,
range 2 west; thence south 1 mile to the southwest corner of said sec-
tion; thence east 2 miles to the northeast corner of section 9 of said
township; thence south 4 miles to the northwest corner of section 34 of
said township; thence east 1 mile to the northeast corner of said sec-
tion; thence south 1 mile to the southeast corner of said section;
thence east 1 mile to the northeast corner of section 2, township 2
north, range 2 west; thence south 2 miles to the southwest corner
of section 12 of said township; thence east 1 mile to the southeast
corner of said section; thence south 1 mile to the northwest corner of
section 19, township 2 north, range 1 west; thence east 1 mile to the
northeast corner of said section; thence south 1 mile to the southeast
corner of said section; thence east 4 miles to the northeast corner of
section 26 of said township; thence south 23 miles to the southwest
corner of section 13, township 3 south, range 1 west; thence east 4
miles to the southeast corner of section 16, township 3 south, range 1
east; thence south 3 miles to the southwest corner of section 34 of said
township; thence east 3 miles to the southeast corner of section 36 of
said township; thence south 5 miles to the southwest corner of section
30, township 4 south, range 2 east; thence east 4 miles to the northeast
corner of section 34 of said township; thence south 3 miles to the
southwest corner of section 11, township 5 south, range 2 east; thence
east 8 miles to the northwest corner of section 18, township 5 south,
range 4 east; thence south 4 miles to the southwest corner of said town-
ship; thence east 12 miles to the southwest corner of township 5 south,
range 6 east; thence north 6 miles to the northwest corner of said
township; thence east 3 miles to the northeast corner of section 4 of
said township; thence north 4 miles to to the southwest corner of sec-
tion 10, township 4 south, range 6 east; thence east 2 miles to the
southeast corner of section 11 of said township; thence north 20 miles
to the northwest corner of section 1, township 1 south, range 6 east;
thence east 1 mile to the place of beginning.

Excluded from this area is the following interior area thus described:
_ Beginning at the southeast corner of township 5 north, range 3 east,
Black Hills meridian; thence north 3 miles to the northeast corner of
section 24 of said township; thence west 6 miles to the northwest cor-
ner of section 19 of said township; thence south 2 miles to the south-
west corner of section 30 of said township; thence west 1 mile to the
northwest corner of section 36, township 5 north, range 2 east; thence
south 4 miles to the southwest corner of section 13, township 4 north,
range 2 east; thence east 5 miles to the southeast corner of section 15,
township 4 north, range 3 east; thence north 2 miles to the southwest
corner of section 2 of said township; thence east 1 mile to the south-
east corner of said section; thence north 1 mile to the northeast corner
of said section; thence east 1 mile to the place of beginning,
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 69

CASCADE RANGE FOREST RESERVE.

SUMMARY.

Situation: Western Oregon. Acres.
Area within present 1iies: ..s22¢ ssa vew eae ai ce eee se sees ceeeese cee 4, 492, 800
Adverse holdings, railroad land ......--.. 2-22-2222. 2-2-2222 22-2 eee 461, 920
Per cent of
total area.
DEORE TOPOS on bcerctrccnnce cick sd ke Se MAGA SEEN NE See POR URS (?) 95
Area: marked, Dy HUG: <.csaencemce nts baek, Semeeeesdesecnecteree cess kee (?) 75
PUA TN i os eek cae ma Ran ea EN Grd ame ae eae (%) 20

Revised lines can not be recommended without further study and a map.

Force recommended: Two rangers, 5 forest guards, and 30 tire watchers.

Sources of information: Report of F. V. Coville, botanist of the Department of Agri-
culture. Report of Henry $. Graves toG. Pinchot. Personal examination, August
27 to September 1, 1896.

A rugged mountainons region, densely timbered on the western slope, with much
open land cleared by fire, and suitable for grazing.

Fire has done, and is still doing, very serious injury.

Irrigation is but little practiced on either slope.

Mining has little present or prospective importance.

Agriculture can attain little development within the reserve. :

The grazing of sheep should be permitted tentatively and under careful restrictions.

The commercial development of this reserve is not demanded for the present.

The Cascade Range Forest Reserve occupies a narrow and irregular
strip along the crest and on both slopes of the Cascade Mountains in
western Oregon, and extends from near the Columbia River to within
about 20 miles of the California line. Adjoining it on the north and
west is the Bull Run timber land reserve, which, tor the purposes of this
description, may be considered as forming part of its larger neighbor.
The Cascade Range Forest Reserve bas an area of 4,492,800 acres, and
includes 401,920 acres of railroad land, of which 34,560 acres are now
in litigation. The Bull Run timber land reserve, with an area of 142,080
acres, includes 24,160 acres claimed as railroad land, but as to which a
suit is now pending. The eastern slope of the Cascade Range is com-
paratively dry, and the forest is generally open enough to furnish pas-
turage, while the forest on the western slope is exceedingly dense and
affords grazing only in the numerous areas which have been burned.
The trade relations of the reserve have, so far, been restricted to the
cutting of small amounts of timber on the western slope and to supply-
ing settlers and ranchers outside of the reserve from the forests ot yel-
low and lodge pole pine east of the summit. It will be convenient to
describe the two slopes separately.

THE FOREST, EASTERN SLOPE.

The forest on the eastern slope is open and grassy in its lower part,
dense and composed of smaller trees nigher up, and interrupted through-
out by burned areas, often of great size, on many of which grass has
entirely replaced the forest. The principal trees are yellow pine and
Douglas fir (red fir) in the lower portious, and lodge-pole pine and low-
land fir (white fir) at higher elevatious. Occasionally the latter tree
predominates in a mixed forest of Douglas fir, Engelmann spruce, larch,
hemlock, and mountain white pine (silver pine). The Douglas fir is
here a tall tree with a long, clear trunk. In the open its reproduction
is vigorous, but less so under cover. Itis of much smaller size here
than on the western slope. The yellow pive forms the bulk of the
forest at moderate elevations. Below 4,000 feet its reproduction is gen-
70 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

erally good. It has suffered very severely from the tramping out of
its seedlings, in different parts of this slope, by the hoofs of pasturing
sheep.

The lowland fir (white fir) is a tall tree, with clear trunk in good
situations, and good reproduction throughout. ;

The mountain white pine (silver pine) occurs at moderate elevations
in mixture with the Douglas spruce aud various firs. It is a tall tree
with long, clear trunk, of great value for lumber and with good powers
of reproduction.

The larch reaches a diameter of from 4 to 5 feet. A tall tree with a
very short crown, it reproduces itself admirably, seeding up many
burned areas, if not interfered with by sheep, to the north of the Meto-
lius River.

Lodge pole, or black pine, here, as elsewhere, is a small tree with
remarkable powers of reproduction. It occupies situations avoided by
more valuable trees, but is apt to disappear and be replaced by grass
and brush as the result of repeated fires.

Engelmann spruce occurs chiefly in hollows and basins. Its reproduc-
tion is excellent near seed trees, and the young seedlings bear shade well.
In places it is an importaut factor in the forest.

The black heinlock is a subalpine tree with good reproduction, but
without commercial importance at present.

The white-bark pine occurs on the summits of the mountains, and need
not be considered here. Other trees are the western cedar, amabilis fir,
and western hemlock.

FIRE, EASTERN SLOPE.

Fires have done more injury in this reserve than all other causes put
together. It is believed that fire has occurred in every township within
the reserve and in nearly every section, and it is evident that many
hundred thousand feet of timber have been destroyed. Fires increase,
in general, proportionately to the extent of human occupation of any
region up to the time when a change of public sentiment takes place.
After that time the safety of the forest increases in proportion to the
density of population. Protection against fire is made difficult at
present by the absence of trails and by the nature of the furests.

The larger number of fires on this slope are said to be kindled by
campers and Indians. Sheep men have undoubtedly been responsible
for many fires in the past, and,as noted by Mr. Coville, the broken
character of the forest which permits thein to graze their herds on this
reserve would not have existed without the agency of fire.

Fires started in heavy timber are often exceedingly difficult to extin-
gnish. Such a fire was burning in the vicinity of the Lake of the
Woods, in the southern part of the reserve, August 27 and 28, 1896, and
was carefully studied at that time. At 6 p. m., although it was said to
have been started ov the morning of the same day, it had already
burned holes trom 2 to 3 feet deep, following the roots of dead trees,
and was slowly spreading aloug the surface. The vegetable litter on
the ground was dry; but, except for the dead timber standing and pros-
trate in the woods, this fire would have died out of itself. It was kept
alive and enabled to spread chiefly by the fallen logs. Where such a
log lay on the ground the fire either crept along its under surtace near
the ground if the bark had fallen, or if the bark remained it moved
usually beneath it, reappearing at intervals along the trunk and ignit-
ing the dry humus and litter within reach. Half-rotten logs carried
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 71

the fire with bright flame even when the bark had not fallen. Dead
standing stubs from 50 to 90 feet high assisted powerfully in spreading
the damage, for the fire ascends such trunks beneath the bark, reap-
pearing at intervals, and burning fiercely under the chimney-like draft
established. Instead of falling at once such stubs break off high above
the ground from time to time and scatter burning fragments far and
wide. In heavy winds the blazing bark is detached and carried far
ahead of the main fire, and so forms a powerful factor ip carrying and
spreading the conflagration. To extinguish this particular fire, which
was said to have been wantonly started by a party of campers, would
have required the labor of several men for at least a day.

Fires in the open yellow pine do much less serious damage and are
-far easier to control.

WATER, EASTERN SLOPE.

The effect of forests on irrigation in the lava area of the southern
portion is probably not important, since all rain sinks at once into the
ground and reappears in the enormous springs which dot the country
here and there. Farther north the question is different. The testimony
on this point is conflicting, but by far the greater weight of evidence
tends to show that the flow of streams has already been seriously influ-
enced by forest fires. The supply of water from this slope is very
important to local settlements and should be protected.

MINING, EASTERN SLOPE.

Tam not aware that mines of any importance have been developed
or that prospects for such development exist.

AGRICULTURE, EASTERN SLOPE.

Agriculture within the reserve can never be important. A few
ranches are included by the boundaries, but, so far as known, little
cultivation is carried on, as the climate is unfavorable.

GRAZING, EASTERN SLOPE.

The most important question touching the reserve at this time regards
the pasturage of sheep. During the past summer about 190,000 sheep
were grazed within the reserve, two-thirds of which occupied ranges on
the eastern slope. The careful investigation of Mr. Coville, botanist
of the Department of Agriculture, the study by Mr. Henry 8. Graves
under my direction in 1896, and other trustworthy evidence leave no
room to doubt that the pasturage of sheep on any area constitutes, so
long as it lasts, a prohibitory tax on the reproduction of the forest.

It can not be questioned that sheep grazing in this reserve owes its
existence directly to forest fires. Without such fires the openings
where the sheep feed would never have been made, nor, after they were
made, would many of them have been kept so free from trees. It is
almost equally certain that sheep herders in the past have been in the
habit of setting fires, although the evidence at band goes to show that
of late years this practice has been largely discontinued. Grazing in
fresh burns is apt to be followed by the discoloration and cheapening
of the wool.

Sheep do not feed on the leaves or seedlings of coniferous trees,
except in the way of desultory nibbling or when at the point of starva-
tion. The harm which they do is of another character altogether. The
72 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

seedlings of conifers are small and very susceptible to injury during
their early life. When a band of sheep passes over an area on which
such seedlings grow the trampling of the sharp hoofs not only cuts and
bruises the young trees, but it also exposes their roots, and so leads
directly to their destruction. Ou dry slopes, where reproduction is diffi-
cult at best, the passage of a band of sheep makes it simply impossible
until a new crop of seedlings can replace those which have been de-
stroyed. Itis in this way, and not at all by injury to the old trees (an
alleged fact frequently contradicted by sheep men), that sheep hurt the
forest.

In so far as sheep tend to destroy or prevent a dense forest cover,
they injure the water supply, and that they have done both to some
extent, at least indirectly, is evident. The effect of their action is not.
believed, however, to have been seriously felt hitherto. In this con-
nection it may be well to add that actual observations at Fort Klamath
and Government Camp, quoted by Mr. Coville, indicate that snow lasts
about six weeks longer in the forest than in the open.

It is believed that the reproduction of considerable parts of the
eastern slope may be postponed with safety to the forest, and that in
consequence sheep herding may there be permitted under suitable
restrictions. The importance of this industry to the three counties
where the sheep are chiefly owned (Wasco, Crook, and Sherman) is so
great that its sudden prohibition within the reserve would work great
hardships. Under the circumstances, the wiser course appears to be to
permit the pasturage of definite numbers of sheep on definite ranges
for the present, and in a tentative spirit, throwing the burden of the
prevention of the forest fires upon’ the sheep owners, and in general
following the course advocated by Mr. Coville and summarized in Part
II of this report. It should not be forgotten that overgrazing will
lead to the extension of the ranges by means of tire. For a more
extended treatment of this subject, reference is made to Mr. Coville’s
admirable report, in the conclusions of which I fully concur.

THE FOREST, WESTERN SLOPE.

The forest of the western slope is tall, dense, moist, and rich in valu-
able kinds of trees. The range is more heavily timbered in its northern
and central portions than toward the south, but the forest throughout
is very valuable, rapid, or fairly rapid in growth, and of great prospective
commercial importance.

The most important tree is the Douglas fir (red fir), which reaches in
places a height of over 250 feet and a diameter near the ground of from
10 to 12 feet. It forms very extensive furests on the lower slopes, some-
times almost without admixture of other trees. The reproduction is
wonderfully good in places, especially in the open. Up to an elevation
of 2,000 feet this is the most pleutiful tree.

The western hemlock has great reproductive powers, and young trees
of this species are plentiful in the forest, especially on fallen logs and
dead stumps. Its wood is valuable for lumber, but has been little used
hitherto. Its average dimensions may be given as follows: Height, 125
feet; diameter, 3 feet; length of clear trunk, 40 feet.

The western cedar, while of less size here than nearer the coast, is
still a large tree of great economic value. It prefers moist land, has
good reproductive powers, both within the forest and in the open, and
will be one of the first trees cut in many localities.

The mountain white pine is another lumber tree of importance. It
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 73

does not attain large size, but has a long, clear trunk, and produces
excellent material.

The lowland fir (white fir) is often not of great size, as compared with
other species growing with it, but it has excellent reproduction, and
great sylvicultural value as undergrowth.

The lodge-pole pine is less widely distributed on the western than on
the eastern slope. It occurs chiefly in portions where its great repro-
ductive powers give it peculiar value.

The noble fir, a valuable lumber tree chiefly known locally as larch,
reaches, in exceptional cases, a height of 300 feet, with a diameter of 6
or 7 feet near the ground. It is a common tree throughout the larger
part of the reserve.

The sugar pine, whose northern limit is near the center of the reserve,
extends also to the eastern slope, near Crater Lake. It is a large tree
of the first evonomic value, but its reproduction in this locality is not
strong.

Other trees are the Sitka spruce and the incense cedar, neither of
which is common.

FIRE, WESTERN SLOPE,

Fire has done less damage on the western than on the eastern slope.
Still, its ravages have been exceedingly severe, and it is of the first
importance that they should be checked. Reference is made to the
description of a fire in dense forest on the eastern slope. When such
fires are assisted by violent winds they travel with great rapidity, and
while the wind continues eftorts to subdue them are ineffectual. As
has already been mentioned in a previous part of this report, the object
of organization against fire should be to reach the scene of a conflagra-
tion before it has had time to gather strength. Trails, therefore, are of
the first importance.

WATER, WESTERN SLOPE,

Water for irrigation is of comparatively little importance except in
the eastern part of this reserve. Floods are dangerous, and the pro-
tection of the mountain slopes is required on their account.

MINING, WESTERN SLOPE.

Mining is not known to have reached any development, nor to show
promise for the future.

AGRICULTURE, WESTERN SLOPE.

Except in the vicinity of Detroit, where the agricultural lands within
the reserve are practically all taken up, the climate usually forbids
development of this kind within the boundaries. No special measures
are required.

GRAZING, WESTERN SLOPE.

About one-third of the sheep pastured within the reserve occupy
ranges on the western slope. Still more than those on the east, these
bands depend for their livelihood on areas which have been cleared by
fire, and from which the presence of the sheep excludes all but the
most meagre reproduction. The measures which seem to be required
have already been referred to.
74 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.
FOREST FORCE.

It has already been recommended in Part II that one ranger be sta-
tioned at Oregon City and another at Koseburg. Five guards at or
near Summit Camp, Detroit, Sisters, Big Meadows, and Fort Klamath,
with 30 fire-watchers at local points, complete the list of men assigned
to this reserve under the plan heretofore described.

FOREST MANAGEMENT.

Actual forest management will probably first be possible in the upper
Santiam Valley, on the western slope, where the character of the repro-
duction indicates either clear cutting in strips or a system of selection
fellings extremely localized. Operations should be delayed until a
stronger demand becomes evident.

East of the summit provision will be required to furnish settlers and
ranchers with small amounts of timber, but the commercial develop-
ment of these forests is not at present required. J orest fires and the
supervision of sheep ranging throughout the reserve must form the
most important objects of inanagement for some years to come. The
regulations suggested by Mr. Coville, and quoted in Part II of this
report, should be adopted; and it is here repeated that unless a year is
to be lost in the enforcement of this reform measures must be taken at
once to carry out Mr. Coville’s plan. It is earnestly recommended that
such action be taken without delay.

BOUNDARIES,
Study of the reserve has developed the fact that the present bound-
aries are far less faulty than had been supposed. Until more complete

examination of them can be made it is recommended that they be
allowed to remain without change.

FLATHEAD FOREST RESERVE.

SUMMARY.
Situation: Northwestern Montana. Acres.
Area within present lines ....... 2-22. 0.2222 cele eee eee cece ee eee 1, 382, 400
Adverse holdings not known.
Per cent of
total area.
Area Of forest Maid: 5) j90). aac ecuiiee aon unadeGwiaweeatesae ede eseuee ces (?) 90
Areamarked by, fires 2.2 coc scl Sawcweaenewen aay oe dcendiale aeeraasine we eee cw (2) 25
Area badly DUM... 264.025 cee dnc cencewemesey twee cele dcens wanton sees. (?) 15

Revised lines can not be drawn without further study and a map.

Force recommended: A, limited supervision by the forest force charged with the
Bitterroot and Lewis and Clark reserves.

Sources of information: Personal examination, two weeks in June and July, 1896:
September 9-25, 1897. , en

An exceedingly broken mountain region, densely timbered with tall trees on the
west side of the continental divide, less densely timbered on the east. .

The water supply on the cast and the floods on the west furnish imperative reasons
for the protection of these forests.

Mining locations are locally numerous, and will increase.

Agriculture is of little importance,

Grazing is of little importance.

Provisions are immediately required under which mining timber may legally be
cut, and by means of which the tires which will follow the development of prospect-
ing east of the summit may be controlled. The construction of trails is important.
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 75

Situated-in northwestern Montana, the Flathead Reserve occupies
both slopes of the main divide of the Rocky Mountains from just north
of the Great Northern Railroad to the British line. Its boundaries
include an area of 1,382,400 acres, none of which falls within the land
grant of any road. From the very different character of the east and
west slopes of the Rockies within this reserve it will be convenient to
describe them separately.

EASTERN SLOPE.

The eastern slope includes a mountain region unexcelled on this con-
tinent for the grandeur and simplicity of its lines. Its natural features
are of great size and simple plan, and so striking in outline and etfect
that its extensive and important forest areas form at first sight a com-
paratively unimportant factor in the landscape. Its rocks are granitic,
and the soil which results from their decomposition is in general poor.
The climate is extremely harsh. Snow often lies on the ground at the
lower altitudes from September to July.

Recently separated from the Blackfoot Indian Reservation, the east-
ern slope has no trade relations at present. Its economic value i in the
near future must depend upon supplying the timber required to develop
its mines, to which local opinion assigns a hitherto undemonstrated
value, and protecting the head waters of the Milk and Marias rivers,
both of which are essential to large cattle interests in the range country:
farther east.

THE FOREST, EASTERN SLOPE,

The forest is composed chiefly, at the lower altitudes, of lodge-pole
pine, Douglas fir (red fir), and Engelmann spruce. Higher up, alpine
fir and limber pine are the principal elements of the forest, with here
and there a considerable proportion of spruce. The spruce serves as a
connecting link between the upper and the lower forest types. This
forest is distributed wherever its existeuce is permitted by the slope of
the ground and by the absence of the snow slides or avalanches, which,
on the higher ground, clear considerable areas of timber, and keep them
elear of everything but brush and weeds.

Very dense in many places, the forest here reaches no considerable
size as compared with that of the western slope. It is capable, never-
theless, of furnishing great quantities of material indispensable to the
development of the mines of this region, and to the support of the
Indians on the reservation.

The lodge-pole pine is valuable chiefly for fencing and for the smaller
grades of mining timber. It reaches the following average dimensions
in this region: Height, 65 feet; diameter, 10 inches; length of clear
trunk, 30 feet. Its marvelous reproductive power and its ability to
occupy without delay lands cleared by fire have given it a very wide
extension, so that it probably exceeds in number any other tree upon
the area,

The Douglas fir (red fir), while valuable for its size and the quality of
its timber, occurs only in small numbers. Its average dimensions are
as follows: Height, 50 feet; diameter, 2 feet; length of clear trunk, 10
feet. Until exhausted, it will be valuable to furnish the larger class
of mining timber.

The Engelmann spruce will furnish most of the lumber which may be
obtained from this region. Itreaches adiameter of 3 feet and over, and
its average dimensions may be stated as follows: Height, 60 feet; diam-
eter, 18 inches; length of clear trunk, usually not over 6 feet. The
76 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

knotty character of this tree permits it to furnish only lumber of low
grade, but its value to the treeless range country farther east is great
and will steadily increase. The reproduction of the spruce is fairly
ood.

‘ The alpine fir. with average measurements of 50 feet in height, 12
inches in diameter, and no clear trunk, will furnish valuable mining
timber at the higher elevations, where it forms practically the only
forest. growth.

Occasional areas, originally cleared by fire and since covered with
grass, exist in the lower portions of this region. Long stretches of
these parks are now covered with groves of the quaking aspen, a tree
of no present commercial value. Under consistent protection from fire
these areas may be expected eventually to resume their covering of
useful coniferous trees.

FIRE, EASTERN SLOPE.

Owing to the protection afforded by its inclusion within the Indian
reservation, this area has suffered comparatively little from forest fires.
Corresponding portions of the Rocky Mountains farther south, hitherto
unprotected, have lost by fire square miles of forest where the eastern
slope of the Flathead will count but acres. With its segregation from
‘the Indian reserve, and the influx of prospectors and miners which will
take place as soon as the region is thrown open, forest fires will increase
to a very serious extent unless active preveutive measures are begun
during the coming spring. [Fires sweep through the lodge-pole pive
with surprising ease, aided by the inflammable scaly bark with resin-
ous exudations, and by the grass and dry waste under the trees. Ina
majority of cases the trees are killed, but not consumed, and they stand
bleached and white for many years, in the end falling gradually across
each other until the burnt region is often impassable for horses, and
almost so for men. Undergrowth springs up in quantities among the
standing and fallen dead trees, but rarely lives to reach any consider-
able size. Subsequent and usually hotter tires consume green and dead
trees together, and burn off completely whatever vegetable soil may
still remain. By the succession of such fires, which destroy crop after
crop of young trees and gradually exhaust the soil, the open grassy
stretches called parks are formed.

Fires in this region occur during the suinmer and early autumn, and
their prevention will be a comparatively easy task if the cooperation of
miners avd prospectors can be secured.

WATER, EASTERN SLOPE.

Most of the streams of this region are important feeders of the Milk
and Marias rivers, whose value to the cattle industry farther east
demands the protection of their headwaters. Irrigation, except for
grass, must remain unimportant on this slope, and floods are to be
feared only to a secondary degree.

MINING, EASTERN SLOPE,

Prospecting has hitherto been illegal on that portion of the reserve
which once formed part of the Blackfoot Indian Reservation; but it
is widely believed that mines of importance exist, especially in the
watershed of Swift Current Creek, and numbers of prospectors are
waiting in the surrounding country for permission to enter the region
to search for minerals. The protection of the timber tor this use is one
of the most important reasons for Government care.
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 77

AGRICULTURE, EASTERN SLOPE.

The climate is too severe to permit agriculture on the eastern slope,
and hence no special provisions will be required.

GRAZING, EASTERN SLOPE.

A few hundred head of cattle have found range here at certain sea
sons of the year, but because of the small area of grass lands this
industry can not reach important proportions. A very simple system of
permits, perhaps restricted altogether to residents of the Indian reser-
vation, will suttice.

LIQUOR, EASTERN SLOPE,

The sale of liquor to the Indians has been prohibited in former
years within the area now reserved. They have hitherto been pro-
tected from whisky traders by the broad strip of rugged mountains,
into which the Indians rarely venture, for they are essentially plains-
men. But now that a mining population is to extend itself over the
mountain strip, in close proximity to the dwelling places of the Indians,
the sale of liquor to them will become easy unless a special regulation
is issued and enforced. The results to the Indians of an easy trade in
liquor do not require to be dwelt upon here. The matter was brought
to my attention by the head chief of the Blackfoot Nation, who was and
is extremely anxious that action should be taken in the line indicated
above.

WESTERN SLOPE.

The western slope of the Flathead Reserve is more moist in climate
and more densely forested than the eastern slope. Itincludes part of the
head waters of the Stillwater River, a tributary of the Flathead, and
nearly the whole drainage area of the North Fork of the latter stream.
The topography is less rugged and abrupt than that of the eastern slope,
except close to the continental divide, where the scenery is often grand
and beautiful to a most unusual degree,

THE FOREST, WESTERN SLOPE,

The forest, composed chiefly of larch, western cedar, Douglas fir (red
fir), mountain white pine (silver pine), Engelmann spruce, hemlock,
and cottonwoods, is in sharp contrast, both in size and richness, with
the forest of the eastern slope just described. In general character
of timber and in the uses of its trees it is not unlike the Priest River
Reserve, farther west, except that the forest is somewhat more dense.
In places the trees are conspicuously larger in size, but I am not suffi-
ciently familiar with the whole area to generalize with safety. The
descriptions of individual trees should, I believe, conform quite closely
to those of the Priest River Reserve, to which, accordingly, inquiries
are referred.

FIRE, WESTERN SLOPE,

Fire is gradually penetrating this most valuable timber region, and
it will continue to encroach moré and more rapidly until effective meas-
ures against it can be put in action. The difficulty of extinguishing
fires is greatly increased by the quantity of vegetable débris which
covers the soil and in which they sometimes smoulder for weeks, often
unbetrayed by even the slightest smoke.
78 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

WATER, WESTERN SLOPE,

The floods of the Flathead River, which form a considerable source
of danger to the settlements in the Flathead Valley, must be consider-
ably influenced by the forest condition of the drainage basin of its North
Fork. The Stillwater has a similar importance. Both streams may be
expected to be of some value for irrigation in the future.

MINING, WESTERN SLOPE.

Mining has made little real progress in this part of the reserve,
although a certain number of claims have been developed to some
extent.

AGRICULTURE, WESTERN SLOPE.

There is some agricultural land along the North Fork of the Flat-
head, and perhaps along the Stillwater also, but no special provision is
required, beyond that already described, for opening it to entry, nor
will the boundaries of the reserve require modification for this reason.

GRAZING, WESTERN SLOPE.

Grazing is not important, since open grass lands do not exist within
the reserve to any noteworthy extent.

FOREST FORCE.

An adequate number of forest officers can not be supplied for this
region under the appropriation suggested. It needs to be said in this
connection that on the eastern slope 3 guards located on Swift Cur-
rent, St. Marys, and Two Medicine creeks are urgently needed to pro-
tect their watersheds from the fires which uniformly follow prospectors
in the West.

On the western slope 3 guards on the North Fork, McDonald Lake,
and the Stillwater, respectively, should be set at work as soon as appro-
priations will permit. Twenty fire watchers might with advantage be
appointed in this region. The lack of settlers on the eastern slope
would make similar action difficult or impossible on that side.

FOREST MANAGEMENT.

East of the continental divide the simple and easily controlled system
of cutting in strips seems best adapted to the forests. These strips, of
perhaps 100 yards in width, should be located under the supervision of
the forest force, should be separated from each other by twice or three
times their width, and should be completely cleared of old timber. The
trees should be thrown in such a way that their tops will lie together
in heaps, and during the wet season these heaps may be cheaply and
safely disposed of by burning. The neighboring trees will completely
seed the areas, while the uniform direction of the winds will permit the
location of the strips in such a way as to avoid serious loss from wind-
falls. West of the continental divide a somewhat similar plan of man-
agement will be required. It is probable that some form of localized
selection, a method at once cheap, simple, and safe, in proper hands, will
be preferred, on account of the mixed character of the forest. This
method is easily adapted to a system of licenses. It should be worked
out in detail for this forest before any cutting is allowed. Special care
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 79

will be needed to prevent the hemlock in certain places from driving
out other and more valuable kinds of trees.

Water transportation is ample and available on the west, but less so
to theeast. The Great Northern Railroad gives access to markets both
East and West. On both sides of the main range the reproduction of
the forest is such as to fit it well for forest management. There does
not appear to be a considerable immediate demand for the sale of tim-
ber from this region, and except for matters of protection it may safely
be numbered among the reserves to be taken up when the resources
of the Department for this purpose are made larger.

BOUNDARIES.

Except for a small possible extension to the south, the boundaries of
this reserve east of the continental divide are satisfactory. To the west
they should be very considerably extended, but the information at hand
is not sufficient to warrant the drawing of new lines, nor have the neces-
sary maps been completed.

GRAND CANYON FOREST RESERVE.

SUMMARY.
Situation: North central Arizona. Acres.
Area: within: present lines: ¢020.2 seca se ae eenchvicaseeneh 2s ae sees eae eee s 1, 851, 520
Adverse holdings, railroad lands .....-....-------- +--+ ---e-e eee eee ee 583, 360

Part of this reserve should be included in a national park.

Further revision of lines is not possible without further study.

Force recommended: One ranger, 3 guards, 10 fire watchers after other more press-
ing reserves have been supplied with men.

Source of information: Personal examination, September 28-30, 1896.

A comparatively level high plateau, broken by tremendous canyons, partly covered
with yellow pine or stunted growth of nut pine and juniper.

The effect of this reserve on water supply is probably small.

Mines of importance have not yet been developed.

Agriculture is not important. .

Grazing has been practiced to some extent and should be regulated.

The commercial development of this reserve is not immediately required.

The Grand Canyon Forest Reserve is situated in north central Ari-
zona, and embraces the finest portion of the Grand Canyon of the
Colorado River. With an area of 1,851,520 acres, it includes, within
primary and indemnity limits, a total of 583,360 acres of railroad land.
Its surface, except in the canyons, is comparatively flat. Much of it is
desert or arid land, covered with stunted growth of single-leaf piiion
(nut pine) and junipers, but it contains large areas of the western yellow
pine, which forms here in Arizona the largest pure pine forest in the
world. The climate is for the most part exceedingly dry, and except for
pasturage the reserve has so far made little or no contribution to neigh-
boring regions.

THE FOREST.

The forest is composed almost exclusively of the western yellow pine,
mixed here and there with the quaking aspen and the dwarf white oak.
The more arid portions of the reserve south and eastof the Grand Can-
yon are either bare or covered with stunted trees of single-leaf pine
(nut pine) and various junipers. I am informed that north of the canyon
the only forest growth is of this character.
80 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

The yellow pine reaches the following average dimensions: Height,
80 feet; diameter, 18 inches; length of clear trunk, 35 feet. Young
growth is nowhere plentiful, but it occurs here and there in groups out-
side the cover of old trees. Growth is slow, and the total amount of
timber per acre is small.

FIRE.

The open yellow-pine forest suffers comparatively little from fire,
except as unsoundness follows wounds made by burning at the surface
of the ground. How great this source of loss may be in this reserve it
will require lumbering operations to show, but elsewhere, as in the
Black Hills, it has been found to be very great.

WATER.

The forests of this reserve have little effect on floods or irrigation,
except as their influence may be felt upon the general climate of the
region. It is a common observation that showers falling over the
desert are evaporated by the hot air through which they must pass to
reach the ground. In this way rain may fall in the upper air without
benefit to the dry ground beneath. The cooler temperature above
forests must tend to prevent this source of loss, and it is probable that
in many other ways the presence of these forests is beneficial.

F MINING.
Except in Grand Canyon mining is not believed to promise well in
this reserve, nor have mines of any importance been developed.

AGRICULTURE.

In the absence of water available for irrigation stock raising is the
only cultural use to which this area may be put. No part of the reserve,
so far as I am acquainted with it, requires to be excluded on this ground.

GRAZING.

Considerable herds of stock graze near the brink of the canyon. It
is reported that their owners illegally inclose public lands. The regu-
lation of this pasturage should be undertaken as soon as the necessary

forest force is available. ,
ge FOREST FORCE,

Since the Grand Canyon is certainly the most august and wonderful
piece of scenery in North America, and probably upon the globe, it is
of great importance that its surroundings should not be impaired by
fire or by vandalism of any kind. As soon as means are provided
by Congress a forest officer should be stationed on the border of the
canyon at the Hance trail for the protection of the forest against fire,
and to prevent the defacement of the brink of the canyon. Portions
of the reserve should be protected under the direction of this officer
against grazing of any kind, and especially it should be seen to that
the herds of sheep which now occupy portions of the area should be
carefully restricted in their range. The reproduction of the yellow
pine must be protected if this forest is to survive. Three forest guards
and 10 fire watchers would complete the force under the standard
adopted for other reserves.
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 81

FOREST MANAGEMENT.

Beyond the protection indicated there will be little call for active
measures of management within this reserve during the next few years.

BOUNDARIES,

In the absence of specific descriptions of this reserve and of accurate
maps of its area, no changes in the boundaries can be recommended at
present. I desire, however, to reiterate here the recommendation of
the National Forest Commission that a part of the reserve be converted
into a national park. i

LEWIS AND CLARK FOREST RESERVE.

SUMMARY.
Situation: Northwestern Montana. Acres.
Ares: within present: HMCS: jas Secession seis Redeemer oem Sas 2, 926, 080
Adverse holdings, railroad lands........--..2-..----2---------------- 664, 320
Per cent of
twtal area.
Area ot forest: lant oc, coccescasaceauereecise- ak tee eaiaeanceeos (2?) 85
Area marked by TOs. ccc ccuceniscae cece ee re seeemnemeecdioes (?) 50
Area badly burned soc5c0 seisass ccc esate Geese ee pe aneveerlnmene ie (?) 15

Revised lines can not be drawn without further study and an accurate map.

Force recommended: Part of the attention of 1 ranger and 1 guard, and the whole
time of 1 guard and 5 fire watchers.

Sources of information: Personal examination, June 18 to July 8, 1896; October
4-16, 1897.

A broken and comparatively little known mountain region, with valuable forests
of varied character.

Fires have done and are still doing serious injury.

Danger from floods and from the lack of water for irrigation both demand the
preservation of these forests.

Mining is unimportant now, and shows little promise.

Agriculture is almost altogether forbidden by the climate.

Grazing may be permitted for a time in carefully restricted localities.

Some provision is required to meet prolable local demands for timber and fuel,
especially on the eastern slope.

The Lewis and Clark Reserve occupies both slopes of the continental
divide in northwestern Montana for some distance south of the Great
Northern Railroad, together with the Kootenai Range and part of the
Mission Range to the west, and a portion of the watershed of the Big
Blackfoot and other streams tributary to Clark’s Fork of the Colum-
bia. Its boundaries include 2,926,080 acres, of which 664,320 are within
the primary and indemnity limits of the Northern Pacific Railway
Company. For descriptive purposes this reserve may conveniently be
divided by the crest of the Rocky Mountains.

EASTERN SLOPE.

That portion of the Lewis and Clark Reserve which drains into the
Missouri comprises the headwaters of the Marias and Sun rivers, and a
portion of those of Dearborn Creek, allof which streams empty directly
into the Missouri. Bounded on the west by the main range of the Rocky
Mountains, its eastward slope is interrupted for a considerable distance
by a transverse range, west of which the North Fork of Sun River
flows from north to south. Except in the broad valleys of the north-
ern and middle forks of this stream, nearly the whole area is broken

S. Doc. 189-6

\
82 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

by rugged ridges with abrupt slopes. The soil is unfit to raise any-
thing but grass or trees, for the severe climate precludes agriculture
altogether. This region has hitherto made little or no contribution to
the settlements eastward except in the matter of railroad ties, con-
siderable numbers of which have been cut from the North Fork of Sun
River, and driven down it for the use of a branch of the Great Northern
Railroad.

THE FOREST, EASTERN SLOPE.

The forest on the eastern slope consists principally of Douglas tir (red
fir), Engelmann spruce, and lodge-pole pine. It is generally open, and
in places is broken by the burns of very extensive fires. In the valley
of the North fork, lodge-pole pine, with a mixture of spruce in the
moister situations and of alpine fir higher up, constitutes the bulk of
the forest, which in many places is comparatively dense and uninjured
by fire.

The lodge-pole pine, which has furnished the larger number of ties
cut from this region, reaches the following average measurements:
Height, 70 feet; diameter, 10 inches; length of clear trunk, 20 feet.
This tree probably owes its wide distribution here as elsewhere to the
prevalence of fires in the past. It is slow of growth, with admirable
reproductive powers, and forms by far the greater portion of the forest.

The spruce is found both on high and low ground, and owes its dis-
tribution to moisture and not to altitude. It has average measure-
ments as follows: Height, 80 feet; diameter, 18 inches; length of clear
trunk, none. Valuable as a lumber tree because better material is
lacking, the spruce occurs in restricted numbers compared with the
lodge-pole pine, although the total amount of it in the watershed of
Sun River is large.

Alpine fir lives normally at high altitudes, but in places follows the
streams to comparatively low situations. At great elevations it usually
forms the bulk of the forest, and often exceeds in numbers all other
species even at moderate heights. Its average dimensions are: height,
50 feet; diameter, 12 inches; length of clear trunk, none.

FIRE, EASTERN SLOPE.

The eastern slopes of the main range in the northern .part of this
reserve, and of the spur which bounds the watershed of the North
Fork of Sun River farther south, have been practically cleared of tim-
ber by fire over the greater portion of their extent. The contrast
between the present condition of this unprotected area and the un-
burned forests of the same slope of the Rockies farther north, where
the Blackfoot Indian Reservation has hitherto tended to prevent the
general access of prospectors and hunters, is as striking as it is in-
structive.

In the broad and comparatively flat valley of the North Fork the
original forests have been driven from the more level lands, for 12
miles above the junction with the South Fork, by the ravages of ancient
fires. To a less extent, on the Middle Fork, open grass lauds have
been produced in the same way. Otherwise these valleys are well tim-
bered. The prevailing character of their forests has been determined
nee in many other places, almost exclusively by fire and the amount
of rain.

Throughout the larger part of the area under discussion the body of
decaying vegetable material under the trees is slight, and except for
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 83

the very inflammable character of the lodge-pole pine forests the pre-
vention of fires would be comparatively easy.

WATER, EASTERN SLOPE.

The destruction of the forests on this slope will necessarily have its
effect upon floods in the Missouri and Mississippi, but its more imme-
diate result will be felt in the grazing regions along Sun River and the
tributaries of the Marias and of Dearborn Creek. Nine reservoir sites
have been selected within or near the reserve ou Sun River and its
tributaries. Their future usefulness, and hence the agricultural devel-
opmeut of the regions they are intended to serve, will depend upon the
protection of the forests within this watershed.

MINING, EASTERN SLOPE.

Prospecting has been followed with but little tangible result in the
area under discussion, aud the development of mines within it is not
anticipated in the near future.

AGRICULTURE, EASTERN SLOPE.

Agriculture, as has been said, can not be successfully pursued here
on account of the rigorous climate. The only important natural prod-
ucts of this region which may be confidently expected will come from
the forests.

GRAZING, EASTERN SLOPE,

The considerable area of grazing lands situated above the junction
of the north and middle forks of Sun River should be made available,
at least temporarily, for pasturage. As in the case of other regions,
pasturage should be strictly limited and controlled whenever the repro-
duction of the forest is desired. There is no reason for the exclusion
of these lands from the reserve, since their agricultural development
is not to be anticipated.

FOREST MANAGEMENT, EASTERN SLOPE.

Railroad ties have been cut from portions of the eastern slope in con-
siderable quantities, and a continued market for this sort of timber is
to be anticipated, although the demand will apparently not be large
in the immediate future. Water transportation for such products is
good, and a considerable proportion of the forest is, or may shortly be
made, available for this purpose.

Considerable delay in opening this reserve to development would not
be followed by serious inconvenience to the neighboring population.
Special permits for grazing should be required under a system similar
to that proposed for the Cascade Reserve. Several large herds of sheep
are owned just outside the reserve in the valley of Sun River, and the
demand for their entrance to the pasture-lands already mentioned would
probably follow upon the construction of betterroads. For the present
it does not seem necessary to consider it.

Clear cutting in strips is indicated as the system of management
most likely to assure the safety of the forest until more careful studies
can determine the best methods of increasing the proportion of valua-
ble trees. It seems evident that the present forest is the result of years
of forest fires, and does not fairly represent the capabilities of the region
either as to volume of timber or richness of composition. Both are
capable of conspicuous improvement under skillful handling.
84 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.
WESTERN SLOPE.

West of the main range of the Rockies the Lewis and Clarke Reserve
includes practically the whole of the watersheds of Swan River, which
empties into Flathead Lake, and of the South Fork of the Flathead
River, together with the head waters of the Middle Fork of the same
stream. All of these streams flow in a northerly direction. Swan
River and the South Fork are separated by the Kootenai Range, which
bounds the drainage area of the South Fork on the west. West of
Swan River is the Mission Range, while to the south of both these
streams are parts of the watersheds of the Big Blackfoot and other
streams tributary to Clarks Fork of the Columbia. Less rugged and
broken than the Eastern Slope, the Western is still sparsely settled
and very difficult of access. It contains some of the least known areas
in the United States.

THE FOREST, WESTERN SLOPE.

The valleys of Swan River and of the South and Middle forks of the
Flathead River are comparatively uniform in sylvicultural character.
That of Swan River may be said to occupy a somewhat intermediate
position between the broad agricultural lands of the Flathead Valley,
and the steeper and more densely wooded slopes of the valley of the
South Fork. It is, however, a true forest region, and almost wholly
unfit for agriculture. The lower portions of these valleys are occupied
by dense forests of coniferous trees whose principal components are
lodge pole pine and larch. Other trees are the western white pine, the
Douglas fir (red fir), and the western yellow pine. In the upper stretches
of Swan River, as well as in the watershed of the Big Blackfoot, the
yellow pine forms over considerable areas practically the only forest
growth. The upper portion of the valley of the Middle Fork appears
to be covered principally with lodge-pole pine and Engelmann spruce.

A description of the forests of the South Fork will serve to indicate
as wellthe character of the lower valleys of Swan River and the Middle
Fork within the reserve.

This forest is a dense, tall, and rich body, composed chiefly of valua-
ble kinds of trees, of which the larch is easily first in economic impor-
tance. The reproduction of the less valuable kinds is more vigorous
than that of the more desirable species, a condition unfortunately very
uncommon in forest regions.

The western larch reproduces itself freely only in the open and on
land from which fires have net yet driven all the humus. Impatient of
shade, it does not thrive under the cover of other trees. It is rapid in
growth, with thick bark, and even in comparatively early youth resists
fire well. Its average dimensions are roughly as follows: Height, 150
feet; diameter, 3 feet; length of clear trunk, 75 feet.

The mountain white pine (silver pine), next to the larch in economic
value, or perhaps sometimes surpassing it in the early stages of lumber
development, here reaches almost the same average size. It is, how-
ever, far behind the larch in number of individuals, and, indeed, is by
no means common in the Swan River drainage.

The Douglas fir (red fir) occurs, on the whole, at slightly higher eleva-
tions than the larch, although it is very frequently found in mixture with
it. In the open country it reproduces itself well, but seedlings are not
common under heavy shade. Its average dimensions may be given
roughly as follows: Height, 125 feet; diameter, 2.5 feet; length of clear
trunk, 50 feet.
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 85

On swampy lands and in the river bottoms the Engelmann spruce is
common. It is a comparatively sinall tree, slow in growth, and with
but moderate reproductive power. Its average dimensions may be given
as follows: Height, 100 feet; diameter, 1.5 feet; length of clear trunk,
10 feet.

Wherever the old forest has been destroyed by fire, the lodge-pole pine
is very apt to takeits place. This tree is singularly liable to be killed by
fire on account of its thin and resinous bark, but its wonderful powers
of reproduction, perhaps superior to those of any other tree.on this con-
tinent, enable it to repair damages from this source with astonishing
speed. It is frequently found as an undergrowth beneath fire-scarred
old trees of larch and Douglas fir (red. fir), and its sylvicultural function
appears to be to prepare the ground for its nore valuable successors.

The alpine fir occurs throughout this forest chiefly as undergrowth.
Mature trees are infrequent, but the younger ones are common, occupy-
ing both moist and dry situations, although with a preference for the
former. They do not flourish except under cover of other trees. Old
trees reach average dimensions somewhat as follows: Height, 100 feet;
diameter, 2 feet; length of clear trunk, 25 feet. This tree has little or
no commercial value at present.

In the more level stretches of the upper valley of Swan River the yel-
low pine has taken almost exclusive possession of the ground, and it is
probable that the higher portion of the South Fork drainage is to some
extent similarly occupied. The upper valley of the Big Blackfoot in
and near the reserve also contains large bodies of yellow pine, and great
quantities of lumber from this tree have been cut from its tributaries.

FIRE, WESTERN SLOPE.

Here as elsewhere fire has been followed by the extension of the
lodge-pole pine. Considerable burns exist on the South Fork and in
the valley of Swan River, near their respective junctions with Flathead
River and Flathead Lake. Isolated burned patches are elsewhere dis-
tributed through the forests. The South Fork is comparatively an
unknown region, little visited and difficult of access, while Swan River
Valley contains a good trail throughout its length and is comparatively
well known. There is also a good trail down the Middle Fork. In the
upper portion of the valley of Swan River and in the region tributary
to the Big Blackfoot the prevalence of the western yellow pine, whose
heavy bark enables it to resist many surface fires, has had a strong
tendency to check the damage from fire, and the same is probably true
about the head waters of the South Fork, where the forest is said to be
similar in general character.

WATER, WESTERN SLOPE.

Floods in the South and Middle forks will have serious consequences
for the Flathead Valley. Swan River, which empties into Flathead
Lake, is somewhat less important in this respect. The function of the
forests in the drainage basins of these streams in restraining floods will
probably be of greater moment to residents of their valleys below the
reserve than their effect on agriculture through irrigation.

MINING, WESTERN SLOPE.

Mining has received no considerable extension on any of these
streams. Coal has been found, but there are no suflicient reasons
under this head for excluding any portions of this area from the
reserve. :
86 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

AGRICULTURE, WESTERN SLOPE.

The severity of the climate makes serious agriculture impossible on
the whole slope, with the possible exception of a smal] area in the Big
Blackfoot drainage basin. I am not aware that any corrections of the
boundaries are required uuder this head.

GRAZING, WESTERN SLOPE.

Considerable areas on the head waters of Swan River and the South
Fork and in the watershed of the Big Blackfoot are more or less valu-
able as grazing lands. These areas are for the most part heavily tim-
bered with yellow pine, but they often support a vigorous growth of
grass beneath the trees. Regulations for the government of grazing
within this reserve, similar in general scope to those recommended in
the case of sheep in the Cascade Forest Keserve, will easily and safely
make these resources available for stock raising.

FOREST MANAGEMENT, WESTERN SLOPE,

The problems to be met in putting the western slope under right
management are somewhat complicated. The topography is very di-
verse in its effect on the forests, aud the latter show conspicuous sylvi-
cultural differences. Cutting in narrow strips in the mixed forests of
the lower river valleys will probably lead to the best results, while wider
strips in lodge-pole pine, or even clear cutting over blocks of some size
in the old forests of yellow pine, may be safe and profitable. It is evi-
dent that a detailed study of the whole region should precede any
attempt to put it under forest management. Special attention should
be given to the conditions which govern the reproduction of the larch,
which is in many ways the most valuable tree of the whole reserve.
There is no large immediate demand for the forest products of this
reserve, but a system of licenses for small amounts of timber is needed
atonce. Some timber has been illegally cut and driven down the South
Fork to market. Hereafter this stream, as well as the Middle Fork
and Swan River, will be largely utilized in this way.

FOREST FORCE,

It has been recommended (Part Ii, page 46) that the forest ranger in
charge of the Bitter Root Keserve should exercise a limited supervision
over the Lewis and Clark and Flathead reserves also, and that guards
should be stationed at or near Ovando and Columbia Falls. <A far
larger force is required at once, but other reserves in much greater
need of immediate protection make necessary this division of the forest
force assumed to be available. Other puints where guards are needed
are Swan Lake and the Hot Springs of Sun River.

BOUNDARIKS,

Except-for the exclusion of an untimbered area southeast of Heart
Butte, amounting to perhaps three townships, no reductions of conse-
quence appear to be required, nor am I aware that the retention of
these townships for a time will work hardships to any citizens. More
dood knowledge should be acquired before the final lines are laid

own.
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 8t

MOUNT RAINIER FOREST RESERVE,

A careful examination of this reserve is required to obtain data for ;
the revision of its boundaries, and for the segregation of an area,
including Mount Rainier, which should be included in a national park.
The extension of the limits of this reserve is desirable in many ways,
and will be effected without working hardships to any legitimate inter-
ests. Under existing rules and regulations the rights of miners are
fully protected. It is believed that no agricultural land of any conse-
quence is included within the present boundaries. Were the provi-
sions recommended in Part II of this report adopted, they would open
te entry any such land which may be included without removal from
the reserve. Jt is recommended that steps be taken at the earliest
practicable date to examine this reserve thoroughly, both as to its forest
and other conditions, and as to the influence of the former upon the
drier regions to the east.

OLYMPIC FORES' RESERVE.

SUMMARY.
Situation: Western Washington. Acres.
ATSA Within present LINCS cs) cece 2 edie Ae cere: aeehcidee eee eee as 2, 188, 800
Adverse holdings, approximately.........-.--.--.--2--2-----.-------- 100, 000
Per cent of
total area.
INTE Ay OL TOROS Es LAN Gy 52.9 ac.5 cians seseveienisnensiavedorepeean canto mperdddmusiare Siege Saisie eee (2) 95
MTOR MAE KEU MD yA MTOE jchs0212-;ieinntecaaescusde steele SI Se ees eee ERSEeS (2) 90
Area badly DUPned 22 o.2..05 ees ces dere Rciisee ie See ete Reet ee Oe (?) 25

Revised lines can not be drawn without further study and a map. ;

Force recommended: One ranger, 5 guards, 50 fire watchers, after other more pressing
reserves have been taken in hand.

Sources of information: Personal examination, August 19 to September 3, 1897.

A rugged broken mountain region, covered for the most part with dense forests,
the trees of which, on the western slope, reach an average height of 200 feet.

Floods are dangerous to settlers in and below the reserve, whose safety demands
the protection of the forests above them.

Mining is of no importance at present, nor is there any clear promise that it will
be hereafter. :

Agriculture and grazing are but little developed, and their further extension by
clearing the forests will involve the destruction of values immensely greater than
any they can create.

The commercial development of this reserve will not be required by local needs
for several years to come.

The Olympic Forest Reserve occupies nearly the whole of the Olympic
Peninsula in western Washington. The region it includes consists
of rugged mountains and steep canyons, for the most part densely
forested, and is less easily penetrated, perhaps, than any other of its
size in the United States. Its larger streams rise in the central mass
of mountains whose principal peak is Mount Olympus, and radiate
from it like the spokes of a wheel, reaching salt water directly on the
east, north, and west, and on the south by way of the Chehalis River.
The area inclosed within its boundaries is 2,188,800 acres. This sum is
to be diminished by 66,160 acres of railroad lands, together with a con-
siderable number of timber and agricultural claims. The rock is
granitic in character, and the mineral soil but moderately productive.
It is the raintall and the deep layer of vegetable mold on the ground
which gives the forest of this region its wonderful development. Pre-
cipitation is here greater than in any other portion of the United
States, and the moisture which it supplies during the growing season
fits this region, far beyond most others, for the production of timber.
88 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

THE FOREST,

Except the redwood belt of California, the Olympic forest is finer and
more productive than that of any other considerable division of the
United States, and may fairly be called magnificent. It is composed
almost exclusively of coniferous trees, towering often to a height of from
225 to 275 feet. The size of its members and the luxuriance of the
undergrowth give it an almost tropical appearance. Douglas fir (red
fir), western cedar, Sitka spruce, and western hemlock are its principal
trees.

With the slight opportunity for investigation afforded by a short and
hurried trip it is impossible to reach an estimate of the volume of ‘tim-
ber now standing in the Ulympic forest, and it must suffice to say that
it amounts to many billions of feet. Individual acres bearing more
than 100,000 feet of lumber are common, while in the neghborhood of
Port Crescent one-quarter section which had been lumbered is known
to have yielded upward of 40,000 feet per acre of cedar alone.

Lumbering within the boundaries of the reserve has attained uo
importance, so far as I was able to learn. Enormous quantities of tim-
ber have passed into private hands around the edges of the peninsula,
and these supplies will be sufficient to meet all commercial demands for
several years to come.

The Douglas fir (red fir), which is the most important timber tree of
this reserve, appears to depend for its distribution upon the action of
fire. So radical a statement, however, should be made only with the
proviso that further study will be required to confirm or disprove it.
The average dimensions of this tree are as follows: Height, 200 feet;
diameter, 6 feet; length of clear trunk, 100 feet. Fair-sized trees will
cut from three to five merchantable logs of 36 feet in length. A foot-
log across the Soleduck River at Wineton, which was 26 inches in diam-
eter at the butt, 134 feet long, and 18 inches in diameter at the upper
end, will indicate the size reached even by young trees.

The western cedar is here widely distributed threugh the lower por-
tions of the forest, but appears to prefer the flatter au. less well-drained
situations. Its reproduction within the forest is fairly good in places,
while young seedlings are of common occurrence in openings cleared by
fire. Its average dimensions are: Height, 175 feet; diameter, 6 feet;
length of clear trunk, 75 feet. Good-sized trees will cut from two to
three 36-foot logs.

The Sitka spruce here reaches enormous dimensions. Diameters of 10
to 12 feet at 4 feet above the ground are common where this tree is abun-
dant, while the average dimensions are: Height, 175 feet; diameter, 5
feet; length of clear trunk, 100 feet. Fair-sized trees will cut from two
to four 36-foot logs. The spruce is highly prized for lumbering, and its
enormous size, great length and girth of boll, and freedom from knots
make it an extremely valuable component of the forest, although in
numbers it falls behind the Douglas fir and hemlock.

The western hemlock constitutes almost everywhere the bulk of the
forest. It occurs as undergrowth beneath the towering spruces, cedars,
and firs, and in many situations grows almost pure over small areas. Its
average dimensions are: Height, 150 feet; diameter, 3 feet; length of
clear trunk,75 feet. Its reproduction is extremely good and its growth
is moderately fast, but it is not as yet extensively used for lumbering.
Hereafter it may be expected to show marked commercial importance,
since its wood far exceeds in quality that of the eastern hemlock, which
has already a very extensive market.
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 89

A striking fact in the reproduction of the Olympic forest is that very
few trees start on the forest soil.” Young seedlings of Douglas fir occur
only, so far as my experience shows, in openings made by fire from
which the vegetable soi] has been burned away. Oedar and spruce are
most plentiful in the same situations, but are also found in the forests,
while young growth of hemlock is exceedingly common everywhere.
Young trees which start in the forest appear almost without exception
to begin life on stubs or trunks of dead or fallen timber, and to extend
their roots gradually dowu along the rotting wood to the layer of veg-
etable soil, and through it to the mineral soil beneath.

‘When the wood upon which the seedlings started has rotted away,
the young trees are left standing propped high above the ground by
the strong roots which they have formed. These roots gradually grow
together to form a trunk, which in the end betrays its origin only by a
greater proportionate girth near the ground.

FIREe

The whole of that portion of the reserve visited by me appears to have
been cleared by fire within the last few centuries. The evidence on this
point is conclusive. It was at hand wherever I was able to search for
it. The mineral soil was found ou examination to be overlaid by a layer
of charcoal and ashes, which gave evidence of the presence of fire in the
past. Continuous stretches of miles without a break were covered with
a uniform growth of Douglas fir from 2 to 3 feet in diameter, interspersed
with numerous rotting stumps of much larger trees bearing the marks
of fire. The young firs were entirely unscarred, but charcoal was found
at the roots of some specimens which had been thrown by the wind.

In other places, among forests of the same character, charcoal and
ashes appeared beneath the vegetable soil where a trail had been cut
into the side of a hill. Charcoal was found directly beneath a growing
cedar tree 4 feet in diameter, under which a hole had been exca-
vated in the course of lumbering operations. This mass of evidence
acquires a crucial importance with relation to the forest from the fact
that in my ten days’ visit to this region I did not see a single young
seedling of Douglas fir under the forest cover, nor a single opening made
by fire which did notcontain them. Since not much less than half of the
total bulk of the forests in the region I visited consists of this tree, the
bearing of such facts upon the future management is direct and impor-
tant. Next to the cedar, the Douglas fir is the most valuable lumber tree
of the region, and any system of forest management which is to succeed
must provide for its reproduction.

Fires are dangerous here mainly because of the deep layer of humus
which covers the ground and the masses of fallen timber which obstruct
the foresié in every direction. In many places these prostrate trunks
reduce the progress of a man on foot to a small fravtion of a mile per
hour. Fires which obtain a foothold in such places are extremely diffi-
cult to subdue. They burn deeply into the fallen logs, and in hemlock
timber often survive even drenching rains. On the trail from Wineton
to Beaver a fire which began in August, 1896, survived the winter in
this way, and was still burning in February, 1897. But in spite of such
difficulties it is possible to extinguish, without undue labor and expense,
fires which do not get into the crowns. In that case human efforts are
useless. Ground fires are apt to travel slowly, and, with suitable tools,
may be successfully attacked.
90 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

WATER,

Irrigation has no importance in this region of heavy rainfall, but
floods are common, and, with the progress of settlement, threaten to
become exceedingly destructive. The beds of the larger streams, so
far as Iam acquainted with them, show evidence of torrential action,
while stories of their destructive floods are everywhere current. It is
a common thing for ranchers to set fire to the great drifts of timber
which accumulate in the bends of the streams, in order to prevent the
flooding of their ranches by back-water from these natural dams. Trees
whose diameter is several times the average depth of the streams at
ordinary stages are transported and piled up during floods, and only
the densely timbered slopes of the upper watersheds prevent these
inundations from attaining still more forinidable size.

MINING.

Mining does not appear to have reached any development of conse-
quence, nor is there any clear promise of its future extension within
the reserve. :

AGRICULTURE.

The heavily timbered land in the lower valleys of the streams is
capable, when cleared, of producing agricultural crops. Wheat may
be raised, but it is so soft as to be unfit for the manufacture of flour.
Hops, vegetables, and other crops are produced, but the labor expended
in clearing such land is altogether out of proportion to the results.
Merely to fell aud burn the standing trees, without extracting their
stumps, would often involve ap expenditure for labor, if the latter had
to be hired, of more than $150 per acre, while the land itselt, after clear-
ing, is worth but a fraction of that sum. The destruction of timber for
this poor result is appalling, especially since a considerable proportion
of the fires started in clearing extend tar into the uncleared forests.
Natural prairies, undoubtedly caused by repeated fires, exist here and
there, and these are the only lands in the reserve known to me which
may fairly be called agricultural.

GRAZING.

Grazing has little importance, nor will it probably develop much
beyond the small number of animals owned by settlers. Clearing may
eventually transform parts of this region of heavy rainfall into dairy
lands of some importance. This change may take place on lands held
by private individuals, but the forest destruction it involves is so
enormous in comparison with the results obtained, that clearing for
such purpose within the reserve should not be permitted.

FOREST FORCE. zi
The forest force required to take care of this reserve on the same
seale as that hitherto recommended should include 1 forest rang r,
located at Port Townsend, from which point the different portions of
the reserve are most easily accessible, and 5 forest guards, at Lake
Cushman, Olearwater, Bogachiel, Wineton, and McDonald’s.  Fitty
fire watchers should be engaged in different parts of the reserve.
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 91

. FOREST MANAGEMENT.

Transportation within the reserve must be chiefly by rail or flume,
since the streams. because of floods and the enormous size of the tim-
ber, are not easily available for that purpose. The duties of the forest
force within this reserve, for the present, should consist in protection
against fire. and to that end in the important work of constructing trails
practicable for horses. The appropriation for trails should be liberal,
since the difficulties of building them, and of traveling without them
in this densely timbered region, are very great. A forest map covering
the whole area of the reserve should be prepared, together with material
upon which to base a fature working plan. The economic development
of these forests should be delayed until it is called for by the necessi-
ties of adjacent regions. When it comes, special precautions against fire
will be imperatively needed. The great size of the timber requires the
use of steam in nearly all the logging operations, and the thick layer
of vegetable material on the ground makes the safe disposal of ashes
from the engines, to speak of a single phase of the subject, a critical
and not always au easy matter.

BOUNDARIES.

Changes in the boundaries should be wholly in the nature of an exten-
sion. Suitable provisions to enable agricultural land to be entered have
already beeu recommended. Further study and a map are required
before changes of boundary can be rightly made.

PIKES PEAK TIMBER LAND RESERVE.

SUMMARY.
Situation: Central Colorado. Actes.
Area within presen’ Ne: 2.2.5.5 j.c sinc sstacetye ie ceinins Cae ea oA awa eae ees 184,320
Adverse holdings not known.
Per cent of
total area.
Aréa.Of forest lands: cence ee ccetsteysehtvne ie ncaa noes oeien 2 ad aednapaneees (2) 75
Aveda marked: Dy HirGi: <2) 222 1.2026 ios cs auear asaya tise Sole osiicieseniaces (?) 75
Aten badly: harmed oo3 <2 2.06 face sagelseseteteee cn eeeesGes Sejerrayssdysuteleions (?) 50

Revised lines can not be drawn without further -tudy.

Force recommended: This reserve should be managed in connection with the Pinm
Creek and South Platte reserves, which have not yet been studied.

Sources of information: Personal examination, October 10 and 11, 1896.

A steep and lofty mountain regiou, sparsely covered with open forest, chiefly of
Englemann spruce.

Fires have done and are doing most serious injury.

The water supply of Colorado Springs and much adjacent country depends on the
streams of this reserve.

Mines are frequent and mining timber has been very extensively cut.

Agriculture does not exist within the reserve.

Grazing is not important.

Provisions are required by which timber for mining and fuel may legally be cut,
so far os the safety of the forest will allow.

The Pikes Peak Timber Land Reserve is situated in central Colorado,
and occupies a narrow strip of lofty mountain region northeast and
southeast of the suinmit of Pikes Peak. Its boundaries inclose an area
of 184,320 aeres. Its slopes. sparsely covered with forest growth. are
for the most part steep, although the outlines of the range are rounded.
It is conspicuously moist in climate when compared with the semi-arid
regions to the east. This area supplies water for the city of Colorado
92 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

Springs and a tributary region of considerable extent, and its chief,
but not its only, importance is believed to lie in this direction. As the
nearest source of timber supply for Colorado Springs and the tree-
less region to the east it has a decided value, which will be immensely
increased when adequate protection enables its forests to regain their
productiveness.

THE FOREST.

The forest consists chiefly of small aad isolated trees of Engelmann
spruce, blue spruce, Douglas fir, and limber pine (white pine), while
large areas are covered by .quaking aspen, usually as the result of fires.
The reproduction of this forest, like the growth of its trees, is slow, and
in consequence the injuries which it has suffered from indiscriminate
cutting for mining and other purposes will be visible for many years to
come. :

FIRE.

Fires have spread over practically the whole area of this reserve
wherever the vegetation was dense enough to sustain them. At pres-
ent the danger from this source has disappeared over considerable
stretches because little or nothing remains to be burned.

WATER.

The fact that this reserve is the source of water supply for a numer-
ous population bas already been referred to. Not only its protection,
but the restoration of the forest to its original condition is, for this rea-
son, urgently recommended. My visit was too hasty to enable me to
secure conclusive data in this direction, but I am strongly of opinion
that further study will demonstrate the necessity to which I have just
referred.

MINING.

Mining in this region, both within and without the reserve, is exceed-
ingly important, and mining timber has been cut from the reserve with-
out stint. Thus the chief direct value of these forests may be said to
be rapidly disappearing. The effect of the exhaustion of this source of
timber supply upon mine owners will be serious. Protection against
fire and illegal cutting is therefore of vital importance if the value of
the reserve for any purpose is to be preserved.

AGRICULTURE.

Agriculture does not exist within the reserve, so far as I am informed.
This elevated region is chiefly useful, in this direction, to supply water
for lower-lying agricultural lands.

GRAZING.
Pasturage within the reserve appears to be of little consequence.

FOREST FORCE.

The forest force necessary to administer this reserve must depend
upon the dispositions made for the Plum Creek and South Platte Forest
reserves, which lie near it. Further study will be required before deti-
nite recommendations can be made.
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 93

FOREST MANAGEMENT,

Aside from protection of the reserve against fire aud illegal cutting,
no measures of forest management should be undertaken until an ade-
quate study of the forest has been made.

BOUNDARIRES.

Lam not sufficiently acquainted with this reserve to suggest changes
in its boundaries.

PRIEST RIVER FOREST RESERVE.

SUMMARY.

Situation: Northern Idaho and northeastern Washington. Acres.
Area within. present lines: ....2222 - 2006 cece eee eden cee eee s cee ee 645, 120
Adverse holdings, approximately .--.....-.-. 2-2-2 ---2-- 0-2-2 eee eee 285, 000
Exclusions proposed, approximately. ......--..-----. 22-2. ----2--+-- 4, 000
Inclusions proposed, approximately .......---...---2. .---2-2 222202 eee 425, 000
Area within proposed lines, approximately -...-.....-..--.---.------+--- 1, 065, 000
Increasé; approximated ic. cenne sas sce se sane accqanohemes omen Geen eee 421, 000
Adverse holdings, approximated...........2..-222. 0220200. e eee eee eee 200, 000

Per cent of

Present lines: total area.
Area: of forest: lands. crcvecwieds visa cies as boss Serer eeeetaas ports 80
Areaumarked DY fIT6 vecscseeseecucesut sexes ocean yee seeie wee ese 75
Area badly burned): sna s0e/=defeow a pocelsee are 7 Ae ah aS eee peal 40

Standing merchantable timber, 4,830,000,000 board feet.
Force recommended: One ranger, 3 guards, 15 fire watchers.
Sources of information: Report and statements of J. B. Leiberg, special field assistant,
United States Geological Survey. Personal examination, July 16-26, 1897.

A mountainous region, partly undulating, partly broken, of great natural adapta-
tion for the growth of forests.

Fire is rapidly destroying that part of the forest which has hitherto escaped.

Questions of water supply are less important than elsewhere.

Mining: Little present, but much prospective importance.

Agriculture: No special mbasures are required.

Grazing: Not important.

The commercial development of this reserve is not imperative at present.

The Priest River Forest Reserve is situated chiefly in Kootenai
County, northern Idaho, with a small portion in northeastern Wash-
ington, and is bounded on the north by the British line. It includes
within its boundaries an estimated area of 645,120 acres. To reach
the sum of lands held by the Government this total must be diminished
by the nonmineral part of 290,230 acres of land within the primary and
indemnity limits of the Northern Pacitic Railroad, and an unknown
area covered by squatter claims on lands alleged to be agricultural.
Mining claims have been located chiefly in the northern and western
portions of the reserve. The total area owned by the Government
within the boundaries probably does not exceed 360,000 acres.

From north to south the reserve extends about 55 miles, with an aver-
age breadth from east to west of 25 miles. Except for a small portion
tributary to the Pend Oreille, almost its whole area is included within
the Priest River watershed, by the limits of which it is bounded on the
east aud west. It contains two considerable bodies of water—Priest
Lake, with a length of 18 miles, and Upper Priest Lake, with a length
of somewhat over 2 miles. Streams are numerous, and the reserve as
a whole is very.well watered. The Priest range of mountains, which
bounds the reserve ou the east, rises to a height of 8,000 feet, and in its
upper portion is exceedingly rugged and broken. The ridges which
94 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

spring from it are steep, and the whole slope of the eastern half of the
reserve is abrupt, as its hard granites and syenites would naturally
imply. The Pend Oreille range on the west is composed of softer schist,
its slopes are gentler, its soil richer, and its forests denser and more
valuable than those of the eastern range. ‘

The rainfall of the reserve is probably not less than 60 inches per
annum. At altitudes of 7,000 feet snow sometimes lies to a depth of 20
feet, and the climate as a whole is exceedingly moist. Frost may occur
at any season, and the raising of any crop except hay is therefore a pre-
carious undertaking. Climatically this reserve is admirably suited to
the production of forests, but, except for the small area in the Pend
Oreille watershed, to very little else.

THK FOREST.

In its natural state the forest of the reserve is a dense and extremely
productive one, composed almost entirely of commercially valuable
coniferous trees.

Three forest types are represented upon the half million acres which
include nearly all of the productive forest lands: First, the lowest in
altitude, the yellow pine-Douglas fir type, of which the characteristic
tree is the western yellow pine, and the most important, commercially
and numerically, the Douglas fir. This type covers an area of about
60,000 acres.

Second, the white pine-larch type, of which the white pine (silver
pine) is the most valuable species commercially and the richest
in mature trees. The western larch, of which by far the greatest part
of the young growth of the reserve consists, is here the tree of the
future, and will hereafter give its greatest forest value to this area.
The forest which it helps to characterize covers about 480,000 acres
and lies midway between the lower and the upper types. The latter is
the alpine type. It includes the higher and more exposed portions of
the mountains and covers about 60,000 acres. ,

The following tables, which exhibit the present resources of the
reserve in timber, are summaries of extremely careful detailed estimates
prepared on the ground by Mr. Lieberg. I regard them as both con-
servative and reliable.

Standing timber and its stumpage value.

Logs, 1,900,000,000 feet,'at 50 cents per M..--..-.-2.. 2-2. ..enee eee ee eee $950, 000
Ties, 2,720,000,000 feet, at $1 per M ....... 222-2. eee eee eee eee eee eee 2, 720, 000
Poles, 210,000,000 feet, at 50 cents per M.---..---. 22-22. eee ee eee eee eee 105, 000

MOUARE cree wa cet nici anda osmses Geee Arama eneath ae os eeeeee 3, 775, 000

Ties are here estimated at 20 feet per tie, and valued at 2 cents each;
telegraph poles at 100 feet per pole, and 5 cents each.
n

Value of timber, now standing, when manufactured.

 

Logs, 1,900,000,000 feet, at $10 per M...-... 22-222 eee eee eee eee $19, 000, 000
Ties, 136,000,000 feet, at 20 cents per tie ....-. 22... 2... cee cee eee eee 27, 200, 000
Poles, 2,100,000 feet, at 25 cents per pole-.-.. 0.2.2.2... 222 eee eee eee 525, 000

Total: sein cdi cwvericieneatceaneoe ney cases ga cow Soe eeusaddedeeen dna 46, 725, 000

The present merchantable value of the forest consists, first, in its
great supply of ripe trees of white pine (silver pine); second, in its old
larch; then in its Douglas fir, chietly valuable, like the larch, for rail-
road ties; next, in yellow pine; and lastly, in western cedar, chietly
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 95

used for shingles and telegraph poles, and iu lodge-pole pine, valuable
for fencing, fuel, and small mining timber. Its future value will be
derived mainly from the larch, which, as already noted, includes by far
the larger part of the young growth. The reproduction of the Douglas
fir is also very vigorous, as is that of the lodge-pole piue in places.
The young white pine unfortunately does not come in so well, and a
careful study will be required to determine what method of removing
the old timber will lead most efficiently to the reproduction of this very
valuable tree.

The western larch, valuable at present chiefly for ties, and to some
extent for lumber, has, when matured, an average height of 175 feet, an
average diameter of 3 feet, and an average length of clear trunk of about
80 feet. A good-sized tree will cut from five to seven 16-foot logs. Its
reproduction is abundant and wide-spread, and since it possesses
qualities which make it extremely valuable as a finishing wood, and in
construction, it promises to constitute hereafter the chief value of the
reserve.

The mountain white pine (silver pine) is very valuable as a lumber
tree. It is said to compare favorably with the white pine of the East,
than which it reaches a larger average size. The usual dimensions of
mature trees may be stated as follows: Height, 175 feet; diameter, 4
feet; length of clear trunk, 75 feet. A fair-sized tree will cut from five
to seven 16-foot logs. Reproduction is moderate and must be considered.
in deciding on methods of cutting. Planting and other expensive
sylvicultural operations are of course entirely out of the question.

The Douglas fir (red fir), while it is one of the most valuable timber
trees of other regions, is here chiefly used for ties. Its reproduction is
second to that of the larch, aud its average size is small. That of the
the mature tree may be stated as follows: Height, 100 feet; diameter,
2 feet; length of clear trunk, 50 feet. It is not used for lumber at
present. :

The western yellow pine furnishes in other regions enormous quanti-
ties of coarse lumber. It is used also for railroad ties where more
durable woods are not available. Its reproduction, very abundant in
some regions, is here comparatively scant. The size of the average tree
may be stated as follows: Height, 100 feet; diameter, 2 feet; length of
clear trunk, 40 feet. An average tree will cut one 16-foot log.

The western cedar is much in demand for telegraph poles and shingles.
It is oceasionally used for cross-ties. Frequently unsound at the heart,
it is yet a most valuable resource wherever it occurs. Reproduction in
this reserve is good, and the trees are of fair soundness and size. The
average may be estimated as follows: Height, 100 feet; diameter, 23
feet; length of clear trunk, 30 feet.

The lodge-pole pine, a tree which owes its wide diffusion through the
West very largely to the rapidity with which it seeds up burnt lands,
has here taken possession of considerable stretches of the drier local-
ities. Besides its value for fencing, fuel, and mining timber it serves a
most useful purpose in preparing devastated land, by the fertilizing
fall of its leaves and twigs, for the occupation of more valuable species.
It reaches here an average height of 90 feet, with a diameter of 1 foot,
and a length of clear trunk of 40 feet.

FIRE,

Priest River Forest Reserve has suffered from fire to an extent diffi-
cult to conceive without actual experience. The forest on not less than
200,000 acres has been totally destroyed within the last thirty years.
96 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

Except for one area of 1,600 acres on the Lower West Fork, there is
probably not a body of one thousand acres on the whole reserve which
has not been more or less seriously injured by tire. The timber which
has been destroyed exceeds in value several fold that which remains.

These fires have been set chiefly by prospectors, hunters, and trap-
pers. The most complete destruction coincides with curious exactness
with the supposed mineral belts of the northern and western portions
of the reserve. It is weli known that many fires are set by prospectors
for the sake of uncovering the rock. Special precautions will be
required in nearly all the reserves to guard against this danger.

Fires are dangerous in this reserve from late in April to the middle
of October. The completeness of the destruction tbey effect depends
upon the dryness of the forest and the strength of the wind. Those
which occur in summer are apt to be the hottest and swiftest. Large
numbers of dead trees usually remain standing after any prosperous
forest has been burnt over for the first time. The decomposition of
their roots in the soil, and the violent winds which prevail in this
region at certain seasons of the year, gradually overthrow these trees,
which then furnish fuel for subsequent fires. The latter are apt to
destroy the forest floor and the vegetable soil far more completely than
their predecessors. The youny trees which spring up among the dead
trunks are killed, and in this way the time when the forest shall take
possession of the soil again is often indefinitely postponed.

By assigning to the devastated areas a probable amount of standing
timber less than that known to be present on uninjured tracts, a con-
servative estimate of the loss from fire during the last thirty years has
been obtained. Previous to that time this region appears to have suf-
fered little from fire during a hundred years or more, and in conse-
quence it was densely timbered. Two tables are given; one indicates
the loss on the basis of stumpage value; the other the value of the
manufactured timber ready to ship. The latter shows more accurately
the loss to the regions in which these forests stand, since by far the
greater portion of the value of manufactured lumber consists in labor,
the wages of which, in this case, would have been put in circulation in
the neighborhood. It may fairly be said of this loss that it has not as
yet been sustained, but it will come to be felt at the time when this
timber, if it had been preserved, would have been manufactured. It
must necessarily result in the comparative impoverishment of a consid-
erable population. To this immense loss must be added that of the
productiveness of the forest soil, which it will take years of immunity
from fires to replace, and in addition the increase in value of this young
and growing forest during the years since it was destroyed.

Stumpage value of burned timber.

 

4,490,000,000 feet, at 50 cents per M....-...----- 22 eee eee eee ee eee $2, 245, 000
245,000,000 ties, at 2 cents per tie ...-.. 22.2.2 02 lel eee eee ee eee eee 4, 900, 000
6,000,000 telegraph poles, at 5 cents per pole -.-... 2.222. ..22.. 2. eee eee 300, 000

Motel swocdldctsaslsecates semed seen vere eciesce ew centss cee ececee 7, 445, 000

Value of burned timber, if manufactured.

4,490,000,000 feet saw logs, at $10 per M........-.-2. 0-22-2222 ee eee eee $44, 900, 000
245,000,000 ties, at 20 cents per tie.........-.. 22222 eee eee eee eee 49, 000, 000
6,000,000 telegraph poles, at 25 cents per pole ........---.-..0---.2----- 1, 500, 000

 

ST lec icre ess a Se alee Eerie ieee ee egta ne 95, 400, 000
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 97
WATER.

The regulation of the water supply by forests in this reserve is com-
paratively unimportant. The raintall is sufficient for such crops as may
be grown, and the danger of floods is, for the present, slight. Priest
Lake serves as a storage reservoir, and its level is said to have an
extreme fluctuation of but 5 feet. Mention should be made, however,
of the increasing floods in the Columbia,River, upon which the destruc-
tion of forests in this reserve must exert a distinct influence.

MINING.

The special field assistant who examined this reserve, Mr. J. B. Lei-
berg, has had long and full experience in mining in northern Idaho. I
quote his statement of its mineral resources:

At the present time there are known to exist three mineral-bearing belts. One in
the region above the upper lake, one in the central portion, and one midway between
the lower lake and the south line of the reserve. Two of these belts have their long
diameter easterly and westerly, and very likely stretch entirely across the reserve,
while the northern one lies in a northerly and southerly direction. A great many
quartz claims have been located in the mineral-bearing zones. There are none
developed as yet sufficiently to prove the region a commercially profitable one in the
valuable metallic minerals. It is quite within the range of possibility that profita-
ble discoveries will eventually be made in this direction.

AGRICULTURE.

A careful estimate places the agricultural lands of the reserve at
9,990 acres. These lands are nearly always found adjoining the streams.
As a rule they are wet and swampy, but can be reclaimed by ditching.
Nearly all natural meadows, fire glades, and grassy tracts are now set-
tled upon, and the procedure recommended in the first part of this
report, if adopted, will open the remaining agricultural lands to settle-
ment. Hay, oats, potatoes, and vegetables may be raised, but the last
two, on account of the frosts which may occur in any month, are never
sure.

Mr. Leiberg speaks of the agricultural resources of the region as
follows:

The Priest River Reserve is a forest region. Its natural peculiarities are such that
it can never become an agricultural section, and all efforts to make it such should
be discontinued, Its chief value lies in the immense forest growth that it is capable
of maintaining, and in whatever of mineral deposits time may disclose. There is no
market for farm products within the reserve. Were such articles produced in greater
quantities than would supply the home demand they could not be shipped. There
is no cheap transportation available to the railway, and if there were the producer
would come into competition with like articles from other sections where they can
be grown much cheaper.

Agricultural settlement in the Priest River basin dates back but
seven years, and only 70 acres are under plow. Of the 1,200 acres of
agricultural land tributary to the Pend Oreille, less than 200 are
cultivated.

Probably every considerable body of accessible white pine timber is
completely covered by squatters’ claims, ostensibly for agricultural
purposes, yet not 5 acres have been cleared of living timber. The
obvious intention is to hold these lands for the timber they contain,
and probably to abandon them when it has been cut. Every bona fide
settler within the reserve should be protected, but, claims of this sort
are not contemplated by the law, and measures should be taken to
render them void. ;

S. Doc. 189-——7
98 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

GRAZING.

Since there are no suitable areas of grass lands in the reserves,
grazing is not likely to assume importance in the future. At present
it has none beyond the pasturage of the domestic stock of residents,
and no measures further than the general rules applicable in all similar
cases are required to deal with it.

FOREST FORCE.

The forest force required to administer the reserve, on the scale
recommended for other reserves in a previous portion of this report,
should consist of 1 ranger, who should also be charged with the care
of such additional reserves as are required by the present condition of
the forests of northern Idaho, and of 3 guards and 15 fire watchers.
The guards should be stationed, 1 at the foot of Priest Lake, 1 near the
mouth of Reeder Creek, and 1 near the head of the upper lake. Each
should be required to provide himself with a light rowboat carrying
sail, in lieu of one of the two horses prescribed for other localities.

FOREST MANAGEMENT.

The first requirement for successful forest management in this reserve
is the consolidation of the Government holdings. As already noted,
railroad lands occupy a total of 290,230 acres, scattered throughout the
reserve, while very considerable areas are claimed or held as mining or
agricultural land. The settlement of this matter will require prolonged
and delicate negotiations with the Northern Pacific Railroad. The
railroad has avery complete knowledge of the value of its lands. A
similar knowledge must be acquired by the Government before it can
deal upon equal terms.

Water transportation within the reserve is unusually good. Logs,
ties, and poles will eventually be moved in large quantities by way of
Priest River and the Great Northern Railroad. Such demand as may
exist at present for the timber of the reserve has little or no impor-
tance except as it may be concerned through settlers with the future
development of the region. Immediate action which will place this
timber on the market is therefore unnecessary; and it is undesirable in
view of the delicate questions of reproduction involved. Further study
of the reserve is plainly indicated before its resources can be opened to
use. For the present active measures should consist in the study of
the forest and the preparation of a working plan and the protection of
the area against fire. Local demand for the timber on the reserve
should make itself felt before action is taken to supply it.

When the time comes to place this timber on the market, from a fifth
to a third of the mature standing timber will probably be available for
use, under conservative and skillful treatment, without injury to the
forest. The exact ainount will depend upon the form of management
adopted, which, in turn, will be decided by the amount of ripe timber in
each locality, the reproductive power and sylvicultural character of the
trees, and the nature of the demand. Careful account must also be
taken of the fact that the soil in many parts of the reserve is extremely
thin, and that in others it becomes arid by exposure to the sun. All
these considerations indicate a form of management called localized
selection, which has the advantage, important in this case, of permitting
the selection and felling of those trees which are most desirable for the
lumbermen over considerable areas at the same time.
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 99

In all sales of timber to be made in this reserve, every tree sold should
be marked by a member of the forest force with the forest brand already
referred to, and the buyer should be required to subscribe to the con-
ditions of a permit covering the following points:

1. No timber shall be cut or removed until payment has been made
and the receipt presented to the local forest officer.

2. The timber sold must be removed within a specified time upon
pain of forfeiture.

3. All lumbering must be done in accordance with the general rules
in force and with any special regulations which may be prescribed for
particular areas.

4. Special care must be exercised to avoid damage to all the timber
not sold, and the permittee must assist in extinguishing any forest fire
which may occur within specified limits.

5. A system of fines must be provided for injury to the growing tim-
ber and for minor violations of the rules. Serious offenses against the
regulations must work forfeiture of the permit.

6. Liquor must be excluded trom the camps of. the permittee, because
of the danger from fire which intoxication entails.

7. The occurrence of a fire in the timber sold to a permittee may lead
to the forfeiture of the permit and the money paid therefor, at the dis-
eretion of the executive officer, with the approval of the chief forester.

BOUNDARIES.

Except for a small area of agricultural land‘on the southeast corner
of the reserve, nearly the whole of which has passed out of Government
hands, no changes in boundaries are required for the purpose of ex-
cluding lands now within the reserve. On the other hand, I-have to
recommend the inclusion of 425,000 acres situated on the eastern slope
of the Priest Range of mountains, the summit of which forms the pres-
ent eastern boundary. The same reasons which justify the present
Priest River Reserve apply to the inclusion of this strip, which consists
of rugged mountains, broken and almost wholly unfit for agriculture
and covered with forests more or less seriously injured by fire. Along
the Kootenai Kiver, after it becomes the proposed eastern boundary of
the reserve, are a small number of settlers. Under the regulations
already in effect, and with the additions recommended in wy report,
the rights of these settlers will be fully protected, and the agricultural
development of the region they have settled will be limited only by its
capacities in that direction. The proposed addition is shown on the
accompanying map.

The new boundary lines recommended are as follows: Beginning at
a point on the present southern boundary line of the Priest River For-
est Reserve at the southeast corner of section 33, township 57 north,
range 3 west; thence northerly 2 miles along the section line to the
southeast corner of section 21 of said township; thence easterly 3 miles
along the section liue to the southeast corner of section 24 of said town-
ship; thence northerly 1 mile to the northeast corner of said section;
thence easterly 2 miles to the southeast corner of section 17, town.
ship 57 north, range 2 west; thence northerly 1 mile to the northeast
corner of said section; thence easterly 1 mile to the southeast corner
of section 9 of said township; thence northerly 1 mile to the northeast
corner of said section; thence easterly 2 miles to the southeast corner
of section 2 of said township; thence northerly 1 mile to the northeast,
corner of said section; thence easterly 1 mile along the township line
100 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

to the range line between ranges 2 and 3 west; thence easterly 6 miles
to the northeast corner of township 57 north, range 1 west; thence
36 miles northerly along the standard meridian to the southeast corner
of township 62 north, range 1 west; thence westerly 1 mile to the
southeast corner of section 35 of said township; thence northerly 12
niles, to the northeast corner of section 2, township 63 north, range 1
west; thence easterly along the township line between townships 63 and
64 to its intersection with the west bank of the Kootenai River; thence
along said west bank to its intersection with the international bound-
ary; thence westerly along said boundary to its intersection with the
present eastern boundary of the reserve.

SAN BERNARDINO FOREST RESERVE.

SUMMARY,
Situation: Southern California.
Acres.

Area within present liness.c... 1... s cee ee dece ne bees ecscacccee esac bene cei 737, 280
Adverse holdings, railroad lands .......-..---. 222-222-222 eee eee eee 261, 760
Titlein: dispute-waae: vs sense esses: web eteceeen caeseisSeaitSeceists 106, 880
7 Per cent of
total area.
Area of brush and forest land ...........222 2-22 2202 eee eee eee eee (2) 95
Areamarked Dy D6 <3 sr sis oicisie a oes 41s 0,015 oe epeie acprei ny b:s area aedib aaa aie mimes aeele (?) 95
Area: badly burned'o:< 2 sche tse eee ke coca waee ene ca a atosaineeaeeee (%) 40

Revised lines can not be drawn without further study.

Force recommended: Part of the attention of 1 ranger and 1 forest guard and the
whole time of 1 guard and 6 fire watchers.

Sources of information: Personal examination, September 23 and 24, 1896.

, An elevated mountain region, with steep slopes covered with brush, and a plateau
summit bearing valuable forests.

Fires prevail and must be checked, even at great cost.

The water supply from this reserve is essential to the prosperity of southern
California.

Mining is not important.

Grazing should be prohibited.

Provision is required to meet local demands for timber and fuel.

The San Bernardino Forest Reserve occupies the eastern portion of
the mountain range of the same name. It is bounded on the east by
the Cajon Pass and on the south by the San Gorgonio Pass and a fer-
tile valley, of which San Bernardino is the chief town. With a total
area of 737,280 acres, this reserve includes 261,760 acres claimed as
railroad land, the title to 106,880 acres of which will not, it is believed,
be sustained. It is a region of steep slopes, with a broad and compara-
tively level summit of the range. The climate in the lower portion is
very dry, while on the heights the rainfall is considerable. This reserve
has furnished small amounts of timber to the settlers below and has
been pastured to some extent.

THE FOREST,

The forest consists chiefly of yellow pine, which here reaches average
dimensions approximately as follows: Height, 80 feet ; diameter, 2
feet; length of clear trunk, 30 feet. Other trees of importance are the
sugar pine, the big-cone fir, Coulter pine, the knob-cone pine, and sey-
eral evergreen oaks. Very large areas on the slopes are covered with
chaparral, while the level plateau on top is chiefly occupied by valuable
forest growth. Compared with those of the Sierra Reserve the trees
are small, and those on the southern edge of the upper plateau show
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 101

more strikingly than any other tall trees with which I am acquainted
the damaging effect of heavy winds. The reproduction of the whole
forest is slow, and injuries are correspondingly serious.

FIRE,

Fire has affected the character of the forest probably throughout this
reserve. Itis not unlikely that the great stretches covered with chapar-
ral once carried valuable forest growth, aud other injuries to the utility
of the whole region are apparent. Fires in the chaparral are difficult to
subdue, on account of its impenetrable character and because of the
absence of sufficient roads and trails.

WATER.

Irrigation and electric-light enterprises have taken possession of
many of the valleys on the southern slope of the San Bernardino Range.
These undertakings, and’ in fact the welfare of the whole adjacent
population, depend on the water of streams which rise in this reserve.
Consequently the influence which must be exerted on the prosperity of
the rich agricultural country along the base of the San Bernardino
Range by the protection or destruction of its forests is of the first im-
portance. Not only the wonderful fertility of the fruit orchards from
San Bernardino to Los Angeles depends altogether upon the water
supply frum the San Bernardino and Sierra Madre mountains, but their
safety from the action of torrents is intimately counected with the pro-
tection of the mountain slopes. The orange orchards at Pasadena have
already suffered from this cause, which, in the absence of efficient
checks, promises to increase.

MINING.

The area covered by this reserve has been thoroughly prospected,
but I am not informed that mines of importance have been developed,
nor does it appear that any change in the boundaries of the reserve is
required on this account.

AGRICULTURE.

Agriculture practically does not exist within the reserve, but it has
already been noted that agriculture without it depends very largely
upon the water which it supplies.

GRAZING.

Grazing lands are found on the flat summit of the range, but the
importance of the forest to irrigation is so great and the danger to it
from pasturage, especially of sheep, is so serious that its use in this
direction should not be encouraged.

FOREST FORCE,

It has been recommended that a forest ranger be stationed at San
Bernardino and forest guards at Pasadena and Hemet, to have charge
of the four forest reserves of southern California. While this force is
exceedingly small, it is believed that a fair distribution of the total
appropriation suggested will not permit it to be increased.
102 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

FOREST MANAGEMENT.

Efforts in the line of forest management must be devoted chiefly to
protection against fire and to supplying the requirements of ranchers
for fuel and timber. A careful study of the reproduction of this forest
must be made before the cutting of live trees can be safely undertaken
on any large scale.

BOUNDARIES.
Iam not sufficiently acquainted with the reserve, either personally
or from the reports of others, to suggest any changes in its boundaries.

THE SAN JACINTO FOREST RESERVE.

 

SUMMARY.

Situation: Southern California. Acres.
Area within presetit lines: . 0. sccokJeteces assess tenete senate sae wenees 737, 280
Adverse holdings, railroad lands 3738, 550
Per cent of
total area.
Area of forest and brush land .-.......2..---0 200 - eee eee ee eee ene eee (?) 95
Avea marked by Are... occ cer ccscucete wees Sone eeseecee -- (%) 95
Area: badly burned. s2- ode sed uoseeee eS ecmucaces te vere see ene eee (?) 50

 

Revised lines can not be drawn without further study and a map.

Force recommended: One guard, 4 fire watchers, and a part of the attention of the
ranger stationed at San Bernardino, after other more pressing reserves have been
taken in hand.

Sources of information: Personal examination, September 24 and 25, 1896.

A mountain region rising above an arid plain, clothed with brush and open forest.

The spread of fires results in changing the forest into brush. Its restoration will
be difficult.

Fertile irrigable lands surround the reserve on all sides, to which the protection of
the streams is essential.

Mining has been little developed.

Agriculture is not important within the reserve.

Grazing is not important within the reserve.

Provision should be made to supply the settlers and ranchers in the irrigated
region below the reserve with timber and fuel.

The San Jacinto Forest Reserve is situated in southern California,
south of the San Gorgonio Pass, which separates the mountain region of
which it forms a part from the San Bernardino Mountains to the north.
With a total area of 737,280 acres, it includes 373,550 acres of railroad
land, or approximately one-half its whole extent. The San Jacinto Range
isin general smooth in topographic features, and rugged only in the upper
part. The climate is dry, especially on the eastern slope, below which
lies the desert.

THE FOREST,

The forest is composed chiefly of yellow pine, which here reaches aver-
age dimensions, approximately, as follows: Height, 80 feet; diameter, 2
feet; length of clear trunk, 30 feet. This tree has been cut for lumber
to some extent, but difficulties of transportation have prevented the
development of the San Jacinto forest on any large scale. Other trees
are the big-cone fir, the incense cedar, and Coulter pine. Several
species of evergreen oaks occupy the lower slopes to the west, and the
sugar pine is said to occur in small numbers. The reproduction of the
forest is in general slow and rather poor, and its recovery from injury
by fire and cutting is a matter of very considerable periods of time.
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 103

FIRE.

Fires have extended over the larger part of the reserve, and, as a
result of their action, many square miles of it are nqw covered with
brush. When the latter takes fire it is exceedingly difficult to deal
with, because the brush itself is hard to penetrate and means of com-
munication are few. Iam unable to offer any estimate of the damage
done to standing timber, but there can be little question that the per-
centage of unsound trees is very greatly raised wherever fires prevail.

WATER.

The chief importance of this reserve is for protection of streams,
which furnish the water for irrigation in the very productive ranches
which lie below the reserve. The latter is, in fact, surrounded on all
sides by lands which need only water to be extremely fertile. Near
Hemet, on the western side, one irrigation company has already built
a very large dam, and expects to furnish 5,000 inches of water. The
protection of the upper slopes above the stream used by this company
is essential to the prosperity of the ranchers whom it serves, and the
same general statement applies to many other streams. I did not learn
that floods have reached any considerable importance, but it is proba-
ble that further investigation would show the contrary.

MINING.

Mining has had little or no development in this reserve until now,
nor an) I informed of any considerabie promise for the future.

AGRICULTURE.

With the exception of occasional openings, such as Strawberry Val-
ley, agriculture within the reserve is of little or no importance. Out-
side of its limits a very large area of agricultural land depends upon
the water supply which it furnishes. Fencing and fuel for the ranchers
living on this land are also derived from the reserve, which would be
immensely more valuable in this direction if its forest had been pro-
tected from fires.

GRAZING.

Grazing has been practiced to some extent within the reserve, but
further investigation is needed before definite statements can be made.

FOREST FORCE.

The forest force required to care for this reserve under the present
scheme consists of the forest ranger at San Bernardino, and 1 guard
at Hemet, together with 4 fire watchers. The interest of surround-
ing ranchers in the protection of these forests will furnish very materal
aid in the prevention of fires, which must for some time to come be
the chief function of a forest service here.

FOREST MANAGEMENT.

Supplies of timber for settlers on all sides of the reserve will eventu-
ally be drawn from it. A simple system of licenses should be devised
and enforced as soon as practicable, in order to enable ranchers and
others legally to obtain indispensable timber and fuel from the forest,
104 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

although its chief importance will probably consist in the protection of
the water supply. Further study must precede any definite recom-

mendations for the management of the forest on this reserve.
‘
BOUNDARIES.

I am not prepared to recommend changes in boundaries. It is alto-
gether probable that a complete examination of the reserve will indi-
cate the necessity for such changes, although not of any considerable
extent.

SIERRA FOREST RESERVE.

SUMMARY.
Situation: Central California. Acres.
Area within present lines ...........-. ---- 2-2-0 eee eee cee ee ee eee eee 4, 096, 000
Adverse holdings, railroad lands....--.-----..----- ----- + eee eee eee eee 195, 000
er cent of
total area.
Ared Of forest lands c.2%2 uc soso teehee doce eas aces eees Seca es (?) 85.
Area Marked by fire. 2a: v2ccec-comuiceneceweedes Mase st eens taeeeeeee (2) 50
Area badly: buried ....2.5.:42.2-.josueeecee seabed ke tes seer See eisetiads (?) 20

Revised lines can not be drawn without further study.

Force recommended: For the present the jurisdiction of the superintendent of
national parks in the Sierras should be extended over the whole reserve.

Sources of information: Statements of John Muir and his writings. Personal exam-
ination, September 5 to 18, 1896.

A steep and rugged mountain region, densely forested at moderate elevations with
one of the richest and most beautitul forest floras of the earth.

Fire has done and is still doing serious injury.

The prosperity of the valley of California to the west depends very largely on
irrigation from the streams which rise in this reserve.

Mining has little present importance.

Agriculture practically does not exist within the reserve.

Sheep grazing has been extensively practiced, to the serious injury of the forest.
It should be prohibited altogether.

The commercial development of this reserve is not imperative at present.

The Sierra Forest Reserve lies on the long and gradual western slope
of the Sierra Nevada in California, and extends across the range down
its exceedingly abrupt eastern side. With a total area of 4,096,000
acres it contains 195,200 acres of railroad lands. Topographically the
area consists of steep, rugged canyons, separated by more or less gently
sloping plateaus, with here and there mountain peaks and ridges of
exceptional steepness and grandeur. The rock is granite and the soil
produced by its disintegration is generally dry and poor. The climate
of the western slope is moist enough to support what is perhaps the
most beautiful coniferous forest in the world, although others are denser
and richer in timber. To the east of the range the air rapidly loses its
moisture, precipitation falls off, and rain finally ceases almost altogether
along the desert areas on both sides of the Nevada line.

Lying, as it does, within easy reach of the fertile and populous valley
of California, the Sierra forest is of great economic importance. Exten-
sive lumber operations have started in various parts of it, and the time
is probably near when the commercial demand for the timber of the
reserve will require and permit its economic development.

THE FORESTS,

The forests of the Sierras grow almost without exception on glacial
moraines, They are open as compared with those of the Coast Range
of Washington and Oregon, but the trees which compose them are
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 105

striking in size, beauty, and value. Four principal forest types may
be distinguished.

Lowest of all is the forest of gray pine, which is distributed in alti-
tude from 500 to 4,000 feet above the sea. Very little of the reserve
is occupied by forests of this type. Higher up is the main pine belt,
characterized by the sugar and yellow pines, growing with the red fir,
incense cedar, and sequoia, and mingled with considerable quantities
of the amabilis fir, which descends out of the higher zone it distinguishes
to mingle with the lower forests. Next above is a forest type, charac-
terized by the white and amabilis firs, which are found up to an altitude
of 9,000 feet, and still higher is the subalpine forest, occupied by four
pines of little economic value and other mountain forms.

The gray pine is found within altitudinal limits of 500 to 4,000 feet.
It reaches an average size of 40 feet in height and 2 feet in diameter,
with a length of clear trunk of 15 feet. Its peculiar method of branch-
ing gives it to some extent the shape of a deciduous tree, while its small
size and the coarse and knotty character of its wood prevent it from
reaching economic value.

The knob-cone pine is chiefly interesting from its curious ability to
protect its progeny against fire. Its cones persist upon the trees and
remain closed for years, until the heat of a forest fire opens them and
allows the seeds to scatter. A young growth thus springs up after the
parent trees have perished, and the perpetuation of the species is
assured in the face of difficulties under which almost any other tree
would succumb. This pine grows at elevations from 1,500 to 2,000 feet,
and reaches an average size which may be roughly stated as follows:
Height, 30 feet; diameter, 1 foot; length of clear trunk, 10 feet.

The sugar pine is not only the most beautiful tree of its genus on the
globe, but perhaps the most valuable economically as well. It flourishes
between altitudes of 3.000 and 7,000 feet, and reaches average dimen-
sions, under favorable circuinstances, of 2.0 feet in height, 6 feet in
diameter, and 100 feet in length of clear trunk. Where transportion is
available it is extensively used for lumber, which fetches an extremely
high price. Elsewhere, large numbers of trees are felled for the manu-
facture of shakes (rough, hand-made shingles), which bring prices
sufficient to lead to the destruction of great numbers of superb trees.
The shake industry is wasteful in the extreme, since but a small per
cent of each tr.e felled is used, and very often, when a fallen giant is
found to split indifferently, the per cent of waste reaches 100. The
reproduction of the sugar pine is abundantly sufficient to secure the
perpetuation and increase of the species under skillful treatment.

The western yellow pine, distributed in altitude from 2,000 to 10,000
feet, is by some botanists separated into two species. Its average
dimensions at moderate elevations are as follows: Height, 175 feet;
diameter, 5 feet; length of clear trunk, 50 feet. The yellow pine is a
lumber tree of the first economic value in other portions of the United
States, but is here less considered because of the great supplies of still
better material whichareathand. Young growthiscommon at moderate
altitudes.

The Douglas fir (Douglas spruce, red fir) occurs chiefly in the lower
portion of the yellow-pine belt. It reaches here an average height of
175 feet, an average diameter of 5 feet, and an average length of clear
trunk of 50 feet. Itmay be remarked that*many of the trees of this and
other species in the Sierras, standing, as they do, more or less free from
crowding, have a less height of clear trunk than the same species in
other localities.
106 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

The incense cedaris most common in the lower portions of the sugar-
pine belt, where it is oftenest found on rather moist soil. This tree
reaches an average height of 125 feet, au average diameter of 6 feet,
and an average length of clear trunk of 15 feet. Its wood has qualities
which would render it exceedingly valuable as a lumber tree were it
not for the attacks of a species of fungus, which perforates the heart
wood in perpendicular channels, and so ruins the timber value of a con-
siderable proportion of the wholestand. The libocedrus has good power
of reproduction.

The Sequoia, the largest and most majestic tree on the earth, occu-
pies in the Sierras a belt some 260 miles in length along the axis of the
range, the major part of which lies within the forest reserve. This
superb tree reaches in old specimens the following average dimen-
sions: Height, 275 feet; diameter, 20 feet; length of clear trunk, 125
feet. Except where it is being destroyed by lumbermen, as in the val-
ley of Kings River, the numbers of this tree show no tendency to
decrease. It appears to have no enemies but wind and fire. Its repro-
duction is everywhere fairly good, becoming excellent toward the south.
It seems equally adapted to wet and dry localities, stands drought well,
and gives unmistakable evidence that it is gradually extending the
limits of its habitat..

The white fir and the noble fir occur at elevations of from 5,000 to 9,000
feet. Of marked promise commercially, these two trees have hitherto
been less used than will be the case hereafter. Young growth of the
white fir is especially abundant. This tree reaches average dimensions
as follows: Height, 175 feet; diameter, 4 feet; length of clear trunk, 50
feet. The noble fir is somewhat larger, with these dimensions: Height,
200 feet; diameter, 5 feet; length of clear trunk, 75 feet.

The lodge-pole pine (tamarack), a tree of comparatively little economic
importance, is found between elevations of 7,000 and 9,000 feet. Its thin
and resinous bark makes it an easy victim to forest fires, which often
flame through the tops, killing the tree, but usually consuming only the
leaves, or at times some of the smallest twigs also. It grows chiefly in
pure forests, and reaches average dimensions as follows: Height 60 feet ;
diameter, 1.5 feet; length of clear trunk, 10 feet.

The mountain white pine reaches its best development at altitudes of
10,000 feet. It is distinctively an alpine tree, and resists admirably
the winds and severe climate of great altitudes. Its average dimen-
sions are as follows: ‘Height, 80 feet; diameter, 5 feet; length of clear
trunk, 40 feet.

The black hemlock has small economic value, but is conspicuous
for grace and beauty. It is found chiefly in groves without admixture
of other species, and reaches average dimensions as follows: Height,
70 feet; diameter, 3 feet; length of clear trunk, 20 feet. The white-
bark pine and the limber and foxtail pines are other alpine species of
small size and of no economic importance.

To the east of the range the principal tree is the single leaf pifion nut,
or pifion pine, which often covers tens of thousands of acres in continuous
belts between altitudes of 2,000 and 8,000 feet. Itis a small tree, with an
average height of 15 feet, and its edible nuts furnish one of the prin-
cipal sources of food supply for the Indians on both slopes of the range.

FIRE.

The forests of the Sierras are less open to destruction by fire than they
would be if the trees stood nearer together and the vegetation were
more dense. The sears of ancient conflagrations are found nearly
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 107

throughout the reserve, but the old trees usually survive in spite of
them. Nevertheless the damage done to the growth of timber and the
reproduction of the forests is very marked, and, in addition to the sur-
face tires, cases are not rare where the forest has been wholly destroyed
by fiercer conflagrations. The surface soil in this range is granular or
powdery, and excessively dry when deprived of its coveriug of humus,
and the damage which the fires do has reference in the majority of
cases to their effect upon the soil.

Fites are dangerous throughout the dry season, and their prevention
is a matter of considerable difficulty. That it’ is possible to check
them, however, is abundantly demonstrated by the results of the pro-
tection afforded in the Yosemite, General Grant, and Sequoia National
Park by troops of the Regular Army.

WATER.

The agricultural prosperity of the San Joaquin Valley depends
almost entirely upon the streams which have their rise in the Sierras.
The interests at stake are exceedingly large, and they have influenced
public opinion in California toa marked degree. The intimate relation
between the forests and irrigation led the California delegation in Con-
gress to object to the suspension of the reserves established by Presi-
dent Cleveland in their State, and as a consequence the California
reserves are intact. Floods have already begun to demand attention
in various parts of the State, and the protection, of the Sierra forest is
urgently required both to maintain and to control the water supply.

MINING.

Mining retains but little development in the Sierras now that the
placers of the foothills have been exhausted, and no difficulty in the
management of the forests is anticipated on this score.

AGRICULTURE.

Agriculture does not and can not exist within the reserve except
over very limited areas within a few of the canyons, the total of which
is so small as to require very little special consideration.

GRAZING.

Grazing has taken on its chief importance through the extensive
pasturage of sheep over the whole area of the Sierras, except where it
has been controlled and prevented by United States troops. Theresult
of sheep pasturage upon the dry, loose soil of these mountains is most
serious. Forest reproduction is difficult atthe best in the higher portions
of the mountains, and sheep render it wholly impossible wherever they
pass. The loosening, and even transportation, of the upper soil by their
feet goes on to an extent difficult to conceive of until it has been seen.
I have found a wagon road rendered almost impassable by the stones
pushed into it from the hill-side above by the passage of a band of sheep.
During a trip across the Sierras on foot it became exceedingly difficult
to follow the trail wherever these animals had passed. The harm sheep
do in the Sierras is far greater than that known to me in any other
region in the United States, and it is imperative that they should be
108 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES,

excluded from all portions of the reserve. This measure not only is
demanded by the tacts but will be heartily supported by the Califor-
nians themselves, who realize the danger to their prosperity which
sheep-grazing in the Sierras entails, and would be glad to have it
cease.

FOREST FORCE.

For the present, the best protection which could be given to the Sierra
Reserve would be obtained by extending the jurisdiction of the military
superintendents of the Yosemite and other national parks to the other
forest lands of the Government. This course is strongly recommended.
If itis not practicable to follow it, the appointment of 1 forest ranger, to
be stationed at Visalia; 5 guards, one each in the watersheds of the Stan-
islaus, San Joaquiv, South Fork of Kings, South Fork of Kern, and
Kern Rivers; and 50 fire watchers at local points would place the per-
sonnel of this reserve on the footing already recommended for others.

FOREST MANAGEMENT.

The transportation of forest products from the Sierra forests has
hitherto proceeded chiefly by railroads and flumes. The great size of
the timber prevents it from being driven down the streams, even were
this method compatible with the safety and prosperity of the irrigated
lands below. The enormous quantity of valuable timber present in this
reserve is, for the most part, not needed for immediate consumption.
Great lumbering enterprises in the big trees of the Sierras and the red-
woods of the Coast Range (the lumber from both of which is known as
redwood), together with other minor lumber operations, have sufficed to
supply the demand. The measures of most urgency here will consist
in protection against fire, the construction of trails, and the satisfaction
of local demands for small amounts of timber.

BOUNDARIES,

All the information I have indicates that any revision of boundaries
should increase rather than decrease the area of this reserve. Further
study will be necessary before such lines can satisfactorily be drawn.

STANISLAUS FOREST RESERVE.

North of the Stanislaus Forest Reserve are considerable tracts of
country which at one time bore extensive forests. The neighborhood
of Lake Tahoe has been cleared and its timber used in the Comstock
group of mines, but it remains a forest region capable of bearing forests
again. Such regions are as eligible for forest reserves as though they
were covered with trees, because only under Government care can they
ever regain the value and usefulness which they have lost. Other
adjacent areas in the northern Sierras should also be examined with a
view to their inclusion in the Stanislaus Reserve. It is recommended
that a study of this region be pushed forward, with this object in view,
during the coming summer.
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 109

TETON FOREST RESERVE.

SUMMARY.
Situation: Northwestern Wyoming.
Acres.

Area within present lines ........22. 2-22 - eee eee cee cee ree eee eee 829, 440

Adverse holdings not important.
Per cent of
total area.
Area Of f0re8t Laid i520, bei cteaee ese denoncn cee aci ete mes eeuaeses . 65
Area marked Dy fire. 1... on. eee weenie ceietaieinet icine cite cee eee eee (?) 60
Area badly burned ....-/.--...--- eye tbisetratra ee axenerei saved Saree sewn acanaents (?) 40

Revised lines can not be drawn without further study.

Force recommended: This reserve should be provisionally placed in charge of the
superintendent of Yellowstone National Park.

Sources of information: Report of T. 8. Brandegee, special field assistant, United
States Geological Survey. Statements of Henry Gannett, geographer, United States
Geological Survey. No personal examination.

A rugged, broken mountain region, sparsely covered with open forest chiefly of
lodge-pole pine, through which runs a broad valley of grazing land.

Injury from forest fires has been and continues to be very serious.

The protection of streams for irrigation is not of great importance here.

Mining has but little importance.

Agriculture is practiced little or not at all.

Grazing may probably be permitted in Jackson Hole.

Provision should be made to supply settlements in Jackson and Pierre holes with
necessary lumber.

The Teton Forest Reserve is situated in northwestern Wyoming, con-
tiguous to the Idaho boundary line, and has a length from east to west
of 54 miles and a breadth from north to south of 24 miles. The total
area included within its boundaries is 829,440 acres, nearly the whole
of which is unburdened by adverse rights.

The striking feature of the topography is the Teton Range, which
traverses the reserve from north to south and reaches an altitude of
13,370 feet. On the west the country descends rapidly to the valley of
Pierre River and on the east to Jackson Hole. The latter is a level
valley from 5 to 10 miles in width, crossing nearly the whole breadth
of the reserve from north to south. It contains many lakes, the largest
of which, Jackson Lake, is 10 miles long by 3 miles wide. The whole
area of the reserve is drained by Snake River, which flows through
Jackson Lake and Jackson Hole from north to south.

The climate is exceedingly severe, so much so that agriculture, except
for the cultivation of forage plants, is said to be impossible. The rain-
fall, although no measurements have been made, is probably cousider-
able, as would be indicated by the elevation, the mountainous charac-
ter of the reserve, and the condition of the forest.

THE FOREST.

The general character of the forest is broken and open. The trees
are small, and the merchantable timber of the whole area trifling in
amount compared with other reserves on the western slope of the con-
tinental divide. Four-fifths of the forest is composed of lodge-pole
pine, with Engelmann spruce, Douglas fir (red fir), quaking aspen, and
two cottonwoods as the other principal trees.

The lodge-pole pine is here a small tree, with average measurements
as follows: Height, 60 feet; diameter, 1 foot; length of clear trunk, 25
feet. It is distributed from the lower portions of the reserve to an alti-
tude of 9,000 feet, and furnishes fencing and rough building materials.
110 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

The larger trees alone produce saw timber. The future economic value
of the reserve must depend chiefly upon this tree.

The Engelmann spruce occurs in moist situations from 7,000 to 10,000
feet in altitude, chiefly near the streams. It is abundant in places, and
furnishes the larger proportion of logs cut in the reserve. Its average
measurements are as follows: Height, 100 feet; diameter 2 feet; length
of clear trunk, none.

The Douglas fir (red fir) is not a common tree, nor anywhere locally
abundant. It occupies for the most part dry situations, and resists fire
exceedingly well. The average dimensions of mature trees are as fol-
lows: Height, 80 feet; diameter, 2 feet; length of clear trunk, 15 feet.

The quaking aspen and two cottonwoods are abundant, but for the
present not ecbnomically important. The quaking aspen is next in
abundance to the lodge-pole pine, and has approximately the same
distribution, while the cottonwoods occur chiefly along streams. The
latter occasionally reach a diameter of 4 feet, with a height of 75 feet.

FIRE.

The whole area of the reserve is said to have been repeatedly burned
over, with great damage to the forest. The inflammable character of
its principal tree, the lodge-pole pine, here gives the fire question strik-
ing importance, as it does wherever this tree forms a considerable
element of the forest growth.

WATER,

Since the reserve contains only grazing and forest lands, irrigation,
which has hitherto assumed no importance, is not expected to develop
to any marked extent in the future.

MINING.

There has been no mining development of consequence within the

reserve.
AGRICULTURE.

As has been indicated, agriculture is without importance in this
reserve, and no measures need be taken with a view to its extension in
the near future.

GRAZING,

Many thousand acres of grazing land are included in Jackson Hole,
and some provision will be required to regulate pasturage, unless it is
decided to exclude this area from the reserve. Since I am not person-
ally acquainted with this reserve I am not prepared to make a specific
recommendation upon the subject.

FOREST FORCE.

Iam not prepared to make specific recommendations. The extent
and situation of the reserve appear to indicate that it should be pro-
visionally assimilated to the Yellowstone Park Forest Reserve. In
that case special regulations will be required to open the reserve itself
and all its resources to conservative use.

FOREST MANAGEMENT.

The present source of demand for the timber of the reserve are the
settlements in Jackson and Pierre Holes. The poor quality of the
timber makes it certain that no large trade in forest produce can be
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 111

developed within the reserve for some time to come, but eventually
water transportation by way of the Snake. River and its larger tribu-
taries will make this forest economically important for the less thor-
oughly timbered regions down the river.

WASHINGTON FOREST RESERVE.

SUMMARY.
Situation: Northeru Washington.

Acres
Areanwithin present: mies. sc 226 ooo auc sels aces oases eee ea dest ene ees 8, 594, 240
Adverse holdings, railroad lands ....--.. 2-2. 22.2222 2222 eee eee ee ene 48, 240
Per cent of
total area.
Aréa-oL-forest Vandy -cccoce seas eaancsned at ate Sam ne adatetaeatn ace wees (2) 90
ATOS MALO. DYE nino: oa tein nia cseie oie. n'a cece wie reieinv Sinn Riciereiow edisieice eioesie (%) 40
ATCA: DALY ULM OG fs je nicest woe. o18 dnbiecs yo die Syeud Stereos marae eeigge erases (?) 15

Revised lines can not be drawn until complete reports are available.

Force recommended: One ranger, 4 guards, 30 fire watchers.

Sources of information: Personal examination, July 26 to August 10, and August
16-18, 1897.

An excessively rugged and broken mountain region covered with a comparatively
open growth east of the main divide, and with a rich, dense, and exceedingly pro-
ductive forest of tall trees on-the western slope.

Irrigation to the east and the prevention of floods on the west demand the pro-
tection of these forests.

Mining locations are frequent, but only one mine of the first rank is in operation.

Agriculture is not important within the reserve.

Grazing may reach some small development on the eastern slope.

Provisions are immediately required by which mining timber may legally be cut,
and the construction of trails is of pressing importance.

The Washington Forest Reserve is situated in northern Washington,
and has a total area within its boundaries of 3,594,240 acres, of which
48,240 acres are railroad land. It occupies both slopes of the broken
and rugged Cascade Range and extends down into the flatter country
on the east and west. The rock is chiefly granitic in character and
the soil thin and poor. The remarkable forest growth on the western
slope is due to the exceedingly heavy precipitation of moisture which
the prevailing westerly winds bring from the Pacific. On the eastern
slope the climate is much drier, the trees smaller, and the ravages of
fire conspicuously greater. ‘

The trade relations of this reserve have hitherto been limited to the
commerce which has followed one or two large mines and the small
amount of timber which has been cut on the Skagit and some of its
tributaries.

EASTERN SLOPS.

The forest on the eastern slope of the Cascades changes from scanty
and open groups of yellow pine in the lower regions to the east, through
dense forests of Engelmann spruce and Douglas fir (red fir} to the
scanty subalpine forest flora of hemlock and white-bark pine near the
timber line. It differs so conspicuously from the richer and moister
forest of the western slope that it will be better to consider separately
the eastern and western aspects of the Cascade Range.

FIRE, EASTERN SLOPE.

Very considerable areas of the eastern slope have been totally denuded
by fire of the valuable kinds of trees. Repeated burning of the forest
is followed by dense and vigorous thickets of alder, willow, and dwarf
112 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

maple, which occupy the ground and prevent the re establishment of the
larger trees. Fires destroy the vegetable mold, rich and heavy in the
upper portion of this slope, and with it the fertility of the ground dis-
appears. It is restored only after years by the fall of leaves and other
waste from the small vegetation which almost everywhere follows fire,
and then, when the richness of the soil has been in a measure reestab-
lished, the slow process of the return of the commercial species can
begin.

Fires are dangerous throughout the summer season. In the lower,
drier parts of this slope the danger continues longer, but is less severe;
while higher up the complete destruction of the forest by fire can happen
only during the periods of exceptional dryness.

The prevention of fire here demands, first of all, means of communi-
cation. Travel through the dense growth of shrubs on burnt-over
lands is slow, or sometimes even impossible, while the steep slopes and
the ruggedness of the ridges make good trails the first necessity for
any measure of forest protection.

WATER, EASTERN SLOPE.

Irrigation is practiced in the valley of the Methow River, where the
land is suitable for it, to some exteut. It depends almost entirely for
its water supply on streams which rise within the reserve. Floods
have not yet become dangerous on the eastern slope, but the configu-
ration of the ground makes it probable that they will do so hereafter
if the destruction of the forest is allowed to continue. The influence
of these streams in the floods of the Columbia is not, however, to be
disregarded.

MINING, EASTERN SLOPE.

Practically the whole area included within the reserve is mineral
bearing, although the discoveries hitherto have not, with one or two
exceptions, been of much importance. Prospects are very numerous,
and faith in the future value of the region for mining is enthusiastic
and widespread among the people of the State. Timber for mining
will be plentiful on the western slope for many years to come; but to
the east the destruction of the higher timber lands by fire will make
the development of many leads difficult, or even impossible. Here, as
elsewhere, mining requires timber, and furnishes an imperative reason
for the protection of the forest.

AGRICULTURE, EASTERN SLOPE.

Except for the valley of the Methow and the few strips of land already
settled upon along the shores of Lake Chelan, the value of the eastern
slope for agriculture is very small. Considerable areas of open yellow
pine forest have grass under the trees along the eastern edge of the
reserve and may eventually be used for pasture, but since sufficient hay
must be cut to support the stock during five months of the year, the
cattle industry is not likely to become widely developed in this region
for the present. The general measures heretofore recommended will
be entirely sufficient to make the agricultural resources of the eastern
slope available for use.

GRAZING, EASTERN SLOPE.

In addition to the considerable areas of grass land, more or less
sparsely covered with trees, which exist in the watershed of the
Methow River within the boundaries of the reserve there is, in the
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 113

neighborhood of Lake Chelan, some pasturage land which is now used
for the grazing of sheep. It is not believed, however, that any but
nomadic cattle raising can be extensively developed. The revision of
the eastern boundary should exclude considerable areas of the grass
land in the Methow Valley, just mentioned, but provisions will still be
required to enable residents to run their cattle in the forests under
suitable restrictions. The information available at present indicates
that the grazing of sheep in this reserve should not be permitted.

WESTERN SLOPE,

The western slope of the Washington Forest Reserve ditfers conspic-
uously from the eastern slope in its forests, climate, and commercial
possibilities. Itis an area of high mountains, excessively rugged in
its western portion, and with steep slopes throughout. It is well
watered, and includes the upper drainage basin of streams which flow
through rich agricultural regions farther west. Hitherto its timber has
been little used except for mining, and, to some extent, for shingles and
lumber, but on the whole the development of the forests has not yet
begun.

THE FOREST, WESTERN SLOPE.

The heavy rainfall which the westerly winds bring and deposit upon
the western slopes of the Cascade Mountains is the chief cause of the
wonderful luxurisnce of forest growth in this part of the reserve. Its
forests are dense, tall, moist, difficult to penetrate, and exceedingly rich
in valuable trees. Beginning near the crest of the range with the
black hemlock, species after species of useful kinds is added as the land
descends, until in the lower portions forests of Douglas fir (red fir),
cedar, and western hemlock grow to an average height of not far from
200 feet. Rapid iu growth, these forests are also rapid in reproduction.
They form a part of the great woodland of the northern Pacific slope,
which is the richest coniferous forest of the earth.

Black hemlock is little used for timber. It occurs only in the higher
parts of the reserve, and usually without associates. Its reproduc-
tion is fairly good, both in the open and under cover of old trees.
The average dimensions of mature trees may be given as follows:
Height, 50 feet; diameter, 2 feet; length of clear trunk, 15 feet.

The lowland fir (white fir), so called because it is widely distributed
in the lower regions to the west, occurs at lower elevations than the.
preceding species. It reaches average dimensions as follows: Height,
125 feet; diameter, 3 feet; length of clear trunk, 50 feet. Occasionally
it occurs in dense groups, almost pure.

The western hemlock is a large tree thriving while under dense shade
in youth, and with excellent reproduction in the forests. In the open
its reproduction is less vigorous, but still satisfactory. The average
dimensions of mature trees may be given roughly as follows: Height,
125 feet; diameter, 3 feet; length of clear trunk, 40 feet.

The western cedar or Pacific arbor vite is a large tree of the first
economic value. Its average dimensions at moderate altitudes are:
Tleight, 150 fect; diameter, 6 feet; length of clear trunk, 25 feet. Its
reproduction under cover is good. Young trees are less common in the
open. ‘This tree is extensively used for shingles and for the finer kinds
of lumber. Itis one of the most highly useful constituents of the Pacific
coast forests. Cedar shingles have begun to invade the markets of the
East.

S. Doc. 189——8
114 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

The Douglas fir (red fir) derives its sylvicultural value largely from
the readiness with which it reproduces itself in the open. Two large
burns were observed on this slope, both of which had been followed by
a vigorous young growth of this tree. Its average dimensions are as
follows: Height, 200 feet; diameter, 5 feet; length of clear trunk, 100
feet. Itis perhaps the most valuable timber tree of the Western United
States. Itis very largely manufactured on Puget Sound and in Oregon,
and a large foreign trade has been established.

FIRE, WESTERN SLOPE.

Fire is less dangerous west than east of the summit. That part of the
western slope visited by me has suffered comparatively little, but, with
the increase of settlement and development, danger from this source
threatens rapidly to increase. Fires are peculiarly difficult to handle
here on account of the heavy layer of vegetable débris which covers the
ground, and in which fires may smoulder for weeks at a time. Itis
probable that instances are frequent in which such fires survive even
comparatively heavy rains. The chief obstacle to fighting fires on both
slopes is the absence of proper trails, and the first measure to be taken
for their extinction consists in establishing a network of such trails
throughout the whole reserve.

WATER, WESTERN SLOPE.

Water for irrigation is but little needed on this side of the range.
On the other hand, floods are exceedingly dangerous. The agricultural
settlements on the Skagit have suffered seriously from this cause, and
it is certain that with the progressive denudation of the head waters
of streams flowing west the damage from this source willincrease. The
protection of these mountain slopes is imperative.

MINING, WESTERN SLOPE.

Mining locations have been made in great numbers almost through-
out the western slope, but hitherto the development of valuable mines
has been almost wholly wanting. The most prominent instance of such
development is the Monte Cristo mine; and it is by no means impossi-
ble that others of similar value may be discovered and worked here-
after. No portion of the reserve need be excluded because of wines,
since the rights of miners in any event are fully protected. Provision
should be made to supply them with mining timber under suitable
restrictions.

AGRICULTURE, WESTERN SLOPE.

There is practically no agricultural land here, nor need this phase of
the reserve question receive attention at present.

GRAZING, WESTERN SLOPE.

Grazing has little or no importance on the western slope.

FOREST FORCE,

It has already been recommended in Part II, page 46, that a forest
ranger be stationed at Hamilton, with guards under his direction at
Marblemount, Monte Oristo, Index, and Stehekin, and that 25 fire
watchers be distributed at various points. This force, while altogether
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 115

inadequate to keep pace with the development which the reserve must
attain in the near future, will suffice to cope with some of the more
pressing dangers which threaten it. A liberal appropriation for trails
should be placed at the disposal of the ranger, one of whose first duties
should be to lay out a system of communications throughout his charge.
So small a force'as is here recommended makes it imperative that the
right of the forest officers to call upon settlers and others to assist
them in extinguishing forest fires should be so clearly established as
to admit of no-evasion.

FOREST MANAGEMENT.

Water transportation by the Skagit and Stillaguamish on the west
and the Methow on the east, to mention only a few of the principal
streams, may be made available for the forest products of the reserve.
For the present, however, no steps need be taken toward the commer-
cial development of the forests of the reserve, except as they are related
to mining and settlement. The enormous bodies of merchantable tim-
ber in the State outside of the reserve will suftice for commercial needs
for some years to come. Provisions are required to supply settlers and
others with small amounts of timber, and to regulate the cutting of
mining timber in considerable quantities in the regions where it is
needed.

East of the summit, protection against fire, the construction of trails,
and a careful study and mapping of the forest growth should precede
any attempt at a commercial disposal of the timber. The forests on
the eastern slope have suftered so severely that their recuperation is of
the first importance.

West of the main range the sale of timber supplies should be per-
mitted as soon as the demand arises. It is probable that the first
development of the reserve in this direction will be through the sale of
cedar tor shinglebolts. It is recommended thatas soon as possible a care-
ful study of the conditions which govern the reproduction of this tree
be undertaken so as to guard, when cutting is begun, against any dimi-
nution of its numbers in the forest hereafter.

BOUNDARIES.

It would be possible at this time to reeommend the exclusion of some
land in the Methow Valley and the inclusion of other areas which
should be added to the reserve. In the absence of suitable maps, how-
ever, it is thought to be wiser to allow the boundaries to remain as they
are for the present. The progress of public sentiment in favor of the
reserves will hereafter make suitable corrections of their boundaries
more acceptable than they could be at this moment.

WHITE RIVER PLATEAU TIMBER LAND RESERVE.

SUMMARY.
Situation: Northwestern Colorado. &
Acres.
Area within present lines...-.....--...---..----- acoteahheds camsetes 1, 198, 080
Adverse holdings not important.
Per cent of
total area.
Area of forest land:cccjocecsdecsniecsekicic gis ee oepewlon scesd ear ge Siete (2) 75
Area marked by tire (%) 75

 

Area badly burned ca 2.ccs ceicesieincins. cebewld oareeae weipeieai diene leas Veke (?) 50
116 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

Revised lines can not be drawn without further study and a map.

Force recommended: One ranger, 4 guards. and about 20 fire watchers, after other
more pressing reserves have been taken in hand.

Sources of information: Personal examination, October 6-9, 1896.

A high plateau region, cut by deep canyons, partly covered with forest, chiefly of
Engelmann spruce. ; :

Fire has cleared a considerable proportion of the forest, and keeps it clear. Irri-
gation below the reserve demands the protection of its streams.

Mining is not of great importance.

Agriculture does not exist within the reserve. ;

Grazing may be extensively developed with safety to the forest under suitable
restrictions.

Timber supplies from the reserve are urgently needed at but few points.

The White River Plateau Timber Land Reserve is situated in north-
western Colorado, and covers an area of 1,198,080 acres. It lies in an
elevated region locally known as the Flat Tops, and embraces parts of
the watersheds of the White and Yampa rivers. both of which flow
into the Green, and of the Grand, which unites with the latter to form
the Colorado. The high plateau which constitutes the larger part of
this reserve is overtopped by a number of high mountains, of which
Pagoda and Pyramid peaks are among the best known. It is a region
of canyons intersecting more level stretches. Its climate is too harsh
for agriculture, and its trade relations have been of small importance
hitherto. .A small amount of timber has been cut within the limits of
the reserve.

THE FOREST.

The original forest with which this reserve was clothed appears to
have consisted chiefly of Engelmaun’s spruce, although the prevalence
of fires through many years has made it difficult to retrace the forest
history of the plateau. Considerable areas are here and there covered
with lodge-pole pine, while the yellow pine and the blue spruce are com-
mon in places along the streams. Frequent parks interrupt the forest.
It appears unmistakably, on examination, that the trees which surround
these parks are gradually encroaching upon them. These trees are
necessarily of hardy species, adapted to maintain themselves against
the dryness and severity of the conditions which they must face. Asa
rule, these trees are small. Iam unable to give specific dimensions. but
the following figures will convey my impression. The average size of
Engelmann spruce is: Height. 80 feet; diameter, 1 foot: length of clear
trunk, none. The blue spruce is at times larger. since it chietly occupies
moister and more favorable situations. The dimensions of the lodge-
pole pine are: Height, 50 feet: diameter, 5 inches; length of clear trunk,
1o feet. For the yellow pine: Height. 60 feet: diameter. 14 inches;
length of clear trunk, 5 feet. It should be added that in places Engel-
mann spruce grows in dense forests, averaging over 100 feet in height,
with not less than 40 feet of clear trunk, but such groups are rare.

FIRE.

The parks which form so characteristic a feature of this region
undoubtedly had their origin in the tires which have swept across them
for many years. Occasionally fragments of old trees in the parks, as
well as the fact that groups on the edge of open land are almost always
surrounded by young growth, indicate plainly that the forest was once
more extensive than at present. My opinion, subject to correction by
the results of longer experience, is that with even moderate protection
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 117

a mach denser ztowth of timber will occupy the Flat-tops. and that its
presence will have a wos: decided influence on the flow of the streams,
the water of which, lower down. is extensively used for irrigation.

WATER.

Irrigation is practiced on at least two sides of the reserve, and indica-
tions are } lain that the presence of a dense forest on this area would
be exceedinely valuable in this direction. I saw no evidence of severe
floods. nor am I informed that such floods are common.

MINING.

Silver mining has been prosecuted to some extent at Carbonate and
elsewhere. but I do not understand that. in general. mining has assumed
importance in any region of this reserve.

AGHICULICTRE.

As already mentioned. the elimate is to. severe and the supplies of
water too scanty to permit agriculture on the Flat-tops. some few
ranches exist on the bottom lands of the river valleys. Provision
should be made to permit any unentered land of this character to be
taken up.

GRAZING.

The most important economic use possible for the reserve at present
is for pastorage. Great quantities of grass exist throughout the Flat-
tops. and eventually this area will be used for raising cattle. Since,
however. the spread of the forest depends on the protection of the
scanty youn. growth, it would be decidedly unwise to open the whole
area of the reserve to pasturage except under suitable regulations
suitably enforced. .

FOREST FORCE.

Until abundant appropriations become available. a forest ranger
located at Newcastle or at Glenwood Springs would he able to adminis-
ter both this reserve and the Battlement Mesa Forest Reserve south of
the Grand River. Four forest guards slould be stationed at suitable
localities. and a limited number of fire watchers should be employed.
I am anable, without farther study. to indicate more precisely the loca-
tion of the guards or the number of the fire watchers that would be
required.

FPOREST MANAGEMENT.

Some form of localized selection must be used in the spruce timber,
while clear cutting in strips or squares will be found to answer all
requirements of economy and safety in the lodze-pole pine. and also
perhaps in the localities where the spruce forest is dense and high.

Transportation by way of White River and Williams Fork of the
Yampa may be made available, while to the southwest roads already
exist over which some lumber has been taken from the reserve. It
does not appear likely that the resources of this reserve will be in
urgent demand to supply neighboring populations except at a few
points. such as Meeker, on the western border. where provisions should
early be made to supply the necessities of the settlers.
118 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

BOUNDARIES,

Without a more careful description of the whole area of the reserve
I am unable to make specific recommendations for changes in its bound-
aries, nor have the necessary topographic sheets been completed by
the Geological Survey. ‘It is evident that such changes will be required.

Latin and English numes of the principal trees mentioned, arranged in botanical order.

Pinus monticola- Doel ais cccscwien seirsiawevoaee sees ees eeets Mountain white;pine.
Pinus lambertiana Doug] ...--- ---. ---- pene e cece eee cence Sugar pine.’

Pinus Mexilis James's weicic s sepsnsersiainivie biasiereicig eicivis etd o aies'siarsielwie'sia Limber pine.

Pinus albicaulis Engelm .... 2.222.222.2202. 22 eee ee eee eee White bark pine.
Pinus monophylla Torr. & Frem........2-..-------2+--------- Single-leaf piiion.

  

 

Pinus balfouriana Murr ........- pS Be eRea eee See Ree ieee Foxtail pine.
Pinus: poMderosa: LAWS . 5 < 0.00.55 5 Acco csjeceeecmeew cee ea basen tase Western yellow pine.
Pinus murrayanars* OLep: Comin” so. cces ese heteds rece beseoke Lodge-pole pine.
Pinus'sabimiana; Dotig). oss ccceeeceeatine wise tee etawcicclee sien Gray pine.

Pius: coultert Lamy: 2.04 1224 assed neseeemeseds cet ees eee cee Coulter pine.
Pinus attennata Lemmon ..-... 2.222... 2-22 eee ee eee eee ee Knobcone pine.
Larix occidentalis Nutt ....... 0... .2-2-. e--- eee ee ee oes Western larch.
Picea canadensis (Mill): B.S: Piconc soceciseue conte ce sin seers White spruce.
Picea engelmannt Bnvelm s.c2 cess ccc scc ¢ seen eee cus coemees Engelmann spruce.
Picea pungens:. Engel. sncacic cece cee cece se ces wae rewiciaw 9 suai Blue spruce.
Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Trauto & Mayer........---..-------- Sitka spruce.
Tsuga mertensiana (Bong.) Carr...-..--.-.---..---------- 2+ Western hemlock.
Tsuga pattoniana (Jeff.) Engelm --.....-..--2.-----2.----.---- Black hemlock.
Pseudotsuga taxifolia (Poir.) Britton...........2---..2---22--. Donglas tir.
Pseudotsuga macrocarpa (Torr.) Mayr.......--.---.----+.---- Big-coue fir.
Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt..-.-. 2-2... 222-222-222 -2-2---0-- Alpine fir.
Abies-erandis Lind ..2 222.2 svekcorsee acest sce sete ce wae sicice Lowland fir.
Abies concolor (Gord.) Parry......---..-- Sate eeptoeeeeewiadvee ae White fir.

Abies amabilis (Lond.) Ford ....---.....2....-....-- --Awabilis fir.
Abies nobilis: Ling) .2c20% «.sey ssa eeseteeccoseeees --Noble fir.
Abiesahapiitica Mure es nis sce venedemeeeiganenseaass He55 Red fir.

Sequoia washingtoniana Winsl...... ---.-.-------2---------- Sequoia.
Libocedrus decurrens Torr .......---..--. peclavane, Seayarchare versie evs. ra, sam Incense cedar.
THU a pl CaLa OM wae tues ectean stereo oS eee Western cedar.
Populus tremuloides Michx .......2...2.22-22 02-2222 - 02-2 eee Quaking aspen.
SHEEP-GRAZING IN THE CASCADE FOREST
RESERVE OF OREGON,

By FREDERICK V. CovILLE.

[A report made to the Sccrctary of Agriculture, and on January 21, 1898, transmitted by him to the
2 Secretary of the Interior. ]

INTRODUCTION.

For the past few years a bitter controversy has been waged in Ore-
gon on the question of grazing sheep in the Cascade Range Forest
Reserve. Recent legislation by Congress has made it necessary to
devise a series of regulations regarding this industry, and in the face
of a great deal of diametrically conflicting testimony regarding the
effect of sheep-grazing, the Interior Department felt the need of a dis-
interested investigation of the facts before formulating any detailed set
of rules. The aid of the Department of Agriculture was solicited, and
the result of our investigation is here presented. A preliminary report
was transmitted to the Secretary of the Interior on November 22, 1897.

Hon. Binger Hermann, Commissioner of the Genera] Land Office,
furnished ne with valuable letters of introduction to several prominent
citizens of Oregon who were familiar with the sheep-grazing cfuestion.

Mr. John Minto, of Salem, Oreg., gave mea general letter of intro-
duction to the sheepmen of eastern Oregon, which enabled me to
secure a large amount of information through channels that ordinarily
would have been closed to a Government officer investigating this sub-
ject. Among the many otbers to whose courtesy I am indebted, I must
mention particularly Mr. Thomas Cooper and Mr. E. F. Benson, of the
western land oftice of the Northern Pacific Railroad, at Tacoma, Wash.,
who had recently been conducting an investigation of sheep grazing on
the railroad lands.

From Portland and Salem I went by rail and by stage to Klamath
Falls, in the southern part of the State, and there procured a pack
outfit. The party, consistiny of myself, Mr. E. I. Applegate, acting as
assistant, and a camp hand, with three saddle horses and tive pack
horses, entered the southern end of the reserve on July 23. From this
time until September 6, when we reached The Dalles on the Columbia
River at the northern end of the reserve, we were engaged in a thor-
ough examination of the forests, including not only those portions in
which sheep now graze, but other typical portions in which sheep have
never grazed. We traversed, besides the well-known parts of the Cas-
cades, some of the most remote and inaccessible portions, traveling
largely without trails. We interviewed sheep owners, packers, and
herders, cattle owners, and all classes of people, both those who favored
and those who were opposed to the permitting of sheep grazing within
the reserve. We followed the bands of shvep as they were grazing,

119
120 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

watching their movements, their choice of forage, and the methods of
handling them; observed the effects both of recent grazing and of the
grazing of former years; made observations upon the devastations
caused by fires, saw areas of the forest in every stage, from total
immunity from fires to total destruction by them; saw many fires
burning, and wherever possible ascertained the cause.

I made four detours from the mountains down into the plains at their
eastern base to consult with sheep owners and other well-informed
citizens, the longest of these detours being a trip from Sisters to Prine-
ville and thence to Sherar Bridge, August 26 to 30, Mr. Applegate
meanwhile prosecuting the investigations in the mountains.

THE SHEEP INDUSTRY OF OREGON.

The first domesticated sheep brought into Oregon came from Cali-
fornia in 1843, but from that year until 1860 sheep raising was only a
small industry. At about the latter date, however, wool began to
assume considerable importance in the region as an agricultural product.

The following table, extracted chietly trom the United States census
reports, gives some idea of the growth and importance of the sheep
industry in Oregon:

 

Pounds of
wool pro-
duced in

Oregon.

Year.

 

 

29, 686
219, 012
1, 680, 638

 

 

a From the Oregon State Census Report for 1895.

The following table, compiled from the reports of the division of sta-
tistics, shows the amount of money invested in sheep in the State of
Oregon each year since 1870:

ean, Number of | Value of
sheep. sheep.

 

500, 000 $950, 000

 

2,959,424. 5. 105,804
2,929,830 , 5, 622. 344.
2.431.759 5, 154,114

 

2, 456, 077 | 5, 491, 789
2,456,077 | 5, 903, 182
2,529,759 | 4, 433, 403

2,529,759 2. 945, 905
2: 630,949 > 3,590, 983
2,604,640 3.

 

 

 
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 121

Following the general progress of agricultural settlement, sheep rais-
ing in Oregon was carried on first in the Willamette Valley, in the west-
ern portion of the State; later in the Grand Ronde, in northeastern
Oregon, and then, crowded out of these fertile places by the more prof-
itable occupations of agriculture proper, the sheep owners moved their
flocks to more and more remote parts of the State, especially to the
great sage plains in its eastern portion, where the ordinary processes
of agriculture are confined to small areas, chiefly irrigated land, and
the country is for the most part so dry as to be adapted only for grazing.

The distinction between range sheep and farm sheep must be clearly
understood. In a thickly settled agricultural region, in which all or
nearly all the land is cut up into farms, or ranches, as they are called in
the western United States, it is a common practice to keep on each
ranch a small number of sheep, from afew individuals to afew hundred.
These are inclosed in fenced pastures, and do not therefore require a
herder. Range sheep, on the other hand, are pastured, or grazed, on
the great areas of unfenced public or Government land, popularly known
as the open range, the outside range, or simply.the range. Because
this land is not fenced, and because unprotected sheep would be liable
to destruction by wild animals, especially coyotes, or prairie wolves,
these range sheep are accompanied and cared tor by a man who is called
a sheep herder, or simply a herder. As a matter of economy each
herder is intrusted with as many sheep as he can properly manage,
commonly two or three thousand. Such an aggregation of sheep is
called a band. The terms flock and shepherd are seldom heard in the
range-sheep region of Oregon.

Twenty years ago the sheep that were owned on the treeless plains of
eastern Oregon, at points remote from the forested mountains, were
pastured in fall, winter, and spring, just as they now are, upon the open
range, but during the hot and dry summer months, when on the summits
of the plateaus the grass tops were dead, water for the sheep was want-
ing, and the heat was oppressive, it became imperative that the sheep
be kept in the bottoms of the deep, rock-walled canyons which form the
drainage channels of the region. Here were found water, fresh grass,
and shade, which carried the sheep through the summer in good condi-
tion. But as sheep raising, being a profitable industry, became more
popular it was found that these canyous, on account of their limited area,
could furnish summer range tor only a portion of the sheep that could
readily find pasturage on the winter range. In order therefore to utilize
more of the winter range it was necessary to increase the summer range,
and this it was found possible to do by driving the sheep in late spring
or early summer to some of the cool, well-watered, grassy, timber-covered
mountains that adjoin the plains. By this modification of the yearly
routine the possibilities of sheep raising of the plains were enormously
increased. For example, that portion of the plains which extends from
Antelope to Bakeoven, in Wasco County, which, under the old system,
could carry only 6,000 sheep, now carries 25,000 sheep.

SUMMER SHEEP GRAZING IN THE MOUNTAINS.

Outside an unimportant amount of grazing carried on in the vicinity
of The Dalles as much as thirty years ago, the mountains first resorted
to for summer range were the Blue Mountains, which are situated in the
northeastern portion of the State and east of the principal sheep-graz-
ing area of the plains. First, beginning about twenty-five years ago,
only the lower slopes of the mountains were used, but little by little
122 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

the increasing need of additional summer range forced the sheep farther
and farther into the mountains, and, finally, to their very summits.

The summer pasturage afforded by the Cascade Mountains to the
west of the plains soon began to attract the attention of sheep.owners.
First the foothills, then the middle elevations, and finally the higher
slopes were occupied, a condition which has existed since about 1886,
A similar occupation of Gearhart, Warner, and other mountains in
southern Oregon, south of the plains, has taken place within the past
few years.

THE CASCADE RANGE FOREST RESERVE.

In the session of the Oregon State legislature for 1888-89, Judge
Jobu B. Waldo, of Macleay, a member of the legislature, introduced a
joint memorial asking the Congress of the United States to set aside
as a forest reserve a certain specified tract in the Cascade Mountains.
This memorial passed the Oregon house of representatives, but failed
in the senate. The matter subsequently came up in the form of a peti-
tion to the President, and by a proclamation under date of September
28, 1893, he finally set aside the proposed lands as a forest reserve,
which have since become known as the Cascade Range Forest Reserve.
This reserve, which contains 4,492,800 acres, extends in a north and
south direction almost across the State, embracing the main ridge of
the Cascades and a broad strip on either slope. It is about 235 miles
long, with a width varying from 18 to 60 miies.

From the tiine the Cascade Reserve was created there was a difference
of opinion among the people of Oregon regarding the effect of sheep
grazing within its limits, one party to the controversy maintaining that
the sheep were a serious detriment to the interests for which the reserve
was created, the other maintaining that they were not. The first
official action taken by the Government was the issuing of regulations,
under date of April 14, 1894, governing all the forest reserves, and
among other details prohibiting the “ driving, feeding, grazing, pastur-
ing, or herding of cattle, sheep, or other live stock” within any of the
reservations.

The effect of these regulations in excluding sheep from their custom-
ary Summer grazing lands in the Cascades gave rise to vigorous and
continued protests from those interested in thesheep industry. These
protests finally resulted in a letter under date of February 10, 1896,
from the Oregon delegation in Congress to the Department of the Inte-
rior, recommending that in lieu of the present reserve three smaller
reserves be made, about Mount Hood, Mount Jeffer-on, and Crater
Lake, aid that the balance of the Cascade Reserve be thrown open.
Action favorable to this recommendation, however, was never taken by
the Department.

During the summer of 1896, under special instructions from the
Attorney-General of the United States, dated January 10 of the same
year, several arrests were nade of sheep herders, sheep owners, and
others grazing sheep on the reserve. Later these cases assumed the
form of civil instead of criminal proceedings, and on September 8, 186,
suit was brought in the United States district court of Oregon against
several owners to enjoin them from grazing within the reserve. These
suits were pending for several months, until in May, 1897, the Attorney-
General, in view of probable early legislative action by Congress involv-
ing anew scheme of the administration of the reserve, issued instructions
that the injunction suits be discontinued. On June 4, 1897, the expected
legislation by Congress became a law in the form of a provision in the
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 123

sundry civil appropriation act authorizing the Secretary of the Interior
to make all necessary regulations for the government of the forest
reserves.*

In a series of regulations governing the forest reserves, issued from
the General Land Office under date of June 30, 1897, the following pro-
visions are made:

The pasturing of live stock on the public lands in forest reservations will not be
interfered with so long as it appears that injury is not being done to the forest
growth and the rights of others are not thereby jeopardized. The pasturing of sheep
is, however, prohibited in all forest reservations, except those in the States of Oregon
and Washington, for the reason that sheep grazing has been found injurious to the
forest cover, and therefore of serious consequence in regions where the rainfall is
limited. The exception in favor of the States of Oregon and Washington is made
because the continuous moisture and abundant rainfall of the Cascade and Pacific
Coast ranges make rapid renewal of herbage and undergrowth possible. Owners of
sheep are required to make application to the Commissioner of the General Land
Office for permission to pasture, stating the number of sheep and the location on the
reserves where it is desired to graze. Permission will be refused or revoked when-
ever it shall appear that sheep are pastured on parts of the reserve specially liable
to injury, or upon and in the vicinity of the Bull Run Reserve, Crater Lake, Mount
Hood, Mount Rainier, or other well-known places of public resort or reservoir sup-
ply. Permission will also cease upon proof of neglect as to the care of fires made by
herders, or of the violation by them of any of the forest-reserve regulations. *

These regulations, however, were issued so late in the season that
the provision regarding permits was ineffective for the summer of 1897,
as those who pastured on the reserve had already entered it before the
regulations had been issued.

FACTS BROUGHT OUT BY THE INVESTIGATION.

CHARACTER OF THE PERSONS ENGAGED IN THE BUSINESS.

All the sheep owners in eastern Oregon appear to be American citi-
zens, at least upon inquiry I could learn of none who are aliens. Some
of the owners, as with our farming population in all parts of the coun-
try, are of foreign birth, but have become naturalized. In earlier years,
too, some of the herders were French or Portuguese. Many of the
owners are prominent, influential citizens of the highest character.

A popular impression prevails that the sheep herders of Oregon, like
those of some other parts of the United States, represent a low class
of humanity. This impression as applied to the majority of sheep herd-
ers ten years ago was perhaps correct. At the present time, however,
many exceedingly bright and wholesome young men have undertaken
sheep herding in default of opportunities for more desirable work, and
as a whole they probably average as well in character as the men
engaged in other branches of agricultural industry.

COST OF MAINTAINING A BAND OF SHEEP. ;

Under present conditions a sheep owner with one or two bands can
seldom conduct his business profitably if he follows a nomadic life, and
in general it is a prerequisite of success that an owner shall have for
winter headquarters a permanent and commodious, properly fenced
ranch, provided with a house, one or more hay barns, and several sub-
stantial corrals. It must have enough arable land to grow the hay nec-

 

1 See a review of the subject in a letter from Hon. Binger Hermann, Commissioner
of the General Land Office, to the Secretary of the Interior, published in the Port-
Jand Oregonian for May 23, 1897.
124 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

essary for wintering his sheep. Such a ranch represents a capital of
about $5,000 or $6,000. The following is a fair estimate of the cost of
running, that is, maintaining, a band of 2,000 ewes for a year in a typical
place in Sherman County:

 

Taxes, 21 mills per dollar, on an assessed valuation of $2 per head $84
Herder, 12 months, at $30 per month ....-..--..--- heaves eee cords 360
Packer, 5 months, at $30 per month ........--.--.--.------ 22 eee eee ee eee eee 150
“Grub,” that is food provisions, for the herder and packer, at $10 per month “

WAC Dew ccwenicis ves Cot eesee einen ceaeheemeceecie nt eo ees coe eases Com ee eee 1
Rental of winter range, 6 months ....... 2... -----+ 2-220 ee eee cee cee eee 100
Shearing, at 5 cents per head....-.-..--.-..----- ee eee eee eee eee eee eee 100
Wheat hay sufficient for 40 days, at the rate of 3 tons for 100 sheep, at $7 per 46

HON oo seeeatne ssc Sad Rin seman rita seeped etna Ne ahi ial waa os Daas Dae a iit oc 2
Salt, 100 pounds per week, at 50 cents per 100, plus $1 per 100 for freighting

to summer range during 20 weeks ....-.---. 2... -- 22 2+ ee eee vee eee 46
Hauling wool to the railroad, at 40 cents per 100 pounds, the estimated clip,

that is, the amount of wool sheared, being 8 pounds per sheep. ...--...---. 64

Extra help for 1 month during the lambing season, that is, the season when
the lambs are born, at the rate of 1 man for 200 ewes, at a salary of $30 per
THONG ooo 2 ee dece ahead eemeceete me ee nals Cakes more ie eee eeeie wiem's 300
Outfit for herder anil packer, including horses, pack saddles, tent, and bedding. 25
Bucks, that is, rams, at the rate of 2 bucks per 100 ewes, replaced every 2

 

years, at an average cost of $10 each.......--...----------- 2-22 eee eee 200

Summering bucks, which are run in bands separate from the ewe bands, at $1
BRC apa ot Secyan Sete teicvastseaic ata sepa seeped Uanctal toasters w, ge otra atest ese letaisboare wislSieneantonn 40
EE Asha sg rad oa fete ee ee la ek. ne ln AGA oe ARR Wee RAG ean hea Ee ceane aoe 2, 059

The actual expenditure on a band of sheep of course varies with many
conditions, such as the distance of the ranch from a railroad, the owner
raising his own hay or acting as his own packer, the necessity of rent-
ing private range, the size of the band, etc., but in general the esti-
mated cost of running sheep is 75 cents to $1 per head. Sheep owners
are accustomed to estimate that the cost of running a band of sheep will
be Sie by the sale of the wool, while the increase represent probable
profits.

Sometimes sheep are leased, the annual rental varying from 40 cents
to $1 per head, according to the condition of the wool avd mutton
market, the lessee returning to the owner as many ewes as he received,
‘and taking the increase as part of his profits. Sometimes, particularly
when the lessee is a young man getting a start in the business, the
rental paid is half the wool and half the increase.

The sheep of eastern Oregon are chiefly of Merino stock, but the
increasing profitableness of good mutton sheep has induced many of
the owners to introduce Shropshire blood. This movement appears to
be successful, particularly with careful management of the bands. An
apnual increase of 90 to 100 per cent is quite feasible and is really
secured by sound methods, where careless methods give an increase
of only 50 per cent to 60 per cent.

YEARLY ROUTINE.

The yearly routine of a band up to the time of starting for the moun-
tains in the spring may be given briefly as follows: When the sheep
are brought back in the autumn from their summer range during the
month of October, the bands are readjusted, the breeding ewes going
in one group, the wethers, lambs, and dry ewes in another. For about
a month—usually beginning between October 20 and November 1—the
bucks are allowed to run with the ewes. They are herded on range
land near the owner’s ranch, seldom going more than a day’s drive
from headquarters. At this season the fall rains have started the grass,
SURVEYS OF .FOREST RESERVES. 125

and often a luxuriant growth takes place before it is checked by the
cold of winter. When the snowstorms begin, commonly toward the
middle of December, the sheep are kept within corrals at the ranch
and fed upon hay. The snow lies upon the ground for a period varying
from six to forty days, according to season and elevation.. When the
snow has disappeared the same system of ranging is pursued as in the
autumn until about the middle of March, when the lambing season
begins. The period of gestation is twenty. one weeks. The ‘lambing
continues for about a month. After all the lambs are yeaned and the
males castrated, the shearing of the adults begins and keeps up until
it is time to start for the mountains. The shearing is done on the ranch
and the wool afterwards hauled to the shipping point. The practice,
common in some regions, of driving the sheep to the shipping point
and shearing them there is not generally followed in the Oregon plains.

Between May 15 and the end of the first week in June, when the
grass of the plains begins to dry up, the bands, again readjusted (ewes
and lambs together) and commonly varying in number from 1,800 to
2,700, the average being about 2,200, are driven toward the mountains,
The average rate of travel is about 8 miles per day, varying with the
heat, the feed, and the watering places. The usual practice is to start
a band early, between daylight and sunrise, and let them travel slowly,
grazing as they go, until about 9 o’clock. They then lie down, during
the warmer part of the day, until 3 or 4 o’clock in the afternoon, when
they start again and go on till sundown or alittle later. They are
watered once a day, if possible. Seldom earlier than the LOth of June
and seldom later than the Ist of July they reach their summer range
in the timber.

The bucks are kept in summer in inclosed pastures, or sometimes,
when an owner has a large enough number to warrant it, or when sev-
eral owners put their bucks together, they are run in bands, but they
are always kept separate from the ewes and lambs.

DUTTES OF HERDERS AND PACKERS.

It is the duty of the packer, who is often also the owner, to find new
grazing places as fast as the feed is eaten off by the sheep, to move
camp to these spots, and to keep the herder or herders (one man some-
times packing for two bands) and himself supplied with provisions.
A saddle horse and two pack horses are commonly used by the packer.

The herder’s duty is to keep his band on good feed, keep the sheep in
one body, bring back those that have strayed away, look out for the
appearance of disease and apply the necessary remedies, and join the
packer in the cooking and other camp work. If the sheep are to graze
2 or 3 miles from camp (about the maximum distance) and in the forest,
they are often driven away as early as sunrise, but if the grazing is
nearer camp, and especially if it is on open meadow land, the sheep
seldom start out before the dew is off the grass. They graze a few
hours, lie down during the middle of the day, graze again, and finally
return to their bedding ground, sitnated usually near the camp.

The practice of herders in handling their sheep varies widely. Some
are constantly with their bands, watching them closely throughout the
day, carefully guiding them from one choice piece of feed to another,
keeping them rounded up with a dog, and sleeping among them at night.
Others leave a band to pick out their own feeding area, to take care of
themselves largely, and even to select their own | bedding ground, attend-
ing ouly in a general way to their location and seeing that the band
126 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

does not divide. Sheep managed in this way are said to be better able
to take care of themselves, to be less easily frightened by wild animals,
to be less worried by the dogs, to trample the feed less, and to come
out in quite as good condition at the end of the season. Mach system
doubtless has its advantages.

The bedding grounds, on which the sheep “ bed down,” as it is called,
at night, are selected on a piece of dry, level, or gently sloping, smooth
ground, At dusk the sheep come in, crowding and bleating and rais-
ing a cloud of dust. They gradually arrange themselves, and one by
one they lie down, close together, and little by little the bleating grows
less till they all are silent and asleep.

At the end of a week, commonly, sometimes two weeks or sometimes
only two or three days, the feed within easy range of camp is exhausted
and the camp is moved to a new place. This moving of camp continues
all summer, some of the bands in suitable situations remaining in one
general locality, others making long circuits over a much larger terri-
tory. A particular piece of ground is usually grazed over only once,
as a second grazing is seldom of any value. If, however, the first graz-
ing is sufficiently early in the season, a fresh growth may follow and
furnish an excellent second crop. In general, the progress of camps
during the season is from the base of the mountains toward their sum-
mits, keeping pace with the growth of the vegetation that follows the
melting of the snow.

LOSS OF SHEEP DURING THE SUMMER.

From various accidental causes a few sheep in a band are usually
lost during the summer, a loss of 1 per cent being common. Occasion-
ally larger losses occur. The principal causes of death are bears,
wolves, falling rocks, poisonous plants, and lightning. Grizzly bears
come at night and usually kill several sheep atavisit. The only wolves
of the higher mountains are the large timber wolves. They kill few
sheep during the summer, but in the autumn, about the time the sheep
are leaving the mountains, they begiu to run in packs and are more
bold. <A late band of sheep sometimes suffers severe loss from this
source. On steep, rocky mountain slopes a sheep is frequently killed
by a rolling rock loosened by some sheep graziug on a higher part of
the slope. Sheep are sometimes killed by eating water hemlock (Cicuta
vagans), larkspar (Delphininm), rhododendron (Rhododendron ealiforni-
cum), or laurel (Umbellularia californica). The first two are herbaceous
plants growing at low elevations on the eastern slope of the Cascades,
usually below the timber, In the spring of 1897 about 200 sheep died
in a band that had been grazed in a great patch of larkspur on one of
the western spurs of the Tygh Hills, in Wasco County. The other two
plants are, respectively, a shrub and a small tree that grow on the
humid western slopes in the forests. Rarely a band of sheep, driven to
cover in a storm, is struck by lightning with serious results. In July,
1896, 168 sheep were killed in this way in a thunder storm on Crane
Prairie. The sheep had huddled together for shelter from the rain in a
little grove of lodge-pole pines, where they were struck by two successive
lightning bolts.

Formerly large losses were occasioned by the disease known as sheep
scab. A State quarantine and inspection law, however, caused a decided
decrease in its prevalence, and, finally, another still more powerful
factor—the lowering of the price of wool, resulting in a total lack of
profits on scabby sheep—has now made the disease almost unknown.
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 127

STATISTICS OF SHEEP GRAZED WITHIN THE RESERVE.

One of the first pieces of information it was desired to secure was a
reliable estimate of the number of sheep ranged within the reserve.
The estimates secured from different sources varied so greatly, how-
ever, that all were necessarily treated as unsatisfactory, and it was
resolved to take an actual census on the ground. This was done by
repeated inquiry of herders, packers, owners, and residents having a
definite knowledge of the various bands. The data thus secured include
the name of each owner or lessee, the number of his bands, the number
of sheep in each band, the place on which they were grazing when the
record was made, and the county in which the sheep were owned. The
publication of all the details is unnecessary and undesirable, but a sum-
mary of the data gives the following statistics:

The total number of sheep recorded as ranging onthe Cascade Reserve
is 188,360, contained in 86 bands—an average of 2,190 sheep per band.
Classified by size, the bands are as follows:

 

Size of | Number| Size of | Number| Size of | Number
band. jofbands,; band. jofbands.| band. | of bands.
! i : I

 

 

 

a1, 000 | 2 | 2, 000 b28 2,700 | 3
1, 400 2] 2, 100 1} 2,800 | 1
1, 600 41 2, 200 3 i 2,900 | 1
1, 700 a 2, 300 4 3, 000 | 2
1, 800 5) 2, 400 3 3,200 , fey
1, 900 2/, 2,500 b22 | 3,500 1

 

gis means not less than 950 nor more than 1,049. The same relation holds for the rest of the
table. ee

b The exceptionally large number of bands containing 2,000 and 2,500 is due to the fact that only
estimates instead of an actual count of the number of sheep in some of the bands could be made by
those {10m whom the information was secured, and that in making these estimates a person is muc
more likely to say 2,000 than 1,900 or 2,100, or 2,500 rather than 2,400 or 2,600.

Bands of less than 1,600 are usually owned by young men who are mak-
ing a startin the business; bands of more than 2,700 by owners who are
ranging their sheep in unusually open country or who are injudiciously
trying to save the hire of an additional herder. Of the various expenses
entailed in running a band of sheep the wages of the herder and packer,
the cost of their provisions, and the cost of their outfit are fixed charges,
whatever the number of sheep in the band. With a small band the
net profits per head are therefore less. With a larger band the net
profits per head increase until the band reaches such a size, varying
with the herder and the nature of the region, that the number of strayed
and lost sheep increases greatly and the others impede each other to
such an extent in grazing that they produce neither a large amount nor
a good quality of wool. The net profit per head then decreases, and an
owner usually prefers to divide the band, purchasing enough additional
sheep to make two bands of suitable size. :

Classified by counties in which the sheep are owned, the statistics
are as follows:

 

Number | Number
of bands.| of sheep.

Countye

 

 

66 142, 770
11 24, 660
9 20, 930

 

SHGrm Ans oes. ctysasietnnea cette pou sees oaneeaheminnacoiatenis Soe Aon ctomeenin sete

 

 

 

 
128 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

Classified by the districts (to be described hereafter) into which the
reserve may be divided for range purposes, the statistics are as follows:

 

 

2 Number | Number

Range district. of bands, of sheep.

Mounts Ho00@sce.2-c28cn. cnn cee cova bee mais eeteieetgis tare isscnitzts cairn wndieitiioeewier 40 86, 400
TPHTeS 18 PENS ert corsenne eerie eee epee atcre Cae Obes Po aye ere a tea ars leta rand aurea aS 36 79, 330
Upper Deschutes sca siencccgscncseetn coche eee ceeics scseshe seeker ee eee eee sees | 10 22, 630

 

 

 

The total number of owners ranging sheep in the Cascades the past
season was 60, or, more strictly speaking, there were 50 individual
owners, 2 lessees, and 8 pairs of partners. It is possible that a few of
those recorded as owners may in reality be lessees.

Of these 60 owners, £1 owned single bands, containing 1,000 to 3,500
sheep; 15 owned two bands each, containing 3,400 to 5,000 sheep; 3
owned three bands each, containing 5,000 to 7,980 sheep; and 1 owned
six bands, containing 15,450 sheep.

The sheep ranges of the reserve lie in seven counties, as follows:

 

+ Number ! Number

 

 

 

County. lot bands. lof sheep.
|
UVB CO asain taser cee Sides rsraes oye s aieyaiah ayaa ie eiaie Tee ete rcie Vee loe ea earner Kena eramnee Ree ee tamil 34 72, 160
Crook....... 22 49, 850
Klamath ...- dl 1, 600
Clackamas... 6} 14, 240
Lint .cesei. + eee 7 13, 790
Tia W Onasch ac sea ek se tid occas Sureae eran hen aioe Seu aieeheme eases abel 14 32, 220
DOU IAS 3s asses cs Sint ate inis Wile am shajsisjele ea tsiess ches wisipes aasra Siepeiciee Bek Seraja biol eieteie sicteisie 2 4, 500

 

 

It will be observed that the sheep ranged in the Cascade Reserve are
chiefly in the hands of small owners; that these owners live in the
counties of Wasco, Crook, and Sherman, all on the east side of the
Cascade Mountains; and that of the seven counties in which the sheep
are grazed, three—Wasco, Crook, and Klamath—are on the east side of
the Cascade crest, while four—Clackamas, Linn, Lane, and Douglas—
are on the west slope.

A small percentage of the sheep grazed in the reserve—perhaps
15,000 to 20,000—are known as ‘‘Washington sheep.” These are not,
as might be supposed, sheep owned in the State of Washington, but
sheep owned in the State of Oregon, which in earlier years were taken
across the Columbia River into the Cascade Mountaius of Washington
for the summer pasturage. The Washington State legislature passed
an alleged quarantine law stipulating a sixty-day quarantine period for
all sheep entering the State. This was an effectual barrier against the
sheep from Oregon, and they were compelled to find summer grazing
south of the Columbia. Many of them went into the Cascade Reserve,
and thus for the past two summers have swelled the customary total.

CHARACTER OF GRAZING LANDS,

The acreage per sheep required for grazing throughout the summer
is exceedingly variable, depending on the kind and character of the
vegetation. In a rich meadow, not too.wet, half an acre for each sheep
may be sufficient; in sterile lodge-pole pine forests 10 acres may be
required.

To a herder the plants on which sheep graze are ot three classes—
grass, weeds, and browse. The name grass is applied not only to true
grasses, but fo all plants resembling grass in appearance, especially
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 129

sedges and rushes. Under the head of weeds are included all herba-
ceous plants that do not have the general appearance of grasses, a dif-
ference due chiefly to their broader leaves. Browse is a name applied
to shrubs and young trees, the leaves and twigs of which are eaten by
sheep. The vegetation of the different ranges is made up of varying
combinations of these three classes of forage.

As characterized by their vegetation, the summer grazing areas of
the reserve may be classed under four heads—forests, burns, meadows,
aud balds.

The nature of the grazing in the virgin forest land varies, of course,
with the character of the forests. For present purposes they may be
divided into three—the yellow-pine forests, the lodge pole pine forests,
and the heavy west-slope forests. The distribution of these forests is a
matter of climatic conditions dependent upon elevation and upon the
heavy rainfall on the west slope of the Cascades and the light rainfall
of the eastern slope. In general, these conditions are maintained
throughout the whole length of the State, the principal exceptions
occurring where, in the lower gaps of the mountains, the rainfall condi-

- tions of the west slope lap over upon the eastern slope.

The yellow-pine forests lie at low elevations along the eastern slope
of the mountains, and constitute the first timber entered by the sheep in
approaching the mouutains from the plains. The principal species of
tree is the yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa). The individual trees usually
stand well apart and there is plenty of sunshine between them. The
vegetation consists of a rather poor quality of bunch grass and other
scattered herbaceous plants, and a very scattered undergrowth made
up chiefly of chamise (Aunzia tridentata). In their upper elevations
the yellow-pine forests are dense and often contain a considerable
amount of Douglas spruce (Pseudotsuga mucronata) and California
white fir (no: treated as a form of Abies concolor), with an undergrowth
of snow brush (Ceanothus velutinus), manzanita (Arctostaphylos patula),
and chinquapin. (Castunopsis chrysophylla minor).

The lodge-pole pine forests lie also chiefly on the eastern slope of the
mountain, at a higher elevation than the yellow-pine forests, and pre-
sent a very different character. The trees are small, thin-barked, and
very easily killed by fire. The underbrush, made up chiefly of a creep-
ing manzanita (Arctostaphylos nevadensis) and the waxy currant (Ribes
cereum), is never dense, and often is entirely wanting over large areas.
Grass is sparse and not of the best quality. The best grazing plants

- are lupines. In the lodge-pole pine forests the trees are usually set
close together; so close, indeed, that it is often difficult, and sometimes
impossible, to ride through them on horseback. At a still higher eleva-
tion than the lodge-pole pine, extending, indeed, almost to timber line,
is the belt of black hemlock (Tsuga pattoni’), a usually open forest with
underbrush of two huckleberries (Vaccinium scoparium and V. mem-
branaceum), or, especially at high elevations, wholly devoid of under-
brush. Almost no grazing is carried on in this hemlock belt, though
the bands of sheep often traverse it on their way across the mountain
crests to the west slope.

The heavy west-slope forests are deep, dark, and dense, and consist
chiefly of a mixture of the Douglas spruce (Pseudotsuga mucronata)
and the white fir (Abies grandis), with often considerable quantities of
other trees. These forests bear a usually dense undergrowth and
exceed in humidity both of the forests mentioned above. The grazing
in the west-slope forests consist chiefly of weeds and browse, the latter
made up largely of vine maple (Acer circinatum).

S. Doc, 189-——9
130 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

The burns that occur in the Cascades depend largely upon the char-
acter of the forests in which they lie. For sheep-grazing purposes
burns in the yellow-pine forests are of small importance one way or the
other, as very little permanent change in the vegetation is effected by
them. The scant grass and underbrush do not make a destructive fire,
while the bark of the yellow pines is so thick and so nearly devoid of
resin that only under exceptional circumstances is a mature tree killed.
The sapling, however, up to an age of 15 or 2U years, are readily killed
by fire, and frequently an old tree well supplied with resin about some
injury near the base takes fire there year after year, gradually burning
deeper and deeper until the tree is destroyed. These scars are commonly
known as fire cracks. ;

On rocky slopes in the higher elevations of the yellow-pine forests,
where there is a large admixture of white fir and Douglas spruce and
the underbrush is thicker, a forest fire is often extremely destructive to
the timber, and is followed by a very dense growth of shrubs, made up
chietly of snow brush (Ceanothus velutinus), manzanita (Arctostaphylos
patula), willow (Salix nuttallii), and chinquapin (Castanopsis chry-
sophylla minor). Sheep do not browse readily on any of these shrubs, -
and they frequently form thickets so dense that a band of sheep can not
be driven through them. A fire in such a forest, therefore, is distinctiy
detrimental to the interests of sheep owners.

In the lodge-pole pine forests burns are extremely common and their
efiect upon the timber is very pronounced. The trees havea thin bark,
and are easily killed without being burned up. Ina few years the bare
poles rot at the root just beneath the surface of the ground and are
blown over by the wind, forming an inextricable tangle of small logs,
sometimes extending for miles, which it is difficult for sheep to cross,

_and which at this stage furnish very little grazing. A second fire
among these dead logs, when dry, burns them to ashes and opens the
country, though it destroys whatever humus there may be upon the sur-
face of the ground, usually only slight in these forests. After the first
burning a dense growth of seedlings usually covers the ground among
the dead trunks, but with the second burning these seedlings, too, are
destroyed. After a few years, commonly from three to five, an area
denuded by the two burnings has become covered with a growth of
short sedges, often with an admixture of small vetches. The return of
the pines to such an area is extremely slow, there being no old trees to
seed the area thoroughly, and certain conditions not now well under-
stood in detail evidently preventing chance seedlings from getting a -
start in the sod. hese old grassy burns in the lodge-pole pine forests
form such a distinct type of vegetative covering that they deserve
ee designation. They will be referred to in this report as fire-
glades.

The burns in the west-slope forests are very destructive to timber if
they occur at a dry season, when the deep litter feeds the flames and
everything burns rapidly. By the second year they are usually covered
with a dense growth of weeds and browse, often interspersed with tall
grasses. Within a few years, however, on account of the humidity of
the climate, they grow up with underbrush, if they are not again burned,
developing a growth of saplings in a few years; but if repeatedly burned,
supporting only a dense growth of underbrush. The exceptional con-
ditions under which the reproduction of these forests is slow are referred
to on page 143.

Natural meadows are areas on which, on account of an excess of
moisture, timber does not grow. The word meadow, therefore, as used
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 131

in this report, means always a natural wet meadow, and the name will
not be applied to fire glades nor to open dry slopes. The vegetation
of meadows is in most instances made up principally of grasses and
sedges. Most of the meadows in the Cascades occur at middle eleva-
tions, especially within the belt of the lodge-pole pine on the eastern
side of the range and the heavy west- slope forest on the other side.

The balds are comparatively limited in extent and lie altogether, so
far as our observation went, on the west slope of the Cascades. They
consist of the dry summits of spurs and detached peaks, which, though
well supplied with moisture at most seasons, are drained very rapidly
when the summer drought begins, and become so dry on their summits
that they will not support a forest growth. The grazing upon these
summits is excellent, and consists largely of what is known as mountain
bunch grass (Festuca vaseyana).

It should be mentioned here, with reference to the different types of
sheep-grazing lands above described, that the vegetation is by no means
uniform over each one. Especially are local differences in vegetation
due to differences in soil, and wherever the soil is made up of a very
poor quality of voleanic ash, which renders the surface exceedingly dry
for the greater part of the summer, underbrush, grasses, and all her-
baceous vegetation may be almost entirely wanting. Areas of this
description are frequent both in the lod ge-pole pine forests and at higher
elevations in the black hemlock belt. The surprising lack of good
grazing at or near timber line in the Oregon Cascades, particularly
their more southerly portions, is also attributable chiefly to this cause.

LOCATION OF GRAZING AREAS.

For convenience of reference the ranges may be divided into three
districts, the Mount Hood district, the Three Sisters district, and the
Upper Deschutes district. The Mount Hood district extends from the
Columbia River southward to about the latitude of the northern edge
of the Warm Springs Indian Reservation; the Three Sisters district
from Mount Jefferson, at the southern edge of this Indian reservation,
to and including the southern head waters of McKenzie River, about
latitude 44° 10’; and the upper Deschutes district from the latter line
southward to and including Diamond Lake, about latitude 43° 5”.
Each of these districts is subdivided into ranges, the principal ones of
which may be briefly named and located as follows:

Mount Hood.—White River, Gate Creek, Three-Mile Creek, Badger Creek, Boulder

Creek, Salmon Prairie, Zigzag Creek, Clear Lake, Clackamas Buttes, Hood
River.

Three Sisters.—Mount Jefferson, Three-Fingered Javk, Fish Lake, Mount Washington,
McKenzie River, Horse Creek, Three Sisters.

Upper Deschutes.—Willamette Cow Pastures, Crane Prairie, Davis Lake, Crescent
Lake, Diamond Lake. .

White River.—A stream rising on the southeast side of Mount Hood
and flowing iuto Deschutes River. The grazing along this stream lies
at different elevations and includes almost every type of grazing land
except balds. It is up through the watershed of White River that
most of the sheep are driven which are pastured in summer south,
southeast, and southwest of Mount Hood, and north of the Warm
Springs Indian Reservation.

Gate Creek.—One of the afiluents of White River rising within the
reserve, but most of it lying outside of the reserve. The grazing is
132 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

similar to that on White River, but the proportion of yellow pine forest
is larger.

Three Mile Creek.—Same as Gate Creek.

Badger Creek.—Same as Gate Creek.

Boulder Creek. Same as Gate Creek.

Salmon Prairie.—A large natural meadow west of the summit of the
Cascades on the head waters of Salmon Creek, lying just south of the
Oak Grove road. A claim of private ownership is pending on this
land, and sheep owners who graze on it are from time to time warned
off. Farther down the stream are large burns.

Zigzag Creek.—One of the atiluents of Sandy River, heading on the
southwest side of Mount Hood. The grazing lies at great elevations,
and is varied in character between dense west-slope forests, burns, and
small meadows.

Clear Lake.—A range just east of the summit of the Cascades on the
extreme head waters of Clear Creek, which flows into the Deschutes a
few miles south of White River. It was not visited by us.

Clackamas Buttes.—A range on the west side of the Cascades near
the head waters of the Clackamas.River. Not visited.

Hood River.—A river draining the eastern slopes of Mount Hood.
The range is a large one, varied in character, the best part of it lymg
near the northeastern corner of the Cascade Reserve.

Mount Jefferson.—A range on the slopes of Mount Jefferson near the
southwestern corner of the Warm Springs Reservation and on the crest
of the Cascades. The grazing is chiefly in old burns and in the open
forests. The Mount Jefferson range includes also a mountain a short
distance to the westward, known as Minto Mountain.

Three Fingered Jack—A mountain on the crest of the Cascades
between Mount Jefferson and the Santiam-Prineville road, similar in
its EHS TELOr to Mount Jefferson. It is commonly known simply as
“ Jack.

Fish Lake.—A range lying near the Santiam-Prineville road, on the
western slope of the Cascades and on the head waters of the Santiam
and McKenzie rivers. It is varied in character, including balds, heavy
west-slope forests, burns, and a small amount of wet meadow.

Mount Washington.—A range lying on the slopes of Mount Washing-
ton, between the McKenzie and Santiam roads. It is varied in char-
acter, being made up chiefly of lodge-pole pine forests with many old
burns and some meadows.

McKenzie River—A range lying in a westerly direction from the
Three Sisters on the west slope of the mountains, similar in its char-
acter to the Fish Lake Range.

Horse Oreek.— A. range lying also on the head waters of the McKenzie
River, but farther to the southward than the McKenzie River Range
proper, and in a direction southwesterly from the Three Sisters. It
consists of forested mountain slopes and a large area of bottom land,
the latter partly open meadow and partly forested.

Three Sisters.—A range lying near the crest of the Cascades, in about
latitude 44° 10’, and extending chiefly down the eastern slope toward
the head waters of Squaw Creek and Tumelow Creek. It is chiefly
made up of natural meadows and old burns in lodge-pole pine forests,

Willamette Cow Pastures.—A range on the western side of the Cas.
eades between the southern head waters of the McKenzie and the
head waters of the Willamette to the southward. It is similar in char-
acter to the Fish Lake Range.
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 133

Crane Prairie.—A large natural meadow or series of meadows on the
head waters of the main branch of the Deschutes. This is sometimes
known on the maps as the West Fork, but more commonly known in the
region as the Big Deschutes, or simply Big River. Crane Prairie is
the principal source of this river. Early in the season Crane Prairie
is too wet for the pasturage of sheep, and in an occasional season sheep
can hardly get on it at all.

Davis Lake.—Like the following, one of the reservoir sources of the
Deschutes. It lies on the line between the counties of Klamath and
Crook. The range consists chiefly of meadows lying along the west
side of the lake. Early in the season, and sometimes in very wet
years throughout the season, the grazing land is so wet that sheep can
-not be driven upon it. .

Crescent Lake.—A lake lying about 10 miles southwest of Davis
Lake. The range consists mostly of meadows lying to the northeast
of the lake, the best known being the one called Sanderson meadows.

Diamond Lake.—A body of water lying immediately west of the
summit of the Cascades at the western foot of Mount Thielson and
one of the sources of the Umpqua River. It is about 15 miles in a direct
line north of Crater Lake. The range consists in part of meadow:land
at the south end of the lake, but chietly, as on the east side of the lake
and on the lower slopes of Mount Thielson, of burns.

Each of the ranges above described is divided into smaller ranges,
the names of which it seems unnecessary to detail here, as they are
wholly local in their use and do not appear on any maps.

SHEEP FORAGE.

In addition to their classification into three kinds of grazing plants—
grass, weeds, and browse—the herders make one important distinction
in the quality of feed. Itis “light” feed, fattening quickly, but pro-
ducing a ‘‘soft” fat, which is easily lost again if the sheep are compelled
to travel long distances, or it is “strong” feed, not fattening so rapidly,
but producing a “hard” fat, which enables sheep to be driven long dis-
tances without losing much in weight. A good packer and herder,
where feed is plenty, selects the feeding grounds with these conditions
in view, and always puts his sheep in good condition for long drives,
in general giving them light feed in the early part of the summer and
hardening them toward the close of the season. In general, weeds and
swamp grasses are light feed, while the dry-ground bunch grasses,
chamise, and acorns are strong feed. Light feed is more abundant in
spring, strong feed in the autumn. Light feed is made up chiefly of
succulent vegetation containing a preponderanceé of freshly developed
nitrogenous matter; strong feed of vegetation containing a preponder-
ance of substances, particularly starch and other carbohydrates, fully
elaborated fowstorage purposes in the plant. Light feed is comparable
with green fodder, strong feed with grain.

Sheep, when driven by hunger, will eat almost any green or even dead
vegetation, but it is rarely that they reach such a condition in the Cas-
eade Reserve. As arule they make a distinction in the choice of food
from the vegetation over which they range. The following are the
plants to which, from their abundance or general suitability, my atten-
tion was more particulary drawn:

Bear grass (Xerophyllum tenax).—The young stems and even the seed
pods of this plant are readily eaten by sheep, but the tough leaves are
seldom touched, and their rough margins make the mouths of the sheep
sore. It was not seen south of Mount Washington.
134 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

Bluejoint grass (Calamagrostis inexpansa cuprea).—This is one of the
principal grazing plants for sheep in Salmon Prairie. It grows fre-
quently in other similar situations.

Butterweed (Senecio triangularis)—An abundant plant in meadows
and along streams. Sheep are very fond of it.

Clover (Trifolium longipes).—A favorite forage plant of sheep in and
about the meadows. Several other species of clover occur.

Dwarf birch (Betula glandulosa\.—Sheep browse upon this shrub as
high as they can reach, often when the plants are small eating them to
the ground and sometimes killing them. It grows in meadows at
middle elevations.

False hellebore (Veratrum viride)—This, popularly known as “wild
indian corn,” is a plant of which sheep are extremely fond, particularly
in the spring when the young shoots and leaves first appear. The roots
of this plant are poisonous, but no cases of poisoning from this source
were met with. It is usually found in the meadows.

Fireweed (Chamaenerion angustifolium).—A common plant in burns,

both in the west slope forests and in the lodgepole pine forests of the
eastern slopes. When young it is a favorite food of sheep.
' Huckleberry (Vaccinium membranaceum).—Sheep browse readily on
the leaves and twigs of this kind of huckleberry, one of the tallest and
most abundant species. It is very abundant on the south slope of
Mount Hood and in the various other localities frequented by huckle-
berry pickers. It is a characteristic shrub of somewhat open slopes
and burns in the heavy west-slope forests.

Lungwort (Mertensia sibirica),—This was a plant of wet situations in
ihe west-slope forests and was readily cropped by the sheep.

Lupine or ten-finger (Lupinus rivularis)—Thbis and other species of
Lupinus are eagerly eaten by sheep. Lupinus laxiflorus is the one
most widely distributed. In some parts of the lodge-pole pine forest it
is abundant and an important sheep forage.

Oak (Quercus garryana)—When the sheep are driven out of the
mountains in the autumn in the Mount Hood grazing district they pass
through a belt of this oak, which grows mingled with the yellow pines
at their lower elevations and along the streams at a still lower altitude.
The trees are then shedding their acorns, which are commonly produced
in great abundance. The sheep are extremely fond of these acorns,
and they often gorge themselves with them.

Pea vine (Lathyrus).— Various species of this genus occur throughout
the Cascades, and almost all of them are readily eaten by sheep and are
excellent fatteners. Lathyrus oregonensis is abundant in fire-glades of
the lodge-pole pine forests.

Pine grass (Carex pennsylvanica).—The most abundant and charac-
teristic plant of fire-glades in the lodgepole pine forests, under suitable
conditions, as at the southern end of Diamond Lake, forming a fairly
dense turf. It is not considered a superior forage plant for sheep,
though when it first shoots up in the spring they readily eat it. When
the burned area of lodgepole pine is upon a sandy soil the plant is
more scattered, and, together with a small Stipa, is known as “sand
feed.” Sheep scatter widely upon it and can with difficulty be held
together, doubtless searching for more palatable food. From the fact
that this sedge often grows thinly in the lodgepole pine forests it is often
known as “‘pine grass,” a name applied also to various other slender
grasses that grow in the same situation.

Rose (Rosa gymnocarpa).—This is one of the favorite browsing plants
for sheep in the heavy west slope forests,
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 135

Sedge (Carex).—The larger part of the so-called grasses of which the
meadows are made up consists of various species of this genus. Many
of them are eaten readily by sheep.

Sunflower (Balsamorhiza deltoidea).—A characteristic plant of the
yellow-pine forests, said to be an excellent sheep food.

Sunflower (Wyethia)—A plant abundant toward the northern end of
the Cascades in the lower elevations of the yellow pine belt, particu-
larly in treeless openings. It is a favorite spring food of sheep.

Three-leaf or deer-tongue (Achlys triphylla).—One of the characteristic
eee of the heavy west slope forests, and a favorite food plant of the
sheep.

Valerian ( Valeriana sttchensis)—A common plantof moist open slopes,
and burns in the west slope forests; closely eaten by sheep.

Vancouveria (Vancouveria hexandra)—A herbaceous plant of the
heavy west slope forests, very much liked by sheep, and, so far as we
could learn, not distinguished by a popular name.

Vine maple (Acer circinatum).—This is one of the favorite browsing
plants of sheep, and grows in abundance in the heavy west slope for-
ests. We did not meet with it south of the Mount Hood Range district.

Wild-cat grass (Stipa).—This is one of the characteristic grasses of
fire-glades in the lodgepole pine forests. Sheep graze upon it, but itis
not considered good food.

Wild cheat (Bromus).—A favorite grass, common in burns in the
heavy west-slope forests.

Wild tansy (Achillea mitlefolium).—A favorite food of sheep, found
in a great variety of situations, usually in open ground. .It is very
eagerly sought after by the sheep in spring, but later in the season it
becomes dry and less palatable.

Willow (Salix).—Many species of willow grow in the Cascades, and
the leaves and twigs of most of them are eaten rather readily by sheep.
Salix nuttalliit is a characteristic species of burns in the heavy west
slope forests. The others grow chiefly in meadows and along streams.

Wire grass (Juncus balticus).—This plant, which grows in meadows,
is eaten by sheep, but not with much relish.

EFFECTS OF OVERGRAZING.

The effect of a moderate amount of grazing on the lands of the reserve
is the same as the effect of the judicious removal of a grass crop from
a fenced pasture by grazing, or from a meadow by cutting, namely, that
a forage crop is secured without material detriment to the land and
the herbaceous vegetation it bears. I say advisedly ‘a moderate
amount of grazing,” for there is not the slightest question that in many
countries of the Uld World and in some localities of the United States
overgrazing is a serious injury to the forage crop and to the young
growth of forests. By ‘a moderate amount of grazing” I mean graz-
ing only to such an extent that the forage crop does not décrease from
year to year. In general, overgrazing in the Cascades has only been
begun, or perhaps the facts are better expressed by the statement that
up to the present time overgrazing is limited to a few areas in a part
of the Mount Hood district aud a part of the Three Sisters district.
For example, a small range on the west slope of the Cascades, near
Mount Washington, containing an area of about a section, formerly
maintained a band of sheep eight weeks, but now can support them
only about half as long. Overgrazing on a very small scale can be seen
almost anywhere in a sheep country on bedding grounds and along
136 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

well-worn routes of travel for sheep. In such situations are commonly
seen the primary bad effects of overgrazing, namely, the weakening or
killing not only of the herbaceous vegetation, but of shrubs. seedling
trees. and the stnaller saplings.

The principal bad effects of overgrazing are to be attributed rather
to trampling than to actual close cropping. There are very few plants
which from simply being eaten off will fail to grow again, but where
repeatedly trampled, particularly in wet weather, when the plants are
soft and the roots ure easily pressed out of the ground, almost any plant
willsutter. Two bad etfects are observable trom overgrazing—the wash-
ing of the soil and the killing of the vegetation. followed by the substi-
tution of other less valuable forage plants.

Almost the whole territory contained in the Cascade Forest reserve
is made up of a rather loose soil of voleanie origin. It does not wash
and gully very seriously. even when exposed to the action of water. Up
to this time the damage in the mountains due to this cause has amounted
praccically to nothing in any of the localities visited by us.

The killing of the natural vegetation through trampling and over-
grazing has only barely been begun, and the result, which is always to
be expected—namely, the substitution of useless weeds for the original
vegetation—has not yet occurred. The principal evidence of overgraz-
ing thus far is in the decrease of the amount of pasturage afforded by
particular ranges. As cited above, a portion of the Mount Washington
range known as Bunch Grass Ridge originally maintained a band of
sheep eight weeks, but it now keeps a band only about half as long.
The same may be said of a large portion of the range that lies imme-
diately to the east of the Three Sisters, an area which is crossed by
many bands of sheep in going to and from the western part of the
Three Sisters Range district.

While overgrazing in the mountains has not reached the point of ex-
tensively damaging the range. in many portions of the plains to the east
of the mountains the opposite is true. Along Hay Creek. for example,
are gullies 20 feet deep in the hard adobe or gumbo soil. which have
been washed out by the water pourivg down from the adjacent hilis,
long since denuded of grass by overgrazing. The washing bas taken
place since the region was settled, and principally within the last fifteen
years. The actual substitution of useless introduced weeds for the
valuable native torage plants may be seen on a large scale on the Tygh
Hills. north of Tygh Valley and west of the Deschutes River, a sub-
stitution which under present conditions is bound to continue.

One of the first evidences of overgrazing in the mountains is the
restlessness of sheep herders, who, finding a customary range becom-
ing short, drive their bands to some other range which they expect to
find in better condition. Disappointed, they drive on to still another
range, and so the bands follow each other about, wearing out their
sheep by overdriving, and leaving the range with their stock in a very
exhausted condition.

Over most of the reserve the actual damage to the young growth of
timber is, up to the present time. confined chiefly to small areas. such as
bedding grounds and rontes of travel. In such situations the young
pines low enough to be reached and nibbled by the sheep may be seen
standing crooked and incapable of developing into sound trees of a
healthy growth, while seedlings are trampled out entirely. The trouble
from this source, however, is constantly misunderstood on both sides.
J passed through an area of forest land on MeKay Mountain, a western
spur of the Blue Mountains. lying in a direction northeast from Prine-

 
i =
SURVEY= OF FOREST RESERVES. 13%

ville, where sheep had been grazed for twenty-three years. This is the
oldest sheep range in Crook County. In these forests were frequent
areas of young saplings of thoroughly healthy and symmetrical forms
which unquestionably bad not received the slightest injury from sheep
grazing. At the same time along the roud were seen frequently the
gnarled and stunted pine saplings. which showed clearly what doubtless
occurred over wider areas where overgrazing and trampling were simi-
larly carried to an extreme.

The forest conditions on this Blue Mountain spur might form the text
for a long discussion on the effects of forest grazing. bat there is room
here for only a brief comment on a phase of the question that is likely
to escape popular notice. Under ordinary conditions when an opening
is made in a forest by the death and fall of an old tree,and more sun-
light comes down to the ground, a dense growth of sapling es springs up
to fill the opening. These saplings competing with each other for the
light. send up straight tall tranks. and the one or two trees that finally
excel the others and fill the opening possess tall limbless trunks which
make the best of saw logs. If for any reason the seedlings in such an
opening are injured so that only a few live and develop into saplings,
they grow into limb-covered trees valueless for lamber. In the Blue
Mountain spur the effect of sheep grazing will be seen in the next gen-
eration of timber. On those areas in which for any reasou the sheep
have not killed the seedlings. a good quality of tiniber can be cut, while
those areas on which most of the seedlings are now being tramped out
every year will bear trees but not lumber.

FOREST FIRES.

Whatever may be the amount of damage due thus far to overgrazing.
the popular mind has associated with the forest grazing of sheep, if not
distinctly as an effect. certainly as a necessary accompaniment, a kind
of torest damage immeasurably more disastrous up to the present time
than overgraziug. and now almost universally recognized as a public
calamity, namely, forest fires. Without reference to the truth or fallacy
of this popular belief regarding the cause of forest fires in sheep-grazing
districts. the subject ix one of such far-reaching effect on the welfare of
a State and the communities of which it is made up that to ascertain
the causes of forest fires and to devise means for their prevention are
pressing and fundamental necessities. As already stated, in our inves-
tigation the reserve was traversed from the southern to the northern
end. I am confident that there does not exist in the whole reserve a
township of forest land in some part of which forest fires have not
occurred, and it was difficult to find even a single square mile in which
the evidences of fire, recent or remote. were not present. We contem-
plated an estimate of. the acreage of burned areas. but this plan. for
several reasons. was necessarily abandoned. It is possible, therefore,
to make only the general, but no less positive. statement that.in addi-
tion to areas burned over with comparatively little damage to the com-
mercial timber. the reserve contaius hundreds of thousands of acres on
which the timber has been wholly destroyed by fire.

Especial attention was paid in our field examination to the subject
of forest fires. Whenever possible we ascended the highest peaks and
from them examined the adjacent country for the purpose of ascertain-
ing the location of forest fires. In this way we saw about forty fires in
various parts of the reserve, some of them large, most of them small.
The effect of fires upon different types of timber has already been
described (see page 130).
138 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

In connection with the relation of forest fires and sheep grazing it
was necessary to examine with the greatest care into the causes of
forest fires.

EARLY FOREST FIRES.

Historically considered, we must look to the Indians as the first
manipulators of forest fires in this region. It is a clearly established
fact, based on observation, that the Indians of the Willamette Valley,
in western Oregon, were accustomed, before the advent of white men in
that region to as late a period as the early forties, to set fire to the
grass for the purpose of burning it off. Their object in doing this is
supposed to have been chiefly (1) to cause a fresh growth of grass in
the autumn upon which enormous quantities of wild fowl descended to
feed, particularly geese, and (2) for the purpose of killing and roasting
for food the great quantities of grasshoppers that in certain years fed
upon the grass. Similar uses of fire by the aborigines in other parts of
the western United States have been recorded, by which they were
enabled to keep certain large areas denuded of timber. Upon the ces-
sation of these fires, by reason of the intervention of white settlers,
the timber has begun again to encroach upon such areas, and in the
Willamette Valley, for example, we now see frequent groves of Douglas
spruce and white fir about fifty years of age, of remarkably uniform
and symmetrical growth, which have developed through their natural
seeding without human assistance.

Just how many of the old burns in the Cascade Reserve are to be
attributed to the Indians it is impossible to say, but several fire glades
were seen which must have antedated by several decades the settlement
of the country by whites—fire glades in which the evidence of fire was
confined to pieces of charred wood that lay beneath the surface of the
ground, hardly showing the lines of the long-since rotten logs to which
they belonged. Such fire glades occur on the ridges south of Huckle-
berry Mountain, southwest of Crater Lake, which is well known to have
been a favorite resort of the aborigines for many generations. In gen-
eral, however, the number of fires of sufficient age to be attributable to
this period is small. The Indians probably can not be accused of start-
ing fires to a large extent accidentally, or of setting fires indiscrimi-
nately, but it is undoubtedly true that at certain seasons it was their
custom to set fires in the mountains intentionally and systematically in
connection with their fall haunting excursions, when deer were driven
together and killed in large numbers.

A second great source of fires in the Cascades was the early road-
building across the mountains to connect eastern with western Oregon.
A broad band of fires usually accompanied such an enterprise. At that
time the amount of destruction this caused was not appreciated because
most of those who were connected with the building of these roads were
from the Eastern States where timber was abundant, and where the first
prerequisite of agricultural progress was to burn off timber in order to
clear the land for farming purposes. The details of an interesting
method of felling large trees of Douglas spruce (Pseudotsuga mucronata)
were learned from some of the old inhabitants. The trees are large,
commonly 6 feet in diameter at maturity, and the cutting of them was
too expensive and difficult a task. The method of felling the tree was
to bore a hole with a long augur diagonally downward to the heart of
the tree, and to bore another similar hole diagonally upward from the
base of the tree, connecting with the first. A live coal was then dropped
into the hole, the draft through the two augur holes causing the wood
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 139

to take fire. and a roaring conflagration followed which burned away a
large portion of the tree trunk. It was seldom that an ax had to be
used to fell the tree, as the fire almost always ate away a sufficient
portion of the trunk to cause it to fall.

These early causes of fires, however, are now matters of history, and
need to be taken into consideration at the present time only in so far
as they explain the origin of many of the old well-known burns that
antedate the era of sheep grazing in the Cascades.

RECENT FIRES AND THEIR CAUSES.

Of the fires of the present period it may be said, in the first place,
that they are by uo means confined to sheep-grazing areas. Parts of
the southern Cascades in which sheep have never been grazed were
found to be riddled with fires, and in general it may be stated that
forest fires in this region increase proportionately to the increase of
human occupancy, whether the occupants are sheep herders, campers,
road builders, prospectors, or any other class of inen.

Travelers, campers, and Indians.—It will be of interest to give a
somewhat detailed account of the causes of the fires observed by our
party in the course of our travels through the mountains. The great-
est number of fires I should attribute to the class of people known
as “travelers”—families without a definite place of residence, usually
illiterate and poor, who journey about in covered wagons from one State
to another or from one portion ofa State to another, grazing their
horses on the public lands and occasionally by an odd job earning a
little money with which to buy provisions. We repeatedly saw camp
fires which had been left by these people, and which under snitable
conditions might have caused disastrous forest fires At the time of
year when the forest litter and the underbrush are dry, a strong wind
suddenly springing up very frequently causes one of these abandoned
camp fires to develop into a highly destructive agency.

It is clear that a very large majority of the fires in the Cascade for-
ests are due to carelessness rather than to maliciousness, and the efforts
of the Interior Department must undoubtedly be chiefly directed rather
toward preveiting carelessness in handling fires than toward the
detection of malicious fire setters. From the people who showed a will-
ingness to give information as to the causes of tires it was extremely
rare to. learn of a case in which a fire had been known to be set mali-
ciously, though fires known to have been due to carelessness were mat-
ters of everyday comment.

Camping parties, particularly those made up of young and inexpe-
rienced people from towns, are a fertile source of forest fires. These
parties commonly go into the woods for a summer outing, often making
the chief object of their pleasure the hunting and fishing afforded by
the region. Some of these parties are made up of young men who go
into the woods for the special purpose of hunting, but who have little
experience in woodcraft and no knowledge of the proper method of
handling a camp fire. They are often referred to as hunters, but it is
known that real hunters of experience and that old campers of expe-
rience are extremely careful in these matters. Perhaps the designation
‘alleged hunters,’ applied to them by an old rancher and woodsman of
eastern Oregon, will sufficiently distinguish them from real hunters.

The Indians from the two Indian reservations at the east base of the
mountains—the Klamath Reservation and the Warm Springs Reserva-
140 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

tion—still go into the mountains in the autumn to pick huckleberries
and to hunt. I received information of the most diametrically opposite
character regarding these Indians with reference to forest fires, being
assured by some that the Indians were invariably careful to put out .a
fire before leaving, by others that they set fires indiscriminately. Ihad
little opportunity to learn definitely how many fires should be attribated
to this source, but 1 may say that I saw a brightly burning fire at a
recently abandoned camp of Warm Springs Indians on Salmon Prairie.
The day was rainy, however, and it is possible that under other condi-
tions they would have extinguished the fire before leaving the camp.
I am strongly inclined to believe that the Indian agents should see that
when they issue permits to the Indians to go off the reserve it should
be distinctly with the understanding that they are to set no forest fires
and that they are to be personally responsible if they transgress this
regulation.

Road improvement.—On August 4, while we were traveling on the
west slope of the Rogue River—Fort Klamath road—we passed, between
White Horse Creek and the Crater Lake Fork of the road, a distance
of about 3 miles, six fires that evidently had been set to burn stumps or
fallen dead trees out of the road. One of these fires was burning close
to standing timber, had already destroyed several logs upon the ground,
and was roaring through the top of a small black hemlock. It might
very easily have been carried into a large area of standing timber, and
had a strong wind sprung up no one could have prevented it from doing
so. Possiblyit afterwards did. Not far above we found a man with atwo-
horse wagon and tools who was engaged in improving the same stretch
of road. He had been prying small logs out of the road with a crow-
bar, cutting off obstructing tree roots with an ax, and shoveling soil
into the holes in the road. It was unquestionably this man, doubtless
the road supervisor of the district or some one employed by him, who
had set the fires. In reply to a question the man, stopping work on
the log he was engaged upon wheu we met him, said, “Oh, I am going
to pick this one to pieces and burn it out after awhile.” Whether any
of these fires afterwards developed into large forest fires I have no
means of knowing. I do know, however, that a fire set for the same
purpose along the road near the northwestern corner of Klamath Lake
had become unmanageable and burned over a considerable area. When
we passed the place the fire had been extinguished and we saw only the
destruction caused by it. Regarding this possible source of forest
fires, especially with a knowledge of the very disastrous forest fires due
to the early road builders, it should be said that officers in charge of
such work, if they must employ this means of clearing the road, should
use extreme care, should watch the fires closely, and should invariably
see that they are finally extinguished.

Lightning.—It has often been claimed that many forest fires are due
to lightning. Little credence was at first placed by us in these reports.
We found many men who had heard of fires that originated in this
way, but only rarely a man who bad ever seen one. One day, as
Mr. Applegate and myself were upon a peak at the junction of the Cal-
apooia Mountains with the Cascades, looking for forest fires, we saw
close by us, not more than half a mile away in the forest, a small fire,
considerably larger, however, than a campfire should have been. The
region was one remote from the ordinary routes of travel or any place
of public resort. We were therefore curious to know how the fire had
been started, and, supposing it had been caused by a wandering hunter,
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. : 141

we took our bearings and struck out for the spot down the mountain
side through the woods. In due time we saw the smoke a few rods
ahead of us, and hurrying along, we soon came up to the place. We
were astonished to find no evidence of a camp, and for a moment we
were puzzled, until Mr. Applegate cried, “‘Look at that tree!” The
tree was a handsome, live Shasta fir, which had very recently been
struck by lightning. The tree was still standing, but pieces of bark
and shattered wood had been thrown in all directions through the
woods to a distance of at least 200 feet. The tree was exactly 10 feet
in circumference. The fire had been confined to the ground and had
burned over a small area about 50 by 200 feet, including eleven large
trees of black hemlock and the amabilis fir, several fallen dead trees,
and probably 200 saplings, most of them small ones. The forest litter
and some of the logs were still burning, but on account of the presence
of many green saplings in the undergrowth and of a small huckleberry
( Vaccinium scoparium), the fire was progressing slowly. Indeed, the
forest litter was so light that only a very strong wind could have made
the fire a destructive one. In other situations or under slightly differ-
ent: circumstances, however, the fire might have proved very disastrous.
I have cited this case somewhat in detail, as actual records of light-
ning fires are rare in this country. Not long afterwards, near the
northeast base of Mount Washington, we passed through a thunder-
storm of an extremely violent character, in which the strokes were
repeated and terrific and many trees in the immediate neighborhood
must have been struck. The rainfall accompanying this storm, though
evidently sufficient to put out any fire that may have arisen, was much
lighter than I have ever seen in the Eastern United States, and I was
informed that sometimes not enough rain accompanied such a storm to
dampen the forest litter. Itis possible that lightning fires may be much |
more frequent in the Cascades than has been supposed, and the subject
is certainly one worthy of further investigation by those who have an
opportunity to be in the region frequently.

Other causes.—Near the head of Wood River, on some mountains to
the east of the reserve, in the Fort Klamath country, occurred in early
August a destructive forest fire. It was impossible for us to examine
this fire on the spot, but we were informed on reliable authority by
those who had looked into the matter with care that the fire had origi-
nated ina camp of some men who were splitting shakes, a sort of large
coarse shingle, and they set a number of small fires to keep themselves,
so they said, from annoyance by-mosquitoes. Whether the escape of
the fire was due to mere carelessness, or whether it was intentional,
there is no means of knowing. This fire is estimated to have burned
over 15,000 to 18,000 acres.

I have known in a few instances of small forest fires starting from
smudges which had been set in a pile of rotten logs to protect camp
horses from mosquitoes and other insects.

Alleged hunters, in the belief that deer will hunt out smoke to rid
themselves of deer flies, are said, and although I have never seen a case
I have every reason to believe that many occur, to set single fires and
sometimes lines of fires in the woods, particularly in the vicinity of salt
licks. In August of this year a fire was burning in the vicinity of a
salt lick in Anna Creek Canyon, in a locality away from the route of
travel and of such inaccessibility that only a man searching for game
is likely to have been there. It is very probable that this fire was set
for such a purpose. :
142 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

RELATION OF FIRES TO SHEEP GRAZING.

It is of primary importance in this investigation that an unbiased
opinion should be given on the relation borne by sheep herders to forest
fires. It has been alleged that sheep herders systematically set fire to
the forest in order to burn off the timber, so that a growth of weeds
and grass will spring up to furnish grazing in succeeding years. On
the other-hand, the publication of this statement within the past year
in Oregon newspapers has brought forth most positive denials by
stockmnen that this practice exists. This phase of the subject was a
matter of special inquiry. We asked again and again of all classes of
people about this matter, and whenever a man informed us that such a
practice existed we endeavored to find out the place, the time, and all
other detailed circumstances of the cases with which he was familiar.
It was always diffieult, when we came down to such details, to secure
anything more than inconclusive circumstantial evidence. From the
people who were antagonistic to sheep grazing in the Cascades we
would have been able to learn of very few cases positively attributable
to this cause. With the sheepmen themselves, however, we talked
very frankly, and as a result of these conversations I may say, without
betraying any confidences and without citing individual cases, that it
is undoubtedly true that in the early days of sheep grazing in the Cas-
cades there was a widespread belief among the sheepmen that burning
off the forest was of positive importance to the sheep-grazing industry,
and that many herders undoubtedly did systematically burn off areas
in the forest either where the density of the forest had prevented the
growth of suitable grazing plants, or where they had already grazed
and were about to remove to another camp, or when they were leaving
the forest at the end of the season. How general this practice was it
is impossible to say. Many of the sheep herders and packers deny
ever having set fires themselves, or ever having known of a fire being
set by others. I have no doubt that in many cases such claims are
correct.

It is clear that at the present time most sheep herders and. packers
are extremely careful not to allow their camp fires to spread and not to
set fires intentionally. This I attribute to various causes. In the first
place, the increase in the West of a knowledge of the importance of
protecting our timber resources has been very marked, and rarely does
one find a man who is not ready to say that in his opinion the Western
forests should be preserved from fire. Governor Lord has urged upon
the State legislature the importance of preserving the forests within
the State. The following quotation is from his biennial message as
published in the Portland Oregonian for March 31, 1897:

The frequent destruction of our forests by fires, caused by carelessness or design,
should bestopped. Their preservation is a matter of great importance, and if some-
thing is not done to prevent it, great injury will result to our timber interests. This

is a subject that demands your attention, and some means must be devised for better
enforcement of our laws.

The State of Oregon has passed a stringent tire law, the United
States Government has passed a still more stringent fire law,! and
although no criminal convictions have as yet been made under these
acts, a knowledge that they would be made on sufficient evidence has
been a strong factor in preventing fires from being set openly. Some
notices of these laws have been posted at camping places through the

 

1 For the full text of these laws, see pages 144 and 145.
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 143

forests, but not by any means to such an extent as is desirable. It is
undoubtedly true also that the popular accusation of sheepmen as fire
setters has acted as an effective warning to them. They realized that
unless the reasons for this accusation are removed there is a strong
prey of their exclusion from the reserve, and this has led them

oth to be more careful with fires and to insist publicly that they are
careful.

The necessity of forest fires to the summer grazing industry has
undoubtedly been overestimated both by the general public and fre-
quently by stockmen themselves. A fire on an occupied range is objec-
tionable because it both burns up the forage and menaces the sheep
herder’s camp and often the sheep themselves. Cases are known in
which a whole camp outfit and provisions have been burned by the
accidental spreading of a fire while a herder was away from camp with
his sheep, and other cases are known in which sleep have narrowly
missed being caught and burned up in a forest fire. Besides this, a sin-
gle fire in the black pine belt, for exainple, is followed after a few years
by such a growth of saplings among fallen logs as to make it exceed-
ingly difficult to drive a band of sheep through. Ifthe logs are charred,
the wool of the sheep becomes blackened by the charcoal dust to such
an extent as to decrease the value of the wool often a cent a pound.
Furthermore, as already stated under the head of the effect of fires in
the upper portion of the yellow pine belt, a fire is often followed by a
dense growth of underbrush, which in itself prevents a growth of forage
and makes traveling across such an area almost impossible.

Against these statements, however, may be set the indisputable fact
that a large amount of the grazing in the Cascades is upon old burns,
and that had these burns never occurred the available grazing area
would have been reduced by precisely that amount.

The statement is often heard among sheep herders that close grazing
is a positive benefit to the forests, because it prevents the spread of
forest fires by the removal of the leaves and branches that later make
up the dry forest litter. That the forests may be kept clean in this
manner is unquestionable, but it is equally unquestionable that this
means of preventing forest fires would prove very costly in the end.
This has already been discussed under the head of overgrazing.

We did not this year come upon any fires that we could trace to
sheep herders or packers, nor did we learn of any fires known to have
been set by them. We did, however, see fires that were in localities
where sheep had been grazed, and some of them I have no doubt orig-
inated from this source, probably having spread by accident, possibly
by intent. It is clear that the extent of the practice among sheep men
of systematically setting forest fires has been overestimated. It is
interesting to note that during the progress of our season’s investiga-
tion, while we found no fires that could be traced by positive evidence
to sheep men, we did see campfires abandoned by travelers, by campers,
and by Indians, fires set by road builders and by lightning, and fires
set for the purpose of creating smudges.

SLOWNESS OF REFORESTATION UNDER ADVERSE CONDITIONS.

One phase of the forest-fire evil in the Cascades must still be men-
tioned, the slowness of reforestation in certain areas. On several of
the old burns there was evidence that many years had elapsed since
the fires that destroyed the trees had done their work and upon inquiry
it was found that a surprisingly long period had intervened. I was
144 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

informed, for example, that the burn on the upper west slope of the
Santiam-Prineville road occurred earlier than thirty years ago. This
burn is now grown up to snow brush (Ceanothus velutinus) and other
shrubs, and no evidences of reforestation are in sight. Some portions
of the great burn on the south slope of Mount Hood, I was informed
are more than forty years old, and at present they bear only scattered
saplings. It is clear that in many such areas, where the conditions
are naturally unfavorable to the growth of trees, reforestation must be
extremely slow, and a hundred years is not too low an estimate for the
period that must elapse before a young forest covering of even moderate
density will return.

MEANS OF LESSENING FIRES.

Before leaving this subject I wish to make certain suggestions, which
from my experience I believe will prove useful, in addition to the more
special provisions outlined below, iu reducing the number of forest fires.
Have printed upon cloth, and with suitable catch words for headings,
in conspicuous type, notices of the forest-fire laws and their penalties,
pointing out especially that not merely is the setting of forest fires
punishable by fine and imprisonment, but that leaving a camp fire with-
out extinguishing it is also punishable in the same manner. ‘These
notices should be posted at frequent intervals along all the roads that
enter or cross the reserve, and at as many camping places as possible.
The number of fire notices now in the Cascade Forest Reserve is
altogether too small, and some of them, being printed on paper and in
an inconspiguous manner, are easily overlooked or destroyed by the
elements. There should be twenty notices where there is now but one
Scores of postmasters and other Government employees or pelsons
interested in the preservation of the forests would take pleasure in
posting these notices at suitable places.

One or a few convictions under the general forest-fire law of the United
States would prove of the highest importance as a warning and a check
to carelessness. The malicious fire setter usually so covers up his tracks
that it is difficult to secure evidence sufticient to convict, but a convic-
tion for the minor offense of leaving a camp fire without extinguishing
it would be extremely easy. Our own party, had that been our busi-
ness, could readily have secured in several cases evidence sufficient to
convict of this offense.

FIRE LAWS.

In order to call more directly to the attention of those who shall receive
this report the seriousness of the offense of setting forest fires the text
of the Oregon fire law and the Federal forest-fire law is cited in full.

AN ACT To protect timber and other property from fire.

Be it enacted by the legislative assembly of the State of Oregon:

Section 1. If any person shall maliciously, with intent to injure any other person,
by himself or any other person, kindle a fire on his own land or the land of any other
person, and by means of such fire the buildings, fences, crops, or other personal prop-
erty, or wooded timber lands of any other person shall be destroyed or injured, he
shall, on conviction, be punished by a fine not less than twenty dollars nor more than
one thousand dollars, or by imprisonment in the county jail not less than three
months nor more than twelve months, according to the aggravation of the offense.

Sxc. 2. Ifany person shall without malice kindle any fire in any field, pasture,
enclosure, forest, prairie, or timber land not his own, without the consent of the
owner, and the same shall spread and do damage to any building, fences, crops,
cord wood, bark, or other personal property not his own, or to any wood or timber
land not his own, he shall on conviction be punished by a fine of not less than ten
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 145

dollars nor more than one hundred dollars and costs, according to the aggravation of
the offense, and shall stand committed until the fine and costs are paid.

Sec. 3. Any person who shall enter upon the lands of another person for the pur-
pose of hunting or fishing, and shall without the consent of the owner of said lands,
kindle any fire thereon, shall be punished by a fine not Jess than ten dollars nor
more than one hundred dollars; and if such fire be kindled maliciously, and with
the intent to injure any other person, such offender shall be punished by a fine not
less than twenty dollars nor more than two hundred and fifty dollars, or by impris-
onment in the county jail not less than three months nor more than twelve months.

Src. 4. Auy person or persons who shall wilfully set fire to any wooded country
or forest belonging to the State or to the United States, or to any person or persons,
shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction before a court of
competent jurisdiction, shall be punished by a fine not exceeding one thousand
dollars, or imprisonment not exceeding one year, or by both such fine and imprison-
ment: Provided, Thatnothing herein contained shall apply to any person who in good
faith sets a back tire to prevent the extension of a fire already burning.

Sec. 5. Upon any prosecution under this act, one half of the fine imposed shall be
paid to the person who first gives information thereof to the district attorney for the
district in which the offense is committed, and the other moiety shall be paid into
the county treasury for the benetit of the common school fund of the county in
which said fine is collected.

Sec. 6. It is hereby made the duty of the governor of this State to issue a procla-
mation on the first day of July of each year, calling public attention to the provisions
of this act and warning all persons against violating the same. It is also made the
duty of each circuit judge of this State to read the provisions of this act to each grand
jury when charging them as to their duties.

Sec. 7. Inasmuch as there is urgent necessity for the protection of timber and
other property from fires, this bill shall take effect and be enforced from and after
its approval by the governor.

’ Filed in the office of the secretary of State February 20, 1893.

AN ACT To prevent forest fires on the public domain.

_ Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America
an Congress assembled, That any person who shall wilfully or maliciously set on fire,
or cause to be set on fire, any timber, underbrush, or grass upon the public domain,
or shall carelessly or negligently leave or suffer fire to burn unattended near any tim-
ber or other inflammable material, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and,
upon conviction thereof in any district court of the United States having jurisdic-
tion of the same, shall be fined in a sum not more than five thousand dollars or be
imprisoned for a term of not more than two years, or both.

Src. 2. That any person who shall build a camp fire, or other fire, in or near any
forest, timber, or other inflammable material upon the public domain, shall, before
breaking camp or leaving said fire, totally extinguish the same. Any person failing
to do so shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and, upon conviction thereof in
any district court of the United States having jurisdiction of the same, shall be fined
in a sum not more than one thousand dollars, or be imprisoned for a term of not more
than one year, or both.

Sec. 3. That in all cases arising under this act the fines collected shall be paid into
the public school fund of the county in which the lands where the oflense was com-
mitted are situate.

Approved, February 24, 1897.
RELATION OF FOREST FIRES IN THE CASCADES TO WATER SUPPLY.

One of the cogent reasons for the preservation of our western forests
in general is the importance of a forest covering in conserving and reg-
ulating the water supply needed for irrigation purposes. An investi-
gation of the effects of sheep grazing in the Cascade Reserve would not
be complete without a consideration of this phase of the subject.

The west slope of the Cascade Range of Oregon has a heavy rainfall,
and in the country through which this rainfall flows, chiefly the valleys
of the Willamette, Rogue, and Umpqua rivers, irrigation is carried on
to only a very small extent, and the water supply is more than suffi-
cient. Therefore, so far as the west slope of the Cascades is concerned,
the question of preserving the water supply for irrigation purposes does
not arise.

S. Doc. 189——10
146 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

The general question of the extent of the influence of forest denuda-
tion on the increase of floods is in such a state of controversy that no spe-
cific general conclusion can be drawn. We have no information relative
to the west slope of the Cascades that throws any new light on the sub-
ject. The closely related subject of the washing and gullying of soil is
also one with which this report has little concern. Within the reserve
the damage from this source up to the present time is practically nothing.
On the treeless plains to the east, however, deep gullies in the hard
soil are frequent. For several miles along the main road through the
valley of Hay Creek are gullies with vertical walls otten 20 feet in height.
This has been torn out by water since the region was settled, principally
within the last fifteen years, and is due, without question, to the denu-
dation of adjacent portions of the plains by the removal of the grass
through overgrazing.

On the eastern slope the reserve is drained chiefly by the Deschutes
River, partly toward the south by the tributaries of the Klamath River.
The southern sources of the Deschutes and the principal sources of the
Klamath River in the Cascades are in a peculiar country geologically.
The soil in this region consists chiefly of pulverized pumice stone or
voleanic ashes. Neither melting snow nor rain falling upon this soil is
drained off upon the surface, but sinks rapidly and appears in the form
of enormous springs near the base of the mountains or upon their lower
slopes. These springs are of nearly uniform flow throughout the year,
and I question whether the denudation of these pumice-soil areas
through forest tires or other causes would have a material effect upon
their flow and therefore upon the flow of the streams that depend upon
them. These waters are comparatively little used for irrigation pur-
poses, but, assuming that they will be used to a far greater extent here-
after, I question whether special provisions for the preservation of the
forest covering in this portion of the Cascades will ever prove necessary
in this connection. “

In other types of soil, however, such as those which exist from the
Three Sisters northward—soils in which the water does not at once
penetrate, but which usually flows off on or near the surface—the con-
ditions are entirely different, and while I can present no positive and
conclusive evidence that such denudation as has taken place up to the
present time has caused a deficiency of irrigation water, I am convinced
that further denudation might readily do so. Changes might result
which would be of serious detriment to the interests of the country,
including all the area from Tumellow Creek northward to the Columbia.
At the present time this area is only beginning its development as a
grain-raising country, and whenever better methods of transportation
are secured, such as are now promised by a railroad system the con-
struction of which has already been begun, the importance of water for
irrigation purposes will become coustantly greater. I was told by Mr.
W. R. Booth, keeper of the tollgate on the eastern slope of the Santiam-
Prineville road, a man violently opposed to mountain sheep grazing,
that many of the mountain streamlets that formerly flowed through-
out the season were now drying up in summer. He cited as examples
that Cache Creek carries less and less water every year, and that a
streamlet 4 miles northwest of the tollgate, emptying into Blue Lake
and finally into the Metolias, in 1893 flowed a full stream, in 189-4 less,
aud in 1895 went dry. It was dry in the fall of 1896 and again in 1897,
Mr. O. C. Yocum, who has lived at old Government Camp, on the south-
west slope of Mount Hood, for fifteen years, stated that on areas burned
within that period, streamlets that before ran all the season now became
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 147

dry almost as soon as the snow had gone. These observations, if cor-
rect, indicate that denudation of the mountain slopes by forest fires
may be expected to influence, perhaps seriously, the flow of their
dependent streams.

IRRIGATION IN WASCO COUNTY.

Among the people of the country the only demand that has arisen
for a protection of the water supply seems to be confined to a portion of
Wasco County consisting of the section between the Deschutes River on
the east, the Warm Springs Indian Reservation on the south, and the
Columbia River on the north. Here is a strip of territory varying from
10 to 15 miles in width, bounded on the east by the Deschutes River
and on the west by the forested area of the Cascade Mountains. This
strip of territory is a plateau devoid of trees and divided by east and
west canyons into separate blocks. The largest of these blocks is the
one lying immediately south of the canyon of White River abutting
upon the Deschutes River on the east in a canyon wall nearly 2,000 feet
in height. This block is known as the Waupinitia Plain or Juniper Flat.
The principal industry of the whole strip is wheat raising. The rain-
fall is so limited that the wheat crop is frequently a failure, and from
the peculiar situation of the plain, drained on three sides and receiving
no streams from the fourth, many of the ranches during the summer
drought are wholly without water. When the wells “go dry,” water
for household purposes, and sometimes even for stock, must be hauled
by wagon, the ranchers in some cases being compelled to go 8 miles for
it, making a round trip of 16 miles. To remedy the difficulty, irriga-
tion ditches are now being constructed to carry water to the ranches
to be used chiefly for watering stock, for domestic purposes, and for
irrigating a garden patch and a small orchard.

I was told by Mr. Samuel B. Driver, a raucher living near Wamic, on
one of the blocks of the plateau north of the Waupinitia Plain, that
the adjacent streams—Rock Creek, Gate Creek, and Three-mile Creek—
have shown a gradual decline in the last ten years in the amount of
their summer flow. This decline he attributes to the trampling of the
ground by sheep in the mountains at the head waters of these streams.
He believes that within thirty years there will be no water in the stream
beds in the fall of the year. To these statements should be offset the
contrary evidence of other residents. The sheep men in general, aud
some of the ranchers, maintained that the decline of water was wholly
accounted for by the tapping of these streams with irrigation ditches.
As a sheep packer tersely expressed it in the idiom of the region, ‘“‘Why,
the creeks can’t pack enough water to fill the —— ditches.”

I made careful inquiry for actual records of summer water levels,
but could learn of uone. Some valuable information in this direction,
however, was secured from Mr. W. N. McCorkle, of Tygh Valley, who
for eighteen years has maintained a grist mill on Badger Creek, another
of the streams on the head waters of which sheep are grazed in summer.
Only one irrigation ditch, carrying 12 inches of water, has been taken
out of this stream. About three-fourths of, the water carried by the
stream in summer is used by the mill. Mr. McCorkle states that this
creek has no higher nor more turbid spring floods in recent years and
carried no less water in summer than formerly. This is the only
information I could secure in the nature of a stream measurement.
Certainly the mill owner would have noted any important diminution
in a margin of only one-fourth.
148 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

The available evidence is not sufficient to settle this question, but the
ranchers, while every opportunity for careful consideration of their
proposition is due them, must present a stronger case than they have
yet presented if they are to maintain their contention.

EFFECT OF FORESTS ON THE MELTING OF SNOW.

The influence of the forest cover of the Cascades on the melting of
snow was a matter on which we soughtinformation. During the winter
of 1896-97 there was a controversy in the Oregon newspapers in which
Mr. John Minto had maintained that the forest covering was of no value
in lessening the rapidity of the melting of snow in spring. The points
made by Mr. Minto were that in small groves of trees the snow goes off
in spring earlier than in surrounding open areas, that the temperature
inside a forest is slightly higher in winter than in the open, and that
the great snow areas left upon the mountains late in summer are almost
invariably outside the forest area. On these premises Mr. Minto based
his conclusion.

By actual observation and by the securing of snowfall records and
other facts we learn that, while Mr. Minto’s premises are of unques-
tioned accuracy, his conclusions do not follow, and that as a matter of
fact over almost the whole timbered area the snow goes off much more
slowly in spring than in open areas under the same couditions. It
is true, and there are various evident reasons why it should be true,
that under a small grove of trees in an open plain the ground becomes
bare earlier in the spring than in the open, but it is unnecessary to go
into the details here. It is true from actual temperature records that
the shade temperature within a forest is slightly higher than the shade
temperature in the open, but this is not the only condition that affects
the melting of snow. It is true in general that the snow found upon
mountains late in summer lies upon open slopes, but this is due to a
heavy snowfall, dense drifting, and a retarded melting caused by low
temperature at these high elevations or on northerly exposures. The
absence of timber does not prevent the snow from melting, but the
presence of snow through the whole or nearly the whole year will not
allow the timber to grow.

In the Fort Klamath plain, part of which is timbered and part open,
we found that the snow disappeared in spring about six weeks earlier
in the open than in the forest. At Government Camp, on the southwest
slope of Mount Hood, we were informed, the snow lies about six weeks
longer in the forest than it does on denuded areas having the same
exposure and elevation. Similar information was received regarding
various other areas, and the general fact that the timber covering
retards the melting of snow is abundantly and conclusively shown.

FUTURE OF SHEEP GRAZING IN OREGON.

_ Before proceeding to a consideration of the method of dealing with
the sheep-grazing question, an estimate of the future of the industry
so far as it affects the Cascade Reserve will not be without value. In
general, the progress of sheep grazing in the Cascades has been from
the north toward the south and from the eastern toward the western
slope. The areas over which grazing is likely to extend in the imme-
diate future are westward and southward from the Three Sisters on the
west slope and southward to some extent from the Diamond Lake area
on the eastern slope. This extension will not be rapid, provided the
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 149

number of sheep to be pastured in the Cascades does not continue to
increase. If the number does increase and all the present available
areas become overgrazed, fires are almost sure to occur in areas now
well timbered—fires which are not countenanced by the best element of
stockmen, but which will be caused by irresponsible packers and
herders. /

A general belief prevails that the increasing value of wool and
mutton will cause an important and conspicuous increase in the number
of sheep, and that the summer grazing land will in a few years become
overgrazed. This conclusion at first sight appears plausible, but it must
be remembered that Oregon 1s a country on which other parts of the
United States draw very largely for their lambs; and as the demand
for stock sheep is on the increase, and will probably continue to increase
for some years, it is unquestionable that a Jarge part of the expected
increase in eastern Oregon will quickly leave the State. So fully and
reasonably were the probable results of these fluctuations of the market
and their effect upon stock sbeep explained to me by a prominent owner
in eastern Oregon, Mr. J. N. Williamson of Prineville, that I am disposed
to accept his judgment that within the next few years the number of
sheep in eastern Oregon will not materially increase, but that succeed-
ing this period of a large outside demand for stock sheep an overpro-
duction in Oregon will take place, so that at the end of, say, four or
five years a marked increase will probably have shown itself.

In this connection I may say that an increase of the available range,
should the demand for range increase, seems not impracticable. Under
the peculiar conditions that exist in the lodge-pole pine forests on the
pumice soils of the southern portion of the sheep range (described on
page —), I see no reason why under a system of intelligent and skilled
forage management experiments can not be made. It seems to me
probable that the forage output of Crane Prairie, for example, might
be doubled, but the experiment must be conducted with great care and
the effects carefully watched by measuring the run off of the main fork
of the Des Chutes.

REMEDIAL MEASURES.

Two extreme remedies have been proposed for the present unstable
aud unsatisfactory system: On the one side the total exclusion of sheep,
and on the other the abolition of the reserve.

EXCLUSION OF SHEEP FROM THE RESERVE.

Assuming that the Interior Department adopts and puts into execu-
tion the policy of exclusion, the evils incident to overgrazing would of
course be prevented. But what would be the effect on the forest fires?
Would they cease? If they would, and if exclusion were the only
remedy that would bring this about, no question could fairly be raised
against it. But from the fact that destructive fires occurred in the
Cascades long before they were used as a sheep range, that destructive
fires have occurred in parts of the reserve in which sheep bave never
grazed, and that destructive fires are to-day occurring from a variety of
causes that have no connection with sheep grazing, it can not be main-
tained that exclusion of sheep would wholly stop the forest fires.
150 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

DIFFICULTIES BETWEEN SHEEPMEN AND RANCHERS.

One common and persistent source of opposition to the grazing of
sheep in the reserve is the ranchers who live along the routes over
which the sheép customarily pass as they are driven to and from the
mountains. These ranchers own plats, comparatively small in most
cases, of fenced arable land, taken up for the most part under the home-
stead act, and commonly, therefore, containing 160 acres. The fenced
area is not sufficiently large in addition to the land under cultivation,
to furnish pasturage for the few horses and cows required to work the
ranch and supply the mild luxuries of milk and butter. Their only
pasturage resource, therefore—for under the existing land laws they
can neither buy nor lease any more land from the Government—is to
run their stock upon the outside range. Between one rancher and
another the customary range of his neighbor, though he has no title to
it, is respected. But many of the sheep herders—uot all—in driving
their bands toward the mountains in spring, when the new grass is in
excellent condition, without the slightest consideration for the rancher,
and often doubtless to pay back a score of an earlier year’s quarrel,
will bring their sheep up to the very fences and the grass may be eaten
oft so close that for the remainder of the season a cow can not get a
nibble. There is no law, except the questionable law of the Winches-
ter, by which the rancher can defend his home, and he earnestly sup-
ports the demand for exclusion, believing-that if the sheep are kept
out of the mountains the industry would be ruined and his own little
range left free. I am confident, however, that this expected result
would not be effected by exclusion, but that the sheep would be
crowded into the lower range and the difficulty, except in a few favora-
bly situated places, would be increased. A remedy, and perhaps the
most easily available one, has been suggested in the form of local leg.
islation prescribing limits (say a distance of half a mile) within which
a band of sheep shall not be driven toward a ranch.

DIFFICULTIES BETWEEN SHEEPMEN AND CATTLEMEN,

Under the present Jand laws any man has aright to graze any amount
of any kind of stock on any portion of the public lands (forest, Indian
and military reserves, and national parks excepted) at any time. Nat-
urally, sheep are very close grazers and an area on which they are
pastured can not be used for either cattle or horses. ‘They won’t
work together.” Furthermore, sheep are herded stock, while cattle
and horses are never herded. As a result, a sheep owuer can drive his
sheep to any portion of the public range he may select, and can there-
fore exercise essentially a prior right to any cheice piece of grazing
land and exclude allother stockmen from it. Theonly limit to asheep
owner’s progress over the public range is, first, mutual consent between
himself and his stock-grazing neighbors as to limits; second, the use of
physical force. Between reasonable men mutual consent is usually
effective. Between men who can not come to an agreement various
discouragements are adopted, such as poisoning sheep by scattering
on the ground castor-oil beans or saltpeter mixed with salt, burning up
the sheep herder’s camp when he is away herding his sheep, or opening
fire on a band with buckshot or bullets. Occasionally these amenities
end in the death ofone or more men by shooting. Details of such cases
need not be given here.

It is an interesting and important fact, however, that whatever the
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 151

difficulties between cattlemen and sheepmen regarding winter ranges
in the plains, they are agreed in desiring the summer-range privilege
for sheep in the mountains, the sheepmen, of course, from its distinct
addition to their grazing opportunities, the cattlemen because the tem-
porary removal of sheep from the plains leaves a larger amount of
summer forage there for their own stock, particularly in the canyons
and moist bottom lands.

OTHER DIFFICULTIES.

According to the statistics given earlier in the report, 101,960 sheep
were grazed last year in the Three Sisters and the Upper Deschutes
range districts. It appears from examination of the original data that
of these sheep only 8,660 were owned in Crook County, all the others
being owned in the counties of Wasco and Sherman. Now, as the only
routes to the Three Sisters and the Upper Deschutes districts are
through Crook County, it follows that 93,300 sheep not owned in Crook
County and paying no taxes there were driven across that county, eat-
ing up a large amount of forage that otherwise would have been avail-
able for the stock raisers of the county and causing damage to the
roads, which must be repaired at the expense of the taxpayers of the
county. The most practicable and direct remedy for this, it appears
to me, lies not in excluding sheep from the reserve, but in levying on
the transient sheep owners a county toll tax, offsetting the amount of
damage sustained by the county. This has been done in Inyo County,
Cal., and doubtless elsewhere. The legislative functions of the coun-
ties of Oregon are extremely limited constitutionally, but the State
could undoubtedly make the necessary enactment to remedy both this
and the preceding difficulties.

Reference has already been made to a general opposition to sheep
grazing in the reserve on the part of those who look upon the reserve
as a park, to be withheld from the general use of the public, instead of
a reservation of natural resources to be maintained in a state of the
highest continued production. Congress by its legislation has repudi-
ated this park idea of the forest reserves as a whole, but has made it
possible to provide for the maintenance as parks of such portions as
are admittedly suitable for this purpose and are demanded as such by
the local or general public.

IMPORTANCE OF SHEEP GRAZING TO THE COMMUNITY.

It is important to consider what would be the effect of exclusion on
the trade relations and commercial welfare of the State of Oregon.
Of the wool clip (that is the wool product) of 1897, there had been sold
up to September, at The Dalles alone, the principal shipping point
for eastern Oregon, about 8,000,000 pounds, at an average of 11 cents
per pound, amounting to $880,000. To this must be added the sale of
mutton and stock sheep, the statistics of which are not available. Of
the three principal products of eastern Oregon—wool, beef, and
wheat—it is a matter of common belief, frequently expressed, that the
money that comes into the hands of wool growers is the most important
as ready cash in the community; that the nature of the business is
such as to make it a quick distributor of money, and to add in a very
material way to the general prosperity. According to the State census
of Oregon for 1895, the wool clip of Crook County, for example, in that
year was 1,983,325 pounds. Taking 15 cents as an average price, this
amounts to $297,498.75. When it is considered that the population of
152 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

Crook County, according to the census of 1895, was only 3,212, and that
therefore the wool clip alone brings into the county an average of about
$92.62 per capita each year, the importance of the wool growing business
asasupporter of local prosperity isatonceevident. As aspecific illustra-
tion of the significance of these figures I cite from the Massachusetts State
census and statistics of manufactures for 1895 as follows: Population
of Massachusetts, 2,500,183; manufactures of cotton goods, $86,689,082 ;
of boots and shoes, $76,882,713; food preparations, $43,984,375;
machines and machinery, $23,785,409. The total product of these
manufacturing industries, the largest in the State of Massachusetts, is
$231,341,579, an average of $92.53 per capita. In brief, the wool clip
alone of Crook County is of as much commercial importance to its
people as the tive largest manufacturing industries of Massachusetts
combined are to the people of that State. Crook County is, for its
population, a large purchaser of general merchandise, most of which is
either produced in the Willamette Valley or is shipped from outside
the State through Portland. The prosperity of Crook County, there-
fore, is of importance to the prosperity of the whole State. Similar
trade relations, varying in each case, exist in most of the thirteen other
counties of eastern Oregon. Both the men who make laws and the
men who administer them must weigh carefully the effect of their
action before striking a blow at one of the leading industries of a region
such as would be struck in the present case by excluding sheep from
the reserve. Many ranchers and other men who have a dislike of
sheep, of the methods of some sheep owners, and of the devastating
effect of overgrazing, nevertheless stated that, in their opinion, the
exclusion of sheep from the reserve was against the best commercial
interests of their communities.

ABOLITION OF THE RESERVE.

The proposition, on the other extreme, to abolish the Cascade Reserve
originated with the sheep owners, and doubtless did a great deal to
foster the general public opinion that the sheep owners were carrying
on an industry opposed to the best interests of the State. It has always
been a matter of surprise to me that the sheep owners, instead of taking
the almost inevitably untenable stand that the reserve be not estab-
lished, did not support the movement, but demand that the right to
graze be conceded to them. This is now explained. I was reliably
informed by leading sheep owners that they were misled by a prominent
official, who supposed, and accordingly told them, that if the reserve
was created sheep would undoubtedly be excluded. Under these ¢ir-
cumstances they took the only course open to them, namely, to main-
tain the then existing conditions by opposing the creation of the reserve.
From my conversations with representative sheep owners I am con-
vinced that a large majority of them, if they are given the grazing
privilege on equitable terms, will cordially accept the reserve as a
public benefit.

A NEW SYSTEM OF REGULATIONS.

After a thorough examination of the whole subject of sheep grazing
in the Cascade Reserve, my conclusions are that the evils of the present
system can be corrected neither on the one side by abolishing the
reserve, nor on the other side by the exclusion of sheep, without in
either case inflicting much more serious evils upon the welfare of the
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 153

State. I am confident, however, that a system can be adopted which,
honestly and intelligently carried out, will stop the real evils of the
present system and at the same time maintain the interests of all the
communities concerned.

CLOSED AREAS.

The first step toward a satisfactory system of sheep-grazing regula-
tions in the Cascade Reserve is to provide absolute protection for those
places which the people of the State require as public resorts or for
reservoir purposes. The grandeur of the natural scenery of the Cas-
cades is coming to be better known. Even before the forest reserve
was created a movement was on foot to have the Mount Hood region
and the Crater Lake region set aside as national parks, and since the
reserve was created the eminent desirability and propriety of the ear-
lier movement has been clearly recognized, both in the continued efforts
of the people to keep sheep from grazing in these regions and in the
concession in the petition of the sheep owners that if the Cascade
Reserve as a whole be abolished the Crater Lake and Mount Hood
regions be maintained as smaller and separate reserves on which sheep
be not allowed to graze. In the tentative regulations of the General
Land Office dated June 30, 1897, the justice of these representations
was officially recognized by a rule excluding sheep from grazing “upon
or in the vicinity of the Bull Run Reserve (a small reservoir reserve con-
tiguous to the Cascade Reserve at its northwestern extremity), Crater
Lake, Mount Hood, Mount Rainier in another reserve in the State of
Washington, or other well-known places of public resort or reservoir
supply.” Before this exclusion can be made effective the exact limits of
the areas specified must be described by metes and bounds and the
boundaries marked.

Crater Lake.—How much should be included in the closed areas at
Mount Hood and Crater Lake is a question to which considerable atten-
tion has been paid in the field. After going twice carefully over the
ground at Crater Lake and cénsulting with various men well informed
on the subject, especially Capt. O. C. Applegate, of Klamath Falls, I
question whether a better area can be adopted than that covered by the
special Crater Lake contour map, published by the United States Geo-
logical Survey, which extends from longitude 122° to 122° 15’, and
from latitude 42° 50’ to 43° 04’. At present no sheep are grazed in
the vicinity of Crater Lake, but for a few years up to and including
1896 a small amount of summer grazing was carried on in the water-
shed of Anna Creek and that of the upper Rogue River.

Mount Hood.—It was my intention to submit a report on suitable
boundaries for the closed area about Mount Hood, but as various peti-
tions and memorials on the subject have been presented directly to the
Secretary of the Interior and are under consideration, no recommenda-
tions are here presented. It may be well to state, however, that three
principal propositious have been made as to the boundaries of the pro-
‘posed closure. In the order of their size, beginning with the smallest,
they are as follows: (1) Two roughly triangular blocks, one extending
from the summit of Mount Hood north to the edge of the reserve,
bounded on the east by the East Fork of Hood River and on the west
by the Bull Run Reserve, the other extending from the summit of
Mount Hood southward to the boundary between townships 3 and 4
south, bounded on the east by White River and on the west by Zigzag
Creek and the line between ranges 7 and 8 east; (2) all that portion of
the reserve north of the Barlow road and west of the summit of the
154 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

divide east of the East Fork of Hood River; (3) all that portion of the
reserve north of an east-and-west line drawn through the northern
boundary of the Warm Springs Indian Reservation.

Huckleberry patches.—In this connection one of Oregon’s peculiar insti-
tutions should not be lost sight of. I refer to the practice common to
the ranchers and townspeople who live near the Cascade Mountains of
resorting to the mountains in summer to pick huckleberries. There are
areas in the mountains which, from late August to October, produce
annually an enormous amount of wild huckleberries (chiefly the kind
known to botanists as Vaccinium membranaceum), and the present
inhabitants, following an aboriginal custom of the Indians, go into the
mountains, usually a whole family together, often driving 100 miles,
and camp out for a few weeks, hunting, fishing, and picking huckle-
berries. One such area known as Huckleberry Mountain lies about 12
niles southwest of Crater Lake, immediately south and east of Union
Creek, an affluent of Rogue River. Itis notincluded within the bounda-
ries of the proposed closed area at Crater Lake, described above, and
should be made an additional closed area. Immense huckleberry
patches are situated on and immediately south of Mount Hood and
should be taken into consideratiou in defining the closed area of that
vicinity. Another favorite huckleberry patch lies on the west slope of
the Cascades, south of the Santiam-Prineville road; but it was not
visited by us nor was its exact location ascertained. :

Finally, with reference to closed areas, as the population of Oregon
increases the recreation of the people will require the setting aside of
additional areas of resort, from which sheep must be excluded. No
place will be attractive as a public resort if the vegetation is eaten off
every year by sheep, nor can camping parties under such circumstances
find suitable pasturage for their horses.

GRAZING PERMITS.

The system of regulations I have to propose, which may be called
the “special tract permit system,” is, in brief, the granting of the
grazing privilege to sheep owners in return for the protection of
the reserve from forest fires and overgrazing. It is proposed to grant
to each owner a permit to graze on a specified territory a certain num-
ber of sheep, such as that area can support without detriment, to give
him the exclusive right to graze on that area, and to protect him in
that right, at the same time requiring on his part that he confine him-
self to that area, fulfill all the terms of his agreement with the Govern-
ment, and especially that he keep the area free, so far as lies within his
power, from forest fires.

As an illustration I may cite the Fish Lake range, in the Three
Sisters range district. This range is divided into five smaller ranges,
known as The Parks, Bald Mountain, Iron Mountain, Browder Ridge,
and the Blue River range. These, altogether, will support, without
overgrazing, six bands averaging 2,000 each, one band upon each of the
first four, two bands upon the last. In 1896 there were eight bands
on the Fish Lake range—two of them on The Parks, one on Bald
Mountain, one on Iron Mountain, the other four on Browder Ridge and
the Blue River range, alternating one or two on the former and three
or two on the latter. This was a larger number of sheep than the Fish
Lake range could support properly, and as a result the sheep did not
come out in good condition and there was general dissatisfaction among
the owners. By the adoption of the system here proposed the number
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 155

of sheep allowed on the Fish Lake range would be limited to 12,000.
No other sheep would be permitted to go into the Fish Lake range.
Each owner would be assigned that subdivision of the range on which
he had been accustomed to run his sheep, and would be supported and
defended in his exclusive right to graze there. In return it would be
the duty of the owner occupying Browder Ridge to see that no forest
fires be allowed to occur on that area, either those set carelessly and
intentionally by his own herder or packer, or those set by any hunter,
camper, or other person who might be on that territory. If forest fires
did occur on Browder Ridge, and the Interior Department was satisfied
that the owner or his employees had not made every reasonable effort to
prevent them or to extinguish them when once started, his permit
would be terminated forthwith, and if evidence of collusion in setting
the fires were shown one or ali of the persons concerned would still be
liable to prosecution under the forest-fire laws.

ADVANTAGES TO THE GOVERNMENT AND THE SHEEP OWNER.

To the Government the chief advantage of such a system would be
to prevent a very large proportion of the fires that occur in the sheep-
grazing area. The enormous annual loss in burned timber would at
once be checked. By the granting of a permit for a particular area the
responsibility of the owner is direct and his sense of that responsibility
is keen. Under the old system anowner may range anywhere, with
any number of sheep, and the Government knows neither where he is
nor what he is doing.

The advantages to the sheep owner are several and important. The
adage, ‘Every man for himself and the devil take the hindermost,”
was never more justly applicable to any busivess than to this one of
grazing sheep on the pnblic lands. It is to the interest of each owner
to get his sheep sheared as early in the season as possible, even before
the cold weather is gone, in order to get them off to the mountains
before his neighbor. Then he must make long drives so as to keep
ahead, and if his range lies on the west slope of the Cascades he will
drive across the summit while it is yet covered with snow, tiie sheep
passing sometimes two and even three days on the snow drifts without
a nibble of grass. Then be has reached his range first and is reason-
ably secure for the season. But the ground is still soft, the spring
rains may still be falling, and the sprouting grass has not yet reached
the development necessary to make good feed. He may be crowded off
during the summer, though usually it does not pay a later arrival to
push in on a range already occupied. Whatever happens it is usually
to the owner’s interest to get all the grass possible without reference
to the next year’s crop, for he is never certain that he will be able to
occupy the same range again. Where the competition is close the
difficulty of insufficient forage is increased by the haste of a herder in
forcing his sheep too rapidly over a grazing plot, the result being that
they trample more feed than they eat. So year after year each band
skins the range.

Under the proposed permit system, however, the owner, knowing that
his range is assured, will shear his sheep at the time best suited to the
local climatic conditions for that purpose, and will start tor the moun-
tains at a reasonable time. This is a matter of especial importance to
those owners who live on the higher elevations of the plain, 3,000 feet
or more above the sea, and who, in order to be in the race with those
living at an elevation of 1,000 feet or less, must ordinarily, under exist-
156 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

ing conditions, leave their home range two weeks too early, at a time
when it still bears a profusion of fresh nutritious grass. Reaching the
grazing areas in the mountains when the grass has grown toa fair degree
of maturity, a larger amount of better forage awaits the herder, and
with a definite knowledge that he will use the same area in the follow-
ing vear he so handles his sheep as not to permanently injure the grass.
Indeed, he may find it profitable to improve it by seeding with good
varieties of cloverand grass. Oneowner stated that several years ago
he had sowed one summer $20 worth of clover and grass seed, but that
never having been able to secure the same range again he got no bene-
fit from his expenditure, and had discontinued all efforts in that direc-
tion. With an assured title for a period of years an owner can also put
up substantial shelters for his men and their provisions. A further
advantage of great importance to sheep owners is the circumstance
that, lying within a forest reserve, the grazing lands are not subject to
homestead entry, and no one, therefore, by securing a title to the land
can prevent its use as a sheep range. By a judicious use of the privi-
lege granted under the proposed system the grazing lands of the reserve
become a perpetual sheep range. To beth‘ the State itself and to the
. general body of sheep owners the proposed system is an advantage from
the evident fact that if the forest grazing privilege is valuable at all it
is most valuable when the amount of forage it furnishes is maintained
at its highest limit of continued production, as would be the case under
the proposed system, instead of being maintained at its lowest limit of
production, as would finally be the case under the present system.

There is a popular but erroneous idea that the responsibility for the
present system of grazing in eastern Oregon rests with the sheep
owners. It is found, however, on conversation with a large number of
them, that they are opposed to the present method and would welcome
a change in Government policy which would give them a financial inter-
est in the maintenance of good pasturage. If they could secure for a
reasonable period of years a title to the grazing product, they believe
it would be one of the greatest benefits possible to the industry.

OBJECTIONS TO THE PROPOSED SYSTEM.

In discussing the proposed plan with stock men I found, somewhat
unexpectedly, that all those to whom I had the opportunity of explain-
ing it fully without exception approved it, but often with the proviso,
“Tf it could be carried out.”. Their primary doubt was that though a
majority of the owners would gladly adopt the system there would
always be a few who would refuse to agree to any regulations or would
be unscrupulous enough to trausgress them when they found it to their
own interest to do so. It appears that the eminent desirability of
adopting some scheme of parceling out the range had loug been recog-
nized and in an informal way had been attempted in various localities,
but that invariably some unscrupulous owner, by crowding in upon
another’s range, had broken up the system. Upon being reminded that
a new set of laws had been enacted under which the Interior Depart-
ment had full authority to make regulations covering the land within
the forest reserves and full power to enforce them, and that while the
Government undoubtedly wished to handle the subject with the velvet
hand of equity there lay beneath it the iron claw of stern authority,
they readily appreciated that recalcitrant owners would not be as seri-
ous an obstacle to the Interior Department as they had been to their
own unauthorized system.
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 157

A second objection, and one at first difficult to meet, was that the
Interior Department would be unable to divide the range equitably;
that certain owners, particularly large owners, would secure the best
ranges, and that continued dissatisfaction would result. The objection
clearly was well made. I myself had been keeping a list of all the
ranges, with the number of sheep each would support, and I knew how
extremely difficult it would be for any one man to do full justice to each
individual owner, especially in the face of the contlicting representa-
tious with which he would be met. The Northern Pacific Railroad and
other corporations having grazing privileges to dispose of can and do
deal directly with individual applicants, without necessarily consulting
others, but this method is not open to the Government. The most nat-
ural way to decide between two or more persons competing for the same
right is to grant it to the highest bidder. My own doubts of the suit-
ability of this method were confirmed by conversatious with sheep men.

The unanimous verdict was that such a proceediug would tend to
put the grazing lands in the hands of a small number of large owners
who could afford to pay a higher price thau owners of single bands.

As aresult of careful consideration, the plan of permitting the sheep
owners themselves to parcel out the range suggested itself. It was
found that in each of the three counties concerned—Crook, Wasco, and
Sherman—there exists a woolgrowers’ or stockmen’s association, the
original object of which, it appeared, was chiefly wutual protection of
their sheep against coyotes and other wild animals through the pay-
ment of bounties raised by subscription or tax among the members of
the association. A committee or commission of three, each represent-
ing one of these county associations, would be thoroughly competent
to divide the range and could do it both more equitably and with less
objection from dissatisfied owners than could auy officer or officers of
the Government. This commission could meet at a time and place duly
advertised, receive the written applications for ranges, adjudicate con-
flicting applications, and make recommendations accordingly to the
Interior Department. This plan answered the last objection brought
forward against the system.

ADDITIONAL DETAILS,

Other details of the system may be briefly mentioned. The permit
should be for a definite number of years, sufficient to give the permittee
an interest in maintaining the range in good productive condition from
year to year, and on the other hand it should not be for so long a period
as to prevent new men from coming into the business. A permit period
of five years with a provision for renewal appears to be the most satis-
factory.

Failure on the part of a permittee to occupy a range before the expira-
tion of a reasonable period, say by the 1st of August in any year,
without due explanation, would cause the permit to lapse and the range
to be again open to application and the granting of a new permit for
the remaining portion of the original term. This would prevent any
oe from wasting the resources to which he might have an exclusive
right.

The suggestion has been made by a citizen of Oregon that a sheep
owner, as one of the requisites for obtaining a permit, should give a
bond, securing the Government against destruction of the timber by
fire. This provision, however, would be a hardship in many cases and
should be adopted only as a last resort. Another provision, the adop-
158 SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES.

tion of which is worth considering, is the exclusion of sheep for a period
of several years, or until the seedlings are too high to be trampled, from
any piece of forest land hereafter burned. The object of this would be,
first, to allow the seedlings to get a good start; secondly, to remove the
temptation to set a forest fire for the purpose of creating new range.

It is essential that provision should be made for these cases, in which
an owner, in order to reach the tract allotted to him, must cross a tract
allotted to another owner. After careful consideration the simplest and
most effective method appears to be to provide for a right of transit
with a minimum rate of travel per day. This rate should be between
7 and 10 miles; perhaps the most suitable rate, all things considered,
being 8 miles. At the same time the owner whose tract is crossed
should have received an original allotment sufficiently large to com-
pensate him for the amount of feed that would be used by the one or
more bands that have the right of transit.

If provision is made by Congress for a forest reserve patrol and an
adequate system of administration, an adjustment of the officers can
easily be made by which the proper carrying out of the proposed per-
mit system may be assured, but it may not be amiss to point out that
upon the integrity and ability of these officers rests in large measure
the success of the system.

FEES AND COST OF ADMINISTRATION.

The Government will be subjected to some expense in the adminis-
tration of the permit plan, and the cost of this administration should
be borne by the sheep owners, to be paid in the form of a fee for the
permit.

ABSTRACT OF PROPOSED REGULATIONS.

In order to sum up the conclusions of this investigation in a form
showing concisely what action should be taken by the Interior Depart-
ment to inaugurate a satisfactory system for the regulation of sheep
grazing in the Cascade reserve, an abstract of the proposed plan is
given below. It must not be forgotten that this report, both in the
matter of the extent of damage done to the torests by sheep and in the
system proposed for its regulation, applies only to sheep grazing in
the Cascade Range Forest Reserve, and that very different findings of
fact and propositions for regulation might have been submitted had the
area in question been situated under different climatic conditions, or
had contained other types of soil or other kinds of forests, or had been
subject to sheep grazing for a longer period, or had other equally
important conditions affected the problem.

The steps necessary to a solution of present difficulties by the Interior
Department are as follows, and these steps, in order to save and per-
petuate the timber supply and the water supply of middle Oregon,
should be taken at once:

. 1. Exclude sheep from specified areas about Mount Hood and Crater
ake.

2. Limit the sheep to be grazed in the reserve to a specified number,
based on the number customarily grazed there.

3. Issue five-year permits allowing an owner to graze on a specified
tract, limiting the number of sheep to be grazed on that tract, and
giving the owner the exclusive grazing right.
SURVEYS OF FOREST RESERVES. 159

4, Require as a condition of each permit that the owner use every
effort to prevent and to extinguish fires on his tract, and report in full
the cause, extent, and other circumstances connected with each fire.

5. Reserve the right to terminate a permit immediately if convinced
that an owner is not showing good faith in the protection of the forests.

6. In the allotment of tracts secure the cooperation of the wool-
growers’ association of Crook, Sherman, and Wasco counties through
a commission of three stockmen, who shall receive written applications
for range, adjudicate them, and make recommendations, these recom-
mendations to be reviewed by the forest officer and finally passed upon
by the Secretary of the Interior.

7, Ask the county associations to bear the expenses of the commission.

8. Charge the cost of administration of the system to the owners in
the form of fees for the permits.

9. Ifthe woolgrowers decline to accept and to cooperate inthe proposed
system, exclude sheep absolutely from the reserve.

10. Ifafter fiveyears’ trial of the system forest fires continue unchecked,
exclide sheep thereafter from the reserve.

°
HAH

Heir

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